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Born on 9 March 1830 in Upper Milford Township near Emmaus, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, Lewis Sponheimer was the son of Lehigh County native, Maria (Daubert) Sponheimer.His Pennsylvania death certificate indicates that his father was Lehigh County native, Lewis Sponheimer; however, his death entry in the Emmaus Moravian Church ledger (made by the Rev. A. E. Abel, the pastor who officiated at his funeral) indicates that his father was Ludwig Sponheimer, and that his parents were unmarried at the time of his birth. According to his obituary, Lewis Sponheimer spent his formative years on a farm. He married Pennsylvania native, Catharine Hilderbeitel (born 30 June 1843; died 29 January 1916) in 1855. Together, they had the following children: - George Sponheimer: Born around 1862, he was a resident of South Allentown at the time of his father’s death; - Twins Francis J. Sponheimer (born 1870) and Joseph E. Sponheimer (1870-1939): Both were residents of Emmaus at the time of their father’s death; - William D. Sponheimer: Born around 1875, he was a resident of Allentown at the time of his father’s death); - Henry E. Sponheimer: Born around 1876, he preceded his parents in death; and - Mrs. James Mosser: She was a resident of Republic, Pennsylvania. At the dawn of the Civil War, Lewis Sponheimer supported his growing family on the wages of a shoemaker in Allentown, Lehigh County. Civil War Military Service – 104th Pennsylvania On 23 September 1861, Lewis Sponheimer enrolled for military duty as a Musician with the 104th Regiment, Pennsylvania Volunteers. Known more commonly as the “Ringgold Regiment,” the 104th Pennsylvania was founded by Colonel William Watts Hart (“W. W. H.”) Davis, a Doylestown, Buck County, Pennsylvania native who had worked his way up the Army’s ranks during the Mexican War to be appointed as Captain of Company E with the 1st Massachusetts Infantry, and then performed his Three Months’ Service in the opening days of the Civil War as the founder and Captain of Company I of the 25th Regiment, Pennsylvania Infantry. Davis would later go on to be honored by the Pennsylvania for his “meritorious services during the operations against Charlestown, South Carolina.” Initially stationed and trained in Pennsylvania, Lewis Sponheimer and his fellow 104th Pennsylvanians were transported on 6 November 1861 to Washington, D.C. Upon arrival, they made camp near Georgetown. Responsibilities during the early days for the regiment included the transport of Union supplies, picket duty, and skirmishing. On 2 March 1862, the 104th Pennsylvania joined with other Union troops to serve as the escort for the funeral of General Frederick W. Lander, a former aide-de-camp of General George B. McClellan who went on to distinguish himself as a division commander with the Army of the Potomac. That same month, the 104th Pennsylvania was attached to Brigadier-General Silas Casey’s Division. [During Lewis Sponheimer’s tenure, the 104th Pennsylvania was attached to the Army of the Potomac’s 4th Army Corps, 3rd Division, 1st Brigade (until June 1862).] Camp and military duty sites included Fortress Monroe, Hampton, Yorktown Four Corners, Bottom’s Bridge at the Chickahominy River, Seven Pines, Savage Station, and Fair Oaks. On 11 August 1862, Lewis Sponheimer was Honorably Discharged with his fellow musicians as part of the federal government’s elimination of military bands, viewed at that time as an unnecessary expense in light of projections for a longer and more costly war than was initially anticipated by Union Army leaders. Civil War Military Service – 47th Pennsylvania Volunteers At the age of 32, Lewis Sponheimer re-enrolled for service at Allentown, Pennsylvania on 21 October 1862 with Major William H. Gausler, and mustered in as a Private with Company A of the 47th Regiment, Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry at Camp Curtin, Harrisburg, Dauphin County on 29 October 1862. He then connected with his regiment from Beaufort, South Carolina on 18 November 1862. Having been ordered back to Key West, Florida on 15 November 186, the 47th Pennsylvania Volunteers spent much of 1863 garrisoning federal installations in Florida as part of the U.S. Army’s 10th Corps, Department of the South. The soldiers of A Company joined with those from Companies B, C, E, G, and I in guarding Key West’s Fort Taylor while Companies D, F, H, and K garrisoned Fort Jefferson, the Union’s outpost in the Dry Tortugas off the coast of Florida. During this phase of duty, men from the 47th Pennsylvania were assigned to fell trees, build roads and continue strengthening the fortifications of their respective facilities. In addition, they were also sent out on skirmishes. In early January 1864, the 47th was ordered to further extend the reach of the Union Army. Captain Graeffe and a group of men from A Company were assigned to special duty involving raids on area cattle herds in order to provide food for the Union’s growing troop presence. Their travels took them as far north as Fort Myers. Abandoned in 1858 following the U.S. government’s third war with the Seminole Indians, the fort was ordered reoccupied by General D. P. Woodbury, Commanding Officer, U.S. Department of the Gulf, District of Key West and the Tortugas in 1864. He hoped the fort’s revitalization would facilitate the Union’s Gulf Coast blockade while also offering shelter for pro-Union supporters and those fleeing Rebel troops, including Confederate Army deserters and escaped slaves. A draft Environmental Impact Statement prepared in 2010 for the Everglades National Park partially documents the time of Richard Graeffe and the men under his Florida command this way: A small contingent of 20 men and two officers from the Pennsylvania 47th Regiment, led by Captain Henry Crain of the 2nd Regiment of Florida, arrived at the fort on January 7, 1864. A short time later, the party was joined by another small detachment of the 47th under the command of Captain Richard A. Graeffe. Over a short period, increasing reinforcements of the fort led to increasing cattle raids throughout the region. A Union force so far into Confederate land did not go well with Confederate loyalists. The fact that so many men stationed at the post were black soldiers from the newly created U.S. Colored Troops was particularly aggravating. The raids were so antagonizing that the Confederates created a Cattle Guard Battalion called the “Cow Cavalry” to repulse Union raiders. The unit remained a primary threat to the Union soldiers carrying out raids and reconnaissance missions from Brooksville to as far south as Lake Okeechobee and Fort Myers. The detachment which served under Graeffe at Fort Myers has been labeled as the Florida Rangers in several publications, including The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, prepared by Lieutenant Colonel Robert N. Scott, et. al. (1891). Several of Graeffe’s hand drawn sketches of Fort Myers were published in 2000 in Images of America: Fort Myers by Gregg Tuner and Stan Mulford. 1864 – Red River Campaign On 25 February 1864, Lewis Sponheimer and his fellow 47th Pennsylvania Volunteers set off for a phase of service in which the regiment would truly make history. Steaming for New Orleans aboard the Charles Thomas, the men of the 47th arrived at Algiers, Louisiana on 28 February and were then shipped by train to Brashear City. Following another steamer ride – this time to Franklin via the Bayou Teche – the 47th joined the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division of the Department of the Gulf’s 19th Army Corps. In short order, the 47th would become the only Pennsylvania regiment to serve in the Red River Campaign of Union General Nathaniel P. Banks. From 14-26 March, the 47th passed through New Iberia, Vermillionville, Opelousas, and Washington while en route to Alexandria and Natchitoches. Often short on food and water, the regiment encamped briefly at Pleasant Hill the night of 7 April before continuing on the next day, marching until mid-afternoon. Rushed into battle ahead of other regiments in the 2nd Division, 60 members of the 47th were cut down on 8 April during the back-and-forth volley of fire unleashed by both sides during the Battle of Sabine Cross Roads. The fighting waned only when darkness fell. The exhausted, but uninjured collapsed beside the gravely wounded. After midnight, the surviving Union troops withdrew to Pleasant Hill. The next day, the 47th Pennsylvania Volunteers were ordered into a critically important defensive position at the far right of the Union lines, their right flank spreading up onto a high bluff. By 3 p.m., after enduring a midday charge by the troops of Confederate General Richard Taylor (a plantation owner who was the son of Zachary Taylor, former President of the United States), the brutal fighting still showed no signs of ending. Suddenly, just as the 47th was shifting to the left side of the massed Union forces, the men of the 47th Pennsylvania were forced to bolster the 165th New York’s buckling lines by blocking another Confederate assault. Casualties were severe. Lieutenant Colonel G. W. Alexander, the regiment’s second in command, was nearly killed, and the regiment’s two color-bearers, both from Company C, were also wounded while preventing the American flag from falling into enemy hands. Still others from the 47th were captured by Rebel troops, marched roughly 125 miles to Camp Ford, a Confederate Army prison camp near Tyler, Texas, and held there as prisoners of war (POWs) until they were released during prisoner exchanges on 22 July and in August and November of 1864. Along the way, disease claimed still more. Following what some historians have called a rout by Confederates at Pleasant Hill and others have labeled a technical victory for the Union or a draw for both sides, the 47th fell back to Grand Ecore, where they resupplied and regrouped until 22 April. Retreating further to Alexandria, they and their fellow Union soldiers scored a clear victory against the Confederates at Cane Hill. On 23 April, the 47th and their fellow brigade members crossed the Cane River via Monett’s Ferry and, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Bailey, helped to build a dam from 30 April through 10 May, which enabled federal gunboats to successfully traverse the rapids of the Red River. Beginning 16 May, A Company moved with the majority of the 47th from Simmsport across the Atchafalaya to Morganza, and then to New Orleans on 20 June. That 4th of July, they received orders to return to the East Coast for further duty. Sheridan’s 1864 Shenandoah Valley Campaign Still able and willing to fight after their time in Bayou country, the soldiers of Company A and the members of the 47th Pennsylvania’s Companies C, D, E, F, H, and I steamed for the Washington, D.C. area aboard the McClellan beginning 7 July 1864. Following their arrival in Virginia and a memorable encounter with President Abraham Lincoln, they then joined Major-General David Hunter’s forces at Snicker’s Gap in mid-July 1864. There, they engaged in the Battle of Cool Spring and, once again, assisted in defending Washington, D.C. while also helping to drive Confederate troops from Maryland. As Summer waned, according to historian Lewis Schmidt, military records of the 47th Pennsylvania Volunteers documented that, on 31 August 1864, Lewis Sponheimer was paid $16 for his service with the 47th’s Regimental Band No. 2: [The] 47th was paid this date by a Major Eaton. Various members of the band were paid by the 47th’s Council of Administration effective through this date, generally for a three to four month period. The men and accounts are as follows: Anthony B. Bush, $157.50; Eugene Walters [sic] and John Rupp, each $100; David Gackenback [sic], $52.50 Henry Kern and George Frederick, each $60; Henry Tool, $30; and Lewis Sponheimer, Harrison Handwerk, Edwin Dreisbach, Daniel Dachradt [sic] and William Heckman, each $16.” Attached to the Middle Military Division, Army of the Shenandoah from August through November of 1864, Lewis Sponheimer and his fellow 47th Pennsylvanians were about to engage in their regiment’s greatest moments of valor. Battles of Opequan and Fisher’s Hill – September 1864 Together with other regiments under the command of Union General Philip Sheridan and Brigadier-General William H. Emory, commander of the 19th Corps, the members of Company A and their fellow 47th Pennsylvanians helped to inflict heavy casualties on Lieutenant General Jubal Early’s Confederate forces at Opequan (also spelled as “Opequon”). The battle, also known as “Third Winchester,” is still considered by many historians to be one of the most important during Sheridan’s 1864 campaign; the Union’s victory helped to ensure the reelection of President Abraham Lincoln. The 47th Pennsylvania’s march toward destiny began at 2 a.m. on 19 September 1864 as the regiment left camp and joined up with others in the Union’s 19th Corps. After advancing slowly from Berryville toward Winchester, the 19th Corps became bogged down for several hours by the massive movement of Union troops and their supply wagons, enabling Early’s men to dig in. Finally reaching and fording the Opequan Creek, Sheridan’s men came face to face with the Confederate forces commanded by Early. The fighting, which began in earnest at noon, was long and brutal. The Union’s left flank (6th Corps) took a beating from Rebel artillery stationed on high ground. Meanwhile, the 47th Pennsylvania and their fellow 19th Corps members were directed by General William Emory to attack and pursue Major General John B. Gordon’s Confederate forces. Some success was achieved, but many Union casualties ensued when another Confederate artillery group opened fire as Union troops tried to cross a clearing. As a nearly fatal gap began to appear between the 6th and 19th Corps, Sheridan sent in units commanded by Brigadier-Generals David A. Russell and Emory Upton. Russell, hit twice – once in the chest, was mortally wounded. The 47th Pennsylvania Volunteers opened their lines long enough to enable Union cavalry forces led by William Woods Averell and the foot soldiers of General George Crook to charge the Confederates’ left flank. The 19th Corps, with the 47th in the thick of the fighting, then began whittling away and pushing the Confederates steadily back. Early’s men ultimately retreated in the face of the valor displayed by the “blue jackets.” Leaving 2,500 wounded behind, the Confederate Army retreated to Fisher’s Hill (21-22 September), eight miles south of Winchester, and then to Waynesboro, following a successful early morning flanking attack by Sheridan’s Union men which outnumbered Early’s three to one. Sent out on skirmishing parties afterward, the men of the 47th Pennsylvania finally made camp at Cedar Creek. Moving forward, they would continue to distinguish themselves in battle, but they would do so without two respected commanders: Colonel Tilghman Good and his second in command, Lieutenant Colonel George W. Alexander, who mustered out on 23-24 September upon the expiration of their respective terms of service. Fortunately, Good and Alexander were replaced by others equally admired both for their temperament and the front line experience they had gained while directly leading men in battle: John Peter Shindel Gobin, Charles W. Abbott and Levi Stuber. Battle of Cedar Creek – October 1864 It was during 1864 that General Philip Sheridan began the first of the Union’s true “scorched earth” campaigns, starving the enemy into submission by destroying Virginia’s crop-production infrastructure. Viewed through today’s lens of history as inhumane, the strategy claimed many innocents – civilians whose lives were cut short by their inability to find food. This same strategy, however, certainly contributed to the further turning of the war’s tide in the Union’s favor. Successful throughout most of their engagement with Union forces at Cedar Creek, Early’s Confederate troops – weakened by hunger – peeled off in ever growing numbers to forage for food, thus enabling the 47th Pennsylvania and others under Sheridan’s command to rally and win the day. From a military standpoint, it was another impressive, but heartrending day. During the morning of 19 October 1864, Early launched a surprise attack directly on Sheridan’s Cedar Creek-encamped forces. Early’s men were able to capture Union weapons while freeing a number of Confederates who had been taken prisoner during previous battles – all while pushing seven Union divisions back. According to historian, Samuel P. Bates: When the Army of West Virginia, under Crook, was surprised and driven from its works, the Second Brigade, with the Forty-seventh on the right, was thrown into the breach to arrest the retreat…. Scarcely was it in position before the enemy came suddenly upon it, under the cover of fog. The right of the regiment was thrown back until it was almost a semi-circle. The brigade, only fifteen hundred strong, was contending against Gordon’s entire division, and was forced to retire, but, in comparative good order, exposed, as it was, to raking fire. Repeatedly forming, as it was pushed back, and making a stand at every available point, it finally succeeded in checking the enemy’s onset, when General Sheridan suddenly appeared upon the field, who ‘met his crest-fallen, shattered battalions, without a word of reproach, but joyously swinging his cap, shouted to the stragglers, as he rode rapidly past them – ‘Face the other way, boys! We are going back to our camp! We are going to lick them out of their boots!’ The Union’s counterattack stomped Early’s forces into submission, and the men of the 47th were commended for their heroism by General Stephen Thomas who, in 1892, was awarded the Medal of Honor for his own “distinguished conduct in a desperate hand-to-hand encounter, in which the advance of the enemy was checked” that day. Bates described the 47th’s actions thusly: When the final grand charge was made, the regiment moved at nearly right angles with the rebel front. The brigade charged gallantly, and the entire line, making a left wheel, came down on his flank, while engaging the Sixth Corps, when he went ‘whirling up the valley’ in confusion. In the pursuit to Fisher’s Hill, the regiment led, and upon its arrival was placed on the skirmish line, where it remained until twelve o’clock noon of the following day. The army was attacked at early dawn, and no respite was given to take food until the pursuit was ended. But, it was costly; casualties for the 47th were particularly high. Privates Samuel E. Bridinger (a blacksmith from Easton), Thomas J. Bower (an Easton shoemaker) and Lawrence Gatence were killed in action. Private William S. Keen, a recent enlistee, died from fever a few weeks later. The regimental chaplain, William Rodrock, suffered a near miss as a bullet pierced his cap. Following these major engagements, the 47th was ordered to Camp Russell near Winchester from November through most of December before taking up outpost and railroad guarding duties at Camp Fairview in Charlestown, West Virginia five days before Christmas. Assigned in February 1865 to the Provisional Division of the 2nd Brigade of the Army of the Shenandoah, the men of the 47th were ordered to move, via Winchester and Kernstown, back to Washington, D.C. where, on 19 April, they helped to defend the nation’s capital following the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. Making camp near Fort Stevens, they received new uniforms and were resupplied. Letters home and newspaper interviews with survivors of the 47th Pennsylvania in later years confirm that at least one 47th Pennsylvania Volunteer was given the high honor of guarding President Lincoln’s funeral train while others may have guarded the Lincoln assassination conspirators during their imprisonment or trial. As part of Dwight’s Division of the 2nd Brigade, Department of Washington’s 22nd Corps, they participated in the Union’s Grand Review on 23-24 May. Captain Levi Stuber of Company I was also promoted to the rank of Major with the regiment’s central command staff during this time of turbulence. On their final swing through the South, the 47th served in Savannah, Georgia from 31 May to 4 June, again as part of Dwight’s Division, but this time with the 3rd Brigade, Department of the South. Relieving the 165th New York in July, they were housed in a mansion formerly owned by the Confederate Secretary of the Treasury. But, once again, typhoid and other diseases stalked the men of the 47th. Many who died during this phase were initially interred in Charleston’s Magnolia Cemetery before their remains were later exhumed and reinterred at the Beaufort National Cemetery. Finally, 28 October 1865, upon expiration of his three-year term of service with the 47th Pennsylvania Volunteers, Lewis Sponheimer was again Honorably Discharged. Return to Civilian Life After receiving his honorable discharge at Charleston, South Carolina, Lewis Sponheimer made the long trip home to his family in Lehigh County, Pennsylvania. In 1880, he and his family were residing in Upper Milford Township, and he was employed as an ore contractor. Although life was better than it had been during the Civil War, it was not entirely free from pain and fear for the Sponheimer family. In November 1896, editions of The Allentown Democrat and The Allentown Leader both reported that Lewis and Catharine’s youngest son, William, was partially blinded, temporarily, when a chestnut burr fell from a tree and struck one of his eyes. By 1900, Lewis and his wife were living at home alone with a servant. In August 1909, The Allentown Leader reported that Lewis Sponheimer was one of the final two surviving members of the Emmaus Band. That fame was shortlived, however. Just three months later, on 13 November 1909, Lewis Sponheimer suffered an episode of cerebral apoplexy. He died of general debility five days later (Thursday, 18 November 1909) at his home in Emmaus, Lehigh County. He was 79 years, eight months and nine days old. His son, Joseph E. Sponheimer, was the informant on his death certificate. His funeral was held at his home at 1:30 p.m. on Tuesday, 23 November 1909 with formal services officiated by the Rev. A. E. Abel at the Moravian Church. He was buried with full military honors that same afternoon in the Moravian Cemetery in Emmaus. Members of Allentown’s E.B. Young Post No. 87, G.A.R., served as his pallbearers. The funeral arrangements were handled by Ritter & Sell of Emmaus. In addition to his wife and children mentioned above, Lewis Sponheimer was survived by two stepbrothers, William Ritter (Bethlehem, Pennsylvania) and Willoughby Ritter (Emmaus, Pennsylvania). 1. The Allentown Democrat. Allentown: November 1896. 2. The Allentown Leader. Allentown: Various Dates: - Died at Emaus [sic] (obituary of Lewis Sponheimer), in The Allentown Leader. Allentown: 19 November 1909. - Funeral of Veteran: Lewis Sponheimer: Buried at Emaus [sic] with Military Honors, in The Allentown Leader. Allentown: 23 November 1909. - Hurt by a Chestnut Burr, in The Allentown Leader. Allentown: 5 November 1896. 3. Baptismal and Burial Records, in Records of the Moravian Church, Emmaus, Pennsylvania, in Historic Pennsylvania Church and Town Records. Philadelphia: Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 1828-1900. 4. Bates, Samuel P. History of Pennsylvania Volunteers, 1861-5. Harrisburg: 1869. 5. Civil War Muster Rolls, in Records of the Department of Military and Veterans’ Affairs (Record Group 19, Series 19.11). Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. 6. Civil War Veterans’ Card File. Harrisburg: Pennsylvania State Archives. 7. Death Certificate (Lewis Sponheimer). Harrisburg: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Vital Statistics 8. Pennsylvania Veteran’s Burial Index Card (Lewis Sponheimer). Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Department of Military and Veteran Affairs. 9. Schmidt’s A Civil War History of the 47th Regiment of Pennsylvania Veteran Volunteers. Allentown: Self-published. 10. U.S. Census. Washington, D.C.: 1880, 1900.

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I’m Chris Leland C H R I S L E L A N D. um my affiliation is Indiana University Perdu University at Indianapolis, and that’s written as IUPUI in all caps. Critical literacy is a perspective on literacy and it really gets into the issue of asking what’s fair, what’s just, uh all text is written from somebody’s perspective. And to have a critical view means that the reader is able to read a piece of text and say hmm who is this written for, who wrote it, and what are they trying to do with it? Um in particular what are they trying to do to me as a reader because there’s no text that’s purely neutral or innocent. Well we start right with kindergarten. Um I don’t work with pre-schoolers but I’d probably start with them to if I had the chance. But we start right with our kindergarteners um talking about books, children’s books, picture books, that really are saying things about our society. We share books with them that talk about ugly racial incidents, we want kids to have the opportunity to talk about these kinds of things early on. Typically they are not discussed in elementary classrooms. A lot of teacher say oh it’s not appropriate to talk about tough social issues with little kids. Uh we find when we start these conversations children are very grateful because they want to talk about them. Um they see discriminatory acts, they’re seeing them every day of their lives. And um they really welcome the opportunity to talk with an adult or a small group about what’s going on. So we start it early. We see teachers as facilitators um people who can guide conversations but not really dictate what’s going to get talked about. I see teachers personally as people who open up spaces for kids to talk um teachers need to be able to interact with children and see what what their questions are. See what’s on their mind, what they want to talk about. Sometimes we might discuss a book and children really don’t get into it, they don’t want to talk about it. I would then move on, I wouldn’t force a conversation to say well we’re going to talk about a racism today whether you want to or not. Or we’re gonna talk about sexism whether you want to or not. More more often I would see the teacher as as presenting this story or maybe there is a racial incident and saying to the children what do you think about this, do we need to talk? And then if they want to talk, the teacher would would open up more spaces for them to do that. Critical reflection looks and sounds like people who are digging below the surface. Um I use to get reflections from my students that stayed right on the surface they never really dug at anything deeper, they would talk about their day or talk about something that happened, and that would be the end of it, they might give an opinion. Like they might say I hate the was the standardized test is driving the curriculum at my school. Ok, now I’m encouraging to say well why is that happening? Why is standardized testing driving the curriculum and everybody else’s? What’s going on here? Um and what are the circumstances in political life that’s allowing this to happen? Um it’s I guess it’s critical reflection is not being satisfied with your first impression, it’s going back and digging in and saying are there other perspectives that we could be looking at? So another example might be if one of my students says oh I just hate the way my teacher is doing whatever. We would then say well why’s she doing it that way? What’s her perspective? Or what’s the parent’s perspective on this, or what do you think the kids’ perspective is, let’s get out all these perspectives and lay them out and then start to interrogate what’s really going on. So it’s it’s really looking at those underlying assumptions of what’s happening and also the multiple perspectives of how would other people see this. Reflection is very difficult and um I find that my students are extremely resistent at first. They don’t want to reflect. They think if they just say what they see on the surface we should all move on with our lives. And you know I don’t like to make things hard for people, but I just think that they miss so much when they stay at that surface level and don’t really start digging around to see what’s driving things. So it’s a lot easier just to stay on top but um I’m not I’m not satisfied with that anymore. It’s too important. The issues out there are too important. We can’t afford to do that. Ok, when I’m assessing my students and looking for evidence of their growth um what I’m really looking for is to see A if they’re if they’re using multiple perspectives. Like if they’re talking about the way this person might see the issue, the way that person might see the issue, and the way another person might see the issue, besides how they see the issue, that’s one perspective. But it’s really only one. I’d be looking for that. I’d also be looking for them to make connections to other things we’ve been talking about. Like I’d be interested to see if they could connect um a newspaper article that they’re reading to some literacy legislation that’s going on to the basil reader that the school uses and what the instructions in the teacher’s manual say. I would be looking for them to connect those different pieces and say oh well maybe this is why this is happening this way. To to sort of start sorting out these different issues. When I was a beginning teacher I never stopped to think about critical issues. I thought that if I could teach those kids to read that was my job. I was a first grade teacher for years and um I really only cared that they could read the words. Af at first, after about the first 3 years it occurred to me that reading the words wasn’t really wasn’t very much because a lot of my kids didn’t understand what they were reading even though they read the words. So I then sort of moved from an emphasis on just decoding which was just getting them to read the words to then an emphasis on making meaning. Which is an important thing too. I gotta stop. (interruption) so I now had decoding and meaning making in place and I still thought that there was something missing. At the time and and in all my years as an elementary teacher I was pretty much not political. I didn’t even vote half the time, um because uh the truth of the matter is that I majored in government in college. I was actually gonna go work for the government. And by the time I had studied government four years I decided that the whole government was not worth working with and I really didn’t want to spend my life doing that. So I sort of became a political and thought well I’ll go work with kids as politics doesn’t come into that. Well you know I fooled myself for 20 years. Because politics is very important in education and if teachers continue to think that they don’t need to be political then what we’re all doing is just giving away our profession to politicians. Because what we’re seeing now in every state is legislatures deciding how we should teach reading, um we’re seeing all kinds of legislation that dictates curriculum. I mean the whole thing is really to my mind it’s out of control and it’s probably our own fault because of people like me who have been teaching for years and saying it doesn’t matter what happens politically I just care about children. If we care about children we need to care about politics. One of the problems is that once you start to take a critical perspective you really can’t ever get away from it. So now every time I read the newspaper I’m looking at other issues. Um when I read my hometown paper the Indianapolis Star I constantly say why does this paper always want to make the public schools look bad? Because they seem to be having a running feud with the Indianapolis public schools. They constantly um talk about issues that make the school system look bad. What I’m doing with my students now is bringing in some of these articles and saying why don’t you read this and see what you think is really going on here. And after a year of doing this um I keep my students for two years in our program, they start to bring me articles and they say oh Chris you gotta look at this article. What look what look what they’re now doing to the school system. Look how bad they’re making them look. So I guess I keep working with my students um to keep my critical avenues open. I also think it’s really important to be connected to the profession that’s why I come to conferences like NCTE and NRC and IRA. Um I bring my students to these conferences. Um over a years time I usually have 10 or 15 students presenting with me at conferences. Um when they graduate they keep coming and to me that’s the way we can get our political voice heard. We’re gonna have to stick together. And one way to do that is through professional associations. One of the reason why I um bring my undergraduates and graduate students to conferences is that I want to instill in them the knowledge that they have to keep doing this after they’re out. Um I really want them to see that if they wanna have their profession as a teacher, if they wanna have a profession that they get to call the shots in, then they had better A stick together with other educators and B start getting political. So to me those things are really closely intertwined. When a school is looking at a new reading program I would like the teachers to have a really strong voice in whether this one gets selected or that one gets selected. I think that’s too important a question to leave to people who don’t work with children on a daily basis. And what I would hope they’d be looking for um is to see if the reading program that they’re looking at reflects what we know about the reading process. Like is there an emphasis on one of the cueing systems as opposed to all 3 of the cueing systems. Um being the graphophonemics, semantics, and syntax. I mean is it is it is it balanced. We hear the word balanced these days but a lot of the programs that I see that are called balanced aren’t. they really just cling to um one of the cueing systems or maybe two and don’t get all three. Um I like to talk to my students about a three legged stool if you knock out one of the legs the stool is just never gonna stand there. So to me they should be looking at all three of those cueing systems. Um I’d also want to see if the reading program is going to get a critical aspect into the uh curriculum. I mean are kids going to be looking at text as analysts in terms of how the text is positioning them. Um I think it would make them better consumers as well because advertising is just the language of manipulation. Somebody’s trying to get you to believe something. So I would look at a reading system and say does it does it does it uh pay attention to the different cueing systems, um does it pay attention to a critical perspective, um and does it allow choices for teachers and students to follow their own interests as well. I’m not good with anything scripted, I find that offensive. Choices and options are really important for both teachers and students because it really keeps them engaged in what’s going on. Um nobody really can put their whole heart into doing something that they find absolutely boring. It just it doesn’t happen, that’s not how people how people’s motivation works. When we give teachers choices we empower them to make decisions that will affect children in a positive way. Um when we turn teachers into technicians and we hand them a script and say here just read this, what we’re really doing is saying you don’t count for anything. We don’t really care what you think, we don’t care what you believe about reading. Here is what you should say. And I think that that just totally um takes the joy of teaching away for any professional. And in terms of kids um they should have choices so they’re getting to read about things they’re interested in. Education as inquiry is another perspective on on reading and on education. And what we’re really suggesting here is that um curriculum can be and actually should be designed around the inquiry question of learners. Rather than around some canned program that somebody else decided to put together in some other time and place, not knowing the children who were going to be um using it. Um our teacher’s at the Center for Inquiry in Indianapolis where we do a lot of our work, they try really hard to use an inquiry based curriculum. So what they might do is they might look at the curriculum from the district and if they say well fourth graders are suppose to study um American History or the civil war or whatever, they might put that topic out to the students and say and maybe doing an initiating activity just to get them into the topic a little bit. And then say to them which areas would you like to explore? What are your questions about this topic? Um let’s get the questions down, let’s see if we can get some little research groups put together and then let’s let you explore the areas that are interesting to you. Um this is a lot different than the scope and sequence model where um the teacher simply looks at the things that are are suppose to be covered and then kind of checks them off after she’s talked about them. Because typically the fact that we have taught something does not mean that anybody has learned anything. Of course the implication here is that if we want schools to work this way and teachers to do this for the students probably we should be doing the same thing for our teacher education students. Um it’s really hard for somebody to pick up a practice that they have not yet lived themselves. So with that in mind um we wor worked really hard in our teacher education program to make it an inquiry based program. We do the same thing with our students that we want the elementary teachers to do with theirs. So we might say here’s an area what are your questions? Or here go out and use some of these books with children like we we have our critical books that discuss these tough issues and bring back your new questions. What do you want to explore? Where do you want to go with this? We have a much more open kind of um syllabus than than most. Um we have several professional development schools that we use to um that we I don’t want to say use let’s stop that one right there(interruption). We collaborate with several different professional development schools um they love to have our students come there for their field work in student teaching because it brings extra adults into the building to work with children, it gives more chances for one on one and small group work. Um the benefit for our students is they get to see a lot of different approaches when they go into these schools. Um they get to see things that we would recommend as being wonderful, they also get to see things that we probably wouldn’t recommend. But we want them to see a lot of different approaches and sort out for themselves what they think would work for them. We do not really go in and say this is what we think so this is the only thing you should ever try. That’s that’s not what an inquiry approach entails. Rather it entails ok you saw Mrs. X doing this and you thought that looked good, why don’t you go try it. Why don’t you go try it for 2 weeks with se with a group of children and keep a record of what happens and write it up. We we have a lot of many inquiry projects that is part of the work they do for teacher education. And what we’re looking for here is that they’re not that they’re just taking what we say and go do it, we don’t want them doing that. We’re looking to see that they’re trying different things and critically analyzing what happens as a result of trying these different things. We feel that literacy instruction should be really closely connected to a research perspective. In other words I would like to send my students off with the attitude that I’m gonna believe anything anybody ever tells me until I try it. So if they get handed a teacher’s manual in a program and somebody says here this is what you’re gonna do for reading, I would hope that they would look at it and say fine I’ll try it. And if they try it and they find that it doesn’t really get them where they want to go, I would hope that they would be versatile and articulate enough to say well I tried it but now I’m going to try this other thing and then I’ll get back to you to let you know how that worked. And I have found in the past that administrators um really give a lot of leway to articulate teachers who can state their theoretical position and say exactly why they’re doing something. Um I think it gets us around a lot of the beaurocracy that has enslaved teachers for the last 20 years. The beaurocracy that has really be created in education and around education is particularly problematic because A people are making a lot of money out of education. They’re taking the money out that really should be going to children and B the teacher representation in this beaurocracy is sparse. It’s not teacher’s making these important decisions, and it’s not children gaining financially from from um selling many of the programs and tests and and uh uh textbooks. It’s other people who are not connected with education at all. I mean the stock in some of the companies, the publishing companies that put out the standardized test has I don’t know I think it increased like 4 times like that’s a huge increase so maybe we should all be investing in these stock options, I don’t know. But what I do know is that there’s still lots of schools that don’t have um that don’t have soap and paper towels for the children by you know March of the school year. There are schools that have one computer for 2 or 3 classrooms. There’s there’s a lot of need for financial support for schools that isn’t getting to the kids. Multiple ways of knowing refers to the fact that literacy should always be seen as a multi-modal event. And by that I mean um literacy is not always just reading or writing. Literacy can also be seen as taking the form of art or music or drama or mathematics. It’s a way of responding to something you’ve read or heard through a different sign system. Um we call it transmediation when you move to from one sign system to another. So we would encourage children to listen to a story or read a story on their own which would be you’d now be in literacy and then say respond to this story in any way you want. You can use art, you can use music, you can use dance, you can use drama, you can use mathematics. Maybe you should use all four today. Or try as many as you want. And what we get from this is all of a sudden the kids who were marginal in our eyes in terms of being able to um read and write they might draw the most wonderful picture that really pic that really captures the neuances of the story in a way that you probably couldn’t get through writing words. Um we get students who do very um elaborate dramas that show the feelings of what’s happening in the story really more powerfully than we could have done using language. Um so I guess for me the power of multiple ways of knowing is that it opens up spaces for a lot of voices to be heard. Um particularly for children who have often been marginalized like special education students, maybe even ESL students who are not as articulate in terms of using language but might be very articulate in terms of using art or drama or music or some other sign system. A curriculum that focuses on diversity and difference um really has the goal of opening up new perspectives of hearing new voices. Um the goal of a curriculum focused on diversity and difference is not necessarily that we’re all gonna agree on everything. Um consensus you know we think consensus is wonderful and we should always have it but really when you when you interrogate the assumption of consensus you’re gonna find out that in a consensus somebody gets silenced. Um cause not everybody can be heard. So and also you get a lot of conformity when you get consensus. So we’re really not interested in in consensus as much as we use to be. We’re interested in difference and diversity. We want to hear new voices, we want to hear new perspectives. Um we’re not interested in having anybody students at the the college level or the elementary level just memorizing somebody else’s knowledge which probably by now has been challenged anyway. Um I mean I guess it’s a question of when we look at our textbooks um you know when I was in fourth grade I learned that Christopher Columbus was this wonderful person who did all these great things. Now you know there’s there are a lot of other people who don’t see Christopher Columbus that way these days. And I think the problem is that the textbook was written from a Euro European or Euro-centric point of view. And I didn’t know it at the time. But if you combine a critical perspective with diversity and difference you really get a very powerful approach to literacy. You know it’s really hard for people who have who have always done things a certain way and thought about things in a certain way to now really start turning their worlds upside down and start asking themselves well could somebody else see this differently? Or is there something here that maybe I didn’t realize was going on all these years that I’ve been thinking about say Christopher Columbus? I think I was a little bit surprised when I first started looking at the new readings of history and saying oh well you know maybe that’s true, I guess when Christopher Columbus arrived all the diseases arrived, all kinds of Native Americans had problems that they never would have had if Christopher Columbus hadn’t arrived. Um it’s hard though, it’s really hard to to to look to turn around at everything that you’ve always believed. Um I think we have to do this though to help kids these days because if they are not able to look to critically look at these issues then they’re not going to really make it in the world today. So I guess even though it’s really hard for us as adults to do this I still think we need to push ourselves to keep digging through what we believe and saying hmmm why do I believe this. And hmmm maybe I should be looking at some other perspectives because maybe there’s something else out there that I just didn’t know about. It’s very hard. I think the standards movement in America really needs to be interrogated through a critical literacy lens. In other words why is it here, why did it how did it get here, who benefits from it, who loses. Um I guess I’m all in favor of teachers being able to reach high standards but I do worry a little bit about whose standards they are. If they are standards of people who are who write um tests in New Jersey and don’t know the children in my classroom in Indiana then I worry. Um if the standards are being written by people who really have the ultimate agenda of taking away money from public education then I worry. So I think standards are a double edged sword and we have to be very vigilant as educators in how these standards get articulated and how they get implimented. Um they can be a very good thing or they can be a very bad thing to my mind. But that’s the way anything is. There’s there’s different sides to every issue and standards is just one of those.

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Public perception of Southern and Eastern Europe is a field in which many interesting differences and commonalities can once again be observed. In the postwar period, negative views of Mediterranean societies and cultures faded away north of the Alps.22 The once-widespread derogatory stereotypes of Southern Europe had emerged around the same time as those of Eastern Europe. They were rooted in eighteenth-century, occidentalist, Enlightenment-based ideas of progress. Neoliberalism, with its orientation toward a specific model of historical development—in this case, liberal democracy combined with market economy—is also rooted in this tradition. In the light of their firm belief in progress, Enlightenment thinkers in the West began to reflect on the state of modernity, and contrast it against the supposed backwardness of some countries or wider regions of Europe. However, negative perceptions of Southern Europe have always been counterbalanced by Romantic admiration, as Goethe’s Italian Journey or William Turner’s paintings of Italy illustrate. After the Second World War, views of Southern and Eastern Europe began to diverge. As Larry Wolff wrote in his important book Inventing Eastern Europe more than twenty years ago,23 the West’s existing negative stereotypes of Eastern Europe were reinforced during the Cold War era. The Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc were perceived as threats. As a consequence, Russia’s place in Europe and (the homemade construct of) Western civilization was called into question. Even countries like Czechoslovakia were seen to fall within Eastern Europe (and therefore the subdiscipline of Eastern European history), although historically the Kingdom of Bohemia had far more in common with Austria or Germany than with Russia. Of course, prejudices against Eastern Europeans did not disappear when the Eastern Bloc crumbled. On the contrary, they were initially reinforced, as the rash of Polish jokes in circulation in Germany indicated. Southern European countries were more positively perceived in the West because they were on the right side of the Iron Curtain. Pre–Cold War prejudices against the region were no longer mobilized by other Western countries. In 1955, West Germany concluded its first recruitment agreement with Italy, inviting migrant labor. Agreements followed with Spain, Greece, Turkey, and even one socialist country, Yugoslavia. Labor migration, along with the burgeoning tourist industry, facilitated intersocial encounters. Initially, this spawned new conflicts and prejudices (as the pioneer generation of Italian guest workers experienced to their dismay), but eventually, the various Western European nations grew accustomed to each other. The process was aided by gradual economic convergence: Spain, Portugal, and Greece became more affluent after the European Community’s expansion southward, like the countries of Eastern Europe in later years. Since the crisis, this divergence has ended. The gulf between the South and the North (now including parts of the former East) of the “old” European Union has reemerged. Today “the South” is once again widely regarded as backward, poor, or reform-averse. The latter is an especially damning verdict in a neoliberal perspective. The pejorative acronym “PIIGS” was invented for the economically depressed Mediterranean EU countries. (The second “I” stood for Ireland, and was removed when that nation left the euro rescue plan.) In 2010, international investors and rating agencies employed PIGS to refer to Portugal, Italy, Greece, and Spain. Intentionally evoking disconcerting associations with the animal world, the acronym groups “the South” together as one large area, like the Eastern Bloc previously. Whether there is any factual basis for this blanket categorization is another matter. Even in terms of finance, the countries it referred to had disparate problems. Spain had exorbitantly high private household debt and a real-estate bubble; Italy’s most pressing problem was government debt. While Spain’s dependence on the construction sector puts a strain on the economy, Italy is struggling with a crisis in industry. As mentioned above, Greece is in many respects an exceptional case, and Portugal has different problems again. The latter was the only southern EU country to accept the reform program prescribed by the Troika (the trio made up of the EU Commission, the European Central Bank, and the IMF) largely without resistance. Regardless of these differences, the countries labeled “PIGS” suddenly found themselves in one and the same semantic barnyard. Neither popularly perceived differences, especially between North and South, nor actual divergence are new to modern European history. But the decisive role of international actors (such as the authors of the acronyms) in creating a materialist mental map of Europe is new. As affluence has increased since 1989 in most of the new EU countries, and the South languishes under economic decline, a role reversal has taken place: The Mediterranean countries are now expected to make the kind of economic and cultural adjustments that were demanded of the EU candidate countries in the nineties. They are called on to rationalize their economies, be fiscally conservative, and, in principle, conform to a Protestant ethic. These demands point to an asymmetry of power extending beyond the sphere of economics. The international response to Latvia’s post-2008 crisis management program illustrates the role reversal that has taken place. In the wake of the crash, the Latvian government acted as if it had already introduced the euro by pursuing a policy of “inner devaluation” rather than devaluing the national currency, the lats (which would have caused higher inflation and debt revaluation). While stabilizing the lats, it cut government employees’ salaries by an average 25 percent, slashed pensions and social security benefits, closed schools, and reduced hospital services to life-saving operations only. As a consequence of this unprecedented austerity program, economic output plummeted by almost 18 percent in 2009 alone and the population shrank by 9 percent by 2011. From 2010, the GDP started to grow again—albeit from its drastically lowered level. In early 2013, the IMF president Christine Lagarde made an official visit to Riga to “celebrate Latvia’s achievements,” as she announced. Metaphorically patting herself and her organization on the back, she declared that the IMF was proud to have contributed to the Latvian “success story” with its rescue package. In late 2008 the monetary fund had granted assistance to the tune of $7.5 billion—an enormous sum for such a small country.24 Her choice of terminology, evoking Hollywood-style rags-to-riches dreams, demonstrates neoliberalism’s discursive power. The media sent news of the Latvian success story across the globe (as it had the Polish and Chilean success stories25), with coverage appearing in all the major German newspapers as well as the New York Times and the international business press. The German business daily Handelsblatt headed its article with a paraphrase of a GDR propaganda slogan about the Soviet Union: “Learning from Latvia Means Learning Victory” (“Von Lettland lernen, heißt siegen lernen,” originally “Von der Sowjetunion lernen, heißt siegen lernen”).26 The unprecedented wave of emigrations in the wake of the crisis was not mentioned in any of the articles. Latvia’s economic triumph raised the international pressure on Greece to follow suit, as Christine Lagarde, among others, demanded. But a repetition of the Latvian scenario would have triggered the migration of a large section of the Greek population. If this occurred at the same rate as in Latvia since 2009, several hundred thousand Greeks would have to be absorbed into other EU countries. If the Italians and Spanish became as mobile as the Romanians, the handful of EU countries with robust economies would have to accommodate over three million Italian and two million Spanish jobseekers. These figures are, of course, hypothetical.27 They are merely intended to illustrate the fact that a standard formula for dealing with crises in all countries alike is surely not a recipe for success. The experts’ praise of Eastern European reform countries and criticism of the southern EU member states, especially Greece, is symptomatic of a long-term shift in the mental map of Europe. The East-West axis is being replaced by a North-South divide, both in terms of how the European Union sees itself and how it is seen from outside. This reconfiguration was caused partly by the economic changes discussed above, but is also self-reinforcing. Cultural stereotypes have always influenced economic decisions. Foreign direct investments in Poland are increasing not least because the country is no longer perceived as part of backward Eastern Europe. In summary, the countries of East Central Europe have managed to overcome a number of prejudices in the last twenty-five years. The best example is the change in meaning of the term “Polish economy.” Once used by German nationalists as a byword for disorder, poverty, and backwardness, today it stands for prosperity based on initiative and industry. Southern Europe, in contrast, has returned to its starting point of around 1960, before the period of economic and social convergence that lasted three decades.28 The younger generation feels the decline the most. People under age thirty-five in Italy earned an average 540 euros taxable income per month in 2013.29 Even if one does not factor in the unemployed in this age group, the work income of young Italians falls below the minimum social welfare payment in Germany or Austria, including housing allowance. And the cost of living is higher in Italy than in Germany. No comparable statistics on Poland were available at the time of writing, but Poles under thirty-five certainly earned more than 540 euros per month, adjusted to purchasing power; at least those living in growth centers such as Warsaw, Poznań, or Wrocław. Italy’s pitifully low wages and trend toward temporary employment contracts have forced even working members of the younger generation to live with their parents. Even a room in a shared apartment is too expensive for many. While a certain attitude of complacency among the mammoni (male adults living with their parents) might be a contributing factor, independent living is precluded by the financial circumstances. Interestingly, there is no female equivalent of mammoni, perhaps indicating that daughters show greater determination to leave home. High rents also inhibit mobility in Poland, Slovakia, and the other new EU countries (and increasingly in Germany), but more living space is available now than in the nineties due to the construction boom of the last twenty years. Despite the crisis, plenty of Italian teenagers and twenty-somethings can be seen driving sports cars, wearing designer clothes, and carrying the latest iPhones. They seem exempt from austerity. Their elevated social status is not a result of their own hard work, or an indication of high qualifications. Wealth in Italy is usually inherited—the offspring of wealthy families can still live off the fat of the land. Social inequality is perpetuated by the Italian tax system: employment income is taxed moderately, as in Germany and Austria, consumer items at a much higher rate, but inheritance and wealth hardly at all (similar to the United States). In a parallel to the employment situation, those from secure backgrounds can expect to remain comfortable, and probably have more than enough to live on. Those from poorer backgrounds, who do not have a permanent employment contract or who move to another town to seek work, struggle to make ends meet. The Italians speak of “not arriving at the end of the month” (“non arrivare a fine mese”). Surveys have shown that 30 percent of Italians do not earn enough to live on; 37 percent have to ask their parents for support; 14 percent turn to other relatives for help and 8 percent to friends. (Interviewees were able to give several answers.) Only 45 percent of Italians earn more than they spend and are able to save some money over the year.30 The situation in Greece is even worse. There, a third of the population no longer has health insurance and ekes out a living on the poverty line. These statistics show once again that the neoliberal order weakens the very social resources it depends upon. Lower incomes, rising unemployment, and reduced social benefits inhibit the mobility and flexibility of people in Southern Europe. At the same time, social, generational, and regional inequality has grown. The situation calls for a reform package extending beyond the ten points of the Washington Consensus or the current IMF programs. But so far none has been forthcoming. Italy’s government of experts under Mario Monti (prime minister 2011–13) evidently realized that liberalization and deregulation could only cause superficial adjustments and would not solve any fundamental problems. (There was not much left to privatize as most state enterprises had already been sold.) The poor record of this proreform governo tecnico raises the question of whether European welfare states can be reformed at all when their troubles are as deep-rooted as Italy’s. Perhaps gradual reforms are as difficult to accomplish in existing state systems as they were in the Eastern Bloc in the eighties. Recent developments in Greece hint that this might be true. None of the three (socialist, technocrat, or conservative-led) governments in power between the outbreak of the crisis and the elections of January 2015 managed to convince the Greek public that the reforms were the right way to go. This is astounding considering that Greece’s bloated apparatus of state was so inefficient it even failed to gather regular taxes. But all the governments were reluctant to introduce more fundamental reforms, as they would have hit their major clientele of civil servants. For this reason, they did not venture beyond austerity measures, which further depressed the already declining economy. The Greek economy’s sustained downward spiral unleashed a fatal political dynamic. Even the pre-2015 conservative government had shown a tendency to blame foreign creditors for the austerity choking the country. The left-wing populist Syriza party was even more inclined to mobilize images of bogeymen. It painted a picture of Angela Merkel, the European Union, and the IMF as a kind of demonic triumvirate, which it promised to fight by deflecting the austerity measures. The party’s charismatic leader, Alexis Tsipras, won the elections of January 2015 on the back of this argument. Instead of forming a coalition with the moderate Socialists, Syriza joined forces with the right-wing populists, shifting the political contest even further into the populist corner. Negotiations with the international creditors were therefore ill-fated from the start. After months of wrangling, Syriza broke off negotiations in July 2015 and called a referendum on further reforms and “rescue packages.” The populace unsurprisingly voted against them. But as banks closed and the Greek economy teetered on the brink of collapse, Athens was compelled to return to the negotiating table and ultimately accept even more drastic austerity measures and inroads into its national sovereignty. It is not, then, a very promising new start. The tax increases enacted in summer 2015 will further dampen economic growth. The fifty billion euros projected to be made by the Greek trust fund agency charged with selling the companies to be privatized is probably just a pipe-dream, if the history of the German Treuhand trust agency is anything to go by. After five years of economic depression, the mood among the population is at rock bottom. It is certainly not a good investment climate. But perhaps the statistical effect that has helped economies in the past will work again: having shrunk since 2010 by around 35 percent, at one point the Greek economy must surely rebound. It is still too early to judge the Greek tragedy in a historical perspective. One day historians will analyze it as a case of failed modernization within the EU, as in all the years since it joined the European Community in 1981, Greece evidently failed to establish sustainable economic structures or a functioning apparatus of state. In the midterm, the tragedy was caused by the ineffectiveness of the old political elites and parties. A short-term reason for the continuing crisis was the combination of Syriza’s hubris and inexperience with the lack of creativity shown by the international finance organizations and the European Union, along with its unofficial leader, Angela Merkel. Apart from proposing ever more austerity measures, Brussels and the IMF had few ideas or visions on how to strengthen the Greek economy. In the midst of the depression, purposeful investment (in, for instance, solar power) might have created hope and jobs. Perhaps Greece would indeed benefit from a new start, like Eastern Europe after the revolutions of 1989. But Poland and the other former Eastern Bloc countries had the advantage that their old systems had become defunct. This made it possible to break up traditional structures and start afresh in many areas. One example is university education. Salaries at state universities and the Polish Academy of Sciences were so low in the early nineties that scholars were forced to find other sources of income. As a result, they founded private colleges, offered private courses of study, or became involved in extraoccupational courses offered at the university. Thanks to this burst of initiative twenty-five years ago, Warsaw today has a highly diverse and dynamic academic landscape. Furthermore, the regime change prompted Poland’s international creditors to make financial concessions. Poland had accumulated foreign debt worth 75.9 percent of the GDP by 1990. With only weak exports, it was incapable of paying it all back. In 1991, half of these debts were deferred or cancelled—for mostly political reasons. Poland was the key state in the Soviet Union’s outer sphere of influence. The West could not allow the reforms there to fail, at least not on account of communist-era loans. Compared to Poland twenty-five years ago, the Southern European countries are even deeper in debt. Italy, a key state of the European Union, currently has debts worth over 130 percent of its GDP. Unlike Poland in the early nineties, only some 20 percent are foreign debts. Superficially this seems a relative advantage.31 But Italy’s large domestic debt is not any easier to relieve if prohibitive losses for domestic banks and government bond holders are to be avoided. The comparison of debt levels raises the hypothetical question of how a country like Italy might develop if it followed the IMF’s recommendations and passed an extensive neoliberal reform program. Italian companies might invest more in the domestic market again (unlike the postcommunist countries, Italy does not suffer from a shortage of capital). Foreign investors’ interest might also be stimulated. Italy is a large market with an educated population and moderate labor costs. Investors would be delighted by the Italian work ethic: unlike in Germany or Austria, plumbers and car mechanics do not resolutely hang up their overalls on Friday afternoon not to return until Monday morning. The bella figura principle applies not only to clothing but also to personal conduct; appearing moody and uncooperative is unacceptable. The traditional principle of volontà—readiness to help—is still an important factor in the national culture, and distinguishes Italy from the postcommunist fustiness that societies are still struggling to banish. In some respects, then, Italy is better poised to end the crisis than Eastern Europe was in the early nineties. But even if Italy underwent a “mighty, magnificent modernization” as Poland did (in the words of the respected Catholic weekly Tygodnik Powszechny32), one may presume that only a few growth centers and social groups would benefit. Following the Eastern European pattern, the South and other regions plagued by weak infrastructure would hardly profit, or only in the very long term. The postcommunist countries enticed investors with sweeping tax exemptions. It would be difficult for a country such as Italy, which is shouldering a huge burden of public debt, to do the same. Without inspired political and social vision, efforts to reform Italy according to neoliberal principles have had little impact. Although the technocratic government under Mario Monti managed to identify a number of shortcomings of the existing system—for instance, the taxi business is characterized by mediocre to bad service and high, seemingly arbitrary prices, another problem familiar to the United States—and convey the necessity of emergency measures, it failed to create any promising prospects for the future. Perhaps the reform politicians’ arguments would have been more convincing if they had been more radical. In 2013, the IMF published a paper advancing the idea of a 10 percent property tax to deal with the debt crisis. The proposal sparked a debate in Germany.33 But in Italy, the same discussion was soon stifled. Liberals and Social Democrats did not want to risk antagonizing a large part of society and their own voters. The status quo may be unjust and even untenable in the long term but the social majority is still comfortable with it. In contrast, reform politicians in Eastern Europe twenty-five years ago addressed publics who were aware of the pitfalls and dysfunctionality of the old systems. In addition, they identified three important goals to work toward: the introduction of market economy (amid fierce debates over which variation); the consolidation of democracy, despite a popular lack of identification with the new system and reluctance to participate in elections; and accession to the European Union. The conditions for generating wealth were good: they had human capital and international support, the global economy was growing, and peace prevailed. These conditions cannot be created artificially more than twenty-five years later. The crisis-torn countries in the South of the European Union are already integrated into Europe and democratically governed and have market economies. The South is, then, not the new East, even though it is increasingly perceived as such.

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The book, “History of the Old Cheraws” by Alexander Gregg (1819-1893) was written and published in 1867. When I ordered this book, I expected this was about the Cheraws, meaning, the Indians, but for the most part, it wasn’t. The opening chapters, which are untitled, do reflect some about the early heritage of the area, but nothing like I was hoping. I extracted, transcribed and in some cases, excerpted the information relevant to the Native inhabitants of that region. P 1-4 – When first known to the colonists, South Carolina is said to have contained not less than 28 tribes of Indians, with settlements extending from the ocean to the mountains. Of these tribes but a few names survive to mark the localities they once inhabited, and these with such scattered remains as the waste of time and the leveling work of the white man have spared, are the only memories left to tell of their early occupancy of the soil. Of the tribes which dwelt upon the Pedee and its tributaries, the Saras or Saraws as they were first called – afterwards Charrows, Charraws and Cheraws – occupied the region still identified by the name: their territory extending thence to the coast, and along the coast from the Cape Fear to the Pedee. This extensive region has been assigned to the Cheraws by one of the most eminent ethnologists of America, as European, about the year 1600, along the coast of the Atlantic. If such was the extent of their territory at that early period, it would indicate a population which must have been greatly diminished, when, upon the approach of the Catawbas, a half century later, the supremacy of the Cheraws over the smaller tribes around them, and even over their own distinct nationality, would seem to have been lost or at least acknowledged. Within these early territorial limits of the Cheraws and along the middle and lower parts of the valley of the river, must be assigned the Pedees; and about the mouth of the river, the Winyaws. The Kadapaws were found on Lynche’s Creek, after the name of which tribe that stream was called in the Indian tongue. Of these, the Cheraws – however they may have been diminished in number by disease and war, or perchance by some dismemberment of their nation, and the removal of many, of which no record of tradition remains – continued to be the dominant race on the Pedee; the others having ever been reckoned among the smaller and inferior tribes. Of their origin nothing is known beyond the conjectures of ethnologists. They have been assigned, but upon what grounds does not appear, to the extensive family of Algonkins. These occupied that portion of North America on the east extending from 35 degrees to 60 degrees latitude and reaching along the northern line of extension almost to the Pacific on the west. Beyond this, as the track of aboriginal descent and migration begins to be traced back, even conjecture is lost in a sea of uncertainty. The tribes on the Pedee continued in their feeble and disconnected state (the Cheraws maintaining the supremacy) until the arrival of the Catawbas from the north, with the history of whom their own was ever after to be inseparably blended. According to their traditions as it has been handed down to the very recent times, the Catawbas, at a period prior or not long subsequent to the discovery and settlement of North America by the whites, occupied a region far to the northward, from whence, in course of time, they removed to the south. Being a numerous and warlike race, they vanquished the tribes with whom they came successively in conflict on the way, until they met the Cherokees on the banks of the river, afterwards called by their own name, Catawba. Here, as the tradition relates, a sanguinary battle ensued between them, which lasted from morning until night, darkness alone serving to put an end to the conflict. The loss on both sides was heavy, though neither party gained the victory. They slept on the field of blood among their dead and wounded. With the approach of morning, propositions of peace were made by the Catawbas and accepted by the Cherokees. According to the terms of the agreement, the former were to occupy the county east of the river and the latter the territory on the west. Here they solemnly agree to live together as brothers; and, after burying their dead, and erecting piles of stones as monuments like of their common loss, and of the peace and friendship established between them, returned to their encampments, ever afterwards sacredly observing the terms of the compact. This tradition of the Catawbas is confirmed throughout by the fuller details which ethnological research has added to their history. They appear to have been a Canadian tribe and to have left their ancient home about the year 1650, pursued by the Connewangas, a superior and more warlike tribe with whom they had come in conflict. Forced thus to remove, they turned their faces to the southward and fought their way, when necessary to do so, until they approached the headwaters of the Kentucky River. Here a separation took place, the larger number becoming absorbed in the great families of the Chickasaws and the Choctaws. The remainder of the tribe stopped in what was afterwards known as Botetourt County, Virginia, but without making any permanent settlement. They removed thence in the year 1660, continuing their journey to the south and as Adair, wrote, “settled on the east side of a broad, purling river, that heads in the great blue ridge of mountains and empties itself into Santee River, in Amelia township, then running eastward of Charlestown, disgorges itself into the Atlantic.” How the approach of the Catawbas was regarded by the Cheraws and whether any conflict ensued between then, tradition does not inform us. P 5 – By 1743 the language of the Catawbas is said to have consisted of 20 different dialects of which “Katahba” was the standard and “Cherah” being another. Scarcely anything beyond a bare allusion to them by name is found relating to the tribes on the Pedee in the earliest accounts of the Indians of Carolina. John Lederer mentioned the “Sara” and “Saras” in 1669 and 1670 where he mentions they are 30 miles west of “Watery” and they had cakes of white salt. P 8 – The earliest mention in the provincial records of any of the tribes inhabiting the valley of the Pedee is found in the proceedings of the Council or Upper House of Assembly Dec. 15, 1732 where a reference of the murder of a Pedee Indian, Corn-White Johnny, by one Mr., Kemp is mentioned. The Council then ordered “some of the relation of the deceased”, King Harry, Captain Billy, George and Dancing Johnny to give an account of what they knew. This record is of interest now as evincing the jealous care exercised by the Provincial Government for the protection of those scattered and defenseless remnants of the Indian tribes whose domain was fast passing away from them, and who continued faithful to the whites to the close of their history. In 1743, Pedee Indians were reported to be in Charleston and were gifted. “To the three headmen, each of them a gun and knife, to the others, each of them, a knife. For the 3 women each of them a looking glass, twenty bullets, half a pound vermillion to be divided among them. Also on order of Col. Brewton for 10 poiunds of gunpowder for use of said Indians.” In 1744 it was noted that 7 Catawbas has been barbarously murdered by the Notchee Indians who live among them and confirmed by Mr. Matthew Bird who lives at Goose Creek. The Catawba were drunk and murdered in their sleep. P 11 – In 1746, the records reflect that the Governor visited the Congarees and the Catawbas. The following account was preserved. “The Governor arrived at the Congarees April 27, 140 miles distance hence, where on the bank of he Santee, the king and a few of the head men met him. Yenabe Yalangway the King, the old leader, Captain Taylor, Nafkebee and some others awaited on his Excellency. The next day the Governor addressed them. A place being erected for the Governor to sit under, and the Union Flag hoisted, our men were drawn out in two lines, through which the Indians marched, when they were received with drums beating and colours flying and saluted with some small pieces of cannon: after they had all taken the Governor by the hand and the King with some of his head-men had placed himself near his excellency, a person was sworn truly to interpret all that should pass betwixt the governor and the Indians and then his Excellency addressed them in words, the purport of which was to dissuade them from agreeing to a proposition which had been made to them by some of the other Indian nations to join in a French war against the people of Carolina. After which presents were distributed consisting chiefly of powder, guns, pistols, paint and c. That morning the Governor had received an express from Mr. Brown who trades among the Catawbas acquainting him that some of the Pedees and Cheraws, two small tribes who have long been incorporated with the Catawbas intended to leave them, which might prove of dangerous consequence at a time when they were so closely attacked by their enemies, the Northern Indians. P 12 – The governor ordered the rammers of all the pistols which he had delivered to the Indians to be laid upon the table, desiring that such as were Pedees and Charraws might advance and they, being in a body near him, he spoke to them in these words: “It gives me great concern, my friends, to hear that you entertain the least through of leaving the Catawbas with whom you have been so long and so closely united. This union makes you strong and enables you to defend yourselves and annoy your enemies; but should you ever separate, you would thereby weaken yourselves and be exposed to every danger. Consider that if you were single and divided, you may be broke as easily as I break this stick” (at the same time breaking one of the rammers), “but if you continue united together and stand by one another it will be as impossible to hurt or break you as it is impossible for me to break these” (his excellency then taking up a handful of rammers).” P 13 – In a 1748 record a negro slave who was “taken up” said that he had been sold to Billy, King of the Pedee Indians, that the Catawba Indians took him from King Billy and carried him to their nation and the when endeavoring to escape from the Catawbas he was lost in the woods. The Peedees and other smaller tribes who now led a wandering life were in constant danger of being enticed off by the more powerful and hostile nations of Indians to join them in their predatory excursions. In 1750, the King of the Catawba in a letter to James Glen, the Governor said that “there are a great many Pedee Indians living in the settlements that we want to come and settle amongst us. We desire for you to send for them and advise them to this and give them this string of wampum in token that we want them to settle here and will always live like brothers with them. The Northern Indians want them all to settle with us, for as they are now at peace, they may be hunting in the woods or straggling about, killed by some of them, except they join us and make but one nation which will be a great addition of strength to us.” In 1751, the Governor of New York had written to Governor Glenn of North Carolina asking him to help remove any obstacles to peace. His letter included the six Nations, the Delawares and the Susquehanna. He then mentioned all of the different tribes “who may be in friendship with them, particularly those on the Ohio River, being the Cherokees, the Catawbas, the Creeks, called sometimes the Muskogee, the Chickasaws and such part of the Chactaws as are in our interest and all tribes in friendship with these nations that live amongst the settlements such as Charraws, Uchees, Pedees, Notches, Cape Fears or other Indians and I hope that all prisoners on each side will be mutually delivered back.” In 1755, John Evans made a visit to the Catawbas ordered by the government and his records are preserved. P 15 – “Met a Catawba man and woman and informed by them that in the summer the Cherrackees and Notchees had killed some Pedees and Waccamaws in the white people’s settlements.” His further records show that the murder occurred at Goose Creek, 2 women were killed and scalped and 2 boys were taken prisoner as well. This was reportedly done by a Notchee called the Notchee Doctor. Evans notes state that Lewis Jones was the chief and another Indian is named Prince who lived at Goose Creek. P 16 – In 1759, King Johnny is noted as the head of the Charraws who brought the governor the scalp of one of the French Indians taken near Loyal-Henning near Fort Du Quesne with Gen. Forbes. P 17 – In December 1759, the Gazette reported that “It is pretty certain that the small-pox has lately raged with great violence among the Catawba Indians, and that it has carried off near one half of that Nation, by throwing themselves into the river as soon as they found themselves ill. This distemper has since appeared among the inhabitants at the Charraws and Waterees, where many families are down, so that unless especial care is taken, it must soon spread through the whole country. The smallpox went almost through the Province in the year 1738 when it made prodigious havoc. Ignorant and grossly superstitious, they regarded it as a visible embodiment of the Spirit of Evil, the sentence or wrath from heaven let loose upon them, from which there was no escape. The white families at the “Charraws” and “Waterees” who appear to have suffered severely at this period, where doubtless unprepared for such a visitant and yielded for a time, like their savage neighbors, to the fell destroyer. At a later period about the time of the Revolution, some of the Catawba warriors having visited Charleston, there contracted the disease again and returning, communicated it to their Nation, which, according to contemporaneous accounts, came well nigh being exterminated. It was after this that they were advised by their friends to invite the Cheraws to move up and unite with them as one tribe. P 18 – About the year 1700, the Catawbas numbered about 1500 warriors. Only half a century later this proud band had dwindled to 400. Their principal settlement about this latter period was on the Wateree where their country was described as being “an old waste field, 7 miles in extent, with several others of smaller dimensions, which shows that they were formerly a numerous people, to cultivate so much land, with their dull stone axes, before they had an opportunity of trading with the English, or allowed others to incorporate with them.” In 1787 the Catawba were the only organized tribe under a distinct name of its own in SC. Their town “Catawba” contained then about 450 inhabitants of which not more than 150 were fighting men. In 1798 they are said to have been in the habit of holding an anniversary meeting of a sadly interesting character intended to commemorate their former greatness by recounting the numbers and deeds of their ancestors, of which tradition had kept them informed. P 19 – A portion of them had removed at an earlier period to Buncombe County, NC west of the Blue Ridge and thither the miserable remnants with few exceptions followed a few years since. Reduced in numbers by disease and intermarriage, by the contracted territory to which they had been confined while yet unfitted by the slow process through which the Indian must always pass, and withal by those habits of idleness and dissipation which the custom of leasing their lands to the whites, and the consequent want of employment had subjected them; drunken and wandering from place to place, their condition became as abject as it had once been elevated among the red men of Carolina. P 20 – Cheraw means “fire eater” or “fire town” in Cherokee. The first mention of the Pedee is found I the account of the Eleven Townships, one of which was to be laid out on the river about the year 1731-1732. But then it was spoken of as having been in familiar use. It was spelt too as if it had come from 2 capital letters, the initials of a proper name. Nothing is known of the meaning of Cheraw. P 32 – At the time of the division into counties, 1682, Craven was so sparsely settled as not to be politically considered but 20 years afterwards was described as being pretty well inhabited, the Huguenots having settled on the Santee. P 36-37 – In the Marion district, with Darlington and Chesterfield above on the west and Marlborough on the east of the Pedee, though more than 70 miles in length and in width from 30-35, there is nothing to indicate that any settlements had been made previous to the year 1730. In writings 50 years later, the Pedee is not classed in rivers of note. P 42-43 – From 1696 to 1730 the population gradually increased. About 1730 a scheme was adopted to promote the settlement of the province which proved successful. Gov. Johnson was instructed to mark out 11 Townships in square plots on the sides of rivers each consisting of 20,000 acres and to divide the land into shares of 50 acres for each man woman and child that should come to occupy and improve them. Each township was to form a parish and all had an equal right to the river. Each settler was to pay 4 shillings a year for every hundred acres of land, excepting the first 10 yeas, during which term they were to be rent free. The eleven original townships were two on the River Alatamah, two on Savanna, two on Santee, one on Pedee, one on Waccamaw, one on Wateree and one on Black River. The one in Pedee called Queensborough was marked out in 1731-1732. P 45 – The inducements to come led to a visit from some of the Welch from Pennsylvania in 1735 for the purpose of exploration and settlement. Shortly thereafter the migration from Wales to Pennsylvania and from there to the Pedee proceeded. P 52-53 – In 1736, the large Welsh tract grant was made. In 1737, they stated that they were concerned that the Indians would molest and disturb them and that Thompson, a trader, holds a great amount of land there and claims it by Indian right. At this point, the book turns to record the stories of the various Welsh families who settled this region of South Carolina known as the Old Cheraws. You can download the book for free at this link: http://archive.org/details/historyofoldcher00gregrich Given by W. H. Thomas, Esq of Qualla Town, NC who has been intimately connected with them as their head man or chief since their removal to the western part of that state.

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Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq Hangings in Saddam-era Iraq. |Ba'athist Iraq under Saddam Hussein| (1979 - 2003) Iraq's era under President Saddam Hussein was notorious for its severe violations of human rights. Secret police, state terrorism, torture, mass murder, genocide, ethnic cleansing, rape, deportations, extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances, assassinations, chemical warfare, and the destruction of southern Iraq's marshes were some of the methods Saddam and the country's Ba'athist government used to maintain control. The total number of deaths related to torture and murder during this period are unknown but range from the hundreds of thousands up to one or two million. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International issued regular reports of widespread imprisonment and torture. Documented human rights violations 1979–2003 This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) - In 2002, a resolution sponsored by the European Union was adopted by the Commission for Human Rights, which stated that there had been no improvement in the human rights crisis in Iraq. The statement condemned President Saddam Hussein's government for its "systematic, widespread and extremely grave violations of human rights and international humanitarian law" and called on Iraq to cease "summary and arbitrary executions ... the use of rape as a political tool and all enforced and involuntary disappearances". - Full political participation at the national level was restricted only to members of the Ba'ath Party, which constituted only 8% of the population. - Iraqi citizens were not legally allowed to assemble unless it was to express support for the government. The Iraqi government controlled the establishment of political parties, regulated their internal affairs and monitored their activities. - Police checkpoints on Iraq's roads and highways prevented ordinary citizens from traveling across country without government permission and expensive exit visas prevented Iraqi citizens from traveling abroad. Before traveling, an Iraqi citizen had to post collateral. Iraqi females could not travel outside of the country without the escort of a male relative. - The activities of citizens living inside Iraq who received money from relatives abroad were closely monitored. - 4,000 Iraqis women were victims of state sanctioned rape; Saddam himself personally committed rape - During the 1970s Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in North Iraq 600 Kurdish villages were burned down and around 200,000 Kurds were deported to the other parts of the country. - The Persecution of Feyli Kurds under Saddam Hussein, also known as the Feyli Kurdish genocide, was a systematic persecution of Feylis by Saddam Hussein between 1970 and 2003. The persecution campaigns led to the expulsion, flight and effective exile of the Feyli Kurds from their ancestral lands in Iraq. The persecution began when a large number of Feyli Kurds were exposed to a big campaign by the regime that began by the dissolved RCCR issuance for 666 decision, which deprived Feyli Kurds of Iraqi nationality and considered them as Iranians. The systematic executions started in Baghdad and Khanaqin in 1979 and later spread to other Iraqi and Kurdish areas. It is estimated that around 25,000 Feyli Kurds died due to captivity and torture.[clarification needed] - Halabja poison gas attack:The Halabja poison gas attack occurred in the period 15–19 March 1988 during the Iran–Iraq War when chemical weapons were used by the Iraqi government forces and thousands of civilians in the Iraqi Kurdish town of Halabja were killed. - Al-Anfal Campaign: In 1988, the Hussein regime began a campaign of extermination against the Kurdish people living in Northern Iraq. This is known as the Anfal campaign. A team of Human Rights Watch investigators determined, after analyzing eighteen tons of captured Iraqi documents, testing soil samples and carrying out interviews with more than 350 witnesses, that the attacks on the Kurdish people were characterized by gross violations of human rights, including mass executions and disappearances of many tens of thousands of noncombatants, widespread use of chemical weapons including Sarin, mustard gas and nerve agents that killed thousands, the arbitrary imprisoning of tens of thousands of women, children, and elderly people for months in conditions of extreme deprivation, forced displacement of hundreds of thousands of villagers after the demolition of their homes, and the wholesale destruction of nearly two thousand villages along with their schools, mosques, farms and power stations. - 50,000 to 70,000 Shi'a were forcibly disappeared in the 1980s never to be seen from again. - 50,000 opposition activist, Kurds, communists, disloyal Ba'athists, and other minorities were forcibly disappeared in the 1980s through 1990s. - In April 1991, after Saddam lost control of Kuwait in the Persian Gulf War, he cracked down ruthlessly against several uprisings in the Kurdish north and the Shia south. His forces committed full-scale massacres and other gross human rights violations against both groups similar to the violations mentioned before. - Persecution of Marsh Arabs during the Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes - In June 1994, the Hussein regime in Iraq established severe penalties, including amputation, branding and the death penalty for criminal offenses such as theft, corruption, currency speculation and military desertion, some of which are part of Islamic Sharia law, while government members and Saddam's family members were immune from punishments ranging around these crimes. - In 2001, the Iraqi government amended the Constitution to make sodomy a capital offense. - On March 23, 2003, during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Iraqi television presented and interviewed prisoners of war on TV, violating the Geneva Convention. - Also in April 2003, CNN revealed that it had withheld information about Iraq torturing journalists and Iraqi citizens in the 1990s. According to CNN's chief news executive, the channel had been concerned for the safety not only of its own staff, but also of Iraqi sources and informants, who could expect punishment for speaking freely to reporters. Also according to the executive, "other news organizations were in the same bind." - After the 2003 invasion of Iraq, several mass graves were found in Iraq containing several thousand bodies total and more are being uncovered to this day. While most of the dead in the graves were believed to have died in the 1991 uprising against Saddam Hussein, some of them appeared to have died due to executions or died at times other than the 1991 rebellion. - Also after the invasion, numerous torture centers were found in security offices and police stations throughout Iraq. The equipment found at these centers typically included hooks for hanging people by the hands for beatings, devices for electric shock and other equipment often found in nations with harsh security services and other authoritarian nations. 'Saddam's Dirty Dozen' According to officials of the United States State Department, many human rights abuses in Saddam Hussein's Iraq were largely carried out in person or by the orders of Saddam Hussein and eleven other people. The term "Saddam's Dirty Dozen" was coined in October 2002 (from a novel by E.M. Nathanson, later adapted as a film directed by Robert Aldrich) and used by US officials to describe this group. Most members of the group held high positions in the Iraqi government and membership went all the way from Saddam's personal guard to Saddam's sons. The list was used by the Bush Administration to help argue that the 2003 Iraq war was against Saddam Hussein and the Baath Party leadership, rather than against the Iraqi people. The members are: - Saddam Hussein (1937–2006), Iraqi President, responsible for many torturings, killings and of ordering the 1988 cleansing of Kurds in Northern Iraq. - Qusay Hussein (1966–2003), son of the president, head of the elite Republican Guard, believed to have been chosen by Saddam as his successor. - Uday Hussein (1964–2003), son of the president, had a private torture chamber, and was responsible for the rapes and killings of many women. He was partially paralyzed after a 1996 attempt on his life, and was leader of the paramilitary group Fedayeen Saddam and of the Iraqi media. - Taha Yassin Ramadan (1938-2007), Vice-President, born in Iraqi Kurdistan. He oversaw the mass killings of a Shi'a revolt in 1991. - Tariq Aziz (1936–2015), Foreign Minister of Iraq, backed up the executions by hanging of political opponents after the revolution of 1968. - Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti (1951-2007), Hussein's brother, leader of the Iraqi secret service, Mukhabarat. He was Iraq's representative to the United Nations in Geneva. - Sabawi Ibrahim al-Tikriti (1947-2013), Hussein's half brother, he was the leader of the Mukhabarat during the 1991 Gulf War. Director of Iraq's general security from 1991 to 1996. He was involved in the 1991 suppression of Kurds. - Watban Ibrahim al-Tikriti (1952–2015), Hussein's half brother, former senior Interior Minister who was also Saddam's presidential adviser. Shot in the leg by Uday Hussein in 1995. He has ordered tortures, rapes, murders and deportations. - Ali Hassan al-Majid (1941-2010), Chemical Ali, mastermind behind Saddam's lethal gassing of rebel Kurds in 1988; a first cousin of Saddam Hussein. - Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri (b. 1942), military commander, vice-president of the Revolutionary Command Council and deputy commander in chief of the armed forces during various military campaigns. - Aziz Saleh Nuhmah (b. ?), appointed governor of Kuwait from November 1990 to February 1991, ordered looting of stores and rapes of Kuwaiti women during his tenure. Also ordered the destruction of Shi'a holy sites during the 1970s and 1980s as governor of two Iraqi provinces. - Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi (1938-2005), alias Saddam's thug, Prime Minister of Iraq from 1991 to 1993 – to have ordered many executions. The destruction of Shi'ite religious shrines by the former government has been compared "to the leveling of cities in the Second World War, and the damage to the shrines [of Hussein and Abbas] was more serious than that which had been done to many European cathedrals." After the 1983-88 genocide, some 1 million Kurds were allowed to resettle in "model villages". According to a U.S. Senate staff report, these villages "were poorly constructed, had minimal sanitation and water, and provided few employment opportunities for the residents. Some, if not most, were surrounded by barbed wire, and Kurds could enter or leave only with difficulty." After the establishment of republican rule in Iraq, enormous numbers of Iraqis fled the country to escape political repression by Abd al-Karim Qasim and his successors, including Saddam Hussein; by 2001, it was estimated that "Iraqi emigrants number more than 3 million (leaving a population of 23 million inside the country)." Nicholas Kristoff of The New York Times commented: "Police in other countries use torture, after all, but there are credible reports that Saddam's police cut out tongues and use electric drills. Other countries gouge out the eyes of dissidents; Saddam's interrogators gouged out the eyes of hundreds of children to get their parents to talk." Number of victims The US government estimated 300,000 Iraqis were killed by Saddam including 180,000 in the Anfal genocide, 60,000 Shias in the 1991 uprisings in Iraq and 50,000 "other disappearances." In January 2004, Human Rights Watch stated: "Having devoted extensive time and effort to documenting [Saddam's] atrocities, we estimate that in the last twenty-five years of Ba'th Party rule the Iraqi government murdered or 'disappeared' some quarter of a million Iraqis, if not more." More specifically human rights watch estimated Saddam Hussein was responsible for 290,000 deaths including: - 100,000 Anfal genocide - 50,000 to 70,000 Shias abducted in 1980s never to be seen again - 8,000 disappeared Barzani Kurds - 10,000 or more Feyli Kurds - 50,000 opposition activist, Kurds, communists, disloyal Ba'athists, and other minorities (1980s-90s) - 30,000 Shi'a disappeared in the 1991 Iraqi uprising - several (3,000 or more) Marsh Arabs - several (3,000 or more) in "prison cleansings" Other estimates range from 200,000 to 2,000,000. 87,500 to 388,100 Kurds were killed in the destruction of Kurdish villages during the Iraqi Arabization campaign including: 2,500 to 12,500 in the Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in North Iraq, 10,000 to 25,000[clarification needed] were killed during the Feyli Kurds operation, 5,000 to 8,000 Kurds were disapeared in the 1983 Barzani killings, 50,000 to 100,000 (although Kurdish sources have cited a higher figure of 182,000) more Kurds were massacred in the Anfal genocide, and at least 20,000 were killed during the 1991 Iraqi uprising notwithstanding an additional 48,400 to 140,600 Kurdish refugees that starved to death along the Iranian and Turkish borders. 30,000 to 60,000 Shias in the south were also killed during the 1991 uprisings in Iraq In addition, 4,000 prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison were reportedly executed in a particularly large 1984 purge. Far fewer Iraqis are known to have been executed during other years of Saddam's rule. For example, "Amnesty International reported that in 1981 over 350 peosodjvosple were officially executed in Iraq ... the Committee Against Repression in Iraq gives biographic particulars on 798 executions (along with 264 killings of unknown persons, and 428 biographies of unsentenced detainees and disappeared persons)." Concurrently to the sanctions against Iraq Saddam Hussein cut public health funding by 90 percent, contributing to a substantial deterioration in health care. During that period, maternal mortality increased nearly threefold, and the salaries of medical personnel decreased drastically. Medical facilities, which in 1980 were among the best in the Middle East, deteriorated. Conditions were especially serious in the south, where malnutrition and water-borne diseases became common in the 1990s. Health indicators deteriorated during the 1990s. In the late 1990s, Iraq's infant mortality rates more than doubled. Because treatment and diagnosis of cancer and diabetes decreased in the 1990s, complications and deaths resulting from those diseases increased drastically in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Kanan Makiya cautions that a focus on the death toll obscures the full extent of "the terror inside Iraq," which was largely the product of the pervasive secret police and systematic use of torture. - 1969 Baghdad hangings - Human rights - Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq - Human rights in post-Saddam Hussein Iraq - Iraq sanctions - Mass graves in Iraq - Remembering Saddam - State Terrorism - Trial of Saddam Hussein - A January 26, 2003 The New York Times article by John F. Burns similarly states "the number of those 'disappeared' into the hands of the secret police, never to be heard from again, could be 200,000." Noting that the Iran–Iraq War cost approximately 800,000 lives on both sides and that—while "surely a gross exaggeration"—Iraq estimated there were 100,000 deaths resulting from U.S. bombing in the Gulf War, Burns concludes: "A million dead Iraqis, in war and through terror, may not be far from the mark." See Burns, John F. (2003-01-26). "How Many People Has Hussein Killed?". The New York Times. Retrieved 2016-12-04. Also writing in The New York Times, Dexter Filkins appeared to echo but misrepresent Burns's remark on October 7, 2007: "[Saddam] murdered as many as a million of his people, many with poison gas. ... His unprovoked invasion of Iran is estimated to have left another million people dead." See Filkins, Dexter (2007-10-07). "Regrets Only?". The New York Times. Retrieved 2016-12-04. In turn, Arthur L. Herman accused Saddam of "kill[ing] as many as two million of his own people" in Commentary on July 1, 2008. See Herman, Arthur L. (2008-07-01). "Why Iraq Was Inevitable". Commentary. Retrieved 2016-12-04. - Kurds say Iraq's attacks serve as a warning, Christian Science Monitor, May 13, 2002 - Routine calculations do not count as original research, provided there is consensus among editors that the result of the calculation is obvious, correct, and a meaningful reflection of the sources. Basic arithmetic, such as adding numbers, converting units, or calculating a person's age are some examples of routine calculations. See also Category:Conversion templates. https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB14.1C.GIF row 1313 and 1314 1,000,000 and 10,000 to 2,000,000 and 100,000 Kurds were displaced and killed respectively between 1963 and 1987; 250,000 of them in 1977 and 1978. If deaths are proportional to the displacement then 2,500 to 12,500 Kurds would of died during this period depending on the scale of overall displacement and deaths used. - "INVISIBLE AND SILENCED WOMEN The Stories of Women Tortured During Saddam Hussein's Regime" (PDF). Global Justice Center. - Chestnut Greitens, Sheena. Dictators and their Secret Police: Coercive Institutions and State Violence. p. 289. - White, Matthew. "Secondary Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century 20th Century death tolls larger than 300,000 but fewer than 1 million people. Iraq, Saddam Hussein (1979-2003): 300,000". Necrometrics. Roth, “War in Iraq: Not a Humanitarian Intervention,” Human Rights Watch, January 2004: "twenty-five years of Ba`th Party rule ... murdered or 'disappeared' some quarter of a million Iraqis" Price, "Survey: Saddam Killed 61,000 in Baghdad", 8/9 Dec. 2003 AP: Total murders New survey estimates 61,000 residents of Baghdad executed by Saddam. US Government estimates a total of 300,000 killed by Saddam across Iraq 180,000 Kurds k. in Anfal 60,000 Shiites in 1991 50,000 misc. others executed "Human rights officials" est.: 500,000 Iraqi politicians: over a million [These don't include the half million or so dead in the Iran-Iraq War.] External link in - "UN condemns Iraq on human rights". BBC News. 2002-04-19. Retrieved 2016-12-11. - "JURIST - Dateline". Archived from the original on 25 June 2010. Retrieved 30 October 2017. - Farouk-Sluglett, M.; Sluglett, P.; Stork, J. (July–September 1984). "Not Quite Armageddon: Impact of the War on Iraq". MERIP Reports: 24. - "From Crisis to Catastrophe: the situation of minorities in Iraq" (PDF): 5. Retrieved 23 May 2017. Cite journal requires - "Iraqi Kurds Seek Recognition of Genocide by Saddam". Al-Monitor (in Hebrew). 8 March 2013. Retrieved 23 May 2017. - "جريمة إبادة الكرد الفيليين … والصمت الحكومي والتجاهل الرسمي عن إستذكار هذه الفاجعة الآليمة ! !". Retrieved 23 May 2017. - Jaffar Al-Faylee, Zaki (2010). Tareekh Al-Kurd Al-Faylyoon. Beirut. pp. 485, 499–501. - Al-Hakeem, Dr. Sahib (2003). Untold stories of more than 4000 women raped killed and tortured in Iraq, the country of mass graves. pp. 489–492. - "Whatever Happened To The Iraqi Kurds?". Hrw.org. Retrieved 2009-09-25. - "Iraq: 'Disappearances' – the agony continues". Web.amnesty.org. 2005-07-30. Archived from the original on 2007-10-27. Retrieved 2009-09-25. - "ENDLESS TORMENT, The 1991 Uprising in Iraq And Its Aftermath". Hrw.org. Retrieved 2016-08-21. An independent French organization called The Truth About the Gulf War reported in June 1991 after a trip to Iraq that authorities were vague about the toll of the uprising, but 'the figures given for those killed, most of them in southern Iraq and the overwhelming majority of them civilians, ranged from 25,000 to 100,000 dead.' ... The environmental organization Greenpeace estimates that 30,000 Iraqi civilians, including rebels, and 5,000 Iraqi soldiers died during the uprisings as a result of the clashes and killings, while acknowledging that 'little authoritative information is available.' ... A demographer at the U.S. Census Bureau, Beth Osborne Daponte, also arrived at the figure of 30,000 civilian deaths during the uprising. - "Human Rights Watch, Iraq archive". Hrw.org. Retrieved 2009-09-25. - Jordan, Eason (April 11, 2003). "The News We (CNN) Kept To Ourselves". The New York Times. (requires login) - "Mass Grave Discovery In Iraq Could Fuel Divisions". Retrieved 6 July 2016. - Makiya, Kanan (1998). Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq, Updated Edition. University of California Press. pp. 62–65. ISBN 9780520921245. - Harris, Paul; Heslop, Katy (16 March 2003). "Iraq's dirty dozen". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 October 2017. - Weber, Bruce (7 April 2016). "E.M. Nathanson, Author of 'The Dirty Dozen,' Dies at 88". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 October 2017. - Pryce-Jones, David (1989-01-01). "Self-Determination, Arab-Style". Commentary. Retrieved 2016-09-27. - Milton Viorst, "Report from Baghdad," The New Yorker, June 24, 1991, p. 72. - "Kurdistan in the Time of Saddam Hussein," p. 15. See also "Civil War in Iraq," Staff Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations of the U.S. Senate, May 1991, pp. 8-9. - Ghabra, Shafeeq N. (Summer 2001). "Iraq's Culture of Violence". Middle East Quarterly. 8 (3): 39–49. - Kristof, Nicholas (2002-03-26). "Try Suing Saddam". The New York Times. Retrieved 2017-02-15. - "War in Iraq: Not a Humanitarian Intervention". Human Rights Watch. 2004-01-25. Retrieved 2016-08-21. - Jaffar Al-Faylee, Zaki (2010). Tareekh Al-Kurd Al-Faylyoon. Beirut. pp. 485, 499–501. - Al-Hakeem, Dr. Sahib (2003). Untold stories of more than 4000 women raped killed and tortured in Iraq, the country of mass graves. pp. 489–492. - "The Tragedy of the Missing Barzanis". Kurdistan Memory Programme. - Jones, Dave. "The Crimes of Saddam Hussein 1983 The Missing Barzanis". Frontline World. PBS. - GENOCIDE IN IRAQ Human Rights Watch, 1993 - "The Crimes of Saddam Hussein – 1988 The Anfal Campaign". PBS Frontline. January 24, 2006. Archived from the original on February 6, 2006. Retrieved November 15, 2019. - Zenko, Micah. "Remembering the Iraqi Uprising Twenty-Five Years Ago". Council on Foreign Relations. - 1,000 deaths per day in April, May and June along Turkish border a - "Iraqi Deaths from the Gulf War as of April 1992," Greenpeace, Washington, D.C. See also "Aftermath of War: The Persian Gulf War Refugee Crisis," Staff Report to the Senate Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on Immigration and Refugee Affairs, May 20, 1991. The figure of nearly 1,000 deaths per day is also given in "Kurdistan in the Time of Saddam Hussein," Staff Report to the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, November 1991, p.14. "hundreds" (100 to 900?) died per day along Iranian border b - Kurdish Refugees Straggle Into Iran, Followed By Tragedy, Associated Press, Apr 13, 1991 1,100 to 1,900 (a + b) deaths per day from at least April 13th (b) up to between May 1st and May 31st (a ); which suggests 44 to 74 days: 1,100(44)= 48,400 1,900(74)= 140,600 Routine calculations Routine calculations do not count as original research, provided there is consensus among editors that the result of the calculation is obvious, correct, and a meaningful reflection of the sources. Basic arithmetic, such as adding numbers, converting units, or calculating a person's age are some examples of routine calculations. See also Category:Conversion templates. - Chauhan, Sharad S. (2003). War on Iraq. APH Publishing. p. 65. ISBN 9788176484787. - Iraq country profile Archived 2010-12-04 at the Wayback Machine. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (August 2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. - Kadhim, Abbas. "The Hawza Under Siege A Study in the Ba‘th Party Archive." (Archive) Boston University Institute for Iraqi Studies (IISBU) Occasional Paper. No. 1. June 2013. - Amnesty International report on torture in Iraq (2001) - INDICT – campaign to prosecute human rights abusers from the Hussein regime - Iraq's dirty dozen - Human Rights Archive 1999–2001 The Iraq Foundation - UN condemns Iraq on human rights, BBC April 2002 - Iraq 1984–1992, Human Rights Watch - Reports on Human Rights Practices, U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor - Human Rights Watch: Background on the Crisis in Iraq (a contents page for the organization's various reports on Iraq, mostly after Saddam's regime fell)

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by Susan Thorpe-Vargas Ph.D., John Cargill MA, MBA, MS Predicting the Abnormal Hip An evaluation method is needed that is not only diagnostic but which can predict the probability of canine hip dysplasia. Conclusions from Part I: This article is the fifth in an eight-part series on canine hip dysplasia (CHD). What follows is written from the perspective that the readers are serious and conscientious breeders who are the guardians of the genetic pools that constitute their breeds. While this series of articles will not replace a stack of veterinary and medical texts, it is a relatively in-depth look at the whole problem of canine hip dysplasia. Furthermore, the series is designed to be retained as a reference. When you finish reading this series, you will have a sufficient background to make rational breeding choices and will be able to discuss the subject from an informed basis with your veterinarian. You may not like what you read, but you will be more competent to deal with the problem. Conclusions from Part I: Genetics is the foremost causative factor of canine hip dysplasia. Without the genes necessary to transmit this degenerative disease, there is no disease. Hip dysplasia is not something a dog gets; it is either genetically dysplastic or it is not. An affected animal can exhibit a wide range of phenotypes, all the way from normal to severely dysplastic and functionally crippled. Hip dysplasia is genetically inherited. Conclusions from Part II: While environmental effects, to include nutrition and exercise, may play a part in mitigating or delaying the onset of clinical signs and clinical symptoms, hip dysplasia remains a genetically transmitted disease. Only by rigorous genetic selection will the incidence rate be reduced. In the meantime, it makes sense to have lean puppies and to avoid breeding animals from litters that showed signs of hip dysplasia. It is probable that even normal exercise levels may increase the phenotypic expression of CHD of a genetically predisposed dog. Stay away from calcium supplementation of any kind; all it can do is hurt. There is no conclusive evidence that vitamin C can prevent hip dysplasia, but there is some evidence that vitamin C may be useful in reducing pain and inflammation in the dysplastic dog. Fortunately, large doses of vitamin C are readily excreted, but it is still possible to cause untoward side effects with megadoses. Conclusions from Part III: Canine hip dysplasia can be difficult to diagnose, as a number of other orthopedic neurological, autoimmune and metabolic problems may mimic it. Controversy surrounds the question of positioning for hip X-rays and what part joint laxity plays in hip dysplasia. Hip dysplasia may be more common in large and giant breeds and is one of the most over-diagnosed and misdiagnosed conditions. Conclusions from Part IV: Sadly, no breed registry in the United States requires genetic screening of parents as a prerequisite for litter registration or even offers a "fitness for breeding" certification. The current registries for hip dysplasia (and other genetically transmitted problems) cover so little of the American Kennel Club-registered dog population that their impact so far has been minimal. The tools we need are there. Joint responsibility for failing to use the tools at hand lies with the AKC, United Kennel Club, parent clubs and individual breeders. This article will cover the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals vs. PennHIP controversy, the requirement and desirability of an evaluation method that is not only diagnostic but also prognostic with an ability to predict the probability of phenotypic expression of hip dysplasia. Hand in hand with these methods goes the requirement for positive identification rather than the honor system currently in place and the concept of "open" genetic registries in order that genetic pedigree research can be done. The first four articles in this series have generated many letters. In response, we restate that dogs of any recognizable breed, i.e., non-feral dogs, are inbred on a relatively small number of genes. Each breeding to members of the same breed constitutes continued inbreeding and thus further reduces the gene pool (genetic depletion), thus giving increased probability that recessive traits-desirable and undesirable-will match from each donor and will be expressed phenotypically in their get. We restate that it is desirable to inbreed (and line-breeding is inbreeding) to maintain breed characteristics. Unfortunately, over time this will cause more problems than it will solve, as virtually every dog (and human) carries several defective genes. PREVENTING GENETIC DEPLETION A basic fundamental fact of genetics is that genetic health decreases with every generation of breeding within a breed. This point must be made very clear. Only 10 to 30 genes distinguish one breed from the next, yet in the dog thousands of recessive and co-dominant genes also become fixed in the genetic makeup of a breed. The only way to prevent genetic depletion and its resultant inbreeding depression is to outcross for hybrid vigor. The various registries will have to understand the genetics of the situation: To maintain genetic vigor, breeds will have to outcross. In the near term this heretical necessity can be temporarily staved off through restricting stud use, as is being done in some European breed clubs. AKC, in recent years, literally saved the Dalmatian from extinction (nobody wanted a breed of deaf dogs, regardless of other characteristics) by allowing breeding to non-Dalmatians. Similarly in Europe, Dutch Shepherd Dogs were outcrossed with the Belgian Tervuren, and Bernese Mountain Dogs were crossed with Newfoundlands. Some will decry this practice, calling it the blackest of heresy; others will rejoice in the genetic salvation. In the meantime, genetic screening and open registries of genetic traits could allow the identification and breeding to the least genetically related animals in a breed’s gene pool. "therefore, the breeder controls the occurrence of hip dysplasia in his/her breed."1 This is a quote from a recent memorandum from the OFA to the breed club representatives. So once again breeders must take the blame, yet how many of you have bred an OFA "normal" to another OFA "normal" and still produced dysplastic puppies? Some unscrupulous breeders commit fraud and offer a dog for OFA certification using the papers of another animal,, but most of us are conscientious breeders. We love our dogs and our breed and really want to eradicate this insidious disease. ORTHOPEDIC REGISTRIES: HIP OR HYPE? Could something be wrong with the current method of evaluating an animal for hip dysplasia? Where are the scientific papers that prove the efficacy of the OFA diagnostic method? Where are the peer reviews of these papers? From what population data do they base their conclusions? What is population data? It is a term that statisticians use. It isn’t feasible to check every single dog for a particular condition so one simply checks a sample population. However, to be accurate that sample must truly represent the entire population. It is our contention that the OFA is basing its conclusions on self-selected and therefore biased, data. The OFA does not require of veterinarians that all radiographs of client dogs taken for initial evaluation be submitted to OFA. Each breeder must answer this question: Do you send X-rays to the OFA that your own vet feels are from a dysplastic animal? We thought not. So, if the OFA is mostly seeing "normal" hips, on what does it base its claim that the incidence of the disease is decreasing in some breeds? It also claims to have evaluated a significant percentage of those breeds most likely to be affected. 2 In the last 20 years, less than one percent of all the dogs registered by the AKC have been evaluated by OFA, so what does OFA consider significant? Let us now consider the diagnostic method used by the OFA and its ability to predict genotype based on phenotype. In other words, does the physical appearance of the dog tell us what genes he is carrying? This is not the case, unfortunately, because the appearance of the animal shows only the genes he is expressing. The hip-extended view used by the OFA is good for evaluating an existing problem with degenerative hip disease when that diagnosis is based upon the specific radiographic signs of osteophyte formation, subchondral sclerosis and joint remodeling, and not subluxation. In a previous article in this series, it was demonstrated that the hip-extended radiographic view actually masked joint laxity or "looseness."3 The hip-extended position actually "screws" the femoral head into closer congruity with the acetabular cup. If there is also a correlation between joint laxity and the subsequent development of degenerative joint disease (and we feel that this already has been demonstrated), then a diagnostic method that conceals this fault may negate its predictive value. 4,5 We should also examine two other factors that can influence the effectiveness of a diagnostic method. These factors are the scoring procedure and the reproducibility of the scoring technique. The OFA uses a seven-point, subjective hip-scoring scheme that has an inherent flaw.6 When evaluating a radiograph using this method it is possible to choose between Borderline and Mild Hip Dysplasia. Because of the problems associated with wide variation in interpretation among radiologists and even the agreement of an examiner with himself or herself, this scoring technique can introduce a false-negative into the breeding pool. For our purposes as breeders, this means that a dog that should not be used for breeding is allowed to propagate, further delaying the elimination of deleterious genes. Since the first article in this series, we have been taken to task by a number of veterinarians, anatomists and radiologists who feel that the variance in structure between breeds requires different definitions of normal hips. For example, the angle of the pelvis, flexion and elasticity of the spine and differing gaits among breeds all contribute to a separate definition of what should clinically constitute a good set of hips for a given breed. For example: the German Shepherd Dog, with its feet out somewhere in the lower 40 acres, experiences a lever and fulcrum action that exerts more force on the hip joint than if the legs were underneath the dog. It may well be-and is according to some of the veterinarians and breeders who have written in response to the earlier articles in this series-that the German Shepherd Dog must have tighter hips with deeper acetabular cups than other breeds if its hips are to be considered normal. These are issues that bring into question the practice of relying solely on radiographic evidence of hip dysplasia when there are no other clinical signs. He’s 10 years old, moves like a dream, but…bad hips by radiograph. Is this a dog that has bad hips, or is there some problem with the definition of good hips? THE ROLE OF HIP LAXITY In 1982, a group of researchers and clinicians at the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, who were concerned that the incidence of canine hip dysplasia did not seem to be decreasing began to investigate the role of passive hip laxity in the development of degenerative hip disease. Using mass-selection techniques, i.e., breeding "normal" to "normal," was still producing a greater incidence of CHD than would be expected. Since a genetic screening test for this disease is not available, the problem these researchers faced was to select a phenotypic trait that was most likely to reflect the dog’s genotype with respect to CHD, one that would be the least effected by environmental factors. They concluded that functional hip laxity was the most likely condition that predisposed an animal to future degenerative joint disease due to biomechanical stress on the joint and the subsequent cartilage damage. 7 Herein lies the prediction capacity of the PennHIP system. Since it is impossible to measure functional hip laxity directly they proposed that passive hip laxity was a prerequisite for functional hip laxity, though not itself a causal event. "Some dogs, in fact, have a greater tolerance for passive laxity. That a well-muscled breed may have marked passive laxity yet be naturally protected from functional hip laxity by prominent hind limb musculature." Examples of exceptionally muscled dogs are the fighting, carting and freighting dogs. What this means is that the biomechanical stresses on the joint due to the lateral displacement of the femoral head while the dog is standing in a normal stance are different from the supine animal, yet there remains a correlation. This correlation has been tested extensively for statistical significance. "Passive hip laxity, then, may be considered a risk factor or perhaps loosely defined, a carrier state for HD in dogs"8 The OFA maintains that the issue of joint laxity as a predictor of CHD is neither new nor revolutionary. "The [1972, author’s note] symposium concluded and published that there was no scientific evidence to support the clinical application of palpation and/or stress radiography."9 The methodology and the scoring techniques for these early diagnostic techniques were highly subjective and depended largely on the skill and experience of the individual examiner. To address these concerns, the University of Pennsylvania researchers first determined what the normal range was for the degrees of freedom in the coxofemoral joint, where passive laxity is maximized.10 This work was necessary in order to design a precise and accurate clinical stress-radiographic method that would hold up statistically. The canine hip has four degree of freedom. Flexion/extension is when the leg moves forward toward the belly or back away from the body-what a breeder/exhibitor would call the "side gait." Abduction/adduction is when the dog moves the leg sideways away from the body or inward toward the belly. Internal/external rotation is the twisting motion the femur can make within the acetabulum until restrained by the round ligament and the joint capsule. Lateral translation is the sideways displacement or passive laxity. Maximal passive laxity, which approximates the neutral weight-bearing stance, was obtained at 10 degrees extension, 20 degrees of abduction and 10 degrees of external rotation.11 This early study also revealed the limitations of the hip-extended radiographic view. The magnitude of lateral displacement of the femur is concealed by this view, not only because of resultant forces on the joint capsule, but there appears to be a hydrostatic effect also. The hip-extended view lowers the pressure within the joint capsule, which causes it to invaginate. A sort of vacuum or "suction" effect occurs that when combined with the fixed synovial fluid volume limits the sideways movement of the femoral head. DEVELOPING BETTER DIAGNOSTIC METHODS Using this information, the University of Pennsylvania researchers were able to design a radiographic protocol based on quantitative parameters.12 The distraction index or DI is based on a compression radiographic view that determines where the center of the femoral head and the center of the acetabulum coincide. The distraction view then measures how far the femoral head can be moved away from the center. This view requires the use of a special device called a distractor. The proper positioning of a distractor and the amount of force is crucial. Clinicians wishing to become certified in the PennHIP method are required to attend a one-day training session. Prior to certification, in order to ensure consistency and repeatability they are also required to submit radiographs that demonstrate their proficiency to Dr. Gail Smith and his colleagues. This certification process is designed to enhance quality control and protects the all-important integrity of the PennHIP data base. Once the two views are taken, it is possible to derive a unitless variable by dividing the amount of sideways displacement from the center by the radius of the femoral head. This variable or distraction index ranges from 0 to 1 and a later study indicated that dogs with a DI of 0.3 or lower were truly negative for CHD. Those animals with a DI of 0.7 or greater were associated with a high probability for developing dysplastic joints. A variety of statistical methods, including those that evaluate qualitative parameters, were used to evaluate their data. The DI range between 0.3 and 0.7 is still a gray area and is most dependent on specific breed variability. In a recent publication the DI was shown to be the only statistically significant predictor of the risk of developing degenerative joint disease in Rottweilers.13 When German Shepherd Dogs were included, the results indicated they had a greater susceptibility to the disease. It is clear that further research must focus on elucidating the specific breed differences when correlating passive joint laxity and susceptibility to degenerative joint disease. As more dogs are added to the data base, it will be easier to quantify the specific DI range for each breed that indicates the disease-free phenotype. It is for this reason that every radiograph taken by a PennHIP-certified veterinarian will be submitted to PennHIP for evaluation. Breeders will not have a choice of whether to submit the radiographs or not, as is the case with veterinarians taking preliminary radiographs prior to submitting the case to OFA for interpretation and scoring. Not having this choice will make some breeders uncomfortable, but responsible breeders will be pleased to know they have contributed to the betterment of their breeds. Breeders can expect that some of their dogs that have "passed" OFA certification will not be deemed suitable for breeding using the PennHIP method. The question needs to be answered whether it is less deleterious to breed to a dog that is genotypically positive for canine hip dysplasia than it is to lose the opportunity to breed an animal because it was a "false-positive" for canine hip dysplasia. At first such a question sounds a bit philosophical, but in practice where it hits the breeder, it has an operational answer. There will always be other dogs, other champions to be made and other suitable brood bitches and studs that can produce fine litters. It makes no sense whatsoever to risk doubling up on defective genes whether for hip dysplasia or any other known genetically transmittable disease. Once you introduce undesirable genes into your pedigree, you will have great difficulty getting them out-and it may take several human lifetimes to do so. As we have seen previously the honor system in registries does not work. In fact it works so poorly in the AKC’s registration of puppy mill animals that the Canadian government will not allow importation of AKC-registered animals if the claim is made that they are purebred. That is called fraud. It works so poorly that the U.S. Department of Agriculture found in 1992 that 70 percent of the licensed commercial dog breeders inspected did not track pedigrees accurately.14 It works so poorly that in 1987 Mark Hyland, an AKC attorney, represented to a federal judge in Kansas City that the AKC does not revoke fraudulent dog registrations because of the "infinite back up" of such registrations.15 How bad is the AKC situation? No one outside of AKC really knows how bad the pedigree situation is, but Alan Stern a former AKC vice president, is on record with a 1990 statement to the Sacramento Bee that fraud happens on half of AKC’s registrations.16 Other registries have a similar problem with dishonesty as do Greyhound and thoroughbred racetracks. What is needed is a foolproof method for identifying a particular animal. While several identification systems are available, the Destron-Fearing microchip, now distributed by Schering-Plough, and the Avid microchip are the two contenders for the market. Much ado has been made about the AKC wanting action on genetic problems, but until the simple matter of pedigree is cleaned up, do not look to the AKC to solve genetic problems. In author Cargill’s breed, Akitas, it has only been in the past few years that AKC has allowed the breeding to Akitas imported from Japan because three separate breed registries were there. No great intellect is required to ascertain that the gene pool was artificially restricted by the AKC and that many genetic problems experienced now and that will surface in phenotype in the future will have resulted from a restricted gene pool. Computer chip "passive responders" have been injected in dogs, cats, birds, horses fish, reptiles and exotic and endangered species since 1991. More than 2 million identification chips have been sold. These rice-size chips are injected without requiring anesthesia. They consist of a coil and a small circuit board with a one time programmable memory. The data programmed into the Avid chip’s memory is encrypted, and thus not susceptible to tampering. A reader is a transceiver that transmits a radio frequency pulse (125KHz), which energizes the coil in the implanted chip, enabling it to transmit a message back to the reader.17 Although the implanted chips can be detected by X-ray, they have proven to be extremely difficult to remove, other than through advanced surgical techniques. There is one report that a staff of veterinarians were able to remove an injected chip in a horse using dual plane radiographic surgical techniques; however such imaging equipment is well beyond the reach of all but the most well-equipped veterinary centers. None of this wonderful technology has potential if costs are high, but they are not. A survey of veterinarians indicates that injection price (including the chip) is $25 to $50. Readers are available to veterinarians for less than $300. "We have the technology." The next step in the battle against CHD is to marry up PennHIP, OFA and other evaluations with an "open" genetic registry such as the one maintained by the Institute for Genetic Disease Control in Animals (GDC).18 Unfortunately, OFA’s registry is closed to outsiders, and does not require the submission of X-rays and pedigree data of all animals radiographed. PennHIP is also a closed registry, but does require submission of the cases of all animals radiographed. The authors feel so strongly about the requirement to collect and make available the phenotypical data on parents, siblings, progeny and other progeny of parents and siblings in a cross-referenced data base that they challenge both OFA and PennHIP to make their data available to some central genetic registry. The only one available and capable at present is the GDC. The two major methods of diagnosing canine hip dysplasia available to the fancy in the United States are those followed by OFA and those followed by PennHIP. Both are diagnostic; however, the hip-extended protocol followed by OFA may produce false-negative results. The protocol followed by PennHIP has a prognostic or predictive capacity through the use of statistics and a carefully guarded data base that allows a prediction to be made with respect to the probability of phenotypic expression of canine hip dysplasia. No one has a clear quantification of the gray area between obviously clear and obviously dysplastic hips. Controversy still rages. Until there are open genetic registries, mandatory evaluation of all dogs registered and some assurance of pedigree validity, canine hip dysplasia will remain a common affliction of the domestic dog, especially of purebred dogs. 1. Corley, E.A. Year-end data update. Memorandum from E.A. Corley, D.V.M., Ph.D., Orthopedic Foundation for Animals, to OFA Breed Club representatives in Samoyed Club of America Bulletin, March 1995, p.15. 2. Ibid., p.15. 3. Cargill, J.C., Thorpe-Vargas, S. "Methods for Diagnosing the Abnormal Hip." DOG WORLD. July 1995. 4. Lust, G.; Williams, A.J.; Burton-Wurster, N.; Pijanowski, G.T.; Bech K.; Rubin, G.; Smith, G.K. "Joint laxity and its association with hip dysplasia in Labrador Retrievers." Am J Vet Res. Vol. 54. No. 12. Pp. 1990-1999. 5. Smith, G.K.; Gregor, T.P.; Rhodes, W.H.; Biery, D.N. "Coxofemoral joint laxity from distraction radiography and its contemporaneous and prospective correlation with laxity, subjective score, and evidence of degenerative joint disease from conventional hip-extended radiography in dogs." Am J Vet Res. 1993 Vol. 54. No. 7. Pp. 1021-1042. 6. Corley, E.A., Keller, G.G. "Hip Dysplasia: A guide for dog breeders and owners." 2nd ed. Columbia, MO.: Orthopedic Foundation for Animals, 1989; pp. 1-27. 7. Smith, G.K.; Biery, D.N.; Gregor, T.P. "New concepts of coxofemoral joint stability and development of a clinical stress-radiographic method for quantifying hip joint laxity in the dog." J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1990; Vol. 196, No. 1, pp. 59-70. 8. Smith, Gregor, Rhodes and Biery. Pp. 1021-1042. 9. Corley, E.A.; Keller, G. OFA Memorandum. Feb. 2, 1994. 10. Heyman, S.J.; Smith, G.K.; Cofone, M.A. "Biomechanical study of the effect of coxofemoral positioning on passive hip joint laxity in dogs." Am J Vet Res. 1993;54:210-215. 11. Smith, G.K.; Popovitch, C.A.; Gregor, T.P. "Evaluation of risk factor for degenerative joint disease associated with hip dysplasia in dogs." J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1995;206:642-647. 12. PennHip seminar San Francisco. April 8, 1995. 13. Smith, Popovitch and Gregor. 14. Shook, L. "Cop tails AKC: Feds should investigate." The Spokesman-Review, Spokane, WA, December 11, 1994. 17. Product data sheets. AVID, Inc., 3179 Hammer Ave. Norco, CA 91760. 18. Institute for Genetic Disease Control in Animals (GDC), Box 222, Davis, CA 95617; (916)756-6773. Dog Genome Project A scientific study of the chromosomes in dogs. Also information about genetic disorders in dogs. Our sincere thanks to the authors for allowing us to present this © copyright work.

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Screen Printing … You have most likely heard this term before, or the related term “silk screening”. It refers to the technique invented by the Chinese thousands of years ago. Even though this process has been used for centuries, it still remains the gold standard in transferring images onto garments, both in terms of quality and durability. Screen printing is a very complex process using a lot of cumbersome equipment and supplies, but it basically describes the process of applying ink onto objects using screens. The process has proven to deliver clean, crisp designs that will hold up to repeated wear and washes. The set-up is the same if you order one shirt or one hundred shirts, which is why there are price breaks when you place a larger order. Because most people do not have the capital or time to utilize screen printing equipment, a popular alternative is having designs screen printed onto special release paper, known as plastisol transfers (or screen printed transfers). This method still requires some equipment, but it has immense advantages over direct screen printing. Of course, there are also some disadvantages which we will discuss as well. However, the Screen Print Transfers is a viable alternative to direct screen printing and is helping thousands of people start their own business with efficiency, flexibility and lower startup costs. Screen printed heat transfers are not new to the garment decorating industry. The process has been used for years because it is simple, clean and repeatable for anyone who owns a heat press. What makes Screen Printed Transfers different is how they are created. It takes all of the benefits of screen printing and combines that with the efficiency and flexibility of heat transfers. Screen printed transfers are made using a special ink and uses the same process as direct screen printing. The special ink used is called Plastisol, which is a mixture of pigment (color) and PVC plastic. Rather than screen printing directly onto a garment, the plastisol is layered in reverse onto a special heat release paper to create the desired image. (Watch the first 2-minutes of video below to see plastisol transfers in action:) There are also different types of plastisol transfers that will create different finishes. There are two main types, Cold Peel and Hot Split, and each one relates to how and when the transfer backing paper is removed. With hot split transfers, the transfer is removed immediately off the garment once the heat source is removed (once the heat press opens). This method transfers the majority of the ink to the garment while leaving some ink on the paper as the ink is still hot and fluid. This method creates a lasting bond and results in a soft, brushed matte finish. In contrast, Cold Peel transfers require the transfer paper to be removed from the garment after it has time to cool following pressing. Cold Peel transfers result in a glossy finish. Other transfer types include Hot Peel, Puff and Process Color transfers. Because these plastisol transfers are created using screen printing techniques, they must be ordered from a manufacturer or vendor with the proper equipment and experience to complete them. However, using a screen printed transfer requires little equipment and experience. Essentially the only start up equipment that you need is a heat press, along with blank garments and transfers. Getting a quality heat press machine from the start will make this process both profitable and efficient for you. You might be tempted to get a cheap heat press, but I’d advise you against that. We hear from people every week that go the cheap route. They usually call back saying their heat press doesn’t heat evenly, or that it stopped working. It’ll cost you more in the long run … Don’t do it. Cheap heat presses will cost you more money in ruined shirts and wasted transfers. With regards to the heat press, you need a combination of evenly placed heat AND pressure to fuse the plastisol inks onto the surface of your blank apparel. You will want to keep these key elements in mind when selecting a heat press. Each machine will have a different method of setting the temperature, time and pressure, so select a machine that is user friendly and easily calibrated. As you can see, a heat press is very simple to use and transfers leave all of the messy work to the screen printers! The advantages to using plastisol transfers are endless! Not only do transfers go onto most fabrics, but they can also be put onto any color of garment. The process utilizes the same ink as used in direct screen printing, it creates the same results as direct screen printing in terms of image and quality, yet it offers much more flexibility than direct screen printing. Designers are not limited to one or two colors or by the size or finish of a garment (such as baseball caps). Designers can offer complex, even photographic designs, that results in graphics that are indistinguishable from traditional direct screen printing. It is even a preferred method for decorating baseball caps because of the complications involved in printing on a curved surface. Another great point in their flexibility is that instead of having 20 XXL shirts with a design already preprinted that you won’t be able to sell, transfers give you the ability to keep your transfers in inventory, and heat press the designs onto the appropriate shirts as they are ordered. This is also true when it comes to t-shirts with team numbers or years on them. Transfers allow you to keep these individual numbers or letters on hand, and then configure them properly once a custom order is placed. In addition, the garment and order flexibility, screen printed transfers offer a low startup cost. Since the only equipment needed are blank garments, transfers and a heat press, you can literally get started right away with your very own tshirt business. Transfers are of course less messy since the process doesn’t involve cumbersome screen printing equipment and inks. This lack of unnecessary equipment, and knowledge of how to use said equipment, allows you to focus on your business and designing artwork for your garments, even right out of your home living room. Of course, there are always disadvantages. The first disadvantage is your biggest expense, the heat press. While these machine can run upwards of $2,000.00, there are less expensive alternatives, such as buying a used heat press machine, or finding a reputable brand on sites like Amazon or Ebay. In addition to price, heat press machines are heavy and they do heat up to very high temperatures. While it doesn’t happen often, burns can happen and it is extremely important to exercise caution when using a heat press machine, and to be aware of your surroundings at all time. To summarize, screen printed transfers are changing the t-shirt industry by offering affordability, customization, flexibility, less equipment, and better efficiency for your business; all while still producing quality designs that are indistinguishable from traditional screen printing techniques. By using the same techniques that screen printers have used for thousands of years, screen printers are able to print the design onto special release paper to be used at a later time on various garments. This means clothing businesses aren’t left with two-hundred designs in various sizes and colors that don’t sell as much. Instead, you can put the design onto any size tee as it is ordered. Plastisol transfers leaves all of the cumbersome equipment and disposal of inks to the screen printers so you can focus on creating your art work and running your t-shirt business. Plastisol screen printed transfers are a huge benefit to the t-shirt industry by offering a high quality product that will keep customers coming back for more. CHECK OUT THESE RESOURCES:Continue reading Custom Screen Printed Transfers (Plastisol) versus Iron-On Transfers… Watch the video to see why Screen Printed Transfers are so superior. If you’re interested in learning how to start and build your own t-shirt business, check out our tee shirt business startup course: If you have additional questions about the custom Plastisol transfers, feel free to leave your questions and comments below. If you found this video helpful, please click on the “like” button below as well! TshirtRiches is an online video based training program that shows you step-by-step, how to turn your t-shirt design ideas into a real-life business, market it more effectively and turn your t-shirt brand into a 24/7 money-making machine. TshirtRiches’s comprehensive curriculum will help you turn your t shirt design ideas into reality. There are multiple core learning modules, plus a dynamic library of Master Classes and Advanced Trainings. When you’re making an investment in your business, it’s important to know what you’re getting. That’s why we share our exact curriculum, so you can make sure our t-shirt business start-up course is right for you! Your training is released to you in modules within our private, members only website. Each module is filled with step-by-step training videos, done-for-you templates, resources and ‘take action checklists’. You’ll watch and learn from your computer, iPad, iPhone or mobile devices. Our goal is to make your online learning experience as easy and enjoyable as possible. I understand many of you will want access to all of your training modules at once, but that’s not how we roll. And here’s why… I’ve been at this for a few years now and many people will come into this program and just consume so much content at once and take very little action. I’m not interested in just selling courses — it is my goal to actually help you become successful and help you realize your fullest potential. The TshirtRiches curriculum was carefully crafted so you’d complete each module and complete the corresponding action plans. Each phase has been setup to maximize your results and long-term success. Because we know how easy it is it get overwhelmed these days, the first two modules will be released in phases during the first 2 weeks. This will give us time to work with you to help you layout your core business foundation. Because the first 2-week implementation time is so intensive, we’ll unlock access to the remaining modules and training after this phase. After-which, you’ll have access to all of the modules and you’re free to access at your leisure. After seeing many people go through our program, we’re proud to say this method has worked best. If you’re the type of person who must jump ahead and get to the good stuff because you know this stuff already, then this program may not be for you. After the 2-week intensive, you’ll have lifetime access to the course and you can revisit any of the modules in any order you like, as often as you’d like. TshirtRiches includes dynamic support structures to keep you on track every step of the way. Under each training section, you’ll have the opportunity to comment and get responses to your questions. If you have technical issues, or if you’re simply having a challenge and you need help, simply e-mail with us with the contact details listed in the members area of the website. Our customer service hours are M-F, from 9 a.m. EST – 5 p.m. EST. The tuition for the TshirtRiches online training program is $379. You can pay in full, or take advantage of our 4-payment $99 option plan. FREE BONUSES WHEN YOU PAY IN FULL FREE BONUSES WHEN YOU CHOOSE THE 4-PAYMENT PLAN OPTION YES! Test drive TshirtRiches for 30 days, 100% risk-free! Our mission is to help you realize your full potential and help you turn your t-shirt ideas into a profitable business. That’s why we invite you to participate in the TshirtRiches training program for a full 30 days and if you don’t feel we’ve delivered on our promise within those 30 days, we’ll happily refund your money. Important Note: We require your completed homework from all available modules before we process your refund. Why? Because we know that when you take action and complete the course work, you’ll get the results. It’s that simple. If you’re just wanting to access the program so you can ask for a refund later, don’t bother signing up. But if you do sign-up and do the work and don’t get the value, then we don’t deserve your money. Just submit your completed homework within 30 days of the program start date, and we’ll cheerfully refund your money. Your information is safe and your order is secure. You will receive an email confirmation upon successful registration. Questions or issues registering? Many of you wanted to see what a custom transfer looked like and many of you also wanted to see what a transfer looked like when printed onto a t-shirt. So, based on the feedback, I put together this inexpensive little package that I ship out once a week and if you want one, I’ll send it to you. Click the video below to see what comes in the t-shirt sample pack… It’ll include a t-shirt with a heat transfer already printed on it — this way, you can see the quality that you’ll be able to duplicate with your designs as well. I also encourage you to wash this t-shirt a hundred times until you’re satisfied the design isn’t going anywhere… You’ll tear the t-shirt up before the design will come off 🙂 In addition to a printed t-shirt, I’ll also pull out “one” random ‘heat transfer’ design and will include it in your package so you can see what an actual ‘heat transfer’ looks like. This transfer is what the various companies can make for you with your own design.Continue reading Here’s a Cheaper Alternative to Making Your Own T-shirt Designs For many of you, starting a t-shirt business is a dream and passion you’ve been contemplating for a while. And when you finally make the decision to move forward, many seem to think that screen printing their own t-shirts is the route to go. In this post, I’ll attempt to explain why I think screen printing your own t-shirts suck, and why t-shirt transfers rule! I get a ton of questions about using the heat press method, versus the screen printing method; and for the first time ever, I express my hatred for screen printing! Lot’s of people seem to think screen printing is easy and cheap. It ain’t easy! And I often wonder why anyone getting into business would want to fool with all the ‘processes’ required to screen print a t-shirt… Watch the video below to see what I mean… You have to go through all this drama to make new designs — while you’re watching this video, just imagine the cost to get all this stuff… and imagine how much MESS you gotta clean up when you’re done! You had to go through all that drama to make a 1-color t-shirt. Imagine the process if you had 3-4 colors on a design! You’d have to do everything you just did in the video above 3-4 times!!! In fact, here’s another video about this very thing… I imagine most people wanting to start their own t-shirt business to promote their own line of t-shirts/designs don’t want to have to go through all of this… Now if you’re in the business of making t-shirts for other businesses, then I can see why you need to go the screen printing route. But for the individual who wants to promote their own line of tees, there is a cheaper and faster alternative that provides the same quality! Another thing about screen printing is you must order a huge inventory in order to get a decent price break. Not only that, to have a decent amount of inventory, you’d have to order a bunch of small, medium, large, and extra large tees to have on-hand. Then you’ll need to get it in white, black, gray, navy blue, green and so on…. You have to get all these sizes and colors because you don’t know beforehand what someone will order, therefore, causing you to purchase a huge inventory to have on hand when someone orders. Before you know it, you’ll have 2,500 t-shirts sitting in your garage hoping someone orders everything you got. I like custom t shirt heat transfers better because you don’t have to print up a huge inventory of tshirts that’ll just sit on a rack. I like this route because I can print on demand. I like this route because I don’t have a big nasty mess when I’m done. Plus I can print t-shirts in a spare bedroom, or at the kitchen table. NOW… the transfers presented in this video are NOT the same ones you find at the local Wal-mart. And no, these aren’t the type of transfers you run through your printer that’s connected to your home computer. These transfers are a special paper whereby a screen printer takes your design and makes an actual screen as shown in the first video; but instead of printing your design onto a t-shirt, they put the design onto this ‘special release’ paper (transfer sheet), that allows you to transfer the design at a later date (on-demand). So… instead of having 2,500 t-shirts pre-printed up and waiting for someone to purchase, you get these transfers and make t-shirts as the orders come in. This is a very quick process with no messy inks to cleanup. You can literally make a t-shirt in less than 10 seconds. This method also works on any colored t-shirt and yes, that includes your ability to print onto black colored tees as well! The designs transferred onto the t-shirts are the same inks used by screen printers. Ironically, if you took ‘these’ tshirts to a screen printer. The vast majority would not be able to tell you it was done with a heat transfer. The inks are identical and there’s no misty film going around your design when you use this process. I have t-shirts I printed 10 years and they still look great… just a slight wear from washing and drying over 10 years, but what shirt wouldn’t show stress after 10 years of wear and tear? The cost is fairly inexpensive… Like screen printing, it’s based on the quantity you order and the number of colors in the design. You can actually get these for as little as .50 cents a transfer (with the design on it)… but again, it’s all based on quantity and number of colors. Many companies can have your design put onto this ‘release paper’ and shipping out to you within 24 hours of ordering… Some offer same day service. This is why I love the t-shirt heat transfer method. The biggest expense you’ll have is getting the heat press machine. If you don’t mind getting a used one, you can find these on craigslist.com for as little as $200-$400. If you want new, expect to pay around $750 and as much as $1,999; all dependent upon what you’re wanting. They come in different sizes and I recommend getting nothing smaller than a 16×20 (which is what I’m using in the video). Fact of the matter is this, the t-shirt transfers are actually made from the same inks used in screen printing. In fact, the transfers are made the same way t-shirts are. Bottomline: The t-shirt transfer process is simple. Someone else does all the work and sends you the completed transfer. It’s not messy, it doesn’t take a long time, you don’t have to wait for your inks to dry, etc…. In addition to a printed t-shirt, I’ll also pull out “one” random ‘heat transfer’ design and will include it in your package so you can see what an actual ‘heat transfer’ looks like. This transfer is what the various companies can make for you with your own design. Let me know what you think, share your comments or ask questions…Continue reading

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|Click Here - To see how Guilford County evolved each decade - includes all the known towns and villages.| |Click Here - To view the significant Education events for Guilford County since the county was formed.| |Click Here - To see the known battles/skirmishes in Guilford County during the American Revolution.| Nathanael Greene Monument - Battle of Guilford Court House 1781 Click Here to go to the official website of the Guilford County government. Click Here to learn more about the known airports in Guilford County. The first court was ordered to be held at the home of Robert Lindsay and provided for commissioners to buy the land of John Campbell for the courthouse site. in 1785, Martinsville was laid out as the county seat. It was named in honor of Alexander Martin, governor of North Carolina, 1782-1785 and 1789-1792. The county seat had been called Guilford Court House until the passage of this Act. Commissioners were named by the Act of 1807 to select a place at the center of the county for the erection of a new court house, as the old one wa badly in need of repair and not conveniently located. Commissioners were also named to purchase thirty acres of land and have the new courthouse erected. They were to sell the old court house. In 1808, the new county seat was named Greensborough in honor of Major General Nathanael Greene of the Continental Army. It was later shortened to Greensboro. Guilford County was established in 1771 from Orange County (which formed about the eastern third) and Rowan County (which formed about the western two-thirds). It included what is now Randolph County (which was separated in 1779) and Rockingham County (which separated in 1785). Settlement began in the late 1740s and grew rapidly in the 1750s. Settlers came from Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, Nantucket Island in Massachusetts, and the eastern and central counties of North Carolina. Guilford County acquired its name from Francis North, 1st Earl of Guilford. Migration into Guilford County was frequently over the Great Wagon Road through the valley of Virginia. Group migrations were made by German Lutherans and Reformed settlers from Pennsylvania beginning in the late 1740s, Scots-Irish Presbyterians from the Pennsylvania and Maryland border area in the 1750s, Quakers from many locations in the 1750s, scattered Virginia Baptists organized meetings in the 1750s, and Methodists from the eastern shore of Maryland in the 1770s and 1780s. "Moving On" to the south, west, and northwest began almost immediately and picked up speed about 1800. Upper Georgia and South Carolina were favored, then sights were set on the Cumberland Gap as a way to Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana. The Battle at Guilford Court House was fought on March 15, 1781. Lord Cornwallis won, but the victory left the British Army so weak that it caused them to lose the campaign in the southern colonies, and led to the surrender at Yorktown. Click Here to learn about all of the known officers and men who served in the Guilford County Regiment of Militia during the American Revolution. All names in "blue/underscore" can be clicked on for additional information. The first known inhabitants of this region were American Indian tribes which spoke a Siouan language. There were many of these tribes, but only two of them - the Saura and the Keyauwee - are known to have settled the area which later became the original Guilford County. The Saura lived in the parts now known as Rockingham and Guilford counties, and the Keyauwee in Randolph County. Sometime before 1650, the Saura had moved into North Carolina, and one group had eventually settled on Dan River and cleared a field more than a mile square which grew grass as high as a man on horseback. When the Quakers came to New Garden (Guilford College) they also found great open grass-covered spaces. While there are no known records to verify it, these, too, could have been former farms of the Cheraw (another spelling of Saura), as the Quakers called them. The Quakers' minutes of 1764 indicated that the land which they then occupied had been bought from the Cheraw. In fact, scattered remnants of red men were still in existence when the English settlers came. A few Indians are said to have lived near Buffalo Church and others passed through the community. North Carolina's first historian, John Lawson, Surveyor General of the province, and five traveling companions visited the piedmont of North Carolina in 1701. Unfortunately his route touched only one of the original Guilford tribes, the Keyauwee. That contact, however, furnished a good idea of Indian life in the Guilford region at that time. Lawson's report of his stop in the neighborhood was almost as vivid as a motion picture. Crossing the Uwharrie River about noon, a few miles below the present site of High Point, North Carolina, he came upon the palisaded village of the Keyauwee, numbering about 500 people. Having looked over the place, the Surveyor General and his five companions divided themselves into two parties which were entertained in separate houses. "It was my Lot," wrote Lawson, "to be at the House of Keyauwees Jack, who is King of that People." Keyauwee Jack was a Congaree-Indian who had run away from that tribe when he was a boy and had attained his high position by marriage with the Queen of the Keyauwee. Lawson observed: "The Queen had a Daughter by a Former Husband, who was the beautifulest Indian I ever saw, and had an Air of Majesty with her, quite contrary to the general Carriage of the Indians. She was very kind to the English during our abode, as well as her Father and Mother." After the Indians had left the original Guilford area, the Europeans took possession of the land. Starting in the early 1740s, this region was marked by a steady stream of travelers whose destination was a place they could call home. They were not traveling blindly; they had thoughtfully considered this location and decided it would fulfill their hopes, their needs, and their ideals. An added advantage was that land was cheap and plentiful and the landlords welcomed them as inhabitants. So they came, by way of covered wagons, probably following "The Great Philadelphia Wagon Road" as far as they could, then resorting to buffalo trails, Indian paths, and when necessary cutting their own way through the wilderness. These travelers have been described as an interesting procession as they moved slowly southward from Virginia and beyond, principally Pennsylvania. In the lead were cows, hogs, and sheep, kept in line by ruddy men and boys in the plain workday clothes of the pioneer farmers. Then came the lumbering canvas-covered, horse-drawn wagons, filled with simple household goods and meager farming tools. In the front of each wagon, holding the driver's reins, was a healthy-looking woman. From amid feather beds and cooking utensils popped the drowsy heads of children, staring at the wonders of the new world. Hanging to the rear of the wagon bed were feed and watering troughs; and dangling below were water buckets. Under the wagon and back and forth into the woodlands trotted the family dog, chasing game by day and keeping faithful watch by night. And always with each group of travelers was the Holy Bible. This great migration took place largely from 1750 to 1770 although some had arrived in the early 1740s and some came as late as 1775. Along the eastern portion of present Guilford County and also reaching from the Virginia line almost to South Carolina, a large immigration from Germany moved in, begining sometime before 1744. They had come in search of refuge from devastation, for their Fatherland had been for years the battleground of Europe in a series of religious struggles and wars of conquest. In time many Germans grew tired of such experiences; and as an avenue of escape from the poverty, rapine, and destruction which surrounded them they came by the thousands to America, first settling in Pennsylvania. Soon the supply of more desirable lands of that province was exhausted, and the newcomers had to seek homes elsewhere. Thus it was that these German farmers and artisans, Lutheran and Calvinist in faith, hardy, self-reliant, frugal, and courageous, turned southward, many of them stopping in different sections of the piedmont. And thus it was that a group settled along Haw River in the Guilford area, and farther to the west in Rowan County. For many years they kept mostly to themselves, continuing to speak their own language, seeking no public offices, and voicing no opinions in public affairs. But when called upon to defend the rights of the people, they were thoughtful, level-headed, constructive, and patriotic. They still survive in the names Albright, Clapp, Foust, Hoffman, Holt, Rightsell, Shepherd, Sharpe, Star, Whitsett, Wyrick, and others. The Quakers selected the western part of present-day Guilford Countyfor their new homeland. William Penn, from a moderately wealthy family, had joined the unpopular sect of Quakers while in school at Oxford, England. The Quakers' plain and uniform style of dress, and their "thee and thou" language, emphasized their differences in thought and customs which were not pleasing to other Englishmen. Penn saw in America a place where his persecuted brethren could establish a haven for themselves as well as develop a fine business colony. His invitation read much like a modern real estate advertisement: "The Richness of Air, the navigable Rivers, and thus the prodigious Increase of Corn, the flourishing conditions of the City of Philadelphia made it the most glorious Place ... Poor People, both men and women, can here get three times the wages for their Labor they can in England or Wales." Economic, political, religious, and social conditions in England during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were such that thousands decided to follow Penn to the New World. In time the Pennsylvania settlement grew crowded, and as more people came over from the Old World it became impossible to buy extra lands in that province. Some Quakers had already moved into the eastern parts of Virginia and North Carolina and through their Yearly Meetings in those sections, agents had made observations of the Piedmont region - its soil, its streams, its produce and productivity, and its land prices - and as early as 1750 a few Quakers were settled in this locality. From that date until 1765 substantial bands of mostly English and a few Welsh Quakers from New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland were pouring into the western Guilford County area. Some Virginia Quakers, originally from Pennsylvania, and later some from eastern North Carolina who were of the same stock, also joined the migration. In their new settlement they were almost like one big family, planning, working, educating, and worshipping together in the same faith. "There they have founded a beautiful settlement known by the name of New Garden.... No spot on earth can be more beautiful; it is composed of gentle hills, of easy declivities, excellent lowlands, accompanied by different brooks which traverse this settlement. I never saw soil that rewards men so easily for their labours and disbursements.... It is perhaps the most pleasing, the most bewitching country which the continent affords... the only drawback is that the softness of the climate and easy results from labour lead to too much idleness and effeminacy." But fear of becoming idle and effeminate did not phase the purposeful Nantucketers, for they kept pouring in until Revolutionary War times. All of these Quakers were a quiet and peace-loving people, directly opposed to bearing arms against their fellow men; and yet, paradoxically, they made and sold guns for their fellow countrymen to use in patriotic defense. The names of both the Pennsylvania and Nantucket Quakers are still a local heritage: Armfield, Beal, Beard, Benbow, Chipman, Coffin, Edwards, Frazier, Gardner, Gifford, Horney, Hunt, Mendenhall, Murrow, Ogburn, Pugh, Starbuck, Swaim, Swain, Williams, Worth, and others. The Scots-Irish or Ulster-Scots In the middle part of this area, which later became Guilford County, the Scots-Irish were the first permanent settlers. They came here from Ulster, Ireland, where in spite of political and economic hardships and religious hostility they had gained the reputation of being law-abiding, thrifty farmers, and shrewd businessmen. Among them, said historian R. D. W. Connor, "were weavers, joiners, coopers, wheelwrights, wagon-makers, tailors, blacksmiths, hatters, merchants, laborers, wine-makers, rope-makers, and fullers." But the more they prospered in Ireland the more rigid were the laws imposed upon them by the British Parliament. Angered and discouraged, thousands of them turned to the colonies. The exact date of the Scots-Irish settlement in this locality is not known. The first land deeds were all dated December of 1753, though some people may have arrived earlier. For ten years before that time the Scots-Irish had come into Pennsylvania in such numbers that early landholders began to fear the sturdy Scotsmen, lest they should gain political control of that region. For that reason they instructed their agents to sell no more land to the Scotsmen. It was then that the old Nottingham Presbyerian Church, located at that time in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania (now at Rising Sun, Maryland, because of changes in state lines), formed the Nottingham Company which purchased a large tract of land for settlement in what is now Guilford County. While all three of these groups - the Germans, Quakers, and Scots-Irish - had different characteristics, they all came to America for the same reasons: their desires for freedom to work and enjoy the fruits of their toil; and freedom to live and worship as they pleased - these were the end of their dreams. When they reached their destinations in this country they may or may not have had tangible riches, but they had a wealth of ability, inward resources, and vision for building a country. Settling in forests as they did, far away from trade advantages of the coast, they would have had little use for money. So they had to be content, for a while at least, with largely self-sufficient farms and with very simple living. They slept in their covered wagons until they could build log cabins, many of which were two-story, double houses with a chimney in the middle and doors at each end of the two downstairs rooms. These homes were located near springs or streams which provided natural waterworks. Some have estimated that fifty years had passed before there was much digging of wells. Their furniture was simple and so were the utensils and implements of home and farm. But they soon had workshops of various kinds where they made things to supply their growing needs; and some of the work of their hands, such as exquisite pieces of furniture, is still preserved and highly valued. They raised corn, wheat, flax, wool, and cotton. The seed had to be picked from the cotton by hand, and in the evening after supper each member of the family was supposed to pick enough cotton seed to fill his shoe. Then the fibers were carded, spun, and woven into cloth; and for more than fifty years practically all the family clothing was made in the home. Such people would not be long without churches and schools. In each community a schoolhouse and church - usually the same building - went up along with dwellings and workshops. The minister and teacher - often the same person - generally supplied several communities, traveling at intervals from one to the other. Buffalo Presbyterian Church, one of the first and most influential, is now within the city limits of Greensboro. Among the early schools, Dr. David Caldwell's Log College was the most outstanding. These churches and schools served as a nucleus for the social life of the community. People attended not only to hear a sermon or an entertainment but also to mix and mingle with kindred and friends. Here boys and girls met, fell in love, and married. When such an event took place the neighbors would get together and the men would build the couple a house and the women would help to assemble household belongings. Aside from the church and school most of the recreation in the early days was utilitarian - corn huskings, log rollings, quilting parties - but it was not long before there were stores and taverns for gathering places, especially for the men, where there were serious discussions of the trends of the times. These were an industrious people and their fields soon began to widen and more shops - such as tanning, gunmaking, plowmaking, hatmaking, and cabinetmaking - began to appear. The countryside was becoming a community of busy citizens. Calvin H. Wiley, a native of Guilford County with Greensboro as his home address, commented in an Alamance church address: The settlements had been established less than twenty years when William Tryon, Royal Governor of North Carolina, reviewed this locality. He reported it was "of great value, being perhaps the best lands on this continent," and he cited one plantation with "fifty acres of as fine wheat as perhaps ever grew, [and] with clover meadows equal to any in the Northern Colonies." Guilford County Is Erected That recorded visit of Governor Tryon was not made, however, in order to praise the new developments in this region. On the contrary, he was having a lot of trouble with these liberty-loving people; or, as they put it, they were having trouble with him and his minions, and the governor had come to look into the matter. The officers of the Crown - the clerks of the several courts, the recorders of deeds, the entry takers, the surveyors, the lawyers, and all the petty officers - had been demanding twice and three times the legal fees and the people were bitterly complaining about the situation. In addition to these unlawful collections, Governor Tryon had promoted a poll tax to cover the cost of an elegant governmental palace at New Bern - said to have been the most handsome state house in America - and the people of the western counties vehemently resented that move. Such a tax forced the poorest man to pay as much as the richest, which seemed all out of proportion to the settlers of the Piedmont. Moreover, currency was so scarce that these western people found difficulty in securing enough money to pay the taxes which were already assessed. And when the exorbitant extras were added the spirits of the newly settled piedmont were aroused to action. They announced that they would pay their just taxes, but no more. All these dishonest officials, extortionate fees, and excessive taxes are significant to Greensboro, for they influenced the establishment of Guilford County. In 1766, the abused people, with Hermon Husbands, Rednap Howell, and James Hunter as prominent leaders, organized themselves into a group known as Regulators because they proposed to "regulate their wrongs." They held meetings, drew up petitions for peaceful settlements, and presented them to Governor Tryon and the colonial General Assembly; and some laws were passed for regulating the illegal practices. Those laws were not observed, however, and matters grew worse and worse. The Regulators let Governor Tryon and his officers know that they meant business. In 1770, they forcibly broke up the courts in which they could secure no justice and soundly thrashed the dishonest officials, chief among whom was the violently-hated Edmund Fanning, who had become the Regulators' main target. It appeared that they had no other recourse for redress of grievances. At that time the eastern part of the province dominated the government, for it had more counties and hence more representation in the colonial General Assembly. Even though the western region comprised one third of the whole white population of the province it had only fifteen representatives in the House of Burgesses of eighty-one (81) members in 1770. Therefore the western region felt that no justice could be secured through the eastern ruling majority. For several years the Regulators had asked the colonial General Assembly to "divide the province into proper districts for collecting taxes," but that body had ignored the request. At that time present Guilford was a part of Rowan and Orange counties and the people of Orange had to go to Hillsborough and those of Rowan to Salisbury to transact their business; and such great distances worked a definite hardship on citizens who lived at the remote boundaries of those counties. Then, too, more counties would mean more western representatives in the colonial General Assembly and thus the piedmont people would be able to help make and enforce the laws under which they lived. After this request for more divisions had been before Governor Tryon and the colonial General Assembly for about three years, and the Regulators had grown into a power to be considered seriously, in the hope of decentralizing their force and thus "to quell the Insurgents," the provincial government erected four new counties, one of which was Guilford. With specific reference to Guilford, Governor William Tryon wrote to Lord Hillsborough: "The Acts for erecting four new counties seemed a measure highly necessary from the too great extent of the counties they were taken out of. The erecting Guilford County out of Rowan and Orange Counties was, in the distracted state of this county, a truly political division, as it separated the main body of the Insurgents from Orange and left them in Guilford." Guilford's County Seats In 1781, Guilford Court House was a small village of 200 to 300 people. There are no records of a school or a church but there was a jail, a store or two, and a coppersmith shop which was, according to the Guilford Battle Ground Company, "quite a prominent feature as all the brandy and whiskey stills, for the county, were manufactured there." Tradition holds that Robert Lindsay wished to have this little county capital located upon his land (in present southwest Guilford) as did many of his friends. But in the meantime, Alexander Martin had appeared on the scene. A native of New Jersey, he moved to original Guilford County in 1772, and being a man of unusual literary polish and mental poise, Martin soon became an important figure on the political stage, serving for many years as governor of North Carolina. In 1785, Alexander Martin with Thomas Henderson bought "100 acres of land adjacent to and whereon Guilford Court House now stands" (North Carolina Statutes) and sponsored a small real estate development which they called Martinsville. In 1785, therefore, Martin's little town became Guilford's county seat. But the county seat question was still not permanently settled. After Randolph County was erected out of Guilford County on the south in 1779, and Rockingham was erected out of Guilford County on the north in 1785, some Guilfordians became dissatisfied with the location of their county seat. They contended that since it was not at the exact center of the county it worked a hardship on some who had to travel farther than others to transact their business. Feeling on the matter became so intense that it is said to have influenced legislative elections. Citizens, therefore, determined to do something about it. Based on the testimony of surviving witnesses of 1805 to 1807, General John M. Logan, clerk of the county court, supplied the following information for the Greensborough Patriot: "There was great strife, and contention and canvassing throughout the county of Guilford on a proposition to remove the seat of justice from the ancient and battle-scarred town of Martinsville, and to establish a new metropolis at the centre of the territory. The population became arranged under jealous leaders into two opposing divisions... the Martinsville Party and the Centre Party. It would fill a volume, or at least one of the largest sort of chapters in history, to describe and bring up in review before the reader the diverse hard arguments and sharp-pointed remarks which were hurled like javelins, arrows, and sling stones between the opposing hosts. It was a time that tried men's soles - in traveling about into all manner of nooks and corners of the realm, gathering recruits for the wordy war. "At length the Martinsville Party determined on... a right slick proceeding that was expected to throw the Centre Party... But alas! for the short-sighted wisdom of mortal man; this scheme wrought out their own speedy defeat. Having procured an enactment of the county court for the erection of a magnificent new capitol... it was expected to fix and forever establish the metropolitan supremacy of Martinsville. But this enactment and decree only served to redouble the vitality of the Centre Party, bringing out their latent talent and force. And on an accurate toll of the noses they were found to comprise half the population and a little more. So the new decree went forth and the glory departed from Martinsville and it was left from that time to decay among the bones of the dead who had fallen in the old battle of Greene and Cornwallis." More specifically, it was by an Act of the General Assembly, in 1807, that the county seat of Guilford County was moved to a more central point. "William Armfield, Esq., Doctor David Caldwell, Jun., Charles Bruce, Hugh Forbes, Nathan Mendenhall, Jacob Clapp, and George Swaine were appointed Commissioners to fix on a suitable and central place for erecting the Court House and other public buildings." In 1808, they very carefully determined the exact center of the county and found it to be "in the middle of a duck pond in a brush thicket," about where Fisher Park is now located, and six miles from Martinsville. The land around the center spot seemed marshy and hardly suitable for the selected purpose, therefore the majority decided to place the court house on the elevation nearest to the center of the county, which is the intersection of Market and Elm Streets, 836 feet above sea level. All the records state simply that the new county seat was named "Greensborough" in honor of Major General Nathanael Greene, who so gallantly defended this country during the Revolutionary War and at the Battle of Guilford Court House forced Lord Cornwallis' army to its final steps of surrender at Yorktown. Dr. David Caldwell, Jr., is said to have suggested the name; and so far as is now known it was unanimously and immediately accepted. When the center of the county was located it was found to be on the land of Ralph Gorrell; and the following deed was drawn: The conditions under which the move was to be made were not only that the new location should be in the geographical center of the county but that the net proceeds from the sale of the lots within the 42 acres should cover the cost of moving the court. Nathan Mendenahll surveyed the property, divided it into 49 lots, and drew a plan of the town - three streets running east and west for three blocks, and three running north and south for three blocks, with C. H. (court house) marked in the center intersection. There were 44 of the lots sold, ranging in price from $4.80 to $151; and brought altogether $1,689.39. There was not a dwelling in Greensboro at the time of the removal of the county court in 1809 and settlement of the new county seat was gradual. The first residence is said to have been built by a Dr. Chapman, Greensboro's first physician; and the first business house was on the corner of the present West Market and Greene Streets. Robert Lindsay, Jr., wtih his wife and infant son, Jesse H., moved into Greensboro soon after it was established. David Gillespie, Dr. David Caldwell, Jr., Simeon Geren, Joseph Davis, Abraham Geren, and Henry Humphreys were appointed commissioners of police "in and for the town" in 1810 by the state legislature. Judge John McClintock Dick was a Greensboro resident by 1811. Thomas Caldwell, clerk of the superior court, built a brick house on West (Market) Street where the court house is now located and moved his family into it in 1815. In 1819, James Turner Morehead and the Reverend William Paisley became Greensboro citizens. No date is available for Major Jones Johnson, but he was definitely on the scene when Paisley arrived, for the Presbyterian minister found about twenty families in the village at that time; and Major Johnson has gone on record as the only professing Christian among them, he being a Baptist. Unfortunately there is no complete list of those twenty families; and little or nothing is known of what they did or how they lived, other than the general way of life during that period. From 1820 to 1829, many significant moves began to take place in the little municipality - schools began to grow, a church was organized, laws were planned for town living, and many new names were added to the local census. John Motley Morehead, John McClintock Logan, the Reverend Eli Washington Caruthers, and Jeduthan Lindsay came about 1821. By 1829, the capital of Guilford County boasted 369 inhabitants in the corporate limits and 115 living just outside the town. Like other piedmont communities in the early nineteenth century, the growth of Guilford County depended on the development of new arteries of transportation and commerce. By 1820, there were seven main roads passing through Greensboro, leading to Pennsylvania and Washington to the north, Asheboro to the south, Salem to the west, and Raleigh and Fayetteville to the east. The 1850s brought the Fayetteville and Western Plank Road, the longest thoroughfare of its type ever constructed in the world. Stretching 129 miles from Fayetteville to Bethania in Forsyth County, it cut across southwest Guilford County, up what is now Main Street in High Point. While the Plank Road was a marvel of engineering for its time, its impact was short-lived. The coming of the North Carolina Railroad in 1856 was a boon to growth by significantly lowering the time and cost of shipping goods. During the course of surveying for the railroad, engineers drove a stake on the west side of the Plank Road, noting that this was the highest point on the survey between Greensboro and Charlotte. Appropriately named High Point, this crossroad of commerce grew into Guilford's second major city. In the years following the American Civil War, the industrialization of Guilford County was spurred by the expansion of the railroad system and the movement to the area of many young businessmen who saw the potential for economic growth in the emergence of the New South. The ready availability of raw materials such as cotton, timber, and tobacco, coupled with an abundance of inexpensive, unskilled labor and low taxes, formed the basis for the emergence of major manufacturing concerns in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Click Here for information about the two (2) known "Street Railways" in the town of High Point from 1906 to 1935. Click Here for information about the three (3) known "Street Railways" in the city of Greensboro from 1891 to 1934. Concurrent with this industrial and economic expansion came the problems associated with urbanization. As the manner and degree of the people's needs changed, so did the efforts of county government to meet those needs. Guilford became the first county in the nation to offer a full-time county health service, and one of the first two in the state to employ a welfare superintendent. Early in the twentieth century the Guilford County Road Commission was established to oversee the expenditure of funds from a $300,000 bond issue, and in 1912, the County's Register of Deeds Office was considered the "best regulated and systematized" in North Carolina. Guilford County first introduced the County Manager form of government in 1926, at which time the Chairman of the Board served in that capacity. The county succeeded in weathering the effects of the Depression without defaulting on its obligations, due in no small degree to the fact that, by 1933 and for the remainder of the decade, it had become the wealthiest county in the state. The 1940s and 1950s were marked by a number of studies aimed at assessing the effectiveness of county operations and recommending ways in which services could be improved. By the 1960s, a variety of major initiatives had been undertaken, including a comprehensive school building program, extension of rural water and sewer lines, establishment of countywide zoning, and the construction of a multi-million dollar governmental center. In the decades since, Guilford County has continued its tradition of innovation and leadership among North Carolina counties. Its foresight and imagination have been rewarded with more than 100 National Association of Counties Achievement Awards since this annual nationwide competition was established in 1972, and Guilford County sits poised in readiness for the challenges and opportunities which lie ahead in the twenty-first century. Click Here to view / download an Adobe PDF file of the book, entitled "The History of Guilford County, North Carolina," by Sallie W. Stockard, published in 1902. Click Here to view / download an Adobe PDF file of the book, entitled "Publications of the Guilford County Literary and Historical Association, Volume I," published in 1908. Click Here to view / download eight road maps of Guilford County.

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1 1 Competencies for registered nurses Te whakarite i nga mahi tapuhi kia tiakina ai te haumaru a-iwi Regulating nursing practice to protect public safety December 2 2 Competencies for registered nurses Nursing Council of New Zealand PO Box 9644, Wellington Reprint May 2012 Nursing Council of New Zealand 2012 ISBN 3 3 Registered nurse scope of practice Registered nurses utilise nursing knowledge and complex nursing judgment to assess health needs and provide care, and to advise and support people to manage their health. They practise independently and in collaboration with other health professionals, perform general nursing functions and delegate to and direct enrolled nurses, healthcare assistants and others. They provide comprehensive assessments to develop, implement, and evaluate an integrated plan of health care, and provide interventions that require substantial scientific and professional knowledge, skills and clinical decision making. This occurs in a range of settings in partnership with individuals, families, whanau and communities. Registered nurses may practise in a variety of clinical contexts depending on their educational preparation and practice experience. Registered nurses may also use this expertise to manage, teach, evaluate and research nursing practice. Registered nurses are accountable for ensuring all health services they provide are consistent with their education and assessed competence, meet legislative requirements and are supported by appropriate standards. There will be conditions placed in the scope of practice of some registered nurses according to their qualifications or experience limiting them to a specific area of practice. 4 4 Competencies for registered nurses Domains of competence There are four domains of competence for the registered nurse scope of practice. Evidence of safety to practise as a registered nurse is demonstrated when the applicant meets the competencies within the following domains: Domain one: Professional responsibility This domain contains competencies that relate to professional, legal and ethical responsibilities and cultural safety. These include being able to demonstrate knowledge and judgement and being accountable for own actions and decisions, while promoting an environment that maximises health consumer safety, independence, quality of life and health. Domain two: Management of nursing care This domain contains competencies related to assessment and managing health consumer care, which is responsive to the consumers needs, and which is supported by nursing knowledge and evidence based research. 5 5 Domain three: Interpersonal relationships This domain contains competencies related to interpersonal and therapeutic communication with health consumers, other nursing staff and interprofessional communication and documentation. Domain four: Interprofessional health care & quality improvement This domain contains competencies to demonstrate that, as a member of the health care team, the nurse evaluates the effectiveness of care and promotes a nursing perspective within the interprofessional activities of the team. 6 6 Competencies for registered nurses Competencies and indicators The competencies in each domain have a number of key generic examples of competence performance called indicators. These are neither comprehensive nor exhaustive; rather they provide examples of evidence of competence. The indicators are designed to assist the assessor when using his/her professional judgement in assessing the attainment of the competencies. The indicators further assist curriculum development for bachelors degrees in nursing or first year of practice programmes. Registered nurses are required to demonstrate competence. They are accountable for their actions and take responsibility for the direction of enrolled nurses and others. The competencies have been designed to be applied to registered nurse practice in a variety of clinical contexts. They take into account the contemporary role of the registered nurse, who utilises nursing knowledge and complex nursing judgement to assess health needs, provide care, and advise and support people to manage their health. The registered nurse practises independently and in collaboration with other health professionals. The registered nurse performs general nursing functions, and delegates to, and directs enrolled nurses and others. The registered nurse also provides comprehensive nursing assessments to develop, implement, and evaluate an integrated plan of health care, and provides nursing interventions that require 7 7 substantial scientific and professional knowledge and skills. This occurs in a range of settings in partnership with individuals, families, whanau and communities. The nursing student is expected to be supervised in practice by a registered nurse when the competencies relate directly to an undergraduate nursing student. Nursing students are assessed against all competencies on an ongoing basis, and will be assessed for entry to the registered nurse scope of practice at the completion of their programme. 8 8 Competencies for registered nurses Nurses involved in management, education, policy and research The competencies also reflect the scope statement that some registered nurses use their nursing expertise to manage, teach, evaluate and research nursing practice. Registered nurses, who are not practising in direct care, are exempt from those competencies in domain two (management of nursing care) and domain three (interpersonal relationships) that are only apply to clinical practice. There are specific competencies in these domains for nurses working in management, education, policy and/or research. These are included at the end of domains two and three. Nurses who are assessed against these specific competencies are required to demonstrate how they contribute to practice. Those practising in direct care and in management, education, policy and/or research must meet both sets of competencies. Note: Please read the glossary of terms on page 32 of this document. 9 9 Domain one: Professional responsibility Competency 1.1 Accepts responsibility for ensuring that his/her nursing practice and conduct meet the standards of the professional, ethical and relevant legislated requirements. Indicator: Practises nursing in accord with relevant legislation/codes/policies and upholds health consumers rights derived from that legislation. Indicator: Accepts responsibility for actions and decision making within scope of practice. Indicator: Identifies breaches of law that occur in practice and reports them to the appropriate person(s). Indicator: Demonstrates knowledge of, and accesses, policies and procedural guidelines that have implications for practice. Indicator: Uses professional standards of practice. 10 10 Competencies for registered nurses Competency 1.2 Demonstrates the ability to apply the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi Te Tiriti o Waitangi to nursing practice. Indicator: Understands the Treaty of Waitangi/Te Tiriti o Waitangi and its relevance to the health of Maori in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Indicator: Demonstrates knowledge of differing health and socio-economic status of Maori and non-maori. Indicator: Applies the Treaty of Waitangi/Te Tiriti o Waitangi to nursing practice. 11 11 Competency 1.3 Demonstrates accountability for directing, monitoring and evaluating nursing care that is provided by enrolled nurses and others. Indicator: Understands accountability for directing, monitoring and evaluating nursing care provided by enrolled nurses and others. Indicator: Seeks advice from a senior registered nurse if unsure about the role and competence of enrolled nurses and others when delegating work. Indicator: Takes into consideration the role and competence of staff when delegating work. Indicator: Makes appropriate decisions when assigning care, delegating activities and providing direction for enrolled nurses and others. 12 12 Competencies for registered nurses Competency 1.4 Promotes an environment that enables health consumer safety, independence, quality of life, and health. Indicator: Identifies and reports situations that affect health consumers or staff members health or safety. Indicator: Accesses, maintains and uses emergency equipment and supplies. Indicator: Maintains infection control principles. Indicator: Recognises and manages risks to provide care that best meets the needs and interests of health consumers and the public. 13 13 Competency 1.5 Practises nursing in a manner that the health consumer determines as being culturally safe. Indicator: Applies the principles of cultural safety in own nursing practice. Indicator: Recognises the impact of the culture of nursing on health consumers care and endeavours to protect the health consumers s wellbeing within this culture. Indicator: Practises in a way that respects each health consumers s identity and right to hold personal beliefs, values and goals. Indicator: Assists the health consumer to gain appropriate support and representation from those who understand the health consumer s culture, needs and preferences. Indicator: Consults with members of cultural and other groups as requested and approved by the health consumers. Indicator: Reflects on his/her own practice and values that impact on nursing care in relation to the health consumers s age, ethnicity, culture, beliefs, gender, sexual orientation and/or disability. Indicator: Avoids imposing prejudice on others and provides advocacy when prejudice is apparent. 14 14 Competencies for registered nurses Domain two: Management of nursing care Competency 2.1 Provides planned nursing care to achieve identified outcomes. Indicator: Contributes to care planning, involving health consumers and demonstrating an understanding of health consumers rights, to make informed decisions. Indicator: Demonstrates understanding of the processes and environments that support recovery. Indicator: Identifies examples of the use of evidence in planned nursing care. Indicator: Undertakes practice procedures and skills in a competent and safe way. Indicator: Administers interventions, treatments and medications, (for example: intravenous therapy, calming and restraint), within legislation, codes and scope of practice; and according to authorised prescription, established policy and guidelines. 15 15 Competency 2.2 Undertakes a comprehensive and accurate nursing assessment of health consumers in a variety of settings. Indicator: Undertakes assessment in an organised and systematic way. Indicator: Uses suitable assessment tools and methods to assist the collection of data. Indicator: Applies relevant research to underpin nursing assessment. 16 16 Competencies for registered nurses Domain TWO Competency 2.3 Ensures documentation is accurate and maintains confidentiality of information. Indicator: Maintains clear, concise, timely, accurate and current health consumer records within a legal and ethical framework. Indicator: Demonstrates literacy and computer skills necessary to record, enter, store, retrieve and organise data essential for care delivery. 17 17 Competency 2.4 Ensures the health consumer has adequate explanation of the effects, consequences and alternatives of proposed treatment options. Indicator: Provides appropriate information to health consumers to protect their rights and to allow informed decisions. Indicator: Assesses the readiness of the health consumers to participate in health education. Indicator: Makes appropriate professional judgement regarding the extent to which the health consumer is capable of participating in decisions related to his/her care. Indicator: Discusses ethical issues related to health care/nursing practice, (for example: informed consent, privacy, refusal of treatment and rights of formal and informal health consumers). Indicator: Facilitates the health consumer s access to appropriate therapies or interventions and respects the health consumer s right to choose amongst alternatives. Indicator: Seeks clarification from relevant members of the health care team regarding the individual s request to change and/or refuse care. Indicator: Takes the health consumer s preferences into consideration when providing care. 18 18 Competencies for registered nurses Competency 2.5 Acts appropriately to protect oneself and others when faced with unexpected health consumer responses, confrontation, personal threat or other crisis situations. Indicator: Understands emergency procedures and plans and lines of communication to maximise effectiveness in a crisis situation. Indicator: Takes action in situations that compromise health consumer safety and wellbeing. Indicator: Implements nursing responses, procedures and protocols for managing threats to safety within the practice environment. 19 19 Competency 2.6 Evaluates health consumer s progress toward expected outcomes in partnership with health consumers. Indicator: Identifies criteria for evaluation of expected outcomes of care. Indicator: Evaluates the effectiveness of the health consumer s response to prescribed treatments, interventions and health education in collaboration with the health consumer and other health care team members. (Beginning registered nurses would seek guidance and advice from experienced registered nurses). Indicator: Reflects on health consumer feedback on the evaluation of nursing care and health service delivery. 20 20 Competencies for registered nurses Competency 2.7 Provides health education appropriate to the needs of the health consumer within a nursing framework. Indicator: Checks health consumers level of understanding of health care when answering their questions and providing information. Indicator: Uses informal and formal methods of teaching that are appropriate to the health consumer s or group s abilities. Indicator: Participates in health education, and ensures that the health consumer understands relevant information related to their health care. Indicator: Educates health consumer to maintain and promote health. 21 21 Competency 2.8 Reflects upon, and evaluates with peers and experienced nurses, the effectiveness of nursing care. Indicator: Identifies one s own level of competence and seeks assistance and knowledge as necessary. Indicator: Determines the level of care required by individual health consumers. Indicator: Accesses advice, assistance, debriefing and direction as necessary. 22 22 Competencies for registered nurses Competency 2.9 Maintains professional development. Indicator: Contributes to the support, direction and teaching of colleagues to enhance professional development. Indicator: Updates knowledge related to administration of interventions, treatments, medications and best practice guidelines within area of practice. Indicator: Takes responsibility for one s own professional development and for sharing knowledge with others. 23 23 Although nurses involved in management, education, research and policy making are exempt from being assessed against the above competencies in domain two, they are required to provide evidence of how they contribute to the management of care. Competencies for nurses involved in management: Competency Promotes an environment that contributes to ongoing demonstration and evaluation of competencies. Competency Promotes a quality practice environment that supports nurses abilities to provide safe, effective and ethical nursing practice. Competency Promotes a practice environment that encourages learning and evidence-based practice. Competency Participates in professional activities to keep abreast of current trends and issues in nursing. Competencies for nurses involved in education: Competency Promotes an environment that contributes to ongoing demonstration and evaluation of competencies. Competency Integrates evidence-based theory and best practice into education activities. Competency Participates in professional activities to keep abreast of current trends and issues in nursing. 24 24 Competencies for registered nurses Competencies for nurses involved in research: Competency Promotes a research environment that supports and facilitates research mindedness and research utilisation. Competency Supports and evaluates practice through research activities and application of evidence based knowledge. Competency Participates in professional activities to keep abreast of current trends and issues in nursing. Competencies for nurses involved in policy: Competency Utilises research and nursing data to contribute to policy development, implementation and evaluation. Competency Participates in professional activities to keep abreast of current trends and issues in nursing. 25 25 Domain three: Interpersonal relationships Competency 3.1 Establishes, maintains and concludes therapeutic interpersonal relationships with health consumers. Indicator: Initiates, maintains and concludes therapeutic interpersonal interactions with health consumers. Indicator: Incorporates therapeutic use of self and psychotherapeutic communication skills as the basis for nursing care for health consumers with mental health needs. Indicator: Utilises effective interviewing and counselling skills in interactions with health consumers. Indicator: Demonstrates respect, empathy and interest in health consumer. Indicator: Establishes rapport and trust with the health consumers. 26 26 Competencies for registered nurses Competency 3.2 Practises nursing in a negotiated partnership with the health consumer where and when possible. Indicator: Undertakes nursing care that ensures health consumers receive and understand relevant and current information concerning their health care that contributes to informed choice. Indicator: Implements nursing care in a manner that facilitates the independence, self-esteem and safety of the health consumer and an understanding of therapeutic and partnership principles. Indicator: Recognises and supports the personal resourcefulness of people with mental and/or physical illness. Indicator: Acknowledges family/whanau perspectives and supports their participation in services. 27 27 Competency 3.3 Communicates effectively with health consumers and members of the health care team. Indicator: Uses a variety of effective communication techniques. Indicator: Employs appropriate language to context. Indicator: Provides adequate time for discussion. Indicator: Endeavours to establish alternative communication methods when health consumers are unable to verbalise. Indicator: Accesses an interpreter when appropriate. Indicator: Discussions concerning health consumers are restricted to settings, learning situations and or relevant members of the health care team. 28 28 Competencies for registered nurses Although nurses involved in management, education, research and policy making are exempted from being assessed against the above competencies in domain three, they are required to provide evidence of how they contribute to interpersonal relationships. Competencies for nurses involved in management, education, policy and research: Competency Establishes and maintains effective interpersonal relationships with others, including utilising effective interviewing and counselling skills and establishing rapport and trust. Competency Communicates effectively with members of the health care team, including using a variety of effective communication techniques, employing appropriate language to context and providing adequate time for discussion. 29 29 Domain four: Interprofessional healthcare and quality improvement Competency 4.1 Collaborates and participates with colleagues and members of the health care team to facilitate and coordinate care. Indicator: Promotes a nursing perspective and contribution within the interprofessional activities of the health care team. Indicator: Provides guidance and support to those entering as students, beginning practitioners and those who are transferring into a new clinical area. Indicator: Collaborates with the health consumer and other health team members to develop plan of care. Indicator: Maintains and documents information necessary for continuity of care and recovery. Indicator: Develops a discharge plan and follow up care in consultation with the health consumer and other members of the health care team. Indicator: Makes appropriate formal referrals to other health care team members and other health related sectors for health consumers who require consultation. 30 30 Competencies for registered nurses Competency 4.2 Recognises and values the roles and skills of all members of the health care team in the delivery of care. Indicator: Contributes to the co-ordination of care to maximise health outcomes for the health consumer. Indicator: Collaborates, consults with and provides accurate information to the health consumer and other health professionals about the prescribed interventions or treatments. Indicator: Demonstrates a comprehensive knowledge of community services and resources and actively supports service users to use them. Competency 4.3 Participates in quality improvement activities to monitor and improve standards of nursing. Indicator: Reviews policies, processes, procedures based on relevant research. Indicator: Recognises and identifies researchable practice issues and refers them to appropriate people. Indicator: Distributes research findings that indicate changes to practice to colleagues. 31 31 Registered nurses in expanded practice Competencies have been developed to describe the skills and knowledge of nurses working in expanded practice roles i.e. nurses who are working in clinical roles that are at the boundaries of nursing practice such as first surgical assistants and nurse colposcopist. These competencies are additional to those that already describe the registered nurse scope of practice. A nurse working in an expanded practice role would need to meet both. Demonstrates initital and ongoing knowledge and skills for specific expanded practice role/ activities through postgraduate education, clinical training and competence assessment. Participates in the evaluation of the outcomes of expanded practice, e.g. case review, clinical audit, multidisciplinary peer review. Intergrates and evaluates knowledge and resources from different disciplines and healthcare teams to effectively meet the heath care needs of individuals and groups. For more information on expanded practice please see Gudieline: Expanded practice for registered nurses (2010) available on our website: 32 32 Competencies for registered nurses Glossary of terms Appropriate Matching the circumstances of a situation or meeting the needs of the individual or group. Assessment A systematic procedure for collecting qualitative and quantitative data to describe progress and ascertain deviations from expected outcomes and achievements. Attributes Characteristics which underpin competent performance. Benchmark Essential standard. Competence The combination of skills, knowledge, attitudes, values and abilities that underpin effective performance as a nurse. Competent The person has competence across all domains of competencies applicable to the nurse, at a standard that is judged to appropriate for the level of nurse being assessed. Competency A defined area of skilled performance. Context The setting/environment where competence can be demonstrated or applied. Cultural Safety The effective nursing practice of a person or family/whanau from another culture, and is determined by that person or family. Culture includes, but is not restricted to, age or generation, gender, sexual orientation, occupation and socio-economic status, ethnic origin or migrant experience, religious or spiritual belief, and disability. The nurse delivering the nursing care will have undertaken a process of reflection on their own cultural identity and will recognise the impact that their personal culture has on their professional practice. Unsafe cultural practice comprises any 33 33 action which diminishes, demeans or disempowers the cultural identity and wellbeing of an individual. Domain An organised cluster of competencies in nursing practice. Effective Having the intended outcome. Enrolled nurse A nurse registered under the enrolled nurse scope of practice. Expanded practice Expanding the boundaries of nursing practice occurs as a professional strategy in response to a changing health care need with increased range of autonomy, accountability and responsibility. There is a formal pathway to role expansion that entails further education and credentialing. Health Consumer An individual who receives nursing care or services. This term represents patient, client, resident or disability consumer. This term is used in the Health Practitioners Competence Assurance Act (2003) Indicator Key generic examples of competent performance. They are neither comprehensive nor exhaustive. They assist the assessor when using their professional judgement in assessing nursing practice. They further assist curriculum development. Legislated Those requirements laid down by New Zealand Acts and Regulations. Nurse A registered nurse, nurse practitioner or enrolled nurse. Nursing Council of New Zealand The responsible authority for nurses in New Zealand with legislated functions under the Health Practitioners Competence Assurance Act 2003. 34 34 Competencies for registered nurses The Nursing Council of New Zealand governs the practice of nurses by setting and monitoring standards of registration which ensures safe and competent care for the public of New Zealand. As the statutory authority, the Council is committed to enhancing professional excellence in nursing. Nursing Practice Using nursing knowledge in a direct relationship with clients or working in nursing management, nursing administration, nursing eduction, nursing research, nursing professional advice or nursing policy development roles, which impact on public safety Performance criteria Descriptive statements which can be assessed and which reflect the intent of a competency in terms of performance, behaviour and circumstance. Registered nurse A nurse registered under the registered nurse scope of practice. Reliability The extent to which a tool will function consistently in the same way with repeated use. Treaty of Waitangi The founding document for Aotearoa/New Zealand signed in 1840 by the Maori people and the British Crown. Validity The extent to which a measurement tool measures that which it purports to measure. Competencies for the nurse practitioner scope of practice Approved by Council September 2008 Nurse practitioner scope of practice Nurse practitioners are expert nurses who work within a specific area of Guideline: responsibilities for direction and delegation of care to enrolled nurses Te whakarite i ngā mahi tapuhi kia tiakina ai te haumaru ā-iwi Regulating nursing practice to protect public safety May Guidelines for Competence Assessment Contents Introduction..........3 Purpose of the guidelines......... 3 Nursing Council documents which support competence assessment..3 Continuing competence requirements.4 Guideline: delegation of care by a registered nurse to a health care assistant Te whakarite i ngā mahi tapuhi kia tiakina ai te haumaru ā-iwi Regulating nursing practice to protect public safety May 2011 Job Description Registered Nurse - Case Manager/Crisis Worker, Mental Health & Addiction Services Report To: Liaise With: Team Leader Nurse Leader Mental Health and Addiction Service Nurse Educator Mental October 2002 n at i o n a l c o m p e t e n c y s ta n d a r d s f o r t h e e n r o l l e d n u r s e Introduction Description of Enrolled Nurse National Competency Standards Assessing Competence Glossary Scope of Practice for Registered Nurses (RN) Health Regulation Department Dubai Health Authority (DHA) [email protected] DHA hotline tel. no: 800 DHA (342) www.dha.gov.ae Introduction Health Regulation Date: January 2015 Job Title : Registered Nurse Department : Radiology Location : Waitemata DHB Reporting To : Reporting line to Radiology Associate Clinical Charge Nurse Head of Division Nursing (Surgical National Professional Development Framework for Cancer Nursing in New Zealand Adapted from: National Cancer Education Project (EdCan). 2008. National Education Framework: Cancer nursing A national professional Date: April 2015 Job Title : Registered Nurse Department : Radiology Location : Waitemata DHB Reporting To : Reporting line to Radiology Associate Clinical Charge Nurse Head of Division Nursing (Surgical Education programme standards for the registered nurse scope of practice July 2010 2 Introduction Under the Health Practitioners Competence Assurance Act 2003 ( the Act ) the Nursing Council of New Zealand A National Professional Development Framework for Palliative Care Nursing in Aotearoa New Zealand Adapted from: The National Cancer Nursing Education Project (EdCaN). 2008. National Education Framework 1 of 6 level: 6 credit: 12 planned review date: June 2006 sub-field: purpose: entry information: accreditation option: moderation option: Social Services People credited with this unit standard are able 1 Introduction Te Kaunihera Tapuhi o Aotearoa/The Nursing Council of New Zealand ( the Council ) under the Health Practitioners Competence Assurance Act 2003 ( the Act ) is the responsible authority that Education programme standards for the registered nurse scope of practice Approved by the Council: June 2005 1 Introduction The Nursing Council of New Zealand ( the Council ) governs the practice of nurses, Code of conduct for nurses Ki te whakarite i nga ahuatanga o nga Tapuhi e pa ana mo nga iwi katoa Regulating nursing practice to protect public safety November 2009 2 Code of conduct for nurses Nursing Occupational Therapists Registration Board Standards of Proficiency and Practice Placement Criteria Occupational Therapist Registration Board Page 1 of 22 Contents Background 3 Standards of proficiency Partnership, Voice, Excellence in Mental Health Nursing Standards of Practice for Mental Health Nursing in Aotearoa New Zealand Te Ao Märamatanga New Zealand College of Mental Health Nurses Inc. Standards Hearing Aid Council and Health Professions Council consultation on standards of proficiency and the threshold level of qualification for entry to the Hearing Aid Audiologists/Dispensers part of the Register. POSITION DESCRIPTION Practitioner Define Date Produced/Reviewed: Position Holder's Name: Position Holder's Signature :... Manager / Supervisor's Name: Manager / Supervisor's Signature :... Date :... Page Standards of proficiency Operating department practitioners Contents Foreword 1 Introduction 3 Standards of proficiency 7 Foreword We are pleased to present the Health and Care Professions Council s standards Orientating statements Nurse practitioners have the capability to provide high levels of clinically focused nursing care in a variety of contexts in Australia. Nurse practitioners care for people and communities Position Description Position details: Title: Reports to: Reports professionally to: Date: Nurse Educator General Medicine Nurse Unit Manager General Medicine Nurse Unit Manager General Medicine November Nurse Practitioner Mentor Guideline NPAC-NZ Purpose To provide a framework for the mentorship of registered nurses to prepare for Nurse Practitioner (NP) registration from the Nursing Council of New Zealand. New Zealand Tertiary College T E R T I A R Y C O L L E G E S G R O U P Bachelor of Teaching (Early Childhood Education) (Level 7) Course Synopses Stage One B101 Introduction to Early Childhood Education Section 1: The purpose of this document There are three key components to the Healthcare Science workforce in the UK: 1. Healthcare Science Associates and Assistants who perform a diverse range of task Guide to the National Safety and Quality Health Service Standards for health service organisation boards April 2015 ISBN Print: 978-1-925224-10-8 Electronic: 978-1-925224-11-5 Suggested citation: Australian THE PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF IRELAND CUMANN SÍCEOLAITHE ÉIREANN ACCREDITATION CRITERIA FOR POSTGRADUATE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY DATE: 22 ND FEBRUARY 2010 Date for review: February Australian Medical Council Limited Standards for Assessment and Accreditation of Primary Medical Programs by the Australian Medical Council 2012 Medical School Accreditation Committee December 2012 December Code of Ethics for Pharmacists and Pharmacy Technicians About this document Registration as a pharmacist or pharmacy technician carries obligations as well as privileges. It requires you to: develop and Standards of proficiency Arts therapists Contents Foreword 1 Introduction 3 Standards of proficiency 7 Foreword We are pleased to present the Health and Care Professions Council s standards of proficiency JOB DESCRIPTION CLINICAL NURSE SPECIALIST- REFERRAL AND DAY HOSPICE COORINATOR Date: September 2015 Responsible to: Responsible for: Functional Relationships: Director Clinical Services Clinical Administrator Job Description Job Title: Nurse Group: Corrections Services Reports to: Team Leader Nursing Location: Prisons Date: October 2003 (Reformatted December 2012) Organisational Overview The Department of Corrections Expected Competencies of graduates of the nursing program at Philadelphia University Background Educational programs are prepared within the context of the countries they serve. They are expected to respond PSYCHOLOGIST Te Ohu Whakarahi Whanau Service Child Adolescent & Family Mental Health & Co-Existing Disorder Service Palmerston North Hospital Vacancy ID: 3473 Conditions of Appointment APEX and District NZQF NQ Ref 1652 Version 1 Page 1 of 8 National Diploma in Social Services (Level 6) Level 6 Credits 180 Purpose The National Diploma in Social Services (Level 6) [Ref: 1652] leads on from the National Guidelines: Professional Boundaries A nurse s guide to the importance of appropriate professional boundaries Guidelines. Professional boundaries Contents Introduction 3 The importance of maintaining boundaries JOB DESCRIPTION Physiotherapist POSITION LOCATION RESPONSIBLE TO REPORTING TO FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Purpose Physiotherapist Part Time Nelson Tasman Marlborough Manager and/or Director, Nelson Nursing NMC Standards of Competence required by all Nurses to work in the UK NMC Standards of Competence Required by all Nurses to work in the UK The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) is the nursing and midwifery Learning Disabilities Nursing: Field Specific Competencies Page 7 Learning Disabilities Nursing: Field Specific Competencies Competency (Learning disabilities) and application Domain and ESC Suitable items for entry to the register: Adult Nursing Domain 1: Professional values All nurses must act first and foremost to care for and safeguard the public. They must practise autonomously and be responsible and Standards of proficiency Dietitians Contents Foreword 1 Introduction 3 Standards of proficiency 7 Foreword We are pleased to present the Health and Care Professions Council s standards of proficiency for Date: 15 April 2016 Job Title : Clinical Nurse Specialist Department : Acute Inpatient, District Mental Health Services Location : He Puna Waiora, North Shore Hospital Waiatarau, Waitakere Hospital Reporting JOB DESCRIPTION POST: BAND: ACCOUNTABLE TO: Occupational Therapist seconded to HRCH PO2 Assistant Team Manager (HRCH) CONTEXT The Richmond Community Rehabilitation Service sits at the heart of integrated Date: October 2008 Job Title : Specialist Surgical Pathologist Department : Surgical Pathology Unit Location : North Shore Hospital Reporting To : Clinical Director, Surgical Pathology Unit Direct Reports POSITION DESCRIPTION Enrolled Nurse Adult Rehabilitation & Health of Older Persons Date Produced August 2007 Reviewed August 2011 Position Holder's Name : Position Holder's Signature :... Manager / Supervisor's Date: February 2013 Job Title : Department : Marinoto Location : North Shore/ Waitakere Reporting To : Team Manager Direct Reports : No Functional Relationships with : Internal Staff of the Child, Youth Date: June 2015 Job Title : Social Worker - Inpatient Team Department : Medicine & Health of Older People, Surgical & Ambulatory Location : North Shore and Waitakere Reporting To : 1. Allied Health Team Professional Practice Standards for the Accredited Practitioner Revised 2013 Contents Part One - Overview Glossary of Terms 3 Introduction 6 History of the Standards 7 Scope of Practice for Radiation Therapist: Consultation: Two proposals for registered nurse prescribing Submission Form Please read and refer to the consultation document Two proposals for registered nurse prescribing available on the Nursing Council Doctor of Clinical Psychology Programme of study for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology 1. The following may be accepted as a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology: Graduates A national framework for the development of decision-making tools for nursing and midwifery practice Introduction The Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia The Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia CBT STUDY GUIDE TEST OF COMPETENCE PART 1 - NURSING TEST Please do NOT book your online Test of Competence until you have studied and reviewed the following modules. This Guide is to be used in conjunction Code of Conduct A Physician Assistant (now associate) (PA) is defined as someone who is: a new healthcare professional who, while not a doctor, works to the medical model, with the attitudes, skills and Rubric for Evaluating Colorado s Specialized Service Professionals: School Nurses Definition of an Effective School Nurse Effective school nurses are vital members of the education team. They are properly Student Name:... Student Number:. Cohort: September 2012 Module Code: School of Health & Social Work MSc in Nursing Year 2 Adult Field Practice Assessment Document (PAD) 1 Welcome to your Practice Assessment JOB DESCRIPTION Consultant Urologist SECTION ONE DESIGNATION: SENIOR MEDICAL OFFICER UROLOGY NATURE OF APPOINTMENT: REPORTING TO: HEAD OF DEPARTMENT SURGERY - FOR ALL CLINICAL MATTERS DATE: FULL TIME 1 Syracuse University School of Social Work Office of Field Instruction Program Competencies, Resulting Practice Behaviors & Examples of Field Tasks Program Competency Resulting Practice Behavior Example Lead and manage service provision that promotes the well being of Overview This standard identifies the requirements associated with leading and managing practice that supports the health and well being Consultation on the Code of Conduct Consultation document November 2011 2 Introduction The Nursing Council of New Zealand is undertaking a substantial review of the standards it sets and the guidance it Question Detail ACM Comments 1. Are you a registered nurse? 2. Which of the following best indicates your current role? 3. What is your age? 4. If you work in nursing what is your current area of practice? Job Description Radiography Services Manager Professionally accountable to: Head of Nursing and Clinical Services Key working relationships: Key reporting relationships: All Radiographers, Consultant Radiologists, General Guidance on the National Standards for Safer Better Healthcare September 2012 About the Health Information and Quality Authority The (HIQA) is the independent Authority established to drive continuous JOB DESCRIPTION Post: Band: Responsible to: Accountable to: Community Palliative Care Clinical Nurse Specialist 7 (SAH adapted Agenda for Change) Team Leader Clinical Operational Manager Job Summary Work Standards of proficiency Social workers in England Contents Foreword 1 Introduction 3 Standards of proficiency 7 Foreword We are pleased to present the Health and Care Professions Council s standards of PNAE Paediatric Nursing Associations of Europe Paediatric Nurse Education in Europe A Position Statement by the Paediatric Nursing Associations of Europe (PNAE) Introduction The PNAE network carried out Consultation: Two proposals for registered nurse prescribing Submission Form Please read and refer to the consultation document Two proposals for registered nurse prescribing available on the Nursing Council Code of Ethics for Nurses in Australia Developed under the auspices of Australian Nursing Council Inc, Royal College of Nursing Australia, Australian Nursing Federation Code of Ethics for Nurses in Australia & Development for District Nursing & Development for District Nursing Contents Introduction 5 6 7 8 Practitioner Senior Advanced Practitioner Consultant Practitioner Appendices Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix Job description for Enrolled Nurse working with onsite Registered Nurse in a School Based Health Centre PERSON SPECIFICATION Experience / Knowledge 1. Enrolled Nurse trained prior to 2000 with both a current Queensmill School Job Description and Person Specification Queensmill School Occupational Therapy Service Job Description Job Title: Grade: Base: Hours: Pay: Responsible to: Occupational Therapist Band South African Nursing Council (Under the provisions of the Nursing Act, 2005) e-mail: [email protected] web: www.sanc.co.za P O Box 1123, Pretoria, 0001 Republic of South Africa Tel: 012 420-1000 Fax: JOB DESCRIPTION POSITION NUMBER: POSITION TITLE: LOCATION: Clinical Nurse CLASSIFICATION LEVEL: Nursing Officer 2 REPORTS TO: Nurse Unit Manager / Clinical Nurse Consultant DATE OF REVIEW: November 2003 POSITION DESCRIPTION Neuro Clinical Psychologist Position Details: Location: Auckland Date: Feb 2012 Reports to: Rehabilitation Team Manager Values of ABI Rehabilitation ABI Rehabilitation NZ Ltd has the Consultation on education programme standards and competencies for nurse practitioner scope of practice Consultation document November 2015 Table of Contents Introduction... 3 How to make a submission... APPENDIX 13.1 WORLD FEDERATION OF OCCUPATIONAL THERAPISTS ENTRY LEVEL COMPETENCIES FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPISTS APPENDIX 13.1 FORMS PART OF THE APPENDICES FOR THE 28 TH COUNCIL MEETING MINUTES CM2008: Appendix JOB DESCRIPTION JOB TITLE: RESPONSIBLE TO: LOCATION(S): JOB PROFILE: Advanced Nurse Practitioner Advanced Nurse Practitioner Professional Lead North Bristol Trust Southmead Hospital This role is to work JOB DESCRIPTION PALLIATIVE CARE REGISTERED NURSE Reporting to: Employment Status: In-patient Unit Nurse Manager Full-time, Part-time or On-call Date Prepared: 11 April 2014 POSITION PURPOSE To work within

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- "Laa shay'a waqi'un moutlaq bale kouloun moumkine." - ―The Creed of the Levantine Assassins.[src] Under the leadership of Hassan-i Sabbāh, the Levantine Assassins founded their own sovereign state in 1050, resulting in the first historical records of the Assassins' existence, and the Order's entering into public consciousness. Accordingly, the Levantine Brotherhood was a far more recognized organization than the other Assassin branches. Not long thereafter, their sworn enemies followed suit by rechristening themselves as the Knights Templar and masquerading as a military order for the defense of Christian pilgrims. During the tenure of Hassan the Younger, the Levantine Brotherhood expanded from northern Persia into the Levant when a force under the Assassin later known as Al Mualim was sent out to establish castles in the An-Nusayriyah Mountains, most notably Masyaf. From then on, Masyaf would serve as one of the principal bases of the Levantine Assassins, more or less autonomous from Alamut. Their feared presence in the region attracted multiple invasions by the Saracens and Crusaders which all proved futile, and the state played a pivotal role in the Third Crusade, exerting much political influence through its assassination of key figures. In that conflict, Al Mualim betrayed the Order by colluding with the Templars to seize the Apple of Eden, having come to agree that a New World Order was the only solution for global peace. With the Apple in hand, he then turned on his Templar allies by having his best agent, Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad, eliminate them one after another, but would ultimately be slain by Altaïr when his treachery was exposed. The torch thereafter passed to Altaïr, under whose leadership, the Assassin Order was reformed, with new techniques created and archaic and authoritarian rules and customs undone. Using knowledge gained from an Apple of Eden, the Levantine Brotherhood spread its teachings and influence across the globe—an effort to make the Assassin Order a more global organization—with the Levantine Assassins becoming the forebearer to many other Assassin branches in the process. In 38 BCE, Bayek of Siwa, founder of the Hidden Ones, sent agents to to Petra and Judea to assist in the creation of a branch in the Levant. Subsequently, Kawab traveled to Judea to help end the rule of King Herod the Great which they regarded as tyrannical. Saracen attack on Masyaf - "His Excellency wishes to inform you that unless you agree to the demand [for peace] a force will remain here at Masyaf, and that our patience is greater than your store of supplies." - ―Šihāb ad-Dīn to Al Mualim, during the peace offer.[src] In 1050, the leader of the Levantine Brotherhood, Hassan-i Sabbāh, revolutionized the Assassin Order by establishing it as a public, sovereign state in its own right with Alamut as its capital. It was his hope that such an unprecedented move would inspire the people of wider society to take a stand against oppression and tyranny. A century later, the Order came under the leadership of Hassan the Younger, whose tenure saw the expansion of the branch into the Levant. The commander of this expedition was a man who would later be best known by his title of Al Mualim. Though ostensibly Al Mualim was acting under orders by Hassan, many Assassins speculated that there had been an ideological rift between the two that precipitated Al Mualim's departure. Al Mualim founded the castle of Masyaf in the An-Nusayriyah Mountains of Syria, alongside eight other citadels. In 1176, Masyaf was besieged by the Saracens, in retaliation for two failed assassination attempts on the Sultan of Egypt and Syria, Saladin. Al Mualim sent Ahmad Sofian as an undercover spy to the Saracen camp while he held a council with his Master Assassins to determine the proper response to the attack. While some, such as Faheem Al-Sayf urged for Saladin to be assassinated, Al Mualim eschewed this recourse for a more subtle plan of intimidation. The Master Assassin Umar Ibn-La'Ahad was then sent to infiltrate Saladin's tent on the night of the invasion, where he left a warning message pinned by a dagger on the sleeping sultan's bed. However, just as Umar was leaving, Saladin awoke and alerted the guards. Umar escaped, but was forced to kill a Saracen nobleman in the process. The next day, Saladin, terrified by that night's incident, retreated from Masyaf, leaving behind only his uncle Shihab Al'din, and a force of two hundred soldiers to negotiate peace terms. The Saracens would return their captured spy, Ahmad Sofian to the Assassins—who had been tortured and revealed Umar's name to the Saracens—for which the Assassins would allow the Saracens to take the life of Umar in retaliation for the nobleman's death. Against Al Mualim's will, Umar agreed on the conditions, lest Ahmad have been executed in his place and the siege recommenced, and Umar was decapitated before the eyes of the Assassins. Templar attack on Masyaf - "Your time is running out, old man. Tell me what you know of the artifact! Tell me where you are searching for it. It is a small price to pay to preserve what you have built here, no?" - ―Haras to Al Mualim during the attack.[src] By 1189, Al Mualim—also secretly conspiring with the Assassins' sworn enemies, the Knights Templar—was covertly planning to retrieve a "Piece of Eden", an artifact from the First Civilization. This rumor caught the attention of the Templar Haras, who had gone undercover in the Assassin Order beforehand. Successful in capturing the Masyaf fortress, Al Mualim, and several other Assassins, Haras intended to retrieve information on the artifact from Al Mualim. Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad, son of the late Umar, rode into Masyaf during the attack, and subsequently ordered Abbas Sofian—his former friend who had become his bitter rival—to flank the Crusader forces in the village and drive them into the canyon, while Altaïr himself went deeper into Masyaf, aiming to rescue Al Mualim. Locked outside the castle by Haras, Altaïr scaled the fortress walls and made his way towards the traitor, air assassinating him and saving Al Mualim in the process. This event led to Altaïr being elevated to Master Assassin, just as his father was. This also resulted in Altaïr's eventual arrogance and disregard of the Assassin's Creed, which further fueled Abbas Sofian's hatred towards him. Retrieval of the Apple - "I send you - my best man - to complete a mission that is more important than any that has come before and you return to me with apologies and excuses." - ―Al Mualim to Altaïr, upon his failure to bring the artifact.[src] In 1191, Altaïr and the brothers Malik and Kadar Al-Sayf were sent to retrieve the "Apple of Eden" from Solomon's Temple. Inside the temple, Altaïr broke one of the tenets of the Creed, by killing an innocent man. Progressing further into the temple, the Assassins found Robert de Sable, the Grand Master of the Knights Templar, and Altaïr strayed from their primary objective to obtain the Apple, hoping to kill de Sable. Revealing himself to the Templars, Altaïr disobeyed yet another one of the tenets; to hide in plain sight. With Altaïr's assassination attempt unsuccessful, Robert threw Altaïr to a wooden beam, causing the main entrance into the temple to be cut off and Altaïr to be routed. The Al-Sayf brothers were left alone to face the Templars, which resulted in Kadar's death and Malik receiving a severe injury to his left arm, which would later have to amputated. Nonetheless, Malik was able to retrieve the artifact and escape Solomon's Temple, bringing it safely to Masyaf. In the process, Altaïr disregarded the third tenet; to not bring harm upon the Brotherhood. However, as Altaïr and Malik both returned to Masyaf separately, the Templars had followed them back, which resulted in yet another attack on the castle. Altaïr, now responsible for many more deaths, climbed the watchtower outside the Masyaf fortress and released a wave of tree logs, which crushed the Templar army and forced Robert to retreat. Altaïr was punished for his arrogance and disregard of the three tenets of the Assassin's Creed. Stripped off his rank, Al Mualim sent Altaïr on a quest to kill nine Templars around the Holy Land, both from the Crusader and Saracen armies. Al Mualim's betrayal - Altaïr: "What you plan is no less an illusion. To force men to follow you against their will." - Al Mualim: "Is it any less real than the phantoms the Saracens and Crusaders follow now? Those craven gods who retreat from this world that men might slaughter one another in their names? They live amongst an illusion already. I'm simply giving them another. One that demands less blood." - ―Altaïr and Al Mualim about the latter's betrayal.[src] In Altaïr's absence, Al Mualim studied the Apple, slowly becoming corrupted. When Altaïr killed his ninth and final target - Robert de Sable - at the Battle of Arsuf, months after he started his quest, the Templar Grand Master revealed to Altaïr that Al Mualim himself was a Templar too, but had betrayed them as well. Simultaneously, Al Mualim had used the Apple to control the minds of the citizens of Masyaf, turning them into mindless followers of Al Mualim. Altaïr, having returned from Arsuf and already making his way towards Masyaf castle, met with Malik Al-Sayf and four other Assassins who had remained unaffected of the Apple's powers. While Malik kept the manipulated Assassins away from Masyaf, Altaïr confronted Al Mualim in Masyaf's courtyard, which the Assassins referred to as "Paradise". Restrained by the Apple's powers, Al Mualim forced Altaïr to fight clones of the nine Templars. Defeating them one by one, Al Mualim went down to ground level from his balcony to face Altaïr himself with eight duplicates, summoned with the Apple. Altaïr stood victorious, and Al Mualim revealed more about the artifact's history and powers, before facing Altaïr one-on-one with the Apple. Despite the usage of the Apple's powers on Altaïr, the Master Assassin killed the Mentor. Desiring to destroy the Apple, Altaïr found himself enchanted with the artifact and decided to examine it first. Soon after, Altaïr sent Malik to Jerusalem to bring news of Al Mualim's death, while Altaïr went on to burn Al Mualim's body to make sure he would not return - against the rules of the Levantine Assassins. - "This is no time to quarrel over the past. We must decide what to do with that weapon!" - ―Altaïr to Abbas during the civil war.[src] While carrying Al Mualim's body to a wooden pyre on a cliffside right outside Masyaf castle, Altaïr met with Abbas Sofian, who labeled Altaïr a traitor to the Order. Refusing to believe Al Mualim had betrayed the Assassins, Abbas convinced several Assassins to rise against Altaïr after he had cremated Al Mualim's body. A small civil war broke out, and Abbas pushed Altaïr from the cliff they stood on to the ground, before running towards the castle to retrieve the Apple. The two divided groups faced off against each other, with Altaïr not physically attacking any of the Assassins, hoping to win their trust. Having retrieved the Apple, Abbas climbed the watchtower outside the castle and found himself unable to use the Apple's powers, to which the Apple slowly began to drain the life from Abbas and hurt many other Assassins in the immediate perimeter. Altaïr, moderately unaffected, climbed the tower and saved Abbas from being killed. Over time, Altaïr issued orders to the Assassins loyal to him, including Malik, that none of the rebels should be harmed. Instead, Altaïr persuaded them of Al Mualim's betrayal and his own ability to lead the Order, winning the loyalty and hearts of the Assassins in the process. Receiving the title of Mentor, Altaïr became the leader of the Levantine Assassins. Rebuilding and expanding - "Our duty is to the people, not to custom. [...] We shall be made anew..." - ―Altaïr, about rebuilding the Order.[src] Under Altaïr's leadership, the Levantine Assassins entered an age of renewal and prosperity. Rules and restrictions that were vital under Al Mualim's leadership were discarded, as Altaïr considered them to not be relevant to the main goal of the Assassins; these included the removal of the ring finger, and the disallowance of Assassins to show love and emotion to their children. Most of Altaïr's thoughts and inventions during his time as leader were documented in his Codex, which he continued to write in for the majority of his remaining life. Together with Malik, Altaïr invented several new assassination techniques for the Assassins, including air assassination, assassination from hiding spots and assassinations from ledges. Altaïr also allowed the use of poison, which resulted in the invention of the Poison Blade, an upgrade for the ordinary Hidden Blade. Eventually, Altaïr recreated the standard Hidden Blade so that it would not need the sacrifice of the ring finger, and also allowed several Assassins—including himself—to wield two of them. During Altaïr's leadership, he strengthened the positions of the Assassins in the Holy Land, also spreading it to other countries such as Cyprus, after having journeyed there to hunt the Knights Templar. Altaïr actively promoted the way of the Assassins in new areas, until his progress was stopped in Constantinople, due to the Fourth Crusade waging on. The spread of the Assassins' influence was again stopped in 1217, when Genghis Khan had been conquering new areas to expand the Mongol Empire. That year, Altaïr, his wife Maria and his son Darim left for Mongolia, leaving the Order in the leadership of Malik. Decline of the Brotherhood - Mukhlis: "He takes our money and gives us nothing in return, where once the citadel was the heart of the community from which came strength, guidance..." - Altaïr: "And protection." - Mukhlis: "That too. All those things left with you, Altaïr, to be replaced by... corruption and paranoia." - —Mukhlis and Altaïr discussing Abbas' reign.[src] In Altaïr's absence, Abbas began to consolidate power in the Brotherhood, gaining some of the most weak-minded Assassins on his side and turning a violent apprentice, Swami, into his right-hand man. In 1225, Abbas secretly ordered Swami to kill Altaïr's second son, Sef, and to place the murder weapon on Malik's bed. Malik was found guilty of murder as a result, and imprisoned in Masyaf's dungeons. With Sef dead and Malik out of the picture, Abbas placed a council in charge of leading the Order, consisting solely of men he had gained on his side and with himself at its head. Two years later, Altaïr and his family returned, successful in their objective to kill the Mongol leader with the aid of the Mongolian Assassin Qulan Gal. Greeted by Swami, he made the family believe that Sef was in Alamut, and Darim quickly rode off to retrieve him. Altaïr and Maria, led to Masyaf castle by Swami, were informed of their son's murder, Malik's imprisonment, and the leadership of the council. Altaïr, not fully believing Malik was responsible for the murder, rescued him from the dungeons and discovered the real truth from him. Leaving Malik sleeping in the bed of their residence, Altaïr and Maria left to confront Abbas. Facing each other, both Abbas and Altaïr tried to find flaws in each other to convince the Assassins of their point of view. Eventually, Abbas demanded Altaïr to give him the Apple, to which Altaïr eventually agreed, taunting Abbas. Swami went to retrieve the Apple, telling Altaïr that he told Sef his father ordered the execution, who upon touching the Apple, felt Altaïr's rage flowing through his body. A golden ray erupted from his mouth, and Swami began to mutilate himself. Maria, trying to stop Altaïr from using the Apple, was slit in the throat by Swami in the frenzy, and eventually died in Altaïr's arms. Altaïr, left with no other options, fled Masyaf castle and eventually met up with Darim. Fighting off the attacking Assassins, the two men were able to escape the village, and lived in exile in Alamut. Abbas disbanded the council some time afterwards, and usurped the title of Mentor, becoming the sole leader of the Order. Under Abbas' reign, the Order became corrupt, straying far from the main goal of the Assassins. The training of Assassins was put to a halt, with the practice area in Masyaf castle no longer being used and the fortress becoming silent. They started alliances with bandits and used violence against the people for enjoyment, also demanding taxes from them. Those who did not cooperate with paying the taxes were either beaten up by the Assassins or banished from the village. Numerous villagers and Assassins secretly loathed Abbas, hoping for someone to return the Order to its former state. Some Assassins stayed true to the principle of the Creed, including Malik's son, Tazim "Malik" Al-Sayf. Eventually, after twenty years of exile, Altaïr returned to Masyaf, saving the life of a trader named Mukhlis outside Masyaf. Secretly gaining the support of Assassins and villagers alike, Altaïr marched to Masyaf castle, facing Abbas and his supporters. Not using violence and only capturing the attacking Assassins, Altaïr eventually faced Abbas one-on-one, using a new invention he created during his time in Alamut - the Hidden Gun - against Abbas, killing him and thus freeing the Order from his tyrannical reign. Altaïr was accepted as leader once more, and revived the Brotherhood back to its former state, while also beginning the construction of a library beneath Masyaf. Disbandment from Masyaf - "His vision for the Order was that the Assassins should go out into the world, he said. They should operate among the people, not above them." - ―Niccolò Polo describing Altaïr's motives for disbanding the Order from Masyaf, in his journal; The Secret Crusade.[src] Due to Altaïr's efforts, all of the neglect under Abbas' rule was undone. However, not too many years afterwards, Altaïr decided that the Assassins should disband from Masyaf, seeing the village's castle as a sign of arrogance and a beacon for their enemies. Instead, he wanted the Assassins to be a widespread organization, secretly acting from the population. He then began to send the Assassins to various locations away from Masyaf, with the castle being nearly abandoned by the time Altaïr's son Darim arrived from a journey across Europe. On his journey, Darim met the tradesmen Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, and had invited them to stay at Masyaf. In June 1257, the Polo brothers arrived. Knowing of the Polo brothers' journeys across Europe and Asia, Altaïr began training the Polo brothers to become Assassins, hoping that they would be successful in founding several Assassins Guilds. Altaïr frequently met with Niccolò, telling him the story of his life, which Niccolò wrote in his journal, later titled "The Secret Crusade". On 12 August 1257, Masyaf was attacked by Mongols, who had destroyed most of the Assassins' fortresses along the Levant the previous year, under the command of Hülegü Khan. After a little over a month in training, the Polo brothers said their farewells to Altaïr and Darim, with Niccolò receiving Altaïr's Codex and several other books to answer his remaining questions. Altaïr led the Polo brothers out of Masyaf during the attack, and gave the brothers the five keys needed to open his library, to guard the items from falling into the wrong hands. Returning to the castle, Darim prepared to leave for Alexandria, taking the remaining books from the library with him. Saying farewell to his father in front of the library gate, Darim left the castle and Altaïr locked himself in the library, placing the Apple on a pedestal and imprinting his sixth and final memory into a Seal, before passing away. By 1511 the main headquarters of the Levantine Assassins was located in the city of Jerusalem, one of the largest cities in the Levant they also had training facilities in Damascus. The Levantine Assassins were led by an individual called Mujir and were engaged in conflict with the ruling Mamluks. With help of Ottoman Assassins sent from Constantinople by Ezio Auditore da Firenze, Mentor of the Italian Brotherhood, the Levantine Assassins were able to stabilize their guild. True to the melting pot that was the Middle East, the Assassins of the Levant came from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. Umar Ibn-La'Ahad and Maud, the parents of the later Mentor Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad, were Muslim and Christian respectively. Founded in the northern mountains of Persia, the majority of its members spoke Arabic. As an offspring of the Hidden Ones established in Egypt with roots in local resistance against the Romans, the Levantine Brotherhood also consisted of Hebrews and Nabataeans. The Assassins primarily wore generic white robes, which incidentally allowed them to blend with the similarly-garbed scholars. Under Al Mualim's rule, each rank of Assassins had their unique set of robes, with Al Mualim himself dressing fully in black. Novices such as the Informants dressed in ankle-length robes with a headscarf and sling-pack. The robes were a tannish white with black trimming, a red sash, and leather work belt. When Altaïr was demoted to a Novice he wore long robes with a leather waist belt. However, after Altaïr consolidated power in the Brotherhood, the rank-based clothing was discarded, with all Assassins wearing the same set of standard robes, while Altaïr himself continued to wear his Master Assassin robes for the majority of his life. Sometime prior to his death, he wore a special set of robes that identified him as the Mentor, though it was white. The Levantine Assassins were the first Assassin branch to use most of the techniques later adopted by other Assassin branches, including air assassinations, ledge assassinations and assassinations from hiding spots; all of which were invented by Altaïr and Malik. Additionally, the two also revised the Order's decision not to use poison as an assassination technique, one of the many revisions they made to combat the increasing difficulty in remaining discreet during their missions. Nonetheless, the Levantine Assassins wielded no special equipment, only primarily being equipped with a Hidden Blade, a sword, a short blade, and throwing knives, with the amount of weaponry depending on the rank of the Assassin. On special occasions, Altaïr allowed Assassins to wear two Hidden Blades; however, only a limited amount of Assassins were given this privilege, as the materials required to create one were scarce. Altaïr also invented the Hidden Gun, though he is not known to have distributed any to the rest of the Order, and was only recorded using the gun himself once, to kill Abbas. According to Pierre Bellec, a Master Assassin of the French Brotherhood, before Altair's tenure as Mentor, members of the Levantine Assassins would approach assassinations with a mindset of potentially sacrificing their own lives to ensure the death of their target. Bellec suggested this to his apprentice, Arno Dorian, when Arno was devising a plan to assassinate Charles Gabriel Sivert in 1791. The idea of "a dagger in broad daylight as I'm cut down where I stand" did not appeal to the younger Assassin, who decided to pursue his own method of reaching and killing Sivert. - Vahid Ahmedi - Al Mualim (Mentor; 1162 – 1191) - Faheem Al-Sayf - Kadar Al-Sayf - Malik Al-Sayf - Tazim Al-Sayf - Damascus Bureau leader - Fahd El Fehmi - Hassan the Younger - Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad (Mentor; 1191 – 1228; 1247 – 1257) - Darim Ibn-La'Ahad - Sef Ibn-La'Ahad - Umar Ibn-La'Ahad - Abbas Sofian (Mentor; 1228 – 1247) Allies and puppets - Historically, the Levantine Assassins called the land they controlled around Masyaf or Alamut as the Nizari State, but in the Assassin's Creed media, it is never referred to as the Nizari. - It is unclear if the Assassins of Alamut are part of the Levantine Brotherhood because the fortress is in northern Persia quite removed from the Levant. In Assassin's Creed: Official Game Guide, it is explained that Al Mualim left Alamut to establish his independent branch in the An-Nusayriyah Mountains of the Levant, but it is unclear if the separation is official or if Al Mualim still had to retain nominal subordination to the Alamut branch. In Assassin's Creed: The Essential Guide, Hassan-i Sabbah is called a "Levantine Assassin" suggesting that Alamut and Masyaf constitutes the same branch after all, at least within his time. The name "Levantine" here may have been applied to the Assassins that originated in Alamut but expanded to the Levant retroactively. - They were commonly referred to as the Hashashin during the Crusades, which gave rise to the word Assassin. - Like the Templars, the Assassins were disbanded by their own leaders in order to spread their teachings throughout the world, which gave rise to several branches. - Historically, the Assassins disbanded in 1256 after Alamut fell, resulting in the execution of their Grand Master or Mentor, Rukn Al'din Khurshah by the invading Mongols. However, this may not contradict the Assassin's Creed canon because the Levantine Brotherhood may have by this time officially become a separate branch from the one based in Alamut. - ↑ Assassin's Creed: Altaïr's Chronicles - ↑ 2.0 2.1 Assassin's Creed: The Essential Guide - ↑ 3.0 3.1 Assassin's Creed: Origins – The Hidden Ones - ↑ 4.0 4.1 Assassin's Creed: Official Game Guide - ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 Assassin's Creed: The Secret Crusade - ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 Assassin's Creed: Revelations - ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 Assassin's Creed - ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Assassin's Creed II - ↑ Assassin's Creed: Bloodlines

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Cancer cells are simply normal cells with a few defects. Medically termed as hematuria, red blood cells (RBCs) in the urine is considered to be normal if they are less in number. This video has no audio. Ulcerative Colitis Quick Comparison Share Your Story Colon cancer is composed of unregulated abnormal cells that may spread to other organs in the body (metastasize), while ulcerative colitis (UC) is composed of acute or chronic inflammation of the membrane that lines the colon. And, unlike normal cells, cancer cells can metastasize (spread through blood vessels or lymph vessels) to distant parts of the body, too. Breast cancer is the cancer formed in the cells of the breast. Cancer is a disease where regulation of the cell cycle goes awry and normal cell growth and behavior is lost. A parent cell divides to form two daughter cells, and these daughter cells are used to build new tissue or to replace cells that have died because of aging or. • a cell type in an immortal cell line used in research • one of the oldest, most commonly used human cell lines • derived from cervical cancer cells taken from Henrietta Lacks • patient eventually died of her cancer on October 4, 1951 • cell line was found to be remarkably durable • cells propagated by George Otto Gey. But even so, cell communication can break down. 2 million, with o. Those of us old enough will tell you that before cell phones and cable and Netflix and Facebook and Instagram and all the other modern amenities, folks actually had better and closer relationships and took time to visit, write each other letters and at dinner, they socialized with each other. The cells were first cultured, or grown Despite being cancerous, HeLa cells still share many basic characteristics with normal cells - they produce proteins, express and regulate. The plasma cells generate massive amounts of antibodies and release them into the body. Epithelial tissues on the surface layer of the intestines It was thought that oncogenic mutant cells multiplied via cell division faster than normal cells Cancer treatment changes cancer cells into normal ones. The traits a normal cell acquires as it slowly transforms into a precancerous one and ultimately into cancer are called the “Hallmarks of Cancer”. The intervention will consist of changing the time in which the participant consumes food each day. Cancer cells are unlike any other cell in the body and they act totally out of line with normal cell functions. proto-oncogenes: a gene involved in normal cell growth. In adults, a normal CD4 cell count ranges from 500 to 1,200 cells/mm 3 (0. Normal cells respond to signals sent. Normal cell cycle is a cell cycle in which cell division is controlled. In a NOD/SCID xenotransplants model, Al-Hajj and coworkers [ 75 ] used four cell surface markers, CD44, CD24, ESA and B38. The traits a normal cell acquires as it slowly transforms into a precancerous one and ultimately into cancer are called the "Hallmarks of Cancer". As they grow, neoplasms can impinge upon and damage adjacent structures. All normal body cells meet their energy needs by respiration of oxygen, whereas cancer cells meet their energy needs in great part by fermentation. Transform cells (Cancers or Tumor cells) have a condition that is irregular and in the nucleus they have multiple nuclei that lead it to be abnormal (1). Normal cells usually can repair themselves at a faster rate and retain its normal function status than the cancer cells. Cell shape: Normal human cells come in many shapes and sizes - as they differentiate and adopt specialized functions their shape changes accordingly - for instance a red blood cell looks very different to a nerve cell. Cancer begins when something triggers a change in the cells, and they divide out of control. However, cancer cells are in a rapid state of cell division and spend much more time out of interphase. Evasion of programmed cell death (apoptosis): cancer cells suppress and inactivate genes and pathways that normally enable cells to die. Ipsen presents new analyses utilizing modern data mining approaches at ISPOR Europe 2019 Presentations showcase insights in advanced renal cell carcinoma, gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine. nodal) with applicability of International Prognostic Index (IPI). There are however a number of challenges in applying Raman spectroscopy to cancer cell detection:. They can also spread and infect other cells. It is less costly to convert into energy than other nutrients. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a subset of cancer cells that can evade cell death induced by existing chemotherapeutic agents, and one of the underlying mechanisms might be autophagy. Grade 2 cancer cells. HeLa cells are also a totally different ones. Although pregnancy conditions other than nausea and vomiting were not associated statistically with breast cancer risk, these were only preliminary findings, he added, based mainly upon whether women "ever" experienced these conditions vs. Objectives: The study aimed to investigate the tumor angiogenic cell population that stained with CD133+ and VEGFA+ markers and its associations with circulating cancer stem cell (CD133+/VEGFR2-) population in the in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of astrocytic glioma patients. Name Tissue Cell Type Oganism Disease Age Ethnicity Genes Expressed. They have access to the bloodstream just as healthy cells do. Poorly differentiated. And cancer cells contain an enzyme that normal cells do not share, beta-glucosidase. Cancer cells are addicted to calcium. Frequency (Hz). Cancer cells no lead to the death of the cell. The abnormal cells are actively growing (anaplastic). The cancerous cells can invade and destroy surrounding healthy tissue, including organs. Ionized water is also very alkaline. Lesson by George Zaidan, animation by TED-Ed. Actually, what makes cells cancerous is the lack of control of cell growth, so that they keep on growing without limit, even if slowly. A protein called K-Ras is mutated in about 90% of pancreatic cancer cases. I noticed that there are cancer databases out there (e. Consider the % dividing cells in normal lung, normal stomach, and normal ovarian tissue. Cancer Cells vs. It can occur at any time in a woman's life cycle. AE3803 and AA5100 are walking around when AE3803's shoelace gets untied. Multipotent Stem Cells. Poorly differentiated cancers grow faster based on the "poorness" of differentiation,i. Grade III: The malignant tissue has cells that look very different from normal cells. Once in the bloodstream, the cancer cells now have access to every portion of the body. Normal, healthy cells also grow and divide in a controlled fashion. They divided the stages of cell culture into Phases I-III. They are "immortal", that is to say they defied the normal mechanisms of senescence by acquiring certain mutations. Introduction. For example, the prime cause of the plague is the plague bacillus, but secondary causes of the plague are filth, rats, and the fleas that transfer the plague bacillus from rats to man. Thus, contact inhibition results in a sheet of cells just one layer thick, referred to as a monolayer. However, in cancer cells these checking mechanisms are defective. BRCA1 and BRCA2, also known as the breast cancer genes, have been found to impact a person’s chance of developing breast cancer if the gene itself has mutated, according to the National Breast. The other category is the osteoblast family, which consists of osteoblasts that form bone, osteocytes that help maintain bone, and lining cells that cover the surface of the bone. The cancer cells begin to form a growing ball of cells, known as the primary tumour. Both in the normal pancreas and in the ductal adenocarcinomas, CD133 is expressed in far too many cells to be a specific (cancer) stem cell marker. Cancer cells. Cancer Cells vs Normal Cells: Takeaway. First, although cancer cells produce far less ATP per molecule of glucose, they produce it much faster. Well differentiated cancers grow slow - Cancers that are very similar to normal cells are considered to be well differentiated. In adults, a normal CD4 cell count ranges from 500 to 1,200 cells/mm 3 (0. Compare the shapes of normal cells with disease cells in this composite image. These blood vessels also remove waste. The centrally placed nucleus is 35 µm. Poorly differentiated. Although each hallmark contributes to cancer, it is not until a cell. So you might look at one type of cancer and be able to say, hey, let's target the mutation where the cells look like this and you're able to knock out some of them. They could continue growing until they endanger healthy cells and organs of the body. I believe normal cell tissues will look different than cancerous cell tissues with regard to phases of the cell cycle in that normal cells will be in interphase and cancer cells will be in M phase (the phase where cell division takes place; mitosis and cytokinesis) because cancer cells cannot control their growth and do not respond to the signals that regulate the growth. In abnormal cells. It may appear solid or partially cystic, and may be hyper, iso, or hypoechogenic to the surrounding renal parenchyma 22. Chemotherapy destroys cancer cells by stopping them from growing or multiplying at one or more points during the life cycle of the cell. Apart from normal mammary stem cells, the possible existence of a breast cancer stem cell has been reported in the literature [74, 75]. Some of the differences are well known ,where as others have only been recently discovered and are less well. All normal body cells are thus obligate aerobes, whereas all cancer cells are partial anaerobes. Normal Cells Vs Transformed Cells. Why do you think there are more cells dividing in the stomach and ovary tissue than in the lung tissue? Based on the data in the average percentage of dividing cells, the lung cancerous tissue has more cells in the interphase, which means these cells are. Poorly differentiated cancers grow faster based on the "poorness" of differentiation,i. Taking healthy immune-boosting T cells from patients and engineering them to recognize and kill cancer is a well-established approach now, with the success of Gilead’s Yescarta and Novartis. As such, it occurs when normal cells are transformed into cancerous cells and proliferate uncontrollably. My endometrial cancer was diagnosed because I had endometrial cells (normal endometrial cells) present on my pap smear. Stroma cancer has hard and dense abundant Fibrous Stroma so called Scirrhous Stroma. Normal human cells have 46 chromosomes, while HeLa has 76 to 80 heavily mutated chromosomes. This can happen spontaneously. The effect of these medications on normal cells often causes chemo side effects. Activating T-cells against cancer cells is the basis behind checkpoint inhibitors, a relatively new class of immunotherapy drugs that have recently been federally approved to treat lung cancer, melanoma and other difficult cancers. Brain blood flow, blood pressure, and neurovascular control mechanisms will be measured in middle-aged adults before and after a brief intervention period. As they grow, neoplasms can impinge upon and damage adjacent structures. Your task: Using data, information, and evidence from labs, activities, and homework, write a scientific explanation to the statement presented above. More information: Alice Tsuboi et al. One important difference is that cancer cells are less specialized than normal cells. Targeting the S and G2 checkpoints has been considering attractive for cancer therapy because loss of G1 checkpoint control is a common feature of cancer cells (due to mutation of tumor suppressor protein p53), making them more reliant on the S and G2 checkpoints to prevent DNA damage triggering cell death, while normal cells also depend on a. However, in particular, the level of two forms dramatically increases. This is "murder" according to some religionists. It has been suggested that the multi-potent basal cell or a stem cell precursor of such cells may represent a common lung cancer progenitor. Prostate carcinomas are surrounded by a layer of stromal fibroblastic cells that are characterized by increased expression of CD90. (hereafter "the Lee study") reported somatic copy number gains of the APP gene, a known risk locus of Alzheimer's disease (AD), in the neurons of AD-patients and controls (69% vs 25% of neurons with at. After all, a high white blood cell count in cats could point to a potassium deficiency or even cancer. Normal Cells: An important difference in the comparison of cancer cells vs. The reason for the experiment is to compare and contrast normal cell and transformed cell. This is because chemotherapy medicines work by killing rapidly dividing cells (such as cancer cells). Many cancer cells are also capable of metastasis, which is the ability of these cells to spread into and colonize areas far from their site of origin. Pluripotent Stem Cells Pluripotent stem cells can give rise to all cell types of the body (but not the placenta). Cattano on t cells vs stem cells: Embryonic stem cells are derived from fertilized eggs created to help couples who have difficulty conceiving. Start studying Cancer VS Normal Cells. Furthermore, the molecular machinery used by normal stem cells for homing to or. proto-oncogenes: a gene involved in normal cell growth. Under a microscope, cancer cells may look very different from normal cells. In a study published in the journal Science Translational Medicine , scientists identified a molecule, known as TIC10, which activates a protein that helps fight the disease. Cancer Cells vs. Affordable and search from millions of royalty free images, photos and vectors. Tumor cells may show accelerated repopulation during treatment. Some of the differences are well known, whereas others have only been recently discovered and are less well understood. This also means that they likely have different physical characteristics. However, as for cancer cells (tumor cells), they all have mutations, which allow uncontrolled growth by negating those control mechanisms. Part 7: Modeling the cell cycle in a cancer cell. Like actinic keratoses, squamous cell carcinomas often start as roughly, scaly patches or bumps - but. Cancer cells are addicted to calcium. Next, we describe the biophysical tools that have been developed in recent years to characterise and model cancer cell mechanics. Ionized water is also very alkaline. Cells that are infected with HPV appear different from normal cells under a microscope. These cells do not look any different from normal cells. Cancer cells may reactivate telomerase by changing the DNA around one of the genes. The more serious changes can lead to cancer if not treated (see FAQ191 "Human Papillomavirus [HPV] Vaccination" ). The normal stomach cells on the other hand would be expected to divide more because there is a lot of acidity in the stomach and therefore those cells are exposed to a lot of things on a daily basis. Al, 2006 Presented by: Richard Pelikan October 27, 2006 BioInf 2032 Motivation How do you affect cells?. As such, it occurs when normal cells are transformed into cancerous cells and proliferate uncontrollably. Current terminology for reporting cervical cytology results includes the category atypical squamous cells (ASC), which differ from normal cells but do not meet criteria for a premalignant disease (squamous intraepithelial neoplasia [SIL]). The cancerous cells can invade and destroy surrounding healthy tissue, including organs. As cancer cells, HeLa cells are unlike normal human cells, and there is no better proof of this than to take a look at its chromosomes, or karyotype. You may also need to have other tests. A rare neutrophil may be seen. Medically termed as hematuria, red blood cells (RBCs) in the urine is considered to be normal if they are less in number. Affordable and search from millions of royalty free images, photos and vectors. 1-7 It remains unknown, however, how many inherited mutations would be detected by multigene tumor-normal analysis compared with a traditional family history–based approach to genetic counseling and testing, and what the clinical implications of these findings. Radiation induced thyroid cancer can happen at anytime between a few years after exposure to as long as 30 to 50 years later. It may appear solid or partially cystic, and may be hyper, iso, or hypoechogenic to the surrounding renal parenchyma 22. They are able to grow, divide and die. Some of the differences are well known, whereas others have only been recently discovered and are less well understood. Normal Cells. Cancer cells look different from normal cells under a microscope. Because of this they are more easily killed by chemotherapy than most other cells in the body. In 80 percent of all cases, basal cell carcinoma affects the skin of head and neck. Clumps or foci develop. 30,31 They are the characteristics that distinguish cancer cells from normal cells. Normal Cell vs Cancer Cell - The Key Differences. How do cancer cells differ from regular cells? In regards to normal cell division and mitosis, how do cancer cells differ? I know that healthy cells enter interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase; that is the normal cell reproduction. To conclude, normal cell and cancer cell differ in many ways. Normal, healthy cells also grow and divide in a controlled fashion. Next, we describe the biophysical tools that have been developed in recent years to characterise and model cancer cell mechanics. Cancer cells proliferate and form a mass of cells. Identification of maIignant cells vis-à-vis normal cells from the microscopic images is difficult because morphologically both cells types appear similar. However, in cancer cells these checking mechanisms are defective. Under a microscope, cancer cells may look very different from normal cells. In addition, factors such as immune system disorders, inflammation, infections, burns, and physical or emotional stress can cause high white blood cells production. Healthy adults experience a 10-20% decrease. Cancer and Carbohydrates. Part 6: Modeling the cell cycle in a normal cell. Normal stem cells are characterised by three properties: 1 Capability of self-renewal; 2 Strict control on stem cell numbers; 3 Ability to divide and differentiate to generate all functional elements of that. Normal Cell VS Cancer Cell 20. All normal body cells meet their energy needs by respiration of oxygen, whereas cancer cells meet their energy needs in great part by fermentation. Cancer is the transformation of normal cells. Al, 2006 Presented by: Richard Pelikan October 27, 2006 BioInf 2032 Motivation How do you affect cells?. Altered morphology: The nucleus of the cells become irregular and the number of lysosomes increase in cancer cells. The abnormal cells are actively growing (anaplastic). " Cancer Cells " (がん細胞Gansaibō?) is the 7th episode of the Cells at Work! anime adaption. Evidence suggests that HDAC inhibitors can inhibit tumor growth, result in cancer cell death, and have little effect on normal tissue. While most skin cancer arises as a brand new spot, some squamous cell carcinoma develops from a precancer called actinic keratosis, or solar keratosis (usually a rough, flat, pink spot on the skin, which may become firm and raised above the normal skin surface if it becomes cancerous). BRCA1 and BRCA2, also known as the breast cancer genes, have been found to impact a person’s chance of developing breast cancer if the gene itself has mutated, according to the National Breast. Magnesium plays a role in an array of critical body functions, controls normal adenosine triphosphate function, the metabolism of glucose, and cardiac muscle function, as well as the maintenance of cell membrane function. Whereas cancer cells have more negative membrane potential normal cells have less than that. I'm new to cancer research. During the hypeplasia stage, normal cells divide at a heightened rate, therefore, increasing the total number of cells. Though benign, they are worth more of your attention because individuals with atypical moles are at increased risk for melanoma, a dangerous skin cancer. Differences in ruffling (changes in the cell membrane) and movement are emphasized. Fermentation of Sugar in Cancer Cells The Prime Cause and Prevention of Cancer with two prefaces on prevention Revised lecture at the meeting of the Nobel Laureates on June 30, 1966 at Lindau, Lake Constance, Germany by Otto Warburg. 1 (a Breast/ovarian cancer specific marker), and lineage markers to sort different. Cancer cells display bizarre behavior. Medically termed as hematuria, red blood cells (RBCs) in the urine is considered to be normal if they are less in number. These transformed cells grow and multiply abnormally. Totipotent Stem Cells Totipotent (omnipotent) stem cells can give rise to any of the 220 cell types found in an embryo as well as extra-embryonic cells (placenta). The plasma cells generate massive amounts of antibodies and release them into the body. One important difference is that cancer cells are less specialized than normal cells. They divide until cells touch one another then a signal is sent to stop the cell division. “In this paper we demonstrate that cancer cells are much less efficient in removing hydrogen peroxide than normal cells. For example, the prime cause of the plague is the plague bacillus, but secondary causes of the plague are filth, rats, and the fleas that transfer the plague bacillus from rats to man. 3-5 Gamma tocopherol effectively inhibits cell proliferation and DNA synthesis in colon and prostate cancer cells. Digital Rectal Exam. Osteoclasts are in the first category. A neoplasm is an abnormal new growth of cells. Singh on basal cell vs squamous cell vs melanoma: Basal cell skin cancers often grow deeper and more destructive when left untreated causing large ulcerated areas. Keiichi Morishita in this book, The Hidden Truth of Cancer, states that if the blood develops a more acidic condition, then these excess acidic wastes have to be deposited somewhere in the body. Cancer cells are characterized by an uncontrolled cell growth, invasion of other tissues, and dissemination to other sites of the organism All these characteristics suggest that cancer cells have escaped from the controls that regulate normal growth. from Normal cells to Mutation, Hyperplasia, and Malignant tumor. They do not respect other cell boundaries & have persistent cell division. They perform various functions such as delivering nutrients like amino acids, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals. However, in sickle cell disease, the body may have trouble keeping up with how fast the cells are being destroyed. Myeloma is the second most common blood cancer. The environment that they both survive is. For example, most cells know it’s time to divide when they get signals from nearby cells or other parts of the body. For instance, cancer cells can induce nearby normal cells to form blood vessels that supply tumors with oxygen and nutrients, which they need to grow. Wasp's venom kills cancer cells without harming normal cells. Cells form a tissue, tissues form an organ and organs form a human being. Breast cancer most commonly develops in cells from the lining of milk ducts and the lobules that supply the ducts with milk. Cancer cells, on the other hand, has found a way to release themselves from this predestined cyclical way that nature has programmed cells. A cell spends 95% of it's life preparing for this. Clarisa Waugh. The Lifespan of Cancer Cells. In chronic smokers, the cells of the tracheo-bronchial tree are repeatedly exposed to a range of carcinogenic compounds. EpidemiologyEdit. Well differentiated cancers grow slow - Cancers that are very similar to normal cells are considered to be well differentiated. Al, 2006 Presented by: Richard Pelikan October 27, 2006 BioInf 2032 Motivation How do you affect cells?. The cell cycle is the series of events that take place in the cell, leading to its division and duplication of DNA in order to produce new daughter cells. A normal white blood cell count in cats typically ranges from 4,900 to 20,000 per microliter of blood. This can cause fluid to build up and press on the lungs, causing breathlessness. Thus, cancer cells are much more prone to damage and death from a high amount of hydrogen peroxide,” says Buettner, a professor of radiation oncology and a member of Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center at the University of Iowa. Squamous cell lung cancer is also called epidermoid carcinoma Cancer that begins in squamous cells. Superficially, the connection between the cell cycle and cancer is obvious: cell cycle machinery controls cell proliferation, and cancer is a disease of inappropriate cell proliferation. They’ll also move to places they don’t belong, attract. It has been suggested that the multi-potent basal cell or a stem cell precursor of such cells may represent a common lung cancer progenitor. It is not uncommon for a cell to form abnormally or become damaged, but in most cases the cell Malignant or cancerous tumors form as a result of a mutation or other damage to the genetic material of a normal cell. perform specific, differentiated functions. Magnesium plays a role in an array of critical body functions, controls normal adenosine triphosphate function, the metabolism of glucose, and cardiac muscle function, as well as the maintenance of cell membrane function. Renal cell carcinoma usually does not cause obvious symptoms, especially in the early stages. When the antigen is present, it binds to the receptor on the B cell. This paper explains this disparity, in a mathematical framework, and identifies molecular targets and operations unique to cancer cells. Mutations (changes) in a proto-oncogene may cause it to become an oncogene, in which it becomes overactive and can cause the growth of cancer cells 3; tumour suppressor genes: a type of gene that makes a protein called a tumour suppressor protein that helps control cell growth. Preleukemia, Chemical exposure, radiation and genetics. Normal cells. 17 This is one reason that, unlike normal cells, cancer cells continue to divide uncontrollably. This also means that they likely have different physical characteristics. Or it can be the result of a specific treatment. The environment that they both survive is. In addition, factors such as immune system disorders, inflammation, infections, burns, and physical or emotional stress can cause high white blood cells production. In a normal stomach the percentage of cells dividing is ten, while in the cancerous stomach it is thirty. Cancer cells look different. The gleason scale is an important diagnostic tool to assess the progression of prostate cancer. Learn more about cancer cells vs. Beningn Cancers are composed of well differentiated cells that resemble with normal cell and mitosis is rare. Normal human cells have 46 chromosomes, while HeLa has 76 to 80 heavily mutated chromosomes. Some cells have the ability to metastasize or. A tumor may or may not develop into cancer. Download Cancer cell stock photos. have a loss of "contact inhibition" and adhere loosely together. In a person with small cell cancer, the cancerous cells appear small. Cells need to know how to replicate by division — this is how you are able to grow from a single cell into a full-sized adult person, and also how. (1) Cancer cells are frequently "immortal": whereas normal cells divide about 50 times and them die, cancer cells can go on dividing indefinitely if supplied with nutrients (A common laboratory cell line, HeLa cells, was originally isolated from a tumor in 1951 and is still growing). Every organic life form starts from a single cell. Cancer cells thrive on fermenting sugar instead of metabolizing with oxygen. Growth — Normal cells stop growing (recreating) when enough cells exist. Cancer Cells 1"— Presentation transcript 2 The characteristics of normal cells Normal body cells have a number of important characteristics. However, in particular, the level of two forms dramatically increases. The problem for our body is that when a cancer cell goes forth and multiplies uncontrollably, a mass of cells form and that mass is a tumour. What does the cancer do. Targeted therapy is the result of about 100 years of research dedicated to understanding the differences between cancer cells and normal cells. This is a graph of cell growth, cancer cell growth, at different amla concentrations. "This is the first demonstration of. CSCs are potentially of profound clinical importance. “In this paper we demonstrate that cancer cells are much less efficient in removing hydrogen peroxide than normal cells. 18 × 10 9 /L). When a cell becomes cancerous, it develops traits that normal cells do not have. In a person with small cell cancer, the cancerous cells appear small. Cancer cells acquire a mutation in their structure and develop the ability to divide and grow uncontrollably without dying, creating tumors. Most of cervix is composed of fibromuscular tissue Epithelium is either squamous or columnar Endocervix: lined by columnar epithelium that secretes mucus; epithelium has complex infoldings that resemble glands or clefts on cross section; mucosa rests on inconspicuous layer of reserve cells. Hello all, I have had at least 5 basal cells removed all excised with stitches. Necrosis is the premature death of cells and living tissue. Why do you think there are more cells dividing in the stomach and ovary tissue than in the lung tissue? Based on the data in the average percentage of dividing cells, the lung cancerous tissue has more cells in the interphase, which means these cells are. Normal Cells: The comparison of cancer cells vs. Cancer cells often evade patrolling T-cells by sending signals that make them seem harmless. The cell cycle of normal cells has to be passed through various checkpoints. Experiments were performed in vitro with the U87 and U118 lines of GBM cells, and for comparison, the Hs5 line of stromal cells (normal cells) after 24 h and 72 h of treatment. What are the Similarities Between Cancer Cells and Normal Cells? Both cancer cells and normal cells are living cells. This tumour starts to push and suppress the surrounding cells. From these, development of therapies and treatments are designed to try to eliminate cancer cells without destructing normal cells. Cancer is a genetic disease requiring a series of change. Cancer cells lack the metabolic flexibility to burn fat and this why a healthy high-fat diet appears to be such an effective anti-cancer strategy. Cancer cells proliferate and form a mass of cells. Emerging evidence shows that CSCs have higher levels of autophagy under normal conditions and ischemic and hypoxic conditions. As such, it occurs when normal cells are transformed into cancerous cells and proliferate uncontrollably. find out how cancer cells different from normal cells. Beningn Cancers are composed of well differentiated cells that resemble with normal cell and mitosis is rare. These exocrine cells release their enzymes into a series of progressively larger tubes (called ducts) that eventually join together to form the main pancreatic duct. They perform various functions such as delivering nutrients like amino acids, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Normal cells do not grow and divide unless they are stimulated to do so by a growth factor. This causes red blood cells to assume a sickle shape. Name Tissue Cell Type Oganism Disease Age Ethnicity Genes Expressed. George Gey in 1951. Growth — Normal cells stop growing (recreating) when enough cells exist. Have you ever wondered how cancer grows? Take a close look at the cancer cell division in this realistic 3D animation. Cancer cells proliferate and form a mass of cells. Cell Death: When the genes in a normal cell are damaged beyond repair, certain DNA checking mechanisms signal for cell destruction. Learn how they differ; their stages, symptoms, and treatment. Normal Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells MatTek’s Normal Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells (NHBE) provide an ideal serum-free culture system to study cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, drug effects, gene regulation, cell differentiation, tissue development, wound healing, inflammation and toxic effects to the bronchial epithelium. Basal cell carcinoma (or cancer) is by far the most common type of skin cancer. Cell at beginning of mitosis. Normal, healthy cells also grow and divide in a controlled fashion. Omega-6 oils provide energy and contribute to cell structure. cell dividing phases. The main issue with cancer cells, is that the body loses the ability to monitor and affect how they replicate. Cancer Cells: These cells are the result of mutations in any of the three growth or tumor suppressors that help regulate the functioning of normal. Cancer cells (as we call them) are actually plain normal cells really. In 1994, Dick and colleagues showed that only the leukemic cells expressing the same markers as normal adult hematopoietic stem cells (CD34 + CD38 −) could initiate hematopoietic malignancy, and termed these cells as leukemia-initiating cells, leukemic stem cells (LSCs), or cancer stem cells (CSCs) [1, 9, 10]. A rare neutrophil may be seen. Targeted therapy is the result of about 100 years of research dedicated to understanding the differences between cancer cells and normal cells. Epithelial Cells in Urine – Normal Range. A tumor may or may not develop into cancer. Breast cancer is one of the most common types of cancers diagnosed in women from all over the world. George Zaidan explains how rapid cell division is cancer's "strength" -- and also its weakness. Density Dependent Inhibition and Cancer [ВИДЕО]. This enzyme is considered the unlocking enzyme for amygdalin. 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000. So I had an ultrasound and endometrial biopsy. CSCs are potentially of profound clinical importance. Under a microscope, cancer cells may look very different from normal cells. Cancer cells reproduce relatively quickly in culture. How Cancer Cells are Created. Healthy adults experience a 10-20% decrease.

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On 2 November 2017 we celebrated the Balfour Declaration centenary. On the 29th November, we celebrate seventy years since UN resolution 181 – the United Nations ‘partition plan’. Looking at much of the discussion over Balfour, there is still clearly misunderstanding over the process that led to the creation of Israel. The Balfour Declaration was a stepping stone, an important point of recognition. Yet the United Nations went on to divide the land, something Balfour never proposed. So – what changed? There are twenty-eight days from the start of one anniversary to the end of the other, so here I have listed twenty eight stepping stones, twenty eight events, that took Balfour through to partition, and into the civil war that was to bring about the creation of the State of Israel. Day one – November 2nd 1917. The starting point of this story – the Balfour Declaration. A crucial stepping stone for the Jewish people as their right to self-determination, and a return to their homeland, was recognised in a letter written by the United Kingdom’s Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild. A letter that is often misunderstood, as Balfour did not create the divide between the Jews and Arabs and did not create Israel. The paradigm of Balfour was a one-state solution (something those shamefully seeking an apology never seem to understand). Day two – Saturday 18th January 1919. The Paris Peace Conference begins. The Versailles Peace Conference, was the meeting of the Allied victors, following World War One. The Conference was to decide on the creation of the League of Nations, and adopt a policy of awarding German and Ottoman overseas possessions as ‘mandates’. At the British National Archives in Kew is a large file on the conference, containing hundreds of documents discussing the future of Palestine. This is a petition from the ‘inhabitants of Nablus’: A fascinating document on so many levels. Note the insistence that the area is part of ‘Syria’, and not seen as a national entity by its own inhabitants. But the main sentiment is the underlying racism, and anti-Jewish feel of the document. An open admission of a ‘dislike of Jews’, referenced again within the commentator’s notes. This antisemitism is a vital part of understanding the road to partition. Day three – Sunday 4th April 1920. An outbreak of violence at the annual Nebu Musa festival in Jerusalem. This occurred a few weeks after the Battle of Tel Hai, and like that Arab attack on the Jewish village, was also tied into the struggles of Syrian and pan-Arab nationalism. Five Jews died and over two hundred were injured. Following these events, and with a growing understanding the British could not be relied on to defend Jewish towns and villages, the Jews set up the ‘Haganah‘, or ‘defence’ units. Day four – Monday 19th April 1920. The San Remo Conference opens. Following in the footsteps of the 1919 Peace Conference. Resolutions passed at this conference included the allocation of the mandates. Crucially the San Remo Resolution adopted on 25 April 1920 incorporated the Balfour Declaration of 1917 and along with Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, underpinned the construction of the British Mandate of Palestine. Day five – Sunday 1st May 1921. Outbreak of violent riots in Jaffa. What began as a local fight between Jewish communists and Jewish socialists celebrating ‘May Day’, developed into week long anti-Jewish riots that spread to other cities and saw brutal Arab violence against Jews. Arabs attacked ‘Jewish pedestrians and destroyed Jewish homes and stores’. They ‘killed Jews in their homes, including children, and in some cases split open the victims’ skulls’. Forty-seven Jews died and another nearly one hundred and fifty more were injured. An important note when viewing casualty figures from the Mandate period: Records often mislead by recording that a similar number of Jews and Arabs died at these violent events. Jews were murdered by Arabs, and for the most part, Arabs died at the hands of the British, who were trying to control the violence. Day six – Sunday May 8th 1921. The British High Commissioner Samuel appoints Amin al-Husseini as the Mufti of Jerusalem. A member of a powerful regional clan, al-Husseini was in Damascus following World War I as a supporter of the Arab Kingdom of Syria. When Syria fell, he returned to Jerusalem and was seen as a leader of the 1920 riots. The British pardoned and then promoted al-Husseini to the position of Mufti, as a way of balancing out the influence of the rival Nashashibi clan. During the mandate period, al-Husseini periodically played a major role in clandestine anti-British and anti-Zionist activities, helping to poison Jewish / Arab / British relations. He fled Palestine in 1937 as the British sought to arrest him for his part in the uprising. al-Husseini often abused his power to kill political adversaries. He provides a prime example of how the Arab leadership placed their own factional power interests first and failed to work for the well being of their own people. He went on to play a role in Iraq between 1939 and 1941 as the situation for Jews there deteriorated. He was a key promoter of the group that led the Farhud Pogrom. In October of 1941 he was in Europe, and by November, was meeting with the German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop (20 November) and Adolf Hitler (28 November). This appointment is an early sign of the mistaken British strategy of appeasing rejectionist Arab violence and ‘hugging’ those behind it. It also underlines Arab disunity (a tale of competing clan power struggles that internally crippled Arab political power) and a brutal anti-Jewish position. Day seven – Monday July 11th (approx) 1921. As a group of Arabs went to London to protest Balfour, the Mayor of Haifa and President of the Muslim National Associations, sent a telegram in support of the Zionists. ‘We strongly protest against the attitude of the said delegation concerning the Zionist question. We do not consider the Jewish people as an enemy whose wish is to crush us. On the contrary. We consider the Jews as a brotherly people sharing our joys and troubles and helping us in the construction of our common country’ Shukri survived several assassination attempts, but the co-founder of the organization, Sheikh Musa Hadeib, was murdered in 1929. To highlight the complexity, some of these efforts were paid for by Zionist movements, just as some of the anti-Zionist Arab actions were promoted by British officials who opposed the Balfour Declaration. Some golden opportunities were missed in the formative years, as the Bedouin of the South, many Arab Christians, and some Muslim groups opposed to the powerful clans, were not as opposed to Zionism as Arab propaganda would have everyone believe. Some Pro-Arab British officials opposed to Zionism worked against the Mandate, throughout the whole time it existed and provide a crucial element of the deteriorating situation. Day eight – Monday 24th July 1922. The draft of the Mandate for Palestine was formally confirmed by the Council of the League of Nations on 24 July 1922. Based on the principles contained in Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations and of the San Remo Resolution of 25 April 1920. However, as this was taking place, the British were already ceding part of the proposed Mandate land to create Trans-Jordan. On Saturday 16th September 1922 a British memorandum passed by the Council of the League of Nations described how the British planned to implement an article of the Mandate which allowed exclusion of Trans-Jordan from the provisions regarding Jewish settlement. From the perspective of Balfour – the British cut Palestine in half. Day nine – Tuesday 22nd August 1922. The fifth Arab congress opened in Nablus. Whilst the first congress in 1919, had stressed Palestine was part of Syria, and the third in 1920 had argued Palestine was part of the ‘Greater Arab Nation’, by 1922, the focus was on galvanising opposition to the growing Jewish presence within the reality of a British controlled mandate. These seeds see the creation of the ‘Palestinian Arab’ identity. Resolutions included a banning of all land sales to Jews, ‘forbidding’, Jewish immigration, and a boycott of Jewish goods. This the first of many such boycotts. There were calls for boycott throughout the mandate period, most clearly in 1933, 1934 & 1936. The wider ‘Arab League’ boycott, against the Jewish community of Palestine (before Israel existed) – ‘Products of Palestinian Jews are to be considered undesirable in Arab countries.‘ – came into force on Tuesday January 1 1946. During later periods, this became more sophisticated, with the 1950’s adoption of the secondary boycott (against companies that trade with Israel). For decades, everyday items such as Pepsi, could not be found in Israel because of compliance to the boycott. Today, the Boycott Divestment Sanctions (BDS) movement is an example of how these anti-Jewish boycotts still operate. During the mandate, Arabs who failed to adhere to the boycott, by purchasing goods, selling land or employing / trading with Jews, faced assassination. Day ten – Friday August 23 1929. Arguments over Jewish access to the Western Wall, turn into a week-long brutal anti-Jewish rampage. In total 133 Jews were killed by Arabs and 339 others were injured. There were massacres in Jewish communities in Jerusalem (17+ Jews massacred), in Hebron (67+ Jews massacred), Tzfat (18+ Jews massacred). Additional killings took place in Motza, Kfar Uria and Tel Aviv. There were also many isolated attacks, and in six cases, entire villages were burnt and destroyed. In Jerusalem, the police chose *not to fire* on the rioters, for fear the rioters would turn on the police. Day eleven – April 10th 1931. Following the violence of 1929, there was a growing feeling that the Haganah were not strong enough in protecting Jewish interests. Some Jews felt the British were backtracking on their Balfour commitments, and viewed Jewish cooperation with an increasingly hostile mandate government as being based on a mistaken policy of trust. At the time, there were limited weapons, and these were moved from place to place as needs dictated. On April 10th 1931, several Commanders refused to hand back the weapons they had been allocated. One of these commanders was Avraham Tehomi. Although these weapons were returned, the commanders resigned their positions and set up an independent movement. This group would later become the Irgun. Day twelve – November 13th 1931. Police discover the bodies of two young Jews, who had been missing for over four months. Jochanan Stahl and Salvia Zohar went missing in July of 1931. It took months for the murder to be solved. Importantly, the ‘discovery’ was down to a private Jewish initiative and not police activity. In the end the bodies were found in sand dunes near Herzliya and five Bedouins were arrested. The Jewish couple had been stabbed. This day represents hundreds of others. Over time, 1929 has become the focal point for representation of Arab violence against Jews, in reality, the Haganah was set up because sporadic attacks were a regular occurrence. The Irgun followed because of the perceived failures of the Haganah. Both created as a response to a persistent threat to the Jewish community. Day thirteen – Monday 30th January 1933. Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany. For those who have bought into the disgraceful anti-Zionist ‘collusion’ argument and think Hitler ‘supported’ Zionism ‘before he went mad‘, this is what Hitler had to say about Palestine in ‘Mein Kampf’: “They have no thought of building up a Jewish State in Palestine, so that they might perhaps inhabit it, but they only want a central organization of their international world cheating, endowed with prerogatives, withdrawn from the seizure of others: a refuge for convicted rascals and a high school for future rogues.” Hitler’s rise to power and the laws he began to set in place against Jews, created a panic amongst German Jews and in wider Europe. From1933 onward we enter a new era: more Jews needed to go to Palestine, than the British were prepared to let in. Day fourteen – Saturday 28th October 1933. Violence erupts again as the Palestine riots begin. Riots that were initiated by the Arab Executive Committee. As Jewish immigration increased, Arab opposition became more violent. These immigrants were mainly Jewish refugees fleeing persecution. In opposition, stood those claiming the refugees were stealing their homes and their jobs. It isn’t difficult to place this opposition to immigration, specifically refugee immigration, on the far right of the political spectrum. Day fifteen – Saturday 25th August 1934. A ship called ‘the Vallos‘, arrives off the coast of Palestine carrying about 350 Jews. The ship was the first major attempt to bring a large number of Jews into Palestine behind the backs of the British. It travelled without the permission of Jewish Agency, who feared ‘illegal’ immigration would cause the British to restrict legal immigration. ‘Aliyah Bet‘, had begun. The Irgun was a major player in this immigration and tens of thousands of Jews were to arrive via this method into Palestine. Most of these attempts took place after 1938. Jabotinsky called it the “National Sport”. It wasn’t always successful. Many of the boats were captured and the refugees refused entry. Sometimes the British towed the boats out of Palestine’s waters. On more than one occasion, this resulted in the deaths of those on board. Day sixteen – Wednesday November 20th 1935. Izz ad-Din al-Qassam is killed by British forces in Nazlet Zeid. al-Qassam was born in Syria and like al-Husseini had been part of the Syrian Kingdom struggle. He arrived in Palestine in the 1920’s. In the early 1930’s he began to organise small groups of fighters, keeping each band a secret from the other. The organisation was called the ‘Black Hand‘. In an example of one attack, on 11 April 1931 they killed three members of kibbutz Yagur. al-Qassam’s fight was a religious, not a nationalist struggle. By 1935 there were several hundred fighters with bombs and firearms, which they used to raid Jewish settlements. He was cornered and killed by the British in November of the same year. Five months after this, on 15th April 1936, a few of his followers called ‘Qassamiyun’, murdered Jews who were travelling on a bus. This triggered the Arab revolt. On the 19th April, ‘the bloody day in Jaffa‘, saw violent attacks on Jews. This spread into a widespread uprising by Arabs in Mandatory Palestine against the British administration. The uprising was violent, it continued (on and off) for three years, and the British response was brutal, as 1000’s of Arabs were killed. Today, the military wing of the Hamas is named after al-Qassam. Day seventeen – Thursday April 16th 1936. Until 1936, the Irgun had focused on immigration and defending Jewish communities. At the time there was little difference in actions between them and the Haganah, and indeed in April 1936, against the backdrop of an expected call for partition from the British, the organisation almost folded. However, instead the group split, Jabotinsky took command and from April they ended the policy of restraint. A day after the bus shooting on the 15th April, Irgun members killed two Arabs near Petach Tikva. This was a sign of things to come. The Arabs attacked a school in Tel Aviv, the Irgun responded with an attack on an Arab neighborhood. Arabs attacked Jews on a train, the Irgun attacked Arabs on the same train. By late 1937, as attacks on Jews increased, so too, did the violence of the Irgun reprisals. The policy sought to extract a price for each attack, to create a deterrent and to remove the ‘enemy’ ability and motivation to strike. It was referred to as ‘active defence‘. It is here Arab propaganda normally begins its tale, using examples of Irgun activity as evidence that the Jews were the terrorists. Day eighteen – Wednesday July 7th 1937. Following an investigation into the violence, the British publish the report that publicly stated that the League of Nations Mandate had become unworkable and recommended partition. A call to split the land into separate Jewish and Arab areas. There are files on partition in the National Archives at Kew that date back to 1935, so it appears the report consolidates a growing understanding of the British belief that separation was inevitable. The Peel Commission, findings provide evidence that partition came about as a result of Arab rejectionism and violence, but more importantly they entirely reject the argument that the war, and the Holocaust, brought about the State of Israel – the inevitability of partition pre-dated both. Day nineteen – Sunday October 2, 1938. Arab rioters infiltrated the Kiryat Shmuel neighbourhood and massacred 19 Jews in Tiberias, 11 of whom were children. During the massacre, 70 armed Arabs set fire to Jewish homes and the local synagogue. In one house a mother and her five children were killed. At the time of the attack there were only 15 Jewish guards in a neighborhood of over 2,000 people. Day twenty – Saturday May 13th 1939. The MS St Louis leaves Hamburg on its way to Cuba. The ship was carrying 937 passengers, most of them Jewish refugees. Although they had visas, Cuba refused to accept them. The ship then left for the United States, where the ship was refused permission to approach the shore. The Canadians also refused to accept the refugees. Eventually the ship was turned around and headed back to Europe. Two hundred and fifty-four of the passengers, were to be slaughtered in the Holocaust. Day twenty one – Monday May 22. 1939. The total betrayal of the British of their commitment to Balfour and the Mandate. The British Government passes a White Paper in an act of appeasement to Arab violence of the 1930’s. Through this policy adoption, Britain issued a permanent limit to Jewish immigration, restricting it to just 75,000 in five years, with Arab agreement needed before any more could come. At the same time as Hitler was taking control of more of Europe’s Jews, the British slammed the door of the ‘Jewish Home’ shut. Day twenty two – Friday 14th June 1940. The first inmates of Auschwitz and Theresienstadt concentration camp arrived. A reminder of the millions of Jews who were never to see the creation of the state of Israel. Israel did not come about because of the Holocaust and the Peel Commission clearly shows that Israel was already a state in waiting by 1936. This date is placed into this list because the Holocaust closed all mainstream Jewish discussion over Zionism. Before the Holocaust there were some Jewish communities in Europe (like the Bundists) that still believed Jews did not need a national home of their own, Auschwitz ended the argument. The Bundist community, that for decades had been arguing Europe could provide a safe haven, was almost wiped out. Day twenty three – Sunday June 1 1941. The start of a pogrom carried out against the Jewish population of Baghdad, Iraq. Called ‘the Farhud‘, over 180 Jews were killed and 1,000 injured in the violence. The Farhud took place during the Jewish holiday of Shavuot. Even though this occurred in a vacuum of power created by the British victory in Iraq, it is a sign of growing anti-Jewish activity that accompanied rising Arab national identity. Although there had been minor acts of anti-Jewish violence before this, the Farhud, marks the beginning of the end of the Jewish community in Iraq. In 1941 there were 150,000 Jews in Iraq, within 15 years they had almost all left. Day twenty four – Monday November 5 1945. More evidence of the anti-Jewish undercurrents within rising Arab Nationalism. The fascist Italian regime that had been in control before the British had also fermented antisemitism with several anti-Jewish laws in the 1930’s. In 1941, 25% of Tripoli was still Jewish. The 1945 anti-Jewish riots in Tripolitania was the most violent rioting against Jews in North Africa in modern times. 140 Jews were killed and many more injured in a pogrom. The event caused the beginning of the Libyan Jewish exodus. Thus, Jews began leaving Libya three years before the establishment of Israel and seven years before Libya gained independence. Day twenty five – Tuesday August 13, 1946. The British internment camps on Cyprus received its first batch of Holocaust survivors. The British taking the remnants of Hitler’s Holocaust, and locking them up in camps, because the White Paper numbers didn’t permit entry for them to Palestine. 52,000 Jews passed through these camps. At the peak, there were nine functioning camps in Cyprus. With partition now the only realistic option, it was simply now a matter of when, not if. Day twenty six – Friday July 11th 1947. The SS Exodus sets sail from the port of Sete. With DP’s camps full and with pogrom’s chasing returning Jewish refugees out of Eastern Europe, there was nowhere for the Jews to go but Palestine. The Exodus was carrying 4,515 passengers including 1,600 men, 1,282 women, and 1,672 children and teenagers. Most of the passengers were Holocaust survivors. The British Royal Navy seized the ship and deported all its passengers back to Europe. Upon arrival in France, the French said they would not permit forced disembarkation on their soil. In the end, the British took the Holocaust survivors back to Germany. Day twenty seven – Thursday 15th May 1947. The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) was created on 15 May 1947 to make recommendations concerning the future government of Palestine”. They had been in Haifa to watch the British confrontation with the SS Exodus. UNSCOP was made up of representatives of 11 nations. The Report of the Committee recommended termination of the mandate and proposed partition into two independent states with economic union. The Arab Higher Committee boycotted the Commission, and unlike the Zionists, did not officially meet with the committee. This strand of Arab rejection of cooperation ran throughout the mandate period. The Arab leaders frequently chose personal political ambitions, and strategic factional power-plays over what was best for those they were meant to represent. Because of their refusal to cooperate, they were often not present when matters of importance were debated. Day twenty eight- November 29th 1947. And so we arrive on the day the United Nations gather to vote on the partition plan. UN Resolution 181. It passes with thirty-three votes for, thirteen against and ten abstentions. Yet the fight for Israel is still to come. The Jews rejoice and accept the plan, the Arabs do not. The constant self-defeating rejectionism of the Arab side. Within hours, Jews are being attacked on buses and a bloody civil war breaks out. In December at the Cairo summit, the Arabs decided to support an irregular army, and within weeks 1000’s of fighters were crossing into Palestine to wreak havoc on the Jewish supply lines. As tension mounts, the Arab aristocracy flees, leaving the near leaderless local Arabs caught between the Jewish fight for survival, Arab irregular forces and countless internal clans, some hostile to the Jews, some not. With nowhere to go, the Jews fight, but the Arabs? Whole villages flee, as they do in civil war, with the situation exacerbated by Jewish forces clearing areas where irregular forces have made the Jewish security situation untenable. After six months the British leave, the Jews declare their state, and the Arab nations invade, but still fail to dislodge the Jewish grip on the land. In the end, Israel survives, with more land than partition had allotted to it. From Balfour to partition. It is all here. The persistent Arab rejectionism, the Arab clan wars, the self-interest of their leaders, the divisive boycotts, the ever-present anti-Jewish racism, some British anti-Zionist officials working against the policies of their own government, the brutal anti-Jewish violence, the unfolding horrors in Europe, the rising Arab nationalism across Middle East, the Arab opposition to Jewish refugees, and underneath it all, Arab opposition to the idea that the Jews should be allowed any land, however small, on which to raise their flag. Help support my research I fight antisemitism and the revisionist narrative that demonises Israel. This research does make a difference. I was recently named as one of the J100 (‘top 100 people positively influencing Jewish life’) by The Algemeiner. I am fully independent and your support makes much of what I do possible. Please if you can, consider making a donation. Either a single amount or if you can a small monthly contribution. We need to be there to expose the lies. We need to research the facts to tell the truth. Even producing just one of these pieces does take days, sometimes weeks, and whilst I do what I can, there are serious constraints that impact on what is possible. Your assistance can and does make a difference. Every contribution is greatly appreciated.

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The appearance of a surface in an image results from the effects of illumination, shape and reflectance. Reflectance models have been developed to characterise image radiance with respect to the illumination environment, viewing angles and material properties described in Chapter 3. These models provide a local description of reflection mechanisms that can serve as a foundation for appearance representations. Photometric stereo approaches utilise reflection models for estimating surface properties from transformations of image intensities that arise from illumination changes [Woodham80]. Furthermore, photometric stereo methods are simple and elegant for Lambertian diffuse models. The effect of variation in illumination direction on the appearance of textures has already been discussed in previous chapters. As most texture classification schemes depend on the texture’s appearance instead of topology, they are more likely to suffer from tilt induced classification error [Chantlter94a]. In the case of rough surface classification, it is therefore better to use surface properties rather than image properties as the basis for our rotation invariant texture classification. In order to do so, an intrinsic characteristic of a surface has to be recovered prior to the classification process. Given that we are assuming a Lambertian reflectance model, the image intensity of a surface facet at a point (x, y) can be determined from the orientation [p(x,y), q(x,y)]. On the other hand, a unique surface orientation can not be determined from a single image intensity or radiance value, because there is an infinite number of surface orientations that can give rise to the same value of image intensity. Furthermore, the image intensity has only one degree of freedom and the surface orientation (p, q) has two. Therefore, to determine local surface orientation we need additional information. One technique that uses additional information from multiple images is called photometric stereo. As we stated before, classification of surfaces should ideally be carried out on the basis of the texture’s surface s(x, y) rather than its image i(x,y). Several candidate approaches exist for the recovery of surface topography, including binocular stereo, shape from shading, and photometric stereo. Binocular stereo is a means of recovering depth by identifying corresponding points in two images taken from different viewpoints. Although binocular stereo has been used successfully in cartography to generate topographic maps of the surface of the Earth, several drawbacks make it unsuitable for this thesis. Additional hardware is necessary, as this method required two cameras. The difficulty in applying binocular stereo arises from reliably determining the corresponding features between two separate images. It is essential that the view position remains fixed during the image acquisition phase, in order to prevent the so called correspondence problem. Implementing the matching algorithm also results in additional computation. The depth of surface is recovered rather than the surface orientation, as illustrated in Figure 4. 1. This will introduce noise and artefacts. (x, y, z) Figure 4. 1 The depth of surface is recovered by binocular stereo. Given that camera focal length f and camera spacing d. Then the surface depth z can be obtained as follow: z d f x1 x2 It is conversely best performed using objects containing discontinuities and shape features, easily corresponded between views. On the other hand, photometric stereo is suited to the objects with uniform surfaces and smooth varying topography [Horn86]. The topic of shape from shading (SFS) is concerned with determining the shape of an object solely from the intensity variation in the image plane. Unfortunately, measurements of brightness at a single point in the image only provide one constraint whereas describing surface orientation requires two variables. The problem is ill- posed unless further assumptions are made. It was one of the first areas of study in computer vision and the initial work was carried out by Horn [Horn75] [Horn86] [Horn89]. Assuming a surface with no discontinuities [Horn75], we need knowledge concerning the reflectance properties of the surface that we are trying to describe. In addition the method must have knowledge of the reflectance properties of the surface. In other words, the shading of a surface depends on both how it is illuminated and its reflectance properties. Horn’s method relies on a 2-D representation called gradient space [Horn89]. Here is the problem. We have an intensity function I(x, y), the image, and an assumed reflectance function R(p, q). We have: I x, y Rp, q This is an equation with two unknowns. All we know is that the surface orientation that has produced I(x, y) must lie somewhere on a contour of R(p, q). As an infinite number of surface orientations can lie on a single contour, we need further constraints. Horn’s method of solving this problem relies on growing a solution by starting at a single point in the image plane I(x0 , y0) where the surface orientation is known. The method then grows a solution by moving a small amount in the image plane along the contour. The single-image shape from shading algorithm is still limited even if the exact lighting condition and surface reflectivity are known. One extreme case is that the 3D surface information may be totally lost under certain lighting conditions, and so there is no way to recovery the surface orientation. The problems with extracting shape from shading with a single image are that: It is an approach that relies on having a known reflectance function for a surface. One constraint exists in terms of the mathematical solution for this method. The method relies on I(x, y) being continuous. This means there are no discontinuities on the surface, and is therefore unsuitable for 3D texture surface estimation. Another problem is that we really need a starting point to grow a solution. Because the equations that are solved are not over-constrained the method is extremely susceptible to noise in the image. What is photometric stereeo? Photometric stereo gives us ability to estimate local surface orientation by using several images of the same surface taken from the same viewpoint but under illumination from different directions (Figure 4. 2 and Figure 4. 3). It was first introduced by Woodham [Woodham80]. The light sources are ideally point sources some distance away in different directions, so that in each case there is a well- defined light source direction from which to measure surface orientation. Therefore, the change of the intensities in the images depends on both local surface orientation and illumination direction. Figure 4. 2 Illustration of photometrc stereo geometry. Figure 4. 3 Example of photometric images illuminated by different lighting sources. Why choose photometric stereo? Photometric stereo is a way in which the ill-posed problems in shading from shading can be resolved. It uses several images of the same surface under different illumination directions. The advantages of photometric stereo are: Unlike single image shape from shading algorithms, photometric stereo makes no assumption of the smoothness of the surface (p and q vary continuously over the surface). Furthermore, it requires only additional lighting and can be easily implemented at a reasonable computational cost. Each image brings along its own unique reflectance map, therefore each image will define a unique set of possible orientations for each point. Photometric stereo can recover not only surface orientation (p, q), but also surface albedo [Woodham80]. All of above points make photometric stereo the most suitable candidate relevant to this thesis. Woodham [Woodham80] was the first to introduce photometric stereo. He proposed a method which was simple and efficient, but only dealt with Lambertian surfaces and was sensitive to noise. In his method, surface gradient can be solved by using two photometric images, assuming that the surface albedo is already known for each point on surface. To determine local surface orientation, we need additional information. The simplest approach is to take two images which are of the same surface scene but with different light sources. Therefore we obtain two values of image intensity, I1(x, y) and I2 (x, y) at each point (x, y). In general, the image intensity values of each light source correspond to two points on the reflectance map, as follow I1 x, y R1 p, q I 2 x, y R2 p, q Thus we can determine the surface normal parameters from two images. Defining the two light source vectors as [p1, q1, 1] and [p2, q2, 1], and equations (4. 3) as linear and independent, there will be a unique solution for p and q [Horn86] shown as I 2 r 1q I 2 r p 1 1 2 2 2 1 p1q2 q1 p2 I 2 r I 2 r 1p q 2 2 1 1 1 2 p1q2 q1 p2 2 2 2 2 where provided p1 / q1 p2 / q2 ; r1 1 p1 q1 1 p2 q2 . This gives a unique solution for surface orientation at all points in the image. If the equations (4. 3) are non-linear, there are either no solutions or several solutions. In the case of a Lambertian reflectance function, we have to introduce another image to remove such ambiguities. This image enables us to estimate another surface parameter, albedo. It is especially useful in some cases where a surface is not uniform in its reflectance properties. Lee and Kou [Lee93] were the first ones to introduce parallel and cascade photometric stereo for more accurate surface reconstruction. Parallel photometric stereo combined all of the photometric images together in order to produce the best estimation of the surface. Cascade would take the images, one after another, in a cascading manner. Compared with the conventional photometric stereo method, their iterative method has two major advantages. Firstly, this method determines surface heights directly but surface orientation as the conventional photometric stereo, therefore the integrability problem does not arise in this method. Second, this method is a global method that minimises the intensity errors over all points so that it is insensitive to noise. However, our task is to estimate the surface orientation rather than surface heights. Cho and Minamitani [Cho93] have applied photometric stereo with three point light sources to recover textured and/or specular surfaces in closed environments like the gastric tract. Their concern was to reduce three-dimensional reconstruction errors due to specularities. Specular reflection produces incorrect surface normal by elevating the image intensity. Facets with estimated reflectivities greater than two standard deviations above the distribution mean are classified as being specular. Therefore they readjusted the pixel with greatest intensity by re-scaling with a modified reflectivity. In that way, the 3-D reconstruction errors may be reduced. Iwahori and Woodham [Iwahori95] used principal components analysis (PCA) to extract a reduced dimensionality subspace from many more than the theoretical minimum number of images required. It applied two neural networks that were trained on a calibration sphere. The first one maps image irradiance to surface normal and estimates the surface derivatives, whereas the second one takes these estimates and forms an estimate of the intensity for the facet. The comparison yields a confidence estimate. Kay and Caelli [Kay95] not only use photometric stereo to estimate the surface normal but also the roughness parameters associated with the Torrance-Sparrow (TS) reflectance model. They assume the reflectance map is a simplified Torrance- Sparrow map with additional Lambertian and mirror-like specular terms. No smoothness or regularization assumptions need be made. The basic approach they use is to apply non-linear regression techniques to photometric stereo. It is noted that in this thesis we only take account into diffuse Lambertian reflectance model, and both glossy specular and mirror specular factors are ignored. McGunnigle [McGunnigle98] introduces a simple photometric stereo scheme which only considers a Lambertian reflectance model, where the self and cast shadow as well as inter-reflections are ignored. Three images at tilt angle of 90 increments are captured and the linear functions mapping surface partial derivatives to image intensity are required. Furthermore his approach does not require albedo information. He suggests using his scheme to provide a first estimate for an iterative procedure. This is in fact a simplified version of Woodham’s scheme in which the illumination directions are chosen in order to simplify the mathematics. Another more difficult problem is that of estimating a surface with an unknown reflectance map. Nayar [Nayar90] used a linear combination of Lambertian and an impulse specular component. He used distributed light sources for photometric stereo of surfaces whose reflection is a sum of specular and Lambertian components. A technique that separates the effects of geometry and surface coloration/texture in “tri-luminal” environment is developed by Angelopoulou and Williams [Angelopoulou99]. Precision calibration of the illumination is not required. They demonstrate that the tri-luminal environment supports a broad range of analysis techniques: Differential geometric properties of smooth surfaces can be calculated directly from photometric data, albedo can be isolated and geometry-based recognition can be performed without recovering surfaces. Avoiding the recovery step increases both speed and robustness. Belhumeur et al show that the set of images produced by arbitrary illumination of an object is the same as the set of images produced by what they call a “generalized bas- relief transformation” of the object [Belhumeur99]. A generalized bas-relief transformation is a transformation of both the surface shape and the surface albedo for an arbitrary Lambertian surface. While it has been thought that photometric stereo with unknown light source direction could be solved by first estimating the light source directions and then estimating the surface structure, they have shown that these estimates are coupled through an unsolvable generalized bas-relief transformation. Other robust methods using photometric stereo with more images are reviewed in the latter section 4.4. In this section, we propose a simple three-image-based photometric stereo solution. We use three photometric images to recover the local surface orientation and albedo information for a Lambertian surface where the shadow effect is absent. The geometry of the camera / lighting setup can be seen in Figure 4. 4. Note that, during image capture, we keep the slant angle constant (=50). Furthermore, we apply the same assumptions described in section 3.3.1, that is that the surface is parallel to the image plane of the camera and approximately flat; the light source and camera are located far away from the test sample; and the illumination direction and viewing direction are uniform at each point on the surface. All lights slant angle = 50° Tilt angle = 90° Tilt angle = 180° Tilt angle = 0° Figure 4. 4 Geometry of three-image based photometric stereo. We transfer the Lambertian surface model denoted in section 3.2.2 into matrix format. Therefore the intensity of pixel in an image can be expressed as follow i1 (x, y) ρL1 N i1(x, y) is image intensity at the point (x, y); , 1 ⎟ is a surface p 2 q2 1 ⎜ p2 q2 1 p2 q2 1 p 2 q 2 1 ⎟ normal unit vector to the surface s(x, y) at the point (x, y), and p s(x, y) and q s(x, y) are surface partial derivatives measured in the x and y directions, L1 = [ lx1, ly1, lz1 ]T is a unit illumination vector, which is pointing from the surface towards to the light source; is surface albedo at the given point (x, y). Now we consider three light sources with illumination vectors L1, L2 and L3. The equation (4. 6) can be rewritten in matrix form I ρ L N I = [ i1, i2, i3 ]T is image intensity vector; L = [ L1, L2, L3 ]T is photometric illumination matrix which incorporates the light intensity for each light source. Provided that all of three illumination vectors L1, L2 and L3 are not lying in the same plane (non-coplanar), then the photometric illumination matrix L is non-singular and its inverse matrix, L1 exists and M L1 I ρ N where M = [ m1, m2, m3 ]T Therefore the three image based photometric stereo method can be summarised as follow: For each given point (x, y) on the surface, the image intensity vector I is firstly formed by capturing three images under different illumination directions L1, L2 The vector M = [ m1, m2, m3 ]T is obtained by the production of I and L1. The surface gradient components can be calculated via Finally, the surface albedo is recovered by finding the length of vector M. 2 2 2 m1 m2 m3 Those computation is straightforward in this case, and a unique result is assured. An example of the results that can be obtained using this approach is shown below in Figure 4. 5. = 180° = 90° p(x,y) q(x,y) albedo(x,y) Figure 4. 5 Separating gradient and albedo information using photometric stereo. There are two well-known problems with the traditional photometric stereo methods: Surfaces are not ideally Lambertian and can contain a specular component; and There will be some points that will be in shadow for one or more of the images. Therefore, there will not always be the three non-zero values of I to use in solving equation (4. 8). There are many approaches to deal with these problems documented in the computer vision literature. As stated before, while three photometric images are used to estimate surface orientation and surface albedo, if four or more images are captured using further illumination sources, more information can be obtained. While the concept of photometric stereo is fairly simple, great difficulties arise when considering a realistic illumination model, in particular, a model that can represent diffuse and specular reflection. Only by considering such a model can an accurate representation of a wide range of material properties be achieved. Ikeuchi [Ikeuchi81] first applied the photometric stereo method to specular surfaces, by using three extended light sources and the reflectance maps for each source in the form of lookup tables. In his research, he used a distributed light source obtained by uneven illumination of a diffusely reflecting planar surface and three input images. This method assumed a known object position and required accurate measurement of reflected brightness. Coleman and Jain [Coleman82] extended the method and used four-light-source photometric stereo to determine the shape of surfaces that are non-Lambertian. It was based on the assumption that specular highlight areas between images do not overlap; therefore, they used relative deviation to determine the specular source. They proposed to calculate four albedo values based on the four possible combinations of three light sources. For a perfectly Lambertian surface, the four albedo would be identical. However, for surfaces that exhibit some specularities, this is not the case. Their method reduces the problem to Woodham’s photometric stereo solution for three sources. However, they do not recover any specular parameters, only geometric and Lambertian ones. Compared to Coleman and Jain’s method, Tagare and deFigueriredo [Tagare90] do consider Lambertian and glossy specular objects. They show the uniqueness and the completeness of photometric stereo using their m-lobed reflectance maps. They give some results for a synthetic sphere using the reflectance maps of the Torrance- Sparrow model. They used eight light sources to recover the shape of real objects. Their work was continued by Kay and Caelly [Kay95] who investigated the problem of simultaneous estimation of surface normals and surface reflectance parameters from a practical point of view. Solomon and Ikeuchi [Solomon92] extended Coleman and Jain’s method by using four light sources. The shape information is produced directly by three light and four light photometric stereo methods. After they have shape information, statistical segmentation techniques can be applied to determine which pixels are specular and which are non-specular. Then, they can use the specular pixels and shape information, in conjugation with a simplified Torrance-Sparrow reflectance model to determine the surface roughness. Nayar, Ikeuchi and Kanade [Nayar90] also developed a theory which accounted for specularities. They developed another reflectance model, called a hybrid reflectance model, which is the weighted sum of a diffuse lobe represented by a cosine function, and a specular spike, modelled as a delta-function. The relative strength of the specular and diffuse models was not known, and the proposed method could recover not only the local gradient but also the parameters of the reflectance model. Rushmeier and Taubin [Rushmeier97] designed a system for obtaining bump maps from small sets of images captured under controlled lighting conditions. The bump map capture system complements inexpensive techniques for obtaining complex input data for rendering. The resulting maps can be used to re-render objects without reconstructing the original geometry. The map can also represent fine scale and self- shadowing geometry that would be difficult to recover from traditional photometric stereo. Drbohlav and Leonardis [Drbohlav98] presented a global approach to the problem of removing shadows and highlights which is based on photometric image sets. The method exploits the basic properties of Lambertian surfaces and treats shadows and specularities as outliers. They showed that when three images exist in which the brightness value of a given pixel behaves Lambertian, it is enough to predict the brightness of this pixel in any image taken under arbitrary illumination. They also demonstrated that the performance of the principal component analysis can not improve even while increasing the amount of the input image data. We note that there is no analysis of these above techniques with regard to the techniques of removing the artefacts of shadow and specularity. In Chapter 8, we propose a simple but efficient method to reduce effect of artefacts, which is similar to Rushmeier’s method [Rushmeier97]. In this chapter, we introduce the technique of photometric stereo which gives us the ability to estimate surface properties using several images of a surface taken from the same viewpoint but under illuminations from different directions. Firstly, some of candidate techniques are compared with photometric stereo. Binocular stereo is not suitable for us mainly due to correspondence problem. Shape from shading is based on smoothness and continuity, although it only needs one image. Photometric stereo technique does not have this problem. It allows us to obtain a surface description from several images of the same texture surface under various illumination directions. It is also a useful means that is suitable to recovery of the surface characteristics and matches our needs due to the problem caused by variation in illuminant direction. Furthermore, a general review of development on photometric stereo is presented. It is followed by a solution to photometric stereo, where three photometric images are used to recover both the local surface orientation and albedo information given the assumption that Lambertian surface and both shadow and specular factors are absent. The equations of photometric stereo are expressed in the format of matrix equations. Finally, some of techniques used to improve photometric stereo by considering shadow and specular effects are reviewed.

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Unravelling the genetic causes of cancer In addition to providing a major weapon for tracking and controlling the spread of drug-resistant bacteria, DNA sequencing is also being harnessed as a tool for cancer research. In 2012 the International Agency for Research on Cancer estimated that there were about 8.2 million deaths from cancer across the world annually, i.e. approximately 22,000 deaths a day. Cancer accounts for one in seven deaths worldwide. The global burden of cancer is expected to rise to 21.7 million new cases and 13 million deaths by 2030 (American Cancer Society, 2015). Cancer is a group of more than 100 diseases caused by mutations in the DNA code. This affects the making and working of proteins responsible for the growth and division of cells, directs where cells live in the body and determines when they should die. A major difficulty in tackling cancer arises because it is not usually caused by a single mutation in a single gene, but rather by multiple mutations that accumulate in several key genes. In addition, cancer mutates genetically over time, and changes in response to therapy. This makes the disease highly complex and heterogeneous. The fact that every cancer is different poses major challenges in terms of both its diagnosis and treatment. This shows the evolution of cancer in cells. Credit: Adapted from J D Hunt (n.d.) 'An introduction to cancer', LSU Health Sciences Center. Cancer only develops when several mutations accumulate in the DNA of an individual cell. Most of the mutations arise in the tissue where the cancer starts. In this diagram the light grey cells represent normal cells from one of the body's organs. These may develop mutations that cause them to grow slightly faster than other cells around them. The light blue cells represent cells that have undergone the first stage of mutation. Such cells are not yet tumour cells and will only become so if they undergo further mutation, which is a long process. Once formed the tumour cells can further mutate and become malignant. These appear at the site of the original organ and undergo yet more mutations before entering the bloodstream and spreading to other organs in the body where they form metastatic tumours. Sequencing the cancer genome As early as 1986 researchers suggested that sequencing the human genome might provide a better means to understanding cancer (Dulbecco, 1986). From the late 1990s an international consortium of scientists from more than 70 countries has been involved in efforts to catalogue and analyse normal, pre-cancerous and cancer genomes. One of the first projects, known as the Cancer Genome Project, was set up by the Wellcome Trust and the Institute of Cancer Research in the UK in 1999. In 2006, a similar project, known as The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), was established by the National Cancer Institute and National Human Genome Research Institute in the USA. The international research effort is dependent on whole genome sequencing (WGS). Its objective is to improve knowledge about the genetic mechanisms underlying cancer and to identify and classify different cancer types so as to improve diagnosis and treatment. Much of the work is concentrated on the cancer genome, i.e. on all of the genes in a cancer cell. The first cancer genome was sequenced in 2008. Four years later, almost 800 genomes had been sequenced from at least 25 different cancer types. By 2014 over 25,000 tumour samples had been sequenced from 50 different types of cancer (Brice, 2014). In 2015 the TCGA announced that it had discovered nearly 10 million cancer-related mutations. Despite this achievement, however, genomic research has been controversial, in part because of the high costs involved. The TCGA alone absorbed US$375 million in funds between 2006 and 2015, which some researchers initially felt would be better spent elsewhere. One of the largest expenses in the project was finding and paying for fresh tissue samples, because originally the sequencing technology could only work on rapidly frozen fresh tissue. This was a problem because most clinical biopsies examined by pathologists were fixed in paraffin and stained, which rendered them unsuitable for sequencing (Ledford, 2015). Sequencing the cancer genome has not only been questioned because of the large sums of money involved, but also because many have been sceptical about how far its results can be applied in the clinic. Only a small number of the mutations identified to-date have been found to induce cancer. Known as 'driver' mutations, most appear to be genetic oddities which have little in common. Even where driver mutations have been discovered, scientists have struggled to translate the findings into clinical applications. This has been particularly noticeable in the context of drug development. Cancers quickly activate different genes when drugs target their driver mutations (Ledford, 2015). Inherited breast and ovarian cancer While genomic sequencing as a whole is still in its infancy and its findings are still emerging, some progress has been made in the understanding of inherited breast and ovarian cancer. In fact, scientists had begun to understand the genetic mechanism involved in such cancers well before the launch of the Human Genome Project, and DNA sequencing. The notion that breast cancer could be a hereditary disease was first put forward in the mid-nineteenth century by Pierre-Paul Broca, a French physician-scientist, based on his observation of ten cases of breast cancer in four generations of his wife's family. Decades later, in the 1920s, Janet Elizabeth Jane-Claypon, an English physician and one of the founders of epidemiology, showed that daughters of women who had died of breast cancer had significantly higher rates of mortality from the disease than those whose mothers had died of other causes. By the 1970s a number of epidemiological studies had established that the risk of breast cancer was much greater among the daughters and sisters of women who had died young from the disease (King, 2014). Despite this evidence, not everyone was convinced that breast cancer could be an inherited disease in the 1970s. Indeed, many believed it was caused by a virus. This thinking began to change as a result of the work of Mary-Claire King, who was hired by Nicholas Petrakis at the University of California, San Francisco, in 1974, to work alongside his group of cancer epidemiologists to investigate why it was that some families were so severely affected by breast caner. While the evidence showed that breast cancer frequently appeared in multiple generations in some families, it was unclear whether this was due to their mutual exposure to some unidentified environmental factor, because of some inherited trait, or a combination of the two (King, 2005). At the time King knew very little about breast cancer, but she soon became engrossed by the question of what caused the disease. Having worked on genetic issues relating to human evolution for her doctoral research, she found it natural to look at the evolutionary process of cancer. She decided to tackle this both from the familial perspective, looking at patterns of susceptibility, and from the point of view of the tumour, following its mutation, selection and migration process (Gitschier, 2013). Mary-Claire King looking at an autoradiograph produced with the aid of Sanger's manual DNA sequencing technique. The photo was taken by Mary Levin in 1996. Credit: King and Washington University. King first became aware of the devastation of cancer when, at the age of 15, she watched her best friend die of a kidney tumour. Her first degree was in mathematics, awarded to her when she was just 19 years old. Following this, she completed a doctorate in genetics in 1973 under the supervision of Allan Wilson at the University of California, Berkeley. She then moved to Santiago, Chile, to teach on a University of California exchange programme at the Universidad de Chile, but the programme was abruptly terminated after the country's socialist president, Salvador Allende, was overthrown by Chile's armed forces and national police in September 1973. This resulted in her return to the USA where she took up a temporary research position at the University of California in San Francisco before being appointed professor of genetics and epidemiology at the University of California, Berkeley in 1976. She remained there until 1995 when she moved to the University of Washington (McHale, 1996; King, 2014). Initially, King set out to construct a genetic map based on evidence collected from women under the age of 55 diagnosed with primary breast cancer over a two year period between 1980 and 1982 in the San Francisco Bay Area and the metropolitan Detroit region of the National Cancer Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results Program. The records contained no information about the family history of the women recruited to the programme. Such details were gathered by interviewing each case within 6 months of diagnosis to establish if any of their immediate female or male relatives had a history of breast cancer (Newman, Austin, Lee, King, 1988). By 1988, King and her colleagues had analysed the genetics and mathematically modelled data gathered from 1579 nuclear families. Results from this study indicated that while 4 per cent of the families in the sample had inherited a susceptibility to the disease, the rest were afflicted by the disease by chance. Those who inherited the mutated gene were shown to have an 82 per cent life-time risk of developing breast cancer compared with 8 per cent of the general population (Newman, Austin, Lee, King, 1988). The hunt for breast cancer genes While the genetic mapping undertaken by King and her team indicated there was a strong possibility that breast cancer had a genetic link, this had yet to be proved. The best way to do this was to demonstrate the existence of such a gene. In 1988 a number of researchers in North America and Europe began competing against each other to find a gene dubbed 'Breast Cancer 1' (BRCA1) in the human genome. DNA sequencing and different genetic markers were crucial to this endeavour. The competitors included King's group as well as scientists under Bruce Ponder at the Cancer Research Campaign's Human Cancer Genetics Research centre based in Cambridge, UK, and an American group led by Mark Sckolnick who was linked to the University of Utah and Myriad Genetics Inc, a Utah-based biotechnology company. In December 1990 King's team announced that the most likely place to find the gene was in a small region in the middle of human chromosome 17. They reached this conclusion on the basis of a detailed genetic analysis of 23 extended families, a total of 329 relatives, which had 146 cases of breast cancer. Each relative was expected to provide a blood sample, which was subjected to DNA sequencing. Findings from the study marked a critical turning point in the hunt for the gene. Nonetheless, the region identified was thought to contain hundreds of genes, so finding the right gene remained a major undertaking (Hall, Ming, Newman, Morrow, 1990; Arney, 2012). By late 1992 another group of researchers based in England, led by the epidemiologist Doug Easton and funded by the Cancer Research Campaign, had completed a study analysing all the genetic linkage data collected from 214 breast cancer families from around the world; this sample included 57 individuals with both breast and ovarian cancer. This located the disease gene more precisely on human chromosome 17 and showed that a faulty gene in this region accounted for most of the cases of breast and ovarian cancer in the families. It also indicated that there could be two, not just one, gene involved. The evidence provided by Easton's group greatly narrowed down the scope of the search (Easton, Bishop, Ford, Crockford, et al, 1993). In August 1994 Bruce Ponder's team in Cambridge published a genetic map they had constructed of the region of chromosome 17, indicating 20 possible genes linked to breast cancer. Following this, research teams across the world began sequencing DNA fragments prepared by Ponder's team from the region of the chromosome in an effort to find genes with the same mutations as those found in women with hereditary cancer. Within two months Skolnick's group in Utah announced that they had identified and cloned a gene (BRCA1) which was found in a high proportion of the families affected by hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (Miki, Swensen, Shattuck-Eidens, Futreal, et al, 1994; Arney, 2012). While the discovery of BRCA1 by Skolnick’s group marked a major breakthrough, the research findings indicated that the gene was not implicated in all the cases of inherited breast and ovarian cancers. This suggested the involvement of another gene. In the same month an international team led by Mike Stratton at the Institute of Cancer Research, UK, with funding from the Cancer Research Campaign and the Medical Research Council, announced that they had located a second gene on a small region on chromosome 13 that predisposed individuals to breast cancer. This conclusion was based on the construction of gene linkage maps and the analysis of DNA taken from 15 families that had multiple cases of early-onset breast cancer not related to the BRCA1 gene (Wooster, Neuhausen, Manigon, Quirk, et al, 1994). News from the Stratton team set off another international search to find the next gene linked to breast cancer. The main competitors were Stratton's group in collaboration with researchers at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute and Myriad Genetics. By the end of 1995 this team had identified the gene (BRCA2). They tracked this down after sequencing DNA samples taken from a number of Icelandic families who were affected by multiple cases of breast cancer. Access to a draft of the DNA sequence from the end of chromosome 13, provided by researchers in the Human Genome Project, finally helped them identify the gene (Wooster, Bignell, Lancaster, Swift, et al, 1995; Arney, 2012a). Subsequent to their discovery, both BRCA1 and 2 have been found to be pivotal to the production of proteins that help repair damaged DNA and sustain the stability of a cell's genetic content, an important mechanism in suppressing tumours. Women who inherit a mutant version of such genes run the risk of developing abnormal cells and cancer. Approximately 1 in every 1,000 people carry a fault in one of the genes, and about 2 in every 100 women with breast cancer have a fault in either of them. Women who have a faulty BRCA gene have an 80 per cent risk of developing breast cancer. This compares with a 12 per cent risk in the general female population. They also have a 55 per cent chance of getting ovarian cancer. Overall, mutations in both BRCA1 and BRCA2 account for approximately 20-25 per cent of hereditary breast cancers, about 5 to 10 per of all breast cancers, and 15 per cent of ovarian cancers (National Cancer Institute, n.d.; Arney, 2012a). This shows two human breast cancer cells dividing. Credit: David Becker, Wellcome Images. The prevention of breast cancer The isolation and identification of the BRCA genes offered a means to determine an individual's risk of contracting cancer for the first time. Although a genetic test had been developed to identify individuals carrying mutations of the genes as early as 1996, many controversies surrounded its promotion. This was partly because many questions remained about the risk posed by the gene, and partly because it was unclear what, if anything, could be done to lessen the risk (Kolata, 1996). Today genetic testing for BRCA1 and 2 is routine in the USA, being carried out mostly at the commercial laboratory of Myriad Genetics, while in Britain testing is recommended for women who have a strong family history of breast and ovarian cancer. King now argues that all American women aged 30 and over be offered the test. Not everyone agrees however Narod, 2009; Pollack, 2015). Those who test positive face stark choices about what to do. Women in their twenties and thirties, for example, who have not yet been diagnosed with breast or ovarian cancer wrestle with decisions as to whether they should have their ovaries and breasts surgically removed. This would help considerably to reduce the risk of cancer, but could have potentially serious side effects, such as early menopause. In addition, if they test positive, they have to consider whether to share such information with relatives who may also carry the gene. All of this can take its toll emotionally (The Royal Marsden, n.d.). The BRAF gene Soon after identifying the BRCA2 gene, in 1998/99, Stratton and his colleagues Richard Wooster and Andy Futreal began to discuss the possibility of using the reference sequence data emerging from the Human Genome Project as a means to move beyond sequencing cancers caused by inherited mutations. Their idea was to look at cancer attributable to alterations to DNA that occur after conception. Known as somatic mutation, this process can occur in any cells of the body apart from germ cells (sperm and egg cells) which cannot be passed on to offspring. Their proposed project was highly ambitious. Not only was its scope large, the technology was still relatively undeveloped and it would require large-scale funding (Stratton, 2013). The team started work on what was to become known as the Cancer Genome Project in 2000 at the Sanger Institute in Cambridge, with funding from the Wellcome Trust. They began by sequencing some coding segments of DNA, known as exons, in cancer genomes. One of the obstacles facing them was how to get sufficient quantities of DNA to do the work because they could not secure enough normal tissue DNA samples from individuals whose somatic mutations had to be sequenced. This forced them to focus their attention on just 15 cancer cell lines. These provided an assortment of 20-30 cancers, including cancers of the breast and lung and melanomas. The work was carried out with the help of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a technology that amplifies DNA (Stratton, 2013). The group was reliant on the conventional sequencing method developed by Sanger. This meant that they could not sequence large numbers of the genes in one go. Given this problem the group focused their attention on sequencing genes that coded for kinase enzymes, proteins that were known or thought to be involved in cell signalling pathways implicated in cancer development. They started the project by sequencing a large number of tumour samples which they then screened for any mutations linked to the kinase enzymes. Within weeks of starting the work they discovered that one kinase gene, known as BRAF, contained a single mutation that altered one amino acid in the majority of tumours. By 2002 they had demonstrated that BRAF mutations showed up in approximately 60 per cent of malignant melanomas, 15 per cent in colorectal cancers, 30 per cent in papillary thyroid cancers and a variety of other types of cancer (Davies, Bignell, Cox, Stephens, et al, 2002; Hesketh, 2012; Stratton, 2013). Mike Stratton (immediately in front) Richard Wooster (centre) and Andy Futreal (right), 2004. Credit: Sanger Institute. The three researchers are responsible for the foundation of the Cancer Genome Project and the discovery of the BRAF gene. The study was promising because it suggested that BRAF and its mutations could provide a drug target for malignant melanoma, a dangerous and highly prevalent form of skin cancer that is generally unresponsive to conventional chemo or radio therapy. In 2012, 234,000 people were estimated to have this cancer around the world, and it had caused 55,000 deaths (WHO, 2014). Encouraged by the findings of the Cancer Genome Project, a number of pharmaceutical companies now launched work on the development of drugs to inhibit BRAF. The first one to gain approval from the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was vemurafenib (Zelboraf) in 2011. Another, dabrafenib (Tafinlar) was approved by the FDA in 2013. Both drugs provided a major step forward in the treatment of malignant melanoma, although as yet they do not provide a total cure, and many patients develop tumours that are resistant to the drugs. Attention is now being paid to alternative treatments targeting BRAF and its signalling pathway. This is being aided by the genetic analysis of patients who have proved resistant to treatment of vemurafenib and dabragenib (Fedorenko, Gibney, Sondak, Smalley, 2015). While progress in the treatment of cancer still has a considerable way to go, sequencing has opened up a new approach to the disease. It has had a major impact in challenging the traditional classification of tumours, shifting classification to a system that is based on a tumour's genetic make-up rather than its location in the body. This is guiding new treatment strategies. Genomic analysis of tumours from patients with breast cancer, for example, has identified a number of driver mutations in genes not previously associated with breast cancer. Some of the genes found in breast cancer tumours have also been identified in leukaemia and cancers of the prostate, lung, skin, colon and rectum. The discovery of genetic mutations across different tumour types has also opened up the possibility of using drugs originally approved to treat other cancers. Such discoveries are also being used in the design of future drugs. WGS also makes it easier to know which patients are most likely to benefit from particular treatments (Hesketh, 2012; Chmielecki, Meyerson, 2014; Mardis, n.d.). WGS is also proving valuable in tracking the evolution of cancer in tumours. Work in this area shows that when tumours grow they retain their original cluster of mutations and initially cause the cells to become cancerous; over time, they also develop new genetic mutations. This is important in terms of the timing of the administration of drugs, which are likely to be less effective if given in the late stage of cancer where more types of mutations need to be hit (Mardis, n.d.). The dramatic drop in the cost of sequencing in recent years is fuelling expectations that doctors will soon be able to submit almost any suspected malignant specimens from patients for a full genomic evaluation as a matter of routine. A number of researchers are also investigating the possibility of developing a diagnostic test to sequence DNA originating from cancer cells that circulate in bodily fluids such as blood plasma. It is hoped that such tests will help in the classification of patients’ cancers, what their prognosis is, what treatment should be given, and the ability to monitor their responses to drugs (Murtaza, Dawson, Tsui, et al, 2013; Chmielecki, Meyerson, 2014). American Cancer Society (2015) Global Cancer Facts & Figures 3rd Edition, Atlanta. Back Arney, K (2012) 'Tracking down the BRCA genes (Part 1), Cancer Research UK. Back Arney, K (2012a) 'Tracking down the BRCA genes (Part 2), Cancer Research UK. Back Brice, P (2014) 'Over 10,000 cancer genome sequences released', PHG Foundation. Back Chmielecki, J, Meyerson, M (2014) 'DNA sequencing of cancer: What have we learned?' Annual Review of Medicine, 65:73-9. Back Davies, H, Bignell, G R, Cox, C, Stephens, P, et al (2002), ' Mutations of the BRAF gene in human cancer', Nature, 417: 949-54. Back Dulbecco, R (1986) 'Sequencing the human genome', Science, 231: 1055-6. Back Easton, D, Bishop, D T, Ford, D, Crockford G P, et al (1993) 'Genetic Linkage Analysis in Familial Breast and Ovarian Cancer: Results from 214 Families', American Journal of Genetics, 52: 678-701. Back Fedorenko, Gibney, Sondak, Smalley (2015) 'Beyond BRAF: where next for melanoma therapy?', British Journal of Cancer , 112: 217–26. Back Gitschier, J (2013) 'Evidence Is Evidence: An Interview with MaryClaire King', PLoS Genetics, 9/9: e1003828. Back Hall, J, Ming, M K, Newman, B, Morrow, J E (1990) 'Linkage of early-onset familial breast cancer to chromosome 17q21', Science, 250: 1684-9. Back Hesketh, R (2012) Betrayed by Nature: The war on cancer, Basingstoke. Back King, M C (2005), Interview with Jane Reece, Campbell Biology, 5th Edition, Unit Three. Back King, M C (2014) 'The race to clone BRCA1', Science, 343: 1462-5. Back Kolata, G (1996) 'Breaking ranks, Lab offers test to assess risk of breast cancer', The New York Times. Back Ledford, H (2015) 'End of cancer-genome project prompts rethink', Nature, 517, 128-9. Back Mardis, E (n.d.) 'DNA sequencing lays foundation for personalised cancer treatment', The Elizabeth H and James S McDonnell III Genome Institute at Washington University. Back McHale, L (1996) 'Putting the puzzle together', Washington University Alumni Column. Back Miki, Y, Swensen, J, Shuttuck-Eidens, D, Futreal, P A, et al (1994) 'A strong candidate for the breask and ovarian cancer susceptibility gene BRCA1', Science, 266/5182:66-71. Back Murtaza, M, Dawson, S-J, Tsui, D W Y, et al (2013) 'Non-invasive analysis of acquired resistance to cancer therapy by sequencing of plasma DNA', Nature, 497: 108-13. Back Narod, S A (2009) 'BRCA1 and BRCA2 in 2005', Discovery Medicine, 5/25: 50-54. Back National Cancer Institute (n.d.) 'BRCA1 and BRCA2: Cancer Risk and Genetic Testing'. Back Newman, B, Austin, M A, Lee, M, King, M (1988), 'Inheritance of human breast cancer: Evidence for autosomal dominant transmission in high-risk families', Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 85: 3044-8. Back Pollack, A (2015) 'New genetic tests for breast cancer hold promise', The New York Times. Back Stratton, M (2013) 'Journeys into the genome of cancer cells', EMBO Molecular Medicine, 5: 169-72. Back The Royal Marsden (n.d.) 'A beginner's guide to BRCA1 and BRCA2'. Back WHO (2014), World Cancer Report. Back Wooster, Bignell, Lancaster, Swift, et al (1995) 'Identification of the breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA2', Nature, 378/6559: 789-92. Back Wooster, R, Neuhausen, S L, Manigon, J, Quirk, Y, et al (1994) 'Localization of a Breast Cancer Susceptibility Gene, BRCA2, to Chromosome 13q12-13', Science, 265/ 5181: 2088-90. Back

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The OzFoodNet Working Group The Australian Government Department of Health established the OzFoodNet network in 2000 to collaborate nationally to investigate foodborne disease. In each Australian state and territory, OzFoodNet epidemiologists investigate outbreaks of enteric infection. In addition, OzFoodNet conducts studies on the burden of illness and coordinates national investigations into outbreaks of foodborne disease. This quarterly report documents investigations of outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness and clusters of disease potentially related to food, which commenced in Australia between 1 January and 31 March 2015. Data were received from OzFoodNet epidemiologists in all Australian states and territories. The data in this report are provisional and subject to change. During the 1st quarter of 2015 (1 January to 31 March), OzFoodNet sites reported 399 outbreaks of enteric illness, including those transmitted by contaminated food or water. Outbreaks of gastroenteritis are often not reported to health authorities, which results in current figures under-representing the true burden of enteric disease outbreaks within Australia. There were 5,899 people affected in these outbreaks and 253 hospitalisations. There were 20 deaths reported during these outbreaks. This represents a decrease in the number of people affected compared with the 5-year average from 2010 to 2014 for the 1st quarter (6,626). The majority of reported outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness in Australia are due to person-to-person transmission. In this quarter, 74% (296/399) of outbreaks were transmitted via this route (Table 1). This percentage was slightly higher than the same quarter in 2014 (72%, 335/465) but the total number is lower than the 5-year mean (1st quarter, 2010–2014) of 302 outbreaks transmitted person-to-person. Of the person-to-person outbreaks in the 1st quarter of 2015, 52% (153/296) occurred in child care facilities and 39% (114/296) occurred in aged care facilities. |Transmission mode||Number of outbreaks and clusters||Per cent of total*||Number ill| |* May not add up to 100% due to rounding.| |Foodborne and suspected foodborne||47||12||891| |Unknown (Salmonella cluster)||11||3||265| Foodborne and suspected foodborne disease outbreaks There were 47 outbreaks during this quarter where consumption of contaminated food was suspected or confirmed as being the primary mode of transmission (Appendix). These outbreaks affected 891 people, of which 602 were laboratory-confirmed cases, and resulted in 101 hospitalisations. There were 2 deaths reported during these outbreaks. This was a decrease on the number of foodborne outbreaks that were reported in the 4th quarter of 2014 (54) and an increase on the 5-year mean for the 1st quarter between 2010 and 2014 (45). The data within this report, provided by OzFoodNet sites, has associated limitations, including the potential variation in categorisation of features of outbreaks, depending on varied circumstances and investigator interpretation. Changes in the number of foodborne disease outbreaks should be interpreted with caution due to the small number each quarter. Salmonella Typhimurium was identified as the aetiological agent in 74% (35/47) of foodborne or suspected foodborne outbreaks during this quarter (Appendix); a higher proportion than for the same quarter in 2014 (67%, 33/49). The aetiological agents for the remaining outbreaks included: norovirus in 3 outbreaks; ciguatoxin in 2 outbreaks; and Clostridium perfringens; S. Bovismorbificans; Salmonella (untyped); S. Virchow; and histamine poisoning for 1 outbreak each. For 2 outbreaks the aetiological agent was unknown. Twenty-seven outbreaks (57% of all foodborne or suspected foodborne outbreaks) reported in this quarter were associated with food prepared in restaurants (Table 2). This was higher than the average number of restaurant associated foodborne or suspected foodborne outbreaks in the 1st quarter from 2010 to 2014 (18). |Food preparation setting||Number of outbreaks||Per cent of foodborne outbreaks*||Number ill||Number laboratory confirmed| |* May not add up to 100% due to rounding.| |Other (Conference centre)||2||4||170||151| |National franchised fast food restaurants||1||2||48||46| |Institution – not otherwise specified||1||2||69||31| To investigate these outbreaks, sites conducted 2 cohort studies, 5 case control studies and collected descriptive case series data for 27 investigations. For 13 outbreaks, no individual patient data were collected. The evidence used to implicate food vehicles included analytical evidence in 4 outbreaks, microbiological evidence in 8 outbreaks, both analytical and microbiological evidence in 4 outbreaks, and descriptive evidence in 31 outbreaks. The following jurisdictional summaries describe key outbreaks and public health actions that occurred during the quarter Australian Capital Territory There were 2 outbreaks of foodborne or suspected foodborne illness reported in the Australian Capital Territory in this quarter. For reporting purposes, both of these outbreaks were considered New South Wales events, one of which is described in the New South Wales key outbreaks. New South Wales There were 15 outbreaks of foodborne or suspected foodborne illness reported in New South Wales in this quarter. The aetiological agents identified were S. Typhimurium (for 9 outbreaks) and S. Bovismorbificans, S. Virchow, Salmonella (untyped) and histamine poisoning (for 1 outbreak each). Two outbreaks were of unknown aetiology. Description of key outbreaks An outbreak was investigated after salmonellosis affected 33 residents across 10 aged care facilities (ACFs) in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. Facility-based attack rates ranged from 0.6% to 7.5%. The ACF’s were managed by the same organisation and shared common food suppliers. All 33 cases tested positive for S. Bovismorbificans, 30 were further characterised as phage type (PT) 14 and the remaining 3 were not phage typed. The environmental investigation identified S. Bovismorbificans PT 14 at the premises of a baked dessert supplier to the ACFs and in food samples. An outbreak was investigated in February after 4 separate cases of suspected histamine fish poisoning. Cases presented with red face, headache, tingling, sweating, vomiting and palpitations. An investigation identified a total of 7 suspected cases who had consumed tuna salad from the same local food outlet. Onset of symptoms was within 10 to 15 minutes of tuna consumption. The NSW Food Authority initiated an investigation resulting in a trade level recall of an imported canned tuna product. There were no outbreaks of foodborne or suspected foodborne illness reported in the Northern Territory in this quarter. There were 16 outbreaks of foodborne or suspected foodborne illness reported in Queensland in this quarter. This represents 34% of the total number of foodborne or suspected foodborne outbreaks for the quarter (16/47) nationally, but 66% of the total number of people affected (584/891). The aetiological agents identified were S. Typhimurium (for 13 outbreaks), ciguatoxin (for 2 outbreaks) and norovirus (for 1 outbreak). Description of key outbreaks An outbreak was investigated in January after Queensland Health was notified of gastrointestinal illness by several hospital emergency departments and members of the public who had consumed meals at the same restaurant over several days. In total, 138 people from multiple groups reported symptoms including diarrhoea and/or vomiting and/or stomach cramps. S. Typhimurium with the multi-locus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) pattern 03-12-11-12-523* was identified in 95 cases. A case-control study identified multiple food items significantly associated with illness including deep fried ice-cream (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 122.7, 95% confidence interval [CI] 31.0–485.4, P = 0.001), lemon chicken (aOR 14.5, 95% CI 2.1–98.5, P = 0.006) and sweet and sour pork (aOR 5.2, 95% CI 1.3–21.1, P = 0.02). Environmental health officers identified multiple food hygiene issues and widespread bacterial contamination throughout the premises. S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-11-12-523 was detected on surfaces and in multiple food items from the restaurant kitchen, as well as in drag swabs and (spent) chicken feed from the egg farm that supplied the restaurant. Regulatory action was subsequently taken against the restaurant. An outbreak was investigated in March after multiple cases of illness were associated with meals consumed at the same café. In total, 44 people reported either diarrhoea, vomiting or stomach cramps within 3 days after consuming a meal at the café, or had a stool sample that was culture positive for S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-17-09-11-523. Thirty-one cases were laboratory confirmed. A case-control study identified a significant association between an eggs Benedict meal and illness (OR 124.4, 95% CI 14.2–3693.7, P < 0.001). Environmental health officers identified hygiene and temperature control issues at the café and the license was temporarily suspended. S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-17-09-11-523 was isolated from guacamole, tea towels, a cleaning cloth and swabs from the sink area at the café. These findings were indicative of cross contamination within the kitchen. The same pathogen was also found in drag swabs and chicken faeces samples from the supplying egg farm. An outbreak involving at least 140 cases of salmonellosis was investigated in association with a conference held in late February. Nine cases were hospitalised. A case control study identified 2 items significantly associated with illness: rum and raisin bread cake (aOR 4.0, 95% CI 1.7–9.3, P = 0.001) and custard (aOR 11.3, 95% CI 4.8–26.5, P < 0.001). S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-12-09-523 was isolated from the faecal specimens collected from 58 attendees. Isolates with the same MLVA type were identified on 3 swabs taken from a stick blender used to prepare the implicated food, and in environmental samples from the farm of one of the egg suppliers. Following this investigation, the facility removed stick blenders from the kitchen, introduced the use of pasteurised egg and ‘high risk’ menu items were removed. It also adopted an ongoing microbial monitoring regime as part of its food safety program. An outbreak was investigated in January and February after 48 cases of S. Typhimurium PT U307, MLVA 03-12-11-12-523 were linked to over 20 outlets of the same franchised food chain. Fourteen hospitalisations were reported. Food histories collected from the cases identified a chocolate mousse product that was consumed by 84% of cases. Environmental health investigations identified that the chocolate mousse was supplied to a central kitchen by another manufacturer. Chocolate mousse samples collected from retail and multiple food samples collected from the manufacturer (including chocolate mousse and a selection of cheesecakes and chocolate cakes) were positive for S. Typhimurium 03-12-11-12-523. These products were all prepared using a raw egg mixture with no subsequent cooking step. Investigations identified that the chocolate mousse product had also been supplied to 2 venues where outbreaks of the same S. Typhimurium MLVA had occurred in the 4th quarter of 2014. All food businesses supplied with these raw egg-based products were requested to withdraw the products from sale and destroy them. The manufacturer ceased making the products and switched to the use of pasteurised egg. An outbreak in January affected at least 85 people who reported consuming Korean style ‘Kimbap’ sushi packs. Kimbap is a potentially hazardous food because it is usually kept at room temperature to avoid retrogradation of the rice starch.1 It also is not acidified with rice vinegar. The kimbap packs were from multiple outlets and contained combinations of egg, tuna, vegetables, ham or seafood extender. Environmental health investigations were able to trace the production of the kimbap packs to a single unlicensed manufacturer, although the kitchen where the kimbap was prepared was not located. Forty-four faecal specimens tested positive for S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-11-12-523, as did 2 retail samples of kimbap. A source of contamination was unable to be confirmed during this outbreak, though eggs were suspected based on findings from multiple concurrent outbreaks occurring within Queensland with the same MLVA profile. There were 4 outbreaks of foodborne and suspected foodborne illness reported in South Australia in this quarter. The aetiological agent identified for all 4 outbreaks was S. Typhimurium. Description of key outbreaks An outbreak was investigated after initial interviewing identified 3 S. Typhimurium PT 9 cases that had consumed meals at the same hotel. Further investigation linked a total of 7 cases to the same hotel. Two cases were hospitalised. S. Typhimurium PT 9, MLVA 03-24-13-10-523 was subsequently isolated from environmental swabs of the internal components of the stick blender used to prepare raw egg aioli, soups and dressings at the hotel. All 7 human cases had the same MLVA profile as the environmental sample from the stick blender. There were no outbreaks of foodborne or suspected foodborne illness reported in Tasmania in this quarter. There were 6 outbreaks of foodborne or suspected foodborne illness reported in Victoria in this quarter. The aetiological agents identified were S. Typhimurium (for 5 outbreaks) and C. perfringens. Description of key outbreaks An outbreak investigation commenced in February after 4 cases of S. Typhimurium PT 9, MLVA 03-24-16/15-12-525 were identified to be clustered geographically by residence. Investigations revealed that the cases had eaten at one of 2 cafés owned and operated by the same proprietors. Further case finding identified an additional 14 cases who had eaten at either of these cafés. Of the 18 ill, 13 (including 4 staff members), were confirmed with S. Typhimurium PT 9 with the outbreak MLVA pattern. Five cases were hospitalised. Sixteen cases had eaten sandwiches (14 chicken and mayonnaise and 2 tuna and mayonnaise), including 2 employees of the café. A sample of the chicken and mayonnaise mixture was positive for S. Typhimurium PT 9, with the outbreak MLVA pattern. The implicated mayonnaise was prepared onsite with raw eggs. The source of S. Typhimurium PT 9 in the chicken and mayonnaise mixture was unable to be confirmed. An outbreak was investigated in February following notification of 2 cases of S. Typhimurium PT 135a, MLVA 03-11-11-16-525 in residents of the same ACF. The cases resided in the same wing, required fully assisted feeding and only consumed vitamised meals. An inspection revealed that the blender used to vitamise meals was also used for blending raw eggs. Faecal specimens were taken from a further 12 residents who were asymptomatic but consumed vitamised meals; 5 were positive for S. Typhimurium PT 135a, MLVA 03-11-11-16-525. Food and environmental samples including swabs of the blender used to vitamise meals were negative for Salmonella. This outbreak was suspected to have been caused by cross contamination from eggs. There were 4 outbreaks of foodborne or suspected foodborne illness reported in Western Australia in this quarter. The aetiological agents identified were norovirus and S. Typhimurium (for 2 outbreaks each). Description of key outbreaks An outbreak was investigated in January following a report of gastroenteritis in 32 prisoners and 10 staff at a correctional facility. S. Typhimurium pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) 3 was isolated from 8 faecal specimens. One suspect meal was identified, which included a potato salad made with a raw egg mayonnaise. The eggs were sourced from a prison farm. In February, the same farm reported a gastroenteritis outbreak involving 13 prisoners, with S. Typhimurium PFGE 3 isolated from 2 faecal specimens. In this outbreak, prisoners reported drinking raw egg milkshakes. In March, a 2nd outbreak occurred at a regional prison, involving 6 prisoners and 1 staff member. S. Typhimurium PFGE 3 was isolated from 2 faecal specimens. Prisoners again reported drinking raw egg milkshakes. A further 7 apparently sporadic cases of S. Typhimurium PFGE 3 were notified from 6 prisons. An inspection of the egg production facilities at the implicated farm found a basic operation, with no candling or routine cleaning of eggs. A chicken feed sample was positive for S. Typhimurium PFGE 3 but eggs sampled, and subsequent feed samples, were negative for Salmonella. Between October 2014 and May 2015, an outbreak of hepatitis A associated with the consumption of a frozen mixed berry product occurred across multiple jurisdictions. This required a multi-jurisdictional response involving state health departments, OzFoodNet, public health reference laboratories, agriculture and food agencies. Although the majority of cases occurred in this quarter, the report of this investigation will be included in the 1 April to 30 June 2015 (2nd quarter) OzFoodNet national quarterly report. During this quarter, OzFoodNet sites conducted investigations into 54 outbreaks and clusters for which no common food vehicle or source of infection could be identified. Aetiological agents that were able to be identified during the investigations included S. Typhimurium (for 7 clusters), Shigella spp. (for 2 clusters), and S. Agona, S. Kiambu, S. Newport, S. Saintpaul and rotavirus (for 1 cluster each). During this quarter, 891 people were affected by foodborne or suspected foodborne outbreaks. This is a 24% increase on the number affected in the 1st quarter of 2014 (721) and a 65% increase on the 5-year mean (2010–2014) for this quarter (539). Outbreaks in Queensland accounted for 66% (584) of the total number of people affected by foodborne outbreaks; 96% (558) of these were affected in 13 outbreaks of S. Typhimurium. The 2 largest of these outbreaks, which affected 140 people attending a conference and 138 people at a restaurant respectively, are discussed under Queensland’s description of key outbreaks. In this quarter, S. Typhimurium was the aetiological agent for 81% (13/16) of the foodborne outbreaks for which an analytical and/or microbiological link to a food vehicle was established. Seventy-seven per cent (10/13) of the S. Typhimurium outbreaks were associated with the consumption of raw or minimally cooked egg dishes. These outbreaks affected 516 people, which was 94% (516/550) of the total affected by S. Typhimurium outbreaks in the quarter. Cross contamination between raw eggs or raw egg products and ready-to-eat food items can occur when equipment, such as stick or other blenders, are not properly cleaned and sanitised between processing of these food types. In this quarter, blending equipment was associated with 4 outbreaks of S. Typhimurium (2 in Queensland, 1 in South Australia and 1 in Victoria), affecting 2,518 people. Cross contamination is a risk when using stick mixers or blenders to process raw foods such as eggs, due to the potential contamination of internal components and the difficulty in being able to thoroughly clean them. Blenders and stick mixers should be regularly dismantled, cleaned and sanitised.2 In addition, one piece of mixing equipment should be allocated for raw high risk foods (such as cakes/pancake batter and raw egg deserts) and another separate piece of mixing equipment for ready-to-eat foods that will not be cooked after the blending step (such as whipped cream). OzFoodNet thanks the investigators in the public health units and state and territory departments of health, as well as public health laboratories, local government environmental health officers and food safety agencies who provided the data used in this report. We would particularly like to thank the reference laboratories for conducting sub-typing of Salmonella species and other enteric pathogens and for their continuing work and advice during the quarter. OzFoodNet contributors to this report include (in alphabetical order): Barry Combs (WA), Anthony Draper (NT), Marion Easton (Vic.), Jess Encena (Vic.), James Flint (HNE), Laura Ford (ACT), Neil Franklin (NSW), Catriona Furlong (NSW), Michelle Harlock (Tas.), Joy Gregory (Vic.), Jodie Halliday (SA), Kirsty Hope (NSW), Karin Lalor (Vic.), Robyn Leader (Central), Megge Miller (SA), Cameron Moffatt (ACT), Nevada Pingault (WA), Ben Polkinghorne (Central), Russell Stafford (Qld), and Kate Ward (NSW). |State or territory||Month†||Setting prepared||Agent responsible||Number affected‡||Number lab confirmed||Number hospitalised‡||Evidence||Responsible vehicles| * No foodborne outbreaks were reported in the Australian Capital Territory, the Northern Territory or Tasmania, during the quarter. † Month of outbreak is the month of onset of the first case or month of notification of the first case or month the investigation of the outbreak commenced. ‡ The number of people affected and hospitalised relate to the findings of the outbreak investigation at the time of writing and not necessarily in the month specified or in this quarter. The number of people affected does not necessarily equal the number of laboratory-confirmed cases. A Analytical epidemiological association between illness and one or more foods. D Descriptive evidence implicating the suspected vehicle or suggesting foodborne transmission. M Microbiological confirmation of aetiological agent in the suspected vehicle and cases. MLVA Multi-locus variable number tandem repeat analysis. PFGE Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. PT Phage type. |NSW||Jan||Restaurant||Salmonella Typhimurium MLVA 03-09-08-12-523||3||1||0||D||Tiramisu| |NSW||Jan||Aged care facility||S. Bovismorbificans||33||33||12||AM||Baked dessert items| |NSW||Jan||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-11-14-523||12||11||0||D||Menu items containing undercooked egg| |NSW||Jan||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-11-14-523||2||2||0||D||Suspected raw egg sauces| |NSW||Jan||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-13-09-523||13||13||3||D||Unknown| |NSW||Feb||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-09-07-12-523 and 03-12-12-09-523||5||3||0||D||Unknown| |NSW||Feb||Takeaway||Unknown||30||0||Unknown||D||Vietnamese style chicken and salad rolls| |NSW||Feb||Takeaway||Histamine fish poisoning||7||0||0||M||Canned tuna| |NSW||Feb||Restaurant||S. Virchow||3||2||1||D||Menu items containing undercooked egg| |NSW||Feb||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-10-08-12-523||9||3||0||D||Unknown| |NSW||Mar||Community event||S. Typhimurium PT 12A||4||3||3||D||Pancake batter containing eggs| |NSW||Mar||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-24-14-10-523||7||7||0||D||Unknown| |NSW||Mar||Restaurant||Salmonella spp. (PCR only)||5||1||1||D||Tiramisu| |NSW||Mar||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-09-07-13-523||4||4||0||D||Menu items containing undercooked egg| |Qld||Jan||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-11-12-523||138||95||Unknown||AM||Deep fried ice-cream| |Qld||Jan||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-12-12-523||16||11||0||AM||Deep fried ice-cream| |Qld||Jan||Unknown||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-11-12-523||85||44||Unknown||M||Kimbap style sushi| |Qld||Jan||Aged care facility||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-11-12-523||4||2||1||M||Suspected egg dish| |Qld||Jan||National franchised fast food restaurant||S. Typhimurium PT U307, MLVA 03-12-11-12-523||48||46||14||M||Chocolate mousse| |Qld||Jan||Primary produce||Ciguatera fish poisoning||2||0||0||D||Cod| |Qld||Feb||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-13-09-523||17||9||2||A||Roast duck| |Qld||Feb||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-13-09-523||3||3||0||D||Lamb tartare with raw egg| |Qld||Feb||Private residence||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-10-12-523||6||6||1||D||Sushi| |Qld||Feb||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-12-09-523||7||7||1||D||Eggs Benedict| |Qld||Feb||Other||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-12-09-523||30||11||3||D||Unknown| |Qld||Feb||Other||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-12-09-523||140||140||9||AM||Rum and raisin bread cake with custard| |Qld||Mar||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-17-09-11-523||44||31||23||A||Eggs Benedict| |Qld||Mar||Primary produce||Ciguatera fish poisoning||6||0||1||D||Spanish mackerel| |Qld||Mar||Private residence||S. Typhimurium MLVA 03-12-10-11-523||20||6||4||M||Chicken long soup (with egg and chicken)| |SA||Feb||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium PT 135, MLVA 03-12-09-11-523||7||7||1||D||Raw egg sun-dried tomato aioli| |SA||Feb||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium PT 135a, MLVA 03-12-12-09-523||3||2||0||D||Raw egg aioli| |SA||Feb||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium PT 135a, MLVA 03-13-10-10-523||2||2||0||D||Unknown| |SA||Mar||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium PT 9, MLVA 03-24-13-10-523||7||7||2||M||Contaminated stick blender| |SA||Mar||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium PT 9, MLVA 03-15-06-11-550 and MLVA 03-24-13-10-523||7||7||2||D||Eggs; poached, scrambled or omelette| |SA||Mar||Takeaway||S. Typhimurium PT 9, MLVA 03-14-08-11-550||4||4||1||D||Unknown| |Vic.||Jan||Aged care facility||Clostridium perfringens||4||1||0||D||Unknown| |Vic.||Feb||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium PT 9||18||13||5||M||Chicken and raw egg mayonnaise mixture| |Vic.||Feb||Aged care facility||S. Typhimurium PT 135a, MLVA 03-11-11-16-525||7||7||0||D||Vitamised food suspected| |Vic.||Mar||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium PT 135a||3||2||0||M||Raw egg mayonnaise| |Vic.||Mar||Restaurant||S. Typhimurium PT 135a||10||3||1||A||Pork dish| |Vic.||Mar||Takeaway||S. Typhimurium PT 135a||6||6||6||D||Chicken suspected| |WA||Jan||Institution – not otherwise specified||S. Typhimurium PFGE 3, MLVA 03-11-15-10-523||69||31||4||D||Raw egg mayonnaise and raw egg milkshakes| |WA||Mar||Takeaway||S. Typhimurium PFGE 13, Ms Debra Gradie, Office of Health Protection, Australian Government Department of Health, Canberra Australian Capital Territory Correspondence: Dr Ben Polkinghorne, Office of Health Protection, Australian Government Department of Health, GPO Box 9848, MDP 14, CANBERRA ACT 2601. Telephone: +61 2 6289 1831. Email: [email protected] - Rho MJ, Schaffner DW. Microbial risk assessment of staphylococcal food poisoning in Korean kimbab. Int J Food Microbiol 2007;116(3):332–338. - Food Standards Australia New Zealand, Safe Food Australia: A Guide to the Food Safety Standards, 3rd edn, Available from: http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/Pages/safefoodaustralia3rd16.aspx Accessed November 2016. * In December 2014, the Queensland enteric reference laboratory Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services agreed to harmonise reporting of the MLVA STTR3 allele ‘524’ as ‘523’ in line with other states and territories.

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Around the world, there’s a rich tapestry of death rituals, traditions and practices. Flowers have been part of our death rituals for at least 13,000 years. The remains of fragrant blooms were found in Stone Age Natufian graves in the eastern Mediterranean. The Natufians led the agricultural revolution inventing technologies to process grain and gave the world cemeteries; some of their burial grounds had 100 skeletons in one confirned area. Graves dates between 13,700 and 11,700 years old were lined with flowers… sages, figworts. In 2010 archaelogists found evidence that this culture was the first to make feasting part of funerals too. Find out how other cultures deal with death. See our A-Z below. This fascinating film about Zulu traditions leaps to the end of the alphabet: Death rituals variously involve symbols and cymbals, lighted candles, open coffins, pyres, wakes, lilies, garlands, incense, fragrance, chanting, dancing, weeping and wailing, singing, praying, mantras, gods and goddesses. Here are some random bits of colour (with a hefty dose of simplistic black and white and some slapdash summarising) offering nuggets of info on how different countries, faiths and belief systems approach death and dying. Contact us if you come across anything interesting we can add. See this short film from the BBC on the ‘dining with death’ ritual in Georgia in the Soviet Union: Thanks Becky for this Listverse top 10 traditions. Death rituals around the world Africa: certain tribes would grind the bones of their loved ones and mix them with food. Other tribes would fire spears and arrows into the air, to ward off evil spirits that may be hovering over their dead. Today, Afro-Caribbeans funerals tend to be community affairs in traditional black communities; there can be thousands of mourners, burial is more popular than cremation, novelty coffins are big and celebration of life is the vibe. Austria: the village of Hallstatt is between a mountain and lake, with little space for burials. They’ve come up with a problem-solving solution. After 12 years, bodies are removed from the cemetery and moved to a vault. They keep the skulls and decorate them with the name of the dead person, a cross and some plants, and put them on display in a chapel. And although cremations are now allowed in the village, some still opt for the skull decorating option. China: in the past, warriors were buried in a vertical position, ready for battle. In 1974 the amazing Xi’an Warriors were happened upon and dug up. Today, as a general rule, the more people at your funeral, the more luck will be showered on your nearest and dearest is the message there. Mourners wear white and sackcloth rather than black. It’s not unknown for processions to feature a pick-up truck with dancers akin to a stripper or pole-dancer. Funny old world. Christians: Christian rituals for birth, marriage, death and all other life stages are captured in the Book of Common Order. Christian monks in medieval times, especially Franciscans and Jesuits, would keep a skull on their desks as a constant reminder of their mortality, and the folly of earthly things. The scholarly St. Jerome and the penitent Mary Magdalene are often shown with skulls. The place name of Christ’s crucifixion, Golgotha, translates as ‘place of the Skulls’, believed to be due to its use as a crucifixion site where bodies would be picked over by birds, leaving the bare bones. There was also a belief that Jesus was crucified where Adam, the first man was buried. Depictions of the Crucifixion sometimes show an exposed skull, Adam’s, at the base of the Cross, signifying Man’s redemption through the sacrifice of Christ. Deathbed confessions: Some people live a lie for a good part of their lives, maybe to protect themselves or someone else. Just before death seems to be the time for many to come clean. There are lighthearted and ghoulish Top 10s out there but there’s deeper issue here about living with secrets and how harmful that can be for the spirit. Even serious misdemeanours are better out that in. Druids: taught that Death (Donn, in Ireland) was the source of all life, and death was depicted as a drummer or dancer. Ethiopia: everyone chips in to an Edir: a community group whose members support each other during the mourning process. Family members receive money the fund, depending on how close they were to the dead person. The money helps pay for the funeral and other death expenses. Female members of the Edir help out with housework and make food for the mourning family. The men help arrange the funeral, build tents to shelter guests who visit the family. Edir members stay with the family and comfort them for three days. Fiji: friends, wives and slaves of the deceased would be strangled in his honour. Georgia: dining with the dead is a happy event that marks Easter in particular but anniversaries throughout the year. Just need better weather than we get in the UK. Ghana: fantasy coffins are hugely popular. Caskets are designed to reflect the lifestyle of the dearly departed. Pretty much anything goes with designs including airplanes, cars, cigarettes and a giant cola bottle. Cremation is a definite no-no: akin to burning in hell. Technological innovations in mortuaries, mass media and electronic apparatus have given the funeral new dimensions. The amount of time, effort and money that people spend on funerals not only reflect transformations in society, they also offer the Asante people opportunities to work out changing social patterns, differences between cities and villages, lifestyles and cultural preferences. Ghosts: in traditional belief and fiction, a ghost is the soul or spirit of a dead person that appears in visible form to the living – or some of us. Movies, ghost walks, folklore and storytelling all love ghosts … The Sixth Sense and Ghost (funnily enough) are classic spook films. Greece: according to Herodotus, a Greek historian, the Calatians ate their dead. This was believed to be the family’s sacred duty. Rumour has it that Queen Artemisia mixed the ashes of her lover with wine and drank it. Hanoi: villagers care for a sick and dying whale – an important part of the community – and collect for a coffin, planning the funeral. Hindus: funerals are a big event in the community and the average attendance at a funeral is 150-200. Hindus believe it takes 13 days for the soul to leave the body and takes 8,400,000 lives before you are reincarnated as a human if you sin: it’s all down to karma. Hindus from all over the world make their final pilgrimage to the city of Banaras, on the Ganges river in India. They believe that dying here helps break the cycle of death and re-birth and allows the soul to ascend to the world of the ancestors – Pitriloka. Over 80 funeral pyres lie along the Ganges, so that the dead can be cremated. If people can’t cremate their dead, they float the dead body down the river. Hindus don’t see death as the ‘end’ but more of a turning-point in an endless journey of the soul, which is indestructible and passes through bodies of both animals and people. This is why they don’t go in for lots of mourning or sadness if someone dies, as they believe this can hold up the continuing journey of the dead person. In the bad old days, Hindu widows were thought of as vulgar and useless without their husbands and were expected to lie by his side and be cremated alive. This ritual, Sati, was believed to purify the widow and give her free passage to Heaven. Although Sati was abolished in 1829 there have been numerous cases since. Even as recently as 1981 an 18 year old widow was a victim of the custom. Humanists: believe in the power of the individual and our collective good, rather than a god. Some Humanist celebrants won’t allow hymns or prayers as part of funeral services because they are keen to protect this secular space. Ireland: ‘keening’ is a death wail – the sound of mourning. This is different from a song or lament sung at a wake. Keening is performed soon after death as an expression of grief and a physical way of doing something with all that emotion. Keening has been found in various cultures – other Celts, in Asia, Africa, aboriginal tribes in Australia. Our Irish cousins traditionally have 3 day funerals… from the time of death to burial, keeping the body at home in between. There’s an open invitation vibe for local people to drop in and pay their respects (and be fed and watered). Islamists: the Qur’an promotes weeping for the dead but has limits around wailing. Decorative clothing and jewellery is a no-no during mourning. Islamists organ transplants as a way of easing pain or saving life. Italy: in ancient Rome when someone was on their death bed, the eldest male relative would lean in close and inhale to catch the last breath of the dying person. The rites lasted days and often featured hired mourners and professional dancers. And while most people know that the Romans liked a party, not many are aware of how much they liked fire. Almost all Romans were cremated, and their ashes placed in a columbarium. Japan: years ago, if a nobleman died, 20 to 30 slaves were made to commit Hari-Kiri (belly cutting) in respect for him. Jews: believe the soul suffers the longer it is outside the grave so like the body to be watched until burial and prefer burial to happen as quickly as possible after death – literally within hours and within a day. They observe Shiva (Seven) – traditionally 7 days of mourning for the 7 closest family: mother, father, brother, sister, son, daughter, partner, who ‘sit’ together at home to mourn. They sit as low to the floor as possible as a sign of their grief, light a candle that burns for the 7 days and represents the soul of the deceased, cover mirrors to keep the focus is on the dead person and wear a torn ribbon to show they are in a state of mourning. Korea: Funerals in North Korea are not like they are in South Korea. In South Korea, most of the bigger hospitals and chapels provide venues for funerals, but in North Korea, there are no funeral homes or any places set up specifically for funerals. Most are held at home, though there are a couple of exceptions. In North Korea, there’s an old custom that the body of a person who died in a foreign land cannot enter the house. So, if someone dies while they’re out of the country, the funeral would be held in that person’s workplace, either in a hallway or an office. Madagascar: people dig up their dead relatives for a ceremony called famadihana. The bones are paraded around the village and buried all over again in a new shroud. The old shroud is given to couples who are recently married who put it on their bed to enhance fertility. Mexico: The Day of the Dead – Dia de los Muertos – takes place on All Soul’s Day, 2 November each year. It’s one of the most stunning festivals in the world, marked by flamboyant colour and a cheerful honouring of those gone before. It is celebrated in several Latin American countries and is a national holiday in Mexico. People go to cemeteries to be with the souls of the departed. Graves are cleaned and freshly decorated with ‘ofrendas’ (offerings) and Mexican marigolds – thought to attract souls. Toys and candies are left for dead children, and food and drink are left for adult dead. ‘Cavaleras de azucar’, (sugar skulls) are one of the main treats. Offerings, pillows and blankets are left at home as a welcome for spirits so that they can rest after their journey. ‘Cavaleras’ also refer to poetry – epitaphs for the dead that often mock the living – and to art featuring skeletons and skulls. The work of artist Jose Guadalupe Posada (1852-1913) is a major influence on the Day of the Dead. One of the most popular figures in in the Day of the Dead celebrations is Posada’s female skeleton ‘La Cavalera Catrina’, (The Elegant Skull). A cartoonist and satirist, he made fun of the ruling classes and showed death as a leveller. Muslims: believe in God, Mohammed, heaven and hell and the afterlife – which they think goes on forever. Muslims tend to plan for death; maybe because the afterlife promise makes it less fearful. Unlike Sikhs, they do not go for cremation. Many think non-Muslims go to hell. Community or religious leaders, Imams, will support families at a time of death. Northern Vietnam: the dead are buried where they lived, which usual means in the middle of a rice paddy. Two years later, the dead person’s family dig up the body, clean all the bones then re-bury it in the family garden. Norway: Norwegians for some reason have a reputation for being world leading thanatologists: experts on death. This doesn’t mean they care about the meaning of life, rather that they study medical and scientific aspects of death. Polynesia: it is said that human beings have been unable to achieve immortality since the hero Maui was killed as he tried to rape the goddess of death. Pyres: open fire cremation very much part of life for Romans, Vikings, Hindus, Sikhs. In 2010, a court of appeal in the UK ruled that a cremation on an open pyre is legal inside a building with an open roof, well away from roads and homes. Quakers: everyone sits in a circle at a funeral – lovely. Everyone’s invited to speak if they feel moved to. It’s all very organic. Scotland: land of inventors and innovators, resomation is the next big thing in death and has been designed by clever Scot, Alexander Sullivan. A process that liquifies remains, it is now licensed and being practised as an option to burial and cremation in the States. As yet it’s not legal in the UK. Only a matter of time surely. Sikhs: death is seen as an act of the Almighty so emotions don’t run high during the 2-5 week mourning period. Cremation is preferred – an open-air funeral pyre is traditional and legal in the UK. The next of kin usually presses the button to begin cremation. Ashes are scattered in water – traditionally the Ganges in India. Sikhs believe that life after death is a continuous cycle and that the soul travels on. South Africa: our Twitter friend has shared this film about what’s going on in SA and the changes afoot. Interestingly, in our first year, we licensed Final Fling to Trudon SA though they didn’t really make much use of the licence and it lapsed. Southern Papua: the Daribi people believed that when hero Souw attempted to rape a young woman and she cried out, the humiliated Souw then visited death upon humanity. Spiritualism: spiritualists believe that spirits of the dead can communicate with the living, usually channelled through a medium. Spiritualism was at its height from the mid 1800s to the early 1900s, with some 8 million followers in the States by the end of the 19th century. There are spiritualist churches all over the UK. Sweden: marine biologist Susanne Wiigh-Mäsak patented the “ecological funeral” in the late 90s. It is a cryotechnological process that aids decomposition by reducing the corpse to a fine powder. Healthier for the environment, leftover metals are extracted for recycling and what’s left is returned to Mother Earth in a biodegradable casket. Taiwan: recently reported in the news, the practice in Taiwan of dancing girls accompanying the cortege is not new. It’s not unusual to order strippers to dance for the deceased and mourners at funerals. For a modest fee the scantily-clad women dance on the back of a neon-lit diesel truck, called an Electric Flower Car. That bit might be new. Tibet: Tibetan Buddhists believe that after death, the soul leaves the body so the cadaver left behind is really surplus to requirements. They carry out a Tibetan sky ritual, or Excarnation. Using a large flat rock in a specific location, monks and body-breakers (or rogyapas) dismember the body and grind down the flesh and bones to feed to vultures. Vultures are sacred animals in Buddhism because they don’t kill, just eat anything dead that comes their way so, in this respect, they are sustainers of life. Also, the geology of Tibet with its rugged terrain makes burials quite tricky. UK: one of the biggest annual focuses on death is Remembrance Sunday to commemorate all our war dead. This is marked in the UK, US, Europe and the Commonwealth with a two minute silence at 11am on the nearest Sunday to the 11th day of the 11th month – Armistice Day. Poppies are laid at the Cenotaph in London and at memorials all over the UK. People wear poppies for Remembrance Day, inspired by the Canadian war poet John McCrae, who wrote ‘In Flanders field the poppies blow / between the crosses, row on row.’ Staffordshire is home to the National Memorial Arboretum, honouring all our war dead. US: The American Way of Death is a classic exposé of the funeral industry in the States, written by Jessica Mitford in 1963. She felt death had become too sentimental, commercial and expensive, with funeral directors taking advantage of distress purchase syndrome. In keeping with her wishes, Mitford herself had an inexpensive funeral, was cremated without a ceremony and the ashes scattered at sea. Victorians: The dark and sometimes Gothic style we associate with death is thanks to the Victorians and to Queen Victoria, who mourned Prince Albert for a full 10 years and remained dressed in black for the 40 years she survived him. Purple and black were mourning dress colours. Black mourning jewellery made from jet, and mourning rings and lockets incorporating plaited hair from the deceased were in vogue. Status was reflected in elaborate memorials and mausoleums. Soaring population and public health considerations called for graveyards that were larger, better designed and more sanitary. Many women died young, in childbirth and infant mortality was high: women might have between 5 and 12 children- which sheds some light on the Victorian’s sentimental depictions of heaven. It was common then to take photographs of the dead – particularly children: in repose, with a favourite toy, even with a (live) sibling. Zulu death rituals. Completing our A-Z, see this fascinating film about traditional death rituals in Africa at the top of the page. If you know what sort of ritual you want – whether traditional or new, capture thoughts and ideas in your Funeral Wishes on Final Fling.

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A Case for Physicalism about the Human Mind (2007) 1. What Is Physicalism about the Human Mind? 2. Physicalism about the Human Mind and Theism 3. Some Evidence for Physicalism about the Human Mind 3.1 An Enumerative Induction 3.2 Evidence from the Neural Dependence of Mental Phenomena 4. An Antiphysicalist Response In this chapter, I describe evidence for the view that the human mind is a physical entity, in much the same way in which the human digestive system or the human immune system are physical entities. The first section characterizes this view more fully. The second section explains the evidential relevance of physicalism about the mind to theism. The third section sketches two kinds of evidence that support physicalism about the human mind, while the final section considers an antiphysicalist response to the reasoning of the previous section. 1. What Is Physicalism about the Human Mind? Humans have minds, exemplify mental properties, and undergo mental processes. Some examples of mental properties are thinking that one's keys are in the ignition, hoping that the gas gauge is broken, wishing that the weather will be fine tomorrow, fearing that the repair will be costly, and doubting that all politicians are crooks; other examples of mental properties are smelling the distinctive smell of gasoline (in the absence of actual gasoline), seeing the distinctive blueness of a cloudless sky (in the absence of any blue sky), having an ache in the shoulder, and feeling stressed. Examples of mental processes are figuring out what is causing one's child's fever, planning a trip to Colorado, and deciding to have no dessert. There's a narrow sense of the word "physical" in which minds, mental properties, and mental processes are clearly not physical phenomena: terms like "mind," "thinking," and "feeling" don't appear in the theories of fundamental physics. In this same narrow sense of "physical," however, a kidney isn't a physical object, respiring isn't a physical property, and digestion isn't a physical process; for the terms "kidney," "is respiring," and "digestion" also don't appear in the theories of fundamental physics. So to concede that mental phenomena aren't physical in this narrow sense isn't to concede very much. Yet surely there's a broad sense of the word "physical" in which kidneys, respiring, and digestion are indeed physical phenomena. What physicalism about the human mind claims is that human minds, mental properties, and mental processes are physical in this broad sense of "physical." How best to articulate this broad sense of "physical" is controversial in the philosophy of mind. But the view I happen to favor says roughly this: An individual item (e.g., object, property-instance, or process) is physical in the broad sense if, and only if, it meets either of two conditions: (1) it's an item of a kind that can in principle be defined in the distinctive vocabulary of fundamental physics; or (2) it's a physically realized item of a functional kind. Condition (1) is straightforward, but condition (2) obviously requires explanation. A functional kind of thing, as I shall understand it, is a kind of thing whose existence consists in the existence of something or other that meets a certain specification, where the composition and working of the "something or other"--the realizer--don't matter, so long as it meets the specification in question. For example, a kidney is a functional kind of object in my sense: for a kidney to exist is just for something or other to exist that can filter blood, no matter what it's made of or how it works. Likewise, respiring is a functional kind of property: for an organism to be respiring is just for it to have some or other property that produces an exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the organism and its environment. And digestion is a functional kind of process: for digestion to occur is just for some or other process to occur--it doesn't matter how--that converts food into useable nutrients. An item of a functional kind is physically realized when, and only when, (i) its realizer can in principle be defined in the distinctive vocabulary of fundamental physics, and (ii) its realizer meets the specification in question solely in virtue of the holding of physical laws and perhaps of other physical conditions. So human kidneys, for example, are very plausibly regarded as physically realized--as items of a functional kind that are (ultimately) realized by vast and unimaginably complex systems of microphysical particles that do the kidney thing by operating in strict accordance with physical laws. I can now say more precisely how I'll be understanding physicalism about the human mind: Physicalism about the human mind: Every human mind, every instance of a human mental property, and every human mental process is either (1) an item of a kind that can in principle be defined in the distinctive vocabulary of fundamental physics or (2) a physically realized item of some functional kind. Thus understood, physicalism about the mind is, of course, an exceedingly abstract view. To make it seem less so, let me sketch an account of what minds, mental properties, and mental processes might be that is consistent with physicalism about the mind. This account strikes me as promising, but I'm not saying it's true, and the truth of this account in particular certainly isn't required by physicalism about the mind; its purpose is just to make it easier to imagine the truth of physicalism about the mind. Humans have minds, but it doesn't follow that minds are genuine persisting objects. Just as humans have minds, they also have personalities, but no one imagines that human personalities are persisting objects, not even nonphysical ones. In fact, however, physicalism about the human mind can easily treat minds as persisting objects--by treating an organism's mind as its mental system, on a par with its digestive system or immune system. As a rough-and-ready first approximation, we might suggest that an organism has a mental system just in case it houses some complex object or other that can use sensors to form representations about the organism's environment and internal states, that can store some of these representations, and that can undergo internal processes in which these representations interact with one another and with representations of goal-states so as to produce organismic behavior, which behavior, often enough, achieves the organism's goals. To be more specific about the human mind, in particular, we might suggest that an organism has a human-type mental system just in case it houses some complex object or other that meets the conditions already mentioned, but in addition generates representations of states of affairs far removed from the organism in time, space, or magnitude, representations of regularities in the world, and representations of its own representations. In keeping with this representational conception of the mind, such mental properties as thinking, hoping, wishing, and doubting can be understood as different kinds of mental representing. For example, thinking that one's keys are in the ignition might be a mental property that a human possesses just in case he or she internally represents that his or her keys are in the ignition, where this internal representation plays one kind of causal role with regard to effecting behavior (the belief role) in his or her overall mental system. By contrast, hoping that the gas gauge is broken might be a mental property that a human possesses just in case he or she internally represents that the gas gauge is broken, where this representation plays a different kind of causal role with regard to effecting behavior (the hope role) in his or her overall mental system. And a very similar treatment can be given for such mental properties as smelling the distinctive smell of gasoline (in the absence of actual gasoline) and having an ache in the shoulder. Smelling the distinctive smell of gasoline (in the absence of actual gasoline) might be a mental property that a human possesses just in case he or she internally represents (in this case, misrepresents) the presence of gasoline vapor, but does so by using a system of mental representation importantly different from the system used when thinking that gasoline vapor is present. Having an ache in the shoulder might be a mental property that a human possesses just in case he or she internally represents damage in a certain subregion of his or her shoulder region, but does so by using a system of mental representation importantly different from the one used when thinking that a part of his or her shoulder region is damaged. The different intentional contents of different mental representations (i.e., the fact that thinking that one's keys are in the ignition isn't the same as thinking that it'll rain tomorrow) can be accounted for by appeal to the different causal or nomological or historical relations that the different mental representations bear to the different states of affairs external to the organism. Mental processes such as figuring out what is causing something or deciding to act can also be understood in keeping with the representational conception of the mind. Such processes can be identified with particular kinds of causal sequence involving mental representations. For example, figuring out the cause of a child's fever might involve mentally representing the possible causes of the fever, deriving mental representations of the observable phenomena that each possible cause would produce, and then searching for stored mental representations of actually observed phenomena that rule out every causal hypothesis bar one. Such a mental process, despite its occurring in accordance with causal laws, could still be a rational or reasonable one in virtue of its reliability in generating true answers to causal questions. Similarly, deciding to act might involve mentally representing a goal-state, mentally representing various action-outcome relations that hold in the world, using a trial-and-error procedure to generate a mental representation of a sequence of actions that will eventually result in the represented goal-state, and then storing a mental representation of the first action in that sequence in a buffer whose contents feed into a subsystem that controls bodily movements. Such a process, despite its occurring in accordance with causal laws, could still amount to a free decision in virtue of its meeting further conditions, e.g., its occurring through the operation of properly functioning mechanisms of deliberation, or the mentally represented goal's being a goal that one approves of oneself having. 2. Physicalism about the Human Mind and Theism Physicalism about the human mind is logically consistent with theism. That's because, if mental phenomena are functional phenomena in the liberal sense of "functional" sketched in section one, then they might be physically realized in the human case but nonphysically realized in the divine case. However, physicalism about the human mind is still evidentially relevant to theism. The hypothesis of theism, as typically understood by philosophers, says there exists a special, nonhuman kind of person--God--who enjoys unlimited versions of the capacities to know, to love, and to decide to act that human persons possess. But since these capacities are mental, and since God is supposed to have no physical body or brain, the hypothesis of theism must say there exists a nonphysical and nonphysically realized mind. Now, if we want to assess the probability of theism given the available evidence, we must first assess its prior probability, i.e., its probability given our background knowledge. However, given theism's commitment to a nonphysical and nonphysically realized mind, its prior probability will be raised if we already know of examples of nonphysical and nonphysically realized minds (even if those minds, unlike the hypothesized divine mind, are finite). Thus, if we learn that human minds are neither physical nor physically realized, the prior probability of theism will get a boost. By the same token, however, if we learn that human minds are physically realized, so that we don't already know of any examples of nonphysical and nonphysically realized minds, then the prior probability of theism will fail to get that boost. To the extent that physicalism about the human mind rather than dualism is well evidenced, therefore, theism should be assigned a lower prior probability. Is physicalism about the human mind evidentially relevant to theism in any other way? I think it is. To avoid being disconfirmed by the existence of moral evils (and perhaps for other reasons as well), theism requires that human agents freely choose to act in one way rather than another. But so-called compatibilist accounts of free choice--which say that what makes a choice free is not its being causally undetermined but rather its being causally determined via a special kind of causal route--will not suit theism's needs. For every compatibilist account of free choice, to be plausible, must insist that no human choice is free if the causal chain culminating in the choice can be traced back to an intentional agent who intended or at least foresaw that choice. But if God created the world and instituted the causal laws that govern its workings, then all human choices result from causal chains that can be traced back to an intentional agent who intended or at least foresaw those choices, and so no human choices are free. What theism requires, therefore, is that human agents freely choose in some way that entirely removes the free choice from the nexus of laws of nature, be those laws deterministic or statistical. However, if physicalism about the mind is true, then human choices are as much a part of the nexus of laws of nature as any other events in the physical world. So if physicalism about the mind is true, then theism cannot have what in fact it requires. 3. Some Evidence for Physicalism about the Human Mind Whether physicalism about the human mind is true turns on whether there exist any human minds that aren't physically realized; and the existence of such contingent entities as nonphysically realized human minds is a poor candidate to be known a priori. So, it's hard to see how there even could be an a priori case for physicalism about the human mind (or against it, for that matter). In this section, therefore, the case I sketch for physicalism about the human mind is an a posteriori one. Moreover, although an a posteriori case could in principle take the form of a deduction from a posteriori premises, this case for physicalism about the human mind is irreducibly inductive: it consists of mustering two bodies of empirical fact each of which raises the probability of physicalism about the human mind (but without raising that of dualism too). 3.1 An Enumerative Induction There is a strong empirical case for holding that concrete phenomena of many different kinds--chemical, biochemical, cell-biological, histological, physiological, geological, meteorological, and astronomical--are physical or physically realized. Indeed, there is a strong empirical case for holding that all concrete phenomena that aren't mental phenomena or--like social-scientific phenomena--partially constituted by mental phenomena are physical or physically realized (see Melnyk 2003a, ch. 6.1-6.6). Of course, that all nonmental phenomena are physical or physically realized doesn't deductively entail that mental phenomena are too. But it can still be some evidence that they are; and it is. Consider an analogous case: the discovery that all noncarnivorous plants are biochemically realized is clearly some evidence that all plants, including therefore all carnivorous ones, are biochemically realized. (Each biochemically realized species of noncarnivorous plant is a so called positive instance of the universal hypothesis that all plants are biochemically realized.) Likewise, the discovery that all nonmental phenomena are physical or physically realized is some evidence that all phenomena, including therefore all mental phenomena, are physical or physically realized. (Each physical or physically realized kind of phenomenon is a positive instance of the universal hypothesis that all phenomena are physical or physically realized.) Some might object that nonmental phenomena are the sorts of thing you'd be quite unsurprised to discover are physical or physically realized, whereas just the opposite is true of mental phenomena; so evidence about nonmental phenomena isn't relevant to the case at hand, i.e., mental phenomena. In truth, however, the fact that nonmental phenomena have turned out to be physical or physically realized is very surprising. Superficially, the nonmental world exhibits a breathtaking diversity--just think, for example, of the thousands of species of plants and animals or the dozens of kinds of rock that are discernible by casual observation alone, not to mention the vast numbers that systematic inquiry has revealed. Yet if all nonmental phenomena are physical or physically realized, then beneath this incredible diversity lies a profound unity; underlying them all are fundamental physical phenomena. But the world needn't have been that way. Each different kind of rock, for example, might have turned out to be unique, sharing no constituents with any other kind of rock, still less with living things; each animal species might have turned out to be made of its own unique kind of matter; and so forth, as far as imagination permits. Moreover, not only was this profound unity in nonmental phenomena but one possibility among many, it was not in fact expected. For example, Aristotle, and the long tradition of physical science he inspired, didn't even think that celestial and terrestrial phenomena shared basic constituents! The scientifically trained philosopher C.D. Broad, in 1925, could claim chemical phenomena to be plausible instances of phenomena that are emergent relative to physical phenomena, and hence not physically realized. The idea that such life processes as metabolism and growth are biochemically and hence physically realized was resisted well into the twentieth century. Any feeling that nonmental phenomena are the sorts of thing you'd be unsurprised to discover are physical or physically realized merely reflects the penetration into ordinary thinking of centuries of hard-won scientific discoveries; in hindsight, many truths (not all, of course) seem obvious. 3.2 Evidence from the Neural Dependence of Mental Phenomena As far as we can tell, all human mental phenomena are dependent on neural phenomena; we never catch the human mind at work without also catching the human brain at work. Since this dependence is best explained by physicalism about the human mind, it's evidence that physicalism about the human mind is true. In a nutshell, that's the reasoning of the present subsection. More carefully expressed, the finding to be explained is this: for any (human) person you like, and for any mental state or mental process that person might be in or might undergo, in order for that person to be in that mental state or to undergo that mental process, there is neural activity of some distinctive kind that has to be going on--simultaneously--in that person's brain. In the numerous studies that support this finding, a brain-imaging technique is applied to the brain of a human experimental subject who has been subjected to some stimulus (e.g., spoken words, objects placed in the hand) or instructed to perform some mental task (e.g., to read silently, to clench a fist). What is found in the studies is that in each subject distinctive regions of the subject's brain are especially active when a particular stimulus is presented or mental task performed. (Often, of course, the distinctive region is the same in all subjects for each stimulus or task; but not invariably.) Of particular importance is the very wide range of mental tasks that experimental subjects in such studies are asked to perform. They include mentally rehearsing a learned motor task, doing mental arithmetic, attending to an unstimulated body part, and visualizing a scene. Although these mental activities seem far removed from the processing of sensory input or the generation of motor output, they too don't occur without accompanying neural activity of a distinctive sort. This remarkable dependence of the mental on the neural is simply explained by physicalism about the human mind, since it's an almost immediate consequence of physicalism about the human mind. For if all human mental phenomena are physically realized, then presumably they're realized by human neural phenomena (perhaps plus physical environmental conditions); and if all human mental phenomena are realized by human neural phenomena, even in part, then whenever someone exhibits a mental phenomenon, he or she must exhibit some neural phenomenon too--the neural phenomenon that (in part) realizes the mental phenomenon. Moreover, the explanation of the neural dependence of the mental that physicalism about the human mind can provide is the best available explanation, since, for two reasons to be given shortly, it's a better explanation than its dualist rival. Dualism about the human mind, in taking human mental phenomena to be numerically distinct from and not even realized by neural phenomena, has to explain the neural dependence of human mental phenomena by hypothesizing that human mental phenomena are connected to human neural phenomena by hitherto unrecognized--and physically irreducible--laws of nature. The reason why we don't ever catch the human mind at work without also catching the human brain at work is that these laws of nature yoke every human mental phenomenon to some or other human brain phenomenon. This dualist explanation is inferior to the physicalist explanation because, first, it's less economical in its ontological commitments, and ontological economy is a good-making feature of an explanation. The dualist explanation, precisely because it's dualist, treats mental phenomena as existing over and above their associated neural phenomena: if dualism is true, then a divine creator who'd already created the associated neural phenomena would have to do extra creative work to produce mental phenomena. The physicalist explanation, by contrast, treats mental phenomena as perfectly real, but as physical phenomena or as functional phenomena that are realized by their associated neural (hence physical) phenomena: if physicalism about the human mind is true, then a divine creator who'd already created the neural phenomena associated with human mental phenomena (in appropriate physical environmental conditions) would have to do no more work to produce mental phenomena. If human mental phenomena are one and the same as certain neural phenomena, then the reason why the creator would have to do no more work to produce mental phenomena is that if X is one and the same as Y, then to create X is to create Y. If mental phenomena are instead realized by certain neural phenomena (plus physical environmental conditions), then the reason why the creator would have to do no more work is that if they are so realized, then, given the laws of physics, those neural phenomena (plus appropriate physical environmental conditions) must meet functional job descriptions the meeting of which by some things or other just is the existence of the realized mental phenomena. Hence, if the realizing neural phenomena (in appropriate physical environmental conditions) exist, and if the laws of physics hold, then the realized mental phenomena must exist too (in the strongest sense of "must"). The second reason why the dualist explanation of the neural dependence of the mental is inferior to its physicalist rival is that the dualist explanation is not only committed to the laws of physics (to which the physicalist explanation is obviously committed as well) but also to a huge number of physically irreducible laws of nature connecting human mental phenomena to the human neural phenomena on which they depend. By contrast, the only fundamental laws to which the physicalist explanation is committed are the laws of physics. The dualist explanation's commitment to these additional laws--laws that are irreducible to the physical laws that its rival acknowledges--is, of course, a second reason why the dualist explanation is less economical than its physicalist rival, and hence a less good explanation. In addition, however, these irreducible mental-to-neural laws prompt puzzling questions to which no answers are forthcoming. Why are nonphysically realized human mental phenomena connected by law to the particular human neural phenomena to which they are (allegedly) in fact connected, rather than to others? Why do all nonphysically realized human mental phenomena have to be connected by law to particular physical phenomena at all? Why can't nonphysically realized human mental phenomena mostly interact among themselves, with just some of them sensitive to the outputs of the neurons running to our brains from our sensory transducers and others of them supplying the inputs to the neurons that run from our brains to our muscles? In short, why do nonphysically realized human mental phenomena need a brain at all? These questions don't arise for the physicalist explanation of the neural dependence of the mental, since it's not committed to the laws that prompt them. 4. An Antiphysicalist Response One possible response to the preceding section does not deny that the evidence presented there favors physicalism about the human mind over dualism. Instead, it claims that dualism enjoys some advantage in credibility over its physicalist rival, some advantage great enough to outweigh the advantages which physicalism was shown to enjoy over dualism in the preceding section. But what might that advantage in credibility be? In my view, there turn out to be no promising candidates. Could dualism about the human mind enjoy an advantage over its physicalist rival in explanatory power? That is, could there be some aspect of human behavior for the causal explanation of which it was necessary to suppose that its mental causes weren't physically realized? In principle, I say, there could be such an aspect of human behavior; but in practice, there very probably isn't. There could be in principle, because if human physiologists had known that human behavior is caused by signals carried by motor neurons that run from the skull, and had then opened up some human skulls for the very first time only to find that they were quite empty, or merely full of blood, then the positing of a nonphysically realized mind to explain the complexities of human behavior would surely have been unavoidable; there would simply have been no physical candidate of sufficient complexity to do the explanatory job. The reason why there very probably isn't in fact any aspect of human behavior for the explanation of which it's necessary to posit dualistically construed mental states takes a little longer to explain. The proximate cause of human behavior is the contraction of our muscles, which contraction is caused in turn by the firing of motor neurons, which firing is caused in its turn by the firing of neurons in the brain, and so forth. But there's abundant evidence for thinking that the various kinds of neurons, as well as the specialized cells that make up our muscles, are physically realized (i.e., realized by fundamental physical phenomena governed by fundamental physical laws); so they aren't at all special biochemically or fundamental-physically. There's also abundant evidence for thinking that all fundamental physical phenomena, to the extent that they can be explained at all, can be explained by appeal only to fundamental physical phenomena and laws. (The evidence is simply the track record of successful fundamental physical explanation of a wide variety of fundamental physical phenomena.) So it looks like there's no human behavior for the causal explanation of which it's required to assume the existence of anything that's neither physical nor physically realized. A fortiori, it looks like there's no human behavior for the causal explanation of which it's required to assume the existence of anything mental that's neither physical nor physically realized. To put it in a nutshell, the dualistic interpretation of ordinary mental phenomena as neither physical nor physically realized is a hypothesis which, from the standpoint of causal explanation of nontendentious phenomena, we can do without. And so the prospects are dim for dualism about the human mind to gain any advantage in explanatory power over its physicalist rival. It strongly seems, therefore, that if dualism about the human mind is to enjoy any advantage in credibility over its physicalist rival, the advantage will have to derive from some a priori source. And, indeed, the most discussed argument for dualism in recent years has been a priori in character: David Chalmers' zombie argument (1996). I find this argument inconclusive, but to explain why would take another chapter. Chalmers, David. 1996. The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory. New York: Oxford University Press. Churchland, Paul. 1988. Matter and Consciousness: A Contemporary Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind. Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press. Dretske, Fred. 1988. Explaining Behavior: Reasons in a World of Causes. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. Fodor, Jerry. 1975. The Language of Thought. New York: Crowell. Fodor, Jerry. 1986. Psychosemantics: The Problem of Meaning in the Philosophy of Mind. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. Fodor, Jerry. 1990. A Theory of Content and Other Essays. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. Goldman, Alvin. 1986. Epistemology and Cognition. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Kitcher, Phillip. 1993. The Advancement of Science. New York: Oxford University Press. Laudan, Larry. 1996. Beyond Positivism and Relativism: Theory, Method, and Evidence. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. Melnyk, Andrew. 2001. "Physicalism Unfalsified: Chalmers' Inconclusive Conceivability Argument." In Physicalism and Its Discontents, eds. Carl Gillett and Barry Loewer, 329-347. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Melnyk, Andrew. 2003a. A Physicalist Manifesto: Thoroughly Modern Materialism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Melnyk, Andrew. 2003b. "Some Evidence for Physicalism." In Physicalism and Mental Causation: The Metaphysics of Mind and Action, eds. Sven Walter and Heinz-Dieter Heckmann, 155-172. Exeter: Imprint Academic. Millikan, Ruth. 1984. Language, Thought, and Other Biological Categories: New Foundations for Realism. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. Millikan, Ruth. 1993. White Queen Psychology and Other Essays for Alice. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. Smart, J.J.C. 1959. "Sensations and Brain Processes." Philosophical Review 68: 141-156. Tye, Michael. 1995. Ten Problems of Consciousness: A Representational Theory of the Phenomenal Mind. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. Most of the material in this chapter is presented more fully, carefully, and rigorously elsewhere (see Melnyk 2003a, chs. 5 & 6; 2003b). Here, I sacrifice some detail, care, and rigor for concision and, I hope, accessibility. What I say in this and the following paragraph is a much simplified version of ch. 1 of Melnyk 2003a. The representational theory of mind sketched here is developed and defended by Jerry Fodor; see, for example, his 1975; 1986. The representational theory of phenomenally conscious mental states sketched here is developed and defended by Michael Tye; see, for example, his 1995. For different theories of how nonrepresentational and possibly physical facts might determine the representational content of mental states--even when mental states misrepresent--see, for example, Millikan 1984; 1993; Dretske 1988; Fodor 1990. For more on reasoning of approximately this kind, see Philip Kitcher's account of eliminative induction in his 1993, ch. 7.4. For elaboration of this idea, see, for example, Alvin Goldman's (1986) discussion of reliabilist epistemology in his 1986 and Larry Laudan's discussion of scientific methodology in his 1996. There is a huge literature on so-called compatibilist accounts of free decisions, i.e., those accounts according to which what makes a decision free is not its being causally undetermined but rather its being causally determined via one kind of causal route and not another. Thanks to Paul Draper for suggesting this line of argument to me. For a slightly fuller presentation, see Melnyk 2003a, 283-285. The line of reasoning apparently originated with J.J.C. Smart; see his 1959, 142. For a fuller presentation, together with sources for the experimental results reported, see Melnyk 2003a, 298-304. I first encountered this line of reasoning (albeit used for a slightly different purpose) in Churchland 1988, 20 & 28. The parenthetical phrases in the preceding sentence are included because most philosophers of mind are so called externalists about mental properties, holding that mental properties are typically such that an organism possesses them only if it's appropriately related to an environment of a certain kind; for example, no organism can think thoughts about water unless in the organism's environment there does exist or has existed actual water. For defense of the claim that ontological economy is a good-making feature of an explanatory hypothesis, see Melnyk 2003a, 245-251. For evidence to support this claim, see Melnyk 2003a, Ch. 6.5. For a full defense of the claims in this paragraph, see Melnyk 2003b. See Melnyk 2001. I am grateful to Paul Draper for helpful comments on earlier drafts of this chapter. Copyright ©2007 Andrew Melnyk. The electronic version is copyright ©2007 by Internet Infidels, Inc. with the written permission of Andrew Melnyk. All rights reserved.

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אבדו כבשים אבדו כבשים אבד הלחם the sheep are lost as well, i.e., they cannot be sacrificed, and one must bring different loaves and sheep. Similarly, if the sheep are lost after the waving, the loaves are thereby lost as well, since a bond was established between them by means of the waving. ואם תמצא לומר תנופה אינה עושה זיקה הביא לחם וכבשים והונפו ואבד הלחם והביא לחם אחר אותו הלחם טעון תנופה או אינו טעון תנופה And if you say that waving does not establish a bond between the loaves and the sheep, then one can raise the following dilemma: If one brought loaves and sheep and they were waved, and then the loaves were lost and he brought other loaves to replace the original loaves, does that second set of loaves require waving with the sheep, as it has not yet been waved? Or does it not require waving, as the accompanying sheep have already been waved with the original loaves, and the sheep are the subject in the verse that serves as the source of the requirement of waving (see Leviticus 23:20)? אבדו כבשים לא תיבעי לך דודאי בעי תנופה כי תיבעי לך אבד הלחם Rabbi Yirmeya clarifies the dilemma: In a case where the sheep were lost after the waving, do not raise the dilemma, as in this case they certainly require waving, because the primary obligation of waving is mentioned with respect to the sheep, and these sheep have not yet been waved. When should you raise the dilemma? You should raise it in a case where the loaves were lost after the waving. ואליבא דבן ננס לא תיבעי לך דאמר כבשים עיקר כי תיבעי לך אליבא דר"ע דאמר לחם עיקר מאי And according to the opinion of Rabbi Shimon ben Nannas, who holds that failure to sacrifice the sheep prevents one from sacrificing the loaves, do not raise the dilemma, as he says that the sheep are primary. Consequently, since the sheep have been waved, there is no need to repeat the waving. When should you raise the dilemma? Raise it according to the opinion of Rabbi Akiva, who holds that failure to bring the loaves prevents one from sacrificing the sheep, as he says that the loaves are primary. According to his opinion, what is the halakha concerning the loaves that are brought as replacements? כיון דלחם עיקר בעי תנופה או דלמא כיון דמתירין דידיה כבשים נינהו לא צריך תנופה תיקו On the one hand, one might say that since the loaves are primary and this set of loaves has not yet been waved, it requires waving. Or on the other hand, perhaps one should say that since its permitting factors are the sheep, and they were already waved, the new set of loaves does not require waving. The Gemara concludes that the question shall stand unresolved. אמר ליה אביי לרבא מאי שנא שני כבשים דמקדשי לחם ומעכבי ומאי שנא שבעה כבשים ופר ואילים דלא מקדשי לחם ולא מעכבי § Abaye said to Rava: What is different about the two sheep brought as peace offerings together with the two loaves of Shavuot, such that their slaughter sanctifies the loaves (see 47a), and according to Rabbi Yoḥanan failure to sacrifice them once they have been slaughtered prevents the bringing of the loaves; and what is different about the seven sheep, the bull, and the two rams brought on Shavuot as an additional offering, such that their slaughter does not sanctify the loaves, and failure to sacrifice them does not prevent the bringing of the loaves? אמר לי' הואיל והוזקקו זה לזה בתנופה והרי תודה דלא הוזקקו זה לזה בתנופה ומקדשא ומעכבא Rava said to Abaye: The reason for the distinction is because the two sheep and the loaves brought as peace offerings are bound to each other through the waving. This is not so with regard to the additional offerings, which are not waved with the loaves. The Gemara challenges: But in the case of a thanks offering and its loaves, which are not waved together, they are not bound to each other through waving, and nevertheless the slaughter of the animal offering sanctifies the loaves and failure to sacrifice the animal offering prevents the bringing of the loaves. This indicates that the waving is not the critical factor. אלא כתודה מה תודה שלמים אף הכא נמי שלמים Rather, the reason for the distinction is that the two sheep brought as peace offerings are comparable to a thanks offering. Just as a thanks offering is a peace offering, so too the two sheep are also a peace offering. Consequently, just as the slaughter of the thanks offering sanctifies the accompanying loaves, and failure to sacrifice the animal prevents one from bringing the loaves, the same applies with regard to the sheep peace offerings and loaves of Shavuot. מי דמי התם ליכא זבחים אחריני בהדיה הכא דאיכא זבחים אחריני בהדיה ליקדשו הני והני The Gemara responds: Are the two sheep of Shavuot and the thanks offering really comparable? There, in the case of the thanks offering, there are no other animal offerings brought with it. But here, in the case of the offerings brought on Shavuot, where there are other animal offerings brought with it, let these peace offerings and those additional offerings sanctify the loaves. Why is it only the sheep brought as peace offerings that sanctify the loaves? אלא כאיל נזיר מה איל נזיר אע"ג דאיכא זבחים אחריני שלמים הוא דמקדשי מידי אחרינא לא הכא נמי לא שנא Rather, the reason for the distinction is that the two sheep brought as peace offerings are comparable to a nazirite’s ram, which is sacrificed as a peace offering when he completes his term of naziriteship, in addition to a lamb that he sacrifices as a burnt offering, a female lamb that he brings then as a sin offering, and the nazirite loaves (see Numbers 6:14–15). Just as in the case of a nazirite’s ram, even though there are other offerings brought with it, nevertheless it is the slaughter of the peace offering that sanctifies the nazirite loaves and not the slaughter of anything else, here too, the halakha is no different, and it is specifically the slaughter of the peace offerings that sanctifies the loaves. והתם מנלן דתניא (במדבר ו, יז) ואת האיל יעשה זבח שלמים לה' על סל המצות מלמד שהסל בא חובה לאיל ושחיטת איל מקדשן לפיכך שחטו שלא לשמו לא קדשו הלחם The Gemara asks: And there, in the case of the offerings of the nazirite, from where do we derive that it is specifically the slaughter of the peace offering that sanctifies the loaves? The Gemara answers: This is as it is taught in a baraita concerning a verse stated with regard to the offerings of the nazirite: “And he shall offer the ram for a sacrifice of peace offerings to the Lord, with the basket of unleavened bread” (Numbers 6:17). This verse, which connects the ram and the loaves, teaches that the basket of the nazirite loaves comes as an obligation for the ram, which is a peace offering, and the slaughter of the ram sanctifies the loaves. Therefore, if the slaughter was unfit, e.g., in a case where he slaughtered the ram not for the sake of a peace offering, the loaves were not sanctified. תנו רבנן שתי הלחם הבאות בפני עצמן יונפו ותעובר צורתן ויצאו לבית השריפה § The mishna teaches that according to Rabbi Akiva failure to sacrifice the two sheep brought as peace offerings does not prevent sacrifice of the loaves. Consequently, if there are no sheep, the loaves are sacrificed by themselves. Concerning this the Sages taught in a baraita: In a case where the two loaves are brought by themselves, they should be waved. They should then be left overnight so that their form decays, i.e., they become disqualified, and they are then brought out to the place of burning, like any disqualified offering. מה נפשך אי לאכילה אתיין ליכלינהו אי לשריפה אתיין לשרפינהו לאלתר למה להו עיבור צורה The Gemara challenges: Whichever way you look at it, this is difficult: If the loaves are brought and waved in order to be eaten, let the priests eat them rather than burn them. If they are brought only to be burned, let the priests burn them immediately. Why are they left overnight so that they undergo a decay of form, i.e., become disqualified? אמר רבה לעולם לאכילה אתיין גזירה שמא יזדמנו להן כבשים לשנה הבאה ויאמרו אשתקד לא אכלנו לחם בלא כבשים עכשיו נמי ניכול Rabba said: Actually, the loaves are brought and waved in order to be eaten. Nevertheless, the Sages instituted a rabbinic decree that they not be eaten out of concern lest sheep become available to the nation the following year, and they might say: Didn’t we eat the loaves without any accompanying sheep last year [eshtakad]? Now too, we will eat the loaves without sacrificing sheep. ואינהו לא ידעי דאשתקד לא הוו כבשים אינהו שריין נפשייהו השתא דאיכא כבשים כבשים הוא דשרו להו And they will not know that the reason they were permitted to eat the loaves without sacrificing sheep last year is that there were no sheep, and therefore the two loaves permitted themselves to be eaten, i.e., they could be eaten without the sacrifice of the sheep. But now that there are sheep, it is the sacrifice of the sheep that permits the loaves to be eaten. Since loaves brought without sheep are fit by Torah law and may not be eaten due to rabbinic decree, they may not be burned until they become disqualified by remaining overnight. אמר רבה מנא אמינא לה דתנן א"ר יהודה העיד בן בוכרי ביבנה כל כהן ששוקל אינו חוטא Rabba said: From where do I say this, i.e., what is the source for my statement? It is as we learned in a mishna (Shekalim 1:4): Rabbi Yehuda said that ben Bukhri testified before the Sages in Yavne: Any priest who contributes his half-shekel is not considered a sinner, despite the fact that he is not obligated to do so. אמר לו רבן יוחנן בן זכאי לא כי אלא כל כהן שאינו שוקל חוטא אלא שהכהנים דורשין מקרא זה לעצמן Rabbi Yehuda added that Rabban Yoḥanan ben Zakkai said to ben Bukhri: That is not the case, rather, any priest who does not contribute his half-shekel is considered a sinner, as they are obligated in this mitzva like all other Jews. But the priests who do not contribute the half-shekel interpret this following verse to their own advantage in order to excuse themselves from the mitzva. (ויקרא ו, טז) וכל מנחת כהן כליל תהיה לא תאכל הואיל ועומר ושתי הלחם ולחם הפנים שלנו הן היאך נאכלין The verse states: “And every meal offering of the priest shall be wholly made to smoke; it shall not be eaten” (Leviticus 6:16). Those priests claim as follows: Since the omer offering and the two loaves, i.e., the public offering of two loaves from the new wheat, brought on the festival of Shavuot, and the shewbread placed on the Table in the Sanctuary each Shabbat, which are all meal offerings, are ours, then if we contribute half-shekels we will have partial ownership of these communal offerings, as they are purchased with the half-shekels. How, then, can they be eaten? They would then be regarded as priests’ meal offerings, which must be wholly burned. הני שתי הלחם היכי דמי אילימא בבאות עם הזבח אטו תודה ולחמה מי לא מנדבי כהנים ואכלי להו Rabba discusses this mishna: What are the circumstances of these two loaves? If we say that the mishna is referring to a case where they are brought with the animal offering, i.e., the two sheep brought as peace offerings, why shouldn’t the loaves be eaten? Is that to say that priests cannot volunteer to bring a thanks offering and its loaves and eat them? Just as the loaves that accompany a thanks offering may be eaten, even if brought by a priest, the same halakha should apply to the two loaves when they accompany sheep brought as peace offerings. אלא לאו בבאות בפני עצמן וקתני היאך הן נאכלין אלמא לאכילה אתיין Rather, is it not referring to a case where the two loaves are brought by themselves, and the mishna teaches that the priests claimed: How can they be eaten? Apparently, in principle the loaves come to be eaten, but due to rabbinic decree they are not eaten and are left overnight until their form decays. אמר ליה אביי לעולם בבאות עם הזבח ודקא קשיא לך מתודה ולחמה לחמי תודה לא איקרו מנחה שתי הלחם איקרו מנחה שנא' (במדבר כח, כו) בהקריבכם מנחה חדשה לה' Abaye said to Rabba in response: Actually, the mishna can be interpreted as referring to loaves brought with the animal offering, and therefore it does not prove that when the two loaves are brought by themselves they may be eaten. And as for that which is difficult for you based on the case of a thanks offering and its loaves, the resolution is that the loaves of a thanks offering are not called a meal offering, and therefore even when a priest brings a thanks offering, the loaves may be eaten. By contrast, the two loaves of Shavuot are called a meal offering, as it is stated with regard to the two loaves: “Also in the day of the first fruits, when you bring a new meal offering to the Lord” (Numbers 28:26). Therefore, the priests held that if they would donate half-shekels, the two loaves would not be permitted to be eaten. רב יוסף אמר לעולם לשריפה אתיין והיינו טעמא דלא שרפינן לפי שאין שורפין קדשים ביו"ט Rav Yosef said a different response to Rabba’s proof: Actually, when the two loaves of Shavuot are brought by themselves they come to be burned, i.e., they may not be eaten. And this is the reason that we do not burn them until the following day: It is because one may not burn consecrated items on a Festival. א"ל אביי מי דמי התם לאו מצותן בכך הכא דמצותן בכך לישרפינהו מידי דהוה אפר ושעיר של יום הכיפורים Abaye said to Rav Yosef: Is the burning of the two loaves comparable to the burning of other consecrated items, such that the loaves may not be burned right away for this reason? There, in the case of other consecrated items, this is not their mitzva, i.e., they are supposed to be eaten, but if they become disqualified they must be burned. Conversely, here, in the case of the two loaves of Shavuot that are brought by themselves, where this is their mitzva, i.e., they are supposed to be burned, let the priests burn them on the Festival, just as is the halakha in the case of the bull and the goat of Yom Kippur, which are burned on Yom Kippur despite the fact that it is a Festival. אלא אמר רב יוסף גזירה שמא יזדמנו להם כבשים לאחר מכאן א"ל אביי תינח כל זמן הקרבתם לבתר הכי לשרפינהו מאי תעובר צורתן נמי דקתני צורת הקרבתם Rather, Rav Yosef said: The reason the loaves are left overnight is due to a rabbinic decree not to burn them immediately, lest sheep become available to the nation afterward, i.e., later in the day, in which case the loaves could be waved with them and then eaten. Abaye said to Rav Yosef: That works out well for the entire time period when they may be sacrificed, i.e., until the afternoon daily offering is sacrificed. But after that, let them burn the loaves immediately and not wait until the next day. Rav Yosef replied: What is the meaning of the phrase in the baraita that teaches that the loaves must be left until their form decays? It means that they must be left until the form of their sacrifice has passed, i.e., until after the time when the sheep could be sacrificed. רבא אמר לאכילה אתיין וגזירה משום דרבה ולאו מטעמיה אלא מקרא Rava said that there is a different response to Rabba’s proof: When the two loaves of Shavuot are brought by themselves, by Torah law they come to be eaten, but due to rabbinic decree they are not eaten and are left overnight until they are disqualified. The reason for the decree is due to that which Rabba said, i.e., due to the concern that the following year sheep will be available and nevertheless the nation will bring the two loaves without sheep. But the proof that by Torah law the loaves may be eaten is not from Rabba’s line of reasoning, i.e., from the mishna in Shekalim; rather, it is from a verse. ואמר רבא מנא אמינא לה דכתיב (ויקרא כג, יז) ממושבותיכם תביאו לחם תנופה [וגו'] בכורים לה' מה בכורים בפני עצמן אף שתי הלחם בפני עצמן ומינה מה בכורים לאכילה אף שתי הלחם נמי לאכילה And Rava said by way of explanation: From where do I state this halakha? From the fact that it is written with regard to the two loaves: “You shall bring out of your dwellings two loaves of waving of two tenth parts of an ephah; they shall be of fine flour, they shall be baked with leaven, for first fruits to the Lord” (Leviticus 23:17). Just as first fruits are brought by themselves, without an accompanying animal offering, so too the two loaves are brought by themselves when there are no sheep available. And learn from this comparison to first fruits that just as first fruits are brought to be eaten, so too the two loaves are also brought to be eaten, even in the absence of the sheep brought as peace offerings.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Supervisory control and data cquisition (SCADA) is a control system architecture that uses computers, networked data communications and graphical user interfaces for high-level process supervisory management, but uses other peripheral devices such as programmable logic controllers and discrete PID controllers to interface to the process plant or machinery. The operator interfaces which enable monitoring and the issuing of process commands, such as controller set point changes, are handled through the SCADA supervisory computer system. However, the real-time control logic or controller calculations are performed by networked modules which connect to the field sensors and actuators. The SCADA concept was developed as a universal means of remote access to a variety of local control modules, which could be from different manufacturers allowing access through standard automation protocols. In practice, large SCADA systems have grown to become very similar to distributed control systems in function, but using multiple means of interfacing with the plant. They can control large-scale processes that can include multiple sites, and work over large distances. It is one of the most commonly-used types of industrial control systems, however there are concerns about SCADA systems being vulnerable to cyberwarfare/cyberterrorism attacks. 1 The SCADA concept in control operations 2 Examples of use 3 SCADA system components 3.1 Supervisory computers 3.2 Remote terminal units 3.3 Programmable logic controllers 3.4 Communication infrastructure 3.5 Human-machine interface 4 Alarm handling 5 PLC/RTU programming 6 PLC commercial integration 7 Communication infrastructure and methods 8 SCADA architecture development 8.1 First generation: “monolithic” 8.2 Second generation: “distributed” 8.3 Third generation: “networked” 8.4 Fourth generation: “Internet of things” 9 Security issues The SCADA Concept in Control Operations Functional levels of a manufacturing control operation The key attribute of a SCADA system is its ability to perform a supervisory operation over a variety of other proprietary devices. The accompanying diagram is a general model which shows functional manufacturing levels using computerised control. Referring to the diagram, - Level 0 contains the field devices such as flow and temperature sensors, and final control elements, such as control valves. - Level 1 contains the industrialised input/output (I/O) modules, and their associated distributed electronic processors. - Level 2 contains the supervisory computers, which collate information from processor nodes on the system, and provide the operator control screens. - Level 3 is the production control level, which does not directly control the process, but is concerned with monitoring production and targets. - Level 4 is the production scheduling level. Level 1 contains the programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or remote terminal units (RTUs). Level 2 contains the SCADA software and computing platform. The SCADA software exists only at this supervisory level as control actions are performed automatically by RTUs or PLCs. SCADA control functions are usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level intervention. For example, a PLC may control the flow of cooling water through part of an industrial process to a set point level, but the SCADA system software will allow operators to change the set points for the flow. The SCADA also enables alarm conditions, such as loss of flow or high temperature, to be displayed and recorded. A feedback control loop is directly controlled by the RTU or PLC, but the SCADA software monitors the overall performance of the loop. Levels 3 and 4 are not strictly process control in the traditional sense, but are where production control and scheduling takes place. Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes instrumentation readings and equipment status reports that are communicated to level 2 SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI (Human Machine Interface) can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a historian, often built on a commodity database management system, to allow trending and other analytical auditing. SCADA systems typically use a tag database, which contains data elements called tags or points, which relate to specific instrumentation or actuators within the process system according to such as the Piping and instrumentation diagram. Data is accumulated against these unique process control equipment tag references. Examples of Use Example of SCADA used in office environment to remotely monitor a process Both large and small systems can be built using the SCADA concept. These systems can range from just tens to thousands of control loops, depending on the application. Example processes include industrial, infrastructure, and facility-based processes, as described below: Industrial processes include manufacturing, Process control, power generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes. Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electric power transmission and distribution, and wind farms. Facility processes, including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC), access, and energy consumption. However, SCADA systems may have security vulnerabilities, so the systems should be evaluated to identify risks and solutions implemented to mitigate those risks. SCADA System Components Typical SCADA mimic shown as an animation. For process plant, these are based upon the piping and instrumentation diagram. A SCADA system usually consists of the following main elements: This is the core of the SCADA system, gathering data on the process and sending control commands to the field connected devices. It refers to the computer and software responsible for communicating with the field connection controllers, which are RTUs and PLCs, and includes the HMI software running on operator workstations. In smaller SCADA systems, the supervisory computer may be composed of a single PC, in which case the HMI is a part of this computer. In larger SCADA systems, the master station may include several HMIs hosted on client computers, multiple servers for data acquisition, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dual-redundant or hot-standby formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server malfunction or breakdown. Remote Terminal Units Remote terminal units, also known as (RTUs), connect to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory computer system. RTUs are “intelligent I/O” and often have embedded control capabilities such as ladder logic in order to accomplish boolean logic operations. Programmable Logic Controllers [PLC] Also known as PLCs, these are connected to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory system in the same way as RTUs. PLCs have more sophisticated embedded control capabilities than RTUs, and are programmed in one or more IEC 61131-3 programming languages. PLCs are often used in place of RTUs as field devices because they are more economical, versatile, flexible and configurable. This connects the supervisory computer system to the remote terminal units (RTUs) and PLCs, and may use industry standard or manufacturer proprietary protocols. Both RTUs and PLCs operate autonomously on the near-real time control of the process, using the last command given from the supervisory system. Failure of the communications network does not necessarily stop the plant process controls, and on resumption of communications, the operator can continue with monitoring and control. Some critical systems will have dual redundant data highways, often cabled via diverse routes. More complex SCADA animation showing control of four batch cookers The human-machine interface (HMI) is the operator window of the supervisory system. It presents plant information to the operating personnel graphically in the form of mimic diagrams, which are a schematic representation of the plant being controlled, and alarm and event logging pages. The HMI is linked to the SCADA supervisory computer to provide live data to drive the mimic diagrams, alarm displays and trending graphs. In many installations the HMI is the graphical user interface for the operator, collects all data from external devices, creates reports, performs alarming, sends notifications, etc. Mimic diagrams consist of line graphics and schematic symbols to represent process elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the process equipment overlain with animated symbols. Supervisory operation of the plant is by means of the HMI, with operators issuing commands using mouse pointers, keyboards and touch screens. For example, a symbol of a pump can show the operator that the pump is running, and a flow meter symbol can show how much fluid it is pumping through the pipe. The operator can switch the pump off from the mimic by a mouse click or screen touch. The HMI will show the flow rate of the fluid in the pipe decrease in real time. The HMI package for a SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are represented in the interface. These representations can be as simple as an on-screen traffic light, which represents the state of an actual traffic light in the field, or as complex as a multi-projector display representing the position of all of the elevators in a skyscraper or all of the trains on a railway. A “historian”, is a software service within the HMI which accumulates time-stamped data, events, and alarms in a database which can be queried or used to populate graphic trends in the HMI. The historian is a client that requests data from a data acquisition server. An important part of most SCADA implementations is alarm handling. The system monitors whether certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an alarm event has occurred. Once an alarm event has been detected, one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more alarm indicators, and perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that management or remote SCADA operators are informed). In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared. Alarm conditions can be explicit—for example, an alarm point is a digital status point that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based on the values in other analogue and digital points—or implicit: the SCADA system might automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high and low- limit values associated with that point. Examples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the “fuel tank empty” light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator’s attention to the part of the system ‘in alarm’ so that appropriate action can be taken. “Smart” RTUs, or standard PLCs, are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without involving the supervisory computer. They employ standardized control programming languages such as under, IEC 61131-3 (a suite of 5 programming languages including function block, ladder, structured text, sequence function charts and instruction list), is frequently used to create programs which run on these RTUs and PLCs. Unlike a procedural language such as the C programming language or FORTRAN, IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling historic physical control arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform both the design and implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC. A programmable automation controller (PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities of a PC-based control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA systems to provide RTU and PLC functions. In many electrical substation SCADA applications, “distributed RTUs” use information processors or station computers to communicate with digital protective relays, PACs, and other devices for I/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu of a traditional RTU. PLC Commercial Integration Since about 1998, virtually all major PLC manufacturers have offered integrated HMI/SCADA systems, many of them using open and non-proprietary communications protocols. Numerous specialized third-party HMI/SCADA packages, offering built-in compatibility with most major PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to configure HMIs themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software programmer. The Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the equipment to digital values such as the open/closed status from a switch or a valve, or measurements such as pressure, flow, voltage or current. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment, such as opening or closing a switch or a valve, or setting the speed of a pump. Communication Infrastructure and Methods SCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct wired connections, although SONET/SDH is also frequently used for large systems such as railways and power stations. The remote management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to as telemetry. Some users want SCADA data to travel over their pre-established corporate networks or to share the network with other applications. The legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though. SCADA protocols are designed to be very compact. Many are designed to send information only when the master station polls the RTU. Typical legacy SCADA protocols include Modbus RTU, RP-570, Profibus and Conitel. These communication protocols, with the exception of Modbus (Modbus has been made open by Schneider Electric), are all SCADA-vendor specific but are widely adopted and used. Standard protocols are IEC 60870-5-101 or 104, IEC 61850 and DNP3. These communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all major SCADA vendors. Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate over TCP/IP. Although the use of conventional networking specifications, such as TCP/IP, blurs the line between traditional and industrial networking, they each fulfill fundamentally differing requirements. Network simulation can be used in conjunction with SCADA simulators to perform various ‘what-if’ analyses. With increasing security demands (such as North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) and critical infrastructure protection (CIP) in the US), there is increasing use of satellite-based communication. This has the key advantages that the infrastructure can be self-contained (not using circuits from the public telephone system), can have built-in encryption, and can be engineered to the availability and reliability required by the SCADA system operator. Earlier experiences using consumer-grade VSAT were poor. Modern carrier-class systems provide the quality of service required for SCADA. RTUs and other automatic controller devices were developed before the advent of industry wide standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their management created a multitude of control protocols. Among the larger vendors, there was also the incentive to create their own protocol to “lock in” their customer base. A list of automation protocols is compiled here. OLE for process control (OPC) can connect different hardware and software, allowing communication even between devices originally not intended to be part of an industrial network. SCADA Architecture Development The United States Army’s Training Manual 5-601 covers “SCADA Systems for C4ISR Facilities” SCADA systems have evolved through four generations as follows: First generation: “monolithic” Early SCADA system computing was done by large minicomputers. Common network services did not exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to other systems. The communication protocols used were strictly proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system redundancy was achieved using a back-up mainframe system connected to all the Remote Terminal Unit sites and was used in the event of failure of the primary mainframe system. Some first generation SCADA systems were developed as “turn key” operations that ran on minicomputers such as the PDP-11 series made by the Digital Equipment Corporation. Second generation: “distributed” SCADA information and command processing was distributed across multiple stations which were connected through a LAN. Information was shared in near real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task, which reduced the cost as compared to First Generation SCADA. The network protocols used were still not standardized. Since these protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers knew enough to determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Security of the SCADA installation was usually overlooked. Third generation: “networked” Similar to a distributed architecture, any complex SCADA can be reduced to simplest components and connected through communication protocols. In the case of a networked design, the system may be spread across more than one LAN network called a process control network (PCN) and separated geographically. Several distributed architecture SCADAs running in parallel, with a single supervisor and historian, could be considered a network architecture. This allows for a more cost effective solution in very large scale systems. Fourth generation: “Internet of things” With the commercial availability of cloud computing, SCADA systems have increasingly adopted Internet of things technology to significantly improve interoperability , reduce infrastructure costs and increase ease of maintenance and integration . As a result, SCADA systems can now report state in near real-time and use the horizontal scale available in cloud environments to implement more complex control algorithms than are practically feasible to implement on traditional programmable logic controllers. Further, the use of open network protocols such as TLS inherent in the Internet of things technology, provides a more readily comprehensible and manageable security boundary than the heterogeneous mix of proprietary network protocols typical of many decentralized SCADA implementations. This decentralization of data also requires a different approach to SCADA than traditional PLC based programs. When a SCADA system is used locally, the preferred methodology involves binding the graphics on the user interface to the data stored in specific PLC memory addresses. However, when the data comes from a disparate mix of sensors, controllers and databases (which may be local or at varied connected locations), the typical 1 to 1 mapping becomes problematic. A solution to this is data modeling, a concept derived from object oriented programming. In a data model, a virtual representation of each device is constructed in the SCADA software. These virtual representations (“models”) can contain not just the address mapping of the device represented, but also any other pertinent information (web based info, database entries, media files, etc.) that may be used by other facets of the SCADA/IoT implementation. As the increased complexity of the Internet of things renders traditional SCADA increasingly “house-bound,” and as communication protocols evolve to favor platform-independent, service-oriented architecture (such as OPC UA), it is likely that more SCADA software developers will implement some form of data modeling. SCADA systems that tie together decentralized facilities such as power, oil, gas pipelines, water distribution and wastewater collection systems were designed to be open, robust, and easily operated and repaired, but not necessarily secure. The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together with the increased number of connections between SCADA systems, office networks and the Internet has made them more vulnerable to types of network attacks that are relatively common in computer security. For example, United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) released a vulnerability advisory warning that unauthenticated users could download sensitive configuration information including password hashes from an Inductive Automation Ignition system utilizing a standard attack type leveraging access to the Tomcat Embedded Web server. Security researcher Jerry Brown submitted a similar advisory regarding a buffer overflow vulnerability in a Wonderware InBatchClient ActiveX control. Both vendors made updates available prior to public vulnerability release. Mitigation recommendations were standard patching practices and requiring VPN access for secure connectivity. Consequently, the security of some SCADA-based systems has come into question as they are seen as potentially vulnerable to cyber attacks. In particular, security researchers are concerned about: - the lack of concern about security and authentication in the design, deployment and operation of some existing SCADA networks - the belief that SCADA systems have the benefit of security through obscurity through the use of specialized protocols and proprietary interfaces - the belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are physically secured - the belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are disconnected from the Internet SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of which are transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water distribution, traffic lights, and other systems used as the basis of modern society. The security of these SCADA systems is important because compromise or destruction of these systems would impact multiple areas of society far removed from the original compromise. For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA system would cause financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from that source. How security will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments remains to be seen. There are many threat vectors to a modern SCADA system. One is the threat of unauthorized access to the control software, whether it is human access or changes induced intentionally or accidentally by virus infections and other software threats residing on the control host machine. Another is the threat of packet access to the network segments hosting SCADA devices. In many cases, the control protocol lacks any form of cryptographic security, allowing an attacker to control a SCADA device by sending commands over a network. In many cases SCADA users have assumed that having a VPN offered sufficient protection, unaware that security can be trivially bypassed with physical access to SCADA-related network jacks and switches. Industrial control vendors suggest approaching SCADA security like Information Security with a defense in depth strategy that leverages common IT practices. The reliable function of SCADA systems in our modern infrastructure may be crucial to public health and safety. As such, attacks on these systems may directly or indirectly threaten public health and safety. Such an attack has already occurred, carried out on Maroochy Shire Council’s sewage control system in Queensland, Australia. Shortly after a contractor installed a SCADA system in January 2000, system components began to function erratically. Pumps did not run when needed and alarms were not reported. More critically, sewage flooded a nearby park and contaminated an open surface-water drainage ditch and flowed 500 meters to a tidal canal. The SCADA system was directing sewage valves to open when the design protocol should have kept them closed. Initially this was believed to be a system bug. Monitoring of the system logs revealed the malfunctions were the result of cyber attacks. Investigators reported 46 separate instances of malicious outside interference before the culprit was identified. The attacks were made by a disgruntled ex-employee of the company that had installed the SCADA system. The ex-employee was hoping to be hired by the utility full-time to maintain the system. In April 2008, the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Attack issued a Critical Infrastructures Report which discussed the extreme vulnerability of SCADA systems to an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) event. After testing and analysis, the Commission concluded: “SCADA systems are vulnerable to an EMP event. The large numbers and widespread reliance on such systems by all of the Nation’s critical infrastructures represent a systemic threat to their continued operation following an EMP event. Additionally, the necessity to reboot, repair, or replace large numbers of geographically widely dispersed systems will considerably impede the Nation’s recovery from such an assault.” Many vendors of SCADA and control products have begun to address the risks posed by unauthorized access by developing lines of specialized industrial firewall and VPN solutions for TCP/IP-based SCADA networks as well as external SCADA monitoring and recording equipment. The International Society of Automation (ISA) started formalizing SCADA security requirements in 2007 with a working group, WG4. WG4 “deals specifically with unique technical requirements, measurements, and other features required to evaluate and assure security resilience and performance of industrial automation and control systems devices”. The increased interest in SCADA vulnerabilities has resulted in vulnerability researchers discovering vulnerabilities in commercial SCADA software and more general offensive SCADA techniques presented to the general security community. In electric and gas utility SCADA systems, the vulnerability of the large installed base of wired and wireless serial communications links is addressed in some cases by applying bump-in-the-wire devices that employ authentication and Advanced Encryption Standard encryption rather than replacing all existing nodes. In June 2010, anti-virus security company VirusBlokAda reported the first detection of malware that attacks SCADA systems (Siemens’ WinCC/PCS 7 systems) running on Windows operating systems. The malware is called Stuxnet and uses four zero-day attacks to install a rootkit which in turn logs into the SCADA’s database and steals design and control files. The malware is also capable of changing the control system and hiding those changes. The malware was found on 14 systems, the majority of which were located in Iran. In October 2013 National Geographic released a docudrama titled American Blackout which dealt with an imagined large-scale cyber attack on SCADA and the United States’ electrical grid.

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HE-ḤALUTZ (Heb. הֶחָלוּץ; "the pioneer"), an association of Jewish youth whose aim was to train its members to settle on the land in Israel. The original meaning of the Hebrew word is the vanguard that leads the host on its advance (Josh. 6:13). Origin of the Movement The idea of He-Ḥalutz was conceived during the crisis that overtook Russian Jewry in the aftermath of the 1881 pogroms. This awakening was influenced indirectly by the Russian revolutionary movement, which called upon the intelligentsia to "go out to the people." Two of the societies that were formed at this time – *Bilu, which called for settlement in Ereẓ Israel, and *Am Olam, which advocated settlement in the United States – were pioneer movements that imposed the concepts of "self-fulfillment" upon their members and planned for collective or cooperative settlement. At the beginning of the 20th century, a Jewish youth movement made up of small groups gradually came into being. Menaḥem *Ussishkin gave impetus to this development in 1904, when he called for the establishment of "a general Jewish workers' organization made up of unmarried young people of sound body and spirit. Each member would be committed to settle for a period of three years in Ereẓ Israel, where he would render army service for the Jewish people, his weapons being not the sword and the rifle, but the spade and the plow" (in Our Program). Such movements arose under different names in various countries: in America He-Ḥalutz, founded by Eliezer *Joffe in 1905 (see below); in Russia, a number of societies, among them Bilu'im Ḥadashim (new Bilu'im) and He-Ḥalutz. They were encouraged by the Ereẓ Israel workers, who called for the settlement of ḥalutzim (A.D. Gordon in 1904, Joseph *Vitkin in 1905, the Ha-Po'el ha-Ẓa'ir in 1908, etc.) and sent emissaries abroad to urge young Jews to settle in Ereẓ Israel. The *Ẓe'irei Zion movement included in its platform "the organization of ḥalutzim and their training for aliyah." In the summer of 1906 the Ẓe'irei Zion held a conference of ḥalutzim (the Bilu'im Ḥadashim) that decided to impose upon the members of the movement the goal of settling in Ereẓ Israel and engaging in manual or intellectual labor in groups or as individuals, as well as studying Hebrew and Arabic. During the 11th Zionist Congress in Vienna (1913), Ẓe'irei Zion decided to establish a center for Russia and Poland and to include among its tasks "the training of ḥalutzim who are contemplating settlement in Ereẓ Israel." At the conference of Ẓe'irei Zion in Russia (Vilna, April 1914), Eliahu Munchik, an emissary from Ereẓ Israel, spoke on aliyah (immigration) and ḥalutziyyut (pioneering), and the conference decided to organize groups and establish a mutual aid fund for them. During World War i the movement came to a standstill except in Russia and the United States. In the U.S. David *Ben-Gurion and Izhak *Ben-Zvi attempted to establish a pioneering movement. In their Yiddish pamphlet, "Printcipen un Oyfgaben" ("Principles and Tasks," 1917), the guidelines were formulated as follows: "To create and organize the first workers' army for Ereẓ Israel" and to impose upon each member the obligation of "settling in Ereẓ Israel when the need arises." A few hundred youngsters joined the organization. At the end of 1917, when the call came to join the *Jewish Legion, these members of He-Ḥalutz in the U.S. volunteered for military service and went to Ereẓ Israel together with the other volunteers. The February Revolution of 1917 opened up new possibilities for Zionist activities in Russia. An article on He-Ḥalutz by Ben-Zvi, published in Yevreyskaya Zhizn in April 1917, made a profound impression upon Jewish youth. The second conference of Ẓe'irei Zion, which convened in Petrograd in May 1917, adopted a resolution calling for "the education of the youth to the ideas of ḥalutziyyut and the organization of He-Ḥalutz groups to serve as the basis of Jewish national life in Ereẓ Israel." The *Balfour Declaration, issued in November 1917, greatly accelerated the process, and groups of ḥalutzim developed in Russia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Galicia, Bessarabia, etc. At first the various groups had no connection with one another, but gradually they became part of a national organization and eventually a worldwide movement. In January 1918, the founding convention of the Russian He-Ḥalutz met in Kharkov. At this conference, a controversy, which dominated the movement for a number of years, arose between the "idealists," who argued that He-Ḥalutz should serve as a vanguard and assume tasks of outstanding importance for the Zionist movement, and the "materialists," who saw the movement simply as the organization of Jewish workers planning to settle in Ereẓ Israel. In the spring of 1918, Joseph *Trumpeldor joined the organization of He-Ḥalutz. In July and September 1918, conferences of Zionist organizations and of He-Ḥalutz groups were held, and it was decided that the movement would be Zionist but nonpartisan and would accept for membership Jewish youth over 18 who recognized Hebrew as their national language and were preparing for settlement in Ereẓ Israel. Trumpeldor formulated these decisions in a Russian-language pamphlet titled He-Ḥalutz, which was widely distributed in Russia. On Jan. 6, 1919, the first conference of the movement, in which representatives of 23 groups in central Russia and Belorussia took part, took place in Moscow. Trumpeldor, who had lost hope of creating a Jewish army of 100,000 men in Russia that would march to Ereẓ Israel through the Caucasus, called for the establishment of a "military He-Ḥalutz" of 10,000 men to replace the British garrison in Ereẓ Israel. The conference decided upon a series of general principles: He-Ḥalutz is a nonpartisan association of workers who have resolved to settle in Ereẓ Israel in order to live by their own labor, rejecting exploitation of others' work; it will train its members for life in Ereẓ Israel, transport them there, and facilitate their absorption in the country; its final goal is the establishment of a sovereign Jewish nation in Ereẓ Israel; it accepts the authority of the Zionist Congress. Trumpeldor was elected president and asked to go to Ereẓ Israel to prepare the ground for the absorption of ḥalutzim. An executive body was elected and took up its seat in Minsk. In spite of the chaotic conditions prevailing in Russia during the civil war, He-Ḥalutz entered upon a period of rapid development. A wave of unorganized emigration began; it was made up of various groups of ḥalutzim who set out on the way to Ereẓ Israel along different routes – across the Romanian, Polish, Lithuanian, and Latvian borders and by way of the Black Sea and the Caucasian Mountains. The number of groups associated with the center grew to 120. When Trumpeldor fell at *Tel Ḥai (March 1920) the movement lost its natural leader, but he became the symbol of its ideals, as he had realized the aims of He-Ḥalutz – settling in Ereẓ Israel, working there, and being prepared to give one's life in its defense. For He-Ḥalutz, the consolidation of the Soviet regime meant the beginning of a process that was to end in the total suppression of the movement. The Yevsektsiya (the Jewish "section" in the Communist Party) played a role in this process. When the He-Ḥalutz center, then in Moscow, applied to the authorities for official approval of its activities, it received the reply (March 18, 1918) that there was no need for official approval as long as the activities of He-Ḥalutz conformed to the laws of the Soviet Union. This rather equivocal reply (which at the time did not apply to the Ukraine and Belorussia) provided a basis, however uncertain, for the continued existence of the movement. In many places, its training farms dovetailed with the official efforts of "productivization" of those Jews who had lost their source of livelihood, and sometimes He-Ḥalutz was even officially encouraged to continue these training activities. The hasty and unorganized aliyah of ḥalutzim, however, adversely affected the development of the movement. In October 1920 another conference of He-Ḥalutz, which took place at Kharkov, emphasized the need for training ḥalutzim before their move to Ereẓ Israel. During the following years while the Jewish shtetl was rapidly being destroyed, the movement continued to develop, even though many branches, as well as entire areas, were out of touch with the center. In Odessa, for example, a special center for the Ukraine functioned independently. One group that had a considerable influence upon training of ḥalutzim in the early 1920s was the Volga Guard at Saratov, which later moved to Yartsevo, near Moscow, and established the J.Ḥ. *Brenner Work Battalion. In January 1922, the third He-Ḥalutz conference was held at Kharkov and was attended by delegates from Russia, the Ukraine, and Belorussia. Its participants were arrested and continued their deliberations in jail, but He-Ḥalutz continued its work. At the end of the year a training farm named Tel Ḥai was opened up in the Crimea. At this juncture, the first signs of a split in the ranks of He-Ḥalutz made their appearance. Some of its members decided to adapt "He-Ḥalutz" to the state ideology in order to achieve official approval of its activities; others, however, felt that He-Ḥalutz should retain its nonpartisan character and disassociate itself from Communism. In April 1923 the Council of He-Ḥalutz met in Moscow and decided upon program guidelines, which included a paragraph defining He-Ḥalutz as an organic part of the Jewish and international working class and, recognizing the inevitability of the class war, declaring that the movement would fight against capitalism in all its forms. Another paragraph stipulated that members who "oppose the idea of the kevuẓah and who wish to plan their lives as members of a moshav ovedim would not be admitted to the training groups." These resolutions caused an uproar in He-Ḥalutz and a bitter controversy broke out. Ben-Gurion, who was in the Soviet Union at the time visiting its agricultural exhibition as a delegate of the *Histadrut, made an unsuccessful attempt to settle the dispute. In August 1923, when the He-Ḥalutz statute was given official sanction, the movement split into two factions: the "legal" faction, advocating class warfare and a collective way of life, and the "illegal" faction, which regarded itself as a national Jewish workers' movement. The legal He-Ḥalutz strove to utilize the limited possibilities deriving from its status. Official branches were opened in various places (excluding, however, the Ukraine and Belorussia, where the official approval did not apply); a struggle was conducted, in public, with the Jewish Communist activists, and permission was obtained for the publication of a journal (He-Ḥalutz), which printed 3,000 copies and contained news from Ereẓ Israel. Members of He-Ḥalutz participated in official celebrations and holidays (May Day, the anniversary of the Revolution), displaying Zionist slogans and singing Zionist songs. He-Ḥalutz also joined the organizations designed to encourage the agricultural settlement of Jews in Russia (Ozet) and struggled inside these organizations against the design to turn them into instruments against aliyah. More training farms such as Ma'yan in the Crimea and Zangen near Moscow were established. The illegal faction of He-Ḥalutz carried on its activities underground and also succeeded in establishing training farms of its own, such as Mishmar in the Crimea (1924) and Bilu in Belorussia (1925). At the end of 1925 the factions had a total membership of 14,000. The year 1926, however, was a turning point for the worse. News of the economic crisis in Palestine had a depressing effect, and many ḥalutzim – including some who had been members of the Work Battalion – returned from Palestine as disappointed men. At the same time the settlement of Jews on the land in the U.S.S.R. boasted considerable achievements, and it seemed to many that this was the proper way to the large-scale "productivization" of Russian Jewry. The Soviet authorities now persecuted both factions of He-Ḥalutz. No aid was forthcoming from the Zionist movement or the He-Ḥalutz movement abroad. In March 1928 the government canceled the approval it had given to one faction, and both were now illegal. The training farms of He-Ḥalutz were disbanded and their members had only one course left – to go to Ereẓ Israel after first spending years in jail and exile. Even this course was fraught with difficulties and eventually came to an end. Slowly the movement was suppressed, although efforts to keep it alive continued until 1934. Those members of He-Ḥalutz who had not succeeded in leaving for Ereẓ Israel remained in prison or exile, some to be liquidated during the mass purges (among them Shemu'el Schneurson, one of the leaders of the underground He-Ḥalutz who had returned from Ereẓ Israel in 1926 to take part in the underground work of the movement). The He-Ḥalutz movement in Russia affected the development of the movement far beyond the confines of the country. Hundreds of ḥalutzim from Soviet Russia who passed through Poland, Romania, Lithuania, Latvia, etc., on their way to Ereẓ Israel were of significant help to the movement in those countries. The final severance of the He-Ḥalutz movement in Russia from the outside world and from Ereẓ Israel was one of the severest blows dealt to the Zionist Movement. At the same time, the movement spread all over Europe, as well as overseas. In 1921 He-Ḥalutz conferences took place in no fewer than 25 countries in Eastern, Central, and Western Europe, the countries of North Africa and the Middle East, North and South America, and South Africa. With the suppression of all Zionist activities in the Soviet Union, the center of the movement was resituated in Poland. During the 12th Zionist Congress (Carlsbad 1921), the He-Ḥalutz organizations held their first world conference and decided to establish a world federation with headquarters in Warsaw. The movement in Poland began at the same time as in Russia (at the beginning of the century), but only at the end of the war did it become a mass movement. The growth of He-Ḥalutz in Poland was greatly encouraged by the Balfour Declaration and the renewal of ties with Ereẓ Israel, particularly with the workers' parties, as well as by the pauperization of the Jewish masses and the appearance of a young and inspired leadership that searched for a way to Jewish national freedom and the creation of a new Jewish society. The program of He-Ḥalutz consisted of three basic, interdependent points: organization, training (hakhsharah), andaliyah. The last was the most difficult to achieve, as the British military authorities in Palestine were largely anti-Zionist and discouraged Jewish immigration. It was also deemed impossible to enter the country illegally by eluding the border control, since peace had not yet been restored and there were no land or sea communications. In spite of these obstacles, individual immigrants and small groups succeeded in entering the country; the groups grew in size and eventually the road of aliyah lay open. The first group to enter Ereẓ Israel in this manner was the "Bendin" group, consisting of six ḥalutzim. They left Poland in the summer of 1918 and made their way through Odessa and Constantinople, finally reaching Jaffa on Dec. 5, 1918, after they had risked their lives in a daring and arduous trip. A second group left Radom in November 1918. Originally numbering 15 persons, they were joined en route by 90 ḥalutzim. Their trip entered Zionist history as "The 105." Without passports and visas they passed through Czechoslovakia, Austria, Serbia, Croatia, and Italy, and time and again they were arrested, imprisoned, and beaten. Finally they reached Naples, where, lacking entry visas, they were unable to board a ship for Palestine. It was only after great efforts were made in their behalf (in which the author Axel Munthe, then a resident of Capri, also took part) that London authorized the issue of visas. When they landed in Egypt, they were imprisoned by the British military authorities, who suspected them of being "Bolsheviks." Finally, after six months of hardship, they reached Palestine. On their arrival by train from Egypt during Passover 1919, they were welcomed by almost the entire population of Tel Aviv. "The 105" had in fact inaugurated a new wave of immigration – the Third *Aliyah. The reports of the arrival of the "Bendin" and Radom groups gave new encouragement to the movement in Poland. Branches were organized and training programs instituted in hundreds of towns and cities. Training was divided into two parts: ideological training (Zionism and social sciences, history and geography of Ereẓ Israel, and Hebrew) and practical training (vocational education, primarily in agriculture). Many ḥalutzim were employed by Jewish and gentile landowners (especially in Galicia) as individuals or in groups; but in the main the training was conducted on farms established and maintained by He-Ḥalutz. The largest and best known of the dozens of such farms were at Grochow (near Warsaw), Czestochowa, Grodno, Suwalki, and Bendzin. There were also training facilities in quarries (the best known of them, in Klosow, Volhynia), sawmills, textile factories, etc. The expansion of the training program was followed by an increase in aliyah. In 1918 Russian ḥalutzim on their way to Palestine began entering Poland illegally. At first they came in small groups, but in the period 1919–23 the flow took on considerable proportions. The ḥalutzim came mostly from Podolia, the Ukraine, Volhynia, and Belorussia, and they converged on Vilna, Baranovichi, Rovno, Pinsk, and Warsaw. In the initial phase the Polish authorities tolerated their illegal entry on the basis of documents furnished by the Palestine Office of the Zionist Movement and provided the ḥalutzim with emigrants' passports on the assumption that their stay in Poland would be short. When immigration to Palestine was stopped in 1921, however, the Polish authorities took severe measures against the ḥalutzim, arresting and deporting them back to the Soviet border. It was only after the Zionist institutions had undertaken to speed up the departure of the ḥalutzim for Ereẓ Israel that the situation was alleviated. The Russian ḥalutzim established an organization of Russian and Ukrainian ḥalutzim in Poland, many of whom were placed in the Polish He-Ḥalutz training farms, while others were in ḥalutzim hostels and private employment. These refugees from Russia left an indelible imprint upon the Polish movement. Eventually the Russian ḥalutzim were able to go to Palestine, and the last transport of 400 arrived in Jaffa on May 3, 1923. The Polish He-Ḥalutz movement established within its ranks He-Ḥalutz ha-Ẓa'ir, which maintained close relations with various Zionist youth movements, such as Dror (Freiheit), *Gordonia, *Ha-Shomer ha-Ẓa'ir, etc. The Polish He-Ḥalutz reached the height of its development during the Fourth and Fifth aliyot. In 1924, He-Ḥalutz in Poland had a membership of 1,700; in 1925 – 4,600; 1930 – 11,600; 1933 – 41,000. Members enrolled in the training program numbered 712 in 1925, 2,450 in 1926, 2,230 in 1932, 4,450 in 1933, 7,915 in 1935. The Polish movement also published a number of periodicals: He-Ḥalutz, He-Atid, He-Ḥalutz ha-Ẓa'ir, etc. In 1934 He-Ḥalutz inaugurated the "illegal" *immigration movement by dispatching the boat Velos with ḥalutzim from Poland and the Baltic states. In the late 1930s He-Ḥalutz cooperated with the *Haganah in organizing the ḥalutzim as "illegal" immigrants, in their transportation to Palestine, and in the struggle for opening the gates of Palestine. During World War ii He-Ḥalutz members were among the most active resistance fighters against the Nazis. He-Ḥalutz in Lithuania was established after World War i and based itself initially upon cooperative societies (in carpentry, tailoring, food processing, etc.). Due to lack of capital and experience, these cooperative societies did not last long, and they were replaced by agricultural training facilities. The main center of agricultural training was a farm run solely by He-Ḥalutz known as Kibbush. Memel, the German port annexed by Lithuania, was also a center of He-Ḥalutz activities; it had an urban cooperative, the members of which were engaged in a variety of activities, including marine and port operations. Memel was also known in the movement for its outstanding He-Ḥalutz House. Other urban He-Ḥalutz cooperatives existed at Kaunas, Siauliai, Vilkaviskis, Poniviez, etc. The membership of He-Ḥalutz in Lithuania ranged from 1,000 to 1,500. In Latvia, the He-Ḥalutz movement's main training farm was located at Altasmuza, near Riga. Originally the property of *oze, it was transferred to He-Ḥalutz and also served as a school, with the teachers receiving their salaries from the state. Other cooperatives existed at Dvinsk, Tukum, and Libau. In the period 1920–21, 150 ḥalutzim settled in Palestine and were followed by many more in the subsequent years. He-Ḥalutz came into existence in Romania in 1918, when Bessarabia, Bukovina, and Transylvania were incorporated into the country. It was started by ḥalutzim who had fled from Russia and the Ukraine and had to spend periods of varying length in Romania before they were able to proceed to Ereẓ Israel. These ḥalutzim-in-transit established cooperatives of their own and also worked in the fields and forests. As a first step, the Romanian He-Ḥalutz acquired two training farms: one was later sold and replaced by the Massadah farm near Beltsy, and the other was near Jassy. Other farms were established near Galati and Bucharest. The capital for the acquisition of the farms and their maintenance was provided by a Friends of He-Ḥalutz Society. Most Zionist youth movements (Ha-Shomer ha-Ẓa'ir, Gordonia, Dror, *Ha-No'ar ha-Ẓiyyoni, *Bnei Akiva, etc.) participated in the activities of He-Ḥalutz. During the 1930s, when the antisemitic *Iron Guard rampaged the country, the He-Ḥalutz movement grew at a rapid pace, assisted by emissaries from Palestine. An important role was played by the Romanian ports, mainly Constanţa, which were used by olim from all over Europe on their way to Ereẓ Israel. The passage of many thousands of ḥalutzim through the country served to accelerate the aliyah of Romanian ḥalutzim as well. During the war the Romanian ports made history when no fewer then 40,000 "illegal" immigrants to Palestine, using dozens of boats, set out from them. Romanian ḥalutzim functioning under Nazi rule as an underground organization fulfilled a vital task in organizing and safeguarding the "illegal" immigration, often at the risk of their lives. Early manifestations of interest in ḥaluziyyut among a part of the Jewish youth in Germany, Austria, and what was later to become Czechoslovakia came to the fore during World War i. Officially, He-Ḥalutz was established in Germany at the end of 1918, and, as a first step, hundreds of ḥalutzim (calling themselves Praktikanten and organized in a Praktikantenbund) went out to work on farm estates in order to train for life in Ereẓ Israel. This experiment, however, did not last long, and He-Ḥalutz established a number of training farms of its own. The movement's farms were not successful either, and only one ("Ha-Mahpekhah" – "the Revolution") was able to maintain itself for any period of time. The lack of Zionist education and of a sizable working class among Central European Jewry prevented the development of He-Ḥalutz along East European lines. There were differences between the members of *Blau-Weiss and the ḥalutzim who had not been affiliated with this youth movement; the former had their roots in the German youth movement (e.g., the Wandervogel), and the revolutionary spirit of He-Ḥalutz in Eastern Europe was alien to them. This created difficulties in the merger of the two elements in one organization, which was technically achieved by the efforts of leaders on both sides. The differences between them, however, were never entirely overcome. Czechoslovakia was the country in which He-Ḥalutz was the closest in spirit and methods to the movement in Lithuania and Poland. The movement in Western Europe developed along lines similar to Central Europe. The first He-Ḥalutz organization in the U.S. was established in 1905, at the same time that a similar organization was formed in Odessa (Crimea). Its founders were a group of Zionist youth, most of whom were Russian immigrants from rural communities, who met in the Ha-Teḥiyah offices in New York and formed He-Ḥalutz to serve as the nucleus of a world movement to revive Jewish settlement in Ereẓ Israel. Anchored in *Po'alei Zion, the organization was led by Eliezer Joffe who wrote articles in several newspapers to enlist the participation of youth in settling in Palestine as pioneers. In 1906 Joffe published an article titled "The People's Road to Its Land," in which he staked the rebirth of the Jewish people on the dedication of young pioneers. Meanwhile, in 1905, Ḥalutzei Po'alei Zion was formed within Po'alei Zion, with branches in New York, Philadelphia, Montreal, Baltimore, and elsewhere. In 1908 the New York He-Ḥalutz group was absorbed into a new organization, Ha-Ikkar ha-Ẓa'ir, whose program remained nearly identical with that of He-Ḥalutz. During World War i, the U.S. He-Ḥalutz movement received a tremendous impetus from the presence of Ben-Gurion and Ben-Zvi, who tried to establish a He-Ḥalutz organization in the U.S. with the help of the Po'alei Zion party and published a Yiddish pamphlet, "Printsipen un Oyfgaben" (Sifriyyat He-Ḥalutz, 1917). Several hundred Jewish youth responded to its call for pioneers to rebuild a Jewish homeland through practical settlement rather than political or other means. The original goal of the movement was to settle pioneers at the earliest opportunity. However, when immigration to Palestine was restricted in 1926, the world He-Ḥalutz movement began to focus its emphasis on hakhsharah ("preparation" or "training") for potential pioneer youth. Many Jewish youths were aroused by the Arab riots in Palestine and the subsequent British White Paper in 1929, and in 1932 the He-Ḥalutz Organization of America was formed with headquarters in New York and 20 city and rural branches across the U.S. and in Canada. In 1933 He-Ḥalutz rented its first hakhsharah farm, and it subsequently purchased farms at Creamridge, n.j. (1936); Heightstown, n.j. (1940); Poughkeepsie, n.y.; Smithville, Ont.; and Colton, Calif. (1948) to train its members for agricultural work in Palestine. In 1935 Young Po'alei Zion embarked on a training program within the He-Ḥalutz framework, and in 1939 Ha-Shomer ha-Ẓa'ir joined He-Ḥalutz after nearly a decade of negotiations. By 1940 the He-Ḥalutz Organization of America included nearly all Zionist youth of the Labor and General Zionist wings. After the outbreak of World War ii, He-Ḥalutz initiated industrial, aviation, nursing, and other technical training programs, while continuing its agricultural training. By 1948 He-Ḥalutz had grown from a few hundred members to 1,600, and since its inception several hundred members had emigrated to Ereẓ Israel. When the hakhsharah farms were liquidated in the mid-1950s, the activities of He-Ḥalutz were assumed by Ha-Shomer ha-Ẓa'ir, which had always maintained a large degree of autonomy. Nominally, however, the He-Ḥalutz Organization of America still exists. The only American group to support He-Ḥalutz financially was the American Fund for Palestinian Institutions. When World War ii broke out, He-Ḥalutz had a membership of 100,000. In 1927, according to statistics published by the Histadrut, 43% of all workers in Ereẓ Israel and 80% of the members of kibbutzim had been trained by He-Ḥalutz before settling in Ereẓ Israel. After the war, the world movement of He-Ḥalutz ceased to exist, although the activities that it had conducted were renewed on a smaller scale in Europe, the United States, and other countries. Pioneering youth movements, like all Zionist youth movements, now conduct their work under the auspices of the Youth and He-Ḥalutz Department of the World Zionist Organization. M. Basok (ed.), Sefer He-Ḥalutz (1939); He-Ḥalutz, Me'assef li-Tenu'at He-Ḥalutz (Warsaw, 1930); HeḤalutz be Rusyah (1932); D. Pines, He-Ḥalutz be-Khur ha-Mahpekhah (1938);); Y. Ereẓ (ed.), Sefer ha-Aliyyah ha-Shelishit, 2 vols. (1964); idem, Sefer Z.S. (1963); Z. Liberman (Livneh), Pirkei ha-Aliyyah ha-Shelishit (1958); I. Ritov, Perakim be-Toledot Ẓe'irei-Ẓiyyon (1964); Asufot, 6 (1959), 98–110; L. Spiezman, Khalutsim in Poyln, 3 vols. (1959–1962); M. Braslavsky, Toledot Tenu'at ha-Po'alim ha-Arẓisre'elit, 4 vols. (1955–1962), index. add. bibliography: Y. Utiker, Tenu'at he-Ḥaluẓ be-Polin 1932–1935; Y. Oppenheim, Tenu'at he-Ḥaluẓ be-Polin, 2 vols. (1982, 1993); L.A. Sarid, He-Ḥaluẓ u-Tenu'ot ha-No'ar be-Polin 1917–1939 (1979); R. Perlis, Tenu'ot ha-No'ar va-Ḥaluẓiyyot be-Polin ha-Kevushah (1987); S. Nashmith, Hayu Ḥaluẓim be-Lita 1916–1941 (1983); I. Oppenheimer, "'Hehalutz' in Eastern Europe between the Two World Wars," in: Zionist Youth Movements during the Shoa (1996), 33–116; idem, "The Ideological Background of the 'Hehalutz' Movement in Russia and Poland in the 1920s," in: Polin 5 (1999), 131–55, C. Schatzker, "The Jewish Youth Movement in Germany in the Holocaust Period," in: lbiyb, 32 (1987), 157–81; 33 (1988), 301–25. [Israel Ritov /

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|Maede Zolanvari (A paper written under the guidance of Prof. Raj Jain)||Download| The Internet of Things (IoT) is still at the top of the Gartner Hype Cycle as the most hyped technology, which means that it is the hottest topic that has gained the most attraction of the researchers currently. In recent years, there have been huge amount of research that have investigated different aspects and concerns of this field. Meanwhile, supplying privacy and security is an inseparable part of this technology. Without providing enough security, the promising benefits of this flourishing technology will be misused and worthless. In this paper, we will first give a brief definition of IoT and then we will go through more details about the current challenges and the provided solution to provide security for IoT. Keywords: Internet of Things, Security, Privacy, Network, Authentication, Encryption. The invention of IoT by using the new version of IP address (IPv6), which goes beyond the limitations of IPv4, will change the world of Internet by providing the connectivity for an enormous number of smart connected devices near to 70 billion, or even more. Flourishing this technology has been called as the Second Economy or the Industrial Internet revolution[Chris15]. It will produce a huge market with various services, and the size of this market is estimated in the trillions of dollars. This market is a promising scheme to be successful, however only if the privacy aspects get into account before this huge process starts to be implemented widely. The IoT's anywhere, anything, anytime nature could easily change these advantages into disadvantages, if privacy aspects would not be provided enough. For example, if any one can have access to any personal services and information, or if the information of a wide range of people can be reached by the environment automatically, the IoT would not have a reliable environment [Rodrigo11]. There is not any sufficient backbone to define control and information asymmetry policies for interaction among any different users and devices. Controlling the flow with the traditional tools will cause a huge amount of traffic that is hard to guarantee the privacy and protection for elements [Blanca14]. Also, solutions for different security requirements have direct impact on the cost and time to market. Moreover, every solution has its own business requirements which may or may not be as strict [Ajit14]. Another important issue in IoT is the quality of the user?s satisfaction. IoT should provide a better service by avoiding the rejecting certain services that may happen by current classic mechanisms used to obtain user's consent. Hence, IoT should provide different methods such as implementing consent mechanisms through the devices themselves as privacy proxies and policies for each device, which includes conditions and constraints attached to data that describe how it should be treated [Blanca14]. To provide some statistics about the popularity of IoT, we used the paper [Acquity14]. As this paper claims: Gradually, consumers have to get adopted to this technology over the next five years. Currently, 7 percent of consumers own a wearable IoT device and 4 percent of consumers own an in-home IoT device. Nearly two-thirds of consumers plan to buy an in-home device in the next five years and wearable technology ownership will double by 2015, increasing from 7 percent in 2014 to 14 percent by 2015. By 2016, wearable technology is expected to double again and reach a total of 28 percent adoption rate. The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of "things" embedded with sensors, where connections through the network will enable these objects to collect and exchange data, while each thing is uniquely identifiable through its embedded computing system. The IoT allows "things" to be sensed and controlled remotely. Also, direct integration between the physical ambient and computer-based systems will be more implemented, which results in improving efficiency, accuracy and economic benefit. "Things,” in the IoT world consists of wide variety of devices, for example: heart monitoring implants, biochip transponders on farm animals, electric clams in coastal waters, automobiles with built-in sensors, or field operation devices that assist firefighters in search and rescue operations. These devices collect required information with the help of various existing technologies and then autonomously share the information between other devices. Current market examples include smart thermostat systems and washer/dryers that use Wi-Fi for remote monitoring. Besides providing the infrastructure for the tremendous number of new devices and application areas for Internet connected automation to exchange the information, IoT is also expected to generate large amounts of data from diverse locations that is aggregated very quickly, thereby increasing the need to better index, store and process such data is an avoidable concern to flourish this technology. Based on the fact that IoT will face billions more devices, IoT will be more vulnerable to be attacked than the Internet, and there might be some attacker that want to control some devices directly or indirectly. One way to know the level of reliability of a service is having a defined threshold for service fault tolerance. However, it should be considered that any solution for this aspect should be lightweight enough that it can be implemented on IoT. As a conclusion, we should first design all elements with secure mechanisms by improving the quality of the implementing software. Also, every element of the IoT should be able to know the real-time status of the network, to provide the feedback to other elements. Therefore, having a monitoring system would be helpful in this matter. Finally, any time that the network faces a degradation in the performance or has a failure in the performance, every element should have the ability to protect themselves. So, various privacy protocols should also be defined for these situation to instruct the elements the way they should work in unusual situations to fix the situation and be able to recover quickly. Hence, the viability of recovery services is obvious [Rodrigo11]. Also, by providing automatic services for example in M2M (Machine to Machine) communication, the need for providing safety and security will be more crucial. Some example of these devices would be as: health monitoring sensors, car controlling, and electronic locks and environment security monitoring. To have a better understanding from the threat patterns, we should provide enough knowledge about the dangerous and loss of life resulted by abusing the IoT devices; hence, the maximum amount of the fault that is possible to be tolerated can be cleared [Ollie14]. Understanding the challenges in the way of providing privacy is the first step toward finding suitable solutions. Hence, in the next section, we will bring different challenges that are related to provide a secure basic for IoT. Providing security for this giant technology is really challenging, mainly because there is not any boundary or limitation on the way that it can go. In this section we provide the possible challenges that the IoT will face. For the security methods that are based on the context awareness, it is needed that any essential part in the context would be addressed effectively. For example if an image cannot be recognized by the sensor because of the bad quality, the security enforcements can not be applied to that image. Some access features should be provided to supply the required information from context. Also, sometimes, automatic security management may work incorrectly in some context, mainly because it could not recognize the context. Providing context awareness is an essential challenge in IoT [Gianmarco14]. In recent years, in order to measure different information, coupling between physical environment and processor has been growing significantly. For instance, a car that can be driven by a computer in a center or a medicine for a patient will be used as the sensors employed on her body providing body situation. However, if there would not be any guaranteed security, all these systems can be manipulated and attacked by different hacker, and cause harmful results [Gianmarco14]. For example in the above two cases, an attacker may bring up a lethal accident by driving the car in a wrong direction, or may kill the patient by ordering wrong medicine. Moreover, sometimes IoT devices are considered as intellectual property that they might be highly valuable; so, they need to be protected, and also, for the right of owner. However, it is an unavoidable that when a property is accessible through the physical environment, it can easily been misused by a attacker [Ollie14]. In all layers of IoT, it is essential to provide identification. It is one of the biggest challenges based on the fact that IoT will face a tremendous number of applications and structures with different unpredictable characters and patterns. This matter will be worse even in the distributed environment which is the main domain for IoT. This challenge stays valid even for bounded and closed environments. There are some hot research considering algorithms which are able to derive value from unstructured data to increase performance. There are different factors determining main criteria of an identifier, such as: governance, security and privacy. Also, lots of existing identification schemes have been created long time ago for local usage and for specific objectives. Therefore, the need to have a global reference for identification is vital. Lots of devices that use the sensors and actuators should follow specific policy and proxy rules for authentication to authorize the sensors to public their information. Meanwhile, low cost solutions in this field has not been provided as much as needed [Gianmarco14]. Currently, if we want to provide the security for the sensors we have to use high-cost solutions which is a conflict with the main goal of IoT to provide lightweight protocols [Raza13]. We will have lots of different data produced by IoT. Combining these data to provide more comprehensible information can be done only by providing a large group of new general security policies, which leads us to a more complex user profile. However, these mechanisms even may put the security of users more in danger by sharing their information, that may cause even harder challenges in this matter [Gianmarco14]. As the technology grows the number of users and devices with different type of communication and technologies grow widely. IoT needs to provide interaction for unbounded number of entities with significant differences in the interaction patterns. Therefore, IoT has to provide capabilities-based access control mechanisms, to ensure the security for this tremendous number of elements[Malisa14]. Solving the challenge of scalability of IoT has to implemented in such a way of having a secure setup and structure too. The basic design of the system can be implemented based on privacy. For example, a service can be designed in such a way that each user can manage a specific group of people being able of having access to the her information, and the list of people can be managed dynamically [Rodrigo11].Therefore, it is essential to provide a security architecture with the appropriate mechanisms. In another point of view, having symmetric or asymmetric cryptographic credentials regarding the situations provides a more secure infrastructure. The process to build this structure is challenging, especially for the large number of devices that IoT will be faced with [Gianmarco14]. The impact of development of IoT on the CI (Critical Infrastructure), such as: energy, telecom and utilities, need to be cleared because IoT technology is going to be implied on the devices in CI, a clear example is the M2M (Machine to Machine) standardization activity. The new risks and new privacy issues that IoT may brings to CI is an avoidable challenge that should be considered. Moreover, providing security for IoT gets more important in this matter, because IoT in CI has to do with crucial CI's aspects, such as: providing safety to prevent industrial accidents, or supplying required services to have a constant electrical power for hospitals[Gianmarco14]. IoT will make a very competitive market by providing correlated data from different sources. Therefore, it will help to satisfy costumers'needs more efficiently. As a result, providing different techniques to protect the personal data of people will be the main issue at combing and correlating information. This goal should be satisfied by deployment low weight privacy solutions, which is considered as a challenges[Gianmarco14]. The effect of Internet evolution is undeniable on IoT. The way that the internet is used and the infrastructure of implementing Internet's elements are the two main aspects of effecting IoT. However, data security and privacy have determining roles in evolving Internet. Preparing security and privacy protection for the Internet through standardization will create challenges in this field. Hence, as the paper[Gianmarco14] asserts, this evolution will raise different questions such as: If such an Internet environment becomes the "trusted" Internet would it be socially acceptable for IoT to remain outside? Can such an evolution indeed benefit IoT security and privacy? What are the implications for IoT governance? In another point of view any vendor should investigate any effect that may will have on the Internet by designing its services if the product would be successful. Hence, it should be studied carefully to ensure that the new design would not harm the Internet in all different aspects such as bandwidth usage or latency in the communication environments [Ollie14]. There should be a specific level of trust that human can have on different part of IoT. Trust on the machines along with that human beings still can have the privacy has been considered widely by researchers. Trust can be defined as the level of confidence that is possible to have on a specific service or entity. However, trust is not defined only for human beings, it can even be defined for systems or machines, for example for webpages, which shows the level of trust in the digital society. In another point of view, trust can be defined as how much we can be sure that a system is doing its job in the required way and providing true information. Moreover, in the M2M communications in an IoT domain, each device should have the knowledge about that how much it can trust on the another machine to transfer important and sensitive information. This statement is true even for a machine that is sending crucial information to a person, in such a way that important information should not be in access of any wrong person. As a result, trust can be defined in three ways; first, how much a user can trust on a machine; second, how much a device can trust on another device; third, how much a device can trust a user [Gianmarco14]. Other perspective can be defined as how to manage the data. Cryptographic mechanisms and protocols, usually are the best choices to protect data, but sometimes we may not be able to implement these techniques on small elements. Therefore, we should have policies regarding how to manage any type of data with various policy mechanisms. However, if this idea wants to be implemented, we should change many current mechanism[Rodrigo11]. The fact that any product in IoT should have a specific short lifespan, and would not survive for long years is undeniable. As an example, UDP (User Datagram Protocol) services provide a degree of amplification; which means that they respond with more data than they started to communicate with over UDP. This amplification is the result of the fact the source address can be spoofed because UDP is connectionless. Hence this amplification will result in a powerful denial of service. Thus, any device which implements such a service will face to the instability of the Internet. Also the same scenarios with GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) and a number of other wireless protocols have shown that this assumption is incorrect [Ollie14]. In the above section, we got familiar with the current challenges that are on the long way of flourishing IoT. It is said that IoT will come into stage at 2020 and researchers are trying to find solutions for the weakness points of IoT. In the next section, we will talk about the solutions that have been proposed and implemented to provide a safer environment for this new promising technology. 28% of enterprise organizations claim that network security is much more difficult today than it was two years ago [Jon14]. The main result of getting more difficulty through providing the security is that IoT is growing quickly, and the situation will be worse even in a few years. In the following subsections, we will get noted with different proposed solutions for this matter. It is obvious that any user of the IoT systems should become aware of any information that is collected from them or about them. Hence, provider companies should have a solution to provide costumers with the notices and let them choose the boundary of using their information; however currently, lots of IoT devices do not have such a user interface. Also, the first step toward defining the privacy is to define the classification of sensitive information at the context of any IoT device. Therefore, conducting an analysis with specific method of analyzing for IoT organizations is crucial to determine the data elements using at each IoT system. These different analysis should be provided based on collected data types to determine which are sensitive information to apply policies based on the data type. As the paper [Brian15] asserts: In January of 2014, the FTC (Chairman of the Federal Trade Commission) noted that IoT stakeholders have a responsibility to make security a part of their product development process, to collect the minimum amount of data necessary, and to notify consumers of unexpected use of their data and provide simplified choices regarding this use. Organizations that exploits IoT capabilities should build truly privacy controls for their systems. Also, it is important to have a mechanism for privacy awareness within an organization. As a result, users in the organization will have the authority to define their own desired domain for privacy by making changes to their personal IoT system. There are different scenarios for IoT authentication; for example, M2M authentication is required for the cases that IoT elements want to talk to each other. As it is clear, IoT components may communicate with different applications in cloud, mobile devices, web or even with people. The protocols for authentication may limit authorization options because many devices operate following constrained conditions. However, there are a number of diverse use cases related to the authentication of IoT components. These days there are some specific IoT authentication being exploited, such as: Pre-shared key/shared secret, Certificate-based authentication and Token-based authentication, and we choose each of these authentications based on the constraints of the device. To use shared secrets, the scheme should be based on NIST (national institute of standards and technology) specified HMAC (Hashed Message Authentication Code) algorithm that attaches a message's content to its identity. HMACs provide data origin authentication and message integrity verification functions. An example of an HMAC scheme is HMAC-SHA-256. Certificate-based authentication can support protocols such as TLS and DTLS. IEEE defined 1609.3 certificates for use with the DSRC (Digital Short Range Communications) used in vehicle-to-vehicle communications. The use of certificates introduces the likely need for a Public Key Infrastructure that centrally manages all of the certificates provisioned to devices. This includes critical functions such as trusted registration and compromise recovery. Token-based authentication schemes such as OATH 2 (Open Authentication 2) and OpenID Connect Federated Authentication provide useful alternatives to shared secrets and certificates, and also allow for the introduction of comprehensive policy controls applied to IoT access requirements. Certificate-based authentication in comparison with shared secret authentication is more practical with large number of devices, because the overhead about managing the secrets becomes significant for a large number of devices. Certificate-based authentication uses asymmetric algorithms and deals with the processing of certificates. Some other authentications such as CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol) put the policies into the protocols that they support, and these kinds of authentications are the best choice for device-to-device transactions [Kim14]. The CoAP provides four different levels of authentication: No Security, which supposes at another protocol layer, security will be implemented, PreSharedKey, which provides a single symmetric key among the users that are authorized to use the system, RawPublicKey, which is a single asymmetric key for each device implementing CoAP, and finally, Certificate, which is an authentication for devices implementing CoAP with an X.509 certificate. PreSharedKey mode had the disadvantage of making sure that the key is safe, because it uses mainly only one key for all devices. Hence this method is only efficient for a small group of devices, otherwise for scaling the network, or in the case of revealing the key, it causes delay to provide the key among a large number of users. Meanwhile, using the rawPublicKey mode prepares a unique asymmetric keys for all users, so it copes with the problems with a single key problems. Certificate mode is similar to preSharedKey, but it only adds the additional measure of trusting segments of devices, so it is practical for employing a PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) for devices. There would be a large number of devices with different shapes and sizes, interacting together in big chaos that they need to be managed and provided by security as IoT grows. Also, the diversity in IoT device types, locations, and functions will bring more variety of policy and privacy rules. Each device should carry some information about the authentication, security and access control. In this matter, each device that wants to join the network needs to claim its identification, such as location, type of device and data, additionally, there should create trust for the network authority by approving the identification, by saving all information and details and sharing them among security IoT elements. Hence, to provide the a secure connection, it is possible that switches and routers will be implemented based on the X.509 certificates [Jon14]. While the general-purpose key exchanges are security solutions at the Internet domain, TCP/IP security protocols are one of the important parts of designing IP-based IoT security solutions. Many protocols such as IKEv2/IPsec, TLS/SSL, DTLS, HIP, PANA, and EAP are possible solutions in the 6LoWPAN and CoRE IETF working groups to provide a more secure IoT data transmission. Figure 1 shows the relationships between the discussed protocols. The Internet Key Exchange (IKEv2)/IPsec and the Host Identity Protocol (HIP) are considered at the network layer in the OSI model. To provide a secure data delivery, both protocols use the scheme of authenticated key exchange. Also, there are there is a newer version of HIP called Diet HIP, which is being used over lossy low-power networks for the authentication and key exchanging. Transport Layer Security (TLS) and its datagram-oriented version, DTLS, are considered at the transport layer in the OSI model. TLS provides security for TCP and provides a secure transport, while DTLS secures the datagram-oriented protocols such as UDP. Both protocols are basically similar and have the same function relatively. The Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) is considered at the data link layer and as a result it does not need to the IP to be employed. This protocol supports multiple authentication methods with duplicate detection and retransmission, but fragmentation at the packets size is not allowed. The Protocol for Carrying Authentication for Network Access (PANA) is a network-layer transport for EAP for allowing to have access to the network between users. In EAP terms, PANA is a UDP-based EAP lower layer that runs between the EAP peer and the EAP authenticator. As it was mentioned before, this huge improvement in variety of type of devices will make IoT technology employ network segmentation policies. As a result, as it grows quickly, there would be thousands of dynamically configured network segments. SDN (software-defined networking) technologies will provide the required virtualization by defining the network identity and access policies for different types of traffic to apply network segments dynamically. Also, it is likely that SDN network segmentation may provide point-to-point/point-to-multi-point encryption based upon network segments and protocols [Jon14]. IoT will provide the security not only inside each single network, but also, it will provide the security to be inter-networked, and as result a superior security automation intelligence, which can even predict a hazard before it happens and make required immunity before facing the problem [Jon14]. If this promising security structure for the IoT would be implemented, vast amounts of data will be generated, and consequently, it would be impossible for human beings to track the threats and alerts in real-time. Therefore, all these techniques should be supervised by automated machine intelligence to have a quick response and security control over the whole networks. Encryption of information is another solution to protect the network from attack, which is widely used and popular. The most common algorithms used for encrypting are: RSA, ECC, AES, 3DES, MD5 and SHA, which are heavily computational [Arijit11]. For each possible message, a specific code is used to check the validity of the message. In addition, by using protocols such as IPSec, the availability and authenticity will be provided for the data flow. For implying these algorithms, there should be specific dedicated processors such as Digital Signal Processors (DSP) to provide the required highly computational process. Mostly, these processors only supply one class of encryption algorithm. Meanwhile, providing security in different layer is an important aspect which should not be forgotten. In the next section, we will have different solutions about having security in different layers. The converges of IoT is an environment with millions of sensors, devices, and other smart objects. This huge convergence will cause security challenges. The first step toward designing the system, is to model all possible threats that may affect the roles or elements or data entry of the IoT system. Different scenarios of threat must be determined within different situations and then the development team should develop find security solutions by security testing. Having security through only a few layers is not enough for a completely safe implementation, as will see in the following subsections. There are several methods that is used to ensure the security at network layer. For wireless networks, using Wireless Protected Access 2 (WPA2) instead of Wireless Encryption Protocol (WEP) can make the network use stronger complex wireless encryption. Also, for these networks, it is recommended to use several Service Set Identifiers (SSID), rather than just one. Hence, we can have different policies through each segment and assign each for different case of threat. As a result, if any segment gets attacked, other segments will stay safe. Also, exploiting the benefits of firewalls has other advantages. Firewalls filter the deep analytics such as Intrusion Prevention System (IPS), so the malicious traffic would stop at the port of entrance and they will be blocked. Also, using Network Access Control (NAC) to clarify the endpoint security technology such as antivirus and host intrusion prevention, will provide better safety for the network. Moreover, it is effective to index all MAC addresses for every device so that the router assigns IP addresses only to these devices and blocks any unknown devices. On the other hand, using PPSK (Private Pre-Shared Key) for each sensor or device connected to the network. By providing different uniques keys, the access domain for each type of device can be defined easily. Also, disabling guest and default passwords in network devices such as routers and gateways should be done immediately upon unpacking a new network device. This includes strong password policies, password management and periodic change of passwords. Moreover, it is unavoidable to check the routers periodically about misconfigured NAT-PMP ( NAT-Port Mapping Protocol) services. NAT-PMP is a protocol that has no any sense about the authentication mechanism and allow all hosts belonging to the router's local network to freely pass through the firewall. Misconfigured routers to NAT-PMP services are mentioned in OWASP's Top 10 Threats for Internet of Things. The primary security methods that was implemented at the application will be adequate enough; therefore, the IoT does not require any specific further security implementation. Any company or vender that is selling an application should provide the security guidance for the application, for example by an efficient authorization mechanisms. For example, they should prevent from leaving any passwords in the clear in the application code; also, it is important to check for any XSS (cross-site scripting) or CSRF (Cross Site Request Forgery) vulnerabilities. Cross-site request forgery is a method of attacking a website in which the attacker conceal himself as a legitimate client, for example by changing the firewall settings. The network would not get that it has been attacked unless after the damages have been implied. OWASP (Open Web Application Security Project) recommends scanning tools such as ZAP (Zed Attack Proxy) or DAST (Dynamic Application Security Testing). Also, it is important to check with the IoT platform vender for any vulnerabilities at the security code that might left during the platform test. This issue results from SAST (Static Application Security Testing) or DAST perspective. Using encryption for data and by using strong algorithms and adding random data to hashed data to make it harder to hack is another promising way to increase the security. However, it should be considered that based on the principles of the IoT, lightweight encryptions should be used to avoid performance degradation. Sensors, gateways that aggregate data, mobile devices, cameras, RFID readers, wearables and implantable devices are examples of the devices for which we need to provide security. The device should be updated and upgraded regularly; meanwhile, it is important to check the source of the files. Also, it is important to build a strong password enforcement for the device, and change the password and default configuration regularly. Moreover, to ensure the correct functionality of the devices, they should be checked often. It is possible that by sending unauthorized radio signals, attackers would be able to reprogram the device; hence it is crucial to install and use anti-jamming device to protect our device. The basic concept of IoT is to provide connected sensors and actuators which are implemented physically in the environment. Hence, they can be available to be reached by any malicious user. For example, the sensor may be moved to another environment and produce wrong information. There would be a huge number of these sensors and actuators which is a very hard process to check them in the environment often, and see whether they are working appropriately or not[Gianmarco14]. Implementing security guidance for the physical layer has a long history even before IoT. Devices and sensors which are used in an IoT platform, need to be secured efficiently. OWASP has identified poor physical security in the top 10 IoT vulnerability. The first step is to ensure that only authorized people can have access to the data center of the secure areas, hence a physical identity and access management policy should be defined. Some physical security tools should implemented sensitively, such as physical security controls, physical keys and monitoring cameras through the areas where the devices and sensors are implemented. In this paper, first we introduced briefly the main concepts of IoT and pointed out the importance of having a secure structure for this new promising technology. we went over the current challenges associated with providing privacy which is the top essential component, because without enough security, this technology will not be useful and will just harm the human being. After that, we went through the recent solutions that have been provided, and finally, we provided the security issues at different layers of IoT. However, there is still a long way ahead to provide a complete secure structure based on the fact that IoT needs to be widespread with tremendous number of users and devices with various patterns; hence, it still needs further research to be ready before 2020. |[Chris15]||Chris Folk, Dan C. Hurley, Wesley K. Kaplow, James F. X. Payne, "Security Implications of the Internet of Things", published in AFCEA International Cyber Committee, Feb. 2015,| |[Gianmarco14]||Gianmarco Baldini, Trevor Peirce, Maria Chiara Tallachini, "Internet of Things: IoT Governance, Privacy and Security Issues", European Research Cluster on the Internet of Things, Jan. 2014,| |[Paul14]||Paul Fremantle, Philip Scott, "A security survey of middleware for the Internet of Things"", PeerJ PrePrints 3:e1521, Jul. 2015,| |[Ollie14]||Ollie Whitehouse, "Security of Things: An Implementers Guide to Cyber-Security for Internet of Things Devices and Beyond", NCC Group Publications, Apr. 2014,| |[Ajit14]||Ajit Jha, Sunil M C., "Security considerations for Internet of Things", whitepaper, L and T Technology Services, 2014,| |[Jon14]||Jon Oltsik, "The Internet of Things: A CISO and Network Security Perspective", ESG White Paper commissioned by Cisco Systems, Oct. 2014,| |[Rodrigo11]||Rodrigo Roman, Pablo Najera, Javier Lopez, "Securing the Internet of Things", Computer Society, IEEE, vol.44, no. 9, pp. 51-58, Sep. 2011,| |[Tobias11]||Tobias Heer, Oscar Garcia-Morchon, Rene Hummen, Sye Loong Keoh, Sandeep S. Kumar, Klaus Wehrle, "Security Challenges in the IP-based Internet of Things", Wireless Personal Communications: An International Journal archive, vol. 61, pp. 527-542, Dec. 2011,| |[Arijit11]||Arijit Ukil, Jaydip Sen, Sripad Koilakonda, "Embedded security for Internet of Things", Emerging Trends and Applications in Computer Science (NCETACS), 2nd National Conference on, pp. 1-6, , March 2011, | |[Brian15]||Brian Russell, Cesare Garlati, David Lingenfelter, "Security Guidance for Early Adopters of the Internet of Things (IoT)", CSA Mobile Working Group, Apr. 2015,| |[Acquity14]||"The Internet of Things: The Future of Consumer Adoption", published in Acquity Group: Internet of Things Study, 2014,| |[Malisa14]||Malisa Vucinic, Bernard Tourancheau, Franck Rousseau, Andrzej Duda, Laurent Damon, Roberto Guizzetti, "OSCAR: Object Security Architecture for the Internet of Things", proceedings of WoWMoM, IEEE, 2014,| |[Blanca14]|| Blanca Escribano, "Privacy and security in the Internet of Things: challenge or opportunity", Olswang publication, Nov. 2014,| |[Raza13]|| Raza Shahid, "Lightweight Security Solutions for the Internet of Things", Doctoral thesis, Mlardalen University, Sep. 2013,| |[Kim14]|| "Kim Rowe", 2014| |3DES||Triple Data Encryption Algorithm| |6LoWPAN||IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks| |AES||Advanced Encryption Standard| |CSRF||Cross Site Request Forgery| |CoAP||Constrained Application Protocol| |CoRE||Constrained RESTful Environments| |DAST||Dynamic Application Security Testing| |DSP||Digital Signal Processors| |DSRC||Digital Short Range Communications| |EAP||Extensible Authentication Protocol| |ECC||Elliptic Curve Cryptography| |FTC||Federal Trade Commission| |GSM||Global System for Mobile Communications| |HIP||Host Identity Protocol| |HMAC||specified Hashed Message Authentication Code| |IKEv2||Internet Key Exchange version 2| |IPS||Intrusion Prevention System| |IPsec||Internet Protocol Security| |M2M||Machine to Machine| |MD5||Message Digest 5| |NAC||Network Access Control| |NAT||Network Address Translation| |NIST||National Institute of Standards and Technology| |OWASP||Open Web Application Security Project| |PANA||Protocol for carrying Authentication for Network Access| |PKI||Public Key Infrastructure| |PMP||Port Mapping Protocol| |PPSK||Private Pre-Shared Key| |SAST||Static Application Security Testing| |SHA||Secure Hash Algorithm| |SSID||Service Set Identifiers| |SSL||Secure Sockets Layer| |TCP||Transmission Control Protocol| |TLS||Transport Layer Security| |UDP||User Datagram Protocol| |WEP||Wired Equivalent Privacy| |WEP||Wireless Encryption Protocol| |WPA2||Wireless Protected Access 2| |ZAP||Zed Attack Proxy|

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Switzerland: Environment & Climate Change Law 2019 Chapter contentFree access 1.1 What is the basis of environmental policy in your jurisdiction and which agencies/bodies administer and enforce environmental law? According to article 73 of the Federal Constitution (“BV”), the Confederation and the Cantons shall endeavour to achieve a balanced and sustainable relationship between nature and its capacity to renew itself, and the demands placed on it by the population. Pursuant to article 74 BV, the Confederation is responsible for the legislation on the protection of the population and its natural environment against damage or nuisance and it shall ensure that such damage or nuisance is avoided. The Cantons are primarily responsible for the execution of the relevant federal regulations, but they may also enact implementing rules where federal law so provides. The Federal Constitution contains further provisions regarding protection of the water, forests as well as natural and cultural heritage (articles 76, 77 and 78 BV). There are numerous acts and ordinances implementing the constitutional mandate regarding environmental protection. The following acts are the most important: the Environmental Protection Act (“USG”); the Ordinance on Avoidance and Disposal of Waste (“VVEA”); the Ordinance on Contaminated Sites (“AltlV”); the Chemicals Act (“ChemG”); the Act on Reduction of CO2 (“CO2 Act”); as well as the Nuclear Energy Act (“KEG”); and the Ordinance on the Environmental Impact Assessment (“UVPV”). The Swiss environmental policies and the implementation of environmental laws are based on the following main principles: ■ The “precautionary principle” (Vorsorgeprinzip) states that early preventive measures must be taken in order to limit effects which could become harmful or a nuisance (article 1 para. 2 USG). ■ The “polluter pays principle” (Verursacherprinzip) states that any person who causes measures to be taken due to endangering, polluting or causing damage to the environment must bear the costs related to avoidance or clean-up (article 2 USG). ■ The “principle of abatement of pollution at source” (Prinzip der Bekämpfung von Umweltbeeinträchtigungen an der Quelle) that originates from the precautionary principle and states that environmental impact must be abated at its source. According to article 74 para. 3 BV, the Cantons are responsible for the implementation of the relevant federal regulations, except where the law provides otherwise and determines that the Confederation is competent for implementation. This principle is replicated in article 36 USG. Accordingly, the Confederation supervises the execution of environmental law by the Cantons and coordinates their activities (article 38 para. 1 and 2 USG). In some areas, the federal government is itself responsible for the enforcement of environmental legislation, such as import and export of waste (article 41 USG). In general, the Federal Council enacts the implementing provisions (article 39 para. 1 USG). On the federal level, the Federal Office for the Environment (“BAFU”) is generally responsible for the execution of environmental law, but there are also some special agencies, which are competent in specific areas such as the Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (“ENSI”). In addition, each Canton has its own authority responsible for the execution of environmental law. 1.2 What approach do such agencies/bodies take to the enforcement of environmental law? Switzerland has a rather strict approach to enforcing environmental law. Apart from authorisations and inspections, the agencies also have the power to impose fines for various violations of environmental law (article 61 USG). Severe violations may even be punished by a custodial sentence of up to three years (article 60 USG). Other sanctions include the order to discontinue illegal activities, the re-establishment of the lawful conditions and the withdrawal of authorisations. 1.3 To what extent are public authorities required to provide environment-related information to interested persons (including members of the public)? The authorities are obliged to inform the public adequately about environmental protection and levels of environmental pollution (article 10e para. 1 USG). If it is in the public interest, the authorities may also inform interested persons about the results of inspections and conformity-assessments, after having consulted the persons concerned. Furthermore, any person has the right to inspect environmental information in official documents and information relating to energy regulations that relate to the environment and to request information from the authorities about the content of these documents (article 10g para. 1 USG). 2.1 When is an environmental permit required, and may environmental permits be transferred from one person to another? Environmental permits are common in Swiss law and are required for constructions or the operation of, e.g., landfills or nuclear energy plants, as well as for the placing on the market or handling of specific substances or special waste (e.g., article 30e USG, article 12 ff. KEG, article 9 ff. ChemG). Usually, a permit is bound to a person/company and therefore not transferable (personenbezogene Bewilligung). However, in some cases, permits can be linked to an object (sachbezogene Bewilligung). These permits generally remain in place if the ownership of the object changes. 2.2 What rights are there to appeal against the decision of an environmental regulator not to grant an environmental permit or in respect of the conditions contained in an environmental permit? There is a possibility to challenge the refusal or the provisions of an environmental permit, usually within a period of 30 days. The appeal has to be directed either at the competent Cantonal administrative court (in case of Cantonal authorities implementing the environmental law) or at the Federal Administrative Tribunal (if a federal authority implements the environmental law). It is possible to invoke a false establishment of the facts of the case or a violation of the applicable law. After the administrative court or tribunal has decided, its decision may be appealed before the Federal Supreme Court for violation of federal law. 2.3 Is it necessary to conduct environmental audits or environmental impact assessments for particularly polluting industries or other installations/projects? Before taking any decision on the planning, construction or modification of installations, the competent authority must assess their impact on the environment. The requirement of an environmental impact assessment applies to installations that could cause substantial pollution to environmental areas, to the extent that it is probable that compliance with regulations on environmental protection can only be ensured through measures specific to the project or site (article 10a ff. USG). Any person who wishes to plan, construct or modify an installation that is subject to an environmental impact assessment must submit an environmental impact report. Based on this report and on its own investigation, the environmental protection agencies order the necessary measures. 2.4 What enforcement powers do environmental regulators have in connection with the violation of permits? Regulators can impose a fine, and there are criminal sanctions up to a custodial sentence of three years or a monetary penalty. The regulator can also confiscate objects or order the discontinuation of the illegal activities, and the re-establishment of the lawful conditions. As an ultima ratio, the regulators can revoke the environmental permits. 3.1 How is waste defined and do certain categories of waste involve additional duties or controls? Waste is defined as “any moveable material disposed of by its holder or the disposal of which is required in the public interest” (article 7 para. 6 USG). The disposal of waste includes its recovery or deposit in a landfill, as well as the preliminary stages of collection, transport, storage and treatment (i.e. any physical, chemical or biological modification of the waste) (article 7 para. 6bis USG). The owner or holder of waste has to comply with a number of legal obligations. The owner or holder is whoever has actual control over the waste. This person has the duty to dispose of the waste that he holds (article 31c para. 1 in connection with article 31b para. 1 USG) and must bear the cost of its disposal (article 32 para. 1 USG). Waste whose environmentally compatible disposal requires special measures qualifies as special waste (article 30f USG). Additional obligations for the handling of special waste apply, such as markings as well as licence requirements for import and export. 3.2 To what extent is a producer of waste allowed to store and/or dispose of it on the site where it was produced? As a principle, the production of waste should be avoided wherever possible (article 30 para. 1 USG). The Federal Council may require manufacturers to avoid production waste where there is no known environmentally compatible process for its disposal (article 30a lit. c USG). All other waste may be stored and disposed of only in landfills (article 30e para. 1 USG) and, according to article 30c para. 2 USG, waste must not be burned other than in incineration plants (exceptions apply to the burning of natural forest, field and garden waste). The disposal of waste on a site requires a permit for setting up and operating a landfill (article 30e para. 2 USG). 3.3 Do producers of waste retain any residual liability in respect of the waste where they have transferred it to another person for disposal/treatment off-site (e.g. if the transferee/ultimate disposer goes bankrupt/disappears)? The holder of waste is entitled to instruct third parties to dispose of it (article 31c para. 1 USG). In case of such external disposal, the third party qualifies as the holder of waste. If the third party violates its obligations, it becomes liable for the recovery measures (because it qualifies as an interrupter). As the polluter has to bear the costs for recovery measures (article 2 and 59 USG), not only is the third party, as interrupter, responsible for such costs, but in some instances also the initial holder. This is the case if the wrongdoing of the appointed third party falls within the responsibility of the initial holder as well. 3.4 To what extent do waste producers have obligations regarding the take-back and recovery of their waste? The Federal Council may require certain types of waste to be recovered if this is economically feasible and harms the environment less than other forms of disposal and the manufacture of new products (article 30d para. 1 USG). Such recovery obligations exist, inter alia, for disposable packaging consisting of glass, polyethylene terephthalate (“PET”) and aluminium, as well as for batteries and electrical devices. 4.1 What types of liabilities can arise where there is a breach of environmental laws and/or permits, and what defences are typically available? According to article 59a USG, the operator of an establishment or an installation that represents a special threat to the environment is liable for the loss or damage arising from effects that occur when this threat materialises. There is no requirement of negligence or intent. However, any person who proves that the loss or damage was caused by force majeure or by gross negligence on the part of the injured party or of a third party is relieved of liability (article 59a para. 3 USG). There are also special liability provisions regarding specific activities, such as handling of pathogenic organisms (article 59abis USG) or of genetically modified organisms (article 30 of the Federal Act on Non-Human Gene Technology, “GTG”). 4.2 Can an operator be liable for environmental damage notwithstanding that the polluting activity is operated within permit limits? Yes; as the applicable liability provisions of environmental law provide for a strict liability, there is no permit defence. Consequently, the liability is not excluded if the establishment or installation has been operated or the activity has been carried out within the limits of the applicable environmental law and the conditions of the permit. 4.3 Can directors and officers of corporations attract personal liabilities for environmental wrongdoing, and to what extent may they get insurance or rely on other indemnity protection in respect of such liabilities? According to Swiss company law, which is based on the separation principle, directors or officers are not subject to civil law liability for environmental wrongdoing of the company itself. Furthermore, the company is liable for all activities of its bodies, which are in the interest of the company. Members of the board, as well as all persons engaged in the business management, are liable both to the company and to the individual shareholders (and to the company’s creditors in case of its bankruptcy) for any losses or damage arising from any intentional or negligent breach of their duties. Therefore, if an officer breaches his obligations regarding environmental affairs, he may become personally liable. It is common to have directors’ and officers’ liability insurance (“D&O insurance”) covering all damage claims against insured persons. Normally, intent and internal damage claims are excluded from the D&O insurance, as well as personal injury and damage to property. There is also a criminal law liability of directors and officers, which may not be covered by insurance. 4.4 What are the different implications from an environmental liability perspective of a share sale on the one hand and an asset purchase on the other? If an investor acquires all shares of a company (share deal), the target still remains liable for the recovery of pollution and corresponding costs due to the “polluter pays” principle. The environmental liability is not affected by the change of ownership. If a purchaser acquires the assets (asset deal), the purchaser will be liable as the new owner of the land or installation for any forthcoming environmental damage. The liability for previous pollution remains with the seller due to the “polluter pays” principle. 4.5 To what extent may lenders be liable for environmental wrongdoing and/or remediation costs? In Switzerland, there is no concept of lender liability. According to the separation principle, the lender cannot be held liable for environmental wrongdoing and/or remediation costs that the company caused. As long as the lender does not cause pollution, liability is excluded. 5.1 What is the approach to liability for contamination (including historic contamination) of soil or groundwater? Each Canton is obliged to have a register of polluted sites, which is accessible to the public (article 32c para. 2 USG and article 5 Contaminated Sites Ordinance, “AltlV”). Polluted sites are defined as sites whose pollution originates from waste, and which are restricted areas. They comprise waste disposal sites, industrial sites and accident sites (article 2 para. 1 AltlV). Sites in need of remediation are polluted sites that cause harmful effects or nuisance or where there is a real danger that such effects may arise (article 2 para. 2 AltlV). Contaminated sites are polluted sites in need of remediation (article 2 para. 3 AltlV). Based on a preliminary investigation, the authorities assess whether the polluted site is in need of monitoring or remediation with regard to groundwater protection, protection of surface waters or prevention of air pollution or pollution of the soil. All other investigated sites are defined as in need of neither monitoring, nor remediation (articles 7 and 8 AltlV). For polluted sites in need of monitoring, the authorities require a monitoring plan to be drawn up and suitable measures to be taken to detect a real danger of harmful effects or nuisances before these become evident (article 13 para. 1 AltlV). The monitoring measures shall be applied until there is no longer any need for monitoring. For sites that are in need of remediation (contaminated sites), the authorities require that a detailed investigation be carried out within a reasonable period and that the site be monitored until completion of remediation (article 13 para. 2 AltlV). The authorities require that for contaminated sites, a remediation project is prepared within a time frame appropriate to the urgency of remediation (article 17 AltlV). Persons required to carry out remediation measures must notify the authorities of the remediation measures carried out and demonstrate that the remediation objectives have been achieved (article 19 AltlV). The investigation, monitoring and remediation measures shall be carried out by the holder of the polluted site or, if the pollution of the site was caused by the action of third parties, the authorities may require these, with the approval of the holder, to prepare the remediation project and perform the remediation measures (article 20 AltlV). 5.2 How is liability allocated where more than one person is responsible for the contamination? If the authorities have reason to believe that the pollution of the site was caused by the action of third parties, they may require them to carry out the preliminary investigation, the monitoring measures or the detailed investigation, as well as the remediation measures (article 20 para. 2 and 3 AltlV). Fundamentally, the person responsible for the pollution bears the costs of the measures required to investigate, monitor and remediate polluted sites (article 32d para. 1 USG). If two or more persons are responsible, they bear the costs according to their shares of responsibility (article 32d para. 2 USG). Any of the responsible persons may request a ruling on the allocation of costs from the authority (article 32d para. 4 USG). 5.3 If a programme of environmental remediation is “agreed” with an environmental regulator, can the regulator come back and require additional works or can a third party challenge the agreement? The authorities assess the remediation project and on the basis of this assessment they issue a ruling defining the final objectives of the remediation, the remediation measures, as well as the assessment of results and the time frame to be adhered to and further charges and conditions for the protection of the environment (article 18 AltlV). If the authorities conclude in the evaluation of results that the remediation measures carried out were not successful, they can require additional works (article 19 AltlV). Challenges by third parties are possible if they took part in the previous proceedings, are particularly affected by the ruling and have a legitimate interest in its cancellation or alteration. 5.4 Does a person have a private right of action to seek contribution from a previous owner or occupier of contaminated land when that owner caused, in whole or in part, contamination; and to what extent is it possible for a polluter to transfer the risk of contaminated land liability to a purchaser? In accordance with the “polluter pays” principle, if two or more persons are responsible for the pollution, they bear the costs according to their share of responsibility (article 32d para. 2 USG). A private person can demand a ruling regarding costs (article 32d para. 4 USG) and can appeal it if he does not agree with the cost allocation. Usually, the site owner has to bear only 10–30% of the costs, while the rest is allocated to the person who caused the pollution. For the sale or division of immovable property on which a site is located that is listed in the register of polluted sites, an authorisation by the competent authority is required (article 32dbis USG). Such authorisation is granted, inter alia, if security is provided for the costs of the expected measures. 5.5 Does the government have authority to obtain from a polluter, monetary damages for aesthetic harms to public assets, e.g. rivers? In case of damage caused by the handling of genetically modified organisms or pathogenic organisms, the responsible person must also reimburse the costs of necessary and appropriate measures that are taken to repair destroyed or damaged environmental components, or to replace them with components of equal value. If the destroyed or damaged environmental components are not the object of a right in rem or if the eligible person does not take the measures that the situation calls for, the damages are awarded to the responsible community (article 31 Federal Act on Non-Human Gene Technology and article 59abis para. 9 USG). 6.1 What powers do environmental regulators have to require production of documents, take samples, conduct site inspections, interview employees, etc.? Everyone is obliged to provide the authorities with the information required to enforce environmental law and to conduct or tolerate the conduct of enquiries (article 46 para. 1 USG). According to article 61 USG, non-compliance with these obligations can be sanctioned with a fine of up to CHF 20,000. 7.1 If pollution is found on a site, or discovered to be migrating off-site, must it be disclosed to an environmental regulator or potentially affected third parties? Operators of installations (i.e. buildings, traffic routes and other fixed facilities, as well as modifications of the terrain and appliances, machines, vehicles, ships and aircraft) that could seriously damage people or their natural environment must immediately report any extraordinary event to the competent agency (article 10 USG). Based on the Ordinance on Protection against Major Accidents (“StFV”), operators of certain establishments (e.g. where certain thresholds for substances, preparations or special waste are exceeded, or where certain activities involving genetically modified or pathogenic microorganisms are carried out) have to notify the Cantonal notification body of any extraordinary event which has significant impact. 7.2 When and under what circumstances does a person have an affirmative obligation to investigate land for contamination? Each Canton is obliged to have a register of polluted sites, which is accessible to the public. Based on a preliminary investigation, the authorities assess whether the polluted site is in need of monitoring or remediation with regard to groundwater protection, protection of surface water or prevention of air pollution or pollution of the soil. All other investigated sites are defined as in need of neither monitoring nor remediation (article 7 and 8 AltlV). The investigation of land for contamination is triggered by the authorities, but according to article 20 AltlV, the holder of the site has to carry out the investigation, monitoring and remediation measures. If the land is qualified as a polluted site and if measures must be taken, the polluter has to pay for the investigation. If the authority determines the land not to be a polluted site, the competent community will bear the costs for the necessary investigation (article 32d para. 5 USG). 7.3 To what extent is it necessary to disclose environmental problems, e.g. by a seller to a prospective purchaser in the context of merger and/or takeover transactions? There is no obligation, based on environmental law, to disclose environmental problems to a potential purchaser. However, if the seller fails to inform the purchaser about any existing or suspected environmental problems, the purchaser may be able to claim for compensation based on the law of sales contracts. It is also standard practice to include representation and warranty clauses covering such problems in share or asset purchase agreements. 8.1 Is it possible to use an environmental indemnity to limit exposure for actual or potential environment-related liabilities, and does making a payment to another person under an indemnity in respect of a matter (e.g. remediation) discharge the indemnifier’s potential liability for that matter? It is possible for private parties to agree on an environmental indemnity. However, liability under environmental law cannot be modified or excluded by way of such agreement. 8.2 Is it possible to shelter environmental liabilities off balance sheet, and can a company be dissolved in order to escape environmental liabilities? A company may transfer environmental liabilities linked to an asset to a subsidiary or other company by transferring the respective asset. However, it remains liable as a historic polluter. Dissolution of the company is no solution to escaping environmental liabilities, as either these are shifted to the legal successor, or the respective claims have to be fulfilled before dissolution can be completed. 8.3 Can a person who holds shares in a company be held liable for breaches of environmental law and/or pollution caused by the company, and can a parent company be sued in its national court for pollution caused by a foreign subsidiary/affiliate? According to Swiss company law, which is based on the separation principle, shareholders are not subject to civil law liability for environmental wrongdoing of the company itself. Under certain circumstances, a so-called “piercing of the corporate veil” (Durchgriffshaftung) is possible if the calling on the separation principle is an abuse of rights. If a shareholder is engaged in the business’s management, he may be liable both to the company and to the other shareholders (and to the company’s creditors in case of its bankruptcy) for any losses or damage arising from any intentional or negligent breach of his duties. 8.4 Are there any laws to protect “whistle-blowers” who report environmental violations/matters? So far, there is no law which protects “whistle-blowers”. The federal government is currently preparing a draft provision of the Swiss Code of Obligation, which should regulate whistle-blowing in the context of employment law. 8.5 Are group or “class” actions available for pursuing environmental claims, and are penal or exemplary damages available? So far, there are no class actions or penal or exemplary damages available. However, there are some special rights of appeal and liability provisions worth mentioning in this context. Environmental organisations are entitled to appeal decisions regarding specific projects (so-called associations’ right of appeal, “Ideelle Verbandsbeschwerde”). For example, national environmental organisations can appeal projects which need to undergo the environmental impact assessment or the placing on the market of pathogenic organisms (articles 55 and 55f USG). Other associations’ rights of appeal relate to decisions based on the Federal Act on the Protection of Nature and Cultural Heritage (“NHG”), and to authorisations for putting into circulation genetically modified organisms intended for lawful use in the environment based on the Federal Act on Non-Human Gene Technology (“GTG”). Also, the Federal Office for the Environment (“BAFU”) has a right of appeal under federal and Cantonal laws against rulings by the Cantonal authorities regarding environmental matters, and the municipalities have a right of appeal if they are affected by a ruling and have a legitimate interest in having them reversed or amended (articles 56 and 57 USG). In case of damage caused by the handling of genetically modified organisms or pathogenic organisms, the responsible person must also reimburse the costs of necessary and appropriate measures that are taken to repair destroyed or damaged environmental components, or to replace them with components of equal value. If the destroyed or damaged environmental components are not the object of a right in rem or if the eligible person does not take the measures that the situation calls for, the damages are awarded to the responsible community (article 31 GTG and article 59abis para. 9 USG). 8.6 Do individuals or public interest groups benefit from any exemption from liability to pay costs when pursuing environmental litigation? Swiss law does not provide exemption from costs such as court fees and liability for such fees for individuals or public interest groups with regard to litigation proceedings. The general principle for judicial proceedings is that the losing party must bear the costs relating to the action and the ones incurred by opposing parties. This rule also applies with regard to associations’ right of appeal. 9.1 What emissions trading schemes are in operation in your jurisdiction and how is the emissions trading market developing there? The Swiss emissions trading scheme (“ETS”) is designed according to the “cap-and-trade” principle. The quantity of emission allowances available is limited. The total quantity of emission allowances is determined in advance, representing the maximum quantity available (“cap”). This cap was 5.63 million tonnes of CO2 for 2013 and has been reduced each year by 1.74% of the initial 2010 quantity. The emission allowances needed for greenhouse gas-efficient operation are allocated free of charge annually to ETS companies and are tradable (“trade”). Companies that exercise specific activities (as defined in annex 6 of the CO2 Ordinance) are obliged to participate in the Swiss emissions trading scheme. If a company’s total emissions in the previous three years are below 25,000 tonnes of CO2 in each year, the company can apply for an exemption from the ETS obligation (“opt-out”). Companies with an installed capacity of between 10 and 20 MW that are engaged in a specific activity (as defined in annex 7 of the CO2 Ordinance) may voluntarily participate in the ETS (“opt-in”). The ETS is organised to be compatible with the European emission trade system (“EU-ETS”) so that the two systems can be connected. Linking the Swiss and EU CO2 emissions markets would be beneficial for both environmental policy and the economy. The technical negotiations were concluded and the agreement was signed in November 2017. The treaty is subject to ratification by both sides and should enter into force no later than 2020. 9.2 Aside from the emissions trading schemes mentioned in question 9.1 above, is there any other requirement to monitor and report greenhouse gas emissions? There is the so-called CO2 levy on thermal fuels. The CO2 levy is a key instrument to achieve CO2 emission targets. This steering levy on combustible fossil fuels, such as heating oil and natural gas, has been levied since 2008. In making fossil fuels more expensive, it creates an incentive to use them more economically and choose more carbon-neutral or low carbon energy sources. Energy-intensive companies can be exempted from the CO2 levy if they commit to reducing emissions in return. Large energy-intensive companies participate in the emissions trading scheme and are also exempt from the CO2 levy. The CO2 levy is imposed on all thermal fossil fuels (e.g., heating oil, natural gas, but not motor fuels). The levy is imposed when the thermal fuels are used to produce heat, to generate light, in thermal installations for the production of electricity or for the operation of heat-power cogeneration plants. No levy is imposed on wood and biomass because these energy sources are CO2-neutral. In 2018, the levy amounts to CHF 96.00 per tonne of CO2. The Federal Council can increase the rate of the levy if the interim target for thermal fuels has not been reached. The CO2 levy is indicated on invoices for purchases of thermal fuels. Around two thirds of the revenue from the CO2 levy is redistributed to the public and the business community through health insurers and the compensation offices. The annual revenue is about CHF 1 billion. 9.3 What is the overall policy approach to climate change regulation in your jurisdiction? In addition to its participation in worldwide climate programmes (e.g. the Paris Agreement), Switzerland pursues an active policy on reducing greenhouse gases and contributes to the international goal of limiting global warming to two degrees. The CO2 Act is focused on reducing Switzerland’s domestic emissions. Measures to reduce greenhouse gas are the CO2 levy, emissions trading, building standards as well as compensation for CO2 emissions and the technology fund. With the technology fund, the Confederation promotes innovations that reduce greenhouse gas or the consumption of resources, increase the use of renewable energies, and increase energy efficiency. Due to the Paris Agreement and the linkage of the Swiss ETS with the EU ETS, the CO2 Act is currently under revision in order to implement the new international obligations. The revised CO2 Act is currently under discussion in the Federal Parliament. In 2011, the Swiss government decided to withdraw from the use of nuclear energy on a step-by-step basis as a reaction to the incident in Fukushima and to strengthen the amount of renewable energy. The existing five nuclear power plants are to be decommissioned when they reach the end of their safe service life, and they will not be replaced by new ones. In this respect, the Federal Council has developed a long-term energy policy (“Energy Strategy 2050”) based on the new energy perspectives. Essentially, the Federal Council’s new strategy focuses on the consistent exploitation of the existing energy efficiency potential, and on the balanced use of the potentials of hydropower and new renewable energy sources. The respective statute was adopted by the Federal Parliament in September 2016. In May 2017, the new Energy Act was approved in a referendum by the Swiss people, and it entered into force on 1 January 2018. 10.1 What is the experience of asbestos litigation in your jurisdiction? Switzerland does not have an asbestos litigation industry that is in any way comparable to the extent of asbestos litigation taking place in the US. However, there have been a number of proceedings concerning the limitation period of asbestos claims. In 2010, the Federal Supreme Court decided that the limitation period does not start from the occurrence of the loss (e.g. disease) but from the reference date of the infringement (e.g. violation of the employment contract by exposure of the workers to asbestos). According to this case law of the Federal Supreme Court, health damages which occur 10 or more years after working in an asbestos environment cannot be brought before court because the claim becomes time-barred 10 years after the (last) breach of the employment contract. However, the European Court of Human Rights (“ECHR”) decided in March 2014 that the limitation period of only 10 years violates article 6 section 1 of the European Convention on Human Rights because claims for late damages may become time-barred before they even come into existence. The Federal Supreme Court accepted the decision of the ECHR and adapted its practice. The Federal Parliament has recently passed a revision of the applicable statutes of limitation. Accordingly, the limitation period for claims arising out of asbestos damages shall be extended to 20 years. The Federal Council has yet to decide when the revised provisions will enter into force. 10.2 What are the duties of owners/occupiers of premises in relation to asbestos on-site? So far, owners of premises are not obliged to remove materials containing asbestos from buildings unless the health of people is threatened due to released fibres. If this is the case, the owner is obliged to renovate, otherwise the owner becomes liable due to the liability of property owners (article 58 of the Swiss Code of Obligations). Also, if a building is renovated or demolished, the workers have to be protected adequately, which may be costly. 11.1 What types of environmental insurance are available in the market, and how big a role does environmental risks insurance play in your jurisdiction? Environmental insurance policies are very common in Switzerland, particularly for companies in the building industry or handling chemicals. These policies protect against, for example, contamination of the soil or water or other environmental damage that a third-party claims against the company. 11.2 What is the environmental insurance claims experience in your jurisdiction? To our knowledge, there are no known court cases regarding environmental insurance claims in Switzerland. 12.1 Please provide, in no more than 300 words, a summary of any new cases, trends and developments in environment law in your jurisdiction. On 12 December 2015, Switzerland and 194 other countries passed an agreement concerning the international climate policy at the climate summit COP21 in Paris. This agreement aims to limit the global temperature rise to fewer than two degrees. In October 2017, following the approval by the Federal Parliament, Switzerland has ratified the Paris Agreement. In December 2017, the Federal Council presented its report on the revision of the CO2 Act and its report on the Swiss-EU agreement regarding the linkage of both ETS to the Federal Parliament. The revision of the CO2 Act and the Swiss-EU agreement will be discussed together in the Federal Parliament in 2018. On 1 August 2016, a partial revision of the USG entered into force. If a substantial amount of biogenic fuels that do not meet certain conditions is placed on the Swiss market, the Federal Council is now allowed to designate such biogenic fuels that may only be placed on the Swiss market if they meet certain ecological or social requirements which are defined by the Federal Council. On 16 June 2017, the Federal Parliament adopted a revision of the GTG. In essence, the revised GTG extends the moratorium to grow genetically modified organisms (“GMO”) for agricultural purposes for another four years. However, the Federal Parliament did not adopt the Federal Council’s proposal for a legal framework regarding the coexistence of GMO and non-GMO as well as the creation of growing areas for GMO in which the concentrated growing of GMO would be possible. On 21 May 2017, the Swiss people approved the revised Energy Act in a popular referendum. The revised Energy Act marks the first step of the implementation of the “Energy Strategy 2050” and entered into force on 1 January 2018. On 5 September 2018, the Federal Council released its report regarding Switzerland’s financial contributions to international environmental funds in order to support the protection of the global environment. The majority of the total funds amounting to CHF 147m are dedicated to the Global Environment Fund (“GEF”), a central instrument for financing and implementing the conventions and protocols in the environmental field.

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This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The south-pointing chariot (or carriage) was an ancient Chinese two-wheeled vehicle that carried a movable pointer to indicate the south, no matter how the chariot turned. Usually, the pointer took the form of a doll or figure with an outstretched arm. The chariot was supposedly used as a compass for navigation and may also have had other purposes. The ancient Chinese invented a mobile-like armored cart in the 5th century BC called the Dongwu Che (Chinese: 洞屋车). It was used for the purpose of protecting warriors on the battlefield. The Chinese war wagon was designed as a kind of mobile protective cart with a shed-like roof. It would serve to be rolled up to city fortifications to provide protection for sappers digging underneath to weaken a wall's foundation. The early Chinese war wagon became the basis of technologies for the making of ancient Chinese south-pointing chariots. There are legends of earlier south-pointing chariots, but the first reliably documented one was created by the Chinese mechanical engineer Ma Jun (c. 200–265 CE) of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms. No ancient chariots still exist, but many extant ancient Chinese texts mention them, saying they were used intermittently until about 1300 CE. Some include information about their inner components and workings. There were probably several types of south-pointing chariot which worked differently. In most or all of them, the rotating road wheels mechanically operated a geared mechanism to keep the pointer aimed correctly. The mechanism had no magnets and did not automatically detect which direction was south. The pointer was aimed southward by hand at the start of a journey. Subsequently, whenever the chariot turned, the mechanism rotated the pointer relative to the body of the chariot to counteract the turn and keep the pointer aiming in a constant direction, to the south. Thus the mechanism did a kind of directional dead reckoning, which is inherently prone to cumulative errors and uncertainties. Some chariots' mechanisms may have had differential gears, technology unseen since the ancient Greek Antikythera mechanism. - 1 Historical texts - 2 Chariots with differential gears - 3 Chariots without differential gears - 4 Necessity of non-mechanical orientation - 5 Where they can be seen - 6 See also - 7 Notes - 8 References - 9 External links The south-pointing chariot, a mechanical-geared, wheeled vehicle used to discern the southern cardinal direction (without magnetics), was given a brief description by Ma's contemporary Fu Xuan. The contemporary 3rd century AD source of the Weilüe, written by the East Han Dynasty politician Yuan Huan also described the south-pointing chariot of belonging to the Chinese mechanical engineer and politician Ma Jun. The Jin Dynasty (265–420 CE) era text of the Shu Zheng Ji (Records of Military Expeditions), written by Guo Yuansheng, recorded that south-pointing chariots were often stored in the northern gatehouse of the Government Workshops (Shang Fang) of the capital city. However, the later written Song Shu (Book of Song) (6th century CE) recorded the south-pointing chariot's design and use in further detail, as well as creating the background legend of the device's (supposed) use long before Ma's time, in the Western Zhou Dynasty (1050–771 BCE). The book also provided a description of the south-pointing chariot's re-invention and use in times after Ma Jun and the Three Kingdoms. The 6th century AD text, translated by the British scientist and historian Joseph Needham, reads as follows (the south-pointing chariot is referred to as the south-pointing carriage): |“||The south-pointing carriage was first constructed by the Duke of Zhou (beginning of the 1st millennium BC) as a means of conducting homewards certain envoys who had arrived from a great distance beyond the frontiers. The country to be traversed was a boundless plain, in which people lost their bearings as to east and west, so (the Duke) caused this vehicle to be made in order that the ambassadors should be able to distinguish north and south. The Gui Gu Zi book says that the people of the State of Zheng, when collecting jade, always carried with them a 'south-pointer', and by means of this were never in doubt (as to their position). During the Qin and Former Han dynasties, however, nothing more was heard of the vehicle. In the Later Han period, Zhang Heng re-invented it, but owing to the confusion and turmoil at the close of the dynasty it was not preserved.||”| |“||In the State of Wei, (in the San Guo period) Gaotong Long and Qin Lang were both famous scholars; they disputed about the south-pointing carriage before the court, saying that there was no such thing, and that the story was nonsense. But during the Qing-long reign period (233–237 AD) the emperor Ming Di commissioned the scholar Ma Jun to construct one, and he duly succeeded. This again was lost during the troubles attending the establishment of the Jin Dynasty.||”| |“||Later on, Shi Hu (emperor of the Jie Later Zhao Dynasty) had one made by Xie Fei, and again Linghu Sheng made one for Yao Xing (emperor of the Later Qin dynasty). The latter was obtained by emperor An Di of the Jin in the 13th year of the Yi-xi reign-period (417 AD), and it finally came into the hands of emperor Wu Di of the Liu Song Dynasty when he took over the administration of Chang'an. Its appearance and construction was like that of a drum-carriage (odometer). A wooden figure of a man was placed at the top, with its arm raised and pointing to the south, (and the mechanism was arranged in such a way that) although the carriage turned round and round, the pointer-arm still indicated the south. In State processions, the south-pointing carriage led the way, accompanied by the imperial guard.||”| |“||These vehicles, constructed as they had been by barbarian (Qiang) workmen, did not function particularly well. Though called south-pointing carriages, they very often did not point true, and had to negotiate curves step by step, with the help of someone inside to adjust the machinery. The ingenious man from Fanyang, Zi Zu Chongzhi frequently said, therefore, that a new (and properly automatic) south-pointing carriage ought to be constructed. So towards the close of the Sheng-Ming reign period (477–479 AD) the emperor Shun Di, during the premiership of the Prince of Qi, commissioned (Zi Zu Chongzhi) to make one, and when it was completed it was tested by Wang Seng-qian, military governor of Tanyang, and Liu Hsiu, president of the Board of Censors. The workmanship was excellent, and although the carriage was twisted and turned in a hundred directions, the hand never failed to point to the south. Under the Jin, moreover, there had also been a south-pointing ship.||”| The last sentence of the passage is of great interest for navigation at sea, since the magnetic compass used for seafaring navigation was not used until the time of Shen Kuo (1031–1095). Although the Song Shu text describes earlier precedents of the south-pointing chariot before the time of Ma Jun, this is not entirely credible, as there are no pre-Han or Han Dynasty era texts that describe the device. In fact, the first known source to describe stories of its legendary use during the Zhou period was the Gu Jin Zhu book of Cui Bao (c. 300 CE), written soon after the Three Kingdoms era. Cui Bao also wrote that the intricate details of construction for the device were once written in the Shang Fang Gu Shi (Traditions of the Imperial Workshops), but the book was lost by his time. The invention of the south-pointing chariot also made its way to Japan by the 7th century. The Nihon Shoki (The Chronicles of Japan) of 720 AD described the earlier Chinese Buddhist monks Zhi Yu and Zhi You constructing several south-pointing Chariots for Emperor Tenji of Japan in 658 CE. This was followed up by several more chariot devices built in 666 AD as well. The south-pointing chariot was also combined with the earlier Han Dynasty era invention of the odometer (also Greco-Roman), a mechanical device used to measure distance traveled, and found in all modern automobiles. It was mentioned in the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) historical text of the Song Shi (compiled in 1345) that the engineers Yan Su (in 1027 CE) and Wu Deren (in 1107 CE) both created south-pointing chariots, which it details as follows. (In Needham's translation, inches and feet (ft) are used as units of distance. 1 inch is 25.4 millimetres. 1 ft is 12 inches or 304.8 mm.) |“||In the 5th year of the Tian-Sheng reign period of the emperor Renzong (1027 AD), Yan Su, a Divisional Director in the Ministry of Works, made a south-pointing carriage. He memorialised the throne, saying, [after the usual historical introduction]: 'Throughout the Five Dynasties and until the reigning dynasty there has been, so far as I know, no one who has been able to construct such a vehicle. But now I have invented a design myself and have succeeded in completing it'.||”| |“||'The method involves using a carriage with a single pole (for two horses). Above the outside framework of the body of the carriage let there be a cover in two stories. Set a wooden image of a xian (immortal) at the top, stretching out its arm to indicate the south. Use 9 wheels, great and small, with a total of 120 teeth, i.e. 2 foot-wheels (i.e. road-wheels, on which the carriage runs) 6 ft. high and 18 ft. in circumference, attached to the foot wheels, 2 vertical subordinate wheels, 2.4 ft. in diameter and 7.2 ft. in circumference, each with 24 teeth, the teeth being at intervals of 3 inches apart.||”| |“||'...Then below the crossbar at the end of the pole, two small vertical wheels 3 inches in diameter and pierced by an iron axle, to the left 1 small horizontal wheel, 1.2 feet in diameter, with 12 teeth, to the right 1 small horizontal wheel, 1.2 ft. in diameter, with 12 teeth, in the middle 1 large horizontal wheel, of diameter 4.8 ft. and circumference 14.4 ft., with 48 teeth, the teeth at intervals of 3 inches apart; in the middle a vertical shaft piercing the center (of the large horizontal wheel) 8 ft. high and 3 inches in diameter; at the top carrying the wooden figure of the xian'.||”| |“||'When the carriage moves (southward) let the wooden figure point south. When it runs (and goes) eastwards, the (back end of the) pole is pushed to the right; the subordinate wheel attached to the right road-wheel will turn forward 12 teeth, drawing with it the right small horizontal wheel one revolution (and so) pushing the central large horizontal wheel to revolve a quarter turn to the left. When it has turned around 12 teeth, the carriage moves eastwards, and the wooden figure stands crosswise and points south. If (instead) it turns (and goes) westwards, the (back end of the) pole is pushed to the left; the subordinate wheel attached to the left road-wheel will turn forward with the road-wheel 12 teeth, drawing with it the left small horizontal wheel one revolution, and pushing the central large horizontal wheel to revolve a quarter turn to the right. When it has turned round 12 teeth, the carriage moves due west, but still the wooden figure stands crosswise and points south. If one wishes to travel northwards, the turning round, whether by east or west, is done in the same way'.||”| After this initial description of Yan Su's device, the text continues to describe the work of Wu Deren, who crafted a wheeled device that would combine the odometer and south-pointing chariot: |“||It was ordered that the method should be handed down to the (appropriate) officials so that the machine might be made. In the first year of the Da-Guan reign period (1107 AD), the Chamberlain Wu Deren presented specifications of the south-pointing carriage and the carriage with the li-recording drum (odometer). The two vehicles were made, and were first used that year at the great ceremony of the ancestral sacrifice.||”| |“||The body of the south-pointing carriage was 11.15 ft. (long), 9.5 ft. wide, and 10.9 ft. deep. The carriage wheels were 5.7 ft. in diameter, the carriage pole 10.5 ft. long, and the carriage body in two stories, upper and lower. In the middle was placed a partition. Above there stood a figure of a xian holding a rod, on the left and right were tortoises and cranes, one each on either side, and four figures of boys each holding a tassel. In the upper story there were at the four corners trip-mechanisms, and also 13 horizontal wheels, each 1.85 ft. in diameter, 5.55 ft. in circumference, with 32 teeth at intervals of 1.8 inches apart. A central shaft, mounted on the partition, pierced downwards.||”| |“||In the lower story were 13 wheels. In the middle was the largest horizontal wheel, 3.8 ft. in diameter, 11.4 ft. in circumference, and having 100 teeth at intervals of 2.1 inches apart. (On vertical axles) reaching to the top (of the compartment) left and right, were two small horizontal wheels which could rise and fall, having an iron weight (attached to) each. Each of these was 1.1 ft. in diameter and 3.3 ft. in circumference, with 17 teeth, at intervals of 1.9 inches apart. Again, to left and right, were attached wheels, one on each side, in diameter 1.55 ft., in circumference 4.65 ft., and having 24 teeth, at intervals of 2.1 inches.||”| |“||Left and right, too, were double gear-wheels (lit. tier-wheels), a pair on either side. Each of the lower component gears was 2.1 ft. in diameter and 6.3 ft. in circumference, with 32 teeth, at intervals of 2.1 inches apart. Each of the upper component gears was 1.2 ft. in diameter and 3.6 ft. in circumference, with 32 teeth, at intervals of 1.1 inches apart. On each of the road-wheels of the carriage, left and right, was a vertical wheel 2.2 ft. in diameter, 6.6 ft. in circumference, with 32 teeth at intervals of 2.25 inches apart. Both to left and right at the back end of the pole there were small wheels without teeth (pulleys), from which hung bamboo cords, and both were tied above the left and right (ends of the) axle (of the carriage) respectively.||”| |“||If the carriage turns to the right, it causes the small pulley to the left of the back end of the pole to let down the left-hand (small horizontal) wheel. If it turns to the left, it causes the small pulley to the right of the back end of the pole to let down the right (small horizontal) wheel. However, the carriage moves the xian and the boys stand crosswise and point south. The carriage is harnessed with two red horses, bearing frontlets of bronze.||”| Chariots with differential gearsEdit Background and explanationEdit There is a widely believed hypothesis that most, if not all, south-pointing chariots worked by means of differential gears. A differential is an assembly of gears, nowadays used in almost all automobiles except some electric and hybrid-electric ones, which has three shafts linking it to the external world. They are conveniently labelled A, B, and C. The gears cause the rotation speed of Shaft A to be proportional to the sum of the rotation speeds of Shafts B and C. There are no other limitations on the rotation speeds of the shafts. In an automobile, Shaft A is connected to the engine (through the transmission), and Shafts B and C are connected to two road wheels, one on each side of the vehicle. When the vehicle turns, the wheel going around the outside of the turning curve has to roll further and rotate faster than the wheel on the inside. The differential permits this to happen while both wheels are being driven by the engine. If the sum of the speeds of the wheels is constant, the speed of the engine does not change. In a south-pointing chariot, according to the hypothesis, Shaft B was connected to one road wheel and Shaft C was connected through a direction-reversing gear to the other road wheel. This made Shaft A rotate at a speed that was proportional to the difference between the rotation speeds of the two wheels. The pointing doll was connected (possibly through intermediate gears) to Shaft A. When the chariot moved in a straight line, the two wheels turned at equal speeds, and the doll did not rotate. When the chariot turned, the wheels rotated at different speeds (for the same reason as in an automobile), so the differential caused the doll to rotate, compensating for the turning of the chariot. The hypothesis that there were south-pointing chariots with differential gears originated in the 20th century. People who were familiar with modern (e.g. automotive) uses of differentials interpreted some of the ancient Chinese descriptions in ways that agreed with their own ideas. Essentially, they re-invented the south-pointing chariot, as it had previously been re-invented several times in antiquity. Working chariots that use differentials have been constructed in recent decades. Whether any such chariots existed previously is not known with certainty. Although the Antikythera mechanism is believed to have used differential gears, the first true differential gear definitely known to have been used was by Joseph Williamson in 1720. He used a differential for correcting the equation of time for a clock that displayed both mean and solar time. If the south-pointing chariot were built perfectly accurately, using a differential gear, and if it travelled on an Earth that was perfectly smooth, it would have interesting properties. It would be a mechanical compass that transports a direction, given by the pointer, along the path it travels. Mathematically the device performs parallel transport along the path it travels. The chariot can be used to detect straight lines or geodesics. A path on a surface the chariot travels along is a geodesic if and only if the pointer does not rotate with respect to the base of the chariot. Because of the curvature of the Earth's surface (due to it being curved around as a globe), the chariot would generally not continue to point due south as it moves. For example, if the chariot moves along a geodesic (as approximated by any great circle) the pointer should instead stay at a fixed angle to the path. Also, if two chariots travel by different routes between the same starting and finishing points, their pointers, which were aimed in the same direction at the start, usually do not point in the same direction at the finish. Likewise, if a chariot goes around a closed loop, starting and finishing at the same point on the Earth's surface, its pointer generally does not aim in the same direction at the finish as it did at the start. The difference is the holonomy of the path, and is proportional to the enclosed area. If the journeys are short compared with the radius of the Earth, these discrepancies are small and may have no practical importance. Nevertheless, they show that this type of chariot, based on differential gears, would be an imperfect compass even if constructed exactly and used in ideal conditions. Lack of precision, and implicationsEdit Real machines are never built perfectly accurately. Simple geometry shows that if the chariot's mechanism is based on a differential gear and if, for example, the width of the track of the chariot (the separation between its wheels) is three metres, and if the wheels are intended to be identical but actually differ in diameter by one part in a thousand, then if the chariot travels one kilometre in a straight line, the "south-pointing" figure will rotate nearly twenty degrees. If it initially points exactly to the south, at the end of the one-kilometre trip it will point almost to the south-southeast or south-southwest, depending on which wheel is the larger. If the chariot travels nine kilometres, the figure will end up pointing almost due north. Obviously, this would make it useless as a south-pointing compass. To be a useful navigational tool, the figure would have to rotate no more than a couple of degrees over a journey of a hundred kilometres, but this would require the chariot's wheels to be equal in diameter to within one part in a million. Even if the process of manufacturing the wheels were capable of this precision (which would not be possible with ancient Chinese methods), it is doubtful that the equality of the wheels could be maintained for long as they are subjected to the wear and tear of travelling across open country. Irregularity of the ground would add further errors to the device's functioning. Considerable scepticism is therefore warranted as to whether this type of south-pointing chariot, using a differential gear for the whole time, was used in practice to navigate over long distances. Conceivably, the south-pointing doll was fixed to the body of the chariot while it was travelling in straight lines, and coupled to the differential only when the chariot was turning. The charioteer could have operated a control to do this just before and after making each turn, or maybe shouted commands to someone inside the chariot who connected and disconnected the doll and the differential. This could have been done without stopping the chariot. If turns were brief and rare, this would have greatly reduced the pointing errors, since they would have accumulated only during the short periods when the doll and differential were connected. However, it raises the problem of how the chariot could have been kept travelling in straight lines with sufficient accuracy without using the pointing doll. If the real purposes of the chariot and the accounts of it were amusement and impressing visiting foreigners, rather than actual long-distance navigation, then its inaccuracy might not have been important. Considering that a large mechanical wagon or chariot would be obligated to travel on roads, the destination in question would typically not be in an unknown direction. The fact that the sources cited above mention that the chariot was placed at the front of processions, its high level of mechanical complexity and fragility, and that it was 'reinvented' several times contribute to the conclusion that it was not used for navigation, as a truly practical and useful navigational tool would not be forgotten or left unused. Chariots without differential gearsEdit Although the hypothesis that the south-pointing chariot used differential gears has gained wide acceptance, it should be recognized that functional south-pointing chariots without differential gears are possible. The ancient descriptions are often unclear, but they suggest that the Chinese implemented several different designs, at least some of which did not include differentials. Some of the ancient descriptions suggest that some south-pointing chariots could move in only three ways: straight ahead, or turning left or right with a fixed radius of curvature. A third wheel might have been used to fix the turning radius. If the chariot was turning, the pointing doll was connected by gears to one or other of the two main road wheels (e.g. whichever was on the outside of the curve around which the chariot was moving) so the doll rotated at a fixed speed, relative to the rate of the chariot's movement, to compensate for the predetermined rate of turn. The doll turned in opposite directions depending on which road wheel was connected to it, so its rotation compensated for the chariot turning left or right. This design would have been simpler than using a differential gear. The chariots of Yan Su and Wu Deren appear to have used this type of mechanism. (See descriptions quoted from the Song Shi, above.) Apart from the presence of components in Wu Deren's vehicle to make it function as an odometer, there were only minor differences between them. In each chariot, the two main road wheels were attached to vertical gear wheels. A large horizontal gear wheel was linked (possibly via intermediate gearing) to the pointing doll, and was positioned so a diameter almost spanned the space between the uppermost points of the vertical gear wheels. When the chariot was moving straight ahead, there was no connection between these gears, but when the chariot turned, a small gear wheel was lowered into contact with the horizontal gear and one of the vertical gears, thus linking the doll to one of the road wheels. Two small gear wheels were available, one to connect the horizontal gear to each of the vertical ones. Of course, they were not used simultaneously. The small gear wheels were raised and lowered by an arrangement of weights, pulleys and cords which were attached to the pole to which the horses that pulled the chariot were harnessed. When the horses moved to one side or the other, in order to turn the chariot, the pole moved and the cords lowered the appropriate small gear wheel into its working position. When the horses returned to walking straight ahead, the small gear wheel was raised out of contact with the main horizontal and vertical gears. Thus the system functioned automatically. The mirror-symmetry of the vertical gears being linked by the small gears to the horizontal gear at diametrically opposite points caused the horizontal gear to rotate in opposite directions depending on which road wheel was linked to it, thus rotating the pointing doll in opposite directions when the chariot turned left and right. The description does not mention a third road wheel to fix the turning radius, but it is possible that such a wheel was present. No gears would have been attached to it, so perhaps the author of the description did not mention it because he did not realize that it was an important part of the mechanism. Putting such a wheel on the chariot and making it function properly would not have been difficult. It might have been attached to the pole to which the horses were harnessed. Stops would have been provided to limit the motions of the pole to left and right. If a third road wheel was included, this type of south-pointing chariot could have worked quite accurately as a compass when used for short journeys under good conditions, but if used for long journeys it would have been subject to cumulative errors, like chariots using the differential mechanism. If in fact there was no third road wheel, the chariot might have functioned as a compass if turns were always made so that one of the two wheels was stationary and only the other rotated, with the pointing doll connected to it by gears. The charioteer could have kept the stationary wheel from turning by controlling the horses appropriately. (A brake would have helped, but there is no mention of one in the description.) The radius of the curve around which the rotating wheel moved would have equalled the track-width of the chariot, and the gears turning the doll would have been chosen accordingly. This design would have worked as a compass for short journeys, but would have suffered from cumulative errors if used for long ones. Also, the chariot would have been slow and awkward to turn. This might not have mattered if turns were rarely executed. The Song Shi description of the gears in Yan Su's chariot, and the numbers of teeth on them, suggests that it worked this way, without a third road wheel. The gear ratios would have been correct if the pointing doll was attached directly to the large horizontal gear wheel, and the track-width of the chariot equalled the diameter of the road wheels. Wu Deren's chariot also appears to have been designed to work this way. The width of the chariot, and therefore presumably the track-width, was greater than the diameter of the wheels. The gear ratios were appropriate for these dimensions. The charioteer would have had to use great skill to ensure that the radius of each turn of the chariot was correct to make one of the wheels exactly stop rotating. Unless he did this correctly, the pointing doll would not have kept aiming to the south. He would have been able to adjust the direction in which it aimed by making turns that were more or less sharp. This would sometimes have given him opportunities to use the chariot dishonestly. If it was being demonstrated to spectators, for example, and was being driven around in front of them, making many turns, the charioteer, who would have known which way was south, would have been able to make the chariot appear to work extremely accurately as a compass for long periods. The spectators could have been shown the machinery, and would have seen that the charioteer could not manipulate the doll. They would presumably have been impressed by the apparent accuracy of the mechanism. It is possible that this type of chariot was sometimes constructed with the prime purpose of fraudulently impressing spectators. Possibly, people who built these chariots deceived their own employers with them, which could have gained them fame and fortune provided nobody tried using the chariots for real navigation. Other mechanical designs for the south-pointing chariot are also possible, including ones that employ a device that is used today, the gyrocompass. However, there is no indication that the ancient Chinese knew of these. Some south-pointing chariots may not have been purely mechanical devices. Someone riding inside the chariot may have used some non-mechanical method of determining the compass directions, and turned the doll on top of the chariot accordingly. There are several methods that could have been used, for example: - By using a magnetic compass. The Chinese were using this for navigation by the 11th century CE, when south-pointing chariots were still being made and used. - By using astronomical observations of the Sun and/or stars, e.g. the Pole Star. Chinese astronomical knowledge was extensive. - By using local knowledge. The person in the chariot may have known the area or had a map or description of it. - By observing the polarization of light from the sky. Vikings used birefringent crystals of Iceland spar to navigate across the Atlantic Ocean by this method at about the same time. Iceland spar is found in China, as well as in Iceland and some other places. Insects such as bees can respond to sky polarization and use it to find their way home. Whether the Chinese used it is hypothetical, but it is certainly possible. - By observing light that had been refracted by the Earth's atmosphere. This is one of the techniques that were used by Polynesian navigators to steer ships among Pacific islands. When the surface of the Earth, ocean or ground, is colder than the air above it, a dense layer of air is formed near the surface, which refracts light downward. The result is that light can go around the curvature of the Earth, allowing things to be seen at much greater distances than simple geometry would predict. The images are very distorted, but they can be recognized by skilled navigators. Certain other Polynesian techniques can also be used on land and may have been employed by the Chinese. Unlike mechanisms that rely on the rotation of road wheels, most of these methods can be used at sea. This may account for the mention (see "Earliest sources" above) that a marine version of the south-pointing chariot existed. These methods can work accurately over long distances, unlike the mechanical designs for the chariot. Necessity of non-mechanical orientationEdit Some non-mechanical method of finding the south must have been used when a mechanical south-pointing chariot was initialized, aiming its pointer to the south at the start of a journey. Any of the methods mentioned above in "Non-mechanical possibilities" could have been used. If any south-pointing chariot was really used for long-distance navigation, it must have relied (after initialization) on a non-mechanical direction-finding method. It might have been operated non-mechanically by someone riding in it, as outlined above. Alternatively, if it had a mechanical mechanism, it must have been frequently re-initialized non-mechanically to eliminate accumulated errors and uncertainties. The only chariots that might not have needed non-mechanical methods of finding the south would have been those that were never used for long-distance navigation. If some chariots were used only for amusement or fraud, they could have worked purely mechanically. Even initialization could have been avoided by simply declaring some arbitrary direction to be "south". Where they can be seenEdit While none of the historic south-pointing chariots remain, full sized replicas can be found. Referred to as the "southern pointing man", two replicas can also be seen (and physically experimented with) at the Ontario Science Centre in Toronto, Canada. - Haskew, Michael E; Jorgensen, Christer; McNab, Chris; Niderost, Eric (2008). Fighting Techniques of the Oriental World 1200-1860. Metro Books. p. 179. ISBN 978-1905704965. - Lu, Yongxiang (2014). A History of Chinese Science and Technology. 3. Springer (published October 20, 2014). p. 516. ISBN 978-3662441626. - Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 40. - Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 288 - Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 286. - Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 286–287. - Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 287. - Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 287–288. - Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 289. - Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 291. - Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 291–292. - Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 292. - Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 298. - The Chinese South-Seeking chariot: A simple mechanical device for visualizing curvature and parallel transport M. Santander, American Journal of Physics – September 1992 – Volume 60, Issue 9, pp. 782–787 - Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. - Kit Williams, Engines of Ingenuity, Gingko Press (February 2002), ISBN 978-1-58423-106-6

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Keywords: glossary, ADCs, DACs, analog digital converters, digital to analog converters, a to d, d to a, converters, definitions Acquisition TimeAcquisition time is the interval between the release of the hold state (imposed by the input circuitry of a track-and-hold) and the instant at which the voltage on the sampling capacitor settles to within 1 LSB of a new input value. The equation for acquisition time (Tacq) is: where RSOURCE is the source impedance, CSAMPLE is the sampling capacitance, and N is the number of resolution bits. AliasingIn sampling theory, input-signal frequencies that exceed the Nyquist frequency are "aliased." That is, they are "folded back" or replicated at other positions in the spectrum above and below the Nyquist frequency. To prevent aliasing, you must adequately filter all undesired signals so the ADC does not digitize them. Aliasing can be used to advantage when undersampling. See also application note Filter Basics: Anti-Aliasing Aperture DelayAperture delay (tAD) in an ADC is the interval between the sampling edge of the clock signal (the rising edge of the clock signal in the figure) and the instant when the sample is taken. The sample is taken when the ADC's track-and-hold goes into the hold state. Aperture delay (red) and jitter (blue). Aperture JitterAperture jitter (tAJ) is the sample-to-sample variation in the aperture delay, as shown in this figure. Typical ADC aperture jitter values are much smaller than those of aperture delay. Binary Coding (Unipolar)Straight binary is a coding scheme typically used for unipolar signals. The binary code (zero scale to full scale) ranges from all zeros (00...000) to the positive full-scale value of all ones (11...111). Midscale is represented by a one (the MSB) followed by all zeros (10...000). This code is similar to offset binary coding, which accommodates the positive and negative values of bipolar transfer functions. Bipolar InputsThe term 'bipolar' indicates that the signal swings above and below some reference level. In single-ended systems, the input is typically referenced to analog ground, so a bipolar signal is one that swings above and below ground. In differential systems, where the signal is not referenced to ground but where the positive input is referenced to the negative input, a bipolar signal is one in which the positive input swings above and below the negative input. Common-Mode Rejection (CMR)Common-mode rejection is the ability of a device to reject a signal that is common to both inputs. The common-mode signal can be an AC or DC signal, or a combination of the two. Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the ratio of the differential signal gain to the common-mode signal gain. CMRR is often expressed in decibels (dB). CrosstalkCrosstalk is a measure of how well each analog input is isolated from the others. For an ADC with more than one input channel, crosstalk is the amount of signal that couples from one analog input into another. This value is typically specified in decibels (dB). For a DAC with more than one input channel, crosstalk is the amount of noise that appears on a DAC output when another DAC output channel is updated. Differential Nonlinearity (DNL) ErrorFor an ADC, the analog-input levels that trigger any two successive output codes should differ by one LSB (DNL = 0). Any deviation from one LSB is defined as DNL. For a DAC, DNL error is the difference between the ideal and the measured output responses for successive DAC codes. An ideal DAC response would have analog output values exactly one code (LSB) apart (DNL = 0). (A DNL specification of greater than or equal to 1LSB guarantees monotonicity.) (See "Monotonic.") DNL for an ADC and a DAC. See also application note INL/DNL Measurements for High-Speed Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs) Digital FeedthroughDigital feedthrough is the noise that appears on a DAC output when the digital control lines are toggled. In the figure, feedthrough on the DAC output is the result of noise from the serial clock signal. Dynamic RangeTypically expressed in dB, dynamic range is defined as the range between the noise floor of a device and its specified maximum output level. An ADC's dynamic range is the range of signal amplitudes which the ADC can resolve; an ADC with a dynamic range of 60dB can resolve signal amplitudes from x to 1000x. Dynamic range is important in communication applications, where signal strengths vary dramatically. If the signal is too large, it over-ranges the ADC input. If the signal is too small, it gets lost in the converter's quantization noise. Effective Number Of Bits (ENOB)ENOB specifies the dynamic performance of an ADC at a specific input frequency and sampling rate. An ideal ADC's error consists only of quantization noise. As the input frequency increases, the overall noise (particularly in the distortion components) also increases, thereby reducing the ENOB and SINAD. (See 'Signal-to-Noise and Distortion Ratio (SINAD).') ENOB for a full-scale, sinusoidal input waveform is computed from: Force-Sense OutputsThis is a measurement technique in which a voltage (or current) is forced at a remote point in a circuit, and the resulting current (or voltage) is measured (sensed). DACs with integrated output amplifiers, for example, sometimes include force-sense outputs. The inverting input of the output amplifier is available for external connection, and the feedback path must be closed externally. Full-Power Bandwidth (FPBW)An ADC is operated with an applied analog input at or near the converter's specified full-scale amplitude. The input frequency is increased to the point at which the amplitude of the digitized conversion result has decreased by 3dB. That input frequency is defined as the full-power input bandwidth. Full-Scale (FS) errorFull-scale error is the difference between the actual value that triggers the transition to full-scale and the ideal analog full-scale transition value. Full-scale error equals offset error + gain error, as shown in this figure. Full-scale error for an ADC and a DAC. FS Gain Error (DACs)The full-scale gain error of an digital-to-analog converter (DAC) is the difference between the actual and the ideal output span. The actual span is determined by the output when all inputs are set to 1s, minus the output when all inputs are set to 0s. The full-scale gain error of any data converter can be affected by the choice of reference used to measure the gain error. Gain ErrorThe gain error of an ADC or DAC indicates how well the slope of an actual transfer function matches the slope of the ideal transfer function. Gain error is usually expressed in LSB or as a percent of full-scale range (%FSR), and it can be calibrated out with hardware or in software. Gain error is the full-scale error minus the offset error. Gain error for an ADC and a DAC. Gain Error DriftGain-error drift is the variation in gain error due to a change in ambient temperature, typically expressed in ppm/°C. Gain MatchingGain matching indicates how well the gains of all channels in a multichannel ADC are matched to each other. To calculate gain matching, apply the same input signal to all channels, and report the maximum deviation in gain, typically in dB. Glitch ImpulseGlitch impulse is the voltage transient that appears at the DAC output when a major-carry transition occurs. Typically measured as nV•s, it equals the area under the curve on a voltage-vs-time graph. HarmonicA harmonic of a periodic signal is a sinewave multiple of the signal's fundamental frequency. Integral Nonlinearity (INL) ErrorFor data converters, INL is the deviation of an actual transfer function from a straight line. After nullifying offset and gain errors, the straight line is either a best-fit straight line or a line drawn between the end points of the transfer function. INL is often called 'relative accuracy.' See also application note INL/DNL Measurements for High-Speed Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs). INL for an ADC and a DAC. Intermodulation Distortion (IMD)IMD is a phenomenon in which nonlinearity in a circuit or device creates new frequency components not in the original signal. IMD includes the effects of harmonic distortion and two-tone distortion. It is measured as the total power of those selected intermodulation products (i.e., IM2 through IM5) to the total power of the two input signals, f1 and f2. The signals f1 and f2 are of equal amplitude and very close to one another in frequency. The 2nd- to 5th-order intermodulation products are as follows: Least Significant Bit (LSB)In a binary number, the LSB is the least weighted bit in the group. Typically, the LSB is the furthest right bit. For an ADC or DAC, the weight of an LSB equals the full-scale voltage range of the converter divided by 2N, where N is the converter's resolution. For a 12-bit ADC with a unipolar full-scale voltage of 2.5V, 1LSB = (2.5V/212) = 610µV Major-Carry TransitionAt the major-carry transition (around mid-scale), either the MSB changes from low to high and all other bits change from high to low, or the MSB changes from high to low and all other bits change from low to high. For example, 01111111 to 10000000 is a major-carry transition. Major-carry transitions often produce the worst switching noise. (See Glitch Impulse.) MonotonicA sequence increases monotonically if for every n, Pn + 1 is greater than or equal to Pn. Similarly, a sequence decreases monotonically if for every n, Pn + 1 is less than or equal to Pn. A DAC is monotonic if the analog output always increases as the DAC-code input increases. An ADC is monotonic if the digital output code always increases as the ADC analog input increases. A converter is guaranteed monotonic if the DNL error is no greater than ±1LSB Most Significant Bit (MSB)In a binary number, the MSB is the most weighted bit in the number. Typically, the MSB is the left-most bit. Multiplying DAC (MDAC)A multiplying DAC allows an AC signal to be applied to the reference input. By feeding the signal of interest into the reference input and by using the DAC codes to scale the signal, the DAC can be used as a digital attenuator. No Missing CodesAn ADC has no missing codes if it produces all possible digital codes in response to a ramp signal applied to the analog input. Nyquist FrequencyThe Nyquist principle states that, to allow an analog signal to be completely represented with no aliasing effects, the ADC's sampling rate must be at least twice the maximum bandwidth of the signal. This maximum bandwidth is called the Nyquist frequency. Offset Binary CodingOffset binary is a coding scheme often used for bipolar signals. In offset binary coding, the most negative value (negative full scale) is represented by all zeros (00...000) and the most positive value (positive full scale) is represented by all ones (11...111). Zero-scale is represented by a one (MSB) followed by all zeros (10...000). This scheme is similar to straight binary coding, which is typically used for unipolar signals. (See Binary Coding, Unipolar.) Offset Error (Bipolar)The measurement of offset error in bipolar converters is similar to that of offset error in unipolar converters. However, the error measured at zero-scale is at the midpoint of the bipolar transfer functions. (See Offset Error (Unipolar).) Offset Error (Unipolar)Offset error, often called 'zero-scale' error, indicates how well the actual transfer function matches the ideal transfer function at a single point. For an ideal data converter, the first transition occurs at 0.5LSB above zero. For an ADC, the zero-scale voltage is applied to the analog input and is increased until the first transition occurs. For a DAC, offset error is the analog output response to an input code of all zeros. Offset error for an ADC and a DAC. Offset Error DriftOffset-error drift is the variation in offset error due a change in ambient temperature, typically expressed in ppm/°C. OversamplingFor an ADC, sampling the analog input at a rate much higher than the Nyquist frequency is called oversampling. Oversampling improves the ADC's dynamic performance by effectively reducing its noise floor. Improved dynamic performance leads, in turn, to higher resolution. Oversampling is the basis of sigma-delta ADCs. See also application note Demystifying Sigma-Delta ADCs Phase-MatchingPhase matching indicates how well matched are the phases of identical signals applied to all channels in a multichannel ADC. Phase matching is the maximum deviation in phase among all the channels, and is typically reported in degrees. Power-Supply Rejection (PSR)Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) is the ratio of the change in DC power supply voltage to the resulting change in full-scale error, expressed in dB. Quantization ErrorFor an ADC, quantization error is defined as the difference between the actual analog input and the digital representation of that value. (See 'Quantization.') Ratiometric MeasurementInstead of a constant-valued reference voltage, a fraction of the signal applied to the transducer (i.e., the load cell or bridge) is applied to the ADC's voltage reference input. This type of measurement, called ratiometric, eliminates any errors introduced by changes in the reference voltage. An example of ratiometric measurement using a resistive bridge is shown in the figure below. Ratiometric measurement using resistive bridge network. ResolutionADC resolution is the number of bits used to represent the analog input signal. To more accurately replicate the analog signal, you must increase the resolution. Using an ADC with higher resolution also reduces the quantization error. For DACs, resolution is similar but reversed—incrementing the code applied to a higher resolution DAC produces smaller step sizes in the analog output. Root Mean Square (RMS)The RMS value of an AC waveform is the effective DC value or DC-equivalent of that signal. The RMS value of an AC waveform is calculated by taking the square-root of the AC waveform, squared and averaged over time. For a sinewave, the RMS value is 2/2 (or 0.707) times the peak value, which is 0.354 times the peak-to-peak value. Sampling Rate/FrequencySampling rate or sampling frequency, specified in samples per second (sps), is the rate at which an ADC acquires (samples) the analog input. For ADCs that perform one sample per conversion (such as SAR, flash, and pipeline ADCs), the sampling rate is also referred to as the throughput rate. For sigma-delta ADCs, the sampling rate is typically much higher than the output data rate. Settling TimeFor a DAC, settling time is the interval between a command to update (change) its output value and the instant it reaches its final value, within a specified percentage. Settling time is affected by the slew rate of an output amplifier and by the amount of amplifier ringing and signal overshoot. For an ADC, it is essential that the time required for voltage on the sampling capacitor to settle to within 1 LSB be less than the converter's acquisition time. Signal-to-Noise And Distortion (SINAD)SINAD is the ratio of the RMS value of the sinewave (input for an ADC, or reconstructed output for a DAC) to the RMS value of the converter noise plus distortion (without the sinewave). RMS noise plus distortion includes all spectral components up to the Nyquist frequency, excluding the fundamental and the DC offset. SINAD is typically expressed in dB. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)SNR is the ratio of the amplitude of the desired signal to the amplitude of the noise signals at a given point in time. For a waveform perfectly reconstructed from digital samples, the theoretical maximum SNR is the ratio of the full-scale analog input (RMS value) to the RMS quantization error (residual error).The ideal, theoretical minimum ADC noise is caused by quantization error only and results directly from the ADC's resolution (N bits): (Actual ADCs produce thermal noise, reference noise, clock jitter, etc., in addition to quantization noise.) Signed Binary CodingSigned binary is a coding scheme in which the MSB represents the sign (positive or negative) of a binary number. Thus, the 8-bit representation of -2 is 10000010, and the representation of +2 is 00000010. Slew rate is the maximum rate at which a DAC output can change, or the maximum rate at which an ADC's input can change without causing an error in the digitized output. For a DAC with output amplifier, the specified slew rate is typically that of the amplifier. Small-Signal Bandwidth (SSBW)To measure SSBW, apply to an ADC an analog input signal of sufficiently small amplitude that its slew rate does not limit the ADC performance. Then, sweep the input frequency up to the point where the amplitude of the digitized conversion result decreases by -3dB. SSBW is often limited by the performance of the associated track-and-hold amplifier. Spurious-Free Dynamic Range (SFDR)SFDR is the ratio of the RMS amplitude of the fundamental (maximum signal component) to the RMS value of the next largest spurious component, excluding DC offset. SFDR is specified in decibels relative to the carrier (dBc). Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)THD measures the distortion content of a signal, and is specified in decibels relative to the carrier (dBc). For ADCs, THD is the ratio of the RMS sum of the selected harmonics of the input signal to the fundamental itself. Only harmonics within the Nyquist limit are included in the measurement. Track-and-HoldTrack-and-hold, often called 'sample-and-hold,' refers to the input-sampling circuitry of an ADC. The most basic representation of a track-and-hold input is an analog switch and a capacitor. (See figure.) The circuit is in 'track' mode when the switch is closed. When the switch opens, the last instantaneous value of the input is held on the sampling capacitor, and the circuit is in 'hold' mode. Transition NoiseTransition noise is the range of input voltages that cause an ADC output to toggle between adjacent output codes. As you increase the analog input voltage, the voltages that define where each code transition occurs (code edges) are uncertain due to the associated transition noise. Two's Complement CodingTwo's complement is a digital coding scheme for positive and negative numbers that simplifies addition and subtraction computations. In this scheme, the 8-bit representation of -2 is 11111110, and the representation of +2 is 00000010. UndersamplingUndersampling is a technique in which the ADC sampling rate is lower than the analog input frequency?a condition that causes aliasing. Given the Nyquist criterion, it is natural to expect that undersampling would result in a loss of signal information. However, with proper filtering of the input signal and with proper selection of the analog input and sampling frequencies, the aliased components that contain the signal information can be shifted from a higher frequency to a lower frequency and then converted. This method effectively uses the ADC as a downconverter, shifting higher-bandwidth signals into the ADC's desired band of interest. For this technique to be successful, the bandwidth of the ADC's track-and-hold must be capable of handling the highest frequency signals anticipated. UnipolarFor an ADC with single-ended analog input, the unipolar input ranges from zero-scale (typically ground) to full scale (typically the reference voltage). For an ADC with differential inputs, the unipolar input ranges from zero-scale to full-scale, with the input measured as the positive input with respect to the negative input. Zero-Scale ErrorSee offset error (unipolar). |EE-Mail||Subscribe to EE-Mail and receive automatic notice of new documents in your areas of interest.| |Download||Download, PDF Format| |© , Maxim Integrated Products, Inc.| TUTORIALS 641,AN641, AN 641, APP641, Appnote641, Appnote 641

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|JOSEPH (2) | jo'-zef (yoceph, "He will add"; Septuagint Ioseph). The narrative (Genesis 30:23,14) indicates not so much a double etymology as the course of Rachel's thoughts. The use of 'acaph, "He takes away," suggested to her mind by its form in the future, yoceph, "He will add," "And she called his name Joseph, saying, Yahweh add to me another son"): I. THE JOSEPH STORY, A LITERARY QUESTION 1. An Independent Original or an Adaptation? 2. A Monograph or a Compilation? (1) An Analytical Theory Resolving It into a Mere Compilation (2) A Narrative Full of Gems (3) The Argument from Chronology Supporting It as a Monograph II. THE STORY OF JOSEPH, A BIOGRAPHY 1. A Bedouin Prince in Canaan 2. A Bedouin Slave in Egypt 3. The Bedouin Slave Becomes Again the Bedouin Prince 4. The Prime Minister 5. The Patriarch The eleventh son of Jacob. The Biblical narrative concerning Joseph presents two subjects for consideration, the Joseph story, a literary question, and the story of Joseph, a biography. It is of the first importance to consider these questions in this order. Cheyne in Encyclopedia Biblica reaches such conclusions concerning the Joseph story that the story of Joseph is mutilated almost beyond recognition as a biography at all. Driver in HDB holds that the Joseph story was "in all probability only committed to writing 700-800 years" later than the time to which Joseph is attributed, points out that Joseph's name was also the name of a tribe, and concludes that "the first of these facts at once destroys all guarantee that we possess in the Joseph narrative a literal record of the facts," and that "the second fact raises the further question whether the figure of Joseph, in part or even as a whole, is a reflection of the history and characteristics of the tribe projected upon the past in the individual form." But he draws back from this view and thinks it "more probable that there was an actual person Joseph, afterward .... rightly or wrongly regarded as the ancestor of the tribe .... who underwent substantially the experience recounted of him in Genesis." In the presence of such critical notions concerning the literature in which the narrative of Joseph is embodied, it is clear that until we have reached some conclusions concerning the Joseph story, we cannot be sure that there is any real story of Joseph to relate. I. The Joseph Story, a Literary Question. 1. An Independent Original or an Adaptation?: This literary problem will be solved, if satisfactory answers may be found to two questions: Is it an independent original or an adaptation? Suitable material for such an adaptation as would produce a Joseph story has been sought at either end of the line of history: Joseph the progenitor and Joseph the tribe. The only contestant for the claim of being an early original of which the Joseph story might be an adaptation is the nasty "Tale of Two Brothers" (RP, series I, volume II, 137-46). This story in its essential elements much resembles the Joseph story. But such events as it records are common: why not such stories? What evidence does this "Tale of Two Brothers" afford that the Joseph story is not an independent original? Are we to suppose that because many French romances involve the demi-monde, there was therefore no Madame de Pompadour? Are court scandals so unheard of that ancient Egypt cannot afford two? And why impugn the genuineness of the Joseph story because the "Tale of Two Brothers" resembles it? Is anyone so ethereal in his passions as not to know by instinct that the essential elements of such scandal are always the same? The difference in the narrative is chiefly in the telling. At this latter point the Joseph story and the "Tale of Two Brothers" bear no resemblance whatever. If the chaste beauty of the Biblical story be observed, and then one turn to the "Tale of Two Brothers" with sufficient knowledge of the Egyptian tongue to perceive the coarseness and the stench of it, there can be no question that the Joseph story is independent of such a literary source. To those who thus sense both stories, the claim of the "Tale of Two Brothers" to be the original of the Joseph story cannot stand for a moment. If we turn from Joseph the progenitor to Joseph the tribe, still less will the claim that the story is an adaptation bear careful examination. The perfect naturalness of the story, the utter absence from its multitudinous details of any hint of figurative language, such as personification always furnishes, and the absolutely accurate reflection in the story of the Egypt of Joseph's day, as revealed by the many discoveries of which people of 700-800 years later could not know, mark this theory of the reflection of tribal history and characteristics as pure speculation. And besides, where in all the history of literature has it been proven that a tribe has been thus successfully thrown back upon the screen of antiquity in the "individual form"? Similar mistakes concerning Menes and Minos and the heroes of Troy are a warning to us. Speculation is legitimate, so long as it does not cut loose from known facts, but gives no one the right to suppose the existence in unknown history of something never certainly found in known history. So much for the first question. 2. A Monograph or a Compilation?: Is it a monograph or a compilation? The author of a monograph may make large use of literary materials, and the editor of a compilation may introduce much editorial comment. Thus, superficially, these different kinds of composition may much resemble each other, yet they are, in essential character, very different the one from the other. A compilation is an artificial body, an automaton; a monograph is a natural body with a living soul in it. This story has oriental peculiarities of repetition and pleonastic expression, and these things have been made much of in order to break up the story; to the reader not seeking grounds of partition, it is one of the most unbroken, simply natural and unaffected pieces of narrative literature in the world. If it stood alone or belonged to some later portion of Scripture, it may well be doubted that it would ever have been touched by the scalpel of the literary dissector. But it belongs to the Pentateuch. There are manifest evidences all over the Pentateuch of the use by the author of material, either documentary or of that paradoxical unwritten literature which the ancients handed down almost without the change of a word for centuries. (1) An Analytical Theory Resolving It into a Mere Compilation. An analytical theory has been applied to the Pentateuch as a whole, to resolve it into a mere compilation. Once the principles of this theory are acknowledged, and allowed sway there, the Joseph story cannot be left untouched, but becomes a necessary sacrifice to the system. A sight of the lifeless, ghastly fragments of the living, moving Joseph story which the analysis leaves behind (compare EB, article "Joseph") proclaims that analysis to have been murder. There was a life in the story which has been ruthlessly taken, and that living soul marked the narrative as a monograph. (2) A Narrative Full of Gems. Where else is to be found such a compilation? Here is one of the most brilliant pieces of literature in the world, a narrative full of gems: (a) the account of the presentation of the brothers in the presence of Joseph when he was obliged to go out to weep (Genesis 43:26-34), and (b) the scene between the terrified brothers of Joseph and the steward of his house (Genesis 44:6-13), (c) Judah's speech (Genesis 44:18-34), (d) the touching close of the revelation of Joseph to his brothers at last (Genesis 45:1-15). The soul of the whole story breathes through all of these. Where in all literature, ancient or modern, is to be found a mere compilation that is a great piece of literature? So far removed is this story from the characteristics of a compilation, that we may challenge the world of literature to produce another monograph in narrative literature that surpasses it. (3) The Argument from Chronology Supporting It as a Monograph Then the dates of Egyptian names and events in this narrative strongly favor its origin so early as to be out of the reach of the compilers. That attempts at identification in Egyptian of names written in Hebrew, presenting as they do the peculiar difficulties of two alphabets of imperfectly known phonetic values and uncertain equivalency of one in terms of the other, should give rise to differences of opinion, is to be expected. The Egyptian equivalents of Zaphenath-paneah and Asenath have been diligently sought, and several identifications have been, suggested (Brugsch, Egypt under the Pharaohs, 122; Budge, History of Egypt, V, 126-27). That which is most exact phonetically and yields the most suitable and natural meaning for Zaphenath-paneah is by Lieblein (PSBA, 1898, 204-8). It is formed like four of the names of Hyksos kings before the time of Joseph, and means "the one who furnishes the nourishment of life," i.e. the steward of the realm. The name Asenath is found from the XIth Dynasty on to the XVIIIth. Potiphar is mentioned as an Egyptian. Why not of course an Egyptian? The narrative also points distinctly to conditions obtaining under the Hyksos kings. When the people were like to perish for want of food they promised Joseph in return for help that they would be "servants of Pharaoh" (Genesis 47:18-25). This suggests a previous antagonism to the government, such as the Hyksos kings had long to contend with in Egypt. But the revolution which drove out the Hyksos labored so effectually to eradicate every trace of the hated foreigners that it is with the utmost difficulty that modern Egyptological research has wrested from the past some small items of information concerning them. Is it credible that the editor of scraps, which were themselves not written down until some 700-800 years later, should have been able to produce such a life-story fitting into the peculiar conditions of the times of the Hyksos? Considered as an independent literary problem on its own merits, aside from any entangling necessities of the analytical theory of the Pentateuch, the Joseph story must certainly stand as a monograph from some time within distinct memory of the events it records. If the Joseph story be an independent original and a monograph, then there is in reality to be considered the story of Joseph. II. The Story of Joseph, a Biography. It is unnecessary to recount here all the events of the life of Joseph, a story so incomparably told in the Biblical narrative. It will be sufficient to touch only the salient points where controversy has raged, or at which archaeology has furnished special illumination. The story of Joseph begins the tenth and last natural division of Ge in these words: "The generations of Jacob" (Genesis 37:2). Up to this point the unvarying method of Ge is to place at the head of each division the announcement "the generations of" one of the patriarchs, followed immediately by a brief outline of the discarded line of descent, and then to give in detail the account of the chosen line. There is to be now no longer any discarded line of descent. All the sons of Jacob are of the chosen people, the depository of the revelation of redemption. So this division of Ge begins at once with the chosen line, and sets in the very foreground that narrative which in that generation is most vital in the story of redemption, this story of Joseph beginning with the words, "Joseph, being seventeen years old, was feeding the flock with his brethren" (Genesis 37:2). Joseph had been born in Haran, the firstborn of the beloved Rachel, who died at the birth of her second son Benjamin. A motherless lad among the sons of other mothers felt the jealousies of the situation, and the experience became a temptation. The "evil report" of his brethren was thus naturally carried to his father, and quite as naturally stirred up those family jealousies which set his feet in the path of his great career (Genesis 37:2-4). In that career he appears as a Bedouin prince in Canaan. 1. A Bedouin Prince in Canaan: The patriarchs of those times were all sheiks or princes of those semi-nomadic rovers who by the peculiar social and civil customs of that land were tolerated then as they are to this day under the Turkish government in the midst of farms and settled land tenure. Jacob favored Rachel and her children. He put them hindermost at the dangerous meeting with Esau, and now he puts on Joseph a coat of many colors (Genesis 37:3). The appearance of such a coat a little earlier in the decoration of the tombs of Benichassan among Palestinian ambassadors to Egypt probably indicates that this garment was in some sense ceremonial, a token of rank. In any case Joseph, the son of Jacob, was a Bedouin prince. Did the father by this coat indicate his intention to give him the precedence and the succession as chieftain of the tribe? It is difficult otherwise to account for the insane jealousy of the older brethren (Genesis 37:4). According to the critical partition of the story, Joseph's dreams may be explained away as mere reflections or adaptations of the later history of Joseph (compare PENTATEUCH). In a real biography the striking providential significance of the dreams appears at once. They cannot be real without in some sense being prophetic. On the other hand they cannot be other than real without vitiating the whole story as a truthful narrative, for they led immediately to the great tragedy; a Bedouin prince of Canaan becomes a Bedouin slave in Egypt. 2. A Bedouin Slave in Egypt: The plot to put Joseph out of the way, the substitution of slavery for death, and the ghastly device for deceiving Jacob (Genesis 37:18-36) are perfectly natural steps in the course of crime when once the brothers had set out upon it. The counterplot of Reuben to deliver Joseph reflects equally his own goodness and the dangerous character of the other brothers to whom he did not dare make a direct protest. Critical discussion of "Ishmaelites" and "Midianites" and "Medanites" presents some interesting things and many clever speculations which may well be considered on their own merits by those interested in ethnology and etymologies. Many opinions advanced may prove to be correct. But let it be noted that they arc for the most part pure speculation. Almost nothing is known of the interrelation of the trans-Jordanic tribes in that age other than the few hints in the Bible. And who can say what manner of persons might be found in a caravan which had wandered about no one knows where, or how long, to pick up trade before it turned into the northern caravan route? Until archaeology supplies more facts it is folly to attach much importance to such speculations (Kyle, The Deciding Voice of the Monuments in Biblical Criticism, 221). In the slave market in Egypt, Joseph was bought by Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh, "an Egyptian." The significant mention of this fact fits exactly into a place among the recovered hints of the history of those times, which make the court then to be not Egyptian at all, but composed of foreigners, the dynasty of Hyksos kings among whom an "Egyptian" was so unexpected as to have his nationality mentioned. Joseph's native nobility of character, the pious training he had received in his father's house, and the favor of God with him gave him such prosperity that his master entrusted all the affairs of his household to him, and when the greatest of temptations assails him he comes off victorious (Genesis 39). There is strong ground for the suspicion that Potiphar did not fully believe the accusation of his wife against Joseph. The fact that Joseph was not immediately put to death is very significant. Potiphar could hardly do less than shut him up for the sake of appearances, and perhaps to take temptation away from his wife without seeming to suspect her. It is noticeable also that Joseph's character soon triumphed in prison. Then the same Providence that superintended his dreams is leading so as to bring him before the king (Genesis 40; 41). 3. The Bedouin Slave Becomes Again the Bedouin Prince: The events of the immediately preceding history prepared Joseph's day: the Hyksos kings on the throne, those Bedouin princes, "shepherd kings" (Petrie, Hyksos and Israelite Cities), the enmity of the Egyptians against this foreign dynasty so that they accounted every shepherd an "abomination" (Genesis 46:34), the friendly relation thus created between Palestinian tribes and Egypt, the princely character of Joseph, for among princes a prince is a prince however small his principality, and last of all the manifest favor of God toward Joseph, and the evident understanding by the Pharaohs of Semitic religion, perhaps even sympathy with it (Genesis 41:39). All these constitute one of the most majestic, Godlike movements of Providence revealed to us in the word of God, or evident anywhere in history. The same Providence that presided over the boy prince in his father's house came again to the slave prince in the Egyptian prison. The interpretation of the dreams of the chief butler and the chief baker of Pharaoh (Ge 40-41:1-24) brought him at last through much delay and selfish forgetfulness to the notice of the king, and another dream in which the same cunning hand of Providence is plainly seen (Genesis 41) is the means of bringing Joseph to stand in the royal presence. The stuff that dreams are made of interests scarcely less than the Providence that was superintending over them. As the harvest fields of the semi-nomadic Bedouin in Palestine, and the household routine of Egypt in the dreams of the chief butler and the chief baker, so now the industrial interests and the religious forms of the nation appear in the dreams of Pharaoh. The "seven kine" of the goddess Hathor supplies the number of the cows, and the doubling of the symbolism in the cattle and the grain points to the two great sources of Egypt's welfare. The Providence that had shaped and guided the whole course of Joseph from the Palestinian home was consummated when, with the words, "Inasmuch as thou art a man in whom is the spirit of God," Pharaoh lifted up the Bedouin slave to be again the Bedouin prince and made him the prime minister. 4. The Prime Minister: The history of "kings' favorites" is too well known for the elevation of Joseph to be in itself incredible. Such things are especially likely to take place among the unlimited monarchies of the Orient. The late empress of China had been a Chinese slave girl. The investiture of Joseph was thoroughly Egyptian--the "collar," the signet "ring," the "chariot" and the outrunners who cried before him "Abrech." The exact meaning of this word has never been certainly ascertained, but its general import may be seen illustrated to this day wherever in the East royalty rides out. The policy adopted by the prime minister was far-reaching, wise, even adroit (Genesis 41:25-36). It is impossible to say whether or not it was wholly just, for we cannot know whether the corn of the years of plenty which the government laid up was bought or taken as a taxlevy. The policy involved some despotic power, but Joseph proved a magnanimous despot. The deep and subtle statesmanship in Joseph's plan does not fully appear until the outcome. It was probably through the policy of Joseph, the prime minister, that the Hyksos finally gained the power over the people and the mastery of the land. Great famines have not been common in Egypt, but are not unknown. The only one which corresponds well to the Bible account is that one recorded in the inscription of Baba at el Kab, translated by Brugsch. Some scarcely justifiable attempts have been made to discredit Brugsch in his account of that inscription. The monument still remains and is easily visited, but the inscription is so mutilated that it presents many difficulties. The severity of the famine, the length of its duration, the preparation by the government, the distribution to the people, the success of the efforts for relief and even the time of the famine, as far as it can be determined, correspond well to the Bible account (Brugsch, Egypt under the Pharaohs, chapter vi). The way in which such famines in Egypt come about has been explained by a movement of the sudd, a sedgelike growth in the Nile, so as to clog the upper river (Wright, Scientific Confirmations, 70-79). Joseph's brethren came "with those that came," i.e. with the food caravans. The account does not imply that the prime minister presided in person at the selling of grain, but only that he knew of the coming of his brethren and met them at the market place. The watchfulness of the government against "spies," by the careful guarding of the entrances to the land, may well have furnished him with such information. Once possessed with it, all the rest of the story of the interviews follows naturally (compare traditions of Joseph, Jewish Encyclopedia). The long testing of the brethren with the attendant delay in the relief of the father Jacob and the family (Genesis 42-45) has been the subject of much discussion, and most ingenious arguments for the justification of Joseph. All this seems unnecessary. Joseph was not perfect, and there is no claim of perfection made for him in the Bible. Two things are sufficient to be noted here: one that Joseph was ruler as well as brother, with the habits of a ruler of almost unrestrained power and authority and burdened with the necessity for protection and the obligation to mete out justice; the other that the deliberateness, the vexatious delays, the subtle diplomacy and playing with great issues are thoroughly oriental. It may be also that the perplexities of great minds make them liable to such vagaries. The career of Lincoln furnishes some curious parallels in the parleying with cases long after the great president's mind was fully made up and action taken. The time of these events and the identification of Joseph in Egypt are most vexed questions not conclusively settled. Toffteen quite confidently presents in a most recent identification of Joseph much evidence to which one would like to give full credence (Toffteen, The Historical Exodus). But aside from the fact that he claims two exodi, two Josephs, two Aarons, two lawgivers called Moses, and two givings of the law, a case of critical doublets more astounding than any heretofore claimed in the Pentateuch, the evidence itself which he adduces is very far from conclusive. It is doubtful if the texts will bear the translation he gives them, especially the proper names. The claims of Rameses II, that he built Pithom,. compared with the stele of 400 years, which he says he erected in the 400th year of King Nubti, seems to put Joseph about the time of the Hyksos king. This is the most that can be said now. The burial of Jacob is in exact accord with Egyptian customs. The wealth of the Israelites who retained their possessions and were fed by the crown, in contrast with the poverty of the Egyptians who sold everything, prepares the way for the wonderful growth and influence of Israel, and the fear which the Egyptians at last had of them. "And Joseph died, being 110 years old," an ideal old age in the Egyptian mind. The reputed burial place of Joseph at Shechem still awaits examination. 5. The Patriarch: Joseph stands out among the patriarchs in some respects with preeminence. His nobility of character, his purity of heart and life, his magnanimity as a ruler and brother Patriarch make him, more than any other of the Old Testament characters, an illustration of that type of man which Christ was to give to the world in perfection. Joseph is not in the list of persons distinctly referred to in Scripture as types of Christ--the only perfectly safe criterion--but none more fully illustrates the life and work of the Saviour. He wrought salvation for those who betrayed and rejected him, he went down into humiliation as the way to his exaltation, he forgave those who, at least in spirit, put him to death, and to him as to the Saviour, all must come for relief, or perish. LITERATURE. Commentaries on Genesis; for rabbinical literature, compare Seligsohn in Jewish Encyclopedia, some very interesting and curious traditions; Ebers, Egypten und die Bucher Moses; "The Tale of Two Brothers," RP, series I, volume II, 13746; Wilkinson-Birch, The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt. M. G. Kyle

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Propionyl-L-carnitine, also known as, Glycine Propionyl-L-Carnitine HCL is an amino acid that is produced in the body, naturally. It is related to other amino acids found in the body – the L-carnitine and the acetyl-L-carnitine. The body naturally produces propionyl-l-carnitine to help increase the blood circulation throughout the circulatory system. However, the production of propionyl-l-carnitine in the body is sometimes not enough to support every human activity, especially when they start to hit the age beyond their prime, causing problems with blood circulation. Fortunately, there is a Glycine Propionyl-L-Carnitine supplement that can help boost the circulation of blood, just like the propionyl-l-carnitine Amazon. In the medical world, the propionyl-l-carnitine is used to treat leg pain (medically known as peripheral vascular disease) due to poor blood circulation; but more than that, the drug is usually given orally or intravenously to treat: - Heart disease, including angina (chest pain), congestive heart failure (CHF), and chronic ischemic heart disease – According to the medical description, the PLC or propionyl-l-carnitine has the ability to improve the myocardial contraction and energy metabolism, providing better blood flow. - Erectile dysfunction due to poor blood circulation, diabetes, and low production of testosterone, caused by aging– Under medical supervision, the propionyl-l-carnitine is one of the safest drugs to treat ED. - Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS)– According to several medical theories, the propionyl-l-carnitine is capable of treating general fatigue, which includes chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). - Ulcerative colitis (disease of the bowels)– Medically, the propionyl-l-carnitine dispatches ulcerative colitis by enhancing the fatty-acid oxidation, which is beneficial to people with ulcerative colitis. - Peyronie’s disease (the increase of hard tissue in the penis)– It is suggested that 1 gram twice a day of propionyl-l-carnitine, or as prescribed, can slow down the progression of the Peyronie’s disease; thus, reducing the need for a certain type of surgery. To promote blood circulation, the pharmaceutical world came up with a formula that can boost the function and glycine propionyl-l-carnitine supplement – one of these is the Vitamonk’s GlycoTrax. The supplement is known for its various benefits, which is, primarily, to support the healthy flow of blood; thus, with the healthy flow of blood, it helps: • Boost the blood flow to the muscles, which helps support the muscle during a workout • Boost better blood flow to the limbs • Boost the athletic performances, including the daily performances • Supports blood circulation on aging men The propionyl-l-carnitine is medically used to treat various health problems; however, before taking any propionyl-l-carnitine medication or supplements, you should know that there are special precautions and warnings that you should take into considerations. According to healthcare professionals, the propionyl-l-carnitine should never be taken if: • Pregnant or breastfeeding • Suffers from hypothyroidism or underactive thyroid • Reported to have a history of seizure Although propionyl-l-carnitine supplements, like the GlycoTrax, is safe to use for people who are into body-building or men who want to boost their sexual health, it is still essential to talk to a physician about taking this type of supplement. VitaMonk is one of the leading companies who have been developing helpful and effective supplements throughout these years. The company’s focus is to produce nutritional supplements with clarity and transparency, which are all backed by science. This time, VitaMonk introduces MitoTrax, a supplement that supports the mitochondria and its functions. What are mitochondria? Mitochondria, known as “cell’s powerhouses”, are a form of organelle that is found in every human cell, except the red blood cells. It is where biochemical processes of energy production and cellular respiration occur. It is responsible for taking in nutrients from the cell, breaking it down, and turning it to energy. When the energy is available the ATP or adenosine triphosphate will store the energy and deliver it within the cell to help carry out its several different functions. Even though each cell contains different forms and numbers of mitochondria, the cell is still dependent on its quality and its activity. So, if the cell is targeted by pathogenic bacteria, the mitochondria’s function is compromised, known as mitochondrial dysfunction. The mitochondria and its function are critical to cell function and its survival. Fortunately, you can now support your every cell’s mitochondria with the use of MitoTrax. What is MitoTrax? MitoTrax is a carefully formulated supplement by licensed and efficient doctors to support mitochondria and its function in a natural way. The supplement is proven effective in treating mental and physical chronic fatigue, helps support healthy aging, and boosts energy for everyday activity. You really have to check this mitochondrial support supplement. Why is it effective? Thanks to the people behind the supplement, they were able to formulate a supplement that offers efficacy and safe supplement. Why is it effective? That is all because of the following key ingredient at its highest level: - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD) + Hydrogen (NADH) NAD is a coenzyme that is found in every living cell; when joined with hydrogen, the NADH becomes an effective chemical to generate energy. This is one of the reasons why you will find NADH in most supplements that boost energy and prescribed medicines when treating chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). - Co-enzyme Q10 The Co-enzyme Q10 or CoQ10 is one of the critical components in mitochondria that helps converts the energy in fatty acids and carbohydrates into ATP; with its proper functioning, the entire cells in the body are able to receive energy, enabling them to function well. If you try to boost CoQ10 production in the body, it has the ability to: • Act as antioxidants that eliminate free radicals • Prevents heart diseases • Help enhance the immune system for individuals suffering from AIDS or HIV • Help treat chronic fatigue syndrome • Reduce the levels of high cholesterol in the blood - Alpha Lipoic Acid Research has shown that ALA helps prevent cell damage (nerve and brain cells) induced by either trauma or aging. Also, it counteracts premature aging by protecting the mitochondria from oxidative stress. - L-Carnitine (ALCAR) ALCAR is known to help the body to produce enough energy; it is responsible for transporting the fatty acids into the mitochondria. Supplements like MitoTrax helps boost the ALCAR in the body, which enables easier transport of the fatty acid to the blood-brain barrier. Also, it helps nourish the mitochondria found in the brain. With the help of the four key ingredients, MitoTrax becomes an effective supplement for supporting the mitochondria and its functions. The individuals who are suffering from chronic fatigue syndrome usually feel so tired on a frequent basis. They tend to fail to do even the most basic daily activities that they are supposed to do. Despite having enough rest, the exhaustion that they feel do not just go away, and in some cases, they would feel even more tired. The women who are diagnosed with chronic fatigue syndrome or CFS are twice as many as men. The illness may last for months or a couple of years, and if left untreated, it would take many years, which can be fatal because of the risk of suicide. The causes of chronic fatigue syndrome are not known and there is no definite answer to that. A virus that may cause an overreaction of the immune system is found common among people who suffer from CFS. Some of the factors that put a person at risk for having the syndrome would include excessive anxiety or stress, illnesses that are closely related to flu, unhealthy lifestyle like a poor eating habit, and co-existing psychological conditions. The chronic fatigue syndrome can be a very stressful condition because no fixed treatment and cause to address. It is of great importance for a person to have a support system for their emotional aspect. In addition to that, the signs and symptoms of the CFS should also be handled. Some behavioral therapy will help in the treatment as well as certain medications. However, in most cases, medicines and therapies can do much worse. Fortunately, there are natural treatment options for chronic fatigue syndrome. It will be very effective along with positive outlook in life and a very healthy lifestyle. Lifestyle changes are considered to be a complementary and alternative approach towards addressing chronic fatigue syndrome. It may be a difficult and slow path to take but it is much more safe and natural. You do not have to rely too much on chemically-prepared medications. One of the activities you can do to have a healthy lifestyle is by practicing how to effectively reduce stress. The symptoms of CFS are worsened by stress, therefore, one should learn to avoid experiencing them. This can be done by practicing proper breathing exercises and undergoing yoga and meditations. Saving your energy is another way to help cope with chronic fatigue syndrome. This can be done by avoiding to do unnecessary activities or tasks. Focus on the most basic and necessary activities that you can do in a day and get enough and high-quality rest and sleep. This will allow the human body to regenerate and rejuvenate properly. The nutritional aspect is as important as exercises in battling chronic fatigue syndrome. There are some nutrients that play a very important role in helping the body to overcome the condition, such as B vitamins, essential fatty acids, minerals like magnesium and potassium, L-carnitine, and more. All of these cannot be taken in a single meal, so here’s a chronic fatigue natural treatment to help any person suffering from CFS. The kidneys serve as the natural detoxifier or purifier of the human body. It has been filtering out oxidants since it was first developed so that the blood is cleansed as it goes through the blood vessels and passes through the different vital organs of the human body. Because of its many functions, the kidneys are among the most vital organs and keeping it healthy is of great importance. Once the kidneys are damaged beyond repair, a person should undergo dialysis which may last for a lifetime or a kidney transplant, both of which are a hassle and inconvenient for the affected individual as well as his family and friends. Prevention is better than cure, they say, and it is very true when it comes to kidneys. Instead of doing all the hassle that comes with the treatment of damaged kidneys, why not take really good care of the organ from the very beginning? There are lots of things that can be done and one of these is the avoidance of certain vices, such as a bad eating habit, excessive intake of alcoholic beverages through time, as well as smoking, may it be cigarettes or tobaccos. In addition to that, the general rule to live a life with perfectly normal and healthy kidneys is by drinking enough volume of fluids, which is basically water and nothing else, daily. Moreover, a well-balanced diet that suits the environment that kidneys can work best can also do the trick. This would refer to adequate sodium-containing foods and meals that are rich in vitamins and minerals that are known to help kidneys in general. If you talk about having the necessary nutrients on a regular basis to keep the kidneys healthy, it can be quite challenging to achieve because there is no single meal in a day where all these nutrients can be obtained. However, there is at least one natural kidney health supplement for sale that contains all the necessary components that can keep the kidneys as healthy as possible and enhance its functions. Finding the health supplement for the kidneys will not be difficult because there are lots of them available in retail stores and even online. However, the challenge lies in finding the right supplement because not all of them are as effective, natural, and safe as they claim. Looking at the ingredients is one of the most effective ways to find the best natural kidney health supplement for sale. Among the ingredients, one should be able to find vitamin C. Keeping the blood pressure in normal levels is one of the main functions of the kidney, and in this case, it is important to keep the cells of the kidneys healthy. Vitamin C is important for the formation of collagen, which plays a role in the formation of healthy cells in different parts of the body, including the kidneys. Vitamin C can help repair acute and minute damages in kidneys. Aside from vitamin C, you can try to look for vitamin B12, which is vital for kidney functions, specifically in the production of red blood cells, and potassium, which affects fluid and electrolyte balance. Hyperuricemia is a condition in the body where there are high levels of uric acid present in the blood. This condition can be caused by an increase in the production of uric acid and a set back on the excretion of the acid from the kidney. Hyperuricemia can also be caused by obesity, chemotherapy, cancer, some medications, existing kidney diseases, diabetes, enzyme disorders, genes, and even poor diet. When there are high levels of uric acid in the blood, you might experience inflammation in your joints and you might suffer from extreme pain because of it. This condition is called gout. Uric acid crystals are formed and get accumulated in the joints causing it swell and ache. Patients with gout would usually suffer from attacks for a week or even longer. Numerous gout attacks and unmonitored uric acid levels could also cause tophi. Tophi is crystallized uric acid that forms under the skin. You might also experience some pain in your lower back and groin. This could mean that your kidneys are suffering from high levels of uric acid. Renal stones can be formed in the kidneys because of the excess uric acid that has accumulated and wasn’t excreted. These stones can cause vomiting, nausea, and discharge of blood through the urine. If hyperuricemia is not treated immediately, you might also experience some rapid breathing and confusion. Worst cases can lead to coma, shock, or even death. Treatment for hyperuricemia can vary on a case to case basis. However, most doctors would recommend the same type of diet and lifestyle change in order for a patient to recover faster and prevent the symptoms or related diseases from occurring again. If you are constantly experiencing any of the symptoms of hyperuricemia, your doctor would probably ask you to take some uric acid support supplement or some medication to reduce the levels of uric acid in your body. You might also be prescribed some painkillers and anti-inflammatory drugs to suppress the pain you would be feeling. Your doctor might also put you in a strict diet to help lower your uric acid. Foods that contain fiber, vitamin C and antioxidants are very effective in treating hyperuricemia. Avoid purine-rich foods, salt, sugar, alcohol, and caffeine to prevent worsening the condition. Water is very important as it would wash out unwanted substances from the body. A helpful workout plan would also be needed if you are overweight. Some exercises would also help ease the pain, especially if you have had gout attacks. You should also be diligent in following up with your doctor about your condition. You might need to take some tests as well to make sure that you have not acquired other diseases because of hyperuricemia. Have your sugar level checked, your blood pressure and also your cholesterol levels. If you are not sure whether you have high uric acid levels or not you can take a uric acid test. You can ask your doctor about taking such tests and also ask advice about preventative measures. There are lots of information and advertisements about certain products that can help anyone gain some weight effectively. The products are being offered on the market as well as online. There are hundreds, or even thousands, of these weight gain products claiming to do the job efficiently and will yield the best results. However, not all of them are as credible as what they say. Because of this, it becomes important to check on some things at the right perspective and consider certain factors before engaging with one of the various supplements available in the market nowadays. Weight gain pills or appetite stimulants are abundant nowadays and more and more people are patronizing the said product because of their capacity to help anyone gain weight swiftly. Before knowing about these amazing products, one must first learn more about appetite stimulants or weight gain pills and what exactly they can do to the human body. There are different ways for weight gain products to work and one of these is through the process of metabolism. These are the products that are manufactured for the main purpose of helping the metabolism of the human body. Some people fail to gain enough weight because of how abnormally fast their metabolism is, wherein no more fat and stored energy will be significantly left to help increase their weight. In this case, a supplement that slows down this process can be of great help. Another product that promises to help anyone gain some weight is the so-called body booster. A body booster generally works by helping the muscles of the body gain more tissues to add up to it and eventually gain the necessary weight. The main components of these products are muscle boosters, which can either be chemically or naturally prepared. Body boosters are common for those whose main purpose of gaining weight is by putting on muscles fibers and masses, such as bodybuilders. The other products for weight gain are the appetizers. One of the best ways for the human body to gain sufficient calories on a daily basis is to eat large amounts of the right foods. They can also be called appetite stimulants because their components act primarily to help improve the craving of a person for food. With the appetizer component of these products, the body would want to eat from time to time, and with the right foods, the body will accumulate the necessary calories and fats that can help gain weight. No matter how a weight gain product functions, it is important to make sure that they contain natural and safe ingredients. Appetizers can be in the form of certain vitamins and minerals that are known to boost the appetite of the taker. Aside from taking notice of the components of the product, you should also want to read on some of the feedback and reviews from actual customers as to the reputation of the manufacturer and effectiveness of the appetite stimulant. To start off, this is an appetite stimulant that you might want to consider. As similar to any other systems in our body, the nervous system has a very important role in our daily lives. It is the one responsible for recognizing every little thing that our body does that is why we identify taste, sounds, pain, etc. That is the reason why people who have unhealthy nervous systems often manifest a lot of symptoms that are hard to manage. Such include muscle spasm and tension, anxiety, tingling sensation, and vertigo. Fortunately, at the present time, there are already a lot of recommendations that can be considered when people are faced with minor nervous system problems. Although they are not permanent solutions, they help keep the system healthy for it to function more efficiently. Of course, severe damages to the system should be referred to a physician. Nonetheless, below, we have listed some of the natural ways for you to have a healthier nervous system. Use of Water Consuming a healthy amount of water will always be the best way to maintain a healthy body both internally and externally that is because it cleanses the body and promotes proper cell regeneration. In addition, when it comes to the nervous system, the proper way of using cold and hot water in bathing or showering will also help achieve nervous system balance. As per advised, rubbing the hands, shoulders, feet, groins, and torso with a cool and wet thin towel followed by wrapping them with a warm towel will be beneficial. Likewise, washing the arms with hot water in a brief manner followed by cold water is also helpful. In addition, washing the body, except the head, with warm water first and ending it with a quick exposure to cold water will also keep the nervous system healthy and active. Food and Dietary Supplements At this point, we all know that the food we eat affects our body as a whole since it is our source of nutrients. Hence, the absence or low level of nutrients in our body can be replenished or overcame by the food we eat. With regards to the nervous system, food rich in Vitamin B complex and magnesium is the one that should be targeted. Oatmeal is one of the food products that have the richest content of Vitamin B as well as those that contain baker’s yeast and bee pollen. Magnesium-rich food include green leafy vegetables, dark chocolate, seeds, potatoes, and cereals. People who cannot carefully watch and totally adjust their diets can also opt for nerve pain supplement products that are already very common today. They are items that contain the necessary nutrients needed by the nervous system. As such, they help increase the levels or replenish what have been lost or supply the ones that are not supplemented by the food you take. Whether you choose to use some of the recommendations above or consider all of them, what is essential is to always ensure that you take whatever is safe, especially for dietary supplements. Always consider brands that have good reputations and reviews. Every person in this world has or will come to a point in their lives wherein they will feel physical pain due to injuries, prolonged seating, and wrong posture, among others. That is the reason why the market is full of medications for pain like ibuprofen and acetaminophen, which are, of course, the chemical in nature. Most of the time, some of them can even be bought without prescriptions. Although these pain relievers have been used for decades and scientific studies have been conducted regarding their effectiveness, frequent use of these drugs will still pose danger to the organs of the body, especially the liver and kidneys. That is the reason why some doctors do not always prescribe high doses of such no matter how high the level of pain is. With that in regard, it is also a good thing to understand or know other remedies that can relieve pain. As such, we can have an option especially if the pain is not severe enough that needs medical attention. However, these natural remedies are not designed to completely cure the problem. They can only either manage, prevent, or both. So, if you are someone who is not fond of popping medications, the options below might be of help to you. The use of herbs in the management of pain has long been used even before medicine has been discovered. This is the use of plants that normally grow in the forest or even in your backyard. They are often made into a tea by boiling their leaves, roots, or both. The concoction is then drunk in a concentrated form. Nowadays, they can be even found in powder or tea bag forms as well as added to pain relief supplement products and ointments, creams, and topical oil. Some of which include turmeric, ginseng, chamomile, mango, and ginger. These herbs, according to experts, can work because they contain anti-inflammatory compounds. Scientifically speaking, inflammation is one of the triggering factors of pain and they can even worsen it. Thus, these herbs can lessen the feeling of pain or can manage it completely upon consumption. Massage techniques have also long been used in helping manage pain like tension headaches, neck pain, osteoarthritis, and fibromyalgia. However, such can only be effective and safe when done by professionals since there might be veins, muscles, or tendons that might be affected if the procedure is done wrong. The thing with massage is that it is able to promote or stimulate the release the natural painkillers present in our body which is serotonin and endorphins. The practice of yoga is actually more mental and spiritual in nature but is now being used for weight loss purposes. However, little do we know that there are yoga poses that can help reduce or remove back pain. This may be owed to the fact that proper posture is being achieved and practiced or the ability of the yoga to promote stress relief. The natural remedies for pain might still need a lot of scientific studies in order to provide us with conclusive evidence. Nonetheless, since these have been used for years, trying them out will not cause you an arm or leg. Wellness is essential, however, in this stress-laden world, keeping a healthy body has become more challenging. Most people are living a sedentary lifestyle since they are focused more on their work. In addition, many are practicing unhealthy dietary habits. They prefer to eat fast foods, excessive carbohydrates, sweets and fatty foods instead of filling their platter with greens and fruits. And, these habits are heading towards a single road that is obesity. The effects of obesity brought by unhealthy lifestyle are apparent. It is evident with the number of individuals suffering the disorders associated with this condition such as heart problems, diabetes, and hypertension. Do you want to live a life with no worries from diseases? Then, now is the right time to change your lifestyle and leave your unhealthy habits. Choose to live healthily! There is various approaches to attain a toned body, lose weight and eradicate fats. Your options range from natural method to surgical procedures. But if you want the fastest method without forsaking your safety, then do the natural means. The first step towards achieving a healthy body is through regular exercises. If you are not fond of physical activities, this method might be a little distasteful to you. But once your body gets used to it, working out would come easy and surprisingly, an enjoyable habit. Exercising helps your body to burn fats and calories stored in your body. Likewise, it improves the endurance of your heart and supports in developing various muscles in your body. Any type of exercise is good for your health, whether it is playing sports, dancing or hiking. Thus, it is best to choose a physical activity that suits your condition and interests you. The next step to keep your body’s wellness is to eat nutritious foods. It is a general fact that eating healthy foods is the key to longer life. You are already aware of which food group is healthy and which is not. However, most people, even you, can’t help to eat unhealthy foods despite this knowledge. Then, how can you prevent yourself from craving for fatty foods and sweets? You can purchase a good natural appetite suppressant to help you watch your diet. An appetite suppressant is a dietary supplement that supports you in keeping in control of your eating habits. As the name suggests, this type of supplement suppresses your hunger and prevents yourself from eating a lot of foods, including the ones you should avoid. If you are practicing intermittent dieting, this medication is the best support you can have, since it conceals hunger while keeping your body energized. Hunger Smack by Vitamonk is the number one natural appetite suppressant today. This dietary supplement consists of natural ingredients known for regulating calories consumption. Hunger Smack contains Garcinia Cambogia, an herb used for losing weight and controlling diet, and Chromium, a natural compound that treats unhealthy eating patterns. Staying fit and losing weight has never been this easy. Grab this opportunity to boost your wellness and be in shape. You can check out Amazon’s official website for more info on Hunger Smack by Vitamonk. Have you ever heard of herbs for dogs? You are probably wondering if it is possible for dogs to take herbal medications since most of the herbal products produced are for human consumption. So, how is it possible? According to the animal experts, several wild animals would find herbs to treat themselves for injuries and various diseases. Long before, humans had discovered that herbal plants can be used to treat their pets’ diseases or boost their immune system. Nature had already taught them how to live and survive the wild. One of the most known herbs that have a huge impact on the dog’s health is using “milk thistles”. If you are looking for herbs that will help your dogs’ liver problem, you can count on milk thistle products for dogs. What is a milk thistle for dogs? According to the medical description, milk thistles are known liver herb for both humans and pets. It contains important flavonoid compound known as “silymarin”, which is also a combination of numerous active compounds. Silymarin is a known safe and effective treatment for various liver problems. It protects the liver from toxins. It helps activate the protein synthesis and helps stimulate the growth of new liver cells. It acts as an effective antioxidant which is the reasons why several veterinarians are using thistle to treat liver problems with dogs. Below are other important uses of milk thistle products for dogs: 1. Treats liver problems and other related disease • Tumors in liver • Chronic inflammation of liver such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, and more • Fatty Liver 2. Helps treat and prevent kidney damage Studies showed that milk thistles can also treat and prevent various kidney disorders due to toxic effects from potent drugs. Dogs may suffer from diabetes too. In fact, according to a recent study, 32 percent from 2.1 million dogs are suffering diabetes mellitus. Sadly, this disease is unrecognizable and can only be discovered from a routine bloodwork. Although, dogs or cats may show some symptoms such as abnormal hunger or thirst, frequent urination, and noticeable weight loss, still, several pet owners think it is normal. Milk thistles can also help dogs with diabetes and can act as insulin that helps regulate the blood sugar. Dogs, cats, and other pets can take herbal products too. These may help treat various diseases or help boost the immune system of dogs like what milk thistles do. Milk thistles are widely used by several veterinarians because it is safe and effective too.

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The Catholic Church has its system of laws, under an Apostolic Constitution known as the Code of Canon Law, and while my preference is for a society that is secular,I am not opposed, in principle, to religion, just as I am not opposed to the expression of Catholic principles in politics. Most of all, in the political sphere I do believe that Catholic principles should be understood, even by non-Catholics, so that as Catholics and non-Catholics alike work out a healthy relationship between individual faith and political action, non-Catholics or the secularly-inclined can understand where Catholics are coming from. Catholicism is a hierarchical religion, and administratively, organized under imperial Roman lines, one of the Pope’s titles being that of Supreme Pontiff (Pontifex Maximus), one of the titles of the emperors of Rome; archbishops and bishops rule of over dioceses, a term borrowed from the administrative setup of the Roman empire. Spiritually, it is organized on both a hierarchical and collegial lines, as bishops are successors of the Apostles, of whom the first among equals was Peter: As a religion that happens to have a government, the governing power of Catholicism is exercised by the Pope in a political sense (as sovereign of the Vatican City state), and in a spiritual sense, by the Pope together with the bishops. In matters of faith and morals, the Pope is infallible when proclaiming dogma: for example, Pius XII’s proclamation of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin as dogma; infallibility is also granted the hierarchy of the Church when they gather in Ecumenical Council for the same purpose, for example, most recently, Vatican II. Within their dioceses, bishops, too, have the supreme authority when it comes to matters of faith and morals. Much of Canon Law is devoted to maintaining the authority and privileges of hierarchy, and in enumerating both the powers and responsibilities of the governing authorities of Catholicism as well as accompanying grievance mechanisms (appeals, tribunals, punishments and so forth). The question of Cardinal Vidal’s instructions to the clergy of his diocese, should then be viewed in the context of the Cardinal’s powers as Archbishop of Cebu, the justifications for wielding those powers, and whether they were an abuse or within his authority to order; and its implications for Catholics. Because of the cultivation of the episcopacy by the administration (an unprecedented religious affairs office, with presidential assistants ministering to the needs of the hierarchy), a partisan and not just political dimension has emerged in the goings-on among the hierarchy. See God and Gloria in the Asia Times: That’s in part because Arroyo has deftly played the religion card. The Philippines is a predominantly Catholic country and senior bishops have in the past flexed their moral authority to affect political outcomes, including elections and crucial laws and legislation. But a series of controversial incidents, many involving financial links to Arroyo’s administration, has called the clergy’s own legitimacy into question. Nueva Vizcaya Bishop Ramon Villena recently admitted in a newspaper report that the Philippine Charity Sweepstakes Office (PCSO), the lottery run by the Office of the President, had given him 1.6 million pesos (US$39,000) to build a hospital for the poor in his home province. However, the total assistance given to Villena’s province, according to the report, was 3.2 million pesos. The report also showed that the Catholic Church-run Radio Veritas received more than 2 million pesos in ad placements from the PCSO, which while not necessarily a new development, represented a huge increase in the amount of government funds doled out for similar initiatives in the past. “That gifts or money would blind the eyes of bishops and seal their lips to gross corruption when solidly proven would be a tragic contradiction to their experience as pastors at Edsa I and Edsa II,” said Cotabato Archbishop Orlando Quevedo, a former CBCP president, referring to the clergy’s participation in past people’s power movements which overthrew corrupt governments. The CBCP’s current president, Lagdameo, while quiet on previous scandals involving Arroyo and despite the issuance of carefully worded joint CBCP statements, has personally attacked the embattled premier since the ZTE scandal broke out. Two of his statements called on the people to engage in “communal action” and get involved in a “brand new people power”, which was interpreted by many as calling for a new people’s power movement. Lagdameo’s statements were strongly criticized by pro-Arroyo bishops. Before Lagdameo took the CBCP’s helm, its previous leader, Fernando Capalla, was a personal friend to Arroyo. Church insiders say that Capalla, who also sat as one of the government’s peace negotiators in talks with Muslim secessionists, was frequently escorted by presidential guards from the airport whenever he flew into Manila. It was thus notable, some say, that during Capalla’s tenure when explosive vote-rigging charges against Arroyo broke that the bishops did not support calls for her resignation or impeachment. When a government agent who claimed responsibility for wiretapping a conversation between Arroyo and a senior election official in 2004 in which the two appear to have predetermined vote counts for various constituencies across the country took refuge at a Manila seminary, Cardinal Gaudencio Rosales ordered that he be turned over to the military. Rosales, who is a relative to one of Arroyo’s closest aides, has admitted in press interviews that he has received a 1 million peso donation from the Presidential Palace for his various livelihood projects targeting Manila’s poor populations. As successor to the incorruptible Cardinal Sin, many Filipinos have looked on Rosales to be a strong voice against government abuse. Cebu Archbishop Ricardo Cardinal Vidal, who was the CBCP’s president when the clergy called for a civil disobedience campaign after Marcos rigged the results of 1986 snap elections against Corazon Aquino, has likewise shot down calls for the clergy to endorse Arroyo’s resignation. Despite his key role in orchestrating Marcos’ ouster, the senior clergyman has said a declaration against Arroyo is beyond the clergy’s authority and should be left to the political opposition. The Cardinal Archbishop of Cebu’s moderate statements have put him in the line of fire. Cardinal Vidal faced questioning (see Vidal-GMA ‘secret meet’: Public asked not to make conclusion and Cardinal explains ‘secret meeting’) on whether he met the President at Wack-Wack and His Eminence told the press, But in an interview with reporters yesterday, Cardinal Vidal narrated that he went to Tagaytay from a meeting in Rome. He then came home to Cebu but had to go again to Manila the following day to officiate at the marriage of “a big benefactor” of the Alliance of Two Hearts Parish. “It just so happened that I was there. The house (I stayed in) is overlooking Wack-Wack. There’s a balcony there. While waiting for a (fellow archbishop) to join me for a mass, I was there (on the balcony). From afar, I could be seen easily but I did not notice them (the First Couple). Beyond the fence, there is a road and it seems that she (Arroyo) saw me but I didn’t see her,” said Vidal. He added that President Arroyo, who was golfing with her husband, called the house and told him that she would be passing by to say hello. “Imagine, the President of the Philippines visiting me. But I didn’t give her any spiritual advice. It was not the proper time to do so. She (President Arroyo) did not stay long. It was not a business meeting. Otherwise, I would not say anything about it,” the archbishop explained. However, he did manage to grab the opportunity to tell the President about the plight of public school teachers, for fear that he might forget to do so in the future. “I told her that I remembered she once asked me for some programs for the poor. (I told her) to please help our teachers and their transactions with the Government Service Insurance System. Do something about it so that our teachers will not be forced to moonlight. She promised she will check on it. According to her, there are half a million teachers from all over the country. Help them because they are among the poor employees of the government,” Cardinal Vidal said. He added that cardinals also passed by Malacañang and when asked what they talked about, “We just said hi, hello and goodbye.” The “hi, hello and goodbye” in what some prelates how come to call “The Diocese of Malacañang,” didn’t amuse bloggers like The Mount Balatucan Monitor: First, Cardinal Vidal prohibit the priest in his diocese to join in a signature campaign by the Dilaab Foundation in search for truth. Second, after a concelebrated mass, Cardinal Vidal said Lozada is no hero. “Why do we have to make him a hero?” he said in an interview with reporters. Third, the priest who is supposed to celebrate a mass for truth for Jun Lozada in Cebu today backed out. According to Sr. Estrella Castalone, executive secretary of the Association of Major Religious Superiors (AMRSP), “the priest has received orders not to celebrate the Mass, so we had to resort to an interfaith prayer.” Now who ordered the priest to back out? Who is the highest Catholic Church official in the Archdiocese of Cebu where the buck would stop? In contrast, Cardinal Vidal allowed Presidential Management Staff Chief Cerge Remonde to attend the recollection of the priest in his diocese. He even allowed Cerge to discuss the NBN/ZTE controversy during the recollection and distribute a primer on the issue. Recently, Cardinal Vidal was reported to have met with the First Couple in Wack Wack early this month… Which brings us to the point of whether the Cardinal Archbishop of Cebu, from a Catholic point of view, was using his powers in a proper way, for the good of his flock. Ostensibly, the concern of bishops is that the Mass is being used for partisan political purposes. A Philippine Star report puts it this way: Speaking over Catholic Church-run Radyo Veritas, Archbishop of Nueva Caceres Leonardo Legaspi said he had prohibited priests in his archdiocese from allowing churches to be used as venue for political discussions. “I don’t have a problem if they want to stage a rally since it’s the right of every Catholic to express his or her chosen political decision,” he said. “What I don’t want is for Masses to be used for that. I also don’t allow that here.” Legaspi said he had issued the order to priests in the Archdiocese of Nueva Caceres so they would not allow themselves to be used in political rallies. “For me, they should not use Masses to attract crowds for their cause,” he said. “Masses are not meant for that. You are degrading the solemnity of Masses. It’s really painful to see the Mass, priests and nuns, and even bishops being used for that.” Legaspi said Church law prohibits the use of the Mass to attract crowds in advancing political interests. “The level of politics is way below the reason for holding Mass,” he said. “If you allow Mass to be used in politicking, you degrade its value and solemnity.” Legaspi said he has the prerogative to impose disciplinary action on priests and nuns who would violate his order. “That is the prerogative of the bishop since he is the pastor of the faithful in his diocese,” he said. As Archbishop Leonardo Legaspi goes, so goes Cardinal Archbishop Vidal: they are concerned over the “politicizing” of the Mass, and don’t shrink from exercising their pastoral authority (see Lozada runs into trouble with Catholic prelates). Except that while the worst that can be said of Legaspi is that his insistence on awaiting the truth will be an eternal one, Vidal’s non-partisanship is seriously in doubt. And there is the corresponding example of (not my favorite prelate, either)Gaudencio Cardinal Rosales, who lets priests say mass for the President, her family and the Lakas-Kampi coalition, and for anyone else on the other side of the political divide. The Catholic hierarchy prefers to be nebulous rather than risk being active political players (see Patricio P. Diaz’s summary of episcopal opinions). By so doing, as Amando Doronila points out, the hierarchy makes itself vulnerable to divide-and-conquer tactics: The lack of solidarity in the hierarchy and an authoritative direction from the highest ecclesiastical leadership, represented by the Archbishop of Manila, Cardinal Rosales, on the question of whether to support street campaigns to remove the President has allowed the government to deepen the divisions in the hierarchy to play the opposing tendencies against one another and has caused administration critics to charge the hierarchy with being soft on the government, with its series of pastoral letters straddling the fence on what political action to take on the issues raised by the corruption scandals. But with regards to the individual decisions of individual prelates, in denying permission for Masses for Lozada, have they then imposed spiritual sanctions on Lozada and his supporters? Oddly enough, the Vatican (and thus, definitive) online version of the Code of Canon Law has no links to the section that I believe is relevant, but another site has it, so here it is: Code of Canon Law, Book VI Part II: Penalties for Particular Offenses. Under its provisions, the Church first of all, states it has the right to punish members of the faith who commit violations of the principles of the Church. The list of offenses is meant to serve as a deterrent to breaches of faith,and corresponding penalties for offenses as well as their remedies, to bring back erring members of the flock back into the fold. In general, a penalty is not binding until someone actually commits a crime under Canon Law; but it is binding the moment the crime is committed, regardless of whether anyone witnesses it or states that a violation has taken place. At the same time, the Code of Canon Law is replete with exhortations to those holding authority not to be too free and easy about handing down penalties, and lists many exceptions to the rules, or what we would call mitigating circumstances that ought to be taken into account in determining the committing of crimes and corresponding punishments. The gravest punishment under Canon Law, is excommunication, followed by interdict. An excommunication forbids the sacraments to a Catholic; an interdict can apply both to an individual or a group of Catholics. When Nun questions priests’ refusal to celebrate Mass for Lozada, a legitimate question was being asked of the authorities. Basically, even if Canon Law isn’t being brought up, the question is whether Lozada has been effectively excommunicated or an interdict imposed on his person or wherever he may be -or when he is within the limits of a particular diocese. And then the question arises whether such sanctions have been imposed in defense of the faith or as a last ditch effort to preserve the authority of prelates whose own clergy and flocks have turned against them or stopped looking to them for guidance in terms of faith and morals. I can think of one blogger who could give a definitive answer to these questions –Scriptorium– but alas, he is on indefinite leave from blogging. But maybe he’ll take a look at this entry and sort out the real issues from a Catholic point of view. Let me close by republishing a recent editorial from The Forward, the school newspaper of San Jose Recoletos Cebu (I have been very impressed by these kids, as I’ve mentioned before: see my column, The future’s bright): FORWARD 2nd Semester 2007-2008 (released March 13) The young are not indifferent. This is the message we can draw from the rallies of some schools in Manila (University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University, etc.) in the fight against moral bankruptcy of the Philippine government. On this picture, one might ponder:are the actions of the young from Manila or Luzon enough manifestation that they are really hard at work for change? This is no issue of regionalism but an assessment of whether or not the totality of the new breed of Filipinos has gone a notch more radical. In the EDSA 1, we witnessed (in our history books,etc.) the involvement of the young in Luzon, Visayas, or MIndanao. Notably, it was because of the shocks of the imposition of Martial Law that everyone felt curtailed and pushed to their limits. Then, Erap’s administration came with excessive corruption and ‘ended’ with the controversial unopened during the impeachment proceeding. The young took in ferreting out the truth and had it exposed in the open. Here in Cebu and some parts of the Visayas, there were rallies. Mindanao for sure had also echoed their cries. And as expected, EDSA 2 overtook in liberating the country again from the hands of a corrupt president. Among the frontliners in EDSA 2 were the young in Manila. Now, it is Arroyo’s administration that is emperiled. This latest scandal hounding her administration fits well as a sequel to “Hello Garci”, “fertilizer scam”, “cash gifts” to politicians – episodes that have become box office operas on TV. Now, public’s attention is focused on the ZTE scandal and the “heroic” end of ZTE NBN deal star witness Rodolfo Noel “Jun” Lozada. Lozada is well supported by the civil society, religious sectors, youth groups, etc. He was a close friend of former National Economic Development Authority Director General Romulo Neri. Neri, on the other hand, first answered the queries of the Senate Blue Ribbon Committee about the ZTE scandal but the public was dismayed when he invoked Executive Order 164 (requiring “all heads of departments of the Executive Branch of the government” to “secure the consent of the President prior to appearing before House of Congress”). With the fearless Lozada and the reserved Neri, the country – including the young – calls for a probable people power to know the truth again. FORWARD wants to passionately reply to the query of PDI columnist Mr. Manuel L. Quezon III through SMS, regarding what the public feels and how it reacts to Lozada’s revelation. But Cebuanos seem to take on the issue in a different way. So, we say in this piece, that the Cebuanos, particularly the young, respond through freedom of expression make manifest in the campus press, debates, and classroom discussions. But the question is: does it effect change? On the other hand, we ask: does people power really provide us a better change? Arroyo is a by-product of people power. If she would be ousted by the same force that made her president, the message is clear: people power wields power more than the due process does. Whether this idea is something good or bad, it’s the people who must be able to figure it out. We say the young Cebuanos’ physical silence may mean two things:they are discerning on what proper actions to take or the choose not to take part at all. Incidentally, concerning “those who choose not to take part at all”, Thirtysomething v4.3 has an interesting entry on Dante’s Inferno, and the place in Hell reserved for those who profess neutrality “at a time of great moral decision”: In relation to the subject, I tried to verify it it was indeed Dante who once said that “The hottest places in Hell are reserved for those who in time of moral crisis preserve their neutrality.” I found out that it was not a direct quote, but rather, the late U.S. President John F. Kennedy’s interpretation of one of the passages of the “Divine Comedy.” In the Inferno, Dante and his guide Virgil, on their way to Hell, pass by a group of dead souls outside the entrance to Hell. These individuals, when alive, remained neutral at a time of great moral decision. Virgil explains to Dante that these souls cannot enter either Heaven or Hell because they did not choose one side or another. They are therefore worse than the greatest sinners in Hell because they are repugnant to both God and Satan alike, and have been left to mourn their fate as insignificant beings neither hailed nor cursed in life or death, endlessly travailing below Heaven but outside of Hell. This scene occurs in the third canto of the Inferno… Contrasting views in the blogosphere: In support of Cardinal Vidal, from Lost in Oblivion and An Angel Lost in Hell. Critical commentary from Ipadayag! and After All and The Mount Balutacan Monitor. On the other hand, Tingog.com simply pays tribute to the alma mater. Returning to Scriptorium, an excellent explanation of the difference between the corruption of the old days and the corruption of today (highlighted in similar terms in the Inquirer editorial Hacenderos). In 1953 when Magsaysay ran for president, his campaign song had the lyrics “no more graft or ten percent, if Magsaysay’s president!” while by 2006, the “acceptable limits” of graft, according to Romulo Neri, was twenty percent. As Scriptorium points out in Why I miss old-fashioned corruption (a Philippine satire), and which reminds readers its satirical but the best satire is built on truth (hence, a non-satirical piece but one full of truths, the supreme apologia of the pragmatic politician, George Washington Plunkitt’s explanation of the difference between Honest Graft and Dishonest Graft): In the past month, the Philippines has been convulsed again by the scandal over the ZTE-NBN contract. The controversy has pitted the Arroyo Dictatorship against a motley alliance of the idealist intelligentsia and “reformed” sinners, with bishops uncertainly in the middle trying to counsel accountability to the former and moderation to the latter. It’s all somewhat surreal, but I think the controversy merely manifests the presence of a far more massive iceberg beneath. That iceberg is sometimes called the collapse of public ethics in the Philippines. In some ways related to the concurrent decline of private ethics, it is characterized by the systemic removal of all the controls of decency and propriety that once held corruption in check. However, it’s not my intention here to delve into the higher ethics of the matter, but only into its lower ethical dimension of practicality; for the problem, pragmatically speaking, is the rampant inflation, even the hyperinflation, of the cost of government bribery. In short, to use Friedman’s dangerous generalizations, we are ceasing to be an “Asian-type” crony-state, and are becoming a predatory state on the “African” model. We see this most starkly when we compare the present with the past, what we might call Contemporary and Historic Philippines. Historic Philippines was characterized by customary controls on abuse and rapacity. No one begrudged an official the act of skimming a little money off the common weal, since a public servant deserved a little bonus for serving the common good. What’s more, his poorest constituents saw him not only as administrator but as surrogate father, the parens of their many little patriae, and they depended on him to feed their hungry and to pay for their funerals, celebrations, medical treatments, emergencies, housing and whatnot. Woe to the official who did not honor his duties as patron; and since this was a staggering personal obligation for his pocket, it was understood that he would necessarily borrow from the public treasury to thus serve the public need. What we might now call graft and corruption was, therefore, in those days not merely inevitable, but necessary. It was also honorable, for the dominance of quasi-ethical concepts like amor proprio (personal honor), patronazgo (responsibility to the needy), delicadeza (decorum), and palabra de honor (inviolability of promises) meant that bribery had to be hidden from view, moderate in amount, stable in value, and calculated to not radically prejudice public service. Also, the formal morality that was honored by law and canonized by religion militated against selfish profit, which thus had to be moderated lest it reach scandalous proportions. This was hypocrisy as a fine art; for if it trysted with the occasional corruption, hypocrisy at least honored morality as a revered spouse, and feared social ostracism for its abandonment. In Contemporary Philippines, on the other hand, the customary controls are lost, and the moderating influence of hypocrisy and hellfire is but a dim memory. When a certain First Lady allegedly demanded 10% for public contracts it was an earthshaking affront to the customary laws; but with today’s breathtaking 100+% kickbacks, society scarcely yawns, and feels content to buy peace by letting the bribing go on till 2010. And this is not a mere phenomenon at the summit; it rears its evil head at every level of social government, even to the barangays that will not renew a permit without compounded gifts. And the opportunities are multiplying, with the grant of massive revenue-making powers to local executives, and nullity for psychological incapacity enacted as a bonanza for judges and prosecutors. The decay is shocking. Whereas hypocrisy once honored delicadeza by keeping bribes low and quiet, today’s corruption is garapalan, reaching dizzying heights of rates and ostentation. The idealized model of a Magsaysay, who reimbursed the government for meals served to his friends, has been replaced by that of officials serving Petrus to allies and flying their extended families on junkets to Europe; and nobody cares who notices that expensive suites are hired in Las Vegas for Manny Pacquiao’s fights by moderately paid officials and/or their spouses. On lower levels, a judge and his sheriff won’t issue TROs for less than half-a-million; and a mayor in Southern Luzon demands 20% of the gross capitalization of a project before he approves it, the good of his constituents be damned. Gone too is hypocrisy’s respect for palabra de honor. In the good old days, officials had the decency to stay bribed, and their promises once sold were durable, but today a judge or commissioner will abandon a side in a case at the mere hint of a better offer, and the PBACs of the several agencies are become unreliable. Hence, getting contracts and favorable rulings are increasingly a matter of continuous competitive bidding, forcing the client to pay more for bribe security, which even then is rarely absolute. A member of a powerful commission changes his already sold vote upon getting a brown valise; and a prosecutor who gets a bribe for himself and his boss pockets all the money with nary a care. Such is treachery, such is dishonor! At least in non-adversarial proceedings like those before the revenue agencies, there remains some stability: the going rate for examiners, collectors, and revenue district officers is fixed by custom, and investors in big contracts can preemptively get favorable Rulings or Orders for a mere P100,000.00. Even there, however, costs are rising, especially in licensing: The average building permit today costs twice what it did merely 10 years ago, and franchises for transport are so expensive that it’s cheaper to just go colorum (illegal) and pay off the policeman. If you’re in Manila, however, pray that it’s a policeman who arrests you: cops are reasonable and will lower their demands if you show good cause, but MMDA enforcers show little mercy, and won’t even honor the time-honored custom of haggling. Where has decency gone? Some mayors at least still provide exemplary social services, and their old-fashioned corruption is seen as a forgivable continuation of the old ways of patronage, but many executives now treat their constituents not as clients to be cared for but as cash cows to be brutally squeezed. Few still care for the obligations of patronazgo, or for the old partnership of public good and private gain; now the Philippines is becoming an materialist-individualist paradise where religious sanction and social shame mean almost nothing. Hypocrisy for the sake of amor proprio is overthrown; our republic is now the openly rapacious kingdom of sin verguenza. All this has resulted in a hyperinflation in the corruption market, as demand for bribes outstrips diminishing supply, forcing officials to have recourse to foreign government suppliers. The macroeconomic effects would no doubt be shocking if they are quantified. Foreign direct investment is fleeing to countries with lower corruption rates, where bribes are low enough the escape the half-lidded eye of the FCPA, and the field is left to crony capitalists insulated by their influence from the inflation, and legitimate investors and wage-earners who must bear all of the burden. The cost of business is spiking, and it may soon become so high as to make profit, and therefore salaries to proletariat and salariat alike, impossible. The bull of the bribe market must therefore be brought under control, for it has indulged its exuberance too irrationally and too long. It is the task of leaders to regulate corruption and temper selfishness, and they must do so by restoring the customary controls. Is it any surprise that the opposition is now led by advocates of the old order of decently decorous corruption, calling on leaders to moderate their greed? A few choice convictions of dispensable allies would be a good start, provided they are not later stoppered with cynical pardons, since they would at least discourage outright pillage, and show that the customary laws are still respected. That would suffice to tell officials: No more! Too much! (I won’t add “Get out!” lest I be accused of sedition.) But we must act soon. Let the overheated bribe market continue and it will destroy the customary controls entirely: hyperinflation destroyed the general economy of Weimar, and look what that did to the rule of law? Public ethics must be restored to its ancient equilibrium between gain and service, decency and hypocrisy, for if not, then we will see in the Philippines the same events that followed the replacement of the ancien regime and its customary controls with the all-corrupt Directory, or of the Manchus with the Kuomintang: specifically, the rule of military tyrants (as prophesied by Edmund Burke in the case of France). The freedom to bribe must therefore become once again an ordered freedom, lest all freedom be completely lost. The thing is, I have heard similar views expressed, in all seriousness, by expats who find no difference between the cupidity of Filipino and say, Malaysian or Indonesian, Vietnamese or African officials except the lack of tidiness and predictability when it comes to the Filipino officials (except in Cebu, where the bribery is methodical: everything gets done, but your choice is whether to pay a premium to expedite the processing of licenses, etc., a system such expats hold superior to the rapaciousness and inefficiency they encounter down the line everywhere else, it seems). Then, the Inquirer editorial today. Trivial pursuits, focuses on the Commission on Appointments and the controversies concerning its rules. As in all things, ever wondered why the phrase, “moderate the greed,” has resonated so much with people from all walks of life? It’s the cornerstone of our traditional culture: the idea that human vices must, at least, be moderated.

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There’s some ambiguity when it comes to quantum mechanics. Some people apply the term widely, others apply it to the theory that was developed in the 1920s to replace the old quantum theory. There’s some ambiguity with that too, in that the old quantum theory was primarily an atomic model proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913 and extended by Arnold Sommerfeld in 1916. It didn’t include the quantum nature of light, which arguably began with Max Planck’s black-body paper in 1900. Or with Albert Einstein’s photoelectric paper in 1905. Bohr didn’t agree with the quantum nature of light, and was still arguing about it in the early 1920s. He was proven wrong, and the old quantum theory was replaced by a new quantum theory which included aspects of an even older quantum theory. As for what it’s called, Max Born called it quantum mechanics, so that will do for me. As for when this quantum mechanics began, it’s hard to say. Wolfgang Pauli was talking about the Bohr magneton in 1920. Arthur Compton was talking about electron spin in his paper the magnetic electron in 1921. He referred to the Parson electron or magneton which featured a rotation with a “peripheral velocity of the order of that of light”. Compton said “we may suppose with Nicholson that instead of being a ring of electricity, the electron has a more nearly isotropic form”. The Stern-Gerlach experiment was performed in 1922. It demonstrates that “particles possess an intrinsic angular momentum that is closely analogous to the angular momentum of a classically spinning object, but that takes only certain quantized values”. 1922 was also when Arthur Compton discovered what’s now known as Compton scattering. Peter Debye was doing similar work at much the same time, so it’s sometimes referred to as the Compton-Debye effect. But see Compton’s 1923 paper A Quantum Theory of the Scattering of X-rays by Light Elements. The scattered X-rays had an increased wavelength, and the increase in the wavelength depended on the scattering angle. The results matched a model wherein one light quantum interacted with one electron: Image from Rod Nave’s hyperphysics Compton had demonstrated the quantum nature of light. See his Nobel lecture for a nice slice of history. He described how X-rays were once thought to be comprised of “streams of little bullets called ‘neutrons’”, and weren’t thought to be a form of light. But then he referred to Barkla and Stenström and others, and said “it would take a bold man indeed to suggest, in light of these experiments, that they differ in nature from ordinary light”. X-rays were light. But “to account for the change in wavelength of the scattered rays, however, we have had to adopt a wholly different picture of the scattering process, as shown in Fig. 9. Here we do not think of the X-rays as waves but as light corpuscles, quanta, or, as we may call them, photons”. Light has a wavelength, but emission is directed. The energy of light is discontinuously distributed in space, as energy quanta which move without dividing. Einstein was right. Light consists of photons. The wave nature of matter Another important step took place in 1923 when Louis de Broglie sent a letter to Nature on waves and quanta. He said he’d ”been able to show that the stability conditions of the trajectories in Bohr’s atom express that the wave is tuned with the length of the closed path”. His thesis followed in 1924. See the English translation by Al Kracklauer. It’s on the theory of quanta, and it includes a useful historical survey. De Broglie referred to Christiaan Huygens and his undulatory theory of light, and to Isaac Newton and his corpuscular theory of light. He also said when Augustin-Jean Fresnel developed his “beautiful” elastic theory of light propagation, Newton’s ideas lost credibility. De Broglie then talked about Max Planck and the energy exchange between resonator and radiation taking place in integer multiples of hν. He talked about Einstein and the photoelectric effect, saying Einstein instinctively understood that one must consider the corpuscular nature of light. He referred to his brother Maurice De Broglie along with Rutherford and Ellis and said photo-electric studies “have further substantiated the corpuscular nature of radiation”. But he also referred to von Laue, Debye, and W L Bragg and said “the wave picture can also point to successes”. He referred to Compton too, and said “the time appears to have arrived, to attempt to unify the corpuscular and undulatory approaches”. Bohr-de Broglie atom by Kenneth Snelson De Broglie said “the fundamental idea pertaining to quanta is the impossibility to consider an isolated quantity of energy without associating a particular frequency to it”. And that the phase-wave concept permits explanation of Einstein’s condition. He also said propagation is analogous to a liquid wave in a closed channel, wherein the length of the channel was resonant with the wave. And that this can be applied to the closed circular Bohr orbits in an atom. De Broglie was talking about corpuscles and phase waves, but saying “a corpuscle and its phase wave are not separate physical realities”. That doesn’t seem to square with what people say about pilot waves. However that’s perhaps because he “left the definitions of phase waves and the periodic phenomena for which such waves are a realization, as well as the notion of a photon, deliberately vague”. That’s a shame, but nevertheless he’d planted a seed. The Pauli exclusion principle Meanwhile in 1924 Wolfgang Pauli proposed a fourth quantum number to explain the anomalous Zeeman effect. See Wolfgang Pauli announces the exclusion principle written by Ernie Tretkoff in 2007. Pauli had spent a year in Copenhagen with Bohr, and later said “the question, as to why all electrons for an atom in its ground state were not bound in the innermost shell, had already been emphasized by Bohr as a fundamental problem in his earlier works”. Also see the Wikipedia Pauli exclusion principle article, which says he found an essential clue in a 1924 paper by Edmund Stoner. This led Pauli to realize that the numbers of electrons in closed shells can be simplified to one electron per state, provided electron states were defined using the three existing quantum numbers plus a new two-valued fourth state. In early 1925 Pauli wrote a paper on the connexion between the completion of electron groups in an atom with the complex structure of spectra. That’s where he said cases are excluded “where both electrons have m1 = ½ or both have m1 = -½; rather, we can only have m1 = ½ for the first electron and m1 = -½ for the second electron”. The Pauli exclusion principle was born. Pauli later said “physicists found it difficult to understand the exclusion principle, since no meaning in terms of a model was given”. But he also said the gap was filled by Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit’s idea of electron spin. It means that the electron has a spin, that it rotates There’s a reader-friendly article on the discovery of the electron spin where Samuel Goudsmit gives the history: “When the day came I had to tell Uhlenbeck about the Pauli principle – of course using my own quantum numbers – then he said to me: “But don’t you see what this implies? It means that there is a fourth degree of freedom for the electron. It means that the electron has a spin, that it rotates””. Goudsmit knew about the spectra, and said “if one now allows the electron to be magnetic with the appropriate magnetic moment, then one can understand all those complicated Zeeman-effects. They come out naturally, as well as the Landé formulae and everything, it works beautifully”. Image from Princeton modern understanding originally from General Chemistry 3rd edition, by Hill and Petrucci Goudsmit also said the man who never cared to believe in spin was Pauli. And that Llewellyn Thomas sent him a letter saying Ralph Kronig had had the idea a year previously. See the Wikipedia Ralph Kronig article for more. It says Kronig proposed electron spin in January 1925 after hearing Pauli in Tübingen, but Heisenberg and Pauli hated the idea, so Kronig didn’t publish. However Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck didn’t stop to ask. Their paper was published in November 1925, and the spin ½ electron was born. Their subsequent paper on spinning electrons and the structure of spectra was printed in Nature. It was followed by a note from Neils Bohr who said this: “In my article expression was given to the view that these difficulties were inherently connected with the limited possibility of representing the stationary states of the atom by a mechanical model. The situation seems, however, to be somewhat altered by the introduction of the hypothesis of the spinning electron which, in spite of the incompleteness of the conclusions that can be derived from models, promises to be a very welcome supplement to our ideas of atomic structure”. Llewellyn Thomas was of course responsible for Thomas precession, see his April 1926 paper on the motion of the spinning electron. Meanwhile Werner Heisenberg was joining the fray. Like Pauli he was a Sommerfeld student, but unlike summa cum laude Pauli, he had angered experimentalist Wilhelm Wien and almost flunked his doctorate. See The Sad Story of Heisenberg’s Doctoral Oral Exam by David Cassidy. Also see the Wikipedia article on Heisenberg’s entryway to matrix mechanics along with the matrix mechanics article. After a seven-month stint with Bohr in Copenhagen, Heisenberg took note of Hendrik Kramer’s 1924 paper The Law of Dispersion and Bohr’s Theory of Spectra. Then he famously travelled from Göttingen to Helgoland in June 1925 to combat his hay fever, and came back in July with a paper called Quantum-Theoretical Re-interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations. In it Heisenberg said “it seems more reasonable to try to establish a theoretical quantum mechanics, analogous to classical mechanics, but in which only the relations between observable quantities occur”. His paper was described as magic, as if it was some mathematical retrofit. It offered no description of what was going on inside the hydrogen atom, and it didn’t refer to de Broglie at all. In addition, whilst it’s usually described as Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics paper, it “neither uses nor even mentions matrices”. That was down to Max Born, who recognised the underlying formalism, and who wrote a paper on quantum mechanics with his assistant Pascual Jordan. Five of the seven ideas were Jordan’s There’s an English translation courtesy of David Delphenich, and an abridged version in Bartel van der Waerden’s 1967 book Sources of Quantum Mechanics. The latter is online courtesy of the internet archive, and contains a significant number of references to Fourier, plus some useful history – Pauli was cold and sarcastic, and five out of seven ideas were Jordan’s. Two months later in November 1925, Born, Jordan, and Heisenberg finished their follow-up Dreimännerarbeit “three-man work” paper on quantum mechanics II. They expressed their conviction that difficulties could only be surmounted via a mathematical system which “would entirely consist of relations between quantities that are in principle observable”. And that such a system “would labour under the disadvantage of not being directly amenable to a geometrically visualizable interpretation”. They also said the motions of electrons could not be described in terms of the familiar concepts of space and time. Van der Waerden’s book also gives Pauli’s paper on the hydrogen spectrum from the standpoint of the new quantum mechanics. It says this showed that the hydrogen spectrum can be derived from the new theory, and that Pauli said “Heisenberg’s form of quantum theory completely avoids a mechanical-kinematic visualization of the motion of electrons in the stationary states of the atom”. As if it was a virtue. Debye was right It wasn’t just Heisenberg and co joining the fray, it was Dirac too, and Schrödinger. See Heisenberg and the early days of quantum mechanics by Felix Bloch. It’s a charming recount: “at the end of a colloquium I heard Debye saying something like: “Schrödinger, you are not working right now on very important problems anyway. Why don’t you tell us some time about that thesis of de Broglie, which seems to have attracted some attention”. So, in one of the next colloquia, Schrödinger gave a beautifully clear account of how de Broglie associated a wave with a particle and how he could obtain the quantization rules of Niels Bohr and Sommerfeld by demanding that an integer number of waves should be fitted along a stationary orbit. When he had finished, Debye casually remarked that he thought this way of talking was rather childish. As a student of Sommerfeld he had learned that, to deal properly with waves, one had to have a wave equation. It sounded quite trivial and did not seem to make a great impression, but Schrödinger evidently thought a bit more about the idea afterwards. Just a few weeks later he gave another talk in the colloquium which he started by saying: “My colleague Debye suggested that one should have a wave equation; well, I have found one!” And then he told us essentially what he was about to publish under the title “Quantization as Eigenvalue Problem” as a first paper of a series in the Annalen der Physik. I was still too green to really appreciate the significance of this talk, but from the general reaction of the audience I realized that something rather important had happened, and I need not tell you what the name of Schrödinger has meant from then on. Many years later, I reminded Debye of his remark about the wave equation; interestingly enough he claimed that he had forgotten about it and I am not quite sure whether this was not the subconscious suppression of his regret that he had not done it himself. In any event, he turned to me with a broad smile and said: “Well, wasn’t I right?” He was. Erwin Schrödinger had a head start because he’d written a paper in 1922 on a remarkable property of the quantum orbits of a single electron. He had a heads-up too. See Foundations of Quantum Mechanics in the Light of New Technology where you can read Chen-Ning Yang’s 1997 paper Complex Phases in Quantum Mechanics. Yang said Einstein alerted Schrödinger to de Broglie’s thesis, and Schrödinger wrote back to Einstein in November 1925. Schrödinger said “the de Broglie interpretation of the quantum rules seems to me to be related in some ways to my note in the Zs. F. Phys. 12 13 1922 where a remarkable property of the Weyl ‘gauge factor’ exp[-∫ϕdx] along each quasiperiod is shown”. Schrödinger submitted the first part of his four-part paper in January 1926. It was called quantization as a problem of proper values, part I. He talked of the hydrogen atom and said integralness arises in the same natural way as the node numbers of a vibrating string. He also talked of the azimuthal quantum number and said “the splitting up of this number through a closer definition of the surface harmonic can be compared with the resolution of the azimuthal quantum number into an ‘equatorial’ and a ‘polar’ quantum’”. He said “It is, of course, strongly suggested that we should try to connect the function ψ with some vibration process within the atom”. And that he was led to these deliberations by the suggestive papers of M Louis de Broglie. But that the “main difference is that de Broglie thinks of progressive waves, while we are led to stationary proper vibrations”. Schrödinger was talking about spherical harmonics, standing waves, and atomic orbitals: Image from The Star Garden article Sommerfeld’s atom by Dr Helen Klus He also said “It is hardly necessary to emphasize how much more congenial it would be to imagine that at a quantum transition the energy changes from one form of vibration to another, than to think of a jumping electron”. His second paper quantization as a problem of proper values, part II was more of the same. He talked about wavefunction and phase and geometrical optics, and on page 18 said classical mechanics fails for very small dimensions of the path and for very great curvature. He talked of a wave system consisting of sine waves where the frequency works out to be ν=E/h, and said we can attempt of build up a wave group which will have relatively small dimensions in every dimension. He said “let us think of a wave group of the nature described above, which in some way gets into a small closed ‘path’, whose dimensions are of the order of the wave length”. And that the wave group not only fills the whole path domain all at once but also stretches far beyond it in all directions. He said this: “All these assertions systematically contribute to the relinquishing of the ideas of “place of the electron” and “path of the electron”. If these ideas are not given up, contradictions remain. This contradiction has been so strongly felt that it has even been doubted that what goes on in the atom could ever be described within the scheme of space and time. From the philosophical standpoint, I would consider a conclusive decision in this sense as equivalent to complete surrender”. Light rays show the most remarkable curvatures He also said light rays “show, even in homogeneous media, the most remarkable curvatures, and obviously mutually influence one another”. That’s on page 27. I think it’s visionary stuff myself, though Schrödinger’s quantization as a problem of proper values, part 3 is arguably more mundane. It’s about perturbation theory and the Stark effect. But it does say this: “since then I have learned what is lacking from the from the most important publications of G E Uhlenbeck and S Goudsmit”. Schrödinger refers to the angular moment of the electron which gives it a magnetic moment, and says “the introduction of the paradoxical yet happy conception of the spinning electron will be able to master the disquieting difficulties which have latterly begun to accumulate”. But he also says that in the present paper the taking over of the idea is not yet attempted. He didn’t attempt it in his part 4 either. Or in the condensed English version in Physical Review. That was called An Undulatory Theory of the Mechanics of Atoms and Molecules. He ended up saying “The deficiency must be intimately connected with Uhlenbeck-Goudsmit’s theory of the spinning electron. But in what way the electron spin has to be taken into account in the present theory is yet unknown”. That’s why there is no spin in the Schrödinger equation. But no matter, there’s some great stuff in there. Like material points consist of, or are nothing but, wave-systems. What’s not to like? For Neils Bohr, plenty. Schrödinger goes to Copenhagen Take a look at page 192 of Walter Moore’s 1989 book Schrödinger, life and thought: “Schrödinger wanted to find the structure of such waves when they are refracted sufficiently to travel in one of the Bohr orbits”. Also see page 209. Schrödinger had sent Max Planck a preprint of his first paper, which Planck read “like an eager child”. Planck also showed it to Einstein, who wrote to Schrödinger in April 1926 saying “the idea of your work springs from pure genius”. Ten days later Einstein wrote again. He said “I am convinced that you have made a decisive advance with your formulation of the quantum condition, just as I am convinced that the Heisenberg-Born method is misleading”. By then Schrödinger had written a paper on the relation of the Heisenberg-Born-Jordan quantum mechanics to mine. He said “it is very strange that these two new theories agree with one another”. Along with “I refer in particular to the peculiar ‘half-integralness’ which arises in connection with the oscillator and rotator”. It comes across as civil and diplomatic, but there’s perhaps an undercurrent that says something like this is proper physics, not mysticism. Their true feelings were not concealed On page 221 Moore talks about the relationship between Schrödinger and Heisenberg. He says they were diplomatic in printed papers, but “in personal letters their true feelings were not concealed”. He quotes words like monstrous and abominable, and bullshit. He tells how Schrödinger was invited to lecture in Germany, and travelled to Stuttgart then Berlin where he stayed with the Plancks. And how the older generation of Berlin physicists such as Einstein, Laue, Nernst and Planck were impressed, so much so that “Planck began to consider seriously his plans to bring Schrödinger to Berlin as his successor”. Schrödinger then went to Jena thence Munich, where he repeated his Berlin lecture. Heisenberg was in the audience, and in the question-and-answer session he asked how Schrödinger ever hoped to explain the photoelectric effect and black-body radiation. But before Schrödinger could reply, “Willy Wien angrily broke in and, as Heisenberg reported to Pauli, ‘almost threw me out of the room’”. Moore says Heisenberg was upset and immediately wrote to Bohr. Whereupon Bohr wrote to Schrödinger to invite him to Copenhagen for some “serious discussions”. They did not go well. See page 222 of Manjit Kumar’s 2008 book Quantum: Einstein, Bohr and the Great Debate About the Nature of Reality. He’s referring to Heisenberg’s book The Part and the Whole. Bohr met Schrödinger at the station in late September 1926: “after the exchange of pleasantries, battle began almost at once, and according to Heisenberg, ‘continued daily from early morning until late at night’”. Bohr appeared even to Heisenberg to be a “remorseless fanatic, one who was not prepared to make the least concession or grant that he could ever be mistaken”. When Schrödinger took ill and took to bed, Bohr sat on the edge of the bed and continued the argument. The words Bohr and bully seem to go together. The Copenhagen Interpretation By then Max Born had written his paper on the quantum mechanics of collisions. He’d come up with what’s now known as the Born rule. On page 3 he said this: “If one translates this result into terms of particles, only one interpretation is possible. Φn,m(α, β, γ) gives the probability for the electron, arriving from the z-direction, to be thrown out into the direction designated by the angles α, β, γ, with the phase change δ”. He was saying the only possible interpretation is that the Schrödinger wave equation described probabilities rather than something that was actually there. This was the beginning of the Copenhagen interpretation. Andrew Zimmerman Jones gives an overview in his 2017 essay on The Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics. He says it’s a combination of Born’s probabilistic statistical interpretation, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, and Bohr’s concept of complementarity: Copenhagen Interpretation image from Andrew Friedman’s website, see http://afriedman.org/ Heisenberg came up with his uncertainty principle in his March 1927 paper on the actual content of quantum theoretical kinematics and mechanics. He said “canonically conjugated variables can be determined simultaneously only with a characteristic uncertainty”. He also said the interpretation of quantum mechanics is still full of internal contradictions, “which become apparent in the battle of opinions on the theory of continuums and discontinuums, corpuscles and waves. This alone tempts us to believe that an interpretation of quantum mechanics is not going to be possible in the customary terms of kinematic and mechanical concepts”. Heisenberg was promoting the viewpoint he shared with Born, Jordan, and Bohr, even though his paper used the word “wave” 36 times. Hence the Wikipedia uncertainty principle article strikes a chord when it says this: “It has since become clearer, however, that the uncertainty principle is inherent in the properties of all wave-like systems, and that it arises in quantum mechanics simply due to the matter wave nature of all quantum objects”. What’s not clear however is why Heisenberg didn’t associate what came to be known as wavefunction collapse with the optical Fourier transform: Image from Steven Lehar’s intuitive explanation of Fourier theory I should mention that he didn’t actually use the word collapse, he said at the instant of the determination of its position, the electron discontinuously changes its impulse. But the meaning is the same, and it’s closely related to Bohr’s complementarity. Heisenberg referred to that in an addendum to his paper, and Bohr talked about it in September 1927 in Como. You can find the details in his Nature paper on The Quantum Postulate and the Recent Development of Atomic Theory. I would say the message is “you can never hope to understand it”. Interestingly while all this was going on Pauli wrote a paper on the quantum mechanics of magnetic electrons. That’s where Pauli referred to Yakov Frenkel’s 1926 paper on the electrodynamics of rotating electrons, the one where Frenkel said the electron will thus be treated simply as a point. Pauli then wondered “whether such a formulation of the theory is even possible at all as long as one retains the idealization of the electron by an infinitely small magnetic dipole”. And “whether a more precise model of the electron is required for such a theory”. But he didn’t pursue it, more’s the pity. Because a few months later he could have talked about it at the Solvay conference. The 1927 Solvay conference The 1927 Solvay conference was given the title Electrons and Photons. But it wasn’t about electrons and photons at all. It was all about “the struggle between Einstein and the scientific realists” against “Bohr and the instrumentalists”. It is said that the latter won the argument. As to the truth of it, take a look at Quantum Theory at the Crossroads: Reconsidering the 1927 Solvay Conference written by Guido Bacciagaluppi and Antony Valentini in 2006. They give a good description of proceedings, including the reports by Bragg, Compton, de Broglie, Heisenberg and Born, and Schrödinger. Fifth Solvay conferance image, see Wikipedia They say “according to widespread historical folklore, the deep differences of opinion among the leading physicists of the day led to intense debates, which were satisfactorily resolved by Bohr and Heisenberg around the time of the 1927 Solvay meeting. But in fact, at the end of 1927, a significant number of the main participants (in particular de Broglie, Einstein, and Schrödinger) remained unconvinced, and the deep differences of opinion were never resolved”. They also say that “there has also been criticism – on the part of historians as well as physicists – of the tactics used by Bohr and others to propagate their views in the late 1920s”. That “a sense of unease lingers of the whole subject”. And that “’shut up and calculate’ emerged as the working rule among the vast majority”. See the Wikipedia article on the Einstein-Bohr debates for more. Bohr advocated a probabilistic quantum mechanics where there was no point trying to understand what was really going on inside the atom. Einstein said this meant quantum mechanics was incomplete, and that uncertainty was no substitute for understanding. Bohr defended his position by claiming that an independent reality in the ordinary physical sense can neither be ascribed to the phenomena nor to the agencies of observation. And that It is wrong to think the task of physics is to find out how nature is. Einstein said What we call science, has the sole purpose of determining what is. I agree one hundred percent with that. The Copenhagen interpretation became mainstream orthodoxy But amazingly, incredibly, the Copenhagen interpretation somehow prevailed. The Copenhagen interpretation became the mainstream orthodoxy. Despite the hard scientific facts. In 1917 the Einstein-de Haas effect demonstrated that spin angular momentum is indeed of the same nature as the angular momentum of rotating bodies as conceived in classical mechanics. In 1922 the Stern-Gerlach experiment demonstrated that the spatial orientation of angular momentum is quantized. In 1927 the Davisson-Germer experiment along with diffraction experiments by George Paget Thomson and Andrew Reid proved the wave nature of matter. In 1931 the Experimental proof of the spin of the photon was provided by Chandrasekhara Raman and Suri Bhagavantam. In 1932 Carl Anderson discovered the positron. In 1933 Patrick Blackett and Giuseppe Occhialini were the first to observe pair production. We could make electrons and positrons out of light, the electron had a different spin to the photon, and yet quantum mechanics surpasseth all human understanding? What happened? See the particle physics quantum theory timeline. It says in 1930 Max Born, after learning of the Dirac equation, said “physics as we know it will be over in six months”. In a way, a bad way, he was right. Paul Dirac made a significant contribution to quantum mechanics. See Kurt Gottfried’s 2010 essay P.A.M. Dirac and the Discovery of Quantum Mechanics for an overview. But note this on page 5: “Heisenberg, Dirac et al were hostile to wave mechanics because they thought it gave the misleading impression that the classical concepts of continuity and visualizability had survived the revolution, whereas they believed that it was a central virtue of their abstract theory that it did not evoke such delusions”. Perhaps that’s why Dirac’s 1927 paper on the physical interpretation of the quantum dynamics didn’t do what it said on the can. And why his 1928 paper the quantum theory of the electron doesn’t deliver a picture of the electron. The Dirac equation is said to describe the electron, but try explaining it to your grandmother, and you realise it doesn’t. Dirac wrote a paper in 1930 on the annihilation of electrons and protons, only they don’t. In a theory of electrons and protons he said negative kinetic energy appeared to have no physical meaning. That suggests he didn’t understand binding energy. He said the electron energy changes from positive to negative and energy of 2mc² is emitted. That suggests he didn’t understand E=mc². He said the Pauli exclusion principle prevents electrons decaying, and the “holes” in the distribution of negative-energy electrons are protons. That suggests he was talking out of his hat. As did his 1962 paper an extensible model of the electron, which depicted the electron as a charged conducting sphere with a surface tension. Yet in the Wikipedia timeline of quantum mechanics you can read that Dirac’s 1930 textbook Principles of Quantum Mechanics became a standard reference book that is still used today. Then Schrödinger’s cat, which illustrated the absurdity of the Copenhagen interpretation, was hijacked by the peddlers of mysticism to demonstrate just how “spooky” quantum physics is. Such people even advocate the many-worlds multiverse. What happened? More to the point, what didn’t? What didn’t happen at the 1927 Solvay conference was a discussion of what the photon was, or what the electron was. Then Bohr sold his pup to the world, and it was all downhill from there.

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The Session and Bandwidth limitation features are useful where you are concerned that individual users on your network might make disproportionate use of your Internet connection, causing inconvenience for other users. These features restrict LAN clients idenified by their IP address. For this reason, it is important that the PCs always have the same IP address so that they always have the correct limitations applied. You can hard-code the PCs IP addresses or pre-set the DHCP allocations from the router (the latter being preferred). You can limit the amount of Upstream and Downstream Bandwidth that any device on your network is allowed to use, based on their IP Address. Under the router’s ‘Limit Bandwidth’ enter the range of IP Addresses you wish to limit. If it for a single PC or device’s IP address, set the start and end IP the same. Rate is specified in Kilobits per second. For example, a ‘one Meg’ ADSL line is 1024 Kilobits so to prevent a user consuming more than half of that, set the RX (receive/download) limit to 512. TX is for transmission/upload limits. A ‘Session’ is a single connection from one device to another across a network. For example; when you visit a website on the Internet your PC creates a single session between itself and the Web Server. When using NAT, your PC, the router and your onward ISP connectivity has to keep track of all of these sessions. A Vigor router, for example, might have room for up to 15000 simultaneous sessions – that’s a lot, equivalent to connecting to 15000 web servers, however if you or your users make use of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) If you are the only user of your Internet connection, you can use the connection for anything you like without inconveniencing anyone else, but on a shared network it can be a problem and as system manager you may wish to enforce user policy by restricting sessions. To enable this feature for a paricular client (identified by its IP address), Under the ‘Bandwidth Management’ link select the Limit Session setup. Enable the function and define a Default maximum number of sessions per IP Address which will be applied to all devices on the LAN. In addition you can define more specific limits for single and/or ranges of IP Address. Enter the Start IP and End IP of the computers you wish to limit, along with the maximum number of Sessions allowed. If the setup is just for one single IP Address set the Start IP and End IP the same. Linux distribution for experimental routing. It consists of XORP control plane software and Click Modular Router module, which serves as a forwarding plane. Applications are already integrated and the system is ready-to-use. The system is distributed as a live ISO image and supports additional Click packages. Linux distribution running from a RAM drive. Its original target was small appliances like routers, VPN gateways, or embedded x86devices. However, it supports hosting other Linux guest OSes under VServer control, making it an attractive hosting solution as well. Uses Busybox and uClibc. The goal of this project is to find out stability, performance, filter capabilities, administration, computer security, scalability and development possibilities of a Linux based streamlined router/firewall system. Recent distributions are being used as pure Internet routers, equipped with 1 GB or more of internal memory. Router and firewall for SMBs with network, gateway and server modules accessed through WebConfig. A paid registration for extra online services is available, but not necessary for operation of the product. UTM distribution with routing, firewall, anti-spam and anti-virus for web, FTP and e-mail, OpenVPN, IPsec, hotspot functionality, and captive portal (missing in community version). Endian Firewall Community (EFW) is a complete version for x86. The anti-virus for EFW is Sophos or ClamAV. The intrusion protection is Snort. Direct hook into Linux kernel packet stream, LDAP and user based authentication, user quotas, QOS, advanced analytics,intrusion detection system, CLI and web management utilities. Also available in a Debian based Linux distribution. Enterprise-class router, firewall, VPN, intrusion protection and more delivered as a complete network operating system that runs on x86 hardware or in XenServer, VMware or Hyper-V to provide vFirewall, vRouter network virtualization functionality. Free (contribution required for some graphing functions) Web-administrative router/firewall live CD with QoS features. It is also able to act as a Wi-Fi access point with advanced features such as the multiple SSID and 802.1x RADIUS authentication. Zeroshell supports VLAN trunking (802.1q), bridging, WAN load balancing, and fail-over features. The latest, most expensive routers include so many facilities you’d be forgiven for thinking they’re more like PCs than tools for networking. This thought should lead you to wonder if you can use a regular PC to do the same thing. The answer, thanks to Linux, is that you can – and it’s very easy. There are many different Linux distributions designed specifically to turn your machine into a router or a gateway, complete with any number of enhancements. Our favourite is called ClearOS. It’s a fantastic choice of router for your network because it’s relatively painless to configure, but it’s also extendible, taking it far beyond even the most ambitious devices from manufacturers like Netgear. You could use it to host your cloud documents, complete with editing, host and access your email, either through a web interface or server, as well as a powerful firewall and intrusion detection. ClearOS is unlike most Linux distributions because it offers both a free edition and a commercial edition that you have to pay for. Because some people do pay for it, ClearOS has one of the better user interfaces, and most of its facilities can be installed and configured through a web app. It’s also easy to install, and has a great support network. This is important, because all your network’s data is going to go through the distribution, and you need to be able to trust both the integrity of the packages and services its running, and the source of those packages and the distribution itself. Fortunately, ClearOS’s heritage couldn’t be any better, since it’s based on the billion dollar Red Hat enterprise. ClearOS uses Red Hat’s graphical installer and asks you only a few questions. Boot your machine with the ClearOS DVD in the drive (a USB option is also available), and choose the first option from the boot menu: ‘Install or upgrade an existing system’. The graphical installer will appear after a few moments and you’ll have to answer the usual questions about language and keyboard layout. After these are out of the way, choose ‘Basic storage device’ as your installation medium and step through the regular drive and partition options. The next few questions deal with the network and where you’re located, before asking how you’d like to allocate space on your drives. The default values will choose a drive and create an installation automatically, but be warned, this will remove all data from the drive it chooses. The following two questions will confirm your choices before the installer goes off and does some installing. When this has finished, you get the chance to reboot into your new installation and removing the DVD would be advisable. When your machine has booted, the first thing you’ll notice is the lack of a desktop. In fact, the only thing you should see is a screen telling you the IP address of your machine and where to get further information. This is because, like any modern router, ClearOS is intended to be configured through a web browser. After you’ve made a note of its IP address, you can disconnect any screen, keyboard and mouse and hide the machine away under the floorboards if you like. As long as it’s connected to the network, you’ll be able to change the settings. Go to a browser on a machine on the same network and type in this IP address, using both the ‘https’ prefix and the port ’81’. For our network, for example, we typed in https://192.168.1.21:81. The page that appears asks you to log in, and you’ll need to enter a username of ‘root’ followed by the password requested by the installer. You’ll then be presented with the first page of the ClearOS startup wizard. Click ‘Next’ and you’ll be asked which network mode you want to configure. Which you choose will depend on how you want to use your new router. The best option here is Gateway Mode, but this won’t appear unless you have two network adaptors installed – one connected to the internet and the other to your LAN. If you’d rather experiment with ClearOS as a server, choose one of the two other options. After selecting Gateway Mode, you need to tell the wizard which adaptor is which. The installer makes a pretty good guess at this, marking one adaptor as External and the other as LAN, but you can change the assignment if it’s wrong using the ‘Edit’ button. The next question asks for a DNS, and we’d recommend entering the IP address of either your ISP, Google (18.104.22.168) or OpenDNS (22.214.171.124). After this, make sure the free community edition is selected and click ‘Next’ to download and install any critical updates. One of the best things about ClearOS is a package manager it calls the Marketplace, and the next step of the installation is to create an account to access this. You’ll be asked for an email address, and be instructed to register your system with your new credentials. You’ll now be asked a couple of questions about domain names for your connection. If this is a home connection, you might not have one. We’d recommend using a free dynamic DNS service to get yourself one. Otherwise, you can always use a made-up name or the default values as a temporary fix. We can now start installing applications. To start with, we’d recommend selecting the Windows file server, the bandwidth manager, port forwarding and the FTP server, but you can always come back at a later time and install more applications. After making your selection, click on the ‘Download and install’ button. This will automatically grab and install all the packages you’ve selected. A few minutes later, depending on the speed of your connection, you’ll be presented with the ClearOS dashboard and you’ll be able to start using your new gateway. A gateway with a firewall acts as a permissive barrier between two networks. In our case, that’s between the internet and your local network. It’s a necessary precaution because the internet is saturated with systems that constantly bombard every connection with random requests directed at ports with known vulnerabilities. Most of these vulnerabilities are found on non-updated versions of Windows, but they can also be found within almost any network-facing service, such as a web server or file server. Within ClearOS, the firewall can be configured by clicking on the ‘Network’ menu on the left or top of the dashboard, followed by ‘Incoming Firewall’. By default, there should already be a single defined rule called webconfig. This allows port 81 on the oncoming connection, which is the port you need to access the ClearOS web interface. This rule means you can configure your gateway from the internet, and if you don’t want this facility, click on ‘disable’ for the rule. To add your own rule, click ‘Add’. You don’t need to memorise most port numbers because the Add interface includes a list of the most common services. Select ‘SSH’, for example, and then click on ‘Add’ again. The rule list will now include SSH running on port 22, which is its default port. If you need to add custom ports for your own services (or games) this can be done from the same interface. ClearOS does run an SSH server, which is all you need if you want command-line access, but you may also want command line access to another machine in your network. To do this, you’ll need to use port forwarding. This takes an incoming connection on one port – 22 in the case of SSH – and maps this to a different port on either a local machine, or another machine within your LAN. Click on ‘Port forwarding’ then ‘Add’. You’ll be able to select a standard service in the same way you could for the firewall, but you’ll also need to add a local IP address. This will be the destination for the port. You can forward custom ports, a range of ports and choose between UDP and TCP protocols by using the other options on the page. The other feature you only find in advanced routers is the ability to limit connection bandwidth going through your router depending on what they’re doing. This is often known as QoS, or Quality of Service, because it’s often used to make sure time-sensitive data isn’t affected by a torrent download, for example. Time-sensitive data could be streaming video or VoIP, where getting packets to the client is important. File downloads aren’t normally affected by some delay. When you select ‘Bandwidth manager’, you have two choices. The first of these deals with bandwidth limiting on an interface, while the second can be used to limit bandwidth by service. The first is useful if you have several subnets, such as a wireless host running on your gateway. You can use it to either restrict data coming into and out of this network, or restrict the other interfaces, so you can ensure there’s always a decent amount of bandwidth. The Basic Rules table is the most useful for the majority of networks, because it allows you to promote those first-class services while still allowing people to download large files. Click on ‘Add’ and you’ll get the option to choose a service (like SIP or FTP), and specify whether you want the bandwidth limited or reserved, in which direction and at what rate. To ensure SPI always gets 1Mbps, for example, choose ’Reserve’, ‘SIP’, ’Flowing to the network’ and set a rate of 1,000 (the rate is set in Kbps). If you have local users saturating your upstream bandwidth, change ’Flowing to the network’ to ‘Flowing from the network’. ClearOS will transparently limit the packets going through the network to ensure the services you depend upon will have the lion’s share of your bandwidth. And unlike some ISPs we could mention, you’re in control of whether that’s BitTorrent or HTTP, which is the best thing about running your own gateway. Ada yang udah pernah nyoba beberapa tools seo terpopuler di kalangan webmaster indonesia? Klo belum yuk sama-sama kita mengenal tools seo gratis tersebut, mulai dari tools yang sifatnya plugin(dapat Kamu embed kedalam beberapa browser) sampai dengan web tools gratisan yang peformanya gila-gilaan, berikut refortsenya. SEO Quake adalah sebuah plugin SEO Add Ons yang bisa Kamu Install pada beberapa browser seperti Mozilla Firefox, IE dan Chrome. Fungsi plugin ini adalah untuk menampilkan ukuran SEO suatu halaman website, melalui beberapa parameter yang bisa Kamu lihat antara lain Pagerank, alexa rank, google index page, google backlink, whois, delicious index dll. InFormEnter adalah sebuah plugin semi SEO yang berfungsi untuk membantu Kamu menuliskan komentar secara otomatis pada setiap field komentar blog, tentunya hal ini akan sangat membantu Kamu yang mempunyai kegemaran malas melakukan Blogwalking, karena kamu setiap harinya dapat mengunjungi lebih dari 100 Blog tanpa harus jenuh dan capek untuk menulis kata-kata komentar tersebut secara berulang di form komentar Blog yang kita kunjungi, sehingga kamu tidak perlu takut akan mengurangnya tingkat kemalasan yang ada pada diri Kamu, seperti kata pepatah “Slow but Sure” Spider Test adalah sebuah web tools seo yang memungkinkan Kamu untuk dapat melihat hasil crawler yang dilakukan oleh sebuah spider yang dimiliki oleh google, yahoo dan bing. Kamu akan dapat melihat sejauh mana efektifitas sebuah halaman web Kamu dimata spider-spider mesin tersebut, ingat kebanyakan blog yang baik tampilan luarnya belum tentu baik tampilan dalamnya, gak percaya? Cekidot sana ke spider test. Who is domain Who is domain adalah sebuah web tools seo yang juga memungkinkan kamu untuk dapat melihat secara detail informasi sebuah situs, mulai dari tempat hosting, name server, seo score dan masih banyak lagi. Pentanyaannya, mengapa kita harus tau hal tersebut? Karena hal ini akan berguna jika Kamu akan membeli sebuah website jadi(full packet), denga mengetahui latar belakang tersebut kamu bisa mengukur se-absah apa website yang sedang kamu hadapi. Page speed labs Page speed labs adalah sebuah web tools seo besutan google yang berfungsi untuk melihat kecepatan loading sebuah sebuah website/blog saat diakses oleh browser. Page speed juga memberikan informasi mengenai file-file apa saja yang membebani web tersebut, dan memberikan parameter seberapa berat file tersebut saat bersemayam sebuah website/blog. Efektifitas Traffic Exchange Dalam Internet Marketing. Banyak orang akan mengatakan bahwa pertukaran lalu lintas tidak efektif. Untuk beberapa hal ini mungkin benar tergantung pada layanan atau produk yang ditawarkan. Traffic Exchange adalah pertukaran lalu lintas terhadap suatu situs web dimana dapat memperoleh kredit point dengan mengunjungi website-website anggota lainnya yang pada gilirannya website kitapun akan dikunjungi oleh anggota-anggota lainnya. Efektifitas Traffic Exchange Dalam Internet Marketing Efektifitas Traffic Exchange Dalam Internet Marketing Bagi para webmaster ataupun blogger yang berkecimpung dalam Internet Marketing pasti telah akrab dengan Traffic Exchange. Oleh karena itu bagi para webmaster atau blogger yang memanfaatkan fasilitas traffic exchange seperti ini, memiliki beragam tujuan yang dapat diperoleh dari manfaat traffic exchange ini. Diantaranya adalah : Jelas yaitu berburu atau meraup visitor yang mengunjungi website kita Ada sugesti bila traffic berlimpah maka akan berpengaruh pada rampingnya nilai Alexa Rank Nah, disini mencoa untuk sedikit mengulas langkah-langkah efektifitas menggunakan traffic exchange dalam Internet Marketing. Pastikan homepage URL menjelaskan secara singkat dan jelas tentang layanan atau produk serta pembahasan artikel blog wesite kita. Dikarenakan traffic exchange ini telah memiliki rentang waktu tampil, jadi diharapkan dengan sekilas membaca, orang akan lebih tertarik untuk mengunjungi website kita secara langsung. Efektifkan halaman homepage dengan berbagai navigasi menu yang dapat memudahkan atau menarik minat orang lain untuk surfing langsung bukan hanya sekedar menyaksikan secara otomatis lewat traffic exchange. Bersiaplah untuk bekerja keras untuk mendapatkan kredit point yang dihasilkan dengan standby melakukan traffic exchange agar kredit kita semakin banyak sehingga semakin banyak pula kesempatan website kita tampil pada suatu layanan traffic exchange. Dengan 3 cara langkah efektif tersebut diharapkan kita dapat memaksimalkan bergabungnya kita dalam suatu layanan traffic exchange. Jelas ini dibutuhkan untuk perencanaan untuk mendapatkan hasil yang maksimal dan efektif.

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“Chapter Nine: Gathering to the Land of Zion,” Church History in the Fulness of Times Student Manual (2003), 102–12 “Chapter Nine,” Church History in the Fulness of Times, 102–12 Zion! The holy city! The New Jerusalem! Enoch built a Zion (see Moses 7:19–21), Isaiah predicted a future Zion (see Isaiah 33:20; 52:1, 8), and John the Revelator envisioned Zion’s descent from heaven (see Revelation 21:2). The publication of the Book of Mormon helped clarify this dream because it said that America would be the place of the New Jerusalem (see Ether 13:2–3; 3 Nephi 20:22). The Book of Mormon thus fired the Saints with a zeal to know the time and place for the establishment of Zion. Only in Zion, the Saints believed, could they find protection from the desolation and tribulation soon to descend upon the wicked (see D&C 29:7–9; 45:65–71). In the writings of Enoch, revealed in December of 1830, the Saints found a concrete example in the righteous achievements of Enoch and his city: “And the Lord called his people Zion, because they were of one heart and one mind, and dwelt in righteousness; and there was no poor among them” (Moses 7:18). Locating and establishing Zion became one of the prime objectives of the Latter-day Saints. In early 1831 curiosity about the location of the land of Zion began to grow. On the day following the fourth general conference of the Church (held 3 June 1831) a revelation directed Joseph Smith and other Church leaders to go to Missouri, where the land of their inheritance would be revealed. In addition, thirteen pairs of missionaries were called to travel two by two, each pair taking a different route to Missouri, and to preach along the way (see D&C 52:3–8, 22–33; 56:5–7). Excitement reigned in and around Kirtland the next two weeks as the leaders and the elders prepared to leave. After all, the Lord gave them a promise: “If ye are faithful ye shall assemble yourselves together to rejoice upon the land of Missouri, which is the land of your inheritance, which is now the land of your enemies. “But, behold, I, the Lord, will hasten the city [the New Jerusalem] in its time, and will crown the faithful with joy and with rejoicing” (D&C 52:42–43). It was during this period that Newel Knight asked the Prophet about the problem that had arisen on the consecrated lands in Thompson, Ohio. The Colesville branch members were directed to “take [their] journey into the regions westward, unto the land of Missouri, unto the borders of the Lamanites” (D&C 54:8). Hence, three different groups prepared to travel to Missouri and to meet at the western borders of that state—Joseph Smith’s party, the Colesville branch, and the missionaries. While preparations went forward for the journey, a man who subsequently played an important role while the Church was in Missouri and afterward, William Wines Phelps, arrived from Canandaigua, New York, with his wife, Sally, and their children. Brother Phelps was thirty-nine years old and was a man of ability. As an editor of a partisan political newspaper, he was an experienced writer and printer. At one time he had been a candidate for the office of lieutenant governor of New York. He was converted to the gospel after purchasing a copy of the Book of Mormon. “By that book I found a key to the holy prophets; and by that book began to unfold the mysteries of God, and I was made glad. Who can tell his goodness, or estimate the worth of such a book?” he later wrote of the Book of Mormon in his conversion.1 Brother Phelps said he came to Kirtland to do the will of the Lord. A revelation directed to him said he was “called and chosen,” but first he was to be baptized and ordained, and then he was to accompany Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon to Missouri. Once in Missouri he was to assist Oliver Cowdery with the printing and with selecting and writing books for children to be used in the schools of the Church (see D&C 55:1–5). On 19 June, Joseph Smith, Sidney Rigdon, Edward Partridge, Martin Harris, Joseph Coe, William W. Phelps, and Sidney Gilbert and his wife, Elizabeth, finally began their nearly nine-hundred-mile journey from Kirtland to the western border of Missouri. At last they were fulfilling their long-awaited hope and were bound for the land of Zion, although they did not know at this point exactly where it was located. Journeying to Cincinnati, the Prophet’s company booked passage on a steamer headed down the Ohio River to its junction with the Mississippi and then on up into St. Louis. En route, they were joined by the Colesville branch under the direction of Newel Knight.2 The journey to Missouri was not an easy one. This was particularly true for the Colesville Saints, who left Thompson, Ohio, carrying their belongings and provisions in twenty-four wagons.3 At Wellsville, Ohio, they left the wagons and traveled by steamboat down the Ohio River to the junction of the Mississippi River. They then traveled up the Mississippi River to St. Louis. At St. Louis, Newel Knight and his company and some of the Prophet’s companions elected to journey by steamboat on the Missouri River. This necessitated a wait of several days before passage could be secured. The Prophet and the others set out on foot and arrived in Independence about the middle of July,4 approximately ten days before those on the steamer arrived. Joseph described the journey as “long and tedious” and said they arrived only after “suffering many privations and hardships.”5 Newel Knight said the task of leading the Colesville Saints “required all the wisdom” he possessed.6 Almost every pair of elders was ready to leave Kirtland within two weeks of their call. Each set chose a different route, because they had been commanded to “not build upon another’s foundation, neither journey in another’s track” (D&C 52:33). Some pairs of elders enjoyed greater success than others did. Parley P. Pratt, who had returned from Missouri only a few months before, and his brother Orson spent most of the summer of 1831 preaching in Missouri, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Although they “suffered the hardships incident to a new and, in many places, unsettled country,” they baptized many people and organized branches in the states they passed through. They did not arrive in western Missouri until September.7 Two others who enjoyed success were Zebedee Coltrin and Levi Hancock. After leaving Kirtland, they headed south and west along the National Road toward Indianapolis, Indiana. Baptisms came slowly at first, but when they reached Winchester, Indiana, they found ready listeners. Levi wrote, “We continued to preach here and in the regions round about until we had raised a large branch of the Church.” They enjoyed similar results in Ward township, and “in a short time we had in both places about one hundred members.” Their presence aroused a group of local men who accosted them and ordered them to leave the area by ten o’clock the next morning. The elders decided to stay and keep an eleven o’clock appointment. Some of the men who appeared for the meeting were among the ones who had threatened the missionaries. In his sermon, Levi said that his father had fought in the Revolutionary War for the freedom his listeners then enjoyed and that his relative John Hancock was the first signer of the Declaration of Independence. Levi recorded, “After the meeting we went to the water and baptized seventeen out of that crowd who the day before were going to mob us.” The brethren expressed gratitude for God’s protection and help on that occasion. They arrived in Missouri sometime later, Zebedee in October, and Levi, compelled to lay over because of illness, in November.8 Typical of the profound but unrealized impact missionaries often have was that of the journey across southern Indiana made by twenty-three-year-old Samuel Smith and forty-one-year-old Reynolds Cahoon. They spent three days in Green County among Cahoon’s relatives, and on their return trip two and a half months later the pair stopped again in the area for over two weeks. Among the many who were converted at the time was John Patten, who had a twenty-four-year-old brother, David, living in Michigan. John wrote to David the following spring, telling him of the restored gospel and saying that he had received the gift of the Holy Ghost. David related, “This caused my heart to leap for joy, and I resolved to go immediately and see for myself.”9 He was baptized by his brother in June of 1832 and three years later was called to be one of the Twelve Apostles in this dispensation. Several elders made the journey more quickly. Lyman Wight and John Corrill, for example, completed the trip on foot in two months—from 14 June to 13 August.10 Few of the missionaries, however, arrived in time to participate in the conference held by the Prophet. Upon arrival in Independence, some of the single elders established themselves as permanent residents, while those with families in the East returned home. With this missionary labor, many people between Kirtland, Ohio, and Independence, Missouri, became acquainted with the Latter-day Saints and what they believed. Future missionaries would reap where these earliest elders had sown. The case of Polly Knight illustrates the strong feelings of many members of the Church. Sister Knight, mother of Newel and a member of the Colesville branch, risked her life making the trip to Zion. Polly’s health was failing, but her anxiety to see the promised land was so great that she refused to be left behind in Ohio. Nor would she remain with friends along the route for rest and recuperation. Her son wrote, “Her only, or her greatest desire, was to set her feet upon the land of Zion, and to have her body interred in that land.” Fearing that she might die at any time on the journey, Newel left the boat on one occasion and went ashore to purchase lumber for a coffin. He later reported that “the Lord gave her the desire of her heart, and she lived to stand upon that land.”11 Polly died within two weeks of her arrival in the land of Zion and was the first Latter-day Saint to be buried in Missouri. But the Lord gave these consoling words: “Those that live shall inherit the earth, and those that die shall rest from all their labors, and their works shall follow them; and they shall receive a crown in the mansions of my Father, which I have prepared for them” (D&C 59:2). The Prophet and his brethren knew that the glorious New Jerusalem would one day stand somewhere near their stopping place because revelation said that Zion would be “on the borders by the Lamanites” (D&C 28:9) and be located in Missouri (see D&C 52:2, 42). But where? Missouri’s western border was approximately three hundred miles long. “When will Zion be built up in her glory, and where will Thy temple stand?” the Prophet asked.12 The Lord’s reply, given 20 July 1831, was simple and direct: “This land, which is the land of Missouri … is the land which I have appointed and consecrated for the gathering of the saints. … “… Behold, the place which is now called Independence is the center place; and a spot for the temple is lying westward, upon a lot which is not far from the courthouse” (D&C 57:1, 3). Joseph Smith and the gathering Saints were elated that at last the exact location of the promised city of Zion was revealed to them. The gathering Saints learned that the countryside in Jackson County was beautiful with rolling hills and valleys. The climate was invigorating, the air and water clean and healthful, and the vegetation lush and green. Two clear-water streams, the Big Blue and Little Blue rivers, drained the central highlands as they flowed quietly into the Missouri River on the north. Black walnut, hickory, elm, cherry, and oak trees fronted streambeds, and an attractive carpet of bluegrass on the prairie was ideal for raising stock. This region was still largely unsettled, with the county seat, Independence, having been established four years previous. The Prophet Joseph Smith was exuberant about the prospects for the area. He taught that Jackson County, Missouri, was the location of the Garden of Eden.13 The price of land and its ready availability also attracted the Saints. In 1831 whole sections of this undeveloped country could be purchased for $1.25 per acre. The Lord directed the brethren to purchase as much land as they were able (see D&C 57:3–5; 58:37, 49–52; 63:27), and Sidney Rigdon was appointed to “write a description of the land of Zion” (D&C 58:50) to be circulated among eastern Saints in a quest for funds. Sidney Gilbert was appointed “an agent unto the Church” to receive money from contributors and buy lands (D&C 57:6). Edward Partridge, already serving as a bishop, was commanded to divide the purchased land among the gathering Saints as “their inheritance” (D&C 57:7). The Lord also cautioned regarding Zion, “Let all these things be done in order. … And let the work of the gathering be not in haste, nor by flight” (D&C 58:55–56). Two important items required Joseph Smith’s attention in Missouri before he returned to Ohio: the dedication of the land as a place of gathering for the Saints and the dedication of the temple site itself. Both events were presided over by the Prophet Joseph Smith. At a special service on 2 August 1831, twelve men (in honor of the twelve tribes of Israel), five of them from the Colesville branch, laid the first log “as a foundation of Zion in Kaw township, twelve miles west of Independence.”14 Sidney Rigdon consecrated and dedicated the land unto the Lord. As part of the service he asked his listeners, “Do you pledge yourselves to keep the laws of God on this land, which you never have kept in your own lands? [The audience responded,] we do. Do you pledge yourselves to see that others of your brethren who shall come hither do keep the laws of God? [Those present again said,] we do. After [the dedicatory] prayer [Elder Rigdon] arose and said, I now pronounce this land consecrated and dedicated to the Lord for a possession and inheritance for the Saints (in the name of Jesus Christ, having authority from him). And for all the faithful servants of the Lord to the remotest ages of time. Amen.”15 The dedication of the temple site in Independence took place the next day; again the services were simple but inspiring. Following the reading of Psalm 87, which extols the glory and majesty of Zion, a single stone, marking the southeast corner, was laid in place. Joseph Smith then dedicated the temple site by prayer. He reported that “the scene was solemn and impressive.”16 According to previous commandment (see D&C 52:2), the brethren convened a conference on 4 August in Kaw township, and the Prophet presided. Sidney Rigdon admonished the Saints to obey every requirement of heaven, and other business of the Church was transacted before the brethren disbanded and returned to Ohio.17 The return journey (by canoe on the Missouri River) began on 9 August 1831. The company stopped the first night at Fort Osage, a government-maintained outpost that provided protection from marauding Indians. On the third day, W. W. Phelps saw a vision of “the destroyer in his most horrible power” riding upon the water. Other people present heard the noise of the evil one.18 This encounter left a strong impression on the travelers, some of whom feared for their safety. The next morning Joseph received a revelation informing the elders that it was not necessary for the entire company to return to their homes in haste, particularly with many people on either side of the river “perishing in unbelief” (D&C 61:3). The waters, especially “these waters” (Missouri River), were declared to hold particular dangers for travelers; nevertheless, the Lord revealed, “It mattereth not unto me, after a little, if it so be that they fill their mission, whether they go by water or by land” (D&C 61:5, 22). The elders were to travel two by two and “declare the word among the congregations of the wicked” (D&C 61:33). The next day the brethren had a joyful meeting with several elders who were still on their way to the land of Zion. Joseph Smith received a revelation in their behalf urging them to continue on to Zion and to hold a meeting of rejoicing there (see D&C 62:1–4). Joseph Smith and the others arrived in Kirtland late in August. He noted that their efforts to preach the gospel along the way were hindered because Satan had blinded the eyes of the people.19 He also reported to the Saints in Ohio the glorious events he and his brethren experienced in locating the land of Zion. At this time the Lord promised that the members in Ohio who contributed to the Saints in Zion would “receive an inheritance in this world, … and also a reward in the world to come” (D&C 63:48). Settling a frontier land was a new experience for most of the Saints who arrived from the East. Timber needed to be cut; ferries, bridges, mills, and dams had to be built; homes, out-buildings, and fences had to be constructed. Remembering the fall of 1831, Newel Knight wrote, “We were not accustomed to a frontier life, so things around us seemed new and strange and the work we had to do was of a different nature to that which had been done in the East. Yet we took hold with cheerful hearts, and a determination to do our best, and with all diligence went to work to secure food and prepare for the coming winter.”20 Parley P. Pratt commended the industry and optimism of a group of the Missouri Saints: “They had arrived late in the summer, and cut some hay for their cattle, sowed a little grain, and prepared some ground for cultivation, and were engaged during the fall and winter in building log cabins, etc. The winter was cold, and for some time about ten families lived in one log cabin, which was open and unfinished, while the frozen ground served for a floor. Our food consisted of beef and a little bread made of corn, which had been grated into coarse meal by rubbing the ears on a tin grater. This was rather an inconvenient way of living for a sick person; but it was for the gospel’s sake, and all were very cheerful and happy. … “… There was a spirit of peace and union, and love and good will manifested in this little Church in the wilderness, the memory of which will be ever dear to my heart.” Plainly it was not what Zion was but what it could become that buoyed up the Saints and lifted sagging spirits.21 Gradually funds began arriving from the East. By January 1832, Bishop Edward Partridge had received $2,694.70 and expended $2,677.83.22 He bought more land and superintended the establishment of a storehouse to receive and distribute the consecrations of the Saints. Church leaders in Missouri also began a printing enterprise as they had been commanded (see D&C 58:37). W. W. Phelps, who was called to be the printer and newspaper editor in Zion (see D&C 57:11–12), prepared to publish the Church’s first periodical, the Evening and Morning Star. During the spring and summer of 1832, three to four hundred more Saints arrived in Missouri, where they received their inheritances from the bishop and began developing the land. An observer reported the intensity of their efforts and industry: “It was a strange sight indeed, to see four or five yoke of oxen turning up the rich soil. Fencing and other improvements went on in rapid succession. Cabins were built and prepared for families as fast as time, money and labor could accomplish the work; and our homes in this new country presented a prosperous appearance—almost equal to Paradise itself—and our peace and happiness, as we flattered ourselves, were not in a great degree deficient to that of our first parents in the garden of Eden, as no labor or painstaking was spared in the cultivation of flowers and shrubbery of a choice selection.”23 But if land was plentiful, skilled artisans and builders were scarce. The majority of residents in Zion were farmers and common laborers. What was needed were wheelwrights, blacksmiths, brick masons, and carpenters. A revelation specifying the need to send for workmen “of all kinds unto this land, to labor for the saints of God” did not bring swift response (D&C 58:54). Levi Hancock, a carpenter and resident of Zion, had more work than he could handle. His first project was building a combined home and printing office for W. W. Phelps.24 On 29 May 1832 a conference was held in the newly completed printing office for the purpose of dedicating the facility. Remarks were given by Oliver Cowdery and W. W. Phelps, and then Bishop Edward Partridge offered the dedicatory prayer.25 In June 1832, Elder Phelps began publishing the Evening and Morning Star. Over the next year, the Star published numerous revelations given to Joseph Smith that later were included in the Doctrine and Covenants. Since it was the only newspaper in the county and printed both national and international news, it was read by non-Mormons as well as by members of the Church. But the paper performed its greatest service for the Saints. Considerable attention was devoted in every issue to urging members to faithfulness in performing religious and family duties. In the first edition, W. W. Phelps urged the Saints: “The disciples should lose no time in preparing schools for their children, that they may be taught as is pleasing unto the Lord, and brought up in the way of holiness. Those appointed to select and prepare books for the use of schools, will attend to that subject, as soon as more weighty matters are finished. But the parents and guardians in the Church of Christ need not wait—it is all important that children, to become good should be taught so.”26 In the fall of 1832, a school, known as the Colesville School, was started near a large spring in Kaw township; Parley P. Pratt was the first teacher. Later that same year a second school was opened in Independence in a log schoolhouse erected for that purpose near the temple lot.27 Proper observance of the Lord’s Day received special emphasis in the Star. One of the first revelations received by Joseph Smith in Zion admonished the Saints to “go to the house of prayer and offer up thy sacraments upon my holy day … , and to pay thy devotions unto the Most High” (D&C 59:9–10). Setting Sunday apart from other days and acknowledging it as a holy day was not the custom of the other residents of Jackson County. Reinforcing the message of this revelation, the Star offered this advice to the Saints: “Observe the Sabbath day to keep it holy. The Lord is not well pleased with a disciple that does any thing on that holy day that should be done on a laboring day. Nor should a disciple go to meeting one Sabbath here, and another there; let all that can, be strict to attend meeting in their own place. … Neither should the children be allowed to slip off and play, rather than meet where they may be trained up in the way they should go to be saved. We are the children of God, and let us not put off his law. When a saint works on the Sabbath, the world can reply: So do we. When the saints travel to do business on the Sabbath, the world can reply: So do we. When the saints go from one meeting to another to see and be seen, the world can reply: So do we. When the children of the saints play on the Sabbath, the world can reply: So do ours. Brethren, watch, that you may enter into the Lord’s sacred rest.”28 But the subject of the gathering received the most attention in the pages of the Star, and many articles were printed dealing with the matter. In July, Elder Phelps reminded migrating Saints that they were to bring a recommend from the bishop in Ohio or from three elders. They were also advised not to proceed to Zion without being told by one of the bishops that preparations had been made for them. Failure to observe this caution, he warned, “would produce pestilence” and cause confusion. “Moreover by being in haste, and forcing the sale of property, unreasonable sacrifices have been made, and although this is a day of sacrifice and tithing, yet to make lavish and unreasonable sacrifices, is not well pleasing in the sight of the Lord.”29 Later, Saints traveling to Zion were counseled to keep God’s commandments “in every point” and set such a good example that others would “be constrained to say: They act like the children of God.”30 By November 1832 there were 810 Saints in Missouri. Up to this point Zion was able to absorb its immigrants, and the Saints were pleased with the results. Editorials in the Star reflected their optimism, as future prospects for Zion appeared bright and promising.

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Relativism: the loss of 'truth' This is Chapter 2 from the book Relativism: Feet Firmly Planted in Mid-Air by Greg Koukl and Francis J. Beckwith. This chapter examines the idea of moral relativism and its consequences. Before defining moral relativism, we need to make two distinctions. The first regards what we mean when we say something is right or wrong, and the second deals with the difference between a subjective and an objective truth. Two Wrongs, Two Rights The statements 'One ought not kill innocent people' and 'One ought to believe that London is in the United Kingdom' are two entirely different kinds of statements. Both make truth claims, but they differ in that each distinguishes a kind of 'ought' - one the moral ought and the other the rational ought. The first suggests a moral obligation; the second an obligation based on reason. There are two kinds of oughts, and there are two ways to be wrong about something. We can be wrong by being irrational, or we can be wrong by being unethical. Morality deals with the second. Rational errors can be distinguished from moral wrongs in this way. Nineteenth-century philosopher John Stuart Mill pointed out that moral wrongs are the kinds of things for which punishment seems justified. We don't punish people merely for getting their sums wrong in maths. Their errors would be rational, not moral. But a man who beats his wife is not simply incorrect; he's immoral. When there is a rational wrong, we correct the error. When there is a moral wrong, we correct - or punish - the person. Just as there are two ways to be right or wrong, there are also two ways for something to be true: it can be subjectively true or it can be objectively true. When I say, 'Haagen-Dazs butter pecan ice cream is absolutely delicious,' I have said something true, because this statement accurately reflects my personal tastes. Notice, however, that what I have said is not really about ice cream. I have not made a claim about an object outside of me, a half-eaten pint of frozen dessert sitting on my counter. Rather I have said something about the subject, me. My statement about the taste of Haagen-Dazs ice cream is a subjective truth. It is true for me, the subject, but not for the object, the ice cream itself. The ice cream doesn't 'taste'; I taste it. The experience of flavour pertains to me as a subject, not to the ice cream as an object. That's why when I comment on the flavour, I'm talking about something true about me, not about the ice cream-subjective, not objective. Tastes are personal. They're private. They're individual. If you didn't like butter pecan and favoured chocolate instead, it would be strange to say that you were wrong. You should not be faulted, it seems, for having different subjective tastes about desserts than someone else. What if my claim was not about flavours, though, but about numbers? If I say that the sum of two plus two is four, I'm making a different sort of claim than stating my taste in ice cream. As a subject, I'm communicating a belief that I hold about an external, objective truth. If you disagreed and said that two plus two equals five, I could claim you were wrong without being accused of an impropriety. In themselves, mathematical equations are either true or false, having one right answer. They do not have a variety of 'right' answers that vary according to individual tastes. If we disagreed on the sum, we'd adjudicate between our two opinions by examining the object itself. Our goal would not be to share our feelings but to find the correct answer, because in this case we believe the truth to be objective 'out there,' not subjective or 'in here.' Subjective truths are based on internal preferences and change according to our whims. Objective truths, in contrast, are realities in the external world that we discover and cannot be changed by our internal feelings. External facts are what they are, regardless of how we feel about them. Doing Their Own Thing Building on our definitions of objective and subjective truth, we can now see that moral relativism is a type of subjectivism. It holds that moral truths are preferences much like our taste in ice cream. The validity of these truths depends entirely on the one who says, 'It's true for me [the subject] if I believe it.' Moral relativism teaches that when it comes to morals, that which is ethically right or wrong, people do their own thing. Ethical truths depend on the individuals and groups who hold them. Believing that ethical truth is subjective, moral relativists therefore react to moral judgments about sexual behaviour, for example, much as if someone said they were wrong because of their choice of desserts: 'Who are you to tell me what I ought to prefer?' To them the words ought and should are meaningless because everyone's morality is equal; no one has a claim to a morality that is incumbent on others. Relativism does not require a particular behaviour for everyone in similar moral situations. When faced with exactly the same ethical situation, I might choose one thing, but you may choose the opposite. No universal rules apply to everyone. Moral relativism is contrasted with moral absolutism, which can mean different things. Minimally, moral absolutism holds that a moral rule is true regardless of whether anyone believes it. It can't be created by personal conviction; nor does it disappear when an individual or culture rejects it. Even if ignored, objective moral rules still maintain their ethical force and are universally binding in all similar cases. Absolutists hold that moral rules are frequently self-evident in the same way that mathematical truth is self-evident. We don't invent morality; we discover it like we discover multiplication tables. Revising the Standard Relativism as a moral system is revisionist because it seeks to redefine what it means to be moral, measuring it by a new standard. Classically, moral systems have had at least three characteristics. First, morality has been viewed as a supremely authoritative guide to action, trumping considerations of preference, taste, custom, self-interest, or individual fancy. Moral questions are among the most important we can ask, holding the highest priority in life. Second, morality includes a prescriptive code of conduct. It doesn't merely describe a state of affairs; it directs how things should be. Moral rules are action guides that carry with them a sense of obligation, defining how people ought to conduct themselves. These injunctions apply not just to actions but to attitudes and motives as well. Third, morality is universal. Moral rules are not arbitrary and personal but are public, applying equally to all people in relevantly similar situations. If a specific act is wrong for one person, then it is equally wrong for another. Eighteenth-century Scottish philosopher David Hume describes the universal nature of morality this way: 'The notion of morals implies some sentiment common to all mankind which recommends the same object to general approbation and makes every man or most men agree in the same opinion or same discussion concerning it. It also implies some sentiments so universal and comprehensive as to extend to all mankind.' These last two characteristics - the 'oughtness' of morality and the universal nature of moral rules - are important criteria. Relativism, however, rejects all universal moral rules and abandons the idea of oughtness. It does not refine our understanding of what morality entails but rather rejects it. Indeed, relativism does not even qualify as an ethical system, we can prove this a couple of ways. No Real Difference What's the difference between a relativist and a person who admits she has no morality at all? There seems to be none. How does a relativist make a moral decision? He decides for himself whatever he thinks is best. How does someone with no morality know how to act? She decides for herself whatever she thinks is best. Even those people with no scruples whatsoever can be said to have 'their own' morality. This illustrates the problem precisely. How can we make sense of an alleged morality that functions the same as not having any morality at all? If a thing cannot be distinguished from its opposite, then the distinction between the two is meaningless. Thus the first reason relativism does not qualify as an ethical viewpoint is that the 'morality' of relativism is no different than having no morality at all. Relativism's Moral Hero Another way to assess the validity of a moral system is to see what kind of person it produces. Given a particular standard of morality, the person who is most moral is the one who practices the specific system's key moral rule consistently. To assess the value of the moral rule, Love your neighbour as yourself, for example, look at the principle in action. When this ethic is practiced consistently, it produces someone like Mother Teresa, who was thoroughly selfless and always gave to others. The moral system is validated by the kind of moral hero that results. The consistent practice of the morality of non-violent passive resistance results in a Mahatma Gandhi. The moral principle requiring perfect obedience to the Father in heaven found its most sublime expression in Jesus of Nazareth. In each case, the quality of the moral hero - the one who most closely lives the ideal - indicates the quality of the moral system. What kind of moral champion does relativism produce? What is the best that relativism has to offer? What do we call those who most thoroughly apply the principles of relativism, caring nothing for others' ideas of right or wrong, those who are unmoved by others' notions of ethical standards and instead consistently follow the beat of their own moral drum? In our society, we have a name for these people; they are a homicide detective's worst nightmare. The quintessential relativist is a sociopath, one with no conscience. This is what relativism produces. Something is terribly wrong with an alleged moral point of view that produces a sociopath as its brightest star. This is another reason relativism does not qualify as an ethical viewpoint. Relativism does not stand in any great moral tradition. Rather, it has been universally rejected by all. The supreme moral teachers of all time - Moses, Jesus, the apostle Paul, Buddha, Aristotle, Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr. - have all condemned this view. Relativism simply is not a moral point of view. Its 'morality' is no different than having no morality at all, its moral hero is a sociopath, and it has been opposed by every moral tradition. Those who are relativists have no morality. Some people will object to this characterization because they wish to keep the label 'moral,' regardless of their ethics. 'How dare you say I have no morality!' they protest. 'I have a morality. I do whatever I please. That's my morality.' That's our point. Those who are relativists do whatever they want, and doing whatever one wants is not morality. Morality is doing what's right, not necessarily what's pleasant. The Myth of Moral Neutrality One of the most entrenched assumptions of relativism is that there is such a thing as morally neutral ground, a place of complete impartiality where no judgments or any 'forcing' of personal views are allowed. Each person takes a neutral posture toward the moral conviction of others. This is the essence of tolerance, the argument goes. Moral neutrality, though, is a myth, as the next illustration shows. Faye Wattleton, the former president of Planned Parenthood, wrote the following piece, 'Self-Definition: Morality.' Like most parents, I think that a sense of moral responsibility is one of the greatest gifts I can give my child. But teaching morality doesn't mean imposing my moral value on others. It means sharing wisdom, giving reasons for believing as I do-and then trusting others to think and judge for themselves. My parents' morals were deeply rooted in religious conviction but tempered by tolerance-the essence of which is respect for other people's views. They taught me that reasonable people may differ on moral issues, and that fundamental respect for others is morality of the highest order. I have devoted my career to ensuring a world in which my daughter, Felicia, can inherit that legacy. I hope the tolerance and respect I show her as a parent is reinforced by the work she sees me doing every day: fighting for the right of all individuals to make their own moral decisions about childbearing. Seventy-five years ago, Margaret Sanger founded Planned Parenthood to liberate individuals from the 'mighty engines of repression.' As she wrote, 'The men and women of America are demanding that ... they be allowed to mold their lives, not at the arbitrary command of church or state but as their conscience and judgment may dictate.' I'm proud to continue that struggle, to defend the rights of all people to their own beliefs. When others try to inflict their views on me, my daughter or anyone else, that's not morality: It's tyranny. It's unfair, and it's un-American. This is impressively and persuasively written, one of the finest expressions of this view available in the space of five short paragraphs. It sounds so sensible, so reasonable, and so tolerant, but there's a fundamental flaw. Wattleton's assessment is based on the notion of neutral ground, a place where one can stand that implies no moral judgment. Wattleton is not neutral, however, as her own comments demonstrate. In her article, Wattleton in effect argues that each of us should respect another's point of view. She then implies, however, that any point of view other than this one is immoral, un-American, and tyrannous. If you disagree with Wattleton's position that all points of view are equally valid, then your point of view is not valid. Her argument self-destructs. In fact, Wattleton seeks to impose her own absolute on other people: 'Fundamental respect for others is morality of the highest order.' This is a personal moral position she strives to mandate politically. She writes, 'I have devoted my career to ensuring a world in which my daughter, Felicia, can inherit that legacy' What legacy? Her point of view. How does she ensure this? By passing laws. Wattleton has devoted her career to ensuring a world in which her point of view is enforced by law. We don't object to the political process being used to enforce a particular point of view. What is so disturbing in Wattleton's article is her implication that she is neutral, unbiased, and tolerant, when she is not. The only place of true neutrality is silence. Speak up, give your opinion, state your view, and you forfeit your claim to neutrality. As a case in point, in May, 1994, Congress passed a law making it a federal offence to block an abortion clinic. Pamela Maraldo, then president of Planned Parenthood, commented to the press, 'This law goes to show that no one can force their viewpoint on someone else.' But the self-contradiction of her statement is obvious. All laws force someone's viewpoint. Moral neutrality seems virtuous, but there's no benefit, only danger. In our culture we don't stop at 'sharing wisdom, giving reasons for believing as [we] do-and then trusting others to think and judge for themselves,' nor should we. This leads to anarchy. Instead we use moral reasoning, public advocacy, and legislation to encourage virtue and discourage dangerous and morally inappropriate behaviour. That is, if we haven't been struck morally paralyzed by relativism. Our Moral Illiteracy Relativism today has produced a profound moral illiteracy. Kelly Monroe, editor of Finding God at Harvard, calls it 'American roulette – "Just Say No" and "Just Do It" without recognition of a moral reality to decide which to do when.' A society held captive by relativism begins to lose its capacity to think in morally coherent ways or even to draw the most obvious ethical conclusions. A perfect example of this comes from a conversation I had with an assistant in a doctor's office. While she prepped me for an examination, I decided to get her opinion about the nature of morality. 'Can I ask you a personal question?' I asked. She paused in her work, uncertain how to respond. 'I'm reading a book on ethics, and I want to know your opinion about something.' 'Oh,' she said. 'Okay.' 'Do you believe that morality is absolute, or do all people decide for themselves?' 'What do you mean by morality?' she asked. 'Simply put, what's right and what's wrong,' I answered. We talked back and forth for a few minutes, and it became evident to me that she was having a difficult time even comprehending the questions I was asking about moral categories. I thought maybe a clear-case example would make the task simpler, a question with an obvious answer, such as, Who is buried in Grant's tomb? or, How long was the Hundred Years War? [Although the answer is not as obvious as it seems (see here), it does have an answer that most people would generally agree on. Ed.] 'Is murder wrong?' I asked. 'Is it wrong to take an innocent human life?' She waffled. 'Well ...' 'Well ... what?' 'Well, I'm thinking.' I was surprised at her hesitation. 'What I'm trying to find out is whether morals, right and wrong, are something we make up for ourselves or something we discover. In other words, do morals apply whether we believe in them or not?' I waited. 'Can we say that taking innocent life is morally acceptable?' 'I guess it depends,' she said tentatively 'Depends on what?' I asked. 'It depends on what other people think or decide.' I'll make this really easy, I thought. 'Do you think torturing babies for fun is wrong? 'Well ... I wouldn't want them to do that to my baby.' 'You've missed the point of my question,' I said, a bit exasperated. 'I may not like burned food, but that doesn't mean giving it to me is immoral. Do you believe there is any circumstance, in any culture, at any time in history, in which torturing babies just for pure pleasure could be justified? Is it objectively wrong, or is it just a matter of opinion?' There was a long pause. Finally she answered, 'People should all be allowed to decide for themselves.' In reflecting on this conversation, I realized that I would never want this woman on a jury. I would never want her as a social worker, as an employee of a bank, as a teacher, as any kind of medical practitioner, or in any branch of law enforcement. I would not want a person who thinks like this in any position of public trust. Sadly, this woman's view of ethics is repeated time after time in every level of society. In reality, if she was awakened in the middle of the night by the plaintive screams of a young child being tormented by her neighbour next door, I'm sure she would be horrified by the barbarism. Her moral intuitions would immediately rise to the surface and she'd recoil at such evil. In a discussion of the issue, however, she seemed incapable of admitting that even this egregious wrong was actually immoral. My conversation with the doctor's assistant shows how muddled a person's thinking can become after a steady diet of moral relativism. John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merill, 1957 ), p.61. Quoted in Hadley Arkes, First Things (Princeton University Press, 1986), p.25. Gregory Koukl is speaking. Relativists sometimes will attempt to universalize a personal moral principle by commending consistency. For example, if people determine that an act is wrong for them in one situation, it is wrong the next time they face that situation. But this depends on the virtue of consistency, which itself depends on an absolute: One ought to be consistent. Some people believe Albert Einstein proved that everything is relative. This, however, is false. Einstein's theories of relativity deal with a number of things, including the problems of absolute simultaneity and the idea of absolute motion. Both theories of relativity (general and special) depend, in part, on something nonrelative. They are based on a fixed constant, the speed of light. Neither theory has any ramifications for the question of morality. See Tom L. Beauchamp, Philosophical Ethics: An Introduction to Moral Philosophy (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991), pp.16-19. David Hume, 'Universal Principle of the Closed Frame', The Enquiry Concerning Morals. Faye Wattleton holds a master's degree in maternal and infant care from Columbia University. The Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act (FACE). Passed in the Senate on 12 May 1994. Kelly Monroe, ed., Finding God at Harvard (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p.18. This is a sample chapter from the book Relativism: Feet Firmly Planted in Mid-Air by Greg Koukl and Francis J. Beckwith.

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- Research article - Open Access Blended learning supported by digital technology and competency-based medical education: a case study of the social medicine course at the Universidad de los Andes, Colombia International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume 13, Article number: 27 (2016) Blended courses supported by digital technology (bLearning) and competency-based medical education can be found in different university curricular reform initiatives around the world. Today, it is essential to implement new technologies and teaching methods that are flexible and encourage students to acquire the necessary professional skills. This article describes how using the bLearning format transformed the Social Medicine course for second-year medical students at Universidad de los Andes (Colombia), particularly their ability to achieve target competencies. A qualitative case study was carried out to explore the curriculum structure, training and skills, educational model and learning environments used during the course. We discuss the methods used, the results achieved, and the challenges encountered during the implementation process. Findings show that bLearning both facilitated the transformation of the course design and promoted flexibility and autonomy in students’ learning process. Additionally, the new format facilitated the development of various competencies including: cognitive, technical and procedural, integrative and communicative, reflection, and professional ones. Blended Learning (bLearning) supported by digital technology and competence-based medical education (CBME) are transforming professional education in the 21st century. Several publications discuss the possibilities and challenges associated with this trend. They show the usefulness of bLearning in making learning more meaningful both at the personal level and at the social level (Hew & Cheung, 2014; Prat-Corominas, Palés-Argullós, Nolla-Domejó, Oriol-Bosch, & Gual, 2010). Information and communication technologies allow for relatively easy access to knowledge in a variety of areas outside of educational institutions (Castells, 2006; Martín-Barbero, 2002). For higher education institutions in particular, the use of this modality provides an opportunity to transform pedagogical approaches, thus allowing students to create knowledge in collaboration with others (Hopenhayn, 2003; Márquez & Jiménez-Rodrigo, 2014) and to understand how to use information in a specific context. Additionally, this creates the need for more flexible learning environments that allow people to acquire knowledge anywhere, anytime, and at their own pace. bLearning, understood as a mixture of face-to-face and distance learning, has become an answer to this need, because it combines and integrates the best strategies of each modality (Galvis & Pedraza, 2013). Numerous cases suggest the benefits of the bLearning modality and the possibilities it offers to boost the development of skills in different disciplines. Sánchez (2015) describes various cases across disciplines in which students from different areas (communication sciences, graphic design, public relations and advertising) who were taking part in a bLearning course were tracked throughout their learning processes. Another study by Aguado, Arranz, Valera-Rubio, and Marín-Torres (2011) describes a program based on this approach which was designed for a group of professionals from a company belonging to the electricity sector. The CBME approach promotes both individual and collaborative knowledge creation thus allowing students to integrate information that will be used in different contexts and experience learning as meaningful. Both of the aforementioned are key aspects of the constructivist paradigm (Prat-Corominas et al., 2010). In other words, this model promotes situated and contextualized learning which prepares students for real life issues consequently acquiring the professional skills that are the goal of CBME (Trujillo & Zambrano, 2015). Additionally, CBME assessment seeks a more complete and authentic approach to evaluating the student’s performance; it applies different strategies and assessment tools that facilitate the observation of student achievement on the proposed professional competencies (Pinilla-Roa, 2013). Although there are several approximations to the implications of CBME, Frank et al. (2010) summarize the principal ideas. CBME has: 1. a curricular structure focusing on outcomes, and measureable skills and development of competencies through the use of clear evaluation criteria; 2. a learner-centered process which places emphasizes on the needs of society and the student’s context; 3. a concern for individual differences of the learner, especially allowing the student to learn at his or her own pace, hence fostering an individual learning process. With regard to the development of competencies, it has been found that developing competencies is more difficult in completely virtual settings than in blended ones. Through reading or participating in forums exclusively fewer people can develop skills such as negotiation techniques or leadership proficiencies (Aguado et al., 2011). As a result, bLearning modalities allow for the combination of online methods with face-to-face learning which boost the development of target competencies. As is described by Turpo (2012), p. 129, “in operational terms, bLearning includes online activities in both its instructional design and in its face-to-face activities both of which are structured pedagogically such that competencies/objectives are achieved” (author translation). These changes in educational and research perspectives have shown that physicians trained under the CBME model have performed better in a globalized world (Frank et al., 2010; Palés-Argullós, Nolla-Domenjó, Oriol-Bosch, & Gual, 2010). Therefore, different resources have been allocated to transform the curriculum designs in medical education. The purpose of this study was to explore the way in which the transformation of the Social Medicine course to a bLearning modality impacted the achievement of target skills in second year medicine students from the Universidad de los Andes (Colombia). The pedagogical transformation and the course learning outcomes will be described in the next sections. The transformation of the social medicine course: bLearning and competence-based learning The course considered for this study was mainly organized around lecture classes in which students were guided through the essential concepts about health, health promotion, disease prevention, and predictors for disease. The revision of the course syllabus emerged from the instructor’s pedagogical reflection about her conceptions and educational practices. This reflection, which was both an individual and collaborative process, was crucial for the improvement of educational practices. The reason for this is that a reflective practice leads the instructor to transform their daily practices and therefore modify students’ learning (Gómez, Ternent de Samper, Alba, & Ghitis, 2013). Initially, we decided to review the course program beginning with the analysis of the core competencies we planned to foster in the students. The methodology and approaches to assessment were adjusted in keeping with the curriculum alignment proposed by Biggs (2006). Later on, the virtual and face-to-face settings were decided upon and a course which promoted autonomy and collaborative work was created. Fourteen face-to-face sessions that lasted two hours each were designed. The course’s key concepts were addressed through workshops, discussion panels with experts, interventions in educational institutions and final papers. Throughout the course, ten two-hour virtual sessions were implemented as well. In these virtual sessions, students completed different tasks that reinforced face-to-face session outcomes. These included videos and readings from visiting professors and student participation in a Wiki, where they displayed their learning using the thinking routine connect-expand-challenge on the reviewed materials (Krechevsky, 2012). It is important to note that students also used the Wiki to construct their project and to carry out the self and peer evaluation of their group work. At a second stage of the implementation, the design was carried out for one semester. Using different methodological strategies, an evaluation process was conducted. Before participating, participants signed an informed consent. The information gathered led to a new adjustment of the program, the face-to-face and online spaces, and also of the digital platform design. This was done with the objective of improving the course’s learning atmosphere and, in consequence, the students’ learning processes. It is important to note that the use of Blackboard®, the virtual platform in which this course is based, changed significantly. Before the pedagogical transformation, it served only as a repository for different readings, to publish assignments, show grades to students and facilitate email exchange between the instructors and the teaching assistants. Thanks to the new design, available Web 2.0 tools were put into use, especially Wikis and teamwork dynamics. This led to better interaction with the available resources and the creation of collaborative work dynamics among students. Communication between students and the team of instructors and teacher’s assistants also improved. Today the course aims at developing four competencies in second-year medicine students (Table 1), and this is accomplished through their participation within two specific projects. In these projects, they have contact with different health problems and risky scenarios in individual, family and community contexts. The methodology used is called Problem-Based Learning Organized by Projects (PBL-OP). The first project consisted in creating an intervention focusing on the promotion of mental health for students from different programs at the Universidad de los Andes. The impetus for this particular intervention was based on a study of social determinants of health and issues that had been prioritized by the Dean of Students and the student body of the university. The second intervention project was based on a case study of a student with learning disabilities at a public high-school in Bogotá. In this case, the ecological model was used on the basis of which the students’ health status could be analyzed. Taking it from there a feasible proposal to both school and families could be developed to improve the students’ well-being. Finally, assessment processes revealed what students had learned in the course and permitted us to monitor the achievement of the target competencies. Assessments were conducted individually and collectively both online and face-to-face throughout the project phase of the course. Each time the students submitted their work, they were provided with an assessment rubric that included specific scoring criteria based on the learning objectives (Tables 2 and 3). The use of these assessment tools led to the early detection of students with low academic performance, which in turn, allowed us to give them timely, appropriate guidance to help them acquire the competencies proposed for the course. The objective of this study is to explore the way the transformation of the Social Medicine course using the bLearning modality helped second-year medicine students of Universidad de los Andes acquire a series of target competencies. A qualitative case study which explored students’ academic transformation and outcomes was conducted (Stake, 2007). According to Stake (2007) and Yin (2009), case studies can provide the researchers with both the uniqueness and complexity of a particular case, thus allowing them to acknowledge the diverse perspectives of those involved in this transformation process. This research was conducted during the first semester of 2015. It drew on three sources of information. First, the key documents of the course were examined (course program, final papers and students’ reflections). Second, semi-structured interviews were designed and carried out with two students, two teaching assistants and two instructors. Focus groups were conducted with three teaching assistants and two groups of four students. Finally, to complement the aforementioned data, an online survey was applied. It was completed by 83 % of the students at the beginning of the semester and by 40 % at the end of the semester. The information gathered through the document analysis and the qualitative methods was transcribed and coded using the categories described below. The categories were created to analyze the curricular structure, the training process, the skills acquired by students, the academic model and the learning environments used in the course. Methodology (pedagogical strategies used during the course) Modality (different components that are part of the bLearning modality) Assessment (different tests and evaluation processes conducted during the course) Competencies (components of the CBME) Instructor’s role (as a learning guide or as a content provider during the course) Student’s role (the students’ involvement in the development of the course as an active learner and builder of knowledge or as a passive learner and recipient of knowledge) To analyze the data, the software ATLAS.ti® Version 7 was used. To analyze and interpret online survey responses, Microsoft Excel® (2013) was used. The data from the different sources was triangulated. Results and discussion In this section, we present the results by category and discuss them in the same order. To address the research objective, we place particular emphasis on findings related to assessment and competencies. Category 1: course methodology The course methodology allowed students to become the protagonists of their own learning process and to fulfill the course objectives through the following projects: “Health Promoting University” and “Case Study of a Child with Learning Disabilities”. Participants highlighted that they became engaged in these projects, not only for academic reasons, but also because it contributed to their professional development. One student commented: Aside from the obvious, like the readings and videos, I believe the strategy that best describes the way I was able to internalize the concepts was the chance to apply them to real life. It’s no use reading about the meaning of health determinants, what they are and what they are for, if I can’t feel them more tangibly (Student Interview). On the other hand, the instructor and the teaching assistants discovered that the implementation of this methodology required them to form teams of students. This meant organizing the teams responsibly by creating team rules, norms for communication and group work, and expectations about solidarity and cooperative leadership so that students could achieve the activities. These characteristics constitute important skills that medicine students must develop within the CBME model (Frank et al., 2010; Prat-Corominas et al., 2010). Category 2: instructional modality The use of the bLearning modality helped students to reach their learning objectives. As stated by Galvis and Pedraza (2013), this approach created a more flexible learning environment in which students could learn in their own time and space, and also at their own pace. Students and teacher’s assistants highlight that the online classwork prepared them for the face-to-face sessions and was complementary to their learning process. Among the most useful strategies were collaborative reading and the accessibility of the contents online, both of which made it possible for students to better comprehend key concepts required to develop the course projects: Through the use of the online resources, I could understand the idea of a Health Promoting University. I was able to comprehend the importance of these dynamics in health promotion strategies […] I understood how these initiatives are crucial in the field of Medicine […] (Student focus group). [Students] worked collaboratively online […] and the face-to-face sessions became so important that it is worth it to attend class (Teacher’s assistant interview). Data also showed that students experienced difficulties when they were not accustomed to the bLearning modality and its requirements. Another finding related to the use of bLearning is that it improved students’ teamwork skills as is shown in the results of the survey in Figs. 1 and 2. Category 3: assessment The assessment process in the course was aligned with the objectives and the methodology (Biggs, 2006). Learning outcomes were determined from student projects and formative assessment was used to help students recognize their strengths and weaknesses as they developed course competencies. I think it’s really positive that the students receive feedback more quickly, especially about smaller tasks, because they can monitor their performance and don’t have to wait until the end of the course to know what they are doing right or wrong (Teacher’s assistant interview). The written exam […] is a completely different kind of evaluation from any other one used in the University because it’s based on cases […] so I had to actually apply the concepts that I have been learning (Student interview). There are many cases in which students do not identify with this methodology. The same thing happens with this new type of evaluation because during students’ academic career, they are mostly evaluated using content-based exams. This is the reason why some students and teaching-assistants in this focus group consider non-traditional evaluations to be a weakness, because without traditional content-based exams they feel unable to realize in how far they meet the course objectives with respect to acquired knowledge. Nevertheless, the results of the evaluation processes show clearly that they did allow the students to achieve the target competencies, as shown in the final grades of the course (Fig. 3). Category 4: competencies The purpose of transforming the approach to this course was to shift from a content-based learning method to a CBME. This change garnered a positive response from the actors involved in this project as the following quote indicates: […] It’s true learning because it transcends theory. This experience made me more human. I managed to feel empathy for the girl, to put myself in her shoes and thanks to this, I gained an understanding that surpasses classes, readings and words (Student’s reflection). Through a PBL-OP approach, students developed different CBME core skills including cognitive, technical, integrative, contextual, relational, affective and moral competencies (Epstein & Hundert, 2002). One reflection recounts that: I understood that there’s a direct link between the patient’s context and his or her health. This relationship is multifactorial and is constituted by many variables like resources, finances, occupation, psychosocial and cultural environments, to mention a few (Student’s reflection). Furthermore, the data analysis shows that other competencies developed involve students’ ability to reflect on their task, their role as physicians and their autonomy. It’s the first time that they as medical students are faced with a person’s problem and that they have to solve it through teamwork. So, they develop new problem-solving abilities and new skills to research what they need to do so (Teacher’s assistants focus group). The learning skills achieved in the projects can be observed in Fig. 4. Finally, the survey showed that most of the students believe they acquired the skills proposed in the course syllabus. This perception corresponds with the results of the course evaluation (see Fig. 5). Category 5: the professor’s role The findings show that for the different parties involved in the Social Medicine course, teachers have a special role that allows them to guide students’ learning processes: […] I think it is respectful to have a role in which I can support them, guide them, and motivate them to learn. The teacher’s assistants have also assumed this role (Professor interview). Likewise, teaching-assistants played an important role in the development of the course projects due to their support of students in face-to-face and online learning spaces: […] After applying this methodology, now [the course] is more dynamic, though it requires more time because teaching-assistants support the students as they develop their projects and we answer questions in a more consistently and closer way (Teacher’s assistants focus group). In the end, many of the students claim that they would like to continue to having this is the type of professor in their medical training. One commented that: I feel very comfortable because this [course] gives us more independence to manage methodologies and time as we do the projects. Since the class focuses on projects, the projects are our ideas and they are not really influenced by the professor […] (Student focus group). Category 6: student’s role It is possible to confirm that the students’ roles have changed with the transformation of the course. The course transformed from one with passive students who were recipients of knowledge, as is typical of traditional teaching models, to one with active students who constructed their own knowledge. This is due to the course’s orientation towards the CBME model, the PBL-OP methodology and the use of the bLearning modality (Fig. 6): I learned a lot from online learning, much more than from face-to-face, because I was completely responsible for my learning process and for being conscious of the objectives of each virtual session (Student’s interview). Based on the results described in the previous section, it is our aim to highlight how the new course design has allowed students to develop the target competencies. These outcomes derive from the alignment between the objectives, the methodology and the assessment (Biggs, 2006). The objectives focus on: the competencies and the PBL-OP methodology combined with the bLearning modality. This particular combination of methodologies conceives of the student as the protagonist and the instructor as a guiding figure who participates actively in the construction of learning. The student’s main role is achieved due to the fact that the PBL-OP approach promoted meaningful learning experiences and also encouraged students to find the course contents meaningful for them (Frank et al., 2010; Prat-Corominas et al., 2010). By the same token, the combination of this methodology with bLearning made it easier for the instructors to monitor their students’ learning processes. This allowed them to observe their strengths and weaknesses in the development of the course competencies. The instructor’s role in the design of learning environments is just as important as the students’ role, as many researchers have suggested (Galvis & Pedraza, 2013; Hew & Cheung, 2014). Considering the new role of the professor in this approach is paramount for the articulation of flexible learning spaces with different resources in both the online and face-to-face settings. Besides this, the instructor facilitates feedback opportunities, which allow students to achieve the target competencies. We can observe that this model promotes learning for many students whereas for others, it is still a difficult model to understand and cope with. Some students feel more comfortable when they are placed in a passive role. They express a tension between having the instructor as a guide and their wish for the professor to continue being a transmitter of knowledge. However, this changes as the students make their learning visible in the completion of course projects. In sum, this article describes the opportunities, difficulties, and challenges faced during the curricular implementation of this course. This CBME course using bLearning and PBL-OP shows that it is possible to combine the approaches approximations in different disciplines and learning environments as is shown in the Colombian foreign language learning experience (González-Moreno, 2011; Mendieta-Aguilar, 2012). In similar fashion, these outcomes also arise in the implementation of the Management and Public Administration curriculum as shown by Márquez and Jiménez-Rodrigo (2014). Finally, the authors of this article believe that these transformations can be achieved in different types of curricula. Yet, whatever the discipline, it is not only a transformation to the methodology and modality that is required: the permanent reflection of the instructor about student learning and educational processes is also fundamental. Aguado, D., Arranz, V., Valera-Rubio, A., & Marín-Torres, S. (2011). Evaluación de un programa de blended-learning para el desarrollo de la competencia trabajar en equipo. Psicothema, 23(3), 356–361. Biggs, J. (2006). Formular y clarificar objetivos curriculares [Teaching for quality learning at university]. In J. Biggs (Ed.), Calidad del Aprendizaje Universitario (pp. 55–77). Madrid: Editorial Narcea. Castells, M. (2006). La revolución de la tecnología de la información. In M. Castells (Ed.), La era de la información: economía, sociedad y cultura (pp. 55–92). Mexico: Siglo XXI Editores. Epstein, R. M., & Hundert, E. M. (2002). Defining and assessing professional competence. 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Cheung (Eds.), Using blended learning: evidence-based practices (pp. 1–39). London: Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-089-6_1 Hopenhayn, M. (2003). Educar para la sociedad de la información y de la comunicación: una perspectiva latinoamericana. Revista Comisión Económica para América Latina, 81, 175–193. Krechevsky, M. (2012). Making Learning Visible: Teachers as Members of the Learning Group. Retrieved on June 17th 2016, from the Early Childhood Development Association of PEI website: https://earlychildhooddevelopment.ca/sites/default/files/u1933/session_2h_handouts.pdf Márquez, E., & Jiménez-Rodrigo, M. L. (2014). Project-based learning in virtual environment: a case study of a university teaching experience. Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento, 11(1), 76–90. Martín-Barbero, J. (2002). La crisis de las profesiones en la sociedad del conocimiento. Nómadas, 16, 177–191. Mendieta-Aguilar, J. A. (2012). Blended learning and the language teacher: a literature review. Colombian Applied Linguistics Journal, 14(2), 163–180. http://dx.doi.org/10.14483/udistrital.jour.calj.2012.2.a10 Palés-Argullós, J., Nolla-Domenjó, M., Oriol-Bosch, A., & Gual, A. (2010). Proceso de Bolonia (I): educación orientada a competencias. Educación Médica, 13(3), 127–135. http://dx.doi.org/10.4321/s1575-18132010000300002 Pinilla-Roa, A. E. (2013). Evaluación de competencias profesionales en salud [Skills assessment in health]. Revista de la Facultad de Medicina, 61(1), 53–70. Prat-Corominas, J., Palés-Argullós, J., Nolla-Domejó, M., Oriol-Bosch, A., & Gual, A. (2010). Proceso de Bolonia (II): educación centrada en el que aprende. Educación Médica, 13(4), 197–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.4321/s1575-18132010000400002 Sánchez, C. (2015). B-learning como estrategia para el desarrollo de competencias. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación, 67(1), 85–100. Stake, R. E. (2007). Investigación con estudio de casos [Reconsidering generalization and theory in case study research]. (R. Filella, Trad) (4tath ed.). Madrid: Ediciones Morata. In Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois. Trujillo, E. M., & Zambrano, Y. (2015). Curriculum evaluation of anesthesia clerkship at the Faculty of Medicine at Los Andes University in Bogotá, Colombia. In preparation for publication. Dissertation for the degree of Magister of Education Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia. Turpo, O. (2012). La modalidad educativa Blended Learning en las universidades de Iberoamérica: Análisis y perspectivas de desarrollo. Educar, 48(1), 123–147. Yin, R. (2009). How to do better case studies. The SAGE handbook of applied social research methods, 2, 254–282. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483348858.n8 About this article Cite this article Trujillo Maza, E.M., Gómez Lozano, M.T., Cardozo Alarcón, A.C. et al. Blended learning supported by digital technology and competency-based medical education: a case study of the social medicine course at the Universidad de los Andes, Colombia. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 13, 27 (2016) doi:10.1186/s41239-016-0027-9 - Blended learning - Competency-based medical education - Project-based learning - Social medicine

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Red Hat Linux Step-by-Step Installation IN THIS CHAPTER Booting the System: The boot: Prompt The Anaconda Installer Using Disk Druid to Partition the Disk Setting Up a Dual-Boot System The X Window System system-config-display: Configuring the Display Chapter 2 covered planning the installation: requirements, an upgrade versus a clean installation, classes of installations, planning the layout of the hard disk, how to obtain the files you need for the installation including how to download and burn ISO (CD) images, and collecting the information about the system you will need during installation. This chapter steps through the process of installing either Red Hat Enterprise Linux or Fedora Core. Frequently, the installation is quite simple, especially if you have done a good job of planning. Sometimes you may run into a problem or have a special circumstance; this chapter gives you the tools to use in these cases. Installing Red Hat Linux To begin most installations, insert the first installation CD into the CD drive and turn on or reset the system. For hard disk and network-based installations, you can use the rescue CD (page 39) in place of the first installation CD. The system boots from the CD and displays a screen of instructions with a boot: prompt at the bottom. Refer to "BIOS setup" on page 25 if the system does not boot from the CD. You cannot boot from a floppy diskette Because most kernels have grown too large to fit on a floppy diskette, you cannot boot from a floppy. You cannot fit a standard Fedora Core 2 (and later) kernel on a floppy diskette. You may be able to fit some Red Hat Enterprise Linux kernels on a diskette. Fedora gives you the option of booting from a USB pen drive using the diskboot.img file. Booting the System: The boot: Prompt Normal installation You can give many different commands at a boot: prompt. If you are installing from CDs, you can generally press RETURN without entering a command to start installing Red Hat Linux. Or you can just wait; if you do not type anything for a minute, the installation proceeds as though you pressed RETURN. Display problems If you have problems with the display during installation, give the following command, which turns off video memory, in response to the boot: prompt: boot: linux nofb SELinux By default, Fedora is installed with SELinux (page 379) turned off. Unless you need a very secure system, you do not need to turn this feature on. Give the following command to install Fedora with SELinux turned on: boot: linux selinux When you give this command to install Fedora, the Firewall screen allows you to set up SELinux (Figure 3-5, page 51). Non-CD installations If you are installing from other than CDs, that is, if you are installing from files on the local hard disk or from files on another system using FTP, NFS, or HTTP, give the following command in response to the boot: prompt: boot: linux askmethod Booting As the system boots, text scrolls on the monitor, pausing occasionally. After a while (up to a few minutes, depending on the speed of the system), the installer displays a graphical or pseudographical display, depending on the system you are installing and the commands you gave at the boot: prompt. The balance of this section covers the commands you can give in response to the boot: prompt. Unless you are having problems with the installation or have special requirements, you can skip to the next section, "The Anaconda Installer" on page 46. All the commands (except for memtest86) you can give in response to the boot: prompt consist of the word linux followed by an argument that is passed to the Anaconda installer. Many of the commands can be combined. For example, to install Linux in text mode using a terminal running at 115,200 baud, no parity, 8 bits, connected to the first serial device, give the following command (the ,115200n8 is optional): boot: linux text console=ttyS0,115200n8 The next command installs Red Hat Linux in graphical mode (by default) on a monitor with a resolution of 1024x768, without probing for any devices. The installation program asks you to specify the source of the installation data (CD, FTP site, or other). boot: linux resolution=1024x768 noprobe askmethod Following are some of the commands you can give at the boot: prompt. Each command must be terminated with RETURN. RETURN Without entering a command, press RETURN in response to the boot: prompt to perform a graphical installation from CDs. This installation probes the computer to determine as much as possible about the hardware. memtest86 FEDORA Calls memtest86 when you boot from a CD only. The GPL-licensed memtest86 utility is a standalone memory test for x86-based computers. Press C to configure the test, ESCAPE to exit. See www.memtest86.com for more information. linux askmethod Gives you a choice of installation sources: local CD or hard drive or over a network using NFS, FTP, or HTTP. - Local CD Displays the CD Found screen, which allows you to test the installation media (the same as if you had just pressed RETURN). - Hard drive Prompts for the partition and directory that contains the ISO images of the installation CDs. - NFS , FTP , or HTTP Displays the Configure TCP/IP screen from which you can select DHCP or enter the system's IP address, netmask, default gateway (IP), and primary nameserver. linux lowres Runs the installation program at a resolution of 640x480. See also linux resolution. linux mem= xxx M Overrides the detected memory size. Replace xxx with the number of megabytes of RAM in the computer. linux mediacheck Tests one or more installation CDs using an MD5 sum. This option works with the CD, DVD, hard drive ISO, and NFS ISO installation methods. For more information, refer to "Check the CDs" on page 47. FEDORA This test is performed automatically during a normal CD installation. linux nofb no framebuffer Turns off the framebuffer (video memory). Useful when problems occur when the graphical phase of the installation starts. Particularly useful for systems with LCD displays. linux noprobe Disables hardware probing for all devices, including network cards (NICs), graphics cards, and the monitor. Forces you to select devices from a list. You must know exactly which cards or chips the system uses when you use this command. Use when probing causes the installation to hang or otherwise fail. This command allows you to give arguments for each device driver you specify. Linux rescue Puts the system in rescue mode; see page 377 for details. linux resolution= WxH Specifies the resolution of the monitor you are using for a graphical installation. For example, resolution=1024x768 specifies a monitor with a resolution of 1024 by 768 pixels. linux selinux FEDORA Enables SELinux (page 379) on the system you are installing. When you give this command to install Fedora, the Firewall screen allows you to set up SELinux (Figure 3-5, page 51). linux skipddc Allows you to configure the monitor manually; see linux noprobe for more information. linux text Installs Linux using pseudographical mode. Although the images on the screen appear to be graphical, they are composed entirely of text characters. linux vnc FEDORA Installs over a VNC (Virtual Network Computing) remote desktop session. After providing an IP address, you can control the installation remotely using a VNC client from a remote computer. You can download the VNC client, which runs on several platforms, from www.realvnc.com. The Anaconda Installer Anaconda, the program that installs Red Hat Linux, is written in Python and C, identifies the hardware, builds the filesystems, and installs or upgrades the Red Hat Linux operating system. Anaconda can run in textual or graphical (default) interactive mode or in batch mode (see "Using the Kickstart Configurator" on page 57). Exactly which screens Anaconda displays depends on whether you are installing Fedora or Red Hat Enterprise Linux and which command(s) you specified following the boot: prompt (preceding). With some exceptions, notably if you are running a text-mode installation, Anaconda starts by probing the video card, monitor, and mouse and by starting a native X server with a log in /tmp/X.log. (This log is not preserved unless you complete the installation.) While it is running, Anaconda opens the virtual consoles (page 103) shown in Table 3-1. You can display a virtual console by pressing CONTROL-ALT-F x where F x is the function key that corresponds to the virtual console number. Table 3-1. Virtual Console Assignments During Installation GUI interactive installation At any time during the installation, you can go virtual console 2 (CONTROL-ALT-F2) and give commands to see what is going on. Do not give any commands that change any part of the installation procedure. Anaconda provides a NEXT button at the lower-right of each of the installation screens and a BACK button next to it on most screens. When you have completed the entries on an installation screen, click NEXT , or, from a text install, press the TAB key until the NEXT button is highlighted and then press RETURN. Select BACK to return to the previous screen. Initially, each of the graphical installation screens is divided into two columns: a narrow help column on the left and information and prompts about the installation on the right. Select the Hide Help button (lower-left) to remove the help column. Select Release Notes (next to Hide Help) to display the release notes for the version of Red Hat Linux you are installing. Following is a list of screens that Anaconda displays during a default installation. It may display different screens depending on what commands you give and choices you make. CD Found FEDORA Allows you to check as many installation CDs as you like, in any order. Choose OK to test the media, Skip to bypass the test. See the preceding TIP. This screen is displayed in pseudotext mode and does not appear in two columns. Use the TAB key to move between choices; press RETURN to select the highlighted choice. During a graphical installation, when you leave the CD Found screen, Anaconda displays messages telling you it is probing for the devices it will use during installation. After probing, it starts the X server. Welcome Displayed after Anaconda obtains enough information to start the X Window System. There is nothing for you to do on this screen except hide the help panel and display the release notes. Select NEXT. Language Selection Select the language you want to use for the installation. This language is not necessarily the same language that the installed system displays. Keyboard Configuration Select the type of keyboard attached to the system. Mouse Displayed only if the type of mouse cannot be determined. Select the type of mouse attached to the system. Mark the Emulate 3 buttons box if you have a two-button mouse and want the system to respond as though you had pressed the middle button when you press the two mouse buttons at the same time. Monitor FEDORA Displayed only if the monitor cannot be probed successfully. Select the brand and model of the monitor attached to the system. Select a generic LCD or CRT display if the monitor is not listed. You can specify the Sync frequencies in place of the monitor brand and model, but be careful: Specifying the wrong values can ruin some older hardware. Upgrade Examine If it detects a version of Red Hat Linux on the hard disk that it can upgrade, Anaconda gives you the choice of upgrading the existing installation or overwriting the existing installation with a new one (Figure 3-1). Refer to "Installing a Fresh Copy or Upgrading an Existing Red Hat System?" on page 26 for help in making this selection. Figure 3-1 Upgrade Examine screen Installation Type FEDORA Select the type of installation you want (Figure 3-2): Personal Desktop, Workstation, Server, or Custom. Refer to "Types of Installations (FEDORA)" on page 27 for help in answering this question. Figure 3-2 Installation Type screen Disk Partitioning Setup Select Automatically partition or Manually partition with Disk Druid. The automatic selection gives you the option of reviewing and changing the partitions Anaconda sets up. For more information, refer to "Using Disk Druid to Partition the Disk" on page 53. Boot Loader Configuration By default, Anaconda installs the grub boot loader (page 514). If you do not want to install a boot loader, click Change boot loader and select Do not install a boot loader. When you install Red Hat Linux on a machine that already runs another operating system, Anaconda frequently recognizes the other operating system and sets up grub so you can boot from either operating system. Refer to "Setting Up a Dual-Boot System" on page 61. You can manually add other operating systems to grub's list of bootable systems by clicking Add and specifying a label and device to boot from. For a more secure system, specify a boot loader password. Network Configuration Specify network configuration information (Figure 3-3). This screen has three frames: Network Devices, Hostname, and Miscellaneous Settings. If you are using DHCP to set up the network interface, you do not need to change anything. Figure 3-3 Network Configuration window The Network Devices frame lists the network devices the installer knows about. Normally, you want network devices to become active when the system boots; remove the mark from the check box at the left of a device if you do not want it to become active when the system boots. To configure a network device manually (not using DHCP), highlight the device and click Edit to the right of the list of devices. Anaconda displays the Edit Interface window (Figure 3-4). Remove the mark from the Configure using DHCP check box and enter the IP address and netmask in the appropriate boxes before clicking OK. Figure 3-4 Network Configuration: Edit Interface window If you are not using DHCP, click manually under Set the hostname and enter the name of the system. When you turn off DHCP configuration in Network Devices, Anaconda allows you to specify a gateway address, and one or more DNS (name-server) addresses. You do not have to specify more than one DNS address, although it can be useful to have two in case one nameserver stops working. Click Next. Firewall Set up a firewall (Figure 3-5). First, select No firewall or Enable firewall. If you select Enable firewall, select the services that you want the firewall to allow to pass through to the system. Selecting WWW (HTTP) does not allow HTTPS (secure HTTP), which is used for secure browser connections to financial institutions and when giving credit card information, through the firewall. Specify https:tcp in Other ports to allow secure HTTP to pass. If you have multiple network devices (one of which may be a dial-up line), you may want to consider one of them to be trusted. Never trust a device connected to the Internet. Put a mark in the check box next to any trusted devices in the box labeled If you would like to allow all traffic from a device, select it below. If Anaconda displays the SELinux combo box shown in Figure 3-5, select the state you want SELinux (page 379) to be in when you start the system. The chapter on iptables (page 737) has information on how to build a more complete and functional firewall. Figure 3-5 Firewall Configuration screen showing SELinux combo box Additional Language Support Select languages that the installed system will support. The default language is the language the system will boot up in. Select as many other languages as you like from the list. Time Zone Specify the time zone the system is located in. Click on a location on the map or scroll through the list and highlight the appropriate selection. Put a mark in the check box if your system clock is set to UTC (page 1004). Root Password Specify the root password. After you specify the root password, Anaconda pauses to read the software package information. Package Installation Defaults In this screen, Anaconda lists the packages it will install by default. Choose Install default software packages to install this list of packages or Customize software packages to be installed to modify the list. Regardless of your selection, you can change which packages are installed on a system at any time; refer to "system-config-packages: Adds and Removes Software Packages" on page 453. Package Group Selection If you choose to accept the default list of software packages (previous screen), Anaconda skips this screen. Select the groups and packages you want to install. For more information, refer to "system-config-packages: Adds and Removes Software Packages" on page 453. About to Install Anaconda displays the About to Install screen just before it starts installing Red Hat Linux on the hard disk. Installing After you press NEXT, Anaconda installs Red Hat Linux. Depending on the number of software packages you are installing, this process can take quite a while. Anaconda keeps you informed of its progress and requests CDs (if you are installing from CDs) as it needs them. When You Reboot When Anaconda instructs you to do so, remove the installation CD if present and reboot the system. The system boots Red Hat Linux and asks a few questions before allowing you to log in. License Agreement First, Anaconda displays the Welcome screen, followed by the License Agreement screen. Select Yes I agree to the License Agreement if you agree with the terms of the licence agreement. Date and time The next screen allows you to set the date and time. Running the Network Time Protocol (NTP) causes the system clock to reset itself periodically from a clock on the Internet. If the system is connected to the Internet, you may want to select Enable Network Time Protocol and choose a server from the combo box. Display Next, Anaconda displays the Display screen, which allows you to specify the resolution and color depth of the monitor. User Account The next screen allows you to set up user accounts. You can set up user accounts now or once the system is fully operational. For more information, refer to "Configuring User and Group Accounts" on page 521. Sound Card The Sound Card window identifies the sound card and has a button that can play a test sound. There is nothing that you can configure from the Sound Card window. Additional CDs Next, the system asks if you have additional CDs for installing more software packages. Finish Setup Finally, from the Finish Setup screen, click NEXT to complete the setup and display the login screen. When you leave the Finish Setup screen, you are done with the installation. You can use the system and set it up as you desire. You may want to customize the desktop as explained in Chapters 4 and 8 or set up servers as discussed in Part V of this book. After booting the system, log in as, or su to, root and update the whatis database so that whatis (page 137) and apropos (page 137) work properly. Then update the slocate database so that slocate works properly. (The slocate [secure locate] utility allows you to index and search for files on your system quickly and securely.) Instead of updating these databases when you install the system, you can wait for cron to run them overnight, but whatis, apropos, and slocate will not work until the next day. The best way to update these databases is to run the cron scripts that run them daily. Working as root, give the following commands: # /etc/cron.daily/makewhatis.cron # /etc/cron.daily/slocate.cron These utilities run for up to several minutes and may complain about not being able to find a file or two. When you get the prompt back, your whatis and slocate data-bases are up-to-date.

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He set out to create a power method that was cheap, easy to obtain (or build), easy to move and could use a constant source of power to create energy - meaning no dependency on sun, gas or wind. He now uses this power source to drastically cut electricity bills and keep his family safe in times of crisis. We have the potential to produce all of our electricity from clean energy sources Today, we have the technology and the know-how to move beyond our dependence on polluting power plants by using clean, safe, and free renewable energy. By harnessing the potential of zero point magnetic energy, we can transform how we produce electricity. A clean energy future will rely not just on renewable energy, but also on better use of the energy we currently produce. By making the energy we produce last longer, or by increasing "energy efficiency," we can avoid the need for new polluting power plants. We can increase energy efficiency by using available technologies that do the same amount of work but use less energy, like a computer that goes to sleep when it's not in use. I'm talking about a simple device that can be used by any family around the world and can even change the course of the entire energy industry! Over the past year over 17000 people have also already successfully used the very same technique to get over tragic milestones such as hurricanes, snow storms or floods. Based on technology we use on a daily basis, not only can it generate enough power to last through long harsh winters when temperatures outside go below zero, but it can ameliorate your power bill all year long. I'm sure you're already intrigued and you want to know all about how this system works. Take the quiz to find out! 8 Tips to #Minimize Your Electrical Power Expense in an Apartment Or Condo Infographic Substitute your sky filter. Readjust your hot water heater temp. 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Skye, or the Isle of Skye, is the largest and northernmost of the major islands in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. The island's peninsulas radiate from a mountainous centre dominated by the Cuillin, the rocky slopes of which provide some of the most dramatic mountain scenery in the country. Although it has been suggested that the Gaelic Sgitheanach describes a winged shape there is no definitive agreement as to the name's origins; the island has been occupied since the Mesolithic period, its history includes a time of Norse rule and a long period of domination by Clan MacLeod and Clan Donald. The 18th century Jacobite risings led to the breaking up of the clan system and subsequent Clearances that replaced entire communities with sheep farms, some of which involved forced emigrations to distant lands. Resident numbers declined from over 20,000 in the early 19th century to just under 9,000 by the closing decade of the 20th century. Skye's population increased by 4 per cent between 1991 and 2001. About a third of the residents were Gaelic speakers in 2001, although their numbers are in decline, this aspect of island culture remains important. The main industries are tourism, agriculture and forestry. Skye is part of the Highland Council local government area; the island's largest settlement is Portree, its capital, known for its picturesque harbour. There are links to various nearby islands by ferry and, since 1995, to the mainland by a road bridge; the climate is mild and windy. The abundant wildlife includes red deer and Atlantic salmon; the local flora are dominated by heather moor, there are nationally important invertebrate populations on the surrounding sea bed. Skye has provided the locations for various novels and feature films and is celebrated in poetry and song; the first written references to the island are Roman sources such as the Ravenna Cosmography, which refers to Scitis and Scetis, which can be found on a map by Ptolemy. One possible derivation comes from skitis, an early Celtic word for winged, which may describe how the island's peninsulas radiate out from a mountainous centre. Subsequent Gaelic-, Norse- and English-speaking peoples have influenced the history of Skye. Various etymologies have been proposed, such as the "winged isle" or "the notched isle" but no definitive solution has been found to date. In the Norse sagas Skye is called Skíð, for example in the Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar and a skaldic poem in the Heimskringla from c. 1230 contains a line that translates as "the hunger battle-birds were filled in Skye with blood of foemen killed". The island was referred to by the Norse as Skuy, Skýey or Skuyö; the traditional Gaelic name is An t-Eilean Sgitheanach, An t-Eilean Sgiathanach being a more recent and less common spelling. In 1549 Donald Munro, High Dean of the Isles, wrote of "Sky": "This Ile is callit Ellan Skiannach in Irish, to say in Inglish the wyngit Ile, be reason it has mony wyngis and pointis lyand furth fra it, throw the dividing of thir foirsaid Lochis." But the meaning of this Gaelic name is unclear. Eilean a' Cheò, which means island of the mist, is a poetic Gaelic name for the island. At 1,656 square kilometres, Skye is the second-largest island in Scotland after Harris. The coastline of Skye is a series of peninsulas and bays radiating out from a centre dominated by the Cuillin hills. Malcolm Slesser suggested that its shape "sticks out of the west coast of northern Scotland like a lobster's claw ready to snap at the fish bone of Harris and Lewis" and W. H. Murray, commenting on its irregular coastline, stated that "Skye is sixty miles long, but what might be its breadth is beyond the ingenuity of man to state". Martin Martin, a native of the island, reported on it at length in a 1703 publication, his geological observations included a note that: There are marcasites black and white, resembling silver ore, near the village Sartle: there are in the same place several stones, which in bigness, shape, &c. resemble nutmegs, many rivulets here afford variegated stones of all colours. The Applesglen near Loch-Fallart has agate growing in it of different colours. Stones of a purple colour flow down the rivulets here after great rains. The Black Cuillin, which are composed of basalt and gabbro, include twelve Munros and provide some of the most dramatic and challenging mountain terrain in Scotland. The ascent of Sgùrr a' Ghreadaidh is one of the longest rock climbs in Britain and the Inaccessible Pinnacle is the only peak in Scotland that requires technical climbing skills to reach the summit; these hills make demands of the hill walker that exceed any others found in Scotland and a full traverse of the Cuillin ridge may take 15–20 hours. The Red Hills to the south are known as the Red Cuillin, they are composed of granite that has weathered into more rounded hills with many long scree slopes on their flanks. The highest point of these hills is one of only two Corbetts on Skye; the northern peninsula of Trotternish is underlain by basalt, which provides rich soils and a variety of unusual rock features. The Kilt Rock is named after the tartan-like patterns in the 105 metres cliffs; the Quiraing is a spectacular series of rock pinnacles on the eastern side of th Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asian continent and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and the Philippine Sea in the south; the kanji that make up Japan's name mean "sun origin", it is called the "Land of the Rising Sun". Japan is a stratovolcanic archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands; the four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido and Shikoku, which make up about ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area and are referred to as home islands. The country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions, with Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one; the population of 127 million is the world's tenth largest. 90.7 % of people live in cities. About 13.8 million people live in the capital of Japan. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous metropolitan area in the world with over 38 million people. Archaeological research indicates; the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions China, followed by periods of isolation from Western Europe, has characterized Japan's history. From the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shōguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a long period of isolation in the early 17th century, ended in 1853 when a United States fleet pressured Japan to open to the West. After nearly two decades of internal conflict and insurrection, the Imperial Court regained its political power in 1868 through the help of several clans from Chōshū and Satsuma – and the Empire of Japan was established. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, victories in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War and World War I allowed Japan to expand its empire during a period of increasing militarism; the Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the Japanese surrender. Since adopting its revised constitution on May 3, 1947, during the occupation led by SCAP, the sovereign state of Japan has maintained a unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy with an Emperor and an elected legislature called the National Diet. Japan is a member of the ASEAN Plus mechanism, UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the G20, is considered a great power. Its economy is the world's third-largest by nominal GDP and the fourth-largest by purchasing power parity, it is the world's fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer. Japan benefits from a skilled and educated workforce. Although it has renounced its right to declare war, Japan maintains a modern military with the world's eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a developed country with a high standard of living and Human Development Index, its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, but is experiencing issues due to an aging population and low birthrate. Japan is renowned for its historical and extensive cinema, influential music industry, video gaming, rich cuisine and its major contributions to science and modern technology; the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, pronounced Nihon or Nippon and means "the origin of the sun". The character nichi means "sun" or "day". The compound therefore means "origin of the sun" and is the source of the popular Western epithet "Land of the Rising Sun"; the earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, the Old Book of Tang. At the end of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan requested that Nihon be used as the name of their country; this name may have its origin in a letter sent in 607 and recorded in the official history of the Sui dynasty. Prince Shōtoku, the Regent of Japan, sent a mission to China with a letter in which he called himself "the Emperor of the Land where the Sun rises"; the message said: "Here, I, the emperor of the country where the sun rises, send a letter to the emperor of the country where the sun sets. How are you". Prior to the adoption of Nihon, other terms such as Yamato and Wakoku were used; the term Wa is a homophone of Wo 倭, used by the Chinese as a designation for the Japanese as early as the third century Three Kingdoms period. Another form of Wa, Wei in Chinese) was used for an early state in Japan called Nakoku during the Han dynasty. However, the Japanese disliked some connotation of Wa 倭, it was therefore replaced with the substitute character Wa, meaning "togetherness, harmony"; the English word Japan derives from the historical Chinese pronunciation of 日本. The Old Mandarin or early Wu Chinese pronunciation of Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. In modern Shanghainese, a Wu dialect, the pronunciation of characters 日本; the old Malay word for Japan, Japun or Japang, was borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect Fukienese or Ningpo – and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Southeast Asia in the 16th century. These Early Portuguese traders brought the word Israel the State of Israel, is a country in Western Asia, located on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. It has land borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan on the east, the Palestinian territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip to the east and west and Egypt to the southwest; the country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israel's economic and technological center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, although the state's sovereignty over Jerusalem has only partial recognition. Israel has evidence of the earliest migration of hominids out of Africa. Canaanite tribes are archaeologically attested since the Middle Bronze Age, while the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah emerged during the Iron Age; the Neo-Assyrian Empire destroyed Israel around 720 BCE. Judah was conquered by the Babylonian and Hellenistic empires and had existed as Jewish autonomous provinces. The successful Maccabean Revolt led to an independent Hasmonean kingdom by 110 BCE, which in 63 BCE however became a client state of the Roman Republic that subsequently installed the Herodian dynasty in 37 BCE, in 6 CE created the Roman province of Judea. Judea lasted as a Roman province until the failed Jewish revolts resulted in widespread destruction, expulsion of Jewish population and the renaming of the region from Iudaea to Syria Palaestina. Jewish presence in the region has persisted to a certain extent over the centuries. In the 7th century CE, the Levant was taken from the Byzantine Empire by the Arabs and remained in Muslim control until the First Crusade of 1099, followed by the Ayyubid conquest of 1187; the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt extended its control over the Levant in the 13th century until its defeat by the Ottoman Empire in 1517. During the 19th century, national awakening among Jews led to the establishment of the Zionist movement in the diaspora followed by waves of immigration to Ottoman Syria and British Mandate Palestine. In 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency, rejected by Arab leaders; the following year, the Jewish Agency declared the independence of the State of Israel, the subsequent 1948 Arab–Israeli War saw Israel's establishment over most of the former Mandate territory, while the West Bank and Gaza were held by neighboring Arab states. Israel has since fought several wars with Arab countries, since the Six-Day War in 1967 held occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and the Gaza Strip, it extended its laws to the Golan East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories is the world's longest military occupation in modern times. Efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in a final peace agreement. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have been signed. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a democratic state. The country has a liberal democracy, with a parliamentary system, proportional representation, universal suffrage; the prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature. Israel is a developed country and an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development member, with the 32nd-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2017; the country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentages of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. Israel has the highest standard of living in the Middle East, has one of the highest life expectancies in the world. Furthermore, Israel ranked 11th in the UN's 2018 World Happiness Report. Upon independence in 1948, the country formally adopted the name "State of Israel" after other proposed historical and religious names including Eretz Israel and Judea, were considered but rejected. In the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term "Israeli" to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have been used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel and the entire Jewish people respectively; the name "Israel" in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, according to the Hebrew Bible, was given the name after he wrestled with the angel of the Lord. Jacob's twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. Jacob and his sons had lived in Canaan but were forced by famine to go into Egypt for four generations, lasting 430 years, until Moses, a great-great grandson of Jacob, led the Israelites back into Canaan during the "Exodus"; the earliest known archaeological artifact to mention the word "Israel" as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith. Under British Mandate, the whole region was known as Palestine (Hebre Herring are forage fish belonging to the family Clupeidae. Herring move in large schools around fishing banks and near the coast; the most abundant and commercially important species belong to the genus Clupea, found in shallow, temperate waters of the North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans, including the Baltic Sea, as well as off the west coast of South America. Three species of Clupea are recognised, provide about 90% of all herrings captured in fisheries. Most abundant of all is the Atlantic herring. Fishes called herring are found in the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal. Herring played a pivotal role in the history of marine fisheries in Europe, early in the 20th century, their study was fundamental to the evolution of fisheries science; these oily fish have a long history as an important food fish, are salted, smoked, or pickled. A number of different species, most belonging to the family Clupeidae, are referred to as herrings; the origins of the term "herring" is somewhat unclear, though it may derive from the Old High German heri meaning a "host, multitude", in reference to the large schools they form. The type genus of the herring family Clupeidae is Clupea. Clupea contains three species: the Atlantic herring found in the north Atlantic, the Pacific herring found in the north Pacific, the Araucanian herring found off the coast of Chile. Subspecific divisions have been suggested for both the Atlantic and Pacific herrings, but their biological basis remains unclear. In addition, a number of related species, all in the Clupeidae, are referred to as herrings; the table below includes those members of the family Clupeidae referred to by FishBase as herrings which have been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. A number of other species are called herrings, which may be related to clupeids or just share some characteristics of herrings. Just which of these species are called herrings can vary with locality, so what might be called a herring in one locality might be called something else in another locality; some examples: The species of Clupea belong to the larger family Clupeidae, which comprises some 200 species that share similar features. These silvery-coloured fish have a single dorsal fin, soft, without spines. They have a protruding lower jaw, their size varies between subspecies: the Baltic herring is small, 14 to 18 cm. At least one stock of Atlantic herring spawns in every month of the year; each spawns at place. Greenland populations spawn in 0–5 m of water, while North Sea herrings spawn at down to 200 m in autumn. Eggs are laid on the sea bed, on rock, gravel, sand or beds of algae. Females may deposit from 20,000 to 40,000 eggs, according to age and size, averaging about 30,000. In sexually mature herring, the genital organs grow before spawning, reaching about one-fifth of its total weight; the eggs sink to the bottom, where they stick in layers or clumps to gravel, seaweed, or stones, by means of their mucous coating, or to any other objects on which they chance to settle. If the egg layers are too thick they suffer from oxygen depletion and die, entangled in a maze of mucus, they need substantial water microturbulence provided by wave action or coastal currents. Survival is highest in crevices and behind solid structures, because predators feast on exposed eggs. The individual eggs are 1 to 1.4 mm in diameter, depending on the size of the parent fish and on the local race. Incubation time is about 40 days at 3 °C, 15 days at 7 °C, or 11 days at 10 °C. Eggs die at temperatures above 19 °C; the larvae are 5 to 6 mm long at hatching, with a small yolk sac, absorbed by the time the larvae reach 10 mm. Only the eyes are well pigmented; the rest of the body is nearly transparent invisible under water and in natural lighting conditions. The dorsal fin forms at 15 to 17 mm, the anal fin at about 30 mm —the ventral fins are visible and the tail becomes well forked at 30 to 35 mm — at about 40 mm, the larva begins to look like a herring; the larvae are slender and can be distinguished from all other young fish of their range by the location of the vent, which lies close to the base of the tail, but distinguishing clupeoids one from another in their early stages requires critical examination telling herring from sprats. At one year, they are about 10 cm long, they first spawn at three years. Herrings consume copepods, arrow worms, pelagic amphipods and krill in the pelagic zone. Conversely, they are a central prey forage fish for higher trophic levels; the reasons for this success is still enigmatic. Herring feed on phytoplankton, as they mature, they start to consume larger organisms, they feed on zooplankton, tiny animals found in oceanic surface waters, small fish and fish larvae. Copepods and other tiny crustaceans are the most common zooplankton eaten by herring. During daylight, herring stay in the safety of deep water, feeding at the surface only at night when the chance of being seen by predators is less, they swim along with their mouths open, fi Kyoto Kyoto City, is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture, located in the Kansai region of Japan. It is best known in Japanese history for being the former Imperial capital of Japan for more than one thousand years, as well as a major part of the Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe metropolitan area. In Japanese, Kyoto was called Kyō, Miyako, or Kyō no Miyako. In the 11th century, the city was renamed Kyoto, from the Chinese calligraphic, jingdu. After the city of Edo was renamed Tokyo in 1868, the seat of the Emperor was moved there, Kyoto was for a short time known as Saikyō. Kyoto is sometimes called the thousand-year capital; the National Diet never passed any law designating a capital. Foreign spellings for the city's name have included Kioto and Meaco, utilised by Dutch cartographers. Another term used to refer to the city in the pre-modern period was Keishi, meaning "urba" or "capital". Ample archaeological evidence suggests human settlement in Kyoto began as early as the Paleolithic period, although not much published material is retained about human activity in the area before the 6th century, around which time the Shimogamo Shrine is believed to have been established. During the 8th century, when powerful Buddhist clergy became involved in the affairs of the Imperial government, Emperor Kanmu chose to relocate the capital in order to distance it from the clerical establishment in Nara. His last choice for the site was the village of Uda, in the Kadono district of Yamashiro Province; the new city, Heian-kyō, a scaled replica of the Tang capital Chang'an, became the seat of Japan's imperial court in 794, beginning the Heian period of Japanese history. Although military rulers established their governments either in Kyoto or in other cities such as Kamakura and Edo, Kyoto remained Japan's capital until the transfer of the imperial court to Tokyo in 1869 at the time of the Imperial Restoration; the city suffered extensive destruction in the Ōnin War of 1467–1477, did not recover until the mid-16th century. During the Ōnin War, the shugo collapsed, power was divided among the military families. Battles between samurai factions spilled into the streets, came to involve the court nobility and religious factions as well. Nobles' mansions were transformed into fortresses, deep trenches dug throughout the city for defense and as firebreaks, numerous buildings burned. The city has not seen such widespread destruction since. In the late 16th century, Toyotomi Hideyoshi reconstructed the city by building new streets to double the number of north-south streets in central Kyoto, creating rectangle blocks superseding ancient square blocks. Hideyoshi built earthwork walls called odoi encircling the city. Teramachi Street in central Kyoto is a Buddhist temple quarter where Hideyoshi gathered temples in the city. Throughout the Edo period, the economy of the city flourished as one of three major cities in Japan, the others being Osaka and Edo; the Hamaguri rebellion of 1864 burnt down 28,000 houses in the city which showed the rebels' dissatisfaction towards the Tokugawa Shogunate. The subsequent move of the Emperor to Tokyo in 1869 weakened the economy; the modern city of Kyoto was formed on April 1, 1889. The construction of Lake Biwa Canal in 1890 was one measure taken to revive the city. The population of the city exceeded one million in 1932. There was some consideration by the United States of targeting Kyoto with an atomic bomb at the end of World War II because, as an intellectual center of Japan, it had a population large enough to persuade the emperor to surrender. In the end, at the insistence of Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of War in the Roosevelt and Truman administrations, the city was removed from the list of targets and replaced by Nagasaki; the city was spared from conventional bombing as well, although small-scale air raids did result in casualties. As a result, the Imperial City of Kyoto is one of the few Japanese cities that still have an abundance of prewar buildings, such as the traditional townhouses known as machiya. However, modernization is continually breaking down the traditional Kyoto in favor of newer architecture, such as the Kyōto Station complex. Kyoto became a city designated by government ordinance on September 1, 1956. In 1997, Kyoto hosted the conference. Kyoto is located in a valley, part of the Yamashiro Basin, in the eastern part of the mountainous region known as the Tamba highlands. The Yamashiro Basin is surrounded on three sides by mountains known as Higashiyama and Nishiyama, with a height just above 1,000 metres above sea level; this interior positioning results in cold winters. There are three rivers in the basin, the Ujigawa to the south, the Katsuragawa to the west, the Kamogawa to the east. Kyoto City takes up 17.9% of the land in the prefecture with an area of 827.9 square kilometres. The original city was arranged in accordance with traditional Chinese feng shui following the model of the ancient Chinese capital of Chang'an; the Imperial Palace faced south. The streets in the modern-day wards of Nakagyō, Shimogyō, Kamigyō-ku still follow a grid pattern. Today, the main business district is located to the south of the old Imperial Palace, with the less-populated northern area retaining a fa Judaism is the religion of the Jewish people. It is an ancient, Abrahamic religion with the Torah as its foundational text, it encompasses the religion and culture of the Jewish people. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenant that God established with the Children of Israel. Judaism encompasses a wide body of texts, theological positions, forms of organization; the Torah is part of the larger text known as the Tanakh or the Hebrew Bible, supplemental oral tradition represented by texts such as the Midrash and the Talmud. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth largest religion in the world. Within Judaism there are a variety of movements, most of which emerged from Rabbinic Judaism, which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah; this assertion was challenged by various groups such as the Sadducees and Hellenistic Judaism during the Second Temple period. Modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic. Today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism, Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between these groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition, the significance of the State of Israel. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin and unalterable, that they should be followed. Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism promoting a more traditionalist interpretation of Judaism's requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Special courts enforced Jewish law. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, but in the sacred texts and the rabbis and scholars who interpret them. The history of Judaism spans more than 3,000 years. Judaism has its roots as an organized religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions; the Hebrews and Israelites were referred to as "Jews" in books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title "Children of Israel". Judaism's texts and values influenced Abrahamic religions, including Christianity and the Baha'i Faith. Many aspects of Judaism have directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law. Hebraism was just as important a factor in the ancient era development of Western civilization as Hellenism, Judaism, as the background of Christianity, has shaped Western ideals and morality since Early Christianity. Jews are an ethnoreligious group including those born Jewish, in addition to converts to Judaism. In 2015, the world Jewish population was estimated at about 14.3 million, or 0.2% of the total world population. About 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and another 43% reside in the United States and Canada, with most of the remainder living in Europe, other minority groups spread throughout Latin America, Asia and Australia. Unlike other ancient Near Eastern gods, the Hebrew God is portrayed as solitary. Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism: the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of mankind. According to the Tanakh, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation. Many generations he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God, he commanded the Jewish people to love one another. These commandments are but two of a large corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, the substance of Judaism. Thus, although there is an esoteric tradition in Judaism, Rabbinic scholar Max Kadushin has characterized normative Judaism as "normal mysticism", because it involves everyday personal experiences of God through ways or modes that are common to all Jews; this is played out through the observance of the Halakha and given verbal expression in the Birkat Ha-Mizvot, the short blessings that are spoken every time a positive commandment is to be fulfilled. The ordinary, everyday things and occurrences we have, constitute occasions for the experience of God. Such things as one's daily sustenance, the day itself, are felt as manifestations of God's loving-kindness, calling for the Berakhot. Kedushah, nothing else than the imitation of God, is concerned with daily conduct, with being gracious and merciful, with keeping oneself from defilement by idolatry and the shedding of blood; the Birkat Ha-Mitzwot evokes the consciousness of holiness at a rabbinic rite, but the objects employed in the majority of these rites are non-holy and of general character, while the several holy objects are non-theurgic. And not only do ordinary things and occurrences bring with them the experience of God. Everything that happens to a man evokes that exp Shinto or kami-no-michi is the traditional religion of Japan that focuses on ritual practices to be carried out diligently to establish a connection between present-day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written historical records of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the 8th century. Still, these earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified religion, but rather to a collection of native beliefs and mythology. Shinto today is the religion of public shrines devoted to the worship of a multitude of "spirits", "essences" or "gods", suited to various purposes such as war memorials and harvest festivals, applies as well to various sectarian organizations. Practitioners express their diverse beliefs through a standard language and practice, adopting a similar style in dress and ritual, dating from around the time of the Nara and Heian periods; the word Shinto was adopted as Jindō or Shindō, from the written Chinese Shendao, combining two kanji: shin, meaning "spirit" or kami. The oldest recorded usage of the word Shindo is from the second half of the 6th century. Kami is rendered in English as "spirits", "essences", or "gods", refers to the energy generating the phenomena. Since the Japanese language does not distinguish between singular and plural, kami refers to the singular divinity, or sacred essence, that manifests in multiple forms: rocks, rivers, objects and people can be said to possess the nature of kami. Kami and people are not separate; as much as nearly 80% of the population in Japan participates in Shinto practices or rituals, but only a small percentage of these identify themselves as "Shintoists" in surveys. This is. Most of the Japanese attend Shinto shrines and beseech kami without belonging to an institutional Shinto religion. There are no formal rituals to become a practitioner of "folk Shinto". Thus, "Shinto membership" is estimated counting only those who do join organised Shinto sects. Shinto has about 85,000 priests in the country. According to surveys carried out in 2006 and 2008, less than 40% of the population of Japan identifies with an organised religion: around 35% are Buddhists, 3% to 4% are members of Shinto sects and derived religions. In 2008, 26% of the participants reported visiting Shinto shrines, while only 16.2% expressed belief in the existence of a god or gods in general. According to Inoue: "In modern scholarship, the term is used with reference to kami worship and related theologies and practices. In these contexts,'Shinto' takes on the meaning of'Japan's traditional religion', as opposed to foreign religions such as Christianity, Islam and so forth." Shinto religious expressions have been distinguished by scholars into a series of categories: Shrine Shinto, the main tradition of Shinto, has always been a part of Japan's history. It consists of taking part in worship events at local shrines. Before the Meiji Restoration, shrines were disorganized institutions attached to Buddhist temples; the current successor to the imperial organization system, the Association of Shinto Shrines, oversees about 80,000 shrines nationwide. Imperial Household Shinto are the religious rites performed by the imperial family at the three shrines on the imperial grounds, including the Ancestral Spirits Sanctuary and the Sanctuary of the Kami. Folk Shinto includes the numerous folk beliefs in spirits. Practices include divination, spirit possession, shamanic healing; some of their practices come from Buddhism, Taoism or Confucianism, but most come from ancient local traditions. Sect Shinto is a legal designation created in the 1890s to separate government-owned shrines from local organised religious communities; these communities originated in the Edo period. The basic difference between Shrine Shinto and Sect Shinto is that sects are a development and grew self-consciously, they can identify a founder, a formal set of teachings and sacred scriptures. Sect Shinto groups are thirteen, classified under five headings: pure Shinto sects, Confucian sects,mountain worship sects, purification sects, faith-healing sects (Kurozumikyo／黒住教, Konkokyo/金光教 and its branching Omotokyo/大本教 and Tenrikyo／天理教. Koshintō, literally'Old Shinto', is a reconstructed "Shinto from before the time of Buddhism", today based on Ainu religion and Ryukyuan practices. It continues the restoration movement begun by Hirata Atsutane. Many other sects and schools can be distinguished. Faction Shinto is a grouping of Japanese new religions developed since the second half of the 20th century that have departed from traditional Shinto and are not always regarded as part of it. Kami, shin, or, jin is defined in English as "god", "spirit", or "spiritual essence", all these terms meaning "the energy generating a thing". Since the Japanese language does not distinguish between singular and plural, kami refers to the divinity, or sacred essence, that manifests in multiple forms. Rocks, rivers, objects, places

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There are numerous issues to consider when choosing a camera for astrophotography. Consideration must be given to the type of astrophotography of interest, the specifications of the chosen telescope, and the camera style, technology and sensor specifications. This document addresses these issues in general terms and illustrates specifics based on an example telescope, a Celestron CPC 1100 GPS XLT. Objects of Interest The two types of astrophotography investigated in this document are planetary imaging and deep space object (DSO) photography. Planets and DSOs have unique characteristics that demand different approaches for capturing aesthetically pleasing images. The two characteristics that most influence the employed methodologies are apparent size and brightness. The apparent size of celestial objects are measured in arc-seconds. The celestial sphere, like a circle, has an angular circumference of 360°, read as 360 degrees. Each degree can be subdivided into 60’, read as 60 arc-minutes, and each arc-minute can be subdivided into 60”, read as 60 arc-seconds. For reference the apparent size of our sun and moon are approximately 32’ or 1920”. The planets range in apparent size from Neptune at 2.21” up to Jupiter at 40.95”. In comparison DSOs in the Messier Catalog range in apparent size from M40 at 48” up to M31 at 10,680” or 178’. The apparent brightness of celestial objects are measured in magnitude (m) as observed from earth. The brightness of an object can be measured in various wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. We’ll restrict our interest to the visible spectrum where magnitudes are denoted mv. Brighter objects have lower magnitudes, it’s an inverse relationship. The brightest object in the sky is the sun at magnitude -27 or mv = -27. The magnitude scale is logarithmic. A difference in magnitude of 1 is equivalent to a change in brightness by a factor of or approximately 2.512. The magnitudes of the planets range from Neptune at mv = 7.96 up to that of Venus at mv = -3.86. However, the most imaged planets range in brightness from Mars at mv = 0.56 up to Venus at mv = -3.86. In comparison the DSOs in the Messier Catalog range in magnitude from M91 at mv = 10.2 up to M45 at mv = 1.6. However the second brightest item in the Messier Catalog is M7 at mv = 3.3, illustrating that M45 is a bright exception. With regard to astrophotography, the planets are very small and relatively bright objects, while DSOs are huge in comparison and very dim. These differences lead to different imaging strategies which in turn influence equipment configuration and technology choices. There are many types and sizes of telescopes. This document will not attempt to describe the various types or their strengths and weaknesses. Instead, it will cover basic configuration parameters that impact the imaging of planets and DSOs. From the previous discussion it should be clear that a large field of view is important for imaging DSOs and high magnification is essential for photographing the planets. These are competing requirements in terms of telescope specifications. The aperture of a telescope is the width of the primary mirror or lens. Larger apertures are capable of resolving finer detail and collecting more light, resulting in lower exposure times. The focal length is the distance from the primary mirror or lens to where the image is focused. Longer focal lengths result in more magnification and narrower fields of view. The f-number, or speed of the telescope, is determined by dividing the focal length by the aperture. For a given aperture, planetary imaging demands a large f-number where high magnification is obtained. For imaging DSOs a low f-number yields less magnification and a greater field of view. Astrophotographers acquire telescopes with as much aperture as they can afford and physically handle. Those photographing DSOs tend to acquire moderately sized apochromatic (APO) refractor based telescopes with f-numbers in the f/5.6 to f/7 range. They often add a focal reducer to further decrease the effective f-number. Those photographing planets tend to acquire telescopes with longer focal lengths and employ Barlow lenses to increase the focal length by a factor of 2, 3 and even 5. Telescopes like the Celestron CPC 1100 GPS XLT have a large 280mm aperture. The Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope (SCT) design results in a focal length of 2800mm and an f-number of f/10. This configuration results in a narrow field of view and relatively long exposure times for faint DSOs. The addition of a Barlow lens to this configuration results in a system that is ideal for planetary imaging. Fortunately, Celestron included a removable secondary mirror to the CPC 1100 system that can be replaced by a lens system called Fastar or Hyperstar. These systems convert the telescope from a relatively slow f/10 system to a fast f/2 imaging system. In this configuration the CPC 1100 has a focal length of 560mm and a huge field of view of just over 2.76°. This convertible feature makes the CPC 1100 useful for both planetary and DSO imaging. There are many choices to be made when selecting a camera for astrophotography. These choices include the camera form factor, the sensor technology and detailed specifications such as sensor size, pixel depth and pixel size. Camera Form Factors While there are commercially available cameras specifically deigned for astrophotography, many photographers use modified DSLR cameras. The beneficial modification entails removing the infrared filter that sits permanently over the sensor of the camera. This renders the camera less than useful for regular photography, but allows the camera to be more sensitive to the wavelength of light produced by Hydrogen-alpha emission nebulae. These cameras may be used with nearly any telescope, but when placed in front of the optical path, using a system like Fastar or Hyperstar, the size and shape of the camera may block an unacceptable amount of light and introduce diffraction artifacts in captured images. Many dedicated astrophotography cameras have better form factors that permit them to be connected within the optical path without negatively impacting the amount of light entering the system. In addition, many of these cameras are cooled, reducing sensor noise and increasing the quality of the finished results. However, these cameras have connected cables that introduce unwanted diffraction patterns in images. Sensor Technology – CCD or CMOS Commercially available astrophotography cameras are available with CCD and CMOS sensors. CCD sensors have an edge over CMOS sensors in image quality, but CCD sensors have slower read speeds. High read speeds increase the frames per second (fps) that can be acquired by a camera. High frame rates are particularly important in planetary photography using lucky imaging techniques. This methodology requires many frames per second be taken in the hope of collecting images, or portions of images, less distorted by atmospheric turbulence. CMOS sensors are better suited for this technique. For DSO photography the read speed is less important, but can reduce the overall session time. The near infrared portion of the spectrum is important in DSO photography and CCD sensors are more sensitive than CMOS sensors in this area. However, CMOS sensors, found in modified DSLR and commercially available astrophotography cameras, are adequate in this area and cost far less for the same pixel count. The remainder of this document will focus on CMOS sensor based technologies. To determine necessary camera specifications it is important to understand what is trying to be imaged. The next sections will describe the imaging of stars and how this impacts camera sensor specifications. Stars are far enough away and small enough in comparison to their distances from earth to be considered points of light. Ideally, these points of lights should be focused to points within an optical system, but due to diffraction and atmospheric turbulence they are not. Due to diffraction, the smallest point to which a mirror or lens can focus a point source of light is the size of what is known as an Airy disk. The Airy pattern, named after George Biddell Airy, has a bright central region, the Airy disk, surrounded by concentric bright rings. A graphical representation of an Airy pattern is shown to the right. As a mirror or lens focuses a star, it will appear as an Airy pattern to the observer. In this case the vertical axis represents the intensity of the observed star light and the horizontal axis is a measure of the dimeter of the Airy pattern. There is a lower limit to the diameter of an Airy disk for a particular mirror or lens. An optical system that has reached this level of perfection is said to be diffraction limited. Reducing system imperfections beyond this point do not reduce the diameter of the Airy disk. The radius of the Airy disk is approximately described by the following equation: where is the radius of the Airy disk in radians, is the wavelength of light in meters and is the diameter of the mirror or lens in meters. Our example telescope (a Celestron CPC 1100 SCT) is diffraction limited and has an aperture of 280mm. In ideal conditions this optical system would produce an Airy disk with a diameter of 0.97” for visible light with a wavelength of 540nm. So an ideal 280mm diffraction limited telescope, without an atmosphere between it and the observed star, would produce an Airy disk with a diameter of 0.97”. Our atmosphere distorts star light traveling through it. These distortions often occur more than 100 times per second. For long photographic exposures (greater than a few seconds) this movement of the Airy disk results in a larger disk know as a point spread function or seeing disk. This disk is similar in shape to the Airy disk, actually a two-dimensional normal distribution, and its width, generally defined as the full width at half maximum (FWHM), is a measure of the seeing conditions. The best seeing from high altitude mountain observatories is reported to be approximately 0.4”. Most observers seem extremely content with FWHM of 1”, happy with FWHM of 2” and 3” and stop work above 4”. In the next section we’ll use a FWHM equivalent to the diameter of the Airy disk to determine the sensor requirements to accurately represent images captured during perfect observing conditions. If seeing is worse than ideal, the chosen sensor characteristics will be more than adequate. Sensor and Pixel Size CMOS sensors are available in a range of sizes with each containing a different number of light collecting elements or pixels. The size of the sensor and the number of pixels determine the pixel size. Sensor size is important because it influences the field of view (FOV) of collected images. Pixel size is important to ensure that the light from each star strikes enough pixels to be sampled properly. The field of view of a telescope and sensor combination is described by the following equation. where is the real field of view in radians, is the size of the sensor in one dimension, measured in meters, and is the focal length of the optical system also measured in meters. The field of view of a single pixel is, where is the size of the sensor in one dimension measured in meters, is the number of pixels in the same dimension and is the focal length of the optical system in meters. The ratio of to is simply the pixel size, . Nyquist sampling indicates that we need at least two samples of the seeing disk, or the Airy disk in our ideal case, to accurately represent it. Two samples is what is required of one-dimensional signals like audio, but for a two-dimensional system, like the one at hand, it is more like 3.3. In other words, should be 1/2 to 1/3 the diameter of the Airy disk. We’ll use 1/2 for the remainder of this work which is equal to the Airy disk’s radius. Solving this equation for and recognizing that divided by aperture is equal to the of the system results in, For an f/2 optical system at 540nm, the ideal pixel size is 1.32µm while the same system operating at f/10 would have an ideal pixel size of 6.59µm. It is unlikely the seeing conditions will ever approach the ideal and will more likely result in FWHM values of between 2” and 4”. At these values the ideal pixel sizes for an f/2 system would be 2.72µm and 5.44µm respectively. For an f/10 system they would be 13.59µm and 27.22µm respectively. Three commercially available CMOS sensors include the MN34230, IMX294, and the IMX071. These sensors have pixel sizes of 3.8µm, 4.63µm and 4.78µm respectively. These sensor pixels are not quite small enough to offer the ideal sampling at f/2 with good seeing, are satisfactory for imaging in poorer conditions and are more than adequate for imaging at higher f-numbers. In addition, beautiful images can be obtained without reaching these sampling goals, which are often less important for aesthetically pleasing pictures than a large field of view. With a focal length of 560mm these sensors yield fields of view of 1.81°, 1.95° and 2.41° respectively. Sensor Dynamic Range Each pixel of a CMOS sensor can only collect so much light energy before it reaches its maximum value or saturation. This point is called full well capacity. When a pixel value is read, it returns the measured intensity of light that struck the pixel and a small error. This read error (and dark current noise) subtracted from the full well capacity represents the dynamic range of the pixel and associated sensor. We’re assuming here that for cooled astrophotography cameras the dark current impact is negligible. This may not be the case, but for comparison purposes it is a reasonable approximation. High dynamic range is a desirable feature. When light strikes a pixel in a CMOS sensor it generates a voltage. This voltage is sampled by an analog to digital converter that translates the voltage into a binary number. The set of binary numbers representing all pixels on the sensor represent the collected image. The number of bits representing each pixel defines how well subtle tonal changes in a scene will be preserved. More bits representing each pixel will result in a final image that is a better representation of the original scene. Typical sensors use 8-14 bits to represent each pixel. Typically the larger a sensor is in terms of the number of pixels, the slower the read speed. Some sensors permit partitioning allowing portions of the sensor to be read, increasing speed. Read speed is related to frames per second that can be captured. Planetary imaging using lucky imaging techniques require many frames per second. Typical large CMOS sensors have full sensor read speeds between 10 and 30 frames per second. Reduced resolution reads can be done much faster. Commercially Available Cameras While there are many commercially available astrophotography cameras from numerous vendors, this document will illustrate just a few. The following table illustrates the specifications for cameras based on the MN34230, IMX294, and IMX071 CMOS sensors. Two of the cameras are based on the same sensor, but have slightly different specifications. In the next section we’ll consider which characteristic of each camera is a best match for our application. |ASI1600MC Pro||ASI294MC Pro||ASI071MC Pro||QHY168C| |Resolution||16MP 4656 x 3520||11.3MP 4144 x 2822||16MP 4944 x 3284||16MP 4952 x 3288| |Sensor Size||17.7 x 13.4mm||19.1 x 13mm||23.6 x 15.6mm||23.6 x 15.6mm| |Capture Speed||23 FPS||19 FPS||10 FPS||10 FPS| |Read Noise||1.2 - 3.6e||1.2 - 7.3e||2.3 - 3.3e||2.3 - 3.3e| |Full Well Capacity||20000e||63700e||46000e||46000e| |Dynamic Range (no dark current)||75 db||79 db||83 db||83 db |ADC||12 bits||14 bits||14 bits||14 bits| |Memory Buffer||256MB DDRIII||256MB DDRIII||256MB DDRIII||128MB DDRII| |FOV @ 560mm FL||1.81° x 1.37°||1.95° x 1.33°||2.41° x 1.6°||2.41° x 1.6°| |FOV per Pixel @ 560mm FL||1.4"||1.69"||1.75"||1.75"| In this section we’ll consider each CMOS camera illustrated in the previous table and how it fits our application. We desire a camera that will be useful for DSO imaging in conjunction with a Fastar or Hyperstar system connected to a CPC 1100 GPS XLT telescope. We would also like to use the same camera for planetary imaging connected to the same telescope in its f/10 configuration augmented with Barlow lenses to increase the f-number to f/20 or f/30. Each of the four cameras are cylindrical in shape with diameters that are less than the diameter of the secondary mirror of the Celestron CPC 1100 telescope. In other words, none of the cameras obstruct the useful aperture and all have the same cabling, causing unwanted diffraction. These cameras will also connect fine in the f/10 configuration. Sensor and Pixel Size In the f/2 configuration, with perfect seeing, we could use a pixel size of 1.32µm, but with realistic expectations of FWHM of 3”, Nyquist requires a pixel size of 4.08µm. Only the ASI1600MC Pro has a pixel size that meets this requirement. In the f/10 configuration, all of the cameras meet Nyquist’s requirement. In fact, the large pixel size of the two cameras using the IMX071 sensor would meet the sampling requirement down to f/7, using a focal reducer, with perfect conditions, and lower under realistic seeing. Dynamic Range and ADC The larger pixels of the ASI294MC Pro, ASI071MC Pro and the QHY168C result in higher full well capacities that in turn result in potentially better dynamic range. This is particularly important when operating at f/2 when bright stars within the large field of view may quickly saturate some pixels. In addition, these three cameras also have 14 bit ADCs that may result in slightly more accurate images. The four cameras range in speed from a low of 10 fps to a high of 23 fps. However, each is capable of higher speeds at lower resolutions. For example, the QHY168C is capable of frame rates as high as 130 fps for 240 lines of resolution and 30 fps for 1920 x 1080 HD. These rates should be adequate for useful planetary imaging in good seeing conditions. In this section we’ll refer to data in the above table and point out meaningful characteristics that are best met by the associated camera. The camera with the best pixel size that approaches proper sampling is the ASI1600MC Pro. However, none of the cameras have small enough pixels to meet the demands of Nyquist’s sampling requirements for ideal seeing conditions. As previously stated, beautiful images can be obtained without reaching the Nyquist sampling goals and these goals are often less important than obtaining a large field of view. Since the field of view is directly related to the sensor size, the ASI071MC Pro and the QHY168C are the big winners. Their fields of view are nearly 1/2° wider than the next best camera. In addition, these two cameras have better dynamic range and have the same size ADCs. In comparing the ASI071MC Pro and the QHY168C, the ASI071MC Pro has a larger memory buffer made of DDRIII instead of DDRII memory. It also achieves a slightly cooler temperature which should further increase its dynamic range beyond that of the QHY168C. The ASI071MC Pro includes a 2-port USB 2.0 hub, is 60g lighter and insignificantly smaller. Finally, the QHY168C is currently $181 less expensive than the ASI071MC Pro. The following table illustrates the components that are necessary to use the Celestron CPC 1100 GPS XLT telescope for astrophotography. Note that the additional $181 for the ASI071MC Pro adds only 5% to the total cost of the project. This seems reasonable given the slight feature advantages it has over its competitor. |Celestron HD Wedge||$350||$350| The convertible feature of the Celestron CPC 1100 GPS XLT telescope makes the system useful for imaging planets in its f/10 configuration, while its f/2 configuration, using Fastar or Hyperstar, yields a massive 2.7° field of view for imaging DSOs. While none of the reviewed cameras have small enough pixels to satisfy Nyquist sampling requirements for theoretical seeing conditions in the f/2 configuration, two of the four are adequate and yield 2.4° fields of view. For planetary imaging these two cameras easily meet the sampling requirements and have fast enough frame rates to support lucky imaging techniques. While the cost of the ASI071MC Pro is slightly higher than the QHY168C, the ASI071MC Pro reaches cooler temperatures, has a USB hub that may reduce wiring congestion, is 60g lighter and is slightly smaller. Overall, the ASI071MC Pro is our best fit.

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Allergic Rhinitis Ebook Allergic rhinitis (hay fever) is part of an inherited syndrome, which may also manifest as atopic eczema and asthma. In allergic rhinitis, airborne particles, such as grass pollens, moulds and animal allergens, are deposited on the nasal mucosa giving rise to acute and chronic reactions. Allergens combine with the IgE antibodies produced by the plasma cells of the nasal mucosa, which are avidly bound to the Fc-epsilon receptors on mast cells. This triggers degranulation of mast cells and releases the inflammatory mediators of the type I hyper-sensitivity reaction, causing rhinorrhoea and nasal obstruction. Microscopically, the nasal mucosa shows numerous eosinophils, abundant plasma and in some cases an increased number of mast cells. There is goblet cell Several early studies evaluated the role of IgE in patients with a variety of allergic diseases ( 29,30 and 31). Adults and children with allergic rhinitis and extrinsic asthma tend to have higher total serum IgE concentrations. About half of such patients have total IgE concentrations that are two standard deviations above the mean of a normal control group. Significant overlap of total serum IgE concentrations in normal subjects and in patients with allergic asthma and hay fever has been demonstrated (Fig 3.3). Therefore, the total serum IgE concentration is neither a specific nor sensitive diagnostic test for the presence of these disorders. Total serum IgE has been found to be markedly elevated in atopic dermatitis, with the serum IgE concentration correlating with the severity of the eczema and with the presence of allergic rhinitis, asthma, or both. Patients with atopic dermatitis without severe skin disease or accompanying asthma or hay fever may have normal IgE concentrations... In type I, or immediate, hypersensitivity, allergen interacts with IgE antibody on the surface of mast cells and basophils, resulting in the cross-linking of IgE, FceRI receptor apposition, and mediator release from these cells. Only a few allergen molecules, interacting with cell-bound IgE, lead to the release of many mediator molecules, resulting in a major biologic amplification of the allergen-IgE antibody reaction. Clinical examples include anaphylaxis, allergic rhinitis, and allergic asthma. Leukotrienes are potent and possess a broad spectrum of biologic activity (43). They induce wheal-and-flare responses that are long lived and are accompanied histologically by endothelial activation and dermal edema. In the airway, they enhance mucus production and cause bronchoconstriction, especially by affecting peripheral units. In humans, LTD4 is most active, LTC4 is intermediate, and LTE4 is the least potent. LTE4 has been implicated as an inducer of nonspecific bronchial hyperreactivity. It has been suggested that LTD4 augments airway remodeling (44), possibly by stimulating matrix metalloproteinase release or activity. All depress cardiac muscle performance and diminish coronary flow rates. LTC4 and LTD4 have been recovered from nasal washings and bronchial lavage fluids of patients with allergic rhinitis or asthma, whereas LTE4 has been recovered from the urine. Amb a 1 consists of two fragments, named A and B. These fragments are not bound covalently and are dissociated readily, which results in a significant loss of allergenic activity. Recombination of these polypeptide chains does not restore allergenic activity, presumably because the steric conformation is not readily restored. Amb a 1 is resistant to enzymatic degradation, suggesting that readily accessible amino or carboxyl groups are not the principal immunologic determinants. Interestingly, 10-fold more Amb a 1 is extractable in vitro at the pH of nasal secretions from patients with allergic rhinitis (pH 7 to 8), than at the pH of nasal secretions from nonatopic individuals (pH 6.3) (13). In addition to the short ragweed allergens just described, an allergen from giant ragweed (A trifida), Amb t V (Ra 5G), has been identified (58). Other allergens that cause allergic rhinitis have been purified from additional weeds. These include Sal p 1 from S pestifer (Russian thistle) (59), Par... The effects of ozone on lung function have been investigated extensively. Ozone is generated by the action of ultraviolet light on precursor pollutants from such sources as automobiles and power plants. Ozone causes decreased FEV-, and forced vital capacity as well as increases in bronchial hyperresponsiveness in both asthmatics and nonasthmatics at concentrations as low as the National Ambient Air Quality Standard of 0.12 ppm ( 277). A few studies have suggested that ozone increases allergen responsiveness associated with both asthma and allergic rhinitis. Subjects given 3 hours of exposure to 0.25 ppm of ozone required less allergen to have a significant decrease in FEV-, (279). A similar effect was noted after 7.6 hours of exposure to 0.16 ppm ozone (2.80). Nitrogen oxides from car emissions also may play a role, although the evidence in controlled exposures is less convincing than for ozone ( 2.8.1). Watson WTA, Simons KJ, Chen XY, et al. Cetirizine a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluation in children with seasonal allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1989 84 457. 46. Chu TJ, Yamate M, Biedermann AA, et al. One versus twice daily dosing of terfenadine in the treatment of seasonal allergic rhinitis US and European studies. Ann Allergy 1989 63 12. 67. Wong L, Hendeles L, Weinberger M. Pharmacologic prophylaxis of allergic rhinitis relative efficacy of hydroxyzine and chlorpheniramine. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1981 67 223. 68. Schaaf L, Hendeles L, Weinberger M. Suppression of seasonal allergic rhinitis symptoms with daily hydroxyzine. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1979 3 129. 69. Empey DW, Bye C, Hodder M, et al. A double-blind crossover trial of pseudoephedrine and triprolidine alone and in combination, for the treatment of allergic rhinitis. Ann Allergy 1975 34 41. 70. Diamond L, Gerson K, Cato A, et al. An evaluation of triprolidine and pseudoephedrine in the treatment of... Extensive evidence has accumulated that may define the underlying immunologic basis for the atopic phenotype, that is, individuals with allergic asthma, allergic rhinitis, and atopic eczema (24). The atopic condition can be viewed as a TH2 lymphocyte-driven response to allergens of complex genetic and environmental origins (36). The reciprocal action of IL-4 and IFN-g on IgE production led to several studies on the T-cell origin of these cytokines. Mosmann and Coffman ( 37) described two distinct types of helper T cells in murine systems and defined them as TH1 or TH2 cells by the pattern of cytokine secretion. TH1 cells produced IL-2, IFN-g, and lymphotoxin. TH2 cells produced IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, and IL-10. Second-generation antihistamines are available only as oral formulations. They all have convenient once- or twice-daily dosing ( 10,1.7) (Iab e.,5.,4). Studies have reported that a single dose of terfenadine (120 mg) or fexofenadine (180 mg) is equally effective as 60 mg given twice a day in improving allergic rhinitis symptom scores and suppressing histamine-induced wheal-and-flare responses (46,47). Astemizole and loratadine should be injected on an empty stomach to avoid problems with absorption. All three agents have comparable antihistaminic potency to each another and to first-generation antihistamines. Tolerance to antihistamines is a common concern of patients taking these agents chronically. This phenomenon has been speculated to occur because of autoinduction of hepatic metabolism, resulting in an accelerated clearance rate of the antihistamine ( 103). However, studies have failed to confirm this hypothesis, and most reports of tolerance to antihistamines are now believed to be secondary to patient noncompliance because of intolerable drug side effects or breakthrough symptoms due to severity of disease (104,105,106 and 107). Short-term studies evaluating tolerance to second-generation agents have found no change in their therapeutic efficacy after 6 to 8 weeks of regular use (108,109). Studies up to 12 weeks found no evidence that second-generation agents cause autoinduction of hepatic metabolism leading to rapid excretion rates and drug tolerance (42). The clinical efficacy of these agents in the skin and treatment of allergic rhinitis does not decrease with chronic use. The discovery of H-, receptor antagonists has proved to be a significant breakthrough in the treatment of allergic diseases. Chemical modifications of these early agents have yielded the second-generation antihistamines, which are of equal antagonistic efficacy but have fewer side effects because of their lipophobic structures. Newer nonsedating antihistamines, which are metabolites or isomers of existing agents, are now under development. H 2 receptor antagonists have been found extremely useful in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease. However, they have been disappointing in the treatment of allergic and immunologic disorders in humans. Newer selective nonsedating H-, antagonists and dual-action antihistamines, because of their lower side-effect profiles, have provided therapeutic advantages over first-generation agents for long-term management of allergic rhinitis. Scanning electron photomicrographs of early spring airborne hay fever-producing pollen grains 1, pine (Pinus) 2, oak (Quercus) 3, birch (Betula) 4, sycamore (Platanus) 5, elm (Ulmus) 6, hackberry (Celtis) 7, maple (Acer) 8, willow (Salix) 9, poplar (Populus). (Courtesy of Professor James W. Walker.) Most of these trees are dioecious and produce large quantities of round pollen grains 20 to 30 mm in diameter with a thick intine (internal membrane). The mountain cedar is an important cause of allergic rhinitis in certain parts of Texas and has proliferated where the ecosystem has been disturbed by overgrazing of the grasslands. The bald cypress may be a minor cause of allergic rhinitis in Florida. Trees Angiosperms These trees produce large amounts of highly allergenic pollen. Pecan trees in particular are important in the etiology of allergic rhinitis where they grow or are cultivated. The pollen grains are 40 to 50 pm in diameter and usually contain three germinal pores. Early and late summer airborne hay fever-producing pollen grains 1, timothy (Phleum) 2, orchard grass (Dactylis) 3, lambs quarter's (Chenopodium) 4, plantain (Plantago) 5, goldenrod (Solidago) 6, ragweed (Ambrosia). (Courtesy of Professor James W. Walker.) Sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum) is an important cause of allergic rhinitis in areas where it is indigenous. In the total picture of grass allergy, however, it is not as important as the species previously mentioned. The pollen grains are 38 to 45 pm in diameter. Was there trauma to the nose Allergic rhinitis can cause itching and subsequent rubbing of the nose, traumatizing mucosa. Prior trauma from a direct blow on the nose may cause septal injury and bleeding. A dry environment causes crusting, and young children may be prone to picking the nose, irritating septal mucosa. Unilateral foul or purulent nasal discharge suggests a foreign body. In hospitalized patients, indwelling nasal tubes or suction trauma may injure mucosa and promote bleeding. Preventive measures are essential in order to avoid barotrauma of the external and middle ear, the labyrinth, and the sinus. Repetitive Valsalva and or Frenzel maneuvers help to keep open the Eustachian tube which equalizes middle-ear and ambient pressure. Individuals suffering from upper respiratory infections or allergic rhinitis, which cause dysfunction of the Eustachian tube and produce edema of the mucosa around the sinus orifices, should avoid scuba diving. Treatment involves the use of analgesics, antihistamines, and vasoconstrictors. Antibiotics should be used if the tympanic membrane is ruptured ( Kizer.1995). Acute conjunctivitis should be distinguished from the group of allergic forms of conjunctivitis, which can be due to seasonal influences and often affect the nasal mucosa. Examples include allergic conjunctivitis (hay fever Fig.4.17) and vernal conjunctivitis. In giant papillary conjunctivitis, the inflammation is triggered by a foreign body (hard or soft contact lenses. There may also be an additional chronic microbial irritation such microbial contamination of contact lenses. Phlyctenular keratoconjunctivitis is a delayed allergic reaction to microbial proteins or toxins (staphylococcal inflammation). This disease occurs frequently in atopic individuals and is promoted by poor hygiene. The cardinal rule in allergic conjunctivitis is to avoid the causative agent. Desensitization should be performed as a prophylactic measure by a dermatologist or allergist. Long-term treatment includes cromoglycic acid eyedrops to prevent mast cell degranulation. Treatment of acute allergic con- Fig.... The most common cutaneous illness associated with abnormal processing of HPV is atopic dermatitis, although some studies have not supported an increased incidence. A recent study from the United Kingdom demonstrated that cervical cancer is more common in eczema patients and patients who acquire common warts. However, this study suggests that non-atopic eczemas, such as seborrheic dermatitis, may be the type associated with cervical cancers, as hay fever, an illness commonly co-morbid with atopic eczema, was not statistically correlated to cervical cancer 31 . Although cromolyn sodium (Intal) and nedocromil sodium (Tilade) are widely known for their ability to prevent the release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators by mast cells during the early response to antigen challenge, these drugs have a wide variety of inhibitory effects on many cell types, including eosinophils, neutrophils, monocytes, and neurons. Cromolyn sodium and nedocromil sodium are used as pulmonary inhalants in the treatment of asthma. Nasal (Nasalcrom) and ophthalmic (Opticrom) preparations of cromolyn sodium can be used to reduce the symptoms of allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis. More detailed information on these compounds may be found in Chapter 39. Nasal obstruction contributes to the worsening of sleep-disordered breathing, but the extent to which this might be related to allergic rhinitis is not known. One case-control study did show that sleep apnea patients had a higher rate of perennial allergic rhinitis and atopy than controls (104). An allergic reaction is simply the overresponse of the immune system to a specific stimulus, usually environmental. This stimulus is called an antigen. There are 4 basic types of allergic reactions. We are all very familiar with the type 1 response. This reaction is seen as a result of hay fever, bee stings, cats, dogs, or even medications. It is the cause of the itchy, watery eyes, and runny nose many of us experience each spring when we cut the grass or stroll through the park. A brief look at the cause of this response will help us better understand the treatment of these conditions. Pulmonary features in allergic angiitis and granulomatosis are related to underlying asthma which is present in all patients. A phasic pattern of allergic angiitis and granulomatosis syndrome has been described initial allergic rhinitis, evolving into asthma and followed by peripheral blood eosinophilia, eosinophilic tissue infiltrates, and ultimately vasculitis. A study of 154 patients with allergic angiitis and granulomatosis revealed the following 84 males, average age of 28 years at onset of allergic rhinitis, average age of 35 years at onset of asthma, and average age of 38 years when vasculitis was diagnosed. Other observations included a mean peak eosinophil count of 12.9 * 109 l, anemia in 83 per cent, granulomas in 40 per cent, tissue eosinophilia in 50 per cent, and vasculitis in more than 70 per cent. Chest radiograph abnormalities are present in over 60 per cent of patients and include patchy and occasionally diffuse alveolar-interstitial infiltrates in the perihilar area.... Individuals with a history of atopy, hay fever, rhinitis, asthma or eczema. In a number of reports examining latex allergy in various populations, atopy was one of the significant predisposing risk factors. In a study of latex sensitization in a low-risk pediatric population, Bernardini et al. reported that all the children with latex sensitization were atopic whereas only 29 percent of non-sensitized subjects had positive skin prick responses to environmental or food allergens.48 Liss et al. demonstrated a five-fold increase in positive skin tests among atopic health care workers compared to non-atopic workers.43 Allergen immunotherapy is effective in patients with allergic rhinitis. Allergy treatment begins with identification of allergens, institution of avoidance procedures and administration of medication. Immunotherapy may be considered if other measures fail. Bacterial rhinosinusitis usually follows a viral infection or allergic rhinitis, and the most commonly involved agents are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis 11, 34 . A dense inflammatory infiltrate mainly made of neutrophils occupies the lamina propria. Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis usually resolves with antibiotic therapy. Complications are rare and include contiguous infectious involvement of the orbit or central nervous system. Nasal congestion is a common side effect of CPAP therapy (53). Although most patients experience initial self-limiting nasal congestion, at least 10 complain of persistent nasal stuffiness of some degree after six months of therapy (54). There appear to be many possible reasons for nasal symptoms. CPAP may provoke pressure-sensitive mucosal receptors, leading to vasodilation and increased mucus production. In some patients, it may unmask allergic rhinitis by restoring the nasal route of breathing after years of mouth breathing. In others, fixed nasal obstruction with polyps or a deviated septum may produce symptoms. Mouth leaks also cause increased nasal resistance (55). Keys to locating an active source of anterior bleeding or intranasal foreign body are adequate light, appropriate instruments, cooperative patient, and skilled assistance. Assess color and texture of mucosa. Clear secretions, boggy turbinates, and bluish mucosa are seen in patients with allergic rhinitis. Hypersensitivity reactions are immunological reactions that cause tissue damage. Type I hypersensitivity reactions mediated by cell-bound IgE antibodies occur immediately after exposure to antigen. The reactions are caused by the release of mediators from mast cell granules. Localized anaphylactic reactions include hives, hay fever, and asthma generalized reactions lead to anaphylactic shock. Immunotherapy is directed toward Tens of millions of people suffer from pollen allergies, one cause of hay fever. Hay fever is an allergic reaction that results in sneezing, a runny nose, and watering eyes. Pollen allergies occur at three seasons. In early spring, deciduous trees, such as oak, ash, birch, and sycamore release pollen. In late spring or early summer, it is mainly wild and pasture grasses that cause allergy problems. Of the cereal crops, only rye pollen seems to be an important cause of allergies. In late summer and fall, the highly allergenic pollen of ragweeds, shown in Figure 27-11, affects many people. Contrary to popular belief, large, colorful flowers do not cause hay fever. Pollen that causes allergies comes from small, drab flowers that are wind-pollinated. There are two types of histamine receptors H1 and H2. H2 receptors cause an increase in gastric secretions and are not involved in this response. The differences are illustrated in the charts. (See Antihistamine (H1 blocker) chart and Antihistamine Use to Treat Allergic Rhinitis chart.) Antihistamine Used to Treat Allergic Rhinitis Antihistamine Used to Treat Allergic Rhinitis (continued) Sinus problems, hay fever, bronchial asthma, hives, eczema, contact dermatitis, food allergies, and reactions to drugs are all allergic reactions associated with the release of histamine and other autocoids, such as serotonin, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins. Histamine release is frequently associated with various inflammatory states and may be increased in urticarial reactions, mas-tocytosis, and basophilia. Histamine also acts as a neu-rotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS). Upon release from its storage sites, histamine exerts effects ranging from mild irritation and itching to ana-phylactic shock and eventual death. By promoting the formation of T lymphocytes, thymic factors are used to enhance T-lymphocytic functions. Thymic factors have been used with some success in clinical trials in patients with severe combined immunodeficiency, DiGeorge's or Nezelof's syndrome, and viral disorders. Studies with thymodulin show promise in treating symptoms in asthmatics and patients with allergic rhinitis. The primary consideration in the use of thymic factors for immunodeficiency states is the presence of T-lymphocyte precursors. Atopy is an underlying disease syndrome which has been consistently connected with dermatophytosis. A high proportion of chronically infected individuals, over 40 in some surveys, have hay fever, asthma, or atopic eczema either on personal or family history (Hay, 1982 Jones et al., 1973). In addition a high proportion of individuals seen in dermatological clinics with peripheral dermatophyte infection either have negative or immediate-type hypersensitivity to dermatophyte antigens on intradermal testing. Increased prevalence of immediate-type responses to intra-dermally injected antigens is also a feature of atopic subjects. There is also evidence that some individuals with persistent dermatophytosis may also have sensitivity to environmental moulds suggesting a modified (atopic) immunological response to a family of antigens. An allergy is the body's reaction to a substance that may be harmless in itself but the immune system misidentifies and treats it as a pathogen. Antibodies, called immunoglobulin E or IgE, react by attacking the substance and in the process histamine is released by the surrounding cells which causes an allergic reaction. The allergic reaction may include itchy nose and throat, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, skin irritations, hay fever, hives, asthma, high blood pressure, abnormal fatigue, constipation, or hyperactivity. A severe reaction called anaphylactic .shock will swell the larynx, obstruct the airway, and may be fatal. This is an emergency situation and remedied by an injection of adrenalin. Ephedra 20 mg capsules, relieves symptoms of hayfever. Stinging nettle 1 to 2 freeze dried capsules every 2 to 4 hours, relieves symptoms of hayfever, hives, and itching. Khella relieves spasms in smooth muscle of the bronchi in hayfever, do not use on skin.

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Where Did That Regiment Go? The Lineage of British Infantry and Cavalry Regiments at a Glance The first significant reorganization of British Army formations took place in 1881, reducing 110 infantry regiments to 69. Since then several further revisions have taken place as well as new units formed. With notes outlining the engagements and events that shaped the Army's history, this reference work provides lineage charts tracing the evolution of all infantry and cavalry regiments from 1660 to the present. The Physics of War From Arrows to Atoms Throughout history, military leaders have searched for a ‘wonder weapon’ to give them an advantage over enemies, and very often, it was science that supplied the new armament, from the ballista to the atom bomb. 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The Battle of Plassey 1757 The Victory That Won an Empire When Clive of India and his tiny detachment of army officers and mercenaries defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies in a mango grove near Plassey, he secured all of Bengal and, eventually, the whole of India for the East India Company. Drawing on an extraordinary collection of private papers, this study of the battle and the 13 months of campaigns leading up to it commemorates the men on both sides who fought and died in the conflict. Camouflage at War An Illustrated Guide from 1914 to the Present Day The advantages of concealment and misdirection that camouflage can afford only became a significant military concern with the advent of longer-range weapons in the 20th century; the French notably having to quickly replace their 1914 red-and-blue infantry uniform with 'horizon blue'. 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The Battle Of Majuba Hill The Transvaal Campaign, 1880–1881 Defeat of the British occupying forces by the rebellious Boers at the Battle of Majuba Hill was seen as a military disaster by the British public, the ‘uncivilized’ tactics of the Boers condemned as savage and despicable. This account of Majuba Hill begins with a detailed history of the annexation of Transvaal by the British in 1877, assesses preceding battles and skirmishes, including Bronkhorstspruit and Laing’s Nek, and features battlefield maps, photographs and illustrations. British Battles of the Napoleonic Wars 1807–1815 Despatches from the Front Engaged in various theatres around the world, Britain was expanding its influence in the early years of the 19th century, having achieved dominance at sea after the Battle of Trafalgar. 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What if General Johnston had survived at Shiloh? Using real battles, actions and characters as starting points, leading military historians show how this critical and bloody conflict could so easily have ended in a victory for the Confederates, changing the course of US history. Eyewitness to the Peninsular War and the Battle of Waterloo One of the distinguished Stanhopes of Chevening, James Stanhope’s military service took him to the Peninsular War where, between 1809 and 1813, he witnessed and recorded several battles, including Corunna and Barossa. At Waterloo he fought on the ridge while under attack from Napoleon’s cavalry. This collection of letters and journals, skilfully contextualized by editor Gareth Glover, offers fascinating insights and detailed descriptions of conversations, conditions and events during the Napoleonic Wars. The Eagle's Last Triumph Napoleon's Victory at Ligny, June 1815 On 16 June 1815, Napoleon defeated the Prussian army at the Battle of Ligny. However, the triumph was not decisive and the Prussian general, von Blücher, was able to regroup and tip the balance in Wellington's favour at Waterloo two days later. Including maps and diagrams, this detailed analysis of Napoleon's last victory assesses the background to the battle and the decisions of the commanders in the field, as well as including first-hand accounts of the bitter fighting. The Battle of Barrosa, 1811 Forgotten Battle of the Peninsular War With most of Spain overrun by Napoleon’s forces, the Spanish government remained free, but forced to find refuge in the fortress-port of Cádiz, assisted by British warships and troops under the command of Sir Thomas Graham. 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Celebrating a Century of Naval Flying Where once the battleship was the key symbol of international power, the aircraft carrier has taken its place, able to project military capability anywhere in the world. This history of naval aviation investigates its origins in early carriers and reviews developments in aircraft and vessels up to the latest ships and the use of helicopters. There are also chapters on the leading aces of naval aviation and the developing role of women in the service. The Waterloo Archive Histories of the Battle of Waterloo seldom mention that the majority of Wellington’s forces were in fact German, including troops from Nassau, Brunswick, Hanover and the King’s German Legion. Many of them left first-hand accounts of the engagement, more than 60 of which are translated here for the first time. These letters and reports greatly enlarge our understanding of this momentous battle, and offer dramatic accounts of the fighting from the perspective of both officers and private soldiers. Warrior and Weapon (Two volumes) Modern soldiers use automated weaponry and digital technology, but other aspects of their gear – daggers, helmets, armoured jackets, canteens – would be familiar to Roman legionaries or Viking raiders. These two comprehensively illustrated books demonstrate the developments in warfare and weaponry over the course of civilization, showing, with examples from the collection of the Royal Armouries, how soldiers fought and were equipped from the Mesopotamians to modern special forces, and surveying weaponry from the spear and the longbow to the AK-47. Slipcased. Theatre of War In a preface to this magnificent collection of wartime photographs, Mark Holborn describes Cecil Beaton as 'able to realize the visual potential from the most mundane as well as the most dramatic circumstances'. Whether taken on the home front amid the London Blitz, in the Western Desert, in India, Burma, China or industrial Tyneside, Beaton's photographs for the Ministry of Information are unfailingly eloquent and a powerful record of the years 1939 to 1945. With commentary by Beaton and a detailed chronology. The Tommies' Experience of the Third Battle of Ypres The British offensive at Passchendaele, also known as the Third Battle of Ypres, was launched at 3.30am on 31 July 1917; led by Sir Douglas Haig, this ‘big push’ was to achieve a breakthrough, but it became a four-month-long stalemate of constant shelling, torrential rain, mud and filth. Parker chronicles the operation, describes the conditions on the battlefield and the increasingly industrialized warfare of tanks, gas and mines that added to the carnage; and he questions the necessity of the sacrifice. Memoirs of a Cavalryman in the First World War Having joined the 4th Dragoon Guards in 1913, at the age of only 15, Ben Clouting was among the first into France with the British Expeditionary Force and was present at most of the major engagements on the Western Front. This memoir is based on a series of interviews conducted in the 1980s and provides a detailed account of his experiences including the retreat from Mons, the second battle of Ypres and the occupation of Cologne in 1919. Aircraft Since 1939 The Russian MiG aircraft company was set up in 1939 and produced some of the world's most advanced and capable military planes during its heyday in the 1950s and 1960s, including the long-serving and widely exported MiG-21. This concise handbook provides descriptions of all MiG aircraft, including prototypes, up to the MiG-35 of 2011, with tables of key data and additional information about model variants. The Monitor, The Merrimack, and the Sea Battle that Changed History The first clash between ironclad battleships took place off the coast of Virginia during the American Civil War in 1862. The battle provided conclusive proof of the effectiveness of the new technology and proved a major turning point in naval design. This book examines the building of the Confederacy's armoured Merrimack and the Union's race to build a competitive vessel (the Monitor, in whose development Lincoln was personally involved), and assesses the profound legacy of their engagement. Epitaphs of the Great War: The Somme ‘Of all the voices of the First World War there is one that has been consistently overlooked, the voice of the bereaved.’ This collection of 100 epitaphs for soldiers who died during the Somme campaign of 1916 lets the bereaved families and friends speak through the inscriptions on War Graves Commission headstones. The book provides information on the soldiers and explains any biblical or literary allusions used in the short (they were limited to 66 characters) and often cryptic epitaphs. Success of a General General French and the Relief of Kimberley Though his reputation was later sullied as Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force in the First World War, John French became a national hero as a cavalry general during the Boer War, in particular for his part in the relief of Kimberley in 1900. This account of the siege and the events leading up to it also includes a review of the medals awarded to British soldiers for the campaign. The Story of the Malakand Field Force In 1897, the young Churchill was a war correspondent attached to the Malakand Field Force, fighting local tribes led by the ‘Mad Fakir’ on India’s north-west frontier, an area now part of Pakistan. Written in that year, Churchill’s book sets the scene for the conflict and, drawing on his letters to the Telegraph and official despatches, records the violent engagements of the war, including the relief of Chakdara, the march to Nawagai and fighting in the Mamund Valley. Heroes and Landmarks of British Military Aviation From Airships to the Jet Age In a relatively short period of time, between the late 19th century and the middle of the 20th, the British aviation industry produced a profusion of groundbreaking and history-making inventions, establishing the names of aircraft designers and manufacturers such as de Havilland, Sopwith, Hawker and Handley Page. Each chapter in this review of the era looks at one of these key innovators, from airship pioneer Ernest Willows to Spitfire designer RJ Mitchell and the inventor of the jet engine, Frank Whittle. The Real Hornblower The Life and Times of Admiral Sir James Gordon GCB It was while researching the Chesapeake Bay Campaign of 1814 that Bryan Perrett came across 'Captain Gordon RN' in CS Forester's Naval War of 1812 and began to see parallels between Gordon, who had commanded a diversionary force on the Potomac, and Forester's later fictional character, Horatio Hornblower. In this book, Perrett presents a full biography of Admiral Gordon and his long and extraordinarily distinguished career. 1809 to Salamanca Following the winter retreat to Corunna in 1809, Wellington's crack rifle regiment (Sharpe's famous 'green jackets') fought the French back and forth across the Iberian Peninsula taking part in a number of actions, including the River Côa, Bussaco Ridge, Fuentes de Oñoro, Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. Shot on location in Spain and Portugal, this documentary tells the story of the regiment up to the key battle at Salamanca in July 1812. 1 DVD 105mins The Combat History of the 2nd Guards Tank Army from Kursk to Berlin The Soviet 2nd Guards Tank Army made spectacular gains across thousands of miles of territory from 1943 to 1945, ultimately playing a key role in the fall of Berlin. Compiled from Red Army operational documents and the accounts of veterans, and translated from the original Russian, this second volume of the comprehensive history of the unit covers the period from July 1944 to the assault on Berlin in 1945 and contains contemporary photographs, maps and detailed statistics. Maritime Power and the Struggle for Freedom Naval Campaigns that Shaped the Modern World 1788–1851 In this follow-up to his much-acclaimed Maritime Supremacy, Padfield continues to trace the role of naval power in world history, here analysing the factors that led Britain to global dominance in the 19th century. The Birth of the Royal Marines Before 1802 the Royal Marines were known as the Marine Corps, a small but powerful contingent that operated amphibiously to link land and sea, Army and Navy. This detailed history of the Corps charts its transformation into the first modern rapid reaction force and includes the evolution of its operational structures, methods of recruitment (often from criminals) and its role in Britain’s notorious ‘gunboat diplomacy’. King's Cross Kid A Childhood Between the Wars Victor Gregg (b.1919) joined the army in 1937 and in Rifleman (2011) he told the story of his service in the Rifle Brigade in Palestine, Alamein and Arnhem. Here, he goes back to his childhood and teenage years on the 'mean streets' of King's Cross, Soho and Bloomsbury. Gregg's memoir evokes how, abandoned by his father and living in poverty, the family struggled and survived in the familiar, yet strange world of London between the wars. Slightly off-mint. The Great War for Peace While the First World War is generally seen as the seminal catastrophe of the 20th century, William Mulligan looks anew at the aspirations of the statesmen, soldiers, intellectuals and civilians who were involved in the war and at the new ideas about peace that emerged. Beginning with the collapse of ‘great power peace’ between 1911 and 1914, he shows how the experience of the war expanded the understanding of peace, focusing political attention on building a better world order. Naval Chronicle 1799–1818 Index to Births, Marriages and Deaths The Naval Chronicle was issued in monthly parts between 1799 and 1818; a short cut to accessing the information contained in so many instalments, this book provides alphabetical lists of births, marriages and deaths. . Slightly off-mint.

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Garden Calendar for July - Tools and Equipment - Growing Food - Perennials, Annuals and Bulbs - Trees, Shrubs and Ground Covers - Indoor Gardening Tools and Equipment July Upkeep - Keep a sharp edge on spades, hoes, and other cutting tools. This makes cutting through weed roots and sod much easier. - A piece of corrugated cardboard, such as the side from a box, forms an effective and portable barrier to use when spraying an insecticidal soap or vinegar next to sensitive plants you don’t want to over spray. By changing the angle of the cardboard, it’s easy to spray weeds growing right up to the base of a desirable plant while shielding the stems, branches, and leaves. Since some spray will get on the shield, the same side should always face the sprayer when moved from one location to another. - Do you know how many ways you can use an old (or new) plastic laundry basket? When you’re going out the “North 40” to work, use your basket to carry your hand tools, gloves, seeds, and fertilizer, and when you’re finished gardening, haul all those weeds and clippings to the trash can or compost pile in your handy basket. When harvesting root crops such as beets, turnips, or carrots, leave your bounty in your basket while you wash it with a forceful squirt from the garden hose. Growing Food in July It may seem warm, but it’s time to prepare for the fall vegetable season. Alternate plant choices in planting beds and prepare areas for cool-season vegetables by adding compost to soil and allow it to settle over several months. Don’t add fertilizer to dry soil. Always water first, then apply fertilizers to moist soils, and then continue with the rest of the water. - Broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower transplants should be started now for your fall garden. - Remove old raspberry canes after harvest. - No fruit on your tomato plants? Side dress 1/2 cup to 1 cup of greensand at base of plant. - Keep an eye on your corn for ear worms as silks emerge - Harvest leaves from the outside of the chervil plant, so new leaves continue to grow from the center - After you pick all your blackberries remove the fruiting canes. Prune new canes to 3 feet in height to encourage side branching - Cut the first flowers of lavender to encourage a second crop. Also, try rubbing your hands with lavender leaves to remove strong odors, such as garlic or onion. - Mulching herbs during hot weather protects the plant roots and helps keep them healthy. Perennial herbs also need mulch in the fall for protection from winter thaws and freezing. - Harvest and dry herbs such as thyme, rosemary and lavender for potpourri and for cooking. Dried thyme stored in plastic bags now will provide tea material this winter during cold seasons. Thyme kills germs. - Plant a second round of tomatoes, melons, beans, corn, cucumbers, squash and peppers for fall garden. Companion plant with herbs to deter pests. Harvest comfrey to make an ointment for scrapes, insect bites and stings. - Lightly rinse and chop the leaves and roots of the plant. - Place them in a large glass container. - Heat enough olive oil to cover plant material. Pour over comfrey. Cool completely and strain out solids. - For every four ounces of oil, add 1/4 teaspoon each of Vitamin A and Vitamin E. - Add a tablespoon of any essential oil for scent. Store in glass container. Refrigeration will prolong use. Lawns and Landscaping in July During hot, July weather, be sure to mow your lawn to the appropriate height. This reduces water loss and helps lower soil temperatures. Leave clippings on the lawn to decompose. Keep your tall fescue tall, 3.5 inches or more to shade out weeds. Mow often enough that you never cut off more than one-third of the growing grass. Established fescue lawns naturally go semi-dormant in the heat of July. Fescue can tolerate up to three weeks without water. Water only when grass shows sign of wilt. If you planted your fescue lawn last year, however, you still need to water about one inch every week. You absolutely do not want to fertilize your fescue now, because it will encourage diseases. - If you have warm season grass such as Bermuda grass, centipede, St. Augustine and zoysia, you can fertilize, but be careful not to overdo it. - Clemson University recommends a sharp mower blade to cut the lawn cleanly, ensuring rapid healing and growth. Grass wounded by a dull blade is weakened and less able to ward off weeds, diseases and insect attacks, or cope with dry spells. - For best growth of turf, water your lawn to a depth of 4 to 6 inches. Then do not water the lawn for about one week. - Observe the lawn area and the shade it receives. Plan to thin major shade trees next spring to increase light reaching patchy turf. - Proper watering means deep soaking. Light sprinkling is often harmful, especially on lawns. Wet the soil to the bottom of the roots (5 to 6 inches deep). - A brown or grayish cast over lawns can be caused by dull or improperly adjusted mower blades that shred grass rather than cut it. - Tightly shaped hedges should be pruned after the second flush of growth in the summer, if needed. Perennials, Annuals, and Bulbs for July - Sow seeds inside now of snapdragons, pansies, calendula, dianthus and other cool season flowers for outside fall planting. - Edible flowers taste best when picked and eaten the same day. Harvest flowers in the morning, after the dew has dried or right before sundown. Excess moisture can cause discoloration and loss of flavor. Leave stems intact when picking and storing; remove them just before serving. Loosely pack flowers in an airtight container with a moist, paper towel folded in the bottom. Add them to the dish as the last step in preparation. - If you have been pinching back your mums this summer, mid-July is the time to stop so they will be able to develop flower buds for the fall. - Dig, divide, and replant crowded irises - Hedera helix ‘Buttercup’ is an ivy with colorful foliage. It is an excellent ground cover, growing 6 to 8 inches tall, or can be trained to climb. New leaves are bright, yellow-green and later turn to a butter-yellow color. Older leaves are dark green with light veins. Buttercup tolerates a variety of soil conditions in full sun or heavy shade. - To plant roses now, purchase plants in containers. Sprouted, packaged plants are difficult to handle and grow poorly if stored foods are exhausted. - The dwarf sunflower variety, ‘Sunspot,’ grows only to two feet, but flower heads are full sized and have edible seeds. It is unusual in ornamental plantings and space saving in the garden. - Snapdragons should be pinched back after blooming to promote a second flush of bloom. - To produce the largest flowers, the main stems of dahlias should be kept free of side shoots, allowing only the terminal bud to develop. In larger varieties, a single stalk is the best. Adequate support must be provided to prevent wind damage. Water well. - If sweet peas are heavily mulched, their roots will be kept cooler and their season prolonged. Use rough, plant litter or grass clippings for mulch. A little shade at mid-day will also help to maintain the quality of the flowers and prolong the blooming season. - Cut back and fertilize delphinium and phlox to encourage a second show of bloom. - Sometimes you run into a perennial about which little is known as to its hardiness and habit in your region. If you like the look of the plant, give it a try. Most perennials can be purchased at a reasonable cost, and experimenting with something new can be a lot of fun. - Many plants are easily increased by layering. Verbenas, euonymus, pachysandra, ivy, daphne, and climbing roses are some of plants that will root if stems are fastened down on soft earth with a wire and covered with some soil. - Cutting flowers is best done with sharp shears or a knife to avoid injury to the growing plant. A special pair of cutting scissors may be bought that holds the cut-off stem, allowing the removal to be a one-handed operation. A slanting cut will expose a larger absorbing surface to water and will prevent the base of the stem from being sealed by resting upon the bottom of the vase. It is best to carry a bucket of water to the garden for collecting blooms, rather than the familiar cutting basket. - Sow seeds of hollyhocks, English daisies, foxgloves, violas, Canterbury bells, and Sweet William now for next year’s bloom. - Geranium cuttings should be made in late July to start plants for winter and spring indoor bloom. To get flowers in the winter months, you may need to install some fluorescent tubes over the bench or shelves where you grow your plants. To make cuttings, use the tips of branches about 4 inches long. Cut off the bottom leaves and stick the cuttings about one third their length in a moist, sand-peat mixture. Roots will develop rapidly, and new plants should be ready for potting in about four weeks. - Chrysanthemums should be lightly fertilized every two weeks with a water soluble fertilizer. To keep plants compact and full of blooms, pinch out new tip growth until eight weeks before they are to bloom, approximately mid-July. For large exhibition mums, allow only one or two shoots to develop. Stake these shoots, and remove side buds as they start to develop. - Divide and transplant bearded iris using the vigorous ends of the rhizomes. Discard the old center portion. Cut the leaves back to about 8 inches. - Propagate bleeding heart and California poppy when growth has stopped and foliage has disappeared, indicating a dormant condition. Dig up a root and cut it into 1- to 2-inch pieces. Plant root pieces in a mixture of sand and rich loam. Keep the soil fairly moist, and soon tiny leaves will shoot up. The new plants will be ready for permanent quarters in the spring. - Gerbera flowers (African daisy) can last up to two weeks in a vase if the water is kept clean. Since gerbera stems are hairy and easily dirty the water, do not immerse them more than a few inches. Change the water every two days. - If your annuals are dead, pull them out and add them to the compost pile. You can replant beds with hardy annuals or perennials, such as pansies, calendulas, globe thistles, or sea pinks. - Root holly, azalea, and camellia cuttings in a sand and peat moss mixture set in a cool, shady location. Ivy and periwinkle can be rooted now to fill in any bare spots in your beds. Don’t allow cuttings to dry out. - When drought hits, if you can’t water rose bushes, do nothing. Fertilizing, pruning, applying natural pesticides, or even cutting flowers can harm plants that are water-stressed. - Protect plants in containers from very high heat caused by light reflection from pavement. Move them to a cooler spot, or shade them during the hottest part of the day. Plants may be moved to a more sheltered location during severe rain or wind storms or as protection from the first fall frosts. - Get a second bloom from faded annuals by cutting them back to approximately half their height, then fertilize them with 1½ cups of compost tea per square yard of planted area and apply a generous layer of mulch. - Tall flowers should be staked to prevent damage by wind. Use stakes that are large enough to support the plant, but not too conspicuous. Use soft twine or plastic twist-ties to secure. - In planning a perennial bed, first assess the site of the garden. Is it shady? Sunny? Filtered shade? Is the soil acid or alkaline? Does the soil tend to be dry or moist? What climatic conditions are usual throughout the year? Is the soil well drained? Sandy? Full of clay? Once these things have been considered, you can develop a list of possible plants for such a location. Then the plan can be made. Time of bloom, height and size of mature plants, and flower and foliage colors and texture are important considerations in planning a perennial garden. Choices of specific plant varieties are very personal. Perennial gardens might include only a number of varieties of the same plant or they might, for instance, include only plants that have gray foliage and white flowers. Choices are countless; the important thing is to know what effect you are trying to achieve. - Container-grown vegetables and flowers can dry out quickly, especially on a concrete patio in full sun. Daily watering may be necessary; however, the soil should not be soggy or have water standing on top of it. Apply water until it runs out the drainage holes. Clay pots permit additional evaporation from the sides, and watering must be done more often than when plastic pots are used. Small pots dry out faster than large planters. Feel the soil in containers at least once a day and twice on hot, dry days to be certain that plants are getting enough water. Trees, Shrubs, and Ground Covers in July - Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) commonly is affected by a number of diseases, including the fatal dogwood anthracnose. Protecting your dogwoods from drought stress can go a long way toward keeping them healthy. Make sure they have been mulched in a wide ring with organic material, about 3 inches deep (do not use dogwood leaves or wood as mulch, and pull back from trunk). During prolonged dry periods, water dogwoods thoroughly. - Trees may lose up to 10 percent of their leaves during very dry conditions. This helps reduce water lost from the tree by transpiration. - Remove sucker growth from the base of trees and along branches. - Monitor trees and shrubs for Japanese beetles. Adults lay eggs in July and August and continually migrate to susceptible hosts. Your local Extension agent can give current organic control recommendations. - Cornus sericea ‘Silver and gold’ is a variegated dogwood that withstands summer heat and humidity. It grows to about 7 feet. Silver and Gold has white-variegated leaves in summer and yellow twigs in winter. - Many of the trees and shrubs popular in home landscapes can be started from cuttings during July and August. But remember, it may be three to five years before they reach the size you see in the nursery. If you are equipped with a large supply of patience, propagating your landscape plants can be challenging and fun. The most common rooting medium is washed builder’s sand. Other materials include peat moss, mixtures of equal parts peat and sand, vermiculite, or perlite. The exact medium is not important as long as it is well aerated and drains well, yet holds adequate moisture for the cuttings. - Some tree-trimming companies shred their trimmings on site and give them away free-for-the-asking to anyone in the neighborhood. Don’t be shy! The cost of chipped wood mulch from the garden center adds up. Coarsely shredded material looks good on pathways and borders, while fine particles compost quickly. Also, your use of the chips keeps them out of the local landfill. - Tip die-back of redbud (Cercis canadensis) may be caused by saturated soil. Redbuds are very intolerant of “wet feet” caused by prolonged wet soil and high humidity. - Some woody ornamentals attractive to hummingbirds are crabapple, hawthorn, albizia, Siberian pea shrub, tulip poplar, buckeye, and horse chestnut. - When you read recommendations to water newly transplanted shrubs frequently, pay attention! University of California research showed that shrubs watered every few days outgrew shrubs watered every 10 to 12 days by almost five times! - When pruning away twiggy young growth from rose bushes, make use of the prunings by rooting them and producing new plants. Treat stem bases with rooting hormone, stick them in soil in a cold frame that is out of the sun and water them well. Keep them watered. If some die before rooting, it’s no great loss. Just toss them in the compost, which is where they would have ended up anyway. - During dry spells, trees may shed up to 10 percent of their leaves. This leaf loss reduces water losses through transpiration and causes little or no harm to the tree. - Inner leaves and twigs of trees normally drop from lack of sunlight, but falling clusters of leaves attached to short twigs may result from insect or squirrel activity. Girdling insects make shallow, encircling depressions, while twigs broken by squirrels have diagonally severed ends. - Michigan State University reports that over a 50-year lifetime, a healthy tree can generate $31,250 worth of oxygen, and recycle $37,500 worth of water. It also provides $62,000 worth of air pollution control and $31,250 in soil erosion prevention. Indoor Gardening July - Many tropical houseplants love to spend at least part of the summer outdoors. All the watering in the summertime causes nutrients to wash out of pots, so feed your container plants every 2-3 weeks with a dilute organic liquid fertilizer or compost tea. - In summer, indoor plants should be protected from strong sunlight that can cause foliage burn. Closing sheer curtains or partially shutting blinds will shield tender leaves. - Monitor house plants spending the warm months outside. Make sure pest problems don’t get out of hand. Move to calmer spots if leaves are being wind damaged. If pots dry out rapidly, move plants into some protection from wind or shade, or re-pot if needed. - Don’t chill tropical house plants by watering them with cold tap water. Let the water stand until it reaches room temperature so delicate root hairs aren’t harmed, or even killed, by low temperatures. - Bromeliads are being promoted as excellent indoor plants. They are ideal in the home because they tolerate low light conditions. - Be sure house plants are kept away from cold drafts caused by air conditioning vents. - July is an excellent month to root cuttings of house plants such as coleus, fuchsia, geranium, poinsettia, shrimp plant, Swedish ivy, wandering jew, wax plant, and others with succulent (non-woody) stems. Miscellaneous Gardening Reminders for July - To reduce mosquito populations, make sure bird baths and pet bowls are changed frequently. Mosquito larvae in garden ponds can be controlled with cakes of Bacillus thuringensis or by introducing populations of damselfly and dragonfly. - Many watering recommendations mention plants receiving one inch of water a week. Put a rain gauge in your garden to help measure this. - Attractive pails or baskets placed around the garden make handy places to dispose of the results of quick deadheading, weeding, and cleaning sessions. These can be emptied when you have time. - Daylily flower pods are edible – they can be stewed or added to stir-frys. They have a slightly bitter, but pleasant, flavor. - Make a home for insect-eating toads in your garden. - Look carefully at your garden. Is there a place for the whole family in your garden, including the kids? Are there any holes that are begging for something new? Take note, and then plant and transplant in the fall. - If you know someone who is “turning over a new leaf” by starting an exercise program or going on a new diet, give them flowers or a houseplant as a visual reminder of your support for their effort. - Fish add natural fertilizer to the water, so when you change the water in your aquarium, use it to water your plants. - Remove the cloth or plastic cover from an old umbrella, open the frame, and place the handle in the soil near a plant for an instant trellis. - Use an old pair of jeans to make a sack or carry-all. Cut below the knee, and sew the cut leg to form a small sack. Cut two, 18″ pieces of twill tape for ties. Sew ties to the open end of the sack. Tie the sack to your lawn mower handle for carrying sticks, cans, and other trash. For a large sack, sew at hip level and use a rope through the belt loops for carrying. - When your soil tests “high” in a nutrient, it means that nutrient should not be included in the fertilizer you add. The soil already has enough of that nutrient to supply plant needs. For example, if your soil tests high in phosphorus, plant needs will be supplied by the phosphorus already in the soil. Adding phosphorus will not increase plant performance and is a waste of phosphorus. Excessive levels of some nutrients actually harm plants. Too much phosphorus in the soil can induce an iron deficiency in plants. - The praying mantis is a generalist predator that eats both “good” and “bad” insects, non-selectively, so it is not particularly effective as a biological insect control. Other predators are better investments. - Mushrooms or toadstools usually grow in decomposing organic matter, such as a buried root, stump, or board. These fungi are beneficial because they help to break down woody debris and add humus to the soil. But mushrooms in the lawn can be a nuisance, and the decayed organic material can result in depressions in the yard. There are no chemical controls for toadstools since the fungus often grows so deep that chemicals do not penetrate entirely. Sooner or later, the infestation exhausts its food supply and dies out. - Fox lure, sold in sporting goods stores, is reported to keep raccoons out of corn. Wafers impregnated with fox scent are sold as rabbit repellents. - Begin to cut and dry herbs and flowers. - July is a good time to take cuttings from indoor plants, herbs, and ground covers. - Organic mulch materials decompose rapidly in hot, moist weather. Add additional mulch where needed - Pull and compost spent crops. Turn the compost pile and wet it down to hasten decomposition. Leave the pile with a depression in the center to catch rainwater. - Train and trim plants on arbors. Take care to ensure ties do not girdle branches. - Red or yellow lights attract fewer night-flying insects than white or blue bulbs. Use them on your deck or patio. - While on vacation, visit a public garden, to make observations on pleasing planting schemes and the newest releases. - A few buckets strategically placed in the garden will help you deal with garden refuse. Use one for compostables and another for things destined for the trash. - Unlike other cut flowers, roses last longest when cut late in the day. - The larvae of fireflies (lightning bugs) aid gardeners by eating mites, slugs, snails, soft-bodied insects, and larvae. - Ouch! Thorny rose stems are a problem when arranging cut flowers, but leave the thorns on to get maximum life from cut blooms. Research in the Netherlands revealed that removing leaves and thorns from the bottom six to eight inches of rose stems decreased their vase life as compared to de-leafed, but not de-thorned blooms. - Hot, dry weather brings out red spiders mites. Inspect roses, evergreens, and marigolds in particular for pale-green coloration. Hold a white sheet of paper underneath a leaf and briskly tap it. Tiny, crawling mites will drop onto the paper if they are present on the leaf. If infestation is light, discourage mites with a forceful, direct spray of water from the hose. Severely infested annual plants should be removed and destroyed. Mild infestations can be controlled with insecticidal soap. - A non-toxic approach to Japanese beetles: remove all flower blossoms as soon as they begin to fade and all fruit as soon as it is ripe. Japanese beetles are especially fond of overripe fruit and deteriorating flower blossoms. After taking these preventive steps, go out to your garden daily and knock the insects off their perches and into a wide-mouthed jar of soapy water. That will gum them up and prevent them from flying away. - July is a good time to begin looking for native and cultivated plants from which you can collect seed pods to use for decorating this fall and winter. Be on the lookout for such material as thistles, cattails, dried corn tassels, and seed pods from locust, red bud, and chaste tree (vitex). - Check the soil moisture of container-grown vegetables and flowers daily. As the temperature rises, some plants may need watered twice daily. - Water your plants several hours before applying natural insecticides, especially during dry weather. Drought-stressed plants have less water in their plant tissues; the chemicals that enter the leaves will consequently be more concentrated and may burn the leaves. - Continue attracting insect-eating birds to the garden area by providing them a fresh water source. - Dry flowers now for use in arrangements next winter. Early season blooms are better for this purpose than those that develop in late summer. Flowers for drying should be cut during midday,in the late-bud or early bloom stage. - A cool basement will work for temporary cut flower storage. Remember to mist arrangements several times a day. - High temperatures accelerate respiration and evaporation from cut flowers. Your refrigerator may be used to temporarily hold floral arrangements if the temperature is no less than 40° F, and if no fruit is stored in the cooler. Temperatures below 40° F and ethylene gas given off by ripening fruit can injure the petals of many flowers. - Control mosquitoes by eliminating all sources of stagnant water. - If you can’t water during hot, dry spells, then “do nothing.” Don’t prune or apply fertilizer or pest controls. Plants compensate for stress by relative inactivity. Cultural practices that encourage growth, instead of being beneficial, can induce further stress. - Consider joining a garden club. Some of the best-informed people on horticultural subjects are those belonging to a garden club. There is a constant flow of ideas from fellow members and from “experts” who speak to members. “Ah, summer, what power you have to make us suffer and like it!” ~ Russel Baker

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marriage Nikah Qadis (cadis) preside over court cases, make rulings and decide punishments, making decisions based on passages from the Qur’an, the Hadiths and legal texts of the school. Rulings are called itjihad . Beginning in 19th century, in some places, an “acceptance on authority” ( taqlid ) of the ruling was ratified by the ijma ---the Islamic equivalent of an upper court appeal. In theory a person taken to Islamic court for breaking a Sharia law appears before a cadi, or judge, and he (or she) is given a chance to defend himself and face his accuser. Decisions are rendered by the qadi not a jury. Punishment is supposed to be meted out by the qadi under terms that are clearly defined by the legal school used. Evidence has traditionally been in the form of oral testimony, with the credibility of the testimony often weighed on the status and reputation of the witness. Morals charges usually require witnesses. In conservative Islamic courts women were barred from courtrooms and have to testify through a special window or by closed circuit television. Their testimony is technically was worth half that of a man. Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood, a British Muslim, told the BBC: “What is important is that judges are highly educated in Islamic law and jurisprudence, and this is an area where some damage was done during the colonial periods when Islamic schools of law were closed down with a great loss of knowledge and expertise which is only now being repaired slowly. The problem is that it is all too easy for an individual judge to make some pronouncement or invoke some penalty without full knowledge of the background of Sharia and the spirit behind the various laws and penalties. [Source: Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood, BBC, September 3, 2009] Websites and Resources: Islam Islam.com islam.com ; Islamic City islamicity.com ; Islam 101 islam101.net ; Wikipedia article Wikipedia ; Religious Tolerance religioustolerance.org/islam ; BBC article bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam ; Patheos Library – Islam patheos.com/Library/Islam ; University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts web.archive.org ; Encyclopædia Britannica article on Islam britannica.com ; Islam at Project Gutenberg gutenberg.org ; Islam from UCB Libraries GovPubs web.archive.org ; Muslims: PBS Frontline documentary pbs.org frontline ; Discover Islam dislam.org; Sharia (Islamic Law): Oxford Dictionary of Islam oxfordislamicstudies.com ; Encyclopædia Britannica britannica.com ; Wikipedia Wikipedia ; Sharia by Knut S. Vikør, Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics web.archive.org ; Law by Norman Calder, Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World oxfordislamicstudies.com ; Sharia Law in the International Legal Sphere – Yale University web.archive.org ; 'Recognizing Sharia' in Britain, anthropologist John R. Bowen discusses Britain's sharia courts bostonreview.net ; "The Reward of the Omnipotent" late 19th Arabic manuscript about Sharia wdl.org; Qur’an (Quran, Koran) and Hadith: Quran translation in English alahazrat.net ; Quran in Easy English, Urdu, Arabic and 70 other languages qurango.com ; Quran.com quran.com ; Al-Quran.info al-quran.info ; Quranic Arabic Corpus, shows syntax and morphology for each word corpus.quran.com ; Word for Word English Translation – emuslim.com emuslim.com/Quran ; Digitised Qurans in the Cambridge University Digital Library cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk ; Sunnah.com sunnah.com ; Hadith – search by keyword and by narrator ahadith.co.uk Qadis and Muftis Qadis are Islamic judges. They sometimes acts like bureaucrats and magistrates and are often prominent members of society who also do things like decide how inheritance money will be divided after someone dies. Sometimes they are imam who preach at the local mosque. Sunni judges are known following Islamic law to the letter. Shia judges are more lenient in the ways they interpret the law. Sufis are known for taking a more relaxed view of Sharia. A mufti is an Islamic legal expert or juriconsultant. They began as assistant to judges. Today many are high ranking legal experts. In many cases they are the ones are consulted or are authorized to adapt laws to new circumstances . They also are allowed to issue fatwas. A fatwa is an Islamic opinion or decree. They can be issued on all sorts of things: divorce, Ramadan practices, blasphemy and dogs. The most well known one is the one was against Salman Rushdie. Fatwas are usually made by top clerics but this is not always the case. Some Muslim extremists, including Osama bin-Laden, who lack the training of qualified muftis, feel free to issue fatwas, some them calling for death sentences and holy wars against foreigners. This has lead to rival opinion and confusion. In most cases however, lower level authorities defer to their superiors. Sometimes the political influence on fatwas is more behind the scenes. The Grand Sheik (leader) of Al Azhar, for example, is regarded by many as the top Islamic authority in the Sunni Muslim world. His declarations and opinions on matters ranging from Israel to birth control are given much weight. The only catch is that he is appointed by the Egyptian government and his statements often convey the views of the Egyptian government. Large numbers of fatwas have traditionally been issued during Ramadan. This custom has become more intense in the Internet Age. IslamOnline, a Cairo-based website created by Yusef Qaradawi, a popular Islamist preacher on the satellite channel al-Jazeera, issues more than 300 a day in Arabic and English, along with questions and responses, during Ramadan. History of Islamic Legal System Arthur Goldschmidt, Jr. Wrote in “A Concise History of the Middle East”: “At the dawn of Islamic history, the administration and enforcement of i the law was handled by the caliphs and their provincial governors. Greater complexity of society led to more specialization, and they began to appoint Muslims who knew the Quran and the sunnah (of the caliphs as well as of Muhammad) to serve as quadis or "judges." As the judicial system evolved, an aspiring qadi at first got his training under an experienced master jurist. The schools were instituted in the big city mosques for the training of one (or more) of the various legal rites. The training schools for propagandists of Isma'ili Shi'ism and later the madrasahs founded by the Seljuks and other Sunni dynasties became centers for training judges and legal experts. Students would read the law books and commentaries under the guidance of one or several masters. When they had memorized enough of the information to function as qadis, they would receive certification to practice on their own. [Source: Arthur Goldschmidt, Jr., “A Concise History of the Middle East,” Chapter. 8: Islamic Civilization, 1979, Internet Islamic History Sourcebook, sourcebooks.fordham.edu /~\] “Various other judicial offices also evolved; the mufti ("jurisconsult"), who gives authoritative answers to technical questions about the law for a court or sometimes for individuals; the shahid ("witness"), who certifies that a certain act took place, such as the signing of a contract; and the muhtasib (market inspector), who enforces the Shari'ah in public places. It is interesting to note that the Muslim legal system had and still has no lawyers; that is, opposing parties are not represented by attorneys in court cases. Muslims felt that an advocate or attorney might well enrich himself at the expense of the litigant or the criminal defendant. There were also no prosecutors or district attorneys. In most cases the qadi had to decide on the basis of the evidence presented by the litigants and the witnesses, guided by relevant sections of the Shari'ah and sometimes by the advice of a mufti. /~\ “The caliph was supposed to assure that justice prevailed in the ummah not by interpreting the Shari'ah, but by appointing the wisest and best qadis to administer it. True, many of the Umayyad caliphs flouted the Shari'ah in their personal lives, but its rules remained valid for the ummah as a whole. We must always distinguish between what an individual can get away with doing in his home (or palace, or dormitory room) and what he can do in public, in the possible presence of a police officer. But no Umayyad or Abbasid caliph could abolish the Shari'ah or claim that it did not apply to him as to all other Muslims. When the caliphs could no longer appoint qadis and other legal officers, the various sultans and princes who took over his powers had to do so. When the caliphate could no longer serve as the symbol of Muslim unity, then everyone's common acceptance of the Shari'ah bridged the barriers of contending sects and dynasties to unite Islam. Even when the Crusaders or Mongols entered the lands of Islam and tried to enforce other codes of conduct, Muslims went on following the Shari'ah in their everyday lives. And, to a degree that may surprise some Westerners, they still do. You can go into a bazaar (covered market) in Morocco and feel that it is, in ways you can sense even if you cannot express them, like bazaars in Turkey, Pakistan, or thirty other Muslim countries. A Sudanese student greets me with the same salam alaykum ("peace to you") that I have heard from Iranians and Algerians. The common performance of worship, observance of the Ramadan fast, and of course the pilgrimage to Mecca are all factors unifying Muslims from every part of the world.” /~\ Training for Islamic Scholars Islamic scholars and judges are generally trained at madrasahs. Most madrasahs are set up for boys, middle school age and above. Students generally arrive after they had attended a maktab or kuttab (Islamic schools for younger children), and had learned Arabic even if it wasn't their first language and had memorized all or large parts of the Qur’an. In these madrasahs students study things like Arabic grammar and early Islamic history but the core of the curriculum is learning to interpret the Qur’an and the hadiths and understanding the principals of Muslim beliefs and jurisprudence. Instruction typically consists of listening to teachers lecture on texts, with students expected to memorize the texts and understand them. Sometimes students are required to demonstrate they have read a certain text and if they do they receive a certificate, saying they have learned it. The first stage of instruction, which lasts several years, consists of learning the legal code of the Sharia school to which the madrasah is affiliated. Many students go no further than this, but by this time have learned enough to get jobs in the legal profession. Student who go onto to higher levels study principals in which their are multiple interpretations and are still debated. Some write theses on points of law. Those that finishs this stage are qualified to be qadis (judges) or mufti (legal consultants). Madrasah curriculum in many places is standardized and based on standard textbooks. A distinction is made between “revealed science” and “rational sciences." The revealed sciences include the study of Arabic philosophy, Qur’an and Prophetic tradition, orthodox law and theology. The rational sciences are primarily the study of Arabic language and grammar. As a rule the madrasahs reject modernity and teach a curriculum that is little changed from the 11th century. Some Islamic schools teach extremist Muslim ideology, anti-Semitism and anti-Americanism. Poor and easily influenced, the students are often cast the West is an evil place with uncaring, decadent people who have manipulated the world in ushc as to cause their problems. Justice in Arabia in 1890 In “Justice in Arabia” (c. 1890), Colonel L. du Couret wrote: “After the evening prayer, I took my way to the Tower, calling by the way on Seid-Ahmed, with whom in our late ramble I had arranged for an early meeting. "Sidi," said I, addressing him, "I was going to avail myself this evening of your invitation to visit you whenever convenient to myself; but Seid-Abd' el-Rahman having sent word that he expects me after the evening prayer, I called to say that I must defer that pleasure until another time." "It so happens," rejoined Seid-Ahmed, "that I, too, am going to the Tower; for tonight the Nagib sits there in judgment. Every second night after the last prayer, the Nagib dispenses justice to the Marebeys, and this is an evening for the session of a messhouar [tribunal]." [Source: Eva March Tappan, ed., “The World's Story: A History of the World in Story, Song and Art,” (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), Vol. III: Egypt, Africa, and Arabia, pp. 529-533] “I proceeded with him to the Tower, where we found the Nagib seated upon his cushions at the door of the vestibule. There, surrounded by his chiefs and a crowd of retainers, he rendered important decisions while smoking his chicha. The audience was a large one, for Seid-Abd' el-Rahman was very popular with his people, owing in great measure, to his accessibility to all. Mussulman, Sabian, or Jew, provided only he was of the country, enjoyed the privilege of access to him at all times to state his case, on which the Nagib at once rendered justice by a decree based upon equity as well as common sense. Seid-Ahmed took the place reserved for him among the members of the tribunal, while for myself, after the interchange of the usual compliments, the Nagib ordered a chibouque to be brought, which he lighted and presented to me with his own hands. Curious to witness an example of the justice of the country, I took up the most convenient position for seeing and hearing, as the audience commenced. “There were women who complained of ill treatment on the part of their husbands; men who accused their wives of frailty; divisions of inheritance to adjust; thefts and frauds to punish; among all which cases there were two particularly remarkable for the judgments rendered upon them. The first of these cases was one between a katib and a fellah,—that is, a writer and a peasant,—the wife of the latter having been taken away from him by the former, who maintained that he had a claim upon her. The woman declined to acknowledge either the one or the other of them as her husband, or, rather, she acknowledged them both—a view of the case which rendered it decidedly embarrassing. Having heard both sides and reflected a moment, the Nagib said, addressing the claimants, "Leave this woman here, and return in half an hour"; on which the katib and fellah made their salutations and retired. “The second case was between a fekai and a zibdai, or, in other words, a fruiterer and a butter merchant—the latter very much besmeared with butter; the former clean. The fruiterer said, "I had been to buy some butter from this man, and drew out my purse full of money to pay for the butter he had put in my goulla, when, tempted by the sight of the coins, he seized me by the wrist. I cried "Thief!' but he would not let me go; and thus have we come before you—I squeezing my money in my hand, and he grasping my wrist with his. And now, by Muhammad, our great Prophet, I swear that this man lies in saying that I have stolen his money, for that money is truly mine." “The butter merchant said, "This man came to buy a goulla of butter from me, and when I had filled it he said, "Hast thou change of an abumathfa [Spanish piaster]?' I searched my pocket, from which I drew out my hand full of money, which I placed upon the sill of my shop, from which he snatched it, and was going off with my butter and my money, when I seized him by the wrist and cried, "Thief!' but in spite of my cries, he refused to return my property to me, and I have brought him hither in order that you may judge between us. And now, by Muhammad, our great Prophet, I swear that this man lies in saying that I have stolen his money, for that money is truly mine." “The Nagib caused the complainants to repeat their charges twice, but neither of them varied from his first statement. Then said he, after a moment's reflection, "Leave this money here and return in half an hour"; on which the fruiterer, who had all along kept his hold of the money, deposited it in a wooden bowl, brought by one of the guards—and both complainants, having made their salutations, retired. “When they were gone, the Nagib quitted his seat at the door of the vestibule and went up into the fourth story of the tower, taking with him the woman and money in dispute. At the appointed moment he returned with them, and went calmly back to his seat. The parties interested were all present, and the katib and fellah were called up. "Here," said the Nagib, addressing the katib, "take thy wife and lead her away, for she is thine truly." Then, turning to his guards and pointing to the fellah, he said, "Give this man fifty blows of a courbash on the soles of his feet." The katib walked off with his wife, and the guards gave the fellah fifty blows of a courbash on the soles of his feet. “Next came the fruiterer and the butter merchant in their turn. "Here," said the Nagib to the fruiterer, "here is thy money; verily did you take it from your own purse, and never did it belong to him by whom are you accused." Then, turning to his guards and pointing to the butter merchant, he said, "Give this man fifty blows of a courbash on the soles of his feet." The fruiterer walked off with his money, and the guards gave the butter merchant fifty blows of a courbash on the soles of his feet. “When the court had risen, I asked the Nagib how he ascertained that the woman was the wife of the katib, and the money the property of the fruiterer. "Nothing more simple," replied he. "You saw how I went up into the fourth story with the woman and the money. Well, when we arrived there, I ordered her suddenly to clean my inkhorn, when, like one accustomed to that work, she at once took it, drew out the cotton from it, washed it properly, replaced it on the stand, and filled it with fresh ink. Then said I to myself, "If you were the wife of the fellah, you never could have cleaned an inkhorn like that; you must be the wife of the katib.'" "Good!" said I, bowing in token of assent. "So much for the woman. And how about the money?" "The money was quite another business," replied the Nagib, smiling with a self-satisfied expression, as he leered at me with a look full of artfulness and craft. "You must have remarked how buttery the butter merchant was and how greasy his hands were in particular. Well, I put the money into a vessel of hot water, and upon examining the water carefully I could not find that a single particle of grease had come to the surface. Then said I to myself, "This money belongs to the fruiterer, and not to the butter merchant; for, had it belonged to the latter, it must have been greasy, and the grease would have shown on the surface of the water.'" “At this I bowed very low, indeed, and said: "In good faith I doubt whether the great King Solomon himself could have rendered a decision with more sagacity and wisdom." Until then I had always looked upon the tales related to us in the "Arabian Nights" as mere fictions; but on witnessing the delivery of these two judgments, I felt convinced that some of them at least were founded on facts. Of course they are worked up into romances, but they have a basis of reality.” Muslim Law and Women Questions about Muslim laws that affect women have traditionally been decided by male clerics. But in some places there are women muftias , overseen by male muftis. One such group ruled that a husband is not obliged to pay his wife's travel expenses if she goes to her parents house without her permission and that trimming one's nails during menstruation is not advisable and decided that the question of whether high heels are allowable required more thought an analysis. According to Muslim law males and a women's testimony in court, at least on financial matters, hold's half the weight of a man's testimony. Women have traditionally been barred from courtrooms and had to testify through a special window. According to Muslim law males receive twice as much in inheritance as females. Under the current system daughters inherit half of what sons gets and if a daughters only the only heir a proportion of the money goes to male relatives not the daughters because according to Islamic tradition men are responsible for taking care of their female relatives. Muslim law also says the blood money for a woman is half that of a man. See Marriage Contract, Divorce Under MUSLIM MARRIAGE, POLYGAMY, WEDDINGS, THE MARRIAGE CONTRACT AND DIVORCE factsanddetails.com . Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons Text Sources: Internet Islamic History Sourcebook: sourcebooks.fordham.edu “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “ Arab News, Jeddah; Islam, a Short History by Karen Armstrong; A History of the Arab Peoples by Albert Hourani (Faber and Faber, 1991); Encyclopedia of the World Cultures edited by David Levinson (G.K. Hall & Company, New York, 1994). Encyclopedia of the World’s Religions” edited by R.C. Zaehner (Barnes & Noble Books, 1959); Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, BBC, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, The Guardian, BBC, Al Jazeera, Times of London, The New Yorker, Time, Newsweek, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications. Last updated September 2018

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Educational settlements. Mark Freeman explores the development of educational settlements in Britain and the significant role that Quakerism played. He also outlines some of the key issues they have faced. Contents: introduction · origins of the educational settlement movement · the role of educational settlements · educational settlements in the ‘special areas’ · crisis and community centres · educational settlements after the second world war · bibliography · how to cite this article The educational settlements were non-residential adult education institutions that emerged in the first quarter of the twentieth century. They have been largely neglected in the history of adult education (but see Allaway 1961; Freeman 2002; Davies and Freeman 2003; Freeman 2004). They have also been neglected by historians of the settlement movement, who concentrate on the work of residential settlements such as Toynbee Hall (but see settlements and social action centres). Yet for a short time, in the interwar period, they were significant figures in the adult education landscape, and their influence is traceable in community centres, local authority adult education centres, social action centres and other institutions. The educational settlement movement began in the north of England, and the early educational settlements grew from the Quaker adult schools (see Quakers and the development of adult schools and adult schools and the making of adult education). The Rowntree family of York were probably the most important pioneers of educational settlements in the Edwardian period, and were closely associated with the establishment of the first two: the Swarthmore Settlement in Leeds and the St Mary’s Settlement in York. The Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust (JRCT), established in 1904, became the main financial supporter of the educational settlement movement in the interwar years (see Freeman 2004). The Rowntrees, especially the inspirational young Quaker leader John Wilhelm Rowntree, had supported the earlier establishment of Woodbrooke College (initially called the ‘Woodbrooke Settlement’) in 1903. This was a non-residential college for Quakers and others, initially providing courses of Bible study and Church history (see Rowntree 1923). In 1907 the Woodbrooke Extension Committee (WEC) was established, following an acknowledgement that ‘it seemed essential that something should be done to bring the Woodbrooke influences down to the country’, for example by providing itinerant lecturers in local Quaker communities (Freeman 2002: 247). Another important influence was the Yorkshire 1905 Committee (later renamed the Yorkshire Friends Service Committee; see Freeman 2004: 35-40, Kennedy 2001: 289). This was established after John Wilhelm Rowntree’s death in that year to promote social service, and above all educational service, among Quakers in Yorkshire. The Committee encouraged a range of educational activities, all underpinned by the concept of education through personal guidance. These included ‘Tea-Table Talks’ in Friends’ homes, the dissemination of lecturers and literature via a network of over forty ‘Local Helpers’, and the organisation of short-term residential courses (confusingly, also known as ‘settlements’). Quakers in Yorkshire and elsewhere already had a strong presence in the adult school movement; but in the 1900s it was increasingly felt that some sort of permanent premises were required if the educational projects of the Society of Friends were to be realised. As a result, the WEC and the Yorkshire 1905 Committee were responsible for the development of the first educational settlements. In 1909 the Swarthmore Settlement was established in Leeds, under the wardenship of Gerald K. Hibbert and the sub-wardenship of Maurice Rowntree, and in the same year, under the guidance of Joseph Rowntree’s nephew Arnold Rowntree, the St Mary’s Settlement opened in York (see Peacock 1997). At both these settlements the early curriculum, reflecting the involvment of adult school workers, was distinctively religious in content, but it soon broadened, embracing courses on international relations, economics, literature, history, science and nature; and the two settlements spawned dramatic and musical societies which brought them a higher profile in their respective cities. The premises were also used for Workers’ Educational Association (WEA) and university extension courses. Five years later, in 1914, another educational settlement was opened at Beechcroft in Birkenhead, again under Quaker auspices (see Fleming 1938). Its founder, Horace Fleming, believed it to have been the first truly educational settlement, recognising the claims of Swarthmore and St Mary’s but arguing that the breadth of the curriculum at Beechcroft from its inception made it a more genuine ‘community centre of adult education’ (Fleming 1938: 14). Like its predecessors, Beechcroft grew out of the local adult school movement, but it was also formed under the influence of the WEA and other educational bodies. Originally in Fleming’s own home, it was intended from the start to create the atmosphere of ‘fellowship’ that lay at the heart of the educational settlement ethos. After the first world war, more such settlements were established, including the Walthamstow Settlement, which grew from a Friends’ Mission and was associated with the (Quaker) Bedford Institute; the Folk House in Bristol; a settlement in Plymouth, also called Swarthmore, instigated by the Society of Friends and the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA); and Bensham Grove in Gateshead, which was unusual in having a female warden (Miss Lettice Jowitt) and a residential element. In 1920 the Educational Settlements Association (ESA) was established, and by 1935 the ESA had 32 member settlements (Pimlott 1935: 278-82). In 1924 it became one of the ‘Responsible Bodies’ that were entitled to statutory financial support for the provision of adult educational services (Freeman 2004: 67-8). The educational settlements were conceived as helping to foster what have been called ‘those omnipresent magic words, “Fellowship” and “Service”’ (Greenwood 1978: 188). The pioneers stressed their links with the Quaker adult school movement: Arnold Rowntree, at the opening of St Mary’s, claimed that the new institution did not mean ‘any break in connection with the past history of the Adult School Movement’ but was rather ‘only the necessary growth and extension of the activities of that movement’ (Freeman 2002: 249). This extension was thought to be necessary because fewer adults now needed the basic training in the ‘three Rs’ that was provided in the adult schools, and fewer were interested in Bible study. It was difficult to attract students to an outwardly religious establishment, especially given the broad curriculum and less patrician environment available from providers such as the WEA. In a society that was felt to be rapidly secularising, Joseph Rowntree hoped that educational settlements might do the work of churches and chapels, and help shape ‘the spiritual fellowships of the future’ (Freeman 2002: 249). The pioneers of the movement continued to emphasise the role of the settlements in promoting the interests of the Society of Friends. Horace Fleming thought that they occupied a bridging position between the adult schools and Quaker Meetings, while at the same time contributing to the ‘leavening of the local community life’ (Freeman 2002: 250). The link to the community illustrates the importance of the ideal of settlement, which also lay behind the emergence of the university settlements in the 1880s (see Settlements and social action centres). This was important to the adult schools: the Quaker Edward Grubb pointed out in 1917 that ‘every Adult School gathers other activities around it than the Sunday morning or afternoon lesson: Savings Funds, Libraries, Temperance Societies, Sick Clubs, and the like’ (Grubb 1917: 176-7). However, educational settlements went further than this by providing permanent premises, and by endowing adult education with ‘both a home and a spirit’ (Kelly 1962: 265). Naturally, given their name, the educational settlements were compared with the university or social settlements that emerged in the 1880s and which continued to play a significant role in the lives of some communities into the interwar period. There were sometimes very striking similarities between the two types of institution. The social settlements themselves served an educational function: at Toynbee Hall, for example, university extension and tutorial classes were held, as well as a WEA programme (Evans 1982; see settlements and social action centresand Toynbee Hall). However, at these settlements the educational work tended to be viewed within a broader context of social reform. Basil Yeaxlee, secretary of the ESA, explained that, whereas the educational settlements concentrated on education, the social settlements were ‘constituted on the more general principle of social science’ (Yeaxlee 1929: 85). In this wider conception of their role, residence was a central element, whereas the educational settlements usually housed only the warden and sub-warden. (There is a longer discussion of residence and its implications in Freeman 2002: 252-4, and Freeman 2004: 72-4.) Nevertheless, the educational settlements did sometimes acquire some of the functions of the older university settlements. The educational settlement was viewed as a civic centre, where training for citizenship and active social leadership could be pursued. Horace Fleming recalled that in Birkenhead ‘the dynamic effect of the student community [at the Beechcroft settlement] has resulted in the revolutionising of the housing conditions, and the changing of the composition of the civic Council’ (Fleming 1929: 58). Here, settlement students had been involved in the establishment of a Housing Inquiry Committee, which carried out careful surveys of slum housing. Other educational settlements were associated with social surveys, some had branches of the Left Book Club or the League of Nations Union, while the settlements at Plymouth and Bristol were associated with the Youth Hostels Association in the 1930s (Freeman 2002: 255; Davies and Freeman 2003: 307). Some in the movement regarded this as a dangerous tendency: social work of this kind diluted the educational content of settlement work (Freeman 2002: 255). The curricula pursued in the settlements varied considerably, but most provided a range of courses. Wilfrid Allott, from the ESA’s flagship settlement at Swarthmore in Leeds, told the ESA council in 1936 that history, art, science and languages should lie at the heart of a settlement’s curriculum, and that the last of these should incude English grammar (Freeman 2004: 129-30). Other settlements retained more religious education, although this appears to have become harder to maintain in the curriculum by the 1930s. Extra-curricular cultural activities were also very important: for example, the St Mary’s Settlement ‘became equated with’ the successful Settlement Community Players drama group (Peacock 1997: 294). A new development in educational settlement work arose in the context of social distress in the south Wales coalfield in the 1920s, following the General Strike. From Quaker relief work carried out in the coalfield there emerged the Maes-yr-Haf settlement, established at Trealaw in the Rhondda in 1927. The adult educational work at Maes-yr-Haf was hampered by the sheer extent and depth of the material deprivations of the area, and settlement workers found themselves distributing material relief. There was a soup kitchen, for example, but there were also classes aimed at improving the long-term welfare and prospects of the unemployed. A women’s citizenship class was started, as well as lectures on economics, philosophy and political theory. Maes-yr-Haf also pioneered the establishment of clubs for unemployed men, where they could learn new skills such as shoe-repairing and carpentry, participate in musical and dramatic activities, and keep fit for work through physical training. (On these settlements, see Davies 1970; Naylor 1986; Manasseh 2000; Freeman 2004: 103-8, 119-21.) Maes-yr-Haf, which affiliated to the ESA in 1930, established a model that was followed by many settlements established during the depression of the 1930s, in south Wales and the other ‘Special Areas’, where unemployment was particularly high in this period. These settlements were often established under the influence of religious concern, but the inevitable result of the spread of the educational settlement model was that the original pioneers began to lose control of the movement, and the Quaker dimension was compromised. Moreover, the new settlements in the higher-profile Special Areas were able to attract more funding, both from grant-making trusts such as the Pilgrim Trust and from the state via the Special Areas Commissioners, who were appointed in 1934 to oversee grant-making in these areas. However, the new settlements were motivated by the same ethos – or a version of it – that inspired the Rowntrees and the other pioneers of the 1900s. William Hazelton, the secretary of the ESA, wrote of the ‘hearth and home for adult education’ that was provided by Maes-yr-Haf; and another authority argued that, once the new institutions had outgrown their emergency functions, there was no difference between them and the older educational settlements. Indeed, it was argued that ‘no more impressive or authentic manifestation of the Settlement idea exists than the growth of [the] South Wales Settlements’ (Freeman 2004:120). Despite the obvious successes of the settlements in south Wales and the other Special Areas, by the mid-1930s there was a sense of crisis in the educational settlement movement. Competition from other adult education providers was becoming more intense, and the settlements were less able to offer the range and quality of provision that was available from university extension or the WEA. They were poorly equipped, the tutors were poorly remunerated and the physical surroundings were run down. Settlements found it difficult to attract enough funding. The JRCT provided a high proportion of settlement funds, channelled through the ESA, but the JRCT was not a wealthy body, and larger grant-making trusts usually supported only the settlements in the Special Areas. Local education authorities generally failed to support the settlements. In a scathing report delivered to the JRCT in 1938, W. E. Williams, secretary of the British Institute of Adult Education, called settlements ‘the slums of adult education’, and remarked that most lacked ‘the remotest possibility of LEA support’ (Davies and Freeman 2003: 309). Third, the idea of the settlement appeared to be out-dated. The word ‘settlement’ was associated with the Victorian patronage of Toynbee Hall and the other social settlements. A new, apparently more egalitarian and democratic movement, had emerged in the shape of the community centres and community associations that were established on many of the new housing estates in the interwar period under the auspices of the National Council for Social Service (NCSS). They gained support from grant-making bodies such as the Pilgrim Trust, and also from the state in the form of subsidies from the National Fitness Council under the terms of the Physical Training and Recreation Act of 1937, and from the Baord of Education (Freeman 2004: 123). Although the community centres attracted some criticism for following too closely the settlement model and for generating social conflict on the new housing estates (Olechnowicz 1997: 143), they were widely seen as democratic improvements on settlements. In a report published in 1942, the difference between the two institutions was spelled out: ‘Whereas [community centres] aim at being democratic organisations secured and managed by their own Community Associations, settlements are planned and run by groups of charitable and socially-minded persons of a different class from those whom they hope to benefit’ (Stephenson and Stephenson 1942: 92). Nevertheless, there were obvious links between the two movements, and in the years immediately preceding the second world war attempts were made to draw them closer together. The ESA leadership realised that the future of community education was more likely to lie with the community centres than with their own institutions, but were concerned – rightly, as it turned out – that the centres would cease to play an educational role and concentrate largely on leisure provision. They were also concerned about the lack of religious inspiration in the newer institutions, and hoped that by allying the ESA closely with the new movement, that some of their priorities could be transferred to the community centres. Adult education grew and developed in many directions during and after the second world war (Fieldhouse 1996). The Education Act of 1944 compelled local authorities to provide adult education facilities, and by 1948 the surviving educational settlements all received some financial support from their respective LEAs. LEAs, which were the largest adult education providers even before the war, expanded considerably, in many cases developing their own adult education centres, which owed at least something to the educational settlement model. However, the growth of these institutions threatened the existence of educational settlements and other voluntarily provided adult education, especially given the straitened financial circumstances in which the ESA and its members remained. The ESA decided to ally itself even more closely with the community centres movement, and moved into office accommodation shared with the National Federation of Community Centres. The ESA was renamed the Educational Centres Association (ECA) in 1946, admitting that ‘the word “Settlement” is not as acceptable to-day as it was in times past’ (Freeman 2004: 198). The JRCT began a phased withdrawal of the financial support it has provided for the ESA and its member settlements, establishing in collaboration with other interested parties two new grant-making trusts: the Community Education Trust and the Community Equipment Trust (see Davies and Freeman 2003: 314-16). These trusts failed to attract the additional support that was hoped for, and were soon wound up; but the ECA continued to exist, and continued to provide courses in its capacity as a ‘Responsible Body’, in which it was also entitled to a limited amount of Ministry of Education Funding. Many of the educational centres continued, some of them actively involved in the life of their local community, such as the Percival Guildhouse in Rugby. Others continued to run their educational programmes, but without much sense of ‘social purpose’, according to a survey of centres carried out in 1961 (Allaway 1961: 73). Others were either allowed to die, or were subsumed into the community centres movement. Some of the inspiration that moved the early pioneers of the educational settlements remained in the movement in the 1940s and 1950s. There was a renewed emphasis on the religious dimension of the education that had been provided in the settlements, which was felt to have been marginalised by the growth of publicly provided adult education. The rhetoric of community education was still employed. The long-serving president, Arnold Rowntree, told the ESA in 1945 that settlements sought ‘to raise the level of civic life by the energising power of example and by the influx of [their] members into the fields of active citizenship’ (Freeman 2004: 201). The educational settlements were never as important as universities, the WEA or local authorities in providing adult education. They lacked the resources to compete with these bodies, their religious origins and association with Victorian patronage held them back, and the ESA leaders realised from the later 1930s that their future could be secured only in harness with other bodies that concentrated less on purely educational facilities and relied less on voluntarism. However, the settlements could, and did, claim the credit for demonstrating the value of the ‘centre idea’ in adult education, and in this regard for exercising some influence over the development of LEA educational centres and village colleges. The ECA remains in existence today, receiving some public funds and raising money privately to promote ‘lifelong learning’; some of the early member institutions also survive in various guises. Some, such as the Bristol Folk House, combine arts and crafts and language courses with exhibitions and musical events: there is also a café-bar (which was in existence in the early 1930s: Freeman 2002, 254). At the Percival Guildhouse in Rugby, there are informal courses, again featuring languages and arts and crafts as well as family history, and there is a licensed social club. The Swarthmore education centre in Leeds offers courses in computing, the arts and healthy living, while the Swarthmore centre in Plymouth features local history. The surviving educational centres remain community resources, very different in scale and scope from the visions of the settlement pioneers. Allaway, A. J. (1961) The educational centres movement: a comprehensive survey, London: National Institute of Adult Education. Davies, J. Elfed (1970) ‘Educational settlements in south Wales, with special reference to the Merthyr Tudful settlement’, Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, part 2, pp. 177-98. Davies, Jonathan S. and Mark Freeman (2003) ‘Education for citizenship: the Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust and the educational settlement movement’, History of Education xxxii, pp. 303-18. Evans, R. A. (1982) ‘The university and the city: the educational work of Toynbee Hall’, History of Education xi, pp. 113-25. Fieldhouse, Roger (1996) ‘An overview of British adult education in the twentieth century’, in Fieldhouse and associates (eds), A history of modern British adult education, Leicester: National Institute of Adult and Continuing Education. Fleming, Horace (1938) Beechcroft: the story of the Birkenhead settlement 1914-1924: an experiment in adult education, London: Educational Settlements Association. Mark Freeman (2002) ‘“No finer school than a settlement”: the development of the educational settlement movement’, History of Education xxxi, pp. 245-62. Mark Freeman (2004) The Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust: a study in Quaker philanthropy and adult education 1904-1954, York: William Sessions. Greenwood, John Ormerod (1978) Quaker encounters, volume III: whispers of truth, York: William Sessions. Grubb, Edward (1917) What is Quakerism? An exposition of the leading principles and practices of the Society of Friends, as based on the experiences of ‘the Inward Light’, London: Headley Brothers. Kelly, Thomas (1962) A history of adult education in Great Britain. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. Kennedy, Thomas C. (2001) British Quakerism 1860-1920: the transformation of a religious community, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Manasseh, Pamela (2000) ‘Quaker relief work and the Brynmawr experiment’, Woodbrooke Journal vii, pp. 2-31. Naylor, Barrie (1986) Quakers in the Rhondda 1926-1986, Chepstow: Maes-yr-Haf Educational Trust. Olechnowicz, Andrzej (1997) Working-class housing in England between the wars: the Becontree estate, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Peacock, A. J. (1997) ‘Adult education in York 1800-1947’, in Peacock (ed.), Essays in York history, York: York Settlement Trust, pp. 266-301. Pimlott, J. A. R. (1935) Toynbee Hall: fifty years of social progress, London: J. M. Dent. Rowntree, Arnold S. (1923) Woodbrooke: its history and aims, Birmingham: Woodbrooke Extension Committee. Stephenson, Flora and Gordon Stephenson (1942) Community centres: a survey, London: Community Centres Joint Research Committee. Yeaxlee, Basil A. (1929) Lifelong education: a sketch of the range and significance of the adult education movement, London: Cassell and Co. Percival Guildhouse, Rugby How to cite this article: Freeman, M. (2004) ‘Educational settlements’, the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/association/educational_settlements.htm. Mark Freeman is a Research Associate in the Department of History at the University of Hull. He is currently working on an ESRC-funded project entitled ‘Shareholder Democracies? Corporate Governance in Britain, 1720-1844’. His publications include: Social Investigation and Rural England 1870-1914 (Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2003). Royal Historical Society, Studies in History new series; and The Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust: A Study in Quaker Philanthropy and Adult Education 1904-1954 (York: Sessions, 2004). Acknowledgements: Some of the above appeared in History of Education 31, no. 3 (2002), pp.245-62, published by Taylor and Francis (http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals), and the author is grateful to the publishers for permission to use this material. This picture of Woodbrooke Hall is by C. Wess Daniels and is reproduced here under a Creative Commons Licence (Attribution-Non-Commercial-No Derivative Works 2.0 Generic) – flickr – http://www.flickr.com/photos/prh/482339972/ © Mark Freeman 2004

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This article needs additional citations for verification. (October 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) |Part of a series on| |Jews and Judaism| |Repentance in Judaism Teshuva| | Repentance, atonement and| higher ascent in Judaism |In the Hebrew Bible| | Altars · Korban | Temple in Jerusalem Prophecy within the Temple | Confession · Atonement | Love of God · Awe of God Meditation · Services Tzedakah · Mitzvot |In the Jewish calendar| | Month of Elul · Selichot | Shofar · Tashlikh Ten Days of Repentance Kapparot · Mikveh Sukkot · Simchat Torah Ta'anit · Tisha B'Av Passover · The Omer |In contemporary Judaism| | Baal Teshuva movement | Jewish Renewal · Musar movement Jewish Renewal (Hebrew: התחדשות יהודית, romanized: hitḥadeshut yehudit) is a recent movement in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with Kabbalistic, Hasidic, and musical practices. Specifically, it seeks to reintroduce the "ancient Judaic traditions of mysticism and meditation, gender equality and ecstatic prayer" to synagogue services. It is distinct from the baal teshuva movement of return to Orthodox Judaism. The term Jewish Renewal describes "a set of practices within Judaism that attempt to reinvigorate what it views as a moribund and uninspiring Judaism with mystical, Hasidic, musical and meditative practices drawn from a variety of traditional and untraditional, Jewish and other, sources. In this sense, Jewish renewal is an approach to Judaism that can be found within segments of any of the Jewish denominations". The term also refers to an emerging Jewish movement, the Jewish Renewal movement, which describes itself as "a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism's prophetic and mystical traditions". The Jewish Renewal movement incorporates social views such as egalitarianism, environmentalism and pacifism. Jewish Renewal rabbi Barbara Thiede writes: Jewish Renewal will joyfully embrace music, meditation, chant, yoga, and storytelling in the practice of Judaism. Jewish Renewal reads Torah as our deepest challenge and our most precious gift ... Jewish Renewal is about learning the why and not just the how. It's about plumbing the very depths of why so that we can hear our private and godly voices of truth ... Ideas, texts, tradition – Jewish understanding laced together in a sweet web of life so clearly that I could unpack the teaching as easily as I could unzip a boot. The movement's most prominent leader was Zalman Schachter-Shalomi. Other leaders, teachers and authors associated with Jewish Renewal include Arthur Waskow, Michael Lerner, Tirzah Firestone, Phyllis Berman, Shefa Gold, David Ingber, and Marcia Prager. Jewish Renewal brings kabbalistic and Hasidic theory and practice into a non-Orthodox, egalitarian framework, a phenomenon sometimes referred to as neo-Hasidism. Like Hasidic Jews, Renewal Jews often add to traditional worship ecstatic practices such as meditation, chant and dance. In augmenting Jewish ritual, some Renewal Jews borrow freely and openly from Buddhism, Sufism and other faiths. This section needs additional citations for verification. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Jewish Renewal, in its most general sense, has its origins in the North American Jewish countercultural trends of the late 1960s and early 1970s. During this period, groups of young rabbis, academics and political activists founded experimental chavurot (singular: chavurah) or "fellowships" for prayer and study, in reaction to what they perceived as an over-institutionalized and unspiritual North American Jewish establishment. Initially the main inspiration was the pietistic fellowships of the Pharisees and other ancient Jewish sects. Also initially, some of these groups, like the Boston-area Havurat Shalom attempted to function as full-fledged communes after the model of their secular counterparts. Others formed as communities within the urban or suburban Jewish establishment. Founders of the havurot included the liberal political activist Arthur Waskow, Michael Strassfeld (who later became rabbi for a Conservative congregation and then moved on to serve a major Reconstructionist congregation), and Zalman Schachter-Shalomi. Although the leadership and ritual privileges were initially men-only, as in Orthodox Jewish practice, the second wave of American feminism soon led to the full integration of women in these communities. Apart from some tentative articles in Response and other Jewish student magazines, the early havurot attracted little attention in the wider North American Jewish community. Then, in 1973, Richard Siegel, and Michael and Sharon Strassfeld released The Jewish Catalog: A Do-It-Yourself Kit. Patterned after the Whole Earth Catalog, the book served both as a basic reference on Judaism and American Jewish life, as well as a playful compendium of Jewish crafts, recipes, meditational practices, and political action ideas, all aimed at disaffected young Jewish adults. The Jewish Catalog became one of the bestselling books in American Jewish history to that date and spawned two sequels. A much more widespread havurah movement soon emerged, including self-governing havurot within Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist synagogues. By 1980 an increasing number of havurot had moved away from strictly traditional Jewish worship practices, as members added English readings and chants, poetry from other spiritual traditions, percussion instruments, and overall a less formal approach to worship. In an interview (published in Zeek in 2012), scholar and folklorist Chava Weissler—who has been a "participant-observer" in both the Havurah movement and in Jewish Renewal—articulated her sense of the differences between Jewish Renewal and the Havurah movement as it evolved: CW: I often use the following metaphor: the Havurah movement represents the Misnagdim and the Renewal movement the Hasidim of the Jewish counter-culture. The style of the Havurah movement is more cognitive, and the style of Renewal is more expressive and devotional. Also, the Havurah movement has a deep aversion to the "rebbe" model, while the Renewal movement has seen it as a way into a heightened spirituality. ZEEK: The Hasidim/Misnagdim analogy is a fascinating one, though I can see how some folks in the Havurah movement might have bones to pick there. CW: Especially because we saw ourselves as reinstating Hasidism, or parts of it. Some years ago, a well-known Renewal teacher taught at the Havurah Institute. I asked him how he felt it compared to the Kallah and Renewal. And he said, 'the havurah movement is so unspiritual, it really bothered me ... when they have a study class, they go in, open the text, study, close the text and you're done. When I teach a class, we sit in silence, we open our hearts to the text, we sing a niggun, we study the text, we process what's happened to us, then we sing another niggun and sit in silence again to receive what we've received.' My havurah friends were outraged that he would say the Havurah movement isn't spiritual! But it's a different model of spirituality and also of study ... B'nai Or / P'nai Or Zalman Schachter-Shalomi, a Hasidic-trained rabbi ordained in the Lubavitch movement, broke with Orthodox Judaism beginning in the 1960s, and founded his own organization, The B'nai Or Religious Fellowship, which he described in an article entitled "Toward an Order of B'nai Or". "B'nai Or" means "sons" or "children" of light, and was taken from the Dead Sea Scrolls material, where the "sons of light" battle the "sons of darkness". Schachter-Shalomi envisioned B'nai Or as a semi-monastic ashram-type community, based upon the various communal models prevalent in the 1960s and 1970s. This community never materialized as he envisioned it, but B'nai Or did produce a number of important leaders in the Renewal movement. It also produced the B'nai Or Newsletter, a quarterly magazine that presented articles on Jewish mysticism, Hasidic stories and Schachter-Shalomi's philosophy. The masthead of this publication read: "B'nai Or is a Jewish Fellowship established for the service of G-d [sic] through prayer, Torah, celebration, meditation, tradition, and mysticism. We serve as a center to facilitate people in the pursuit of Judaism as a spiritual way of life." Schachter-Shalomi was strongly influenced by Sufism of Islam and Buddhism, even translating some of the prayers into Hebrew. He also focused more on urban sustainable living than rural culture, and suggested for instance interconnected basements of houses in urban neighborhoods that would create collective space (especially for holidays), while providing the level of privacy secular life had encouraged. Some of these ideas have influenced urban economics. In 1985, after the first national Kallah (conference) gathering in Radnor, Pennsylvania, the name was changed from B'nai Or to P'nai Or ("Faces of Light") to reflect the more egalitarian perspective of the rising feminist movement. Together with such colleagues as Arthur Waskow, Schachter-Shalomi broadened the focus of his organization. In 1993 it merged with The Shalom Center, founded by Waskow, to become ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal. In 1979, Waskow had founded a magazine called Menorah, which explored and encouraged many creative ritual and social issues from a Jewish perspective. It was in this publication that Waskow coined the term "Jewish Renewal". In 1986, Menorah merged with The B'nai Or Newsletter to become New Menorah, now available online through ALEPH. The new version of the publication addressed Jewish feminism, the nuclear arms race, new forms of prayer, social justice, etc. Several of the early New Menorah issues explored gay rights, and became an important catalyst for opening this discussion in more mainstream synagogues. The greater cohesion and focus created by B'nai Or/ALEPH and its magazine led gradually to the spread of Jewish Renewal throughout the United States and, by the close of the century, to the establishment of communities in Canada, Latin America, Europe and Israel. By this time, the beginnings of institutionalization were in place, in the form of the nonprofit organization ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal, the rabbinical association OHaLaH, and an increasingly formalized but not accredited rabbinic ordination program. Renewal and the contemporary Jewish community Statistics on the number of Jews who identify themselves as "Renewal" are not readily available. However, the evidence of Renewal influence can be found throughout the spectrum of Jewish denominational affiliation and in many diverse other arenas of Jewish life. it is not uncommon for congregations that are not associated with the Renewal movement to feature many Renewal influences. These include workshops on Jewish meditation and various Judaized forms of yoga which may even be incorporated into religious services. "Chanting" and "healing" services have become increasingly common. Many melodies and liturgical innovations have found their way into the Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist movements. Rabbis and Cantors trained by the ALEPH Ordination Program, the Jewish Renewal seminary, have begun to serve congregations with other affiliations and bring Renewal-informed influences to these environments. Jewish Renewal is "part of the burgeoning world of transdenominational Judaism—the growing number of synagogues, rabbis and prayer groups that eschew affiliation with a Jewish stream". Rabbi Marcia Prager writes: Jewish Renewal is a "movement" in the sense of a wave in motion, a grassroots effort to discover the modern meaning of Judaism as a spiritual practice. Jewish-renewalists see "renewal" as a process reaching beyond denominational boundaries and institutional structures, more similar to the multi-centered civil rights or women's movements than to contemporary denominations. The ALEPH Ordination Program emerged out of ALEPH founder Reb Zalman's earlier project of training and ordaining an inner circle of students, many with extensive yeshiva backgrounds, to be inspiring progressive post-denominational community organizers and spiritual leaders. The ALEPH Ordination Program has grown to become the largest rigorous liberal Jewish seminary in North America, comprising 4 schools: • Rabbinic Program • Rabbinic Pastor Program (training Jewish clergy specializing in pastoral care) • Cantorial Program • Hashpa'ah Program (training Jewish Spiritual Directors) Enrollment in these four programs embraces over 90 students from all denominational backgrounds, from the US, Canada, Europe and Israel, who study both locally and through ALEPH courses and retreats. The rabbinic students undertake a rigorous academic program comprising a minimum of 60 graduate-level courses and practica covering a comprehensive curriculum of rabbinic education. Cantorial students are masters of liturgy and nusach, traditional and contemporary Jewish music, western and non-western traditions, and also fulfill course requirements in Jewish history, philosophy, text, thought and practice. Rabbinic Pastors are specialists, trained to provide Jewish wisdom, spiritual direction, support, and counseling in chaplaincy and in congregational settings. The Hashpa'ah Program offers a three-year concentration in Jewish Studies and Jewish Spiritual Counseling and Guidance, leading to Certification as Mashpia/Spiritual Director. Since 1973, more than 200 Jewish Renewal spiritual leaders have been ordained through the ALEPH Ordination Program and/or its predecessor the B'nai Or/P'nai Or Ordination Program. The ALEPH Ordination Program is unique in its blend of low-residency and residential components. Semester-length seminars and courses are offered using state-of-the-art live videoconference technology, while winter and summer residential retreats bring students and faculty together as a living-learning community for in-depth intensives and practica. AOP offers both a fully accredited Master of Divinity degree and Doctor of Ministry Degree in cooperation with New York Theological Seminary (NYTS) Details about the curriculum and philosophy of the AOP can be found on the AOP website. Criticism and response New Age Judaism Critics of Jewish Renewal claim that the movement emphasizes individual spiritual experience and subjective opinion over communal norms and Jewish textual literacy; Jewish Renewal is sometimes criticized as New Age, touchy-feely and stuck in the 1960s. The ALEPH website offers the following response: Jewish Renewal is sometimes referred to as "New Age" by people who do not know that meditation, dance, chant, and mysticism have been present in Judaism throughout the ages and not, as some mistakenly believe, patched on to Judaism from other cultures or made up out of whole cloth. Sadly, some of our authentic, time-honored beliefs and practices have been lost to assimilation, leaving many contemporary Jews largely unaware of them. This is a major reason why so many spiritually sensitive Jews have sought spiritual expression in other faith traditions. It is an important part of ALEPH's mission to make the "hidden" treasures of Judaism known and accessible to these seekers. Many Jewish Renewal techniques, ideas, and practices have become mainstream and are now familiar to Jews across the denominations: Three decades after Reb Zalman began reaching out to disenfranchised Jews with a hands-on, mystically inflected, radically egalitarian, liturgically inventive, neo-chasidic approach, many of the techniques he pioneered—from meditation to describing God in new terms--are widely employed in mainstream settings. Despite the prevalence of Renewal practices, ideas, and teachings across the denominational spectrum, Jewish Renewal is not always known or credited with having originated these teachings and ideas. "Our influence is penetrating much deeper into the mainstream, but without acknowledgement," said Rabbi Daniel Siegel. "There is still a lot of ignorance and prejudice toward us in other movements." Like all religious movements, the movement faces challenges today. Some within the Renewal community maintain that the movement has been more successful in providing occasional ecstatic "peak experiences" at worship services and spiritual retreats than in inculcating a daily discipline of religious practice. Others have observed a tension within the community between those who prefer to focus on liberal social activism on American, Middle East and global issues; and those who favor an emphasis on meditation, text study and worship. And as a summer 2017 article in The Forward notes, there are tensions within ALEPH that have led many of its recent and in particular younger leaders not directly associated with the movement's early years to walk away, preferring to pursue the renewal of Judaism outside that organization. These, together with the challenge of training and recruiting future generations of leaders, are among the issues facing Jewish Renewal today. - Vitello, Paul (9 July 2014). "Zalman Schachter-Shalomi, Jewish Pioneer, Dies at 89". New York Times. - Shaul Magid article "Jewish Renewal" in Encyclopedia of the Jewish diaspora: origins, experiences, and culture: Volume 1 ed. Mark Avrum Ehrlich 2009 p. 627 "Impact - The impact of Jewish Renewal is already profound yet, given that we are still in the midst of its full disclosure, still somewhat unknown. It is important to note that although Renewal was fed by the Baal Teshuva movement (new ..." - Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (2010). Judaism Today. Continuum. - About Jewish Renewal Archived 2014-10-07 at the Wayback Machine - Jewish Renewal's red boots, accessed January 22, 2012 - ALEPH teachers listing, accessed December 13, 2018 - Meneken, Yaakov (2005). The Everything Torah Book: All You Need To Understand The Basics Of Jewish Law And The Five Books Of The Old Testament. Avon, MA: Adams Media. p. 298. ISBN 978-1-4405-3801-8. Retrieved 6 March 2017. The Jewish Renewal movement emphasizes meditation, dance, chant, and mysticism, borrowing from Buddhism, Sufism, Native American religion, and other faiths. - "Religion and Ethics: Jewish Renewal". Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). September 30, 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2017. They incorporate elements from other traditions such as reggae and gospel, and even a Jewish version of yoga. - Chava Weissler: Tradition and Renewal, Zeek, April 2012 - "Renewal Wants To Keep Same Spirit While Standardizing Rabbis' Training" Archived 2014-07-14 at the Wayback Machine, JTA, accessed May 8, 2012 - "Defining Renewal", accessed May 7, 2012 - Jewish Renewal - My Jewish Learning, accessed May 8, 2012 - ALEPH FAQ Archived 2012-05-06 at the Wayback Machine, accessed May 8, 2012 - Mystical Jewish Renewal Movement Features Fresh Divisions Three Years After Founder's Death - Michael Lerner, Jewish Renewal: A Path to Healing and Transformation (1994) - Zalman Schachter-Shalomi, Paradigm Shift: From the Jewish Renewal Teachings of Reb Zalman Schachter-Shalomi (1993) - Groesberg, Sholom, Jewish Renewal: A Journey: the movement's history, ideology and future,iUniverse, Inc., 2008 - Kaplan, Dana Evan, Contemporary American Judaism: Transformation and Renewal, Columbia University Press, 2009 (has a chapter on the early history and growth of Jewish Renewal) - Bader, Michael J. 1994. "Shame and Resistance to Jewish Renewal". Tikkun 9(6): 23. - Arthur Waskow, Freedom Seder (Holt & Rinehart, 1969); These Holy Sparks (Harper,199 ); Godwrestling—Round 2 (Jewish Lights, 1996; Down-to-Earth Judaism (Morrow,1997); Seasons of Our Joy (Bantam, 1982; 3d ed., Jewish Publ Soc, 2012). - Arthur Waskow & Phyllis Berman, A Time for Every Purpose Under Heaven (Farrar Straus & Giroux,2002); Freedom Journeys (Jewish Lights, 2011).

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To grow and develop spiritually and to maintain it requires effort and guidance. Modern wizardry is here to help this process, although ultimately the responsibility is the individual’s. Modern wizardry offers a wise, knowledgeable, experienced, balanced and fun path through this process of restoring the balance and of being free of shadow. For more information and how to join the Wizards Academy please continue to read. As time passes, what we teach and how we work may well change and evolve. We believe that this is a natural and healthy process. In many religions their teachings and working practices are stuck in the past, they were useful and relevant when they were first introduced but over time as situations changed they became less so but there was no way to change them. They are therefore still teaching and practising more or less what they were thousands of years ago, even if it is no longer appropriate. We recognise that what we teach and our working practices need to be allowed to grow and evolve, as is natural and necessary. On the word ‘wizard’ We appreciate that people may understand different things by the word ‘wizard’. We use the original meaning of the word ‘wizard’, ‘an expert in the art of wisdom’. It is only more recently, around 1550 AD that the word took on the meaning, ‘one with magical power’. This was during the Middle Ages, as the distinction between philosophy (meaning ‘the love of wisdom’) and magic blurred which is reflected in other terminology as: - The words ‘magic’ and ‘magician’ derive from the Greek word mágos, meaning ‘one of the members of the learned and priestly class’, and was first attested in the 6th century BC. During the 14th century, it took on its contemporary meaning: ‘the art of influencing events and producing marvels’. - The word ‘sorcerer’ derives originally from the Latin word sors, meaning ‘lot, fate, fortune’, but again it was only during around the 14th century that the word took on its current meaning of someone who influences events using magical spells. - The word ‘witch’ derives from the Old English word wicce, which simply means ‘female magician, sorceress’. - People working with magic tend to use spells. The noun ‘spell’ derives from the Old Norse (Norwegian) word spjall, which means ‘report, discourse, tale’. Its contemporary magical meaning though of ‘set of words with magical powers, incantation, charm’ is again a recent one, first recorded in 1579. This focus on doing / practising magic is not one that The Association of Modern Wizardry shares. People who do magic are actually using their own power to impose their own will on events. For example, they may: - Focus their own mental and emotional energy on something they want, whether it be helping (or hurting) someone else, finding a new job or new relationship etc. - Possibly use the power of the spoken word in the form of positive affirmations or ‘magical’ words – a ‘spell’. - Perhaps carry out a physical act such as drawing or modelling what they want to happen, or focussing on a picture of what they want, etc. - Maybe even asking for help to get what they want from the spiritual realms, even though this risks working with a malevolent spirit. This type of ‘magic’ is actually rather common. Many people today are recognising their own power of intention – they can get what they want by mentally and emotionally focussing on it, whether it be a job, a solution to a problem, whatever. It is discussed, for example, in the quite well known film The Secret. The key distinction between what we do in Modern Wizardry versus this sort of magic is that we work with the ONE, not our own will. We don’t decide what we want, and then use our physical, mental, emotional and spiritual power to get it. Instead, we simply work with the ONE. When you choose to work with the ONE, the power of the ONE also flows through the work you do. The power of the ONE is infinite; it can achieve exactly what the ONE chooses to achieve, it is a beautiful energy to work with. By working with the guidance and power of the ONE, there is no need to focus on using your own physical, mental and emotional energy to create change, because you are working with the power of the ONE! This is what differentiates Modern Wizards from magicians, sorcerers and witches. If people are practising magic, even if it is only focussing on their own emotional and mental energy to get something they may think is a good idea to wish for, then they are at a good starting-point. It is very common and understandable for people to do this – they are simply using more of who they are to get what they want (e.g. using their mental and emotional focus). If you are in this situation, we don’t advise you to shut down or feel negative about yourself, you have simply been exploring all of who you are which is a wonderful and natural thing to do. All we would advise is that you also bring your attention to the ONE that is within you, the power of unconditional love that resides in all things, that resides in your soul. When you are One with this, you will realise that there is a beautiful path for you (what we call the Wyrd) that there is nothing to worry about and that there is no need to wish for anything yourself. The ONE knows all, cares for all, can be absolutely trusted, and will provide you with every opportunity you need to grow spiritually and to fulfil your purpose here on earth. All you need to do is to connect with ONE / Source / your Higher Self / your soul – listen in every way to what the ONE is trying to tell you, ask the ONE what you want to know. More information on this process is included in our Wizard student course. A final comment on magic, although we don’t practise magic at all in Modern Wizardry, we do recognise that in one sense, everything is magical, everything contains, expresses and is connected to the ONE. We don’t consider it unusual at all for things that are usually unseen to express themselves visually / physically. Whilst we realise that some people would consider this unusual and spectacular, producing such marvels is not our goal or what we aim to do. Our goal is very different from that – to help humanity and the earth – and any ‘miraculous’ events are by-products, not the goal. Therefore we do not do magic, but recognise that what other people may call ‘magic’ occurs all the time. Wizardry Training Two We believe that the wisdom and knowledge we have gained through Modern Wizardry may be of immense value to other people and have therefore created a training programme. There are two parts to our wizardry training programme: - Distance training, which covers the first level in Modern Wizardry, student level. This consists of documents you can download (Treeing and the 4 laws of Spiritual Wizardry), read through and apply on your own along with the information on the website - Personal training, which covers the further levels in Modern Wizardry: Student, Novice, Journey, full and Master wizard levels. This is training carried out mostly online in the Wizards Academy, individually or in small groups, and includes wizardry energy work, please use the contact page if you wish to join the online Academy. - Only ‘once you have mastered the invisible can you do the impossible’ this is what we teach through various mediums and in the online wizards academy, for some this may take a short while because of their already exceptional lives and personal growth and for some others it may take longer, but for all who are willing to learn and grow, they WILL reach this point in their growing. At all times we encourage you to engage with the Erath Dragon and the Dragons in general. Further information on all training is given below. We may have a lot to teach you in some areas, but equally you may have much to teach us too. Each of us is unique, bringing unique understandings, gifts and skills to a situation. We try to be as open as we can be to learning lessons and growing spiritually ourselves, and we therefore encourage each Wizard we meet to be true to themselves, to speak and act as they feel is right. We believe that this will help all involved to continue to grow spiritually. Distance Training – Student Level The Student Wizardry Course starts with this website, these first steps aims to start your spiritual wisdom, to help people grow spiritually, to become their true-selves, to find their true purpose in life. It is the result of lessons learned over many decades by members of Wayfinders. We have tried to provide this website to be suitable for everyone, regardless of what stage you are at in your spiritual journey or how much previous experience you have of spiritual development. We hope it is comprehensive and clear enough to help complete newcomers to spiritual development work, whilst at the same time being insightful and advanced enough to help those with decades of experience in spiritual development work. There are concepts and lessons on this website that we believe are entirely new, that you probably won’t have come across anywhere else before, and that may be immensely useful in helping people grow spiritually. Section 1, the Spiritual Laws of Modern Wizardry, is available. This section introduces fundamental concepts that we believe and hope are constructive for personal spiritual growth. We also recommend you read the book The Time Workshops by Abrielle Jones, published in 2007 with 22 lessons on developing yourself as a Wizard. The book is about Abrielle’s experience as a student in a wizardry course run by Stanley, one of the Master Wizards of WAMW, (wayfinders association of modern wizardry) in the late 1980s, and we hope that you will find these two to be complimentary. Section 2, for advanced Wizardry you need to be understanding and using the Four Spiritual Laws of Wizardry before you move on to the Reality Triangle as well as studying the Time Workshops’ manual. We welcome those who wish to follow the path of Wizardry in to the online Wizards Academy to provide guidance and further teaching with like minded Wizards in furthering your Wizardry path. Training – Novice Level and beyond The Novice wizards course runs from our online Wayfinders Wizardry academy helps people to grow spiritually through focusing mostly on their mental understandings: by thinking about life in a new way by applying the 4 Spiritual laws of Wizardry, people will be able to grow spiritually. To join the Academy please contact us through the form on this websites contact page. You will receive a Wayfinders Wizards certificate as you progress onwards from Novice Wizardry level and beyond, mental understandings are complimented by ‘energy work’ and other spiritual development work, which can be taught in person or over distance, either individually or in small groups. The student course mentioned how thoughts and feelings can be described as ‘energy’. Energy work is a way to help fill you with positive and useful energy. In Modern Wizardry, we connect and work with energies such as: The energy of the ONE, the Creator, the Universe, Source. This includes energies such as unconditional love, peace, joy, and life-force energy. The energy of nature such as trees. The energy of the Dragons. As explained in About: Modern Wizardry we believe that dragons are the ONE’s helpers, and are what other people may call angels. If people prefer to use the word ‘angel’ when training with us, they are welcome to. There are many dragons, such as the elemental dragons (dragons of the earth, water, air and fire), and each embodies and expressed different energies. The energy of the water dragon, for example, is similar to what you would experience if you connected with the energy of the sea, or if you took a long relaxing bath: the water energy helps provide emotional cleansing. Since the dragons are conscious beings, it is also possible to communicate with them, receiving specific guidance as needed. Although the second level in Modern Wizardry is called ‘novice’ level, this doesn’t of course mean that the novices will always be new to working with all of these sorts of energies. If they are, then that’s fine, but equally the novice may have decades of experience in spiritual development and energy work. We use the term ‘novice’ simply because they are more than likely new to the techniques used within Modern Wizardry. We usually work with wands when doing novice energy work. Wands help channel and focus whatever energy we are working with. Being made out of wood, they also help connect us with the energy of trees and of nature. Wands are used for personal energy work – to help heal yourself. We do not use wands for spells – we don’t do spells at all in Modern Wizardry! we have no need to, our skills are working with the invisible creatures and energy’s of the universe. We teach different ways of working with wands and the energies discussed above so that individuals may connect and be filled with whatever energies are needed for that individual to rebalance and to grow spiritually in a natural way. The benefit of doing this energy work is that the individual has a stronger connection with energies that are part of our true selves – a stronger connection with the ONE. This helps the individual to be restored to their true nature, to be one with the ONE. This also helps make us become aware of and displace those energies that aren’t truly part of who we are – negative thoughts and feelings. You could think of it in terms of as we are more filled with the light of the Creator, any dark areas / shadows stand out more (against the light), and the light helps to weaken / displace / remove the shadows. The energy work therefore helps to restore us to our true natural being – beings of light and love. The energy work itself is kept in balance with time for discussing the experience and anything that was raised by it. It’s important that each Wizard gains an understanding of how to work with energy themselves effectively, so that they can tailor the work to what they or others need. It’s also important that everyone has an opportunity to discuss anything that was raised by the work, if they choose to, to help themselves and anyone else there to learn new things and to grow spiritually. We are very fortunate within the association to have members who are particularly gifted at working with energy. A lot of the energy work we have learned and practice comes from them. The aim however is that from this basis, other people can also become more aware of how to work with energy, and can therefore become Masters of the art themselves and help to pass the art on to others. The main advantage that most people who do wizardry energy work find is that it is natural and effective to use. We try to work with energy in a natural way, to restore our true natural energy flows, as they are meant to be. Humans can help bring the light from the One, from the Universe, down to earth – humans can act as channels for light, love and truth. This light, love and truth is used to heal themselves, others and the earth. Our natural role is therefore to have the connection with the One, with the Universe, at the same time as having a connection with the earth, which is achieved through a form of grounding. Within wizardry energy work, the two compliment each other – the stronger the grounding is, the connection with earth is, the stronger the connection with the One, the Universe, can be – and vice-versa. The two balance each other out, thereby creating balance for the individual, so that they find the experience useful, wonderful and natural, not confusing or destabilising. When working in this balanced way, the individual is stable enough to channel far more light, love and truth, to help heal themselves, others and the earth in a more powerful way. We believe that this is the natural role of humans – to help bring light down to earth, to heal ourselves, others and the earth. The techniques we use for energy work are therefore natural too, which means that: They can be quick to learn, although it does depend on the individual. Most of the work is done standing up. Energy flows easiest and most naturally if the body is straight – so either standing up or lying down. At the same time, it can of course still flow in other postures, such as sitting down, just not usually quite as powerfully. We don’t take down / cut off our connections with the ONE / the Universe and with the earth after the energy work. Those connections are a natural part of who we are, and we need them in all situations, to help ourselves and others to grow spiritually. We can strengthen those connections through energy work, but actually they are part of who we naturally are, and we need them all the time, so we can maintain them all the time. They help keep all of who we are – our body, thoughts, feelings and actions – in balance. Once the energy work has been learnt, it is easy to practice it again in any situation. If you’re at work and feeling unbalanced – through too much mental work, or through emotional conflict, for example – you can use it at any time to help restore your balance. It can only take a moment, and needn’t catch anyone else’s attention. Although we usually use wands to learn and practice the energy work, since it makes it more powerful, you can still do the energy work very effectively without one. For these reasons, combined with the way we teach the energy work (discussed below), most people who do wizardry energy work find it is the most powerful and useful type of energy work they have done. Modern Wizardry and Drugs When you work with energy in a natural way, as explained above, it helps you grow and develop spiritually at the pace that is right for you – according to the will of the One. Within Modern Wizardry, we never use drugs or herbs of any sort to try to help this process. Certain drugs / herbs may seem to help this process, but we never do this because: It is not necessary to. We can teach techniques that can help you develop at the right pace for you without using drugs. Drugs can destabilise / unbalance you. They may develop part of who you are (for example, your psychic skill), but this will happen anyway, naturally, when the time is right. If you force it to occur earlier, through the use of drugs, then you’ll become unbalanced. This may take the form of confusion about life in general, losing interest in important areas of your life, eventually losing touch with reality, being troubled by things that have been activated by your drug-induced experiences, not having the same confidence or balance when making decisions, and so on. Any abilities you do acquire through taking drugs will only be temporary. It’s possible to gain these skills naturally in a lasting way, without taking drugs. If you rely on drugs to grow spiritually, you’ll need to keep taking them to keep growing, and this will lead into dependency or addiction, and aggravate the un-balancing effect mentioned above. If you feel you’ve understood and applied (as best you can) student level wizardry you may join us in the Wizards academy, and if you feel it’s right for you to move on to novice level, then you are welcome to consider our novice training programme. Novice level wizardry is about learning how to use energy work to aid your Spiritual development. This adds to and works in conjunction with what you have learnt in student level wizardry, helping you to restore your own true balance. As you learn how to restore your own balance, you become better equipped to help others do likewise. Visits to local energy sites may also form part of the training. Our teachers are UK based and will engage with Wizard students through the online Academy If you are local, you may prefer to come for just a few hours at a time. If you are coming from further away, you may prefer to stay in Swansea for several days, in which case you would organise your own accommodation and travel arrangements. Training venues are arrainged or provided by Master Wizards in suitable locations. The advantages of this are that the teachers can create a good working space for the training, it avoids the cost of hiring a venue, and is convenient. Our teachers do travel around the country so it may be possible to meet somewhere other than Swansea. For example, it may be possible to meet at one of the events we will be attending. If you would like to start Wizard training rather than just attending one of our talks/workshops (which will be student level), then you will need to apply using our contact form on the contacts page. If you’re interested in undertaking Wizard training, then the first step is to use our contact page to tell us of your interest. There is a $24 annual subscription which also provides access to the Wizards online Academy. There are five main levels of Wizardry that you will require to work through. Student level, Novice Wizard level, Journey Wizard level, Full Wizard level and Master Wizard level, Master Wizard level is separated in to two levels. (junior Master wizard and Master Wizard) Below are some documents which you are free to download and use.

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Nigeria. Agricultural Biotechnology Annual. Oct 2015 Oct. 27, 2015 In April 2015, the GON passed the lingered biosafety bill into law and created the National Biosafety Management Agency (NBMA). The establishment of NBMA provides a regulatory framework, an institutional and administrative mechanism in the application of modern biotechnology in Nigeria. Confined Field Trials (CFTs) were conducted for transgenic cow pea, sorghum and cassava varieties with legal backing for multi-locational on-site trials and eventual release to farmers. As a result, promoting stakeholders do not foresee major challenges with adopting products of agricultural biotechnology in Nigeria. Nigeria is rich in oil and gas and the largest economy in Africa. Population is over 180 million and GDP estimated at $510 billion in 2014. Agriculture accounts for about 40 percent of GDP and provides employment for about 70 percent of the population, despite its oil boom over the past three decades. Agriculture also remains subsistence-based with 80 percent of output from the aged, poor and rural farmers. Nigeria relies on imports to meet a significant amount of the country's food needs. Imports of food and agricultural products exceed $10 billion per year (mostly grains and consumer-oriented foods). Nigeria is largely a bulk commodity market and imports wheat, soybean products, tallow, rice and high value products. U.S. food and agricultural exports averaged $1 billion over the past five years—wheat accounting for nearly 90 percent. In 2014, Nigeria exported mostly rubber and cocoa (valued $80 million) to the United States. In 2001, Nigeria established the National Biotechnology Development Agency (NABDA) to promote, commercialize and regulate biotechnology products and issues. NABDA had operated without any legislation since its creation. The Biosafety bill lingered in the country's parliament over the last two sessions (6th and 7th sessions) of the country's National Assembly, and stakeholders and lawmakers were unanimous on the importance of passing it into law. In April 2015, Nigeria's biosafety bill was signed into law and resulted in the establishment of National Biosafety Management Agency (NBMA) to regulate the law. This law leans heavily on the precautionary approach and requires certification and mandatory labeling for imports of all biotech products. NBMA is principally responsible for providing oversight for biotechnology's use and regulating the commercialization of biotechnology products in Nigeria. The Agency has become the focal point and authority on biosafety and approaches agricultural biotechnology as a tool to achieve food security. Nigerian scientists and researchers are now able to move forward from field trials (such as transgenic cow pea, sorghum and cassava varieties) into commercial testing phases for eventual deployment to farmers. In view of this, Nigerian government officials have publicly announced their interests in commercializing Bt cotton, Bt maize, Herbicide Tolerant (HT) soybeans, and the Super Cassava, which are already approved commercially in South Africa, Burkina Faso and Egypt. Although there has been no official approval for commercialization of biotech products in Nigeria, there is an expectation to lead to increased yield productivity and contribute in ensuring food security and industrial growth especially in the ailing textile industries. GON also expects adoption will promote the quantity and quality of cotton that Nigeria can export to other international countries. Plant Biotechnology Trade and Production: PART A. PRODUCTION AND TRADE a) Product Development There are three (3) developed genetically engineered crops under Confined Field Trials (CFT) in Nigeria: 1. Bt Cowpea: engineered for resistance to Maruca with one CFT site in the Institute of Agricultural Research, Zaria. 2. Africa Bio-fortified Sorghum (ABS): engineered with improved Vitamin A, Iron and Zinc for Nutritional enhancement with one CFT site in the Institute of Agricultural Research Zaria. There is also plan for multi-trial location. 3. Cassava: engineered for Mosaic Diseases virus resistance (CMD) and for Brown Streak Disease virus resistance (CBSD) Research capacity exists at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and the Government of Nigeria (GON)'s Sheda Science and Technology Complex (SHESTCO) to conduct and apply basic biotechnology research. b) Commercial Production Currently, there is no commercialization of biotechnology products; however, with the new National Biosafety Agency Bill into law, Nigerian government officials have publicly noted their interests in the commercialization of certain products, such as cotton, maize, and herbicide-tolerant soybeans. GON is aware that these products are commercialized in other African countries like South Africa, Burkina Faso and Egypt. Nigeria does not export GE crops Formally, Nigeria has been importing transgenic seeds only for research and CFT purposes. e) Food Aid: Nigeria is not a recipient of food aid. PART B. Plant Biotechnology Policy: A. Regulatory Framework for Agricultural Biotechnology In April 2015, the GON signed into law a biosafety bill which established NBMA and seeks to stimulate agricultural biotechnology in the country. i). Responsible institutions involved in agricultural biotechnology in Nigeria: The National Biosafety Management Agency (NBMA) was newly created by Nigeria's Federal Ministry of Environment (FME) to be the National Focal Point and the competent Authority for biosafety in Nigeria. It is the regulating body for modern biotechnology activities, e.g. provision of the biosafety/regulation requirements for bringing into the country GE crops for testing and release. FME is the GON's liaison with the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity for administrative functions required under the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. NBMA is also an independent biosafety agency and regulatory body for all biotechnology activities including responsibility for all correspondences with importers, exporters, and applicants on movement of products of modern biotechnology. NBMA will carry out its roles and responsibilities through the following mechanisms: - Define modules of practice of modern biotechnology and the handling of its products to ensure safety to the environment and to human health; - Guide different segments of society in contributing to safe application of modern biotechnology; - Recognize the complex issues to be addressed by central authorities in the judicious application of modern biotechnology; - Ensure that modern biotechnology activities and their products are safe for the environment and to human health; - Base the deliberate release of GE organisms on advance informed agreement; - Define responsibilities among designated bodies/institutions; - Confer powers to authorize release of GE organisms and practice of modern biotechnology activities; - Confers powers to carry out risk assessment/management; - Define offences and penalty for violation of the act; - Cover all LMOs, products food/feed and processing; and - Cover socio-economic consideration in risk assessment and labeling of all GE products; The Federal Ministry of Agriculture is in charge of formulating agricultural policy as it relates to biotechnology, promoting and facilitating agricultural activities, implementation of the policies and programs of agriculture. It houses all agricultural research institutes in the country. National Biotechnology Development Agency (NABDA) was established in 2001 in the Ministry of Science and Technology with the mandate for formulating biotechnology policy in Nigeria, acquiring, deploying, promoting and facilitating biotech activities for indigenous and self-reliant national growth. The agency is active in creating awareness for products of biotechnology. NABDA conducts regular workshops for the major stakeholders in biotechnology. National Food and Drugs Administration Control (NAFDAC) regulates herbicide tolerance in GE events for food and feed. GON's Sheda Science and Technology Complex (SHESTCO) is a center for research and training in the area of modern biotechnology. It has the mandate to domesticate technologies for the application of modern biotechnology in health, agriculture, and environment. Universities are also involved in research and development aspects of agricultural biotechnology such as including Confined Field Trials as noted in Part 2(a). Most of them have Institutional Biosafety Committees. ii). Role and Membership of the National Biosafety Committee (NBC) The NBC serves as the Competent National Authority for biosafety. The inter-ministerial NBC is responsible for the safe management of biotechnology activities. The Committee has 16 members drawn from the Ministries of Agriculture, Science & Technology, Environment, Commerce, Education, Health (NAFDAC), Industry, Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs (Nigerian Customs Service), Justice, Nigerian Association of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Mines and Agriculture (NACCIMA) and other Organized Private Sector. The National Biosafety committee includes Biologists, Physical Scientists and Social Scientists. Furthermore, there are representatives of NGOs distinguished in environmental/conservation matters. The Committee is required to review all applications for the release of products of bioengineering, make recommendations to the Minister of Environment on whether or not to allow such products, oversee the implementation of the National Biotechnology Program, and any other/s that relate within the Bio-safety Law. The NBC has also established National Biosafety Technical Sub-committees (NBTS) to focus on interests of sectors such as agriculture, health, industry and the environment. The sub-committees review proposals for research and recommend the conditions under which experiments should be conducted. They are to provide technical advice to the Committee and contribute to its functions in relation to contained use, field trials, release and placement on the market. Presently, all applications for import, field trials, transit and contained use must be routed through NBMA. The NBC will meet and direct the relevant NBTS to carry out risk assessment and ensure participation of all relevant stakeholders. Findings of the NBTS are submitted to the NBC and then the decision is conveyed to the applicant by NBMA, which determines the issuance of licenses to carry out events. NBMA is charged with responsibility for providing regulatory framework, institutional and administrative mechanisms for safety measures in the application of modern biotechnology. This prevents any adverse effect on human health, animals, plants and the environment, and for related matters. iii). Political factors GON officials widely support agricultural biotechnology; government transition (change of government after election) could influence this position. iv) GON draws distinctions between regulatory treatment for the approval of food, feed, processing, and environmental release. B. Approval of Biotechnology Crops Now that the biosafety law has been enacted by the National Assembly, NBMA in collaboration with Federal Ministry of Environment, which houses the secretariat of the National Biosafety Committee, has commenced drafting of the operational guidelines. There are distinctions between the regulatory treatment of the approval for food, feed, processing and environmental release. Timeline followed for approvals is 270 days. C. Field Testing With the approval of the National Biosafety Committee, the National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike and Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR), Zaria, carried out earlier mentioned CFTs on transgenic cassava, sorghum and cowpea. The approval was based on the provisions of the National Biosafety Guidelines. The guidelines have a provision for field-testing bio-engineered crops. i) The cowpea maruca (insect) resistant confined field trials (CFT): - CFTs have been conducted on the cowpea maruca (insect) resistant. The trial took place on the Research Farm of IAR, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The field trial was to evaluate transgenic events (lines) for their reaction to the legume pod boring insect, Maruca. The trial was replicated four times. - Preliminary results show that CFT4 is a very successful trial. The proof of the concept is not in doubt and the data presented showed that the experiment is more than 95% significant in controlling cowpea pod borer (maruca). - The physical and biological control mechanisms put in place by the institute to mitigate potential environmental risk conformed to established guidelines. - Four CFTs for this event has been successfully concluded. - The multi-location trials (a project): is funded by African Agriculture Technology Foundation (AATF), Nairobi and aided by USAID and other donors. ii) The Africa Bio-fortified Sorghum (ABS) Field Trial in IAR, ABU Zaria The Africa Bio-fortified Sorghum (ABS) has completed three successful trials. Multi- location CFTs are being carried out in IAR research farm stations. Africa Bio-fortified Sorghum testing for Nutritional Enhancement with Vitamin A, Iron and Zinc. iii) The Bio-cassava Plus (BC+) Field Trial at Umudike The CFT for Biocassava Plus is being conducted by the National Root Crop Research Institute, Umudike. The transgenic cassava, named "Super Cassava," which is fortified with vitamin A was developed at the Danforth Center. It was established in October 2009 and is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Bio-fortified Cassava plus for enhanced nutrition. NABDA is collaborating with the research institutes in creating awareness among Nigerian cowpea and cassava clientele, while the NBMA will ensure compliance to Nigerian Biosafety guidelines in the conduct of the trial. Internationally, African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF) provides funding platform, planning, capacity building and linking with other donors such as USAID; the Network for the Genetic Improvement of Cowpea in Africa leverages scientific input of members for planning and linkage, Program for Biosafety Systems assists in regulatory compliance with capacity building and advice. D. Stacked events approvals Additional approval is needed for stacked events. Insect resistance is registered through Federal Ministry of Agriculture. The herbicide needs to be registered differently by National Food and Drugs Administration Control (NAFDAC) which is the regulatory agency for food and drugs. The approved varieties may then be used by farmers. E. Additional Requirements Once the variety is approved and released by Varietal Release Committee and deregulated, in case of seeds, no further registration is required. For processed products of GE, registration with Food and Drugs Administration may be required. Nigeria's new biosafety law is silent on coexistence. However, there are provisions for monitoring. Rules and Guidelines will soon be developed by the new NBMA established by the government to regulate GE Crops. The new biosafety law requires the mandatory labeling of all products of agricultural biotechnology in order to protect "consumers' right to know." Although not specific to biotech products, existing labeling regulations are being enforced by NAFDAC, the GON's regulatory body responsible for food product manufacturing, importation, advertisement and distribution in Nigeria. NAFDAC regulations require food labeling to be informative and accurate. USDA/FAS Lagos has open dialogue with NABDA, NAFDAC, NBMA and other key stakeholders on the operational guidelines of the law to ensure that the requirement of mandatory labeling does not obstruct free trade. H. Trade barriers Post is not aware of any biotechnology-related trade barriers affecting U.S. exports to Nigeria. However, the mandatory labeling requirement may generally retard market access for GE products. I. Intellectual property rights (IPR) J. Cartagena Protocol Ratification Nigeria signed the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in 2000 and its instrument of ratification was signed by the country's President on 30th November, 2002. The protocol came into force in September, 2003. Nigeria, having signed and ratified the protocol, became subject to implementing it. The implementation of the protocol is slow and has had no effect on trade. K. International treaties/ fora Nigeria signed the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992 and ratified the instrument in 1994, and was an active participant in the negotiations leading to the adoption of the Cartagena Protocol. Officials of key biotech agencies such as the Federal Ministry of Environment and NABDA regularly attend meetings of international standard-setting bodies. L. Related issues M. Monitoring and Testing The country recently imposed an Act to regulate the domestication and deployment of GE crops. This Act includes a regulatory framework, as well as institutional, administrative, and monitoring mechanisms. NBMA's main responsibility is to ensure the safe handling, transfer and trans-boundary movement of GE crops, living modified organisms (LMOs). The Biosafety Law also defines penalties for not complying with its regulations. Failure to obtain approval or proper permits before importing or releasing GE organisms into the environment carry the following stated penalties: - Individuals can be fined 2.5 million Naira (about $15,000) or imprisonment for a period not less than five (5) years or both; - Corporations would pay a fine of at least 5.0 million Naira (about $30,000) and the directors or officers of the body shall each be liable to a fine not less than 2.5 million Naira (about $15,000) or imprisonment for a term not less than five (5) years or to both such find and imprisonment; - False information results in the same penalty as failure to obtain approval; Obstruction results in a 2.5 million Naira (about $16,000) fine or imprisonment for not less than three (3) years or both N. Low Level Presence Policy Nigeria does not currently have a low level presence policy. PART C: Marketing A. Market Acceptance Generally, most Nigerians are not aware of products of modern agricultural biotechnology and the issues involved. Information and discussions on modern biotechnology have been undertaken largely among GON officials, scientists and researchers. However, there are pockets of consumer rights and environmentalists indicating interests in pursuing activism in Nigeria's biotechnological adoption. Many stakeholders do not consider them a serious challenge considering the already wide availability and consumption of biotechnology food and agricultural products. Farmers are also more interested in improving their yields and increasing income. Nigerian farmers and the general public need to be educated about the technology. B. Public/Private Opinions There are active organizations like Friends of the Earth and other NGOs lobbying against the use of GE plants and/or production in the country. The perception varies with the intended use. The non-food crops like cotton are more acceptable. Crops conferred with disease resistance traits are acceptable. Farmers generally accept GE crops. Public attitudes towards biotech industries or research institutions in the country are cordial. C. Marketing studies FAS/Lagos is unaware of relevant marketing studies for biotechnology PART D. Plant Biotechnology Capacity Building and Outreach: There is an extensive relationship between the United States and Nigeria on agricultural biotechnology. USDA has helped to fund scientists to work on biotechnology at the IITA, under its technical assistance program. FAS/Lagos also utilized the Cochran Fellowship Program to provide U.S.-based training on agricultural biotechnology to Nigerian scientists. Starting in 2001, the U.S. Government (USG) has also supported Nigeria to establish the Public Biosafety Systems (PBS) guidelines which created provisions for field testing of GE crops. Since 2004, agricultural biotechnology in Nigeria received a boost with two linked initiatives funded by USAID; namely, the West African Biotechnology Network (WABNET) and Nigeria Agriculture Biotechnology Project (NABP), implemented by IITA. NABP was designed to assist Nigeria in building the framework for decision-making that will facilitate access to the opportunities biotechnology offers and will ensure the safe and effective application of this technology to improve agriculture. A key element of Nigeria Agriculture Biotechnology Project is to improve implementation of biosafety regulations and enhance public knowledge and acceptance of biotechnology. The project developed collaborative linkages with, and provided facilities to: Nigerian universities/institutes; to NABDA for biotech information dissemination; SHESTCO for training of scientists; National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) for plant genetic transformation; Institute for Agricultural Research (IAR) for tissue culture; and to University of Agriculture, Abeokuta for advanced biotechnology training. Starting 2005, PBS has worked in Nigeria to support the development of draft biosafety policies and laws, and to provide technical training in biosafety review and regulatory oversight. Nigeria's NABMA is currently leading the drafting of biosafety implementation guidelines. In early 2009, USAID sponsored a study tour trip for the House Committees members on Agriculture, Environment and Science and Technology to the Philippines GE crop farms. The visits gave the participants practical experience on GE crops, how they are being regulated, and the legislation procedure. These activities have assisted in the eventual enactment of the biosafety law. The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) also coordinated through HarvestPlus with other local and international research institutions with presence in Nigeria to develop three new Vitamin A-rich 'yellow-colored' cassava varieties in Nigeria. Funded by the U.S. government through USAID, the cassava would provide more Vitamin A in the diets of over 70 million Nigerians who eat cassava on a daily basis. Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD) is widely prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa – afflicting about 20 percent of pregnant women and approximately 30 percent of children (under five years of age) in Nigeria. VAD can lower immunity and impair vision, which can lead to blindness and even death. Also, in 2009, Nigeria's NBC endorsed two applications for CFTs of GE crops, one for nutritionally enhanced cassava and one for insect-resistant Bt cowpea. PBS, in collaboration with the AATF worked to facilitate the submission and review by regulatory authorities of the latter CFT application. It also provided material and manpower resources that assisted the country establish biosafety institutions and processes that will guide against the misuse of biotechnology. The support included providing and supporting capacity for the multi-locational CFT and inspections of GE crops which aimed at improving the skills and proficiency of Biosafety Regulators on the conduct of CFT inspection for GE crops, particularly on multi-location trials. The USG is also supporting OFAB which also assembles knowledgeable stakeholders to interact and discuss issues regarding biotechnology in Nigeria and the rest of Africa. Late 2012, the USDA also sponsored Nigerian journalists, filmmakers, actors and some related GON policy makers on a familiarization tour of facilities, institutions, firms, farms, etc. to further expose them to the application of modern agricultural biotechnology in the United States. The tour is assisting to further the enlightenment of Nigerian stakeholders to agricultural biotechnology. USG assistance generally takes the following directions: - Educating policymakers, media personnel, local farmers and stakeholders on how to address the negative perceptions of the public; - Building awareness to create innovative products and research outputs and demonstrating the economic potential of agricultural biotechnology; - Securing a reliable information source through multiple Nigerian media sources, i.e. publications, advertisements and broadcasting; - Creating awareness on the safety of genetically engineered crops to increase its acceptance; - Educating farmers and grassroots organizations on farming techniques for genetically engineered crops to enhance yield; and - Building capacity for regulators and plant breeders to effectively cultivate and commercialize GE crops in Nigeria. B. Strategies and Needs i) National - USDA's FAS/Lagos and the U.S. Mission Nigeria Biotech Outreach Program will attempt to support Open Forum on Agricultural Biotechnology in Nigeria (OFAB) to organize monthly meetings with key stakeholders. USDA will facilitate discussions and technical workshops where national and international experts speak about the benefits of biotechnology as a tool for climate change mitigation and for enhancing food security in Nigeria. Other country-specific needs include, but are not limited to, the following: - Monthly Sensitization workshops, symposiums, farmers' field day; - "Seeing is Believing" tours in GE commercialized countries; - Technical trainings on the commercialization of Genetically Engineered crops, Biosafety Risk Assessment/Management, Biosafety application review process, Biosafety Inspection; - Recruit Volunteers for decentralization of Knowledge and information - Equip Laboratories for necessary experiments and tests. ii) Institutional Local research institutions lack capacity in scientific DNA manipulation and laboratory management. FAS/Lagos will continue to support the strengthening of local capacity if funding becomes available. CHAPTER II: Animal Biotechnology There are neither nether plans nor regulations for animal biotechnology in Nigeria; it is therefore not included in this report.

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In his essay for the Mexico course units offered by the new educational website Words Without Borders Campus, the Mexican writer Francisco Goldman raises an outcry in memory of Ayotiznapa—the word on the lips of tens of thousands of his fellow citizens who continue to march through the streets calling for justice and government reforms. On the night of September 26, 2014, forty-three students, most of them teenagers studying to be rural schoolteachers at the Ayotzinapa Normal School, were “disappeared” in Iguala, Guerrero. Their disappearance is a state crime in which a corrupt mayor, the local police, a narco gang, and federal forces all colluded. Ever since, political and judicial authorities all the way up to Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto have been involved in a cover-up of the crime, sharply noted in an April 26, 2016 editorial in the New York Times.1 The editorial describes how the final report on Ayotzinapa by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, an external group brought in to investigate, has been blocked in various ways and then summarily disrespected and ignored by the Mexican government. The Times editorial criticizes the government of Mexico for its “lack of political will to reform judicial institutions and its callousness toward its citizens.” The crime called “Ayotiznapa” can be added to a list of tens of thousands of murders, kidnappings, extortions, and outrageous acts carried out over the past decade by growing, corrupt alliances between a handful of warring drug and human trafficking cartels, several state and city governments, and the Mexican federal government, such that the narco cartels have assumed the power and authority of shadow criminal states. Apologists for this perverse transformation of whole regions of the country into allegedly state-sanctioned criminal enterprises reason that such evil partnerships may be Mexico’s most pragmatic means of pacifying the country and imposing an uneasy truce to end the horror of the Mexican “drug wars.” The forty-three missing students of Ayotiznapa thus become the latest human sacrifices to Mexico’s often bloody history marked by cycles of violence: the era of the Mexican revolution in the early 20th century; Mexico’s first constitutional independence from Spain and turbulent 19th century, at its center a humiliating, costly defeat in the war with the United States, losing almost half its territory—then the new nation disturbed by frequent internecine feuds carried on by its landed oligarchy. And before that, the 300 years of Spanish colonization, infamous for its cruel peonage system of agrarian slavery and native genocide; then the tribal battles and religious violence reaching all the way back to Mexico’s pre-Columbian, indigenous blood-ritual ceremonies performed on the summits of the pyramids by Aztec priests with obsidian knives who cut out living, beating hearts from their sacrificial victims. That the murdered students of Ayotiznapa were mostly from Guerrero’s poor, rural indigenous people is significant. So is the slogan shouted by protestors of their murders: ¡Fué el Estado! (“It was the state!”) The history of Mexico describes varying cycles of its government acting as a systematic repressor of its poorest and most powerless citizens, thus of the majority of its people. When this repression has become widespread enough, the Mexican people have risen up and forced change. For thirteen years, I’ve been a part of Words Without Borders, the international magazine of world literature in translation, and I serve on its board. I’m a writer and teacher committed to world literature, to exposing students to its richness—and to how “reading the world” provides experiences of diverse cultures, so that they might become more informed global citizens. For four years, I’ve also been helping to make, from the magazine’s extensive backlist of fiction, poetry and essays translated from 112 languages from more than 120 countries, the Words Without Borders Campus website. Edited by author and education specialist Nadia Kalman with assistance and support from Executive Director Karen Phillips and WWB staff, the site organizes teachable, themed “units” of literature in translation from different countries, aimed at both high-school classrooms, as well as introductory studies at colleges and universities. In addition to publications from the magazine, the site commissions contextual essays and original writing that provide informed perspectives on literature and culture. For each unit, we add multimedia resources from scholars and authors, such as video interviews, audio recordings, numerous Internet links and resources about each country’s language, and the challenges of translation—plus a menu of useful teaching tools. In 2014 and 2015, Words Without Borders Campus launched a testing phase, which so far has been completed in eighty high-school and college classrooms, offering units from three countries: China, Egypt, and Mexico (we added Japan in 2016, with Russia soon available in 2017). One of the most widely read and controversial issues Words Without Borders has ever published is on “The Mexican Drug War”2 put together in 2012 by Susan Harris, Editorial Director, with a Guest Editor, Mexican writer and poet, Carmen Boullosa. Because of the topical, impactful writing in this issue, one of the major educational sub-units for Mexico offered by Words Without Borders Campus is organized around this disturbing theme. In 2015, I first taught this unit from the site, to test it. Given the nature of the topic of the Mexican Drug Wars, with its stark confrontations of such searingly tragic, macabre, shocking realities and crimes, I didn’t know what to expect from my students. I teach at UNLV, currently rated among the top five most diverse colleges and universities in the United States.3 My class represented this, with a range of different races, ethnicities, and income-level backgrounds, including two recent students who had recently immigrated, and two working high-school teachers who regularly shared news from their diverse classrooms in Las Vegas. Despite this diversity, like most American students, my class had been exposed to very little world literature in translation—a few classics, perhaps, plus an eclectic sampling from the contemporary. In my opinion, based on thirty-five years of teaching, one of the most distressing developments over the past three decades in the high-school and even college-level preparation of most American students has been an increasing cultural myopia and literary isolationism. International studies, writing in translation, foreign languages, all are subject-areas steadily more marginalized in favor of more focus on “STEM” (Science, Technology, Engineering, Math). How ironic that this is happening in an era when, all the better to comprehend globalization and just what it means—and to cope with it in a sophisticated way (urgently needed now in response to the Trump presidency and its thuggish isolationism)—increased awareness of the world should be one of the top concerns of American education. Indeed, the rise of extreme nationalism and ever-more-reckless forms of xenophobic populism can be in part be blamed on this educational myopia. Words Without Borders Campus, designed to provide students with eye-opening, multi-cultural experiences, is directly aimed at helping to correct this educational failure. Before studying the Mexican Drug Wars, our class had explored the theme of “Leaving Home”—reading about the often heart-wrenching issues of immigration of both documented and undocumented workers, and of Mexicans who attempt, often with great difficulty, to return home from economic exile and assimilate back into Mexican society. We had also studied some of the folklore and beauty found in indigenous writing, organized around the theme of “The Mother,” so proverbial and iconic in Mexican tradition, as translated from the Purépecha and Mazateco languages. We had learned something about Mexico’s history and art, and about the astonishing variety and complexity of Mexican diversity spread out across the spectacular mosaic of its geography. While preparing to teach the unit on the Drug Wars, I was more than a little apprehensive that such dark, existentially challenging reading, so shocking in its witness to violence and mass murder, might lead to my class dead-ending into a numbing fatalism, with the students seriously depressed and turned-off—a result not at all the positive influence Words Without Borders Campus intends. I should have known better. Students are more emotionally and intellectually resilient, and more imaginative, than I generally am. One of the great rewards of being a teacher is that, in teaching them, we can often learn more from our students than they do from us. What I learned from my students about the Mexican Drug Wars is how a vibrant, thriving culture, including new art, has arisen from horror. The WWBC unit on the Mexican Drug Wars includes poems, essays, and commentaries by such luminary Mexican authors as Carmen Boullosa, Juan Villoro, Luis Felipe Fabre, and Fabrizio Mejía Madrid, among others. Assignments for each of these readings, including contexts and playlist resources, were for students to use their Internet skills to find augmenting material—to think of the site as a kind of educational octopus, with tentacles reaching out from a cohesive center into whatever they could find, then they presented what they discovered to our class. My students found alternative truths about this hard subject, and several new perspectives. Their presentations were generally not so much about the “war,” as about Mexico and its people struggling to come to terms with, by either resisting or accepting, the realities of an emerging narco culture in Mexican society. Like any culture, narco culture has its own literature, stories of heroes, villains, and new social codes with commonly accepted tropes—most not in print but in Internet media. This literature usually expresses two main themes: the heroes of resistance, those political activists, brave journalists, and common people fighting back against the cartels; or the anti-heroes of narco lore, the stories of gangster outlaws who rise in an unjust world at any cost, proud of their capacity for murder and violence. My students compared Mexican gangster ideologies to similar tropes found in rap or hip-hop in U.S. inner cities.4 One student presented an overview that describes major figures in the drug cartels taken from Guardian journalist Anabel Hernández’s scathing book, Los Señores del Narco, framed by that magazine’s interview,5 in which Hernández states: “So many Mexicans do not believe the official version of this war. They do not believe the government are good guys, fighting the cartels. They know the government is lying...” Another student brought in El Sicario: The Autobiography of a Mexican Assassin (which is the basis of a recent movie), and an audio link to an interview with a former hit man6 who worked for the police and a narco-gang at the same time, underscoring the increasingly complex alliances between police and criminals. One of the students found the Telegraph feature that describes the passionate resistance to narco violence led by poet Javier Sicilia7, who lost his son, an innocent bystander in crossfire. Our explorations were emotionally affected, or framed, by beginning with poet Carmen Boullosa’s lament for Mexico,8 her mother country, on the WWBC site: Where did you fall, sleepless homeland / like the star in the story / like the drunk woman who crashed into a lamppost? In class, we kept asking ourselves questions: Why is this happening? What are the possible social and political solutions—if any—that might stop these horrors? Would the Mexican government’s militancy in declaring “war” against the narco gangs, with soldiers and gangsters shooting it out in the streets (as was official policy for at least six years) actually help? And what should be our own responses to these horrors? We spent considerable class time going over a Princeton University-sponsored research study (by Calderón, Robles, Magaloni, and Díaz-Cayeros)9 discovered by a serious, ambitious student, a Filipino-American immigrant who drew parallels to corruption and crime in his home country. The study analyzes the policy of Mexican President Felipe Calderón’s government (2006 – 12) to use military campaigns and police raids to kill off or engage in “beheading” leaders of the drug cartels, from middle management on up. Evidence shows how this policy resulted in increased violence and homicide, murder rates spiking especially in border cities and regions, with little effect on drug traffic. And as if in defense of President Calderón, we watched and listened to a BBC interview10 in which he blames, in part, the dangerous and irrational policy of uncontrolled gun sales in the United States. That controversial U.S. policy, backed by the National Rifle Association with all its bullying political influence, permits gun stores (most located in Texas or Arizona) to sell to both U.S. and Mexican straw-buyers who act as shamelessly profiteering arms dealers, equipping whole narco-armies with advanced weapons with which to fight their bloody wars. The U.S. Congress does nothing11 about it. Since the turn of the millennium, an estimated 26,000 people have been killed by narco violence in Mexico,12 most by bullets purchased in the United States. Our class then linked to a series of Drug Enforcement Agency maps showing the territories controlled by Mexican drug cartels in the U.S., the narco-traffickers firmly established, for decades, in our cities, forming alliances mainly with various urban American street gangs—the Mexican Drug Wars are distressingly close, as close as next door, or just down the block (updated map one13 and map two14 cited here). This Filipino-American student relayed an auto-biographical event which was shocking for all in our class. While he was working in his family’s garage, his house only a few short blocks from an opioid drug treatment center in a neighborhood newly afflicted by gangs, an armed robber entered through the open garage door to steal tools and other valuables. Though this student did not resist, the robber shot him anyway. After spending a night in the emergency room, he came to class on crutches the next day, his leg wrapped in bandages, and with a knee brace—he was determined not to let a difficult surgery he would require mess up his exam week and so ruin his hard-earned grades. So he gave his final presentation to us with the bullet still lodged in his knee. Another student in our class, an aspiring economist, looked into the impact of narco-trafficking as a business sector to the Mexican economy, treating it as objectively as possible. The drug trade (and human trafficking that goes along with it) now contributes between twenty-five billion and forty billion dollars yearly to the Mexican economy. At the same time, narco-violence in 2013 is estimated to have cost as much as fifteen percent of Mexican GDP.15 Amid these conflicting statistics, it’s difficult to measure how drug cartel profits and their economic impact balances against losses to legal commerce, especially to tourism, caused by the drug wars. Neither has any very accurate calculation yet been made to determine the agrarian economic impact of annual crops of poppies and marijuana, fields that are growing and thriving, openly, especially in the Mexican highlands; or of the spread of state-of-the-art production laboratories—like numerous small factories—for methamphetamine. In 2015, with violence gradually diminishing under new PRI party President Peña Nieto’s less interventionist and allegedly more collusive policies with the narco gangs, Mexico’s economy grew a reported 2.5 percent—which is a respectable rate, despite falling oil prices (a half-point higher than economic growth in the U.S.). Notwithstanding their effect on growth, the cartels, and narco culture, have become permanent features of the Mexican economy. Would legalizing drugs in the United States help to stop the Drug Wars? Would such a radical change in U.S. domestic policy curb the power and influence of the cartels, as well as our own homegrown street gangs, by taking away their core business? My students explored these questions, and suggested that legalization might actually work. One student brought in an article with early indications published in the Washington Post (a more updated WaPo piece16 is linked to here, published after my class concluded) suggesting that the legalization of marijuana in the U.S. is, indeed, having a significant effect on cartel profits. But as would any business, the Mexican cartels are now reacting, changing their product streams by increasing production and exports of heroin and methamphetamine, and by more human trafficking. The drug and human trafficking business, when looked at objectively, and coldly, can feel eerily like almost any other business. We found a similar sentiment expressed in the narcocorrido “La cruz de amapola” (“The Poppy Cross”), in the way it uses the language of business, referring to drug lords as “managers” and drug dealers as “distributors,” and in one of its lyrical refrains: “This is nothing new, gentlemen, / And nor is it going to end; / This is a lifelong business, / The Mafia of global origin.” As Juan Villoro writes in his essay on the WWBC site, “Violence and Drug Trafficking in Mexico”17: “Over the decades, drug-trafficking has created a subculture, a kind of parallel normality. Nowadays, it’s possible to give birth to your child in a hospital owned by drug-traffickers or narcos, baptize him in a church owned by narcos, enroll him in a school owned by narcos, bring him up in a condominium owned by narcos, hold his wedding reception in a function room owned by narcos, get him a job in a business run by narcos and hold a wake for him in a funeral parlor owned by narcos. Villoro might have added how his exemplary boy-child might also grow up listening to narco music and watching narco movies. Two students explored the worlds of low-budget films and the narcocorridos, a popular musical genre rising out of outlaw narco culture much in the same way gangsta rap and hip-hop did in the 1980s in the United States. We listened to the parodic ranchera melodies and discussed the coded, double-meanings in “La cruz de amapola” and “Mis tres animales”18 (“My three animals”), available on the WWBC site. Also, for more than three decades, narco-culture has been growing its own fringe movie industry, producing hundreds of low-budget movies or videohomes (“home videos”) per year, giving rise to a subculture of directors, stars and entertainment icons19, such as Enrique Murillo, who directed twenty-six narco-movies in a single year; and veteran character actor, Mario Almada, who may be the most prolific movie actor on the planet (maybe even in film history), having appeared in more than 1,000 videos and films, so many that he long ago lost count. A link and story that posts access to trailers of “the 10 best vintage narco films”20 provides an overview of early classics of the genre, which influenced mainstream Hollywood directors such as Oliver Stone and Robert Rodriguez. The Netflix series “Narcos” draws from this genre as a source, as did the sensational A&E series, “Breaking Bad.” Narco movies and narcocorridos are being produced by drug lords, with direct script and song lyric input exceeding the old Hollywood studio system moguls in their power. They insert content meant to aggrandize themselves and spread Robin Hood-like myths throughout Mexican popular culture. And their narco-films have long-ago crossed the border to become popular alternatives to more mainstream entertainment in the U.S. So widespread is the audience for Mexican narco movies and home videos that titles are routinely refreshed and for sale in Walmarts21 across America, and my students in Las Vegas could easily find them. And in both the U.S. and Mexico, the number of recent, serious issue films that treat the social consequences of the Drug Wars and heroic resistance to the narcos and the official corruption they engender is growing, including director Matthew Heineman’s prize-winning 2015 documentary, Cartel Land, produced by Kathryn Bigelow; or the exemplary serious drama, Heli, for which Amat Escalante won the Best Director Award at the Cannes Festival, and which was Mexico’s official entry in the Foreign Films category for the 2013 Academy Awards. Narco culture is rapidly growing its own religion, too, with the cult-worship of the folkloric figure of Jesús Malverde, patron saint of los narcos, derived from a 19th-century legend of an outlaw from the Sinaloa highlands. And even more rooted than Jesús Malverde is the worship of Santa Muerte, a death-cult figure often dressed like a feminine Grim Reaper with a death’s head skeleton reminiscent of the famous engravings by José Guadalupe Posada, inspired by the Mexican tradition of the Day of the Dead. The figure herself carries resonant echoes of the pre-Columbian, indigenous goddess, Mictecacihuatl, one of the pair of rulers over the Aztec underworld. The Santa Muerte figure is often tattooed on the arms or chests of narcos. Shrines to her are found in the homes of the lowest cartel foot soldiers on up through the ranks—including the house of the infamous serial kidnapper, Daniel Arizmendi López, known as El Mochaorejas for his practice of cutting off ears of his victims during negotiations; and in the house of Gilberto García Mena, one of the major bosses of the Gulf Cartel. Santa Muerte is prayed to by wives, girlfriends, and families of cartel members. Ritual sacrifices (and promises of them) are made to her, especially by narcos in prison, and before committing their crimes. Santa Muerte, by one estimate, has as many as twelve million dévotées, or roughly ten percent of Mexico’s population. The emergence of a religious death-cult is nothing new in Mexico—rather, it can be considered a contemporary variation on long-standing traditions—and the fatalism of its narco versions recall a folk lyric sung during the Mexican Revolution: life is beautiful, life means nothing. The eerie correspondence of Santa Muerte to a pre-Columbian deity also echoes a common practice in early Spanish church construction in colonial Mexico. In the fantastically ornate, baroque altars of these churches, indigenous peasant-laborers often hid a clay or stone figure of a roughly corresponding Mesoamerican god behind the niches that housed statues or carvings of Roman Catholic saints. The more deeply our class explored the Mexican Drug Wars, the more echoes from (or through) the long sweep of Mexican history we discovered, some reaching back at least 3,000 years, suggesting that, perhaps, some aspects of narco culture might not be quite as new as we had initially believed. Our class noted striking similarities between maps that display the geographical origins of the nine major indigenous language groups in Mexico (or, roughly, the native-Mexican tribal territories) and maps showing the regions and cities currently under the control of the seven (or eight) major drug cartels. Given the humble, often rural, working-class origins of so many drug lords and their followers, this raised a question: how much of the vicious in-fighting among the cartels (fights over territory, without doubt) can be viewed as a resurgence of ancient tribal blood feuds, rivalries and wars? And is this question even politically appropriate to ask, given Mexico’s contemporary realities? The story of the recently re-captured Sinaloa Cartel drug lord, Joaquín “El Chapo” Gúzman—a topic in U.S. media for his extradition process—embodies the kind of anti-heroic figure celebrated in narcocorridos, narcocinema, and narcoreligión. In many corners of Mexico, particularly in his home state of Sinaloa, El Chapo is considered a hero, a kind of Robin Hood, rising up out of rural poverty to the status of a king. Other recently captured drug lords have similar stories: Miguel Treviño Morales, a former leader of the Zetas cartel (infamous for their gruesome, signature practice of beheading their victims) was a street kid who ruthlessly fought his way up from the mean streets of Nuevo Laredo. Osiel Cárdenas Guillén, a former leader of the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas (currently serving a twenty-five-year federal prison sentence in the U.S.), started out as an auto mechanic. Most drug lords, including El Chapo, fit a mythic type, or a trope, described by Fabrizio Mejía Madrid in his essay, “The Mystery of the Parakeet, the Rooster, and the Nanny-goat”22 on the WWBC site: “The ideal drug trafficker…is somebody who justifies everything by way of an individual cult to personal autonomy: he doesn’t let himself be ordered around, doesn’t give in; he knows that he lives only once and that he doesn’t want to be poor. Nor does he want to go to the United States as an illegal immigrant, which would mean a loss of power: emigrating. He prefers to ‘export’ drugs there…” Madrid’s essay sums up the most common anti-hero storyline of narcocorridos, narco movies, and in prayers to Jesús de Malverde and Santa Muerte: it’s the story of the rise of the young man from the repressed underclass, who risks it all to succeed, no matter what, quite often leading to a celebrated death by violence at a young age. It’s the story of an outlaw who fights and murders his way out of poverty up through the ranks of the narco gang, admired and pursued by beautiful women, paying off corrupt police, judges, and politicians along the way. Ruthlessness, risking all with guns and violence, is his stock in trade. From the point of view of a people who see themselves as historically repressed—especially for young, poor, rural men without access to educational opportunities that the forty-three students of the Normal School (or teachers’ college) in Ayotzinapa were on their way to demonstrate for in a town plaza to demand more resources to support on the day they were “disappeared”—this outlaw myth offers a possibility, through cruel, delirious fantasy, of at least one life-path that might lead to financial and political advancement in an historically class-stratified Mexican society. But the story felt most deeply by my students is the counter-story to such a false folk myth—it’s the story of the heroism of the Mexican resistance to narco gangs and violence, all the more reinforced by news of the outrageous crime of Ayotzinapa and its popular response. This is the discovery they were most inspired by and that they most embraced, the story that they wished most to tell others about and pass on: how the Mexican resistance—now with Ayotzinapa as its focus—has become a protest cry on the lips of hundreds of thousands of honest, hard-working, exceptionally moral and ethical people in Mexico, a people who are fed up with the drug wars and the ruling PRI party’s corruption. As Francisco Goldman writes: If “Todos somos Ayotzinapa” (“We are all Ayotzinapa”)—as the slogan shouted out at so many protests marches and carried aloft on so many banners goes—then we are all poor, indigenous normalistas now, and we are their families and neighbors, too. In reality, most of us are not them, of course, but in some part of our hearts, we are. That simple, poetic metaphor has now become a part of Mexican reality; and it holds out the hope and promise of even greater transformation. - New York Times Editorial Board, “Mexico Runs Away From the Truth,” April 26, 2016. - “The Mexican Drug War,” ed. Carmen Boullosa, Words Without Borders, (March 2012). - See “Campus Ethnic Diversity,” U.S. News, 2017. - For example, Geto Boys’s “Aint With Being Broke,” 1991. - Ed Vulliamy, “‘Mexico’s war on drugs is one big lie,’” The Guardian, August 31, 2013. - “Former Hitman Warns Others to Avoid His Path,” Here & Now, prod. Robin Young and Jeremy Hobson, June 2, 2011. - Alfonso Daniels, “Mexico’s drug war : a poet and the people fight back,” Telegraph, December 6, 2012. - Carmen Boullosa, “Sleepless Homeland,” Words Without Borders (“The Mexican Drug War,” March 2012). - Gabriela Calderón, Gustavo Robles, Beatriz Magaloni, and Alberto Díaz-Cayeros, “The Beheading of Criminal Organizations and the Dynamics of Violence in Mexico’s Drug War,” Princeton University, September 25, 2013. - “U.S. graft adds to Mexico’s woes,” BBC News, March 30, 2009. - Chris McGreal, “How Mexico’s drug cartels profit from flow of guns across the border,” The Guardian, December 8, 2011. - Jason M. Breslow, “The Staggering Death Toll of Mexico’s Drug War,” PBS Frontline, July 27, 2015. - Ollie Gillman, “The United States of El Chapo: DEA cartel map of America shows that the fugitive drug lord dominates almost the whole of the U.S.,” Daily Mail, November 30, 2015. - Christopher Woody, “These maps show how Mexican cartels dominate the U.S. drug market,” Business Insider, December 15, 2016. - Natalie Southwick, “Mexico Violence Costs Country 15% of GDP: Minister,” InSight Crime, November 14, 2013. - Christopher Ingraham, “Legal marijuana is finally doing what the drug war couldn’t,” Washington Post, March 3, 2016. - Juan Villoro trans. Margaret Jull Costa, “Violence and Drug-Trafficking in Mexico,” Words Without Borders (“The Mexican Drug War,” March 2012), re-published on Words Without Borders Campus. - Fabrizio Mejía Madrid trans. Rosalind Harvey, “The Mystery of the Parakeet, the Rooster, and the Nanny Goat,” Words Without Borders (“The Mexican Drug War,” March 2012), re-published on Words Without Borders Campus. - Bastian Espada, “6 Insane Things Happening Throughout Mexican Cartel Culture,” Cracked, February 11, 2015. - Lisa Liebman, “The 10 Best Vintage Narco Films, Mexico’s Underground Drug Dramas,” Vulture, September 9, 2015. - Bernardo Loyola and Abelardo Martín, “Narcotic Films for Illegal Fans,” Vice, August 31, 2009. - Map of Aboriginal Mexico. - Map of Drug cartel areas in Mexico. - Mardid, 2012.

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CC-MAIN-2019-47

https://brooklynrail.org/2017/03/field-notes/Culture-from-Horror

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Stop While You Shop To tackle higher rates of smoking common in more deprived areas of Southwark borough, NHS Southwark sought to recruit smokers from these areas into the Stop Smoking Service, where they would be more likely to quit successfully than if they went cold turkey. Research highlighted that entrenched smokers often lacked confidence in their ability to quit smoking, had negative perceptions of non-smokers, and felt that NHS Stop Smoking Services were unsuitable for them. Instead they preferred a friendly, informal and convenient service. In light of these insights, Stop While You Shop stop smoking clinics were run from 4pm to 8pm in four supermarkets, twice a week, over nine weeks. All smokers were encouraged to sign up to a minimum four-week programme. A comprehensive follow-up service was established with SMS message appointment reminders and weekly call-back consultations. Successful quitters were given a certificate to acknowledge their achievement. During the course of the 9-week campaign, 468 smokers joined the supermarket clinics and set a quit date. 275 of these successfully achieved a 4-week quit (a conversion rate of 70 per cent). It is estimated that for every £1 spent on the initiative, £16 was saved on future NHS treatments for smoking related illnesses. Smoking is a major cause of preventable morbidity and mortality in the UK, with approximately 110,000 deaths every year from smoking-related illnesses. In addition, costs to the NHS in the UK of treating illness and disease associated with smoking have been estimated at £15.3 billion a year (in 2011). Furthermore, smoking has been identified as the primary cause of inequality in death rates between rich and poor. For men in the UK, smoking accounts for over half of the difference in risk of premature death between social classes. Health inequality has been identified as a problem for the residents of Southwark. For instance, life expectancy for men living in the least deprived parts of the borough is over seven years higher than for those living in the most deprived parts. The difference for women is almost five years. In Southwark the estimated percentage of adult smokers is higher than the England average, with smoking resulting in around 322 deaths in 2008. Subsequently, NHS Southwark sought to tackle the higher rates of smoking prevalence in the more deprived areas of the borough, such as Peckham and Old Kent Road. It was already understood that more entrenched smokers from the deprived areas of Southwark were not using the Stop Smoking Service (SSS) as much as residents from elsewhere in the borough, and were subsequently more likely to make quit attempts using willpower alone. However, evidence has shown that smokers are four times more likely to quit using NHS SSS when compared to going ‘cold turkey’. So an intervention was needed to get smokers from the deprived areas of the borough to use the SSS to enhance their likelihood of successful quitting. Social marketing agency onedeepbreath was commissioned to undertake research that would feed into the design and delivery of an intervention with the following aims: - Increase the numbers of smokers from deprived areas of the borough (likely to be routine and manual workers and/or from black and minority ethnic communities) to make a quit attempt using the SSS - Increase awareness of the SSS - Deliver 225 4-week quits over the course of the programme Scoping began with desk-based secondary research to review appropriate policies and studies focused on social marketing and smoking. Documents reviewed included: - Choosing Health: Making healthier choices easier (Department of Health, 2004) - Smoking, Low Income and Health Inequalities (Health Development Agency, 2005) - Brief interventions and referral for smoking cessation in primary care and other settings (National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, 2006) - Changing Behaviour, Improving Outcomes (DoH Social Marketing Strategy 2011) - Health Belief Model - Self Efficacy (Rosenstock 1988) - Going it alone? Improving the Route to Quit (London Social Marketing Unit, 2009) This work was followed by an assessment of previous smoking social marketing campaigns run by onedeepbreath in boroughs with similar demographics to Southwark, including Tackle Smoking for NHS Lewisham and NHS Southwark, which involved a partnership with Millwall Football Club, and Make Smoking History for NHS Lambeth. A key insight from the secondary literature and previous social marketing campaigns was that many smokers wanted to quit and would take the opportunity to quit if the process was more accessible, immediate and convenient. For the Tackle Smoking social marketing campaign, onedeepbreath used a road show with a SSS at supermarkets, street markets, libraries and shopping centres. This experience highlighted that while in many of these areas there were agreements with local pharmacists to redeem nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) vouchers, there was still some difficulty in getting the customer to go into the pharmacy and/or getting the pharmacy to book smokers onto the programme. There were high numbers of smokers interested in stopping smoking, but many fell at the first barrier, such as the pharmacy being too far away, the pharmacist being busy, or they did not have time. The most successful location for the stop smoking clinics had been in supermarkets. It was therefore decided to develop an intervention based in supermarkets, but which reduced the barriers highlighted by smokers in the previous social marketing initiatives. Subsequently, the team mapped out all the barriers identified to find ways of removing them. NRT too expensive Free NRT in supermarket clinics Pharmacy too far away In-store pharmacy at the supermarket Clinic open at inconvenient times Out-of-hours opening times Nowhere to park Large supermarket car park Stop smoking whilst you do your weekly shop A pilot clinic was run to allow the project team to test key programme logistics, such as timing and the redemption of vouchers and dispensing of NRT from the in-store pharmacy, alongside key campaign messages and creative. The creative concept was developed based on the insight that smokers wanted things kept simple, straight to the point and to have a call to action that focused on what the smoker could expect from the four-week clinic and nicotine withdrawal symptoms. This led to a creative that took into consideration the location, the audience and clinic, under the brand ‘Stop While You Shop’. This new brand was merged with NHS and national smokefree branding to give it more weight, whilst also emphasising accessibility and convenience of the local scheme. The pilot was run for seven weeks at Asda on Old Kent Road in September and October 2009. During these 7 weeks the clinic was held every Thursday between 4pm and 8pm and every Saturday between 11am and 3pm. No appointments were necessary and NRT was free to each smoker for four weeks and was available from the in-store pharmacy. As part of the pilot, 120 smokers were interviewed to test the creative concept, clinic location and gather their attitudes towards the initiative. A further three interviews were conducted with the pharmacy counter staff. Anecdotal feedback was also recorded from 30 smokers who had successfully completed the 4-week programme. Key insights from the interviews Smokers (largely routine and manual workers): - Often lacked confidence in their ability to stop smoking - Smoking was heavily entrenched within social circles and used as a form of escapism - They often had a short-term attitude to life and were generally disengaged by future health issues - When quitting they focused on the addiction – they did not understand or accept that they also had to tackle emotional habits - They were unlikely to use SSS to help with a quit attempt due to low awareness of the service provision, difficulty in accessing the service during a regular working week and a general reluctance to get NHS support (they believed the service was unsuitable or not designed for them) - Many complained about the service offered by their GP, where they felt judged and not given the support they needed - A lot of the smokers had tried the national free helpline and felt it was a waste of time and that it did not help them - Many complained about the cost of NRT, but said they would consider trying it if it was free - None of them knew the pharmacy offered a stop smoking service - They were particularly motivated by the convenience, friendliness and informality of the service offered in supermarkets – they appreciated the down-to-earth, personal approach - They liked that they did not have to book an appointment and subsequently felt more in control of their quit attempt - They preferred the traditional method of prescribing to conducting the whole service, since this was seen as more time efficient, especially in a high footfall environment where queues can form easily - If there was any sort of queue at the pharmacy, this took priority over any other activity, including a stop smoking consultation - With so many other services to deliver, pharmacy workload could be too high to deliver a quality SSS Following the pilot clinic held in Asda in September and October 2009, onedeepbreath worked with NHS Southwark to develop a series of supermarket stop smoking clinics across the borough. The clinics would provide: - Four weekly appointments that residents could fit into their weekly shop - A weekly carbon monoxide test so smokers could see the quick benefits quitting smoking could have on the body as it begins to heal itself - Free weekly medication (NRT) to aid quitting, which can be picked up from the in-store pharmacy - Weekly call, text, email or letter of support (which also reminds smokers of their next week’s appointment) - Free quitter pack full of useful hints and tips to get smokers through their quit attempt - Certificate on successful completion of the four-week clinic Clinics were organised in partnership with supermarket and pharmacy managers to run twice a week for seven weeks in the following four supermarkets: - Morrisons, Peckham - Tesco, Old Kent Road - Sainsbury’s, Dog Kennel Hill - Asda, Old Kent Road The two clinics each week would run for four hours (4pm to 8pm) within the foyers of these supermarkets, often near cigarette counters, to ensure advisors had the chance to see the highest number of people. Trained advisors would consult with smokers about their smoking habits and record their smoking behaviour (such as how many they smoked a day, for how long, and how soon after waking they needed their first cigarette), ensuring their consultation style was empathetic rather than judgemental. Any previous quit attempts would be discussed and reasons for smoking explored. Because motivation is based on more than just reason, it would be important to consider habits, reactions to NHS trained advisors, desires and future plans. At this stage the advisors would discuss the programme logistics, such as no appointment being necessary, different times available, prescribed NRT vouchers collectable from in-store pharmacies free of charge, and weekly testing to measure carbon monoxide levels. All smokers would be encouraged to sign up to a minimum four-week programme. A comprehensive follow-up service would be used for those who signed up to the four-week programme. Smokers on the programme would receive SMS message appointment reminders and weekly call-back consultations to give them the opportunity to talk about any problems they might have and to remind them of their next appointment. At the end of the programme successful quitters would be given a certificate to acknowledge their achievement. To pre-promote the supermarket clinics, a Stop While You Shop advert appeared in the Southwark News for two consecutive weeks prior to the clinic start dates. At the start of each clinic, recruitment of smokers was slow, with many walking past, not interested in the messages and the programme that the advisors were trying to ‘sell’. However, once conversations began with a few people and they sat down to give a 20-second carbon monoxide breath test, others became interested and would approach the clinics themselves. If people who did not live or work in the borough approached the clinic, the advisors passed on their details to other smoking cessation services for follow-up. There were occasions where redeeming the NRT in-store caused queues at the pharmacy dispensing counters. As it was important for the clinic not to hinder the normal workings of the supermarket, when queues did begin to form due to people wishing to collect NRT, the advisors asked the smokers to drop off their prescription, do their shopping and then collect their NRT afterwards. Smokers who enrolled on the programme often brought a friend or family member along to the next clinic so they could also sign up to the programme. So while the advertisements and promotions were important for publicising the campaign, word-of-mouth actually proved to be the most successful mechanism for recruiting more smokers to the programme. The most successful aspect of the clinics was the comprehensive follow up with an assigned advisor. Many of the smokers who enrolled on the programme appreciated the personal touch and the empathetic and non-judgemental attitudes of the advisers. Some advisors even received personal gifts (which of course could not be accepted) or ‘thank you’s’ from the smokers who had successfully completed the programme. “Smokers on the programme believed that their advisors had personally invested a great deal of time and energy into helping them beat their addiction, so many smokers felt an emotional obligation to quit not just for themselves but also for their advisor.” (Steve Jamieson, onedeepbreath) Another key success was the use of carbon monoxide monitoring. This allowed smokers to see quick tangible results from giving up smoking. “Smokers had to blow in a carbon monoxide monitor each week and saw their health measurably improving. This was often a huge ‘YES!’ moment with a punching of the air or high-fives all round, giving them a real sense of achievement and success.” (Steve Jamieson, onedeepbreath) The informal, non-clinical format of the drop-ins meant that many people believed the supermarket clinics were organised by the supermarket rather than the NHS. This proved to be advantageous in attracting those who would normally not approach an NHS SSS. However, there were some people who questioned why the service was not running in other branches of the supermarket. To boost recruitment, two weekend clinics were added to the schedule on Saturdays from 11am to 3pm – the footfall was much higher on Saturdays than during the week. The campaign period was also extended by a further two weeks following the initial seven-week timescale to ensure completion of the four-week quit programme and target. The programme was evaluated against the data collected by the SSS, specifically four-week quits, and smokers were asked to complete evaluation forms following the conclusion of the programme to understand the consumer experience. The target was to deliver 225 successful 4-week quitters into NHS Southwark’s SSS, and this target was exceeded. In total over 2,000 smokers were engaged by the Stop While You Shop service, 468 smokers joined the supermarket clinics and set a quit date, and 275 of these successfully achieved 4-week quits (success rate of 70 per cent). Example customer feedback - “They called me at least twice a week to check on me and I valued and needed the support. Now in just 4 weeks I have quit a 13-year habit” - “It’s thanks to you guys I’ve quit…The day I signed up I was going to Asda to get my 100 fags for the week. You’ve saved me over £200 and now I’ve booked my holiday to Turkey” - “I originally went to my doctor’s and did not receive the support that I have received from these guys. The support offered by Stop While You Shop was fab, I could not have asked for anything more” Overall, the initiative reached 125,000 residents through press, in-store advertising and PR coverage, which helped raise awareness of NHS Southwark’s SSS. In addition, relationships were developed further with supermarket store and pharmacy managers to allow the campaign success to be repeated and expanded in the future. The project also raised awareness of existing services within the in-store pharmacies and increased uptake into the service following the end of the campaign. Value for money The financial resources required were: - Staffing costs: £41,942 - Scoping and implementation: £6,528 - Follow-up and evaluation: £6,496 Therefore the total project budget was £54,966 and the cost per quit (having achieved 275 quits) was £199.88. Based on an estimated cost-saving to the NHS of £3,115 per person having quit, this equates to a return on investment ratio of 1:16. So every £1 spent on the initiative, £16 was saved on future NHS treatments for smoking related illnesses. Building on the success of the original campaign, a follow-up campaign was run over a 10-week period during May to July 2010. During the original campaign burst, Lucy Cope – a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease sufferer – became a successful quitter. Lucy championed the scheme in June 2010 when she was nominated for a Southwark Heroes Award and the campaign was further promoted in the South London Press. Full evaluations of the Stop While You Shop campaign have been presented to key stakeholders and case studies have been prepared and distributed to other London boroughs. The campaign has been held up by World Class Commissioning as an innovative way to engage hard-to-reach groups that would not usually use NHS services. The campaign has been held up by World Class Commissioning as an innovative way to engage hard-to-reach groups that would not usually use NHS services. It has also been successfully implemented in several other boroughs outside of Southwark, including Hackney, Ealing and Lewisham. Convenient, informal and non-clinical environments Hard-to-reach, entrenched smokers are not receptive to formal NHS SSS, which they see as unsuitable for them. Instead, they want an easy-to-access, friendly and non-judgemental service. This is why it is extremely important to keep the interventions informal, relaxed and not too clinical to build personal relationships with smokers. Supermarkets proved to be a very successful location for achieving this and the convenience was a major factor in the success of the project. “We understood that smokers often didn’t have time to make an appointment to see their GP or visit their local pharmacist, so this model fitted in perfectly with a routine activity like shopping.” (Steve Jamieson, onedeepbreath) Consistency and relationship building For this target audience personal relationships are paramount. Therefore, ensuring that clinic times are consistent and that the weekly follow-up calls are conducted by the same advisors who conducted the initial supermarket consultation is vital. This helps build better relationships between smokers and advisors, which strengthens the links between the smokers and the service. “The success of these clinics is largely dependent on the behavioural support that a smoker receives – being able to dedicate as much time to each individual as they need helps hugely. To anyone intending to carry out similar interventions – and seriously addicted smokers generally need more intense support – the importance of follow-up and relationship building cannot be stressed enough.” (Steve Jamieson, onedeepbreath) Non-judgemental and empathetic Participants highlighted in their feedback that a key aspect of the clinics that appealed to them was that they did not feel judged or pressured and this was fundamental in making them come back each week. It is therefore imperative that teams running the clinics understand the importance of empathy and relationship building. Free NRT from in-store pharmacies and clinics Free NRT was an excellent incentive and convenient to collect from in-store pharmacies. However, during the campaign NRT stock levels within the pharmacies were sometimes too low. In future, more work could be conducted with in-store pharmacies prior to the campaigns to ensure they had sufficient NRT supplies. In addition, having samples of NRT at the clinics could be beneficial for smokers, since pharmacies often do not have the time or capacity to give those collecting prescribed NRT demonstrations and advice on its use.

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CC-MAIN-2019-47

https://thensmc.com/resources/showcase/stop-while-you-shop

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Plus One Zoology Notes Chapter 3 Structural Organisation in Animals is part of Plus One Zoology Notes. Here we have given Kerala Plus One Zoology Notes Chapter 3 Structural Organisation in Animals. |Text Book||NCERT Based| |Chapter Name||Structural Organisation in Animals| |Category||Kerala Plus One| Kerala Plus One Zoology Notes Chapter 3 Structural Organisation in Animals All organisms, are made up of cells The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. In unicellular organism all, vital functions are performed by a single; cell. But in multicellular animals, a group of similar cells along with intercellular substances perform a specific function. Such an organization is called tissue. - Tissues are a group of cells having the same structure, function, and origin. - Structure of the cells vary according to their function and are broadly classified into four f types. i. Epithelial tissue ii. Connective tissue: iii. Muscular tissue iv. Neural tissue - It covers the external surface of the body and the internal free surfaces of many organisms, - The cells are compactly packed with little intercellular spaces. - Epithelial tissues are of two types, A. Simple epithelium - It consists of a single layer of cells. - It functions as a lining for body cavities, ducts, and tubes. - Based on the structural modification of cells, it is divided into three types. a. Squamous epithelium b. Cuboidal epithelium c. Columnar epithelium a. Squamous epithelium - It is made up of a single thin layer of flattened cells with irregular boundaries. - Found in the walls of blood vessels and air sacs of lungs. - They form diffusion boundaries b. Cuboidal epithelium - These are composed of a single layer of cube-like cells. - These tissues are found in ducts of glands and tubular parts of nephrons in the kidney. - Main functions are secretion and absorption. - The epithelium of proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron in the kidney has microvilli. c. Columnar epithelium - These tissues are composed of a single layer of tall and slender cells. - Their nuclei are located at the base. - A free surface may have microvilli. - They are found in the lining of the stomach and intestine, and cells help in secretion and absorption. - If the columnar or cuboidal cells bear cilia on their free surface they are called ciliated epithelium. - Present in the inner surface of hollow organs like bronchioles and fallopian tubes. - Function: To move particles or mucus in a specific direction over the epithelium. - Columnar or cuboidal cells are specialized for secretion to form glandular epithelium. - These are found in the intestine, pancreas and submandibular salivary glands. - They are of two types: - Consisting of isolated glandular cells (Goblet cells of the alimentary canal). - Consisting of a cluster of secretory cells (salivary gland). - On the basis of their secretion, glands are divided into two categories: I. Exocrine glands II. Endocrine glands |Exocrine glands||Endocrine glands| |They secrete mucus, saliva, ear wax, oil, milk, digestive enzymes, and other cell products.||Their products called hormones are secreted directly into the fluid bathing the gland.| |These are secreted through ducts or tubes.||Do not have ducts.| B. Compound epithelium - It is made up of more than one layer of cells (Multi-layered). - Thus it has a limited role in secretion and absorption. - Gives protection against chemical and mechanical stress. - Compound epithelium covers the dry surface of the skin, the moist surface of a buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and of pancreatic ducts. - All cells in the epithelium are held together with little intercellular material. - Three types of cell junctions are found in the epithelium and other tissues. They are the following, i. Tight junctions – They help to stop substances from leaking across a tissue. ii. Adhering junctions – They perform cementing to keep neighboring cells together. iii. Gap junctions – They facilitate the cells to communicate with each other by connecting the cytoplasm of adjoining cells, transfer of ions and small and sometimes big molecules. - These tissues are widely distributed in the body of complex animals. - They are named connective tissues because of their special function of linking and supporting other tissues or organs of the body. - In all connective tissues except blood, the cells secrete fibers of structural proteins called collagen or elastin. - These fibers provide strength, elasticity, and flexibility to the tissue. - It includes cartilage, bone, adipose, and blood. - Connective tissues are classified into three types: a. Loose connective tissue b. Dense connective tissue c. Specialized connective tissue. a. Loose connective tissue It has cells and fibers loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground substance. This tissue is of two types, : i. Areolar tissue ii. Adipose tissue i. Areolar tissue - It composed of cells, fibers, and matrix. - Present beneath the skin. - The cells contain fibroblasts, macrophages, and mast cells. - The fibroblast is cells that produce fibers. - Produce two types of proteins collagen and elastin. ii) Adipose tissue - Itisalooseconnectivetissuefound below the skin. The cells of this tissue are specialized to store fats. - The excess nutrients are converted into fats and stored in adipose tissue. b. Dense connective tissue - The matrix is dense. - The fibers and fibroblasts are arranged densely in the matrix. - An orientation of fibers show a regular or irregular pattern and are called dense regular and dense irregular tissues. - In Dense regular tissues, the collagen fibers are seen in rows between many parallel bundles of fibers, eg., Tendon, and ligaments 1. Tendon – Tissue that helps to join a muscle to a bone. 2. Ligaments – It helps to attach one bone to another. - Dense irregular tissue is composed of fibroblasts, collagen fibers, and matrix. - Fibroblasts and collagen fibers are oriented differently. - This tissue is present in the skin. c. Specialized connective tissue - It is a connective tissue specialized to perform different functions. - These are of three different types: Cartilage, bone, and blood. - It is a solid, pliable, semi-rigid and flexible and resists compression. In the matrix, there are fluid-filled spaces called lacunae. - The cells of this tissue called chondrocytes are enclosed in small cavities within the matrix secreted by them. - Most of the cartilages in vertebrate embryos are replaced by bones in an adult. - Cartilage is present in the tip of a nose, outer ear joints, between adjacent bones in the vertebral column, limbs, and hands in adults. - It is a strong rigid and non-flexible tissue. - It forms the framework of the body. - Ground substance rich in calcium phosphate. - In the matrix bone cells called osteocytes Functions of bone - It supports and protects softer tissues and organs. Limb bone provides a bearing function. - They interact with muscle and helps elements. - Bone marrow in some bones is the site of production of blood cells. - Provides structural to the body. - It is a fluid connective tissue. - It consists of plasma, red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC) and platelets. - Helps in the transport of various substances - Each muscle is made of elongated cells, called muscle fibers. - These fibers are composed of numerous 1 fine fibrils called myofibrils. - Muscle fibers contract in response to stimulation, then relax and return to their uncontracted state in a coordinated fashion. - Muscle helps in the movement of the body. - On the basis of their location, structure, and function, there are three types of muscle fibers skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. i. Skeletal muscle - The tissues are attached to skeletal bones. Eg., Biceps. - It bears striations in the form of alternate light and dark bands. - The cells are long and cylindrical. - Muscle fibers are bundled together in a parallel fashion. - A sheath of tough connective tissue encloses several bundles of muscle fibers. - The muscle has the ability to contract rapidly and is responsible for quick movements. - Voluntary in nature. ii. Smooth muscle - The cells are long spindle-shaped, unbranched and uni-nucleated. - Striations are absent. - Cell junctions hold them together and they are bundled together In a connective tissue sheath! - They are involuntary, a movement is not controlled by the mind. - Found within the walls of all the tubular organs such as stomach, intestine, ureter, bronchi etc. iii. Cardiac muscle - The cells are cylindrical and branched. - They are involuntary muscle, found in the heart. - Cell junctions fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac muscle cells and make them stick together. - It has the function of rhythmic contraction and relaxation throughout life. - Nervous tissue is specialized to transmit messages in our body. - Neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system. - The tissue exerts the greatest control over the body’s responsiveness to changing conditions. - It is concerned with receiving and transmit ting information and messages in the form of nerve impulses. - Neuroglia makes up more than one half the volume of neural tissue in our body. - Neuroglia ceils are non- nervous cells which protect and support neurons. Organ and organ system - In all multicellular organisms, the cells are organized to form tissues. - Tissues are organized to form organs, eg., Heart - The organs associate to form organ systems, eg., Circulatory system, ♦ Morphology and Anatomy of animals - Morphology refers to the study of form or exexternallyisible features. - Anatomy refers to the study of the morphology of internal organs in the animals. Reddish brown terrestrial invertebrate that inhabits the upper layer of moist soil. During the daytime, they live in burrows made by boring and swallowing the soil. Their fecal deposits are known as worm castings. The common Indian earthworms are Pheretima and Lumbricus. Morphology of Earthworm - Body is long and cylindrical. - Body is linearly divided into 100 to 120 segments or metamers. - The dorsal surface of the body is marked by a dark median mid-dorsal line. - The ventral surface is distinguished by genital openings (pores). - The anterior end of the body consists of the mouth and prostomium. - Prostomium – fleshy lobe, covering the mouth. It is sensory in function. - The first body segment is called peristomium (buccal segment) which bears the mouth. - In mature worms 14-16 prominent dark band of glandular tissues called clitellum is present. - Their body is divided into three regions. They are: iii. Postclitellar segments. - On the ventrolateral side of the intersex- mental grooves, four pairs of spermathecal apertures are situated (5th-9th segments). - Female genital pore is present in the mid-ventral line of 14th segment. - A pair of male genital pores on the ventrolateral sides of the 18th segment. - Numerous minute pores called nephridiopores open on the surface of the body. - In each body segment, except first, last and clitellum, there are rows of S-shaped setae embedded in the epidermal pits in the middle of each segment. - Setae are used for locomotion. - The body wall of an earthworm is covered by a thin non-cellular cuticle. - Below the cuticle is the epidermis, two muscle layers, and an innermost coelomic epithelium. - A single layer of columnar epithelial cells, which contain secretory gland cells is present in the epidermis. - The alimentary canal is a straight tube and runs between the first and last segments of the body. - A terminal mouth opens into the buccal cavity (1-3 segments). - They lead into the muscular pharynx. - A small narrow tube, the esophagus (5-7 segments) leads into a muscular gizzard (8-9 segments). Functions of gizzard Grinding the soil particles, decaying leaves. - Stomach extends from 9-14 segments. - Calciferous glands present in the stomach, neutralize the humic acid present in the hummus. (The food of earthworm is decaying leaves and organic matter mixed with soil.) - Intestine starts from the 15th segment onwards and continues until the last segment. - On the 26th segment a pair of short conical intestinal caecae project out. - Between the segment 26-35, there is the internal median fold of the dorsal wall. This is called a typhlosole. - Typhlosole increases the effective area of absorption in the intestine. - The alimentary canal opens to the exterior by a small rounded aperture called anus. - Pheretima exhibit a closed type of blood vascular system. - It consists of Blood, blood vessels, capillaries and heart. - Due to a closed circulatory system, the blood is confined to the heart and blood vessels. - Smaller blood vessels supply blood to the gut, nerve cord and the body wall. - Blood glands are present on the 4th, 5th, 6th segments. - They produce blood cells and hemoglobin which is dissolved in blood plasma. - Blood cells are phagocytic in nature. - Earthworm lacks specialized breathing devices. - A respiratory exchange occurs through moist, body surface into their bloodstream. - Excretory organs are segmentally arranged coiled tubules called nephridia. They are of three types i. Septal nephridia - Present on either side of the intersegmental septa - It opens into the intestine. - They are present from the 15th segment to the last. ii. Integumentary nephridia - Attached to the lining of the body wail and opening individually to the outside. They are present in all segments. 3rd to the last segment. iii. Pharyngeal nephridia - Present as three paired tuft in 4lh, 5th and 6th segments. - Nephridia regulate the volume and composition of body fluids. - In the nervous system, ganglia are arranged segment wise on the ventral paired nerve cord. - The nerve cord in the anterior region (3rd and 4thsegments) form a nerve ring. - The cerebral ganglia along with other nerves in the ring integrate sensory input as well as command muscular responses of the body. - A sensory system does not have eyes, but does possess light and tough sensitive organs (receptor cells) - Using receptor cells, worms distinguish light intensities and feel the vibrations in the ground. - Chemoreceptors are present, which react to chemical stimuli. - Sense organs are located on the interior part of the worm. - Earthworms are hermaphrodites (bisexual) ie. testes and ovaries are present in the same individual. - Two pairs of testes are present in the 10 th and 11th segment. - Thevasadeferentiarun up to the 18th segment and joins the prostatic duct. - Two pairs of accessory glands, one pair each in the 17th and 19th segment. - The common spermatic and prostate duct through the male genital pore in the 18th segment. - Four pairs of spermathecae are located in the 6th to the 9th segments. - They receive and store spermatozoa during copulation. - One pair of ovaries are attached at the intersegmental septum of 12th and 13th segments. - Ovarian funnels are present beneath the ovaries. - Female genital pore on the 14th segment. - Fertilization and development occur within the cocoons which are deposited in the soil. - The ova are fertilized by the sperm within the cocoon which then slips off the worm and is deposited in the soil. - The cocoon holds the worm embryos. - After about 3 weeks each cocoon produces 2-20 baby worms with an average of four. Development is direct ie. there are no larvae formed. - Earthworms are known as ’ friends of farmers’. - They make burrows in the soil and make it porous which help in respiration and penetration of the developing plant roots. - The process of increasing the fertility of soil by the earthworms is called vermicomposting. - They are also used as bait in game fishing. They are brown or black bodied, nocturnal omnivores that live in damp places. They are serious pests and vectors of several diseases. Common species: Periplaneta americana - The adults are about 34-53 mm long. - Body is covered by a hard chitinous exoskeleton. - In each segment, exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites. - The body is segmented and divisible into three regions: i) Head ii) Thorax - It is triangular in shape. Formed by the fusion of six segments. - It attached to the thorax by a neck. - Head bears threadlike antennae, a pair of compounds eyes and biting and chewing type of mouthparts. - Mouthparts, consists of a labrum (upper lip), 2 mandibles, 2 maxillae, hypopharynx and a labium (lower lip). - It consists of three parts: prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax. - The head is connected with thorax by a short extension of the prothorax known as the neck. - Each thoracic segment bears a pair of of walking legs. Two pairs of wings are found in cocockroach - The first pair of wings or tegmina are opaque dark and leathery and cover the hind wings when at rest. - The second pair is hind wings.T hey are transparent, membranous and are used in flight. - It is the largest part of the body. - It consists of 10 segments. - In females, 7th sternum is boat shaped and together with 8lhand 9th sterna forms a brood / a genital pouch. - The anterior part of the genital pouch contains female gonopore, spermathe- cal pores and collateral glands. - In males the genital pouch lies at the hind end of the abdomen dorsally by 9th and 10th terga and ventrally by the 9,h sternum. - Males bear a pair of short thead like anal styles which are absent in females. - In both sexes , the 10th segment bears a pairof jointed filamentousstructures called anal cerci. The alimentary canal is divided into three regions namely foregut, midgut and hindgut. - It is lined by cuticle - it consists of mouth which opens into a short tubular pharynx, leading into oe-sophagus. - This in turn opens into a sac like structure called crop used for storing the food. The crop is followed by gizzard. - Gizzard helps in grinding the food particles. - It is not lined by cuticle. At the junction of the foregut and midgut has rings of 6 – 8 tubules called hepatic or gastric caecae, which secrete digestive juice. - Malpighian tubules are present at the junctions of midgut and hindgut, helps in the removal of excretory products from haemolymph. - It is broader than midgut and lined internally by cuticle. - It includes ileum, colon and rectum. - Rectum opens out through anus. - Circulatory system is open type. - Blood vessels are poorly developed and open into space (haemocoel). - The visceral organs located in the haemocoel are bathed in blood. - The haemolymph is composed of colour less plasma and haemocytes. Haemolymph = Colourless plasma + haemocytes - Heart consists of elongated muscular tube lying along mid-dorsal line of thorax and abdomen. - It consists of thirteen funnel shaped cham-bers with ostia on either side. - Blood from sinuses enter heart through ostia and is pumped anteriorly to sinuses again. - It consists of network of trachea, spiracles and tracheoles. - Spiracles are the 10 pairs of small holes present in the lateral side of the body. - The opening of the spiracles are regulated by sphincters. - The trachae are branched to form fine tubules called tracheoles. - Exchange of gases takes place at the tracheoles by diffusion. - Excretion is performed by malpighian tu-bules. - Each tubule is lined by glandular and ciliated cells. - They absorb nitrogenous waste products and converts them to uric acid and excretes out through the hindguts. - Cockroaches are uricotelic. - It consists of a series of fused, segmentally arranged ganglia joined by paired longitudinal connectives on the ventral side. - Three ganglia lie in the thorax, and six in the abdomen. - The nervous system speads throughout the body. - In the head region, the brain is represented by supraoesophageal ganglion. - Sense organs : Antennae, eyes, maxillary palps, labial palps, anal cerci etc. y Compound eyes are situated at the dorsal surface of the head. - Each eye consists of about 2000 hexagonal ommatidia, using these, a cockroach can receive several images of an object. This is known as mosaic vision. - It has more sensitivity but less resolution. - Being common during night, vision in cock roach also called as nocturnal vision. - Cockroaches are dioecious, which exhibit sexual dimorphism. - Male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes lying one on each lateral side in the 4th – 6th abdominal segments. - From each testis arises a thin tube called was deferens. - It opens into ejaculatory duct through the seminal vesicle. - The ejaculatory duct opens into male go- nopore situated ventral to anus. - Accessory reproductive gland called mush room gland is present in 6-7 abdominal segments. - The external genitalia is represented by male gonapophysis or phallomere (chitinous asymmetrical structures surrounding the male gonopore) - The sperms are stored in seminal vesicle and are glued together in the form of bundles called spermatophores. - The sperms are discharged during copulation. - Female reproductive system consists of two large ovaries lying laterally in the 2nd – 6lh abdominal segments. - Each ovary is made up of a group of eight ovarian tubules containing a chain of developing ova. - Oviducts of each ovary unite into a single median oviduct (vagina) which opens into genital chamber. - A pair of spermatheca is present in the 6th segment, which opens into the genital chamber. - Sperms are transferred through spermato- phores. - Fertilised eggs are encased in capsules called oothecae. - Ootheca is a dark reddish brown capsule. - Dropped to a crack or crevice of high relative humidity near the food source. - On an average female produce 9-10 oothecae, each containing 14-16 eggs. ♦ Development is paurometabolous, it is through nymphal stage. - The nymph look very much like adults. - The nymph grows by moulting about 13 times to reach adult form. - The next to last nymphal stage has wing pads. But only the adult has wings. ♦ Difference between male and female cockroach |Low and narrow abdomen||Abdomen is short and broad.| |Brood pouch is absent||Presence of broad pouch| |Anal style is present in the 9th segment||Anal style is absent| |Dorsally the 7th segment covers only the 8th segment in the abdomen.||Dorsally the 7th segment covers both the 8th and 9th segment in the abdomen| |Ventrally 9 abdominal segment are visible.||Ventrally first 7 abdominal segments are visible| - Cockroaches are pests. - They contaminate and destroy food. - Transmit bacterial diseases. - They have no economic importance Class : Amphibia - Frog can live both on land and in fresh water. - They are cold blooded animals (Poikilotherms) ie., do not have a constant body temperature, varies according to atmospheric temperature. - They exhibit camouflage (ability to change the colour of the skin to suit it’s surrounding, the protective colouration is mimicry.) - During peak summer they show aestivation (summer sleep). - During peak winter they show hibernation (winter sleep). - Body is smooth and slippery due to the pres ence of mucus. - Dorsal side of the body is generally olive green colour with dark irregular spots. - Ventral side is pale yellow. - The body is divisible into head and trunk. - Neck and tail are absent. - Above the mouth a pair of nostrils are present. - Eyes are bulged and covered by a nictitating membrane that protects them while in water. - Membranous tympanum(ear) receives sound signals. - Fore limbs and hind limbs help in swimming, walking, leaping and burrowing. Five digits in hind limbs and four digits in the forelimbs. - Feet have webbed digits that helps in swimming. - They exhibit sexual dimorphism. - Vocal sacs and copulatory pad are the dis-tinguishing characters of a male frog. ♦ Digestive system - The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and the digestive glands. The alimentary canal is short because frogs are carnivores hence the length of the intestine is reduced. - Path of the food in the alimentary canal - Enzymes produced by pancreas, liver and stomach are involved in digestive process. - Digestion of food takes place by the action of HCI and gastric juices secreted from the walls of the stomach. - Partially digested food called chyme is passed from the stomach to the first part of the intestine, the duodenum. - The duodenum receives bile from the gall bladder and pancreatic juices from the pan-creas through the common bile duct. - Bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic juices digest carbohydrates and proteins. - Final digestion takes place in the intestine. - Digested food is absorbed by the finger like folds in the inner wall of intestine called villi and microvilli. - The undigested solid waste moves into the rectum and passes out through cloaca. - Frog respire on land and in water by two different methods. - In water – Cutaneous respiration (through skin). - On land – Through buccal cavity, skin and lungs. - The respiration by lungs is called pulmonary respiration. - Lungs are a pair of elongated, pink coloured sac like structures present in the upper part of the trunk region (thorax). - During aestivation and hibernation gaseous exchange takes place through the skin by diffusion. - It consists of blood vascular system and lymphatic system. A. Blood vascular system is closed type. - It consists of heart, blood vessels and blood. - Heart is the muscular structure situated in the upper part of the body cavity. - It has three chambers: two atria and one ventricleand is covered by a membrane called pericardium. - A triangular structure called sinus venosus joins the right atrium. It receives blood through venacava. - Ventricle opens into a sac like conus arte-riosus, on the ventral side of the heart. - Blood vessels consists of arteries and veins - Arteries carries blood from heart to all part of the body. - Veins collect blood from different parts of the body to the heart. - Hepatic portal system – Special ve nous connections between the liver and the intestine. - Renal portal system – The venous system between kidney and the s lower part of the body. - The blood is composed of plasma and bood cells (RBC, WBC and platelets). - RBCs are nucleated and contain a red col-oured pigment, haemoglobin. - The blood carries nutrients, gases and water to the respective sites during circulation. - Circulation of blood is achieved by the pumb- ing action of the muscular heart. B. Lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph channels and lymph nodes. - Lymph lacks a few proteins and RBCs. - It consists of a pair of kidneys, ureters, cloaca and urinary bladder. - Kidneys are compact, dark-red and bean like structures situated a little posteriorly in the body cavity on both sides of the vertebral column. - Functional and structural units of kidneys are nephrons or uriniferous tubules. - The ureters act as urinogenital duct which opens into the cloaca. - Males – two ureters emerge from the kidney. - Females – ureters and oviducts open sep-arately in the cloaca. - The thin walled urinary bladder is present which also opens into the cloaca. - They are ureotelics (Excrete urea). - Excretory wastes are carried by blood into kidney where it is excreted and separated. Control and coordination - It is highly evolved in frogs. - It includes neural system and endocrine glands. - Hormones control and coordinate the activities of various organ of the body – Chemical coordination. Endocrine glands in frog - Pineal body - Pancreatic islets - Nervous system organised into central nervous system, peripheral and autonomic nervous system. i. Central nervous system (Brain and spinal cord). ii. Peripheral nervous system (Cranial and spinal nerves) iii. Autonomic nervous system (Sympathetic and parasympathetic) - There are ten pairs of cranial nerves arising from the brain. - Brain is enclosed in a structure called cranium. - The brain is divided into three regions: fore – brain, mid – brain and hindbrain. |Regions of brain||Parts| |Forebrain||Olfactory lobes, cere| brain hemispheres and unpaired diencephalon |Midbrain||A pair of optic lobes| |Hindbrain||Cerebellum and me| - The medulla oblongata passes out through the foramen magnum and continues into spinal cord, which is enclosed in the vertebral column. Sense organs in Frog - Organs of touch – Sensory papillae - Organs of taste – Taste buds - Organs of smell – Nasal epithelium - Organs of vision – Eyes - Organs of hearing and balance – Tympanum with internal ears - Out of these eyes and internal ears are well organised structures and rest are cellular aggregations around the nerve endings. - External ears are absent, only tympanum can be seen externally. - They have well organised male and female reproductive systems. ♦ Male reproductive system - It consists of a pair of yellowish ovoid testes found adhered to the upper part of the kidneys by a double fold of peritoneum called mesorchium. - Vasa efferentia are 10 -12 in number, that arise from testes. - They enter the kidneys on their side and opens into Bidder’s canal. - Finally it communicates with the urinogenitai duct that comes out of the kidneys and opens into the cloaca. - Cloaca- small median chamberthat is used to pass faecal matter, urine and sperms to the exterior. ♦ Female reproductive system - They include a pair of ovaries. - Situated near the kidneys - A pair of oviduct arising from the ovaries opens into the cloaca separately. - A mature female can lay 2500 – 3000 ova at a time. External fertilisation takes place in water. The larvae is called tadpole. Tadpole un-dergoes metamorphosis to form the adult. Importance of frog Frogs are beneficial for mankind - They eat insects and protect the crop. - Maintain ecological balance because they serve as an important link of food chain and food web in the ecosystem. - In some countries the muscular legs of frog are used as food by man. We hope the Plus One Zoology Notes Chapter 3 Structural Organisation in Animals help you. If you have any query regarding Kerala Plus One Zoology Notes Chapter 3 Structural Organisation in Animals, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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He was an apprentice of Joseph Henry Green, the distinguished surgeon at St Thomas's, well known for his friendship for Samuel Taylor Coleridge, whose literary executor Green became. He graduated at Harvard in 1727, then became an apprentice in his father's counting-room, and for several years devoted himself to business. 2 Samuel Lincoln (c. 1619-1690), the president's first American ancestor, son of Edward Lincoln, gent., of Hingham, Norfolk, emigrated to Massachusetts in 1637 as apprentice to a weaver and settled with two older brothers in Hingham, Mass. But the most remarkable of the persons with whom at this time Johnson consorted was Richard Savage, an earl's son, a shoemaker's apprentice, who had seen life in all its forms, who had feasted among blue ribands in St James's Square, and had lain with fifty pounds weight of irons on his legs in the condemned ward of Newgate. Horace from childhood desired to be a printer, and, when barely eleven years old, tried to be taken as an apprentice in an office at Whitehall, New York, but was rejected on account of his youth. He has stated in his autobiography that through all his early years of struggle, when he was successively grocer's apprentice at Fiirstenberg, cabin-boy on the "Dorothea" bound for Venezuela, and, after her wreck, office attendant and then book-keeper in Amsterdam, he nourished a passion for the Homeric story and an ambition to become a great linguist. Of certified and accepted paintings produced by the young genius, whether during his apprentice or his independent years at Florence (about 1470-1482), very few are extant, and the two most important are incomplete. He began his medical career as apprentice to John Paisley, a Glasgow surgeon, and after completing his apprenticeship he became surgeon to a merchant vessel trading between London and the West Indies. There had been no one at Nuremberg skilled enough in the art of metal-engraving to teach it him to much purpose, and it had at one time been his father's intention to apprentice him to Martin Schongauer of Colmar, the most refined and accomplished German painter-engraver of his time. Up till 1477 he is still spoken of as a pupil or apprentice of Verrocchio; but in that year he seems to have been taken into special favour by Lorenzo the Magnificent, and to have worked as an independent artist under his patronage until 1482-1483. It was in these circumstances that he dictated to his servant, a tailor's apprentice, who was absolutely devoid of mathematical knowledge, his Anleitung zur Algebra (1770), a work which, though purely elementary, displays the mathematical genius of its author, and is still reckoned one of the best works of its class. The freedom is obtained either by patrimony (by any person over twenty-one years of age born in lawful wedlock after the admission of his father to the freedom), by servitude (by being bound as an apprentice to a freeman of the company) or by redemption. MABINOGION (plural of Welsh mabinogi, from mabinog, a bard's apprentice), the title given to the collection of eleven Welsh prose tales (from the Red Book of Hergest) published (1838) by Lady Charlotte Guest, but applied in the Red Book to four only. Disappointed in his early hope of entering the navy, he became apprentice to an apothecary in his native town; but seeing little prospect of advancement in that calling, he soon moved to Geneva (in 1816). He served as an apprentice to the village carpenter for seven years. That year, The Apprentice estimated around 21 million viewers. The two form an unlikely friendship, and she becomes an apprentice sleuth. Visit the Dockyard Apprentice and discover the skills and crafts used to build the mighty dreadnought battleships. He lived there with his 13 year old apprentice Andrew Morton, originally from Louth. apprentice mechanic, narrowly escaped custody when he appeared before Carlisle magistrates. She started at BAE Systems as a craft apprentice and rapidly moved to become a skilled flight test engineer on Eurofighter Typhoon aircrafts. bicentenary of the siege was marked by extensive celebrations which involved not only the Apprentice Boys but also the corporation. We are drawn into the deeply personal struggles of Charles Wentworth, an apprentice blacksmith at the advanced age of 27. It appears that a new apprentice of the village carpenter was very boastful of his scholarship. Nigel started work as an apprentice compositor in the printing trade and retrained many times in a rapidly changing industry. In September 1597 his apprentice cordwainer, Thomas Coxe, was admitted free. draper's apprentice, bookkeeper, tutor, and journalist until 1895, when he became a full-time writer. He was an apprentice draper, teacher and biology student before he became a professional journalist and writer. apprentice carpenter and joiner, had excellent training with quality tradesmen and a wide range of contract. The apprentice genie also comes out of his lamp. John at 16 had already left home, and was an apprentice carpenter with Margaret Wyatt's building firm in St Giles ' Street. draughtsmanchool at 15, he became an apprentice draftsman with a firm of civil engineers. This census shows they had another daughter - Fanny, who was then an apprentice dressmaker. In 1929 he became an apprentice electrician with Humber Electrical Engineering. apprentice farrier, Sarah Mary Brown from Giffnock, was the overall winner. Ian Williams, 18, of Rhymney is an apprentice fitter at Corus ' Port Talbot works. This method is still used for teaching an apprentice gardener in Japan. apprentice aircraft fitter with British Aerospace. apprentice electrician in 1942. Proving that a career in a male orientated industry is possible are two young women apprentice plumbers. This was a form of apprenticeship, and it is not clear that the apprentice had any filial relation. 1591), lord mayor of London, who, according to the accepted account, while apprentice to Sir William Hewett, clothworker and lord mayor in 1559, made the fortunes of the family by leaping from London Bridge into the river and rescuing Anne (d. The first is of a preliminary character, qualifying for registration as a student or apprentice; in lieu of this examination, certificates of matriculation at a university, and those of certain other educational bodies, are accepted. The latter has other interesting pictures, including a fresco representing an apprentice with pestle and mortar (Pestapepe), the only authentic work in Forli of Melozzo da Forli (1438-1494), an eminent master whose style was formed under the influence of Piero della Francesca, and who was the master of Palmezzano; the frescoes in the Sforza chapel in SS. His father, a wealthy manufacturer, having been all but ruined by the French siege, he had, when only sixteen, to apprentice himself to an apothecary in Hamburg, and when twenty-two began to earn his living as an apothecary's assistant at Itzehoe. Few things are finer in music or literature than the end of the second act of Die Meistersinger, from the point where Sachs's apprentice begins the riot, to the moment when the watchman, frightened at the silence of the moonlit streets so soon after he has heard all that noise, announces eleven o'clock and bids the folk pray for protection against evil spirits, while the orchestra tells us of the dreams of Walther and Eva and ends by putting poetry even into the pedantic ineptitudes of the malicious Beckmesser. Besides these, there is also an apprentice school for industrial training. It served to strengthen the unfavourable impression formed in England of the Transvaal Boers with regard to their treatment of the natives; an impression which was deepened by tidings of terrible chastisement of tribes in the Zoutpansberg, and by the Apprentice Law passed by the volksraad in 1856 - a law denounced in many quarters as practically legalizing slavery. David Barclay (the son of the famous apologist for the Quakers) was an apprentice in the house, but he subsequently became master, and had the honour of receiving George II. The statute of 5 Elizabeth, c. 4, also curtailed their jurisdiction over journeymen and apprentices (see Apprentice Ship). After being for a short time apprentice to a ladies' tailor, he became tutor to an innkeeper's son. The released apprentice now visited his parents, and worked for a little time with them on the farm, meanwhile seeking employment in various printing offices, and, when he got it, giving nearly all his earnings to his father. Many refused to employ him, in the belief that he was a runaway apprentice, and his poor, ill-fitting apparel and rustic look were everywhere greatly against him. He served for a while as a saddler's apprentice, and after 1826 devoted himself to the life of a professional guide and hunter. He was then placed under the tuition of his brother Edward (1627-1655), of Trinity College; and, as he tells us, "while he continued in this condition his mother would alwaies be soliciting him to be an apprentice which he could never endure to heare of." After attending the grammar school at Lancaster he spent six years as an apprentice to a druggist in that town. His father, whose name also was William, began life as an apprentice to a fitter, in which service he obtained the freedom of Newcastle, becoming a member of the gild of Hoastmen (coal-fitters); later in life he became a principal in the business, and attained a respectable position as a merchant in Newcastle, accumulating property worth nearly £ 20,000. But when in 1794 his father, Robert Davy, died, leaving a widow and five children in embarrassed circumstances, he awoke to his responsibilities as the eldest son, and becoming apprentice to a surgeonapothecary at Penzance set to work on a systematic and remarkably wide course of self-instruction which he mapped out for himself in preparation for a career in medicine. Senior Instructors Ollie demonstrating frontal reverse kick in Savate kickboxing with apprentice instructor Tim Campbell. Indeed, my first employment upon leaving school was as an apprentice shipwright, based on the St Andrew 's Dock in Hull. Is he the right man for the job or just the sorcerer 's apprentice? He later became an apprentice on a tea clipper. The Apprentice Boys felt this decision was not theirs to make and was a matter for the RUC. On 23 January 1626 Harris 's apprentice vintner Humphrey Boddicott (whom he had inherited from his father) was admitted free. Became an apprentice wheelwright in South Shields, befriending the young George Stephenson. Why not ask this wizened woman if she would like to take on an apprentice, like Alan Sugar? Commis Chef: The commis chef is the entry-level apprentice who learns his culinary skills on the job, from the chefs with whom he works. Apprentice programs- learn a new set of skills, such as learning how to build things like gazebos and other outbuildings. The fifth Apprentice has barely been hired and already The Donald has signed up for another year of blatant product placement and shameless self promotion. Kim Kardashian is married to NBA star Kris Humphries, and she continues to work on various reality television projects, including Keeping Up With the Kardashians, Dancing With the Stars, and an appearance on The Celebrity Apprentice. Hired to run the company is one of the losers from The Apprentice's second season, Andy Litinsky. Tammy Trenta fought a good fight on The Apprentice 5, proving that an effective business person does not have to be cut-throat or vicious. LoveToKnow (LTK): Why did you decide to try out for The Apprentice? TT: Being on Apprentice gives you a false sense of reality. LTK: During the airing of Apprentice, some viewers wondered if Sean's affections toward you were merely strategy. The New York Post is reporting that Donald Trump has dumped Carolyn Kepcher, who not only runs his golf courses in upstate New York and Central NJ, but has also been his partner in crime on The Apprentice. According to the Post, Kepcher has grown quite the ego since becoming a member of The Apprentice's firing squad. In addition to speaking engagements, Kepcher has written a book, Carolyn 101: Business Lessons from 'The Apprentice's' Straight Shooter and has agents handling her many media requests. Presently, Trump is in Los Angeles filming the sixth season of The Apprentice. At a young age, Ivanka Trump made a name for herself as a model, and now can be seen alongside her father, Donald Trump, on NBC's The Apprentice. Ivanka first appeared on the fifth season of her father's show, The Apprentice, when Carolyn Kepcher was unable to appear in a number of episodes. After Kepcher was herself fired from the Trump Organization, it was announced that Ivanka Trump would take over on the sixth season of The Apprentice. In January 2004, Trump ventured into one of his biggest deals -- hosting The Apprentice, a reality television show on NBC where up to 18 men and women compete for a $250,000 internship in one of his many companies. He earns at least $375,000 for each episode of The Apprentice. Fresh from her firing on The Apprentice, contestant Kristine Lefebvre is taking on Playboy. While Kristine Lefebvre didn't win a coveted job in the Trump Organization after her participation on the reality show The Apprentice: Los Angeles, she did make it to the final five. Lefebvre is taking her exposure on The Apprentice and turning it into an opportunity with Playboy magazine. While many beautiful women of The Apprentice have been offered the opportunity to appear in Playboy magazine, Lefebvre will be the first contestant of the popular reality series to pose nude. Former Apprentice wannabes Ereka Vetrini, Amy Henry, Krista Frank and Katrina Campins were all reportedly offered $250,000 to pose for Playboy, but none of the women accepted the offer. While The Apprentice still earns respectable ratings, the show has seen a sharp drop in viewers, with the current season earning the lowest numbers yet. The final show of the sixth season aired April 22, 2007, where viewers watched Trump crown Stefani Schaeffer as his new apprentice. On May 14, 2007, when NBC released its 2007-2008 television lineup, the billionaire real estate tycoon's reality show, The Apprentice, was not included. At one time, The Apprentice ranked in the top 10, but only placed 100th for the 2006-2007 season, which was shot in Los Angeles, California. "Donald [Trump] still wants to do it, [The Apprentice executive producer] Mark [Burnett] wants to do it," he said. His reality television show The Apprentice has been running strong since 2004, with both regular and celebrity versions. Not only has he made a deal with MTV to produce a reality television show starring recently crowned beauty queens, NBC has decided to bring back The Apprentice for at least one more run. In May, the network inadvertently left The Apprentice, which concluded its sixth season just one month earlier, out of the fall lineup. Sources close to NBC and The Apprentice told Reuters that the show, which dropped considerably in ratings since it first aired 2004, will be renewed for the seventh season, with an option to renew for one additional. However, the next installment of The Apprentice will have a slightly different twist -- celebrities will vie against each other in a number of different tasks as a means of raising funds for a variety of charities. According to Variety, the show is a mix between The Real World and The Apprentice, and will star former Miss USA Tara Conner as the "den mother." Trump is adding another season of The Apprentice to her busy plate, as NBC renewed the reality business competition for another season. Well, aside from (ahem) intimate knowledge of the Playboy Empire, Madison got her feet wet when she served as a photo editor apprentice in one episode of The Girls Next Door, assisting with the design of a 2007 Girls Next Door calendar. Celebrity Apprentice follows in the footsteps of Donald Trump and Mark Burnett's once popular reality show The Apprentice, with a twist. For The Apprentice, the number of viewers from season one to season six dropped by an estimated 14 million viewers, proving that people tired of seeing the same thing over and over. Instead of featuring business men and women from around the country, the show's new contestants are celebrities and its new moniker is, naturally, Celebrity Apprentice. There will be a total of 14 contestants on Celebrity Apprentice -- no doubt split into teams of two. Tiffany Fallon - Playboy magazine's 2005 "Playmate of the Year" is set to join the cast of Celebrity Apprentice. Tito Ortiz - This Ultimate Fighting champion is throwing his gloves into the "Celebrity Apprentice'' ring. She has appeared on several reality shows since her stint on the first season of The Apprentice including: The Surreal Life, I Love New York, and Fear Factor. Trump has great intentions with this latest celebrity version of The Apprentice, but are good intentions enough to get people interested in the show again? Most notably, Stephen Baldwin will add yet another reality program to his resume, which already includes The Celebrity Apprentice, Celebrity Bull Riding Challenge, The Mole and Fear Factor. Many have stated that one of the most annoying participants in Celebrity Apprentice is "…amazing" when he's sober, though most of the rest of the world has its doubts. He wants to attend the Celebrity Apprentice reunion show. Her audition stunned both viewers and the judges, including Simon Cowell, Piers Morgan, former winner of The Celebrity Apprentice, and Amanda Holden. Ivanka Trump, daughter of real estate mogul and The Apprentice host Donald Trump, married fiance Jared Kushner on October 25, 2009. In addition to appearances on her father's reality TV show The Apprentice, Ivanka has worked as a model and pageant host. She also undertook a version of Donald Trump's Apprentice reality TV show, called The Apprentice: Martha Stewart. Bret Michaels is currently a cast member on Donald Trump's show Celebrity Apprentice. While her version of Celebrity Apprentice wasn't as successful as the Donald Trump-headed show, she has continued to write books such as The Martha Rules and Martha Stewart Baking Handbook. If you are able to find a trainer that you admire, you may be able to work with her as an apprentice. Of course, there are many more schools dedicated to teaching the art of dog grooming, or you may even choose apprentice with a grooming shop. Like the nobles, however, different materials and articles would denote a man's occupation: a blue robe denoted a servant, a flat cap an apprentice, or a retainer would wear his lord's coat of arms on a badge sewn to their left sleeve. You are a hunter's apprentice and become involved with the troubles in the land of the Old West. Three years after Sagat achieved the title of "God of Muay Thai", Adon became his apprentice and began to master the art of fighting. An apprentice must be at least 16 years of age to enroll in a training program. When first starting out, it is best to work as an apprentice with a reputable buyer and learn how they negotiate deals and otherwise navigate the sometimes less than crystal clear world of the diamond trade industry. After working as a jewelry designing apprentice for many years, he studied jewelry design at the Fashion Institute of Technology in New York, New York. By establishing a relationship with your own palmist, he or she may be willing to apprentice you or at least direct you to someone who can aptly do so. As an apprentice, you're in a unique position to ask questions and get definitive answers. That person happens to be unsuspecting Arthur, apprentice to Merlin. As an apprentice, Yoji was still learning the ropes of tattooing when the show began and spent much of his time helping out around the shop and drawing. So it's only natural that he takes on Diz as an apprentice, right? The best way to become a fully-fledged tattoo artist is to become an apprentice. If you want an even more custom-made design, you can often go to a tattoo studio and ask if there is an apprentice who is willing to draw up a design for you, for free. Since body piercing is passed from master piercer to apprentice, aftercare knowledge is not standardized across the piercing industry. Len from Massachusetts is a tattoo apprentice who has concealed his name and identifying details so that he could give you the most unvarnished, no holds barred, brutally honest account of what it means to be a tattoo apprentice. An apprentice's tattooing of anything other than skin (grapefruits, rubber practice skin, etc.) is practiced primarily to build initial hand strength and coordination; you must practice on real skin to progress. LTK: What is the best part of being an apprentice? LTK: What is the worst part of being an apprentice? In 1856 a draper's apprentice, 21-year-old Thomas Burberry, opened his own store in Basingstoke, Hampshire, England. All programs should combine lecture, observation, practice, apprentice teaching, and practical and written exam aspects. In between these requirements, students have extensive reading to do, and will also spend time in an apprentice program with Cathy, observing her classes and assisting in teaching them. Omarosa - Omarosa wasn't the winner of season one of The Apprentice, but she is the one who has turned her much maligned turn on the show into a showbiz career (of sorts). Or would you prefer to land a white-collar job and work with Donald Trump on The Apprentice? At one time The Apprentice TV show was the reality television program to watch. The Apprentice is the ultimate job interview. So what does the apprentice receive as his or her grand prize? The premise of Season 7 of the show, also known as The Celebrity Apprentice, was pretty much the same as the original series. For more information regarding The Apprentice TV show, check out the NBC website. Dubbed the ultimate job interview, The Apprentice takes 18 contestants, divides them into two teams and runs them through a variety of tasks. The Apprentice, created by Mark Burnett, came to NBC in January 2004. After six seasons the show changed its format, coming back a year later with a new name and premise: The Celebrity Apprentice. Although it didn't prove to be the hit the original Apprentice was, it did fare well enough for another season. Only a select few are physically, emotionally and mentally capable to take part in competition shows such as The Apprentice, The Amazing Race and Big Brother. Gene is approached by Donald Trump to appear in the Celebrity Apprentice, an opportunity that he accepts. The Celebrity Apprentice 2 is a reality TV show that carries on in the Apprentice tradition, focusing on business and teamwork. The format is exactly the same as it was for the first Celebrity Apprentice, but with new stars and different tasks. The Celebrity Apprentice is usually a two-hour program on NBC, although some episodes are one hour in length. The women's team for Celebrity Apprentice 2 is called Athena. He has also participated in both the British and American versions of The Celebrity Apprentice and emerged as the winner in the first installment of the U.S. show. Just to show that he can take it as good as he can give it, Piers Morgan stepped up to the plate in 2008 as a contestant on the first season of Donald Trump's The Celebrity Apprentice. Since Keeping Up with the Kardashians had taken off with great success, Khloe Kardashian was ready for her next reality show - The Celebrity Apprentice. He has appeared several times on the NBC reality show The Apprentice. Omarosa appeared on Donald Trump's reality show The Apprentice. She has appeared on several other television shows, including 90210 and Fashion Police, and competed in the second season of Celebrity Apprentice where she was the seventh candidate fired. If you haven't been watching the celebrity version of Donald Trump's reality TV show The Apprentice, you might be wondering, who won Celebrity Apprentice? The Celebrity Apprentice is a reality show on NBC that is based on the successful Apprentice series. Trump then chooses which candidate earns the title of Celebrity Apprentice. The winner of the first season of The Celebrity Apprentice was Piers Morgan, who returned for season two as an advisor in the board room. Now that you know who won Celebrity Apprentice in season one, it's time to move on to the second season. Though Annie Duke threatened to crush Rivers, it was Joan Rivers who was victorious and earned the title of The Celebrity Apprentice. To learn more about the show, meet all of the candidates, see video clips, and watch full episodes, visit the official Celebrity Apprentice website at NBC.com. Tutera made appearances on a number of television shows, including Disney Weddings, The Bonnie Hunt Show and The Apprentice, but it wasn't until WE came up with an idea for his very own show that Tutera became a bona fide household name. A reality show that tapes an entire season before airing the first episode, like The Apprentice, has more potential leaks than a show that eliminates contestants live, like American Idol. Britain's Next Top Model and The Apprentice were originally from the U.S., while Big Brother was licensed from The Netherlands. He has appeared on Bravo's Top Chef Masters and his wife Kristine is a former candidate on The Apprentice. LTK: Your wife was one of the candidates on The Apprentice - did she prepare you at all for the ups and downs of reality television? LL: From what she tells me, The Apprentice is very different. One wonders if Hobb had the entire thing mapped out when she first sat down to write Assassin's Apprentice? I did enjoy the Jedi Apprentice series by Dave Worthington and later Jude Watson, though in books 15 through 16, Qui-Gon's Jedi love, Tahl, gets murdered and he goes out for revenge?? A great Jedi Master you always were, but too blind was I to see it ... Your apprentice, I gratefully become." The Phantom Menace introduces Anakin Skywalker as a young slave boy, Obi-Wan Kenobi as a Jedi apprentice, and the introduction of the evil Darth Maul and the forces of darkness known as the Sith. Obi-Wan is no longer an apprentice but a Jedi and teacher. Anakin, who is no longer a boy, becomes Obi-Wan's apprentice. It is in this episode that Anakin Skywalker becomes the Emperor's apprentice and takes on the persona we all know as Darth Vader. The Sorcerer's Apprentice - Merlin trained Balthazar and upon his death gave Balthazar the quest to find the Prime Merlinian. Merlin and Merlin's Apprentice - The tale of Merlin's lift is told with Sam Neill in the role. I'm not even an apprentice in the snooping game, compared to you and Fred. Chirac played the sorcerer's apprentice by making the main axis of his campaign law and order, a longstanding theme of the FN. So at the age of fifteen, he signed up with his father's approval as an indentured apprentice onboard the " Oneida " . Alternatively, GRAHAM Training can recruit a modern apprentice on behalf of an organization. Caroline Benton has notched up a first for Southern Water by becoming the first female apprentice to qualify. I'm aged between 16 & 25 can I become a modern apprentice? He has spent over thirty years with the company, rising through the ranks from a young apprentice to becoming managing director. Whether you are an apprentice bricklayer or a seasoned specifier, the Learning Texts provide you with everything you need to know about mortar. Our April visit, however, meant we could attend one of the seasonal shows put on by the maiko, or apprentice geishas. When he was sixteen, he became an apprentice goldsmith with his uncle, but did not complete his apprenticeship. The apprentice then had to close his (or her) eyes and recite an incantation. indentured apprentice at the Parkside Garage on Warwick Row for five years. The family moved to Glasgow and at the age of fourteen Gardner left school and became an apprentice jeweler. I went to serve, serve me time as an apprentice joiner for a year. They derive from the chronic passion of apprentice mages and the good will of their peers. On 12 October 1640 Dennis's apprentice mercer, Richard Peirce, was admitted free. His son is a plater in the frame squad and his grandson is an apprentice plater. savate kickboxing with apprentice instructor Tim Campbell. Captain Cook Memorial Museum This museum is housed in the building where James Cook lodged as an apprentice seaman. New man at the helm for EA Scotland Evangelical Alliance Scotland has a new General Secretary - who is a former apprentice shipbuilder. Indeed, my first employment upon leaving school was as an apprentice shipwright, based on the St Andrew's Dock in Hull. William began work at 6 years old in a pin factory then as an apprentice shoemaker. Now, Tom was a half trained apprentice in sole charge of the village smithy. Chirac played the sorcerer 's apprentice by making the main axis of his campaign law and order, a longstanding theme of the FN. As an apprentice stonemason, I was in charge of building one. He started his working life at 16, training as an apprentice toolmaker. Craig Reid, an apprentice engineer from Coventry, completes the trio going to the World Final. David Dickie was an apprentice upholsterer to William Lamont in Kilmarnock. On 23 January 1626 Harris's apprentice vintner Humphrey Boddicott (whom he had inherited from his father) was admitted free. A military career was not initially on the cards as he left school and worked as an apprentice watchmaker and pawnbroker for eighteen months. William Grinstead, son of Captain Grinstead, was an apprentice waterman employed on the River. became an apprentice wheelwright in South Shields, befriending the young George Stephenson. wizened woman if she would like to take on an apprentice, like Alan Sugar? The rich publisher may treat the poor poet better or worse than the old master workman treated the old apprentice. In 1851 he began his engineering career as apprentice in an establishment at Manchester, and subsequently he entered Newall's submarine cable works at Birkenhead. He was, to quote the words of a contemporary, " like an apprentice defying his master." The word usage examples above have been gathered from various sources to reflect current and historial usage. They do not represent the opinions of YourDictionary.com.

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Synonyms: True Winter’s Bark. Winter’s Cinnamon. Wintera aromatica. Wintera. Drimys aromatica. Murray. non (R.Br.)Muell. Wintera aromatica. Murray. non (R.Br.)Muell. Common Names: Winter’s Bark, Canelo Habitat: Drimys winteri is native to the Magellanic and Valdivian temperate rain forests of Chile and Argentina, where it is a dominant tree in the coastal evergreen forests. Boggy sites by streams etc in rich soils. It is found below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) between latitude 32° south and Cape Horn at latitude 56°. In its southernmost natural range it can tolerate temperatures down to ?20 °C (?4 °F). Drimys winteri is an evergreen Shrub growing to 7.5 m (24ft) by 6 m (19ft) at a medium rate. It is in leaf 12-Jan It is in flower from Jan to June. The leaves are lanceolate, glossy green above, whitish below and can measure up to 20 cm (8 in). The flowersare white with a yellow center, and comprise a great number of petals and stamens. The fruit is a bluish berry. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) The bark is green and wrinkled, that of the branches smooth and green, erect and scarred, leaves alternate, oblong, obtuse, with a midrib veinless, glabrous and finely dotted underside. Flowers small on terminal peduncles, approximately one-flowered, simple. Fruits up to six obovate, baccate, and many seeded. The bark is the official part and is found in small carved pieces 1/4 inch thick, dull yellow grey externally. Both Canella and Cinnamodendron are found in its transverse section, exhibiting radiating white lines at the end of the last rays, diverging towards the circumference; odour aromatic with a warm pungent taste. Cultivation: Requires a light lime-free soil in semi-shade. Tolerates chalk in the soil. Requires a deep moist soil. Dislikes dry conditions. Prefers a warm sandy loam with some shelter. Fairly wind resistant. Another report says that the plant resents severe wind-chill. Succeeds against a wall at Kew and it thrives in an open position in S.W. England. Tolerates temperatures down to about -10°c. This species is less hardy than D. lanceolata but it usually recovers from damage. Another report says that it is hardier than D. lanceolata. A very ornamental plant. The sub-species D. winteri andina. Reiche. is a slow growing dwarf form seldom exceeding 1 metre in height. It usually commences flowering when about 30cm tall. A polymorphic species. The flowers have a delicate fragrance of jasmine, whilst the bark has a powerful aromatic smell. This plant was a symbol of peace to the indigenous Indian tribes of S. America in much the same way as an olive branch was used in Greece. Plants in this genus are notably resistant to honey fungus. Propagation: Seed – best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn in a greenhouse. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grow on the plants for at least their first winter in a cold frame. Plant them out in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts. Layering in March/April. Takes 12 months. Cuttings of half-ripe wood, 10 – 15 cm with a heel, July/August in a frame. Approximately 60% take. Cuttings of mature wood of the current year’s growth with a heel of older wood, November in a cold frame Edible Uses : The aromatic pungent bark is powdered and used as a pepper substitute in Brazil, Chile and Argentina. It is rich in vitamin C. Part Used: The Bark. Constituents: An inodorous acrid resin, pale yellow volatile oil, tannic acid, oxide of iron, colouring matter and various salts. The bark is a pungent bitter tonic herb that relieves indigestion. It is antiscorbutic, aromatic, febrifuge, skin, stimulant and stomachic. An infusion of the bark is used in the treatment of indigestion, colic, dandruff and scurvy. It is also used as a parasiticide. The bark is harvested in the autumn and winter and is dried for later use. The bark is gray, thick and soft and is used as a pepper replacement in Argentina and Chile. The peppery compound in canelo is polygodial. Known Hazards : The sap of this plant can cause serious inflammation if it comes into contact with the eyes Disclaimer : The information presented herein is intended for educational purposes only. Individual results may vary, and before using any supplement, it is always advisable to consult with your own health care provider. Definition: Gastroparesis (gastro-, “stomach” + -paresis, “partial paralysis”), also called delayed gastric emptying, is a medical condition consisting of a paresis (partial paralysis) of the stomach, resulting in food remaining in the stomach for an abnormally long time. Normally, the stomach contracts to move food down into the small intestine for additional digestion. The vagus nerve controls these contractions. Gastroparesis may occur when the vagus nerve is damaged and the muscles of the stomach and intestines do not properly function. Food then moves slowly or stops moving through the digestive tract….CLICK & SEE YOU MAY CLICK & SEE : Our Digestive System and How It Works Symptoms: The most common symptoms of gastroparesis are the following: *Chronic nausea (93%) *Vomiting (especially of undigested food) (68-84%) *Abdominal pain (46-90%) *A feeling of fullness after eating just a few bites (60-86%) Other symptoms include the following: *Erratic blood glucose levels *Lack of appetite *Spasms of the stomach wall *Weight loss and malnutrition Morning nausea may also indicate gastroparesis. Vomiting may not occur in all cases, as sufferers may adjust their diets to include only small amounts of food. Symptoms may be aggravated by eating greasy or rich foods, large quantities of foods with fiber—such as raw fruits and vegetables—or drinking beverages high in fat or carbonation. Symptoms may be mild or severe, and they can occur frequently in some people and less often in others. The symptoms of gastroparesis may also vary in intensity over time in the same individual. Sometimes gastroparesis is difficult to diagnose because people experience a range of symptoms similar to those of other diseases. Transient gastroparesis may arise in acute illness of any kind, as a consequence of certain cancer treatments or other drugs which affect digestive action, or due to abnormal eating patterns. It is frequently caused by autonomic neuropathy. This may occur in people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. In fact, diabetes mellitus has been named as the most common cause of gastroparesis, as high levels of blood glucose may affect chemical changes in the nerves.The vagus nerve becomes damaged by years of high blood glucose or insufficient transport of glucose into cells resulting in gastroparesis. Other possible causes include anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, which may also damage the vagus nerve. Gastroparesis has also been associated with connective tissue diseases such as scleroderma and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and neurological conditions such as Parkinson’s disease. It may also occur as part of a mitochondrial disease. Chronic gastroparesis can be caused by other types of damage to the vagus nerve, such as abdominal surgery. Heavy cigarette smoking is also a plausible cause since smoking causes damage to the stomach lining. Idiopathic gastroparesis (gastroparesis with no known cause) accounts for a third of all chronic cases; it is thought that many of these cases are due to an autoimmune response triggered by an acute viral infection. “Stomach flu”, mononucleosis, and other ailments have been anecdotally linked to the onset of the condition, but no systematic study has proven a link. Gastroparesis sufferers are disproportionately female. One possible explanation for this finding is that women have an inherently slower stomach emptying time than men.A hormonal link has been suggested, as gastroparesis symptoms tend to worsen the week before menstruation when progesterone levels are highest. Neither theory has been proven definitively. Gastroparesis can also be connected to hypochlorhydria and be caused by chloride, sodium and/or zinc deficiency, as these minerals are needed for the stomach to produce adequate levels of gastric acid (HCL) in order to properly empty itself of a meal. Other identifiable causes of gastroparesis include intestinal surgery and nervous system diseases such as Parkinson’s disease or multiple sclerosis. For reasons that are not very clear, gastroparesis is more commonly found in women than in men. The complications of gastroparesis can include *severe dehydration due to persistent vomiting *gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), which is GER that occurs more than twice a week for a few weeks; GERD can lead to esophagitis— irritation of the esophagus *bezoars, which can cause nausea, vomiting, obstruction, or interfere with absorption of some medications in pill form *difficulty managing blood glucose levels in people with diabetes *malnutrition due to poor absorption of nutrients or a low calorie intake *decreased quality of life, including work absences due to severe symptoms Gastroparesis is diagnosed through a physical exam, medical history, blood tests, tests to rule out blockage or structural problems in the GI tract, and gastric emptying tests. Tests may also identify a nutritional disorder or underlying disease. To rule out any blockage or other structural problems, the doctor may perform one or more of the following tests: *Upper gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy. This procedure involves using an endoscope—a small, flexible tube with a light—to see the upper GI tract, which includes the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum—the first part of the small intestine. The test is performed at a hospital or outpatient center by a gastroenterologist—a doctor who specializes in digestive diseases. The endoscope is carefully fed down the esophagus and into the stomach and duodenum. A small camera mounted on the endoscope transmits a video image to a monitor, allowing close examination of the intestinal lining. A person may receive a liquid anesthetic that is gargled or sprayed on the back of the throat. An intravenous (IV) needle is placed in a vein in the arm if general anesthesia is given. The test may show blockage or large bezoars—solid collections of food, mucus, vegetable fiber, hair, or other material that cannot be digested in the stomach—that are sometimes softened, dissolved, or broken up during an upper GI endoscopy. Botanical Name : Hordeum vulgare L Family: Poaceae Subfamily: Pooideae Tribe: Triticeae Genus: Hordeum Species: H. vulgare Kingdom: Plantae Order: Poales Hordeum vulgare L. HOAE Hordeum aegiceras Nees ex Royle HODI2 Hordeum distichon L. HOHE6 Hordeum hexastichon L. HOHE3 Hordeum hexastichum L., orth. var. HOIR Hordeum irregulare Aberg & Wiebe HOSA4 Hordeum sativum Pers. HOVUH Hordeum vulgare L. ssp. hexastichon (L.) Bonnier & Layens HOVUT Hordeum vulgare L. var. trifurcatum (Schltdl.) Alef. Common Name: Two-Rowed Barley Barley (The Old English word for ‘barley’ was bære, which traces back to Proto-Indo-European and is cognate to the Latin word farina “flour”. The direct ancestor of modern English “barley” in Old English was the derived adjective bærlic, meaning “of barley”. The first citation of the form bærlic in the Oxford English Dictionary dates to around 966 AD, in the compound word bærlic-croft. The underived word bære survives in the north of Scotland as bere, and refers to a specific strain of six-row barley grown there. The word barn, which originally meant “barley-house”, is also rooted in these words) Habitat : Probably barley is native to Middle East, from Afghanistan to northern India; now widely cultivated in all temperate regions from Arctic Circle to high mountains in the tropics. The earliest remains so far discovered are from Iran (ca 7900 BC), but we still do not know that it originated there or in Egypt, Etiopia, the Near East or Tibet (Foster, 1981). Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), a member of the grass family.It is an annual herb with stems erect, stout, tufted, 60–120 cm tall; leaves few, alternate, linear-lanceolate, the upper one close to the spike, blades up to 25 cm long, about 1.5 cm broad; sheath smooth, striate; ligules short, membranous; spikes terminal, linear-oblong, compressed, up to 20 cm long, densely flowered; spikelets sessile, arranged in threes on two sides of a flattened rachis, all fertile (6-rowed types), or lateral ones barren and occasionally rudimentary (2-rowed types); glumes 2, narrow, small, short-awned, enclosing 3 spikelets; lemma lanceolate, 5-ribbed, tapering into a long straight or recurved awn; palea slightly smaller than the lemma with margins inflexed; stamens 3; caryopsis ellipsoid, about 0.9 cm long, short-pointed, grooved on inner face, smooth, free or adherent to palea, or both lemma and palea. Seeds 30,870/kg (Reed, 1976). Seed sown broadcast or in shallow furrows about 22 cm apart, dropped through a drill. Depth of sowing 1.3–4.5 cm. Seeding rates vary from 67 to 101 kg/ha. Crop requires very little interculture or weeding. In dry areas 2–3 waterings are required after sowing. In India, seed sown in Oct.–Nov., and harvested by late March or early April. In Punjab, sowing as late as early Jan. Crop may be raised under both rainfall and irrigated conditions. Crop grown pure, or in mixtures with gram, pea, lentil, berseem, rape, mustard, or linseed. Sometimes grown with wheat. Irrigation increases yields, irrigated crops containing less nitrogen. A light harrowing after first irrigation when crop is about 20 cm tall, gives up to 10% higher yields. Barley is usually grown without any Special manuring. However, an application of fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus, or potash, in various combinations, influence yield and quality of grain. Additional nitrogen increases yield of straw and grain, but in larger doses, nitrogen increases the protein content and affects its brewing quality. Phosphate fertilizers lower the protein content considerably and influence formation and ripening of grain. Lodging, when it occurs, causes loss in quality and yield of crop, and may be due to poor root system, disease infection, weak straw, or storm damage. Dry warm weather is favorable for grain ripening. Barley is ready for harvest in about 4 months after sowing; some varieties in 60 days. Plants are either pulled out or cut with sickles and sheaves stacked for about a week or more. Grain is threshed out by beating with sticks or trampled by oxen (India). Barley plants are fed green or as hay to livestock. In some areas, stalks are cut 2 or 3 times without marked injury to grain yield. For hay, plants are cut while still green after heads are well formed. Dry stalks and leaves obtained during threshing are also useful as cattle feed. Barley, like wheat, is stored in bulk or in bags or in underground pits in bulk. Straw is used as roughage for livestock and bedding, for making hats and packing and for manufacture of cellulose pulp. Barley fed to stock alone or mixed with other grains, usually crushed or ground to meal and mixed with other foodstuffs, particularly useful for pigs and horses, less so for cattle. Barley is the fourth most important cereal in the United States, but ca 50% is used for livestock fodder, 37% for the brewing industry (80% for beer, 14% distilled alcohol, 6% malt syrup). Beer is no johnny-come-lately; Clay documents at least 8000 years old have depicted barley beer making. Until the sixteenth century, barley flour was used instead of wheat to make bread (Bukantis and Goodman, 1980). Winter barley furnishes nutritive pasturage without seriously reducing yields.It is used as a component of various health foods. It is used in soups and stews, and in barley bread of various cultures. Barley grains are commonly made into malt in a traditional and ancient method of preparation. In India, a cooling drink called sattu is made from barley. Barley flour is produced by milling the grains or as a by-product in pearl barley manufacturing. Flour of good quality obtained by milling pearl barley. Barley flour unsuitable for use alone in bread-making; used with 10–25% wheat flour for various purposes. Ashes of leaves used in Patna (India) in preparation of cooling sherbets. High protein barleys are generally valued for food and feeding, and starchy barley for malting. Two-rowed barley contains more starch than six-rowed types (Reed, 1976). Barley was one of the first domesticated grains in the Fertile Crescent, an area of relatively abundant water in Western Asia and near the Nile river of northeast Africa. The grain appeared in the same time as einkorn and emmer wheat. Wild barley (H. vulgare ssp. spontaneum) ranges from North Africa and Crete in the west, to Tibet in the east. The earliest evidence of wild barley in an archaeological context comes from the Epipaleolithic at Ohalo II at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee. The remains were dated to about 8500 BC. The earliest domesticated barley occurs at Aceramic Neolithic sites, in the Near East such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B layers of Tell Abu Hureyra, in Syria. Barley has been grown in the Korean Peninsula since the Early Mumun Pottery Period (circa 1500–850 BC) along with other crops such as millet, wheat, and legumes. In the Pulitzer Prize-winning book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond argues that the availability of barley, along with other domesticable crops and animals, in southwestern Eurasia significantly contributed to the broad historical patterns that human history has followed over approximately the last 13,000 years; i.e., why Eurasian civilizations, as a whole, have survived and conquered others. Barley beer was probably the first drink developed by Neolithic humans.Barley later on was used as currency. Alongside emmer wheat, barley was a staple cereal of ancient Egypt, where it was used to make bread and beer. The general name for barley is jt (hypothetically pronounced “eat”); šma (hypothetically pronounced “SHE-ma”) refers to Upper Egyptian barley and is a symbol of Upper Egypt. The Sumerian term is akiti. According to Deuteronomy 8:8, barley is one of the “Seven Species” of crops that characterize the fertility of the Promised Land of Canaan, and it has a prominent role in the Israelite sacrifices described in the Pentateuch (see e.g. Numbers 5:15). A religious importance extended into the Middle Ages in Europe, and saw barley’s use in justice, via alphitomancy and the corsned. In ancient Greece, the ritual significance of barley possibly dates back to the earliest stages of the Eleusinian Mysteries. The preparatory kykeon or mixed drink of the initiates, prepared from barley and herbs, referred in the Homeric hymn to Demeter, whose name some scholars believe meant “Barley-mother”. The practice was to dry the barley groats and roast them before preparing the porridge, according to Pliny the Elder’s Natural History (xviii.72). This produces malt that soon ferments and becomes slightly alcoholic. Pliny also noted barley was a special food of gladiators known as hordearii, “barley-eaters”. However, by Roman times, he added that wheat had replaced barley as a staple. Tibetan barley has been a staple food in Tibet since the fifth century AD. This grain, along with a cool climate that permitted storage, produced a civilization that was able to raise great armies. It is made into a flour product called tsampa that is still a staple in Tibet. The flour is roasted and mixed with butter and butter tea to form a stiff dough that is eaten in small balls. In medieval Europe, bread made from barley and rye was peasant food, while wheat products were consumed by the upper classes. Potatoes largely replaced barley in Eastern Europe in the 19th century Constituents: vitamins, minerals, and amino acids: beta-carotene, betaine, biotin, boron, copper, iron, lutein, magnesium, niacin, riboflavin, and thiamine. alpha-linoleic acid, oryzanol, potassium, selenium, zinc, and the tocopherols that make up vitamin e Medicinal Uses: Folk Medicine: According to Hartwell (1967–1971), barley is used in folk remedies for cancer (esp. of stomach and uterus), and tumors (of the abdomen). The seed meal is a folk remedy for cancer of the uterus, inflammatory and sclerotic tumors and gatherings, and parotid gland tumors. The seed flour is used for condylomata of the anus, tumors behind the ears, scirrhus of the testicles and spleen, and whitlows. Cataplasms derived from the seed are also believed to help breast cancers (Hartwell, 1967–1971). Reported to be antilactagogue, demulcent, digestive, diuretic, ecbolic, emollient, expectorant, febrifuge, and stomachic, barley is a folk remedy for bronchitis, burns, cancer, catarrh, chest, chilblains, cholecystosis, cholera, cough, debility, diarrhea, dyspepsia, fever, inflammation, measles, phthisis, puerperium, sores, and urogenital ailments (Duke and Wain, 1981). Other folk medicinal details are presented in Medicinal Plants of the Bible (Duke, 1983a). Barley grain is demulcent and easily assimilable, and used in dietary of invalids and convalescents. Pearl barley is form commonly used. Powdered parched grains used in form of a gruel for painful and atonic dyspepsia. Barley water with honey prescribed for bronchial coughs, and with gum arabic used for soothing irritations of the bladder and urinary passage. Iranians have a saying, “What has disease to do with men who live upon barley-bread and buttermilk?” Barley grain is an excellent food for convalescence, either in the form of porridge or as a decoction of the seed. It is soothing to the throat and provides easily assimilated nutrients. It can also be taken to clear catarrh. Its demulcent properties soothes inflammation of the gut and urinary tract. It is commonly given to children suffering minor infections or diarrhoea and is particularly recommended as a treatment for feverish states and in catarrhal affections of the respiratory and urinary organs. Made into a poultice, the seed is an effective remedy for soothing and reducing inflammation in sores and swellings. Modern research has shown that barley may be of aid in the treatment of hepatitis, whilst other trials have shown that it may help to control diabetes. Barley bran may have the effect of lowering blood cholesterol levels and preventing bowel cancer. Other Uses: The stems, after the seed has been harvested, have many uses. They are a source of fibres for making paper, a biomass for fuel etc, they can be shredded and used as a mulch Science 205 (Aug. 24, 1979, p. 768) reported that 70% of 158 European beers analyzed contain 1–68 ppb NDMA (N-nitrosodimethylamine), dark beer containing more than light beer. American beer testing (some foreign, some domestic) showed only 0.7–7 ppb. Both concluded that the NDMA may be an artifact produced in drying or kilning the barley malt. Other chemical details can be found in two fine source books, the Wealth of India (C.S.I.R., 1948–1976) and Hager’s Handbook (List and Horhammer, 1969–1979). Disclaimer : The information presented herein is intended for educational purposes only. Individual results may vary, and before using any supplement, it is always advisable to consult with your own health care provider Where it grows as a biennial, in the first year, it forms a rosette of tripinnate leaves 10–25 cm long with numerous 1–3 cm leaflets, and a taproot used as a food store over the winter. In the second year, it grows a flowering stem to 75 cm tall with sparser leaves and flat-topped 3–10 cm diameter umbels with numerous 2 mm diameter yellow to yellowish-green flowers. The seeds are ovoid, 2–3mm long, with prominent style remnants at the apex. One of the compounds of the essential oil is apiol. The plant normally dies after seed maturation. In cultivation, parsley is subdivided into several cultivar groups depending on the form of the plant, which is related to its end use. These are often treated as botanical varieties, but are cultivated selections, not of natural botanical origin. The two main groups of parsley used as herbs are curly leaf (i.e.) (P. crispum crispum group; syn. P. crispum var. crispum) and Italian, or flat leaf (P. crispum neapolitanum group; syn. P. crispum var. neapolitanum); of these, the neapolitanum group more closely resembles the natural wild species. Flat-leaved parsley is preferred by some as it is easier to cultivate, being more tolerant of both rain and sunshine, and has a stronger flavor (though this is disputed), while curly leaf parsley is preferred by others because of its more decorative appearance in garnishing. A third type, sometimes grown in southern Italy, has thick, celery-like leaf stems Root Parsley:...CLICK & SEE Another type of parsley is grown as a root vegetable, the Hamburg root parsley (P. crispum radicosum group, syn. P. crispum var. tuberosum). This type of parsley produces much thicker roots than types cultivated for their leaves. Although seldom used in Britain and the United States, root parsley is very common in central and eastern European cuisine, where it is used in soups and stews. Though root parsley looks similar to the parsnip, it tastes quite different. Parsnips are among the closest relatives of parsley in the family Apiaceae, but the similarity of the names is a coincidence, parsnip meaning “forked turnip”; it is not closely related to real turnips. Parsley grows best in moist, well drained soil, with full sun. It grows best between 22–30 °C, and is usually grown from seed. Germination is slow, taking four to six weeks, and often difficult because of furanocoumarins in its seed coat. Plants grown for the leaf crop are typically spaced 10 cm apart, while those grown as a root crop are typically spaced 20 cm apart to allow for the root development. Parsley is widely used in Middle Eastern, European, and American cooking. Curly leaf parsley is often used as a garnish. In central and eastern Europe and in western Asia, many dishes are served with fresh green chopped parsley sprinkled on top. Green parsley is often used as a garnish on potato dishes (boiled or mashed potatoes), on rice dishes (risotto or pilaf), on fish, fried chicken, lamb or goose, steaks, meat or vegetable stews (like beef bourguignon, goulash or chicken paprikash). In southern and central Europe, parsley is part of bouquet garni, a bundle of fresh herbs used as an ingredient in stocks, soups, and sauces. Freshly chopped green parsley is used as a topping for soups such as chicken soup, green salads or salads such as salade Olivier, and on open sandwiches with cold cuts or pâtés. Parsley is a key ingredient in several Middle Eastern salads such as tabbouleh. Persillade is a mixture of chopped garlic and chopped parsley used in French cuisine. Gremolata is a traditional accompaniment to the Italian veal stew, ossobuco alla milanese, a mixture of parsley, garlic, and lemon zest. Root parsley is very common in central and eastern European cuisines, where it is used as a vegetable in many soups, stews and casseroles. Chew the leaf raw to freshen the breath and promote healthy skin. Infuse for a digestive tonic. Bruised leaves have been used to treat tumors, insect bites, lice and skin parasites and contusions. Parsley tea at one time was used to treat dysentery and gallstones. Other traditional uses reported include the treatment of diseases of the prostate, liver and spleen, in the treatment of anemia, arthritis and cancers, and as an expectorant, antimicrobial, aphrodisiac, hypotensive, laxative and as a scalp lotion to stimulate hair growth. Use in a poultice as an antiseptic dressing for sprains, wounds and insect bites. Decoct the root for kidney troubles and as a mild laxative. Apply juice to reduce swellings. It also stimulates appetite and increases blood flow to digestive organs, as well as reducing fever. Another constituent, the flavonoid apigenin, reduces inflammation by inhibiting histamine and is also a free-radical scavenger. The seed, when decocted, has been used for intermittent fevers. It has also traditionally used as a carminative to decrease flatulence and colic pain. The seeds have a much stronger diuretic action than the leaves and may be substituted for celery seeds in the treatment of gout, rheumatism and arthritis. It is often included in “slimming” teas because of its diuretic action. Oil of the seed (5-15 drops) has been used to bring on menstruation. Avoid if weak kidneys Parsley attracts some wildlife. Some swallowtail butterflies use parsley as a host plant for their larvae; their caterpillars are black and green striped with yellow dots, and will feed on parsley for two weeks before turning into butterflies. Bees and other nectar-feeding insects visit the flowers. Birds such as the goldfinch feed on the seeds. You may click to learn more uses of Parsley…..(1)l….(2) Parsley should not be consumed in excess by pregnant women. It is safe in normal food quantities, but large amounts can have uterotonic effects. Disclaimer : The information presented herein is intended for educational purposes only. Individual results may vary, and before using any supplement, it is always advisable to consult with your own health care provider It’s one of the most fatal cancers, yet little is known about it. What’s worse, more and more people are being diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in recent years. The numbers may be small — 1-2 new cases per 100,000 people every year — but it’s enough to send alarm bells ringing. As it’s also a silent killer, few are aware of it till it’s late. However, the recent launch of a website on the disease could address this problem. Medical experts say there’s a definite rise in numbers, but unlike the west, there are no surveys to cite exact figures. “If we look at individual hospitals, then there is an increase in the number of patients. In the last 15-20 years, these have grown five to 10-fold in my hospital itself,” says Dr Sudeep Gupta, assistant professor and oncologist, Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai. National Cancer Registries are the other source of information. There are various reasons for the rise in pancreatic cancer cases. Some feel lifestyle changes and diet have resulted in an increase in all types of diseases. In that respect, pancreatic cancer is no exception. Others feel that more cases are coming to light as more people are reporting the disease. Pancreatic cancer is a silent killer seldom detected in the first stage. The pancreas lies behind the lower part of the stomach. The symptoms — stomach pain, loss of appetite, jaundice — may not even manifest themselves till the disease has advanced. But once it happens, it’s almost fatal. In the US, pancreatic cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Unlike certain cancers such as lung or breast, researchers have still not been able to pinpoint the exact reason for pancreatic cancer. “We can only guess that diet, smoking, alcohol consumption and obesity could be the reasons behind the disease,” says Dr Shyam Aggarwal, senior consultant, oncology, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, Delhi. Surgery is usually the best treatment. “But in most cases, it’s ruled out as the disease is already in an advanced stage,” says Dr Malay Nandy, senior consultant, oncology medical, Fortis Healthcare, Delhi. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are the other options. However, 80% cases are likely to relapse post surgery and after that, survival is a matter of six months only. Experts say only 10% survive after five years of treatment. The surgery is complicated and involves the Whipple’s procedure, wherein the pancreas are removed. Unfortunately, India has very few oncologists with the expertise to perform this complicated surgery. As so little is known about this disease, the recent launch of a website, www.pancreaticcancerindia.com , touted as the first comprehensive one in Asia on pancreatic and peri ampullary cancers, is welcome. The interactive website will give patients access to the latest research on the disease and to specialists who will answer queries. “It will help patients get information from the best in the field. What makes it more relevant is that it will be totally in an Indian context,” informs Aggarwal.

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The modern synthesis of evolutionary theory and genetics has enabled us to discover underlying molecular mechanisms of organismal evolution. We know that in order to maximize an organism's fitness in a particular environment, individual interactions among components of protein and nucleic acid networks need to be optimized by natural selection, or sometimes through random processes, as the organism responds to changes and/or challenges in the environment. Despite the significant role of molecular networks in determining an organism's adaptation to its environment, we still do not know how such inter- and intra-molecular interactions within networks change over time and contribute to an organism's evolvability while maintaining overall network functions. One way to address this challenge is to identify connections between molecular networks and their host organisms, to manipulate these connections, and then attempt to understand how such perturbations influence molecular dynamics of the network and thus influence evolutionary paths and organismal fitness. In the present review, we discuss how integrating evolutionary history with experimental systems that combine tools drawn from molecular evolution, synthetic biology and biochemistry allow us to identify the underlying mechanisms of organismal evolution, particularly from the perspective of protein interaction networks. Whether natural or artificial, components in a complex system rarely operate in an isolated manner. In a complex system, components interact with each other through dynamic functional networks . Living organisms are no exception to this observation; crucial cellular functions in a biological system are carried out through intricate biomolecular networks that constantly process vast amounts of internal and external information [2,3]. Like many things in a biological system, molecular networks are inherited and optimized products of evolutionary processes . In fact, many of life's molecular networks have been maintained throughout the evolution of life on Earth for >3.5 billion years . Even though the main structure and function of an essential network may be conserved among divergent species over history, the individual components of the network may exhibit divergent properties . For instance, the overall topology of an interaction network in a thermophilic bacterium can more or less be conserved in a mesophilic homologue despite the disparate adaptive environments of these two species. More specifically, the individual network components in the thermophilic bacterium have to be stable at high temperatures in order for the whole network to carry out its basic function. The mesophilic counterparts are not stable at high temperatures and thus individual components have not had to adapt to extreme environments. Thus functionally divergent properties may be observed at the molecular level despite selection maintaining structurally conserved properties at the network level. The underlying adaptive mechanisms that lead to this dichotomy are a growing interest to the fields of molecular evolution and synthetic biology. Advances in laboratory and computational technologies now allow us to ask, what types of interactions both within and between protein networks influence evolutionary innovations? Under changing environmental conditions, do protein networks conserve their robustness by maintaining a degree of plasticity or promiscuity, or does a network shift its dynamic equilibrium by taking big adaptive steps towards optimality? Do evolutionary responses at the molecular level directly correlate with changes at the organismal level? Furthermore, to what degree can we direct or control a network's function? Comprehensive answers to these challenging questions will reveal links between protein network evolution and organismal fitness. These answers also provide a foundation for our attempts to synthetically design networks and network components that perform desired functions. In the present review, we discuss how novel approaches in evolutionary and synthetic biology [specifically experimental evolution and ASR (ancestral sequence reconstruction)] can further our understanding of how molecular networks such as protein interaction networks evolve and how understanding the evolution of protein networks can contribute to the analyses and improvement of natural biological systems. We start with a brief review of networks in general and then focus on protein interaction networks and the individual components involved in these networks. We proceed with a discussion on the use of laboratory experimental evolution studies and how these contribute to our understanding of networks. We end with a discussion about how integrating evolutionary history can further our understanding of network evolution. Self-sustaining networks that carry out prebiotic chemistries may have existed before the emergence of cellular life . However, as life evolved and became more complex, so did the biological networks that composed living organisms . One way for biological networks to increase complexity is by recruiting other macromolecules into the existing architecture without diminishing a network's fundamental function. To achieve this, biological networks must exhibit and maintain a certain minimum level of robustness, modularity and plasticity [9–14]. In order to understand the evolution of complex biological networks, therefore not only must we understand how parts of a network co-adapt with the overall network as a whole, but we must also elucidate the evolutionary connections between a host's internal network and the surrounding environment in which the host, and thus the network, both function. The hierarchical behaviour of biological networks poses unique challenges to uncovering these connections in a systematic way [5,15–17]. Although an essential network maintains global information processing to ensure organismal survival, the failure of one node (member of a network) may directly disturb another node or possibly the whole network. Similarly, a change in a hub (main connection point) may influence the network even more substantially than a node, since hubs typically consist of more connections. In other words, in a given biological network not every component is functionally or ‘socially’ equivalent, and each may affect the dynamics of the network, and hence the organism, in different ways. Owing to the nature of such hierarchical structure of complex systems, the study of how protein interaction networks function requires multiple levels of understanding. First, we must recognize that proteins have independent behaviours; they carry out specific functions irrespective of the network and they must maintain this function while interacting with other proteins in the network. Secondly, structural specificity and stability are important for individual proteins to allow protein–protein interactions. Similar to enzymes, these interactions can be terminated by a single amino acid replacement in the primary sequence that propagates through to the tertiary structure. By contrast, absolute structural rigidity of proteins in the network would prohibit functional adaptation of the network. Thirdly, the topology of the protein interaction network has to be maintained for the network's functionality. Fourthly, each network may behave in singularly novel ways, making general rules difficult to formulate on the basis of the study of individual networks. A range of approaches may be used to study and describe protein interaction networks. Various mathematical and graph-based models are exploited and provide input to biological studies [18–24]. Several studies followed a comparative approach, wherein the components of the interaction network are compared with the networks in evolutionarily related organisms, and thus enabling a wide-range analysis of the evolutionary organization of protein interaction networks across species [6,25–34]. Among these, various sequence alignment studies have uncovered evolutionarily conserved protein domains in networked systems [32,35–37]. Several computational databases also follow a comparative approach (such as KEGG and BioCyc ) and highlight the molecular pathways within protein interaction and metabolic networks . Large sets of empirical data describing the physical properties of protein interaction networks are produced mainly through two hybrid systems, pull-down assays and TAP-MS (tandem affinity purification coupled MS) [41–44]. Lastly, genetic studies are conducted to examine the system-wide phenotypic consequences of a mutation to a protein node as well as changes in environmental selection pressures [41,45–51]. In total, these studies have provided unprecedented means of understanding how biological protein networks evolve. However, there remains a limitation when it comes to making biologically relevant observations. Comparative studies are informative because they provide information about the conservation and lineage-specific aspects of networks, but they are limited because they do not provide molecular mechanisms that describe the functionality of the network. Theoretical studies are a good first-order approximation of complexity, but are typically context-independent and therefore do not capture many of the details that govern specific network evolution. Biochemical studies mainly consider physical interactions of proteins; this reductive approach provides details at the molecular level, but fall short when modelling biological fitness as a function of network properties. Lastly, systems studies ideally provide information about entire systems, but often lack information at the molecular level. Considering the complexity of factors involved in protein network evolution, an interdisciplinary approach where various methods from biochemistry, and structural and molecular biology are combined with evolutionary and systems biology could potentially bring empirical means to addressing this challenge. The premise is that protein–protein interactions within networks existing today are the product of millions of years of Darwinian evolution at the organismal level. Thus we need to invoke evolutionary history of both the organism and the network components into our model systems in order to make biologically relevant conclusions concerning the functions of complex protein interaction networks. HOW DO BIOLOGICAL NETWORKS EVOLVE? In a constantly evolving system, the individual components of a protein network must adapt to a changing environment while maintaining the network's primary function. How do protein–protein interaction networks maintain such robustness while sustaining their function under fluctuating environmental conditions? There are several ways a protein network can achieve this. For example, a network's robustness could be maintained through gene duplication: a new compensatory node could be added in the network, or alternatively, through gene deletion, a node, whose function and connectivity has subtle effects on the network, could be lost (Figure 1). Additionally, both copies of a duplicated gene could acquire new mutations that are a complimentary subset of the pre-duplication gene's functions . Alternatively, one of the copies of a duplicated gene can be removed from selective pressure due to functional redundancy, and thus under neutral evolution may accumulate mutations that confer a novel function [54,55]. Another way for the network to sustain its robustness could be through retaining a degree of modularity [9,17]. A malfunctioning node could be replaced with another node that provides a selective advantage for the host, through a loss and/or gain of a link (biochemical and/or biophysical reaction) within the network. Lastly, a network can maintain its evolvability by developing more patterns of interactions, and hence can grow in size [56,57]. Pathways for network evolution There are clearly multiple ways in which evolution operates when it comes to maintaining or changing a network's response to a particular environmental pressure. The underlying cellular mechanisms that give rise to network evolution, however, may not be obvious. For instance, if we were to alter a given network in such a way that the directed modification is able to decrease the host organism's fitness, in what adaptive ways would the network/system compensate to increase the host's fitness? One way to better understand the underlying molecular principles contributing to network robustness and evolvability therefore would be to experimentally study how networks (natural or synthetically designed) respond to a given environment, and then to systematically explore the changes as adaptations take place in real time. The ability to monitor evolution in action through experimental evolution can offer valuable model systems to better understand how molecular networks respond to their environments. Experimental evolution provides a useful platform to study organisms under controlled environments and then monitor their adaptation [58,59]. To systematically explore how the adaptive responses of a given network influence the global properties of an organism, experimentally evolved organisms may be analysed by high-throughput screening techniques. With careful experimental design, not only can we narrow down the focus of evolution as a tinkering effect operating at a network level, but also, through implementing systems biology and biochemical dissection in our analyses, we can understand the system as a whole. There are several ways to create such a set-up in the laboratory. For instance, based on the notion that highly connected nodes are more important for the network's function than nodes with fewer connections [19,41], a change in the hub of an essential network is most likely to trigger not only a network-level malfunction, but also a subsequent system-level malfunction (Figure 1B). Following this notion, mutating a hub protein of an essential network is most likely to have negative fitness affects. Once such a system is created, a mutant strain hosting the altered network can then be evolved under controlled experimental conditions, and system-level adaptive responses can be subsequently tracked using whole-genome sequencing analyses. In fact, an experimental study monitoring genome-wide responses of regulatory networks in bacteria demonstrated that, when disrupted, hubs have a higher tendency to affect the system-level robustness . The disruption of hub genes can therefore impose a biochemical and topological defect on a bacterial system. This begs the question as to whether, if given a chance to evolve, beneficial mutations would accumulate at the hub in order to re-establish higher fitness. Obviously performing such an experiment is not easy, as deletion of a crucial component of cell machinery is likely to compromise cellular viability. Beyond disrupting network components through insertion/deletion mutations, one alternative experimental approach would be to swap the hub or the node of a network with its evolutionary homologue and then allow the system to adapt under laboratory conditions. For instance, Shamoo and colleagues have conducted such intriguing experiments with the enzyme AK (adenylate kinase) [60–62]. Representing an important network on the basis of its role in the cellular homoeostatic network, AK influences various metabolic pathways in the cell . In addition, homologues of this enzyme from thermophilic and mesophilic organisms exhibit different dynamic and functional properties . Shamoo's group replaced the thermostable AK with its mesostable homologue in thermophilic bacteria. Such replacement triggered a fitness decrease in the bacterial host. Furthermore, it was shown that when given a chance to evolve in a nutrient-rich environment, the mutational pathways traversed by the thermophilic bacteria hosting a mesostable AK were highly constrained and the only mutations that were observed repeatedly converged to the exact same mutant AK sequence. That study demonstrated that an orthologous gene from a mesophile can replace the function of an endogenous gene in a thermophilic host, albeit with much lower fitness. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that mutational trajectories may be so constrained that the same evolutionary outcome can be obtained repeatedly. Such a result may be expected for multiple reasons. The fact that AK is a hub protein means that it interacts with multiple protein partners (Figure 2A). Thus the ability of the mesostable AK to accumulate mutations that allow it to become thermostable would, in turn, lead to a more stable network. The repetitive nature of the outcome may be due to the fact that the bacterial system is constantly fed and in a closed system, the selection pressure may be so narrow that alternative mutational trajectories cannot be explored. Relaxing the selection pressure in this system may generate alternative mutational paths. Along these lines, Rosenzweig and colleagues showed recently that different experimental selection pressures can lead to different evolutionary outcomes . The above studies provide valuable insights into the evolution of thermostability from the perspectives of protein biochemistry and systems-level biology. However, these studies are limited when it comes to answering our primary question: what evolutionary mechanisms cause essential networks to maintain their robustness? Observing a fitness decrease after replacing an essential cellular component with an evolutionarily related homologue is expected; after all, these homologous enzymes have been evolving within organisms that have themselves been evolving under drastically different selection pressures for millions of years. What if we could track the historical patterns of a network's components through the trajectory that has already taken place? In other words, if we had the ability to go back and resurrect the ancestral states of a network's hub and then replace its modern counterpart with this ancestral component, what would we observe? Current advances in synthetic biology allow us to attempt precisely this by providing a tool to reprogramme biological networks through integration of evolutionary history . Simply stated, the overall objective here is rewind the molecular tape of a protein's history, reconstruct the molecular history of a given network component through phylogenetic analysis, resurrect the inferred protein sequence of the evolutionary ancestor using laboratory techniques, and then insert it into a modern organism. ASR of proteins infers the ancestral sequence of a common ancestor on the basis of a comparison of modern (or extant) sequences placed in an evolutionary context. The process has a level of confidence/certainty based on the models and algorithms used to infer ancestral states [67,68]. For over a decade, ASR has been making contributions to our understanding of evolutionary relationships by offering us an opportunity to determine the amino acid replacements responsible for changes in protein behaviour associated with adaptive events for particular molecular systems [69–72]. One proposed application of ASR would allow us to investigate how the molecular history of a given node has influenced the evolution of an interaction network. Specifically, by replacing endogenous nodes of a modern network and in a modern organism with the corresponding ancestral components, we can reprogramme modern networks within a historical context for comparative analyses (Figure 3, step 1). Therefore ASR could provide insights into the evolutionary past of proteins involved in interaction networks. Furthermore, applying laboratory evolution experiments into ASR, whereby the co-adaptation between the network containing ancient interaction partners and the whole organism is monitored, would provide insights into how these networks evolve and shape the evolutionary trajectory of a given organism. Such an approach could be further empowered by biochemical, structural and systems-level studies that allow us to identify the precise molecular location of mutations, but also the effects of such mutations at the organismal level. Pathways for network evolution ANCIENT PROTEIN HUBS IN MODERN SYSTEMS We have described recently such an approach for the EF-Tu (elongation factor Tu) protein in Escherichia coli . In addition to serving an essential cellular function by carrying aminoacylated-tRNA complexes into the ribosome, EF-Tu is a hub protein of a very busy molecular interaction network, binding to a range of metabolic enzymes, chaperones, and structural and regulatory proteins [74–76] (Figure 2B). EF-Tu proteins are ideal for evolutionary studies because they are highly adapted to their environments; thermostability profiles of EF-Tu proteins are linearly correlated with their individual host's optimal growth temperature . As a result, EF-Tu proteins from mesophilic micro-organisms are not optimally functional at thermophilic temperatures and vice versa. Various in vitro studies support this observation. For example, we have shown that mesophilic EF-Tu can participate, although less efficiently than their thermophilic counterpart, in a cell-free translation system in which all other necessary components for translation besides EF-Tu are obtained from a thermophilic organism . EF-Tu proteins also maintain their structural stability and primary function in divergent organisms through subtle adaptive mutations. For instance, EF-Tu from Bacillus stearothermophilus (with a growth temperature of ~60°C) and EF-Tu from E. coli (with a growth temperature of 37°C) share approximately 75% sequence identity (out of 400 residues) and share conserved structural features . And yet, chimaeric forms of these two homologues, constructed by swapping functionally important domains between different thermophilic compared with mesophilic EF-Tu proteins, are shown to exhibit some level of in vitro catalytic activity [79,80]. In light of these results, one can ask, what kind of evolutionary mechanisms allow EF-Tu to respond to its environment so selectively while simultaneously maintaining overall protein and network structure, as well as organismal functionality? One way to study how EF-Tu evolves within the context of the whole network would be to replace an endogenous EF-Tu with its evolutionary homologue within a host genome and then observe how the rest of the network and the cellular machinery adapt to the presence of this recombinant homologue. EF-Tu is suitable for such an investigation since the majority of the components in the EF-Tu interaction network are conserved in most micro-organisms, despite having evolved under distinct conditions and experiencing distinct external fluxes. Furthermore, current data suggest that when responding to environmental conditions, EF-Tu proteins retain their structural specificity and sustain their network's optimal global function. Such a high degree of structural and functional conservancy would suggest that a thermostable EF-Tu from thermophilic bacteria should exhibit some level of activity in mesophilic bacteria when inserted into the genome in place of the endogenous counterpart. In practice, however, the process is more complicated. The functionality of EF-Tu in the environment of a living cell may not be readily parallel with its in vitro activity measured in an observational environment such as a cell-free protein synthesis assay. As noted above, EF-Tu has many roles in the cell and interacts with multiple cellular partners that are involved in a variety of functions. As such, in vitro assays that fail to measure properties of a protein network obviously do not provide a complete understanding of a protein's function, with function being defined as how the protein contributes to the fitness of the host organism in a Darwinian context. Along these lines, two homologues may be experimentally interchangeable in an in vitro assay, but when one homologue is inserted into a different homologue's host, the host may not be viable because the foreign homologue cannot participate in the host's interaction network (Figure 3, step 1). An alternative method to understand the evolution of protein networks would then be to reconstruct the ancestral gene/proteins of biological networks through ASR. Replacing the endogenous protein from a modern organism with an ancient form of the protein and then monitoring the real-time adaptation of the recombinant organism would allow us rewind the evolution of the protein and allow it to re-evolve in a modern context. Such an animation would be informative on the role history plays as a constraint shaping evolutionary trajectories. Predictably, modifying an essential component of a protein network, such as its hub, with an ancient construct is most likely to cause the modern organism to be maladapted when the ancient hub is not functionally equivalent to the modern hub. Such a strong selective pressure will likely cause the network having the maladapted hub to be the target of selection, allowing us to monitor the real-time adaptation of the protein network (Figure 3, steps 2 and 3). A variety of ancestral EF-Tu proteins have been resurrected through ASR, and have been shown to demonstrate an increasing trend in their melting temperatures as one travels further back in evolutionary time, in agreement with the Earth's larger paleotemperature trend . To examine the effects of disrupting the protein interaction network of EF-Tu, we replaced the modern EF-Tu in E. coli with a 500-million-year old evolutionary ancestor . This ancestor's melting temperature is only a few degrees higher than E. coli's EF-Tu (39.5°C) and the two proteins have high sequence identity (only 21 out of 394 amino acid differ). This similarity was sufficient to enable viability in the recombinant organisms, yet different enough to introduce a stress on the organism, as observed by a 2-fold increase in the bacterial doubling time . The next step undoubtedly is to determine the underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for this increase in doubling time. Swapping a modern hub or a modern node with its ancestral counterpart in the cell permits us to reprogramme a network within a historical context from which the mutational differences between the modern and ancestral proteins share a direct evolutionary connection. Such an approach will provide insights into evolutionary paths and constraints that shape the evolution of modern networks. A major challenge, however, would be to predict, a priori, the adaptive patterns taken by the ancient component as it adapts within a modern system. Our ability to predict adaptive patterns requires that we understand the selective constraints that act on the members of a protein network. It is reasonable to assume that proteins having numerous binding partners experience stronger selective constraints than other proteins having fewer binding partners, all other aspects being equal. Therefore it is reasonable to expect a network's hub to evolve more slowly than the nodes of the network [82,83]. As such, we may expect that evolutionary innovations proceed through mutations in the less-connected nodes of the network (e.g. as demonstrated by Jeong et al. , that highly connected proteins are more essential for survival than fewer connected proteins). In total, there are various plausible scenarios for the adaptation of a recombinant network composed of both ancient and modern proteins. The network's nodes may respond to the maladapted hub through small adaptive steps thereby conserving the topology of the network. Alternatively, the ancient hub of the network may accumulate compensatory mutations that allow it to interact better with modern nodes. Furthermore, the functional incompatibilities of the historically chimaeric network may be compensated by the emergence of a different network (itself either new or currently present in nature, or possibly even ancient). Considering the complexity of living systems, we are unlikely to predict the exact evolutionary trajectory traversed by a network containing an ancient component, but resurrecting ancient components of a protein network inherently implies practical trade-offs that must be considered during the design phase of any investigation. For instance, although replacing the modern component of a highly connected network with an ancient component is likely to create a strong selection pressure on the network, and thus allow us to monitor evolution of a network in action, it is also more likely to disable the entire network's function. Alternatively, replacing a less-connected node of a network with an ancient protein is like having a less deleterious effect, but this may also fail to narrow the selection pressure to network level. Finally, there are (perhaps unforeseen) limitations to the proposed approach regarding the extent to which we can be certain that a substituted protein in a modern organism actually recapitulates ancient evolutionary pathways. Understanding how biological systems operate requires a comprehensive grasp of how the components within such systems interact with one another and contribute to the organism's global function. In the present review we focused on the studies that view biological systems through the lens of protein interaction networks that ask, how do protein interaction networks evolve and give rise to functional biological systems? We also articulate on whether we can we set up experimental systems with tools drawn from molecular evolution, molecular and synthetic biology, and implement what we learn from evolution not only to understand how biology operates at a molecular level, but also to design synthetic biological systems with pre-programmed functions. Our ability to synthetically design networks and complex systems that function the way we predict relies on our ability to design more stable network partners, and thus on our ability to decompose and reduce the systems into a few, yet optimal, number of interacting members. Attempts to experimentally dissect a cellular network, as we have discussed in the present review, vary and are far from simple. Current efforts to understand biological systems predominantly attempt to make the connection between organismal genotype and phenotype, and then mapping phenotype to fitness . There is, however, a missing step in this flow chart; before connecting how genetic architecture gives rise to certain phenotypic outcomes, we need to understand how components that form the genetic make-up of a cell interact with one another, and this requires dissecting the biochemical and biophysical properties of cellular components and their interactions within the context of the whole system. A reductionist, by training, will assume that the basic biochemical principles of individual members of a network (specifically, of an essential member of a network) will directly reflect on the network's global function, concluding that the sum of the individual behaviours of a network's components gives rise to the overall function. Biology operates far from reductionism, however. Cellular systems are elaborate; containing more abundant genetic make-up than seems necessary for the function where the sum of the individual members not always equal the whole. Therefore one way to study how networks function would be through evolving networks under certain constraints, define the redundant parts, and then to rewire the network lacking these parts. Addressing this challenge to comparatively study biological networks at the systems level, we suggest in the present review a novel experimental approach that combines laboratory evolution experiments with ancestral sequence resurrection studies. We also suggest experimental evolution of synthetically altered networks in order to determine how systems-level changes occur in relation to network changes that are themselves responses to their micro and macro environments. Particularly, ASR studies could be used to identify the paleo-states of the modern proteins (be it a different physical or structural state, or a different pH tolerance level). Such protein level differences can then be used directly to determine how physical and historical constraints shape the system's evolutionary trajectory, if this protein also functions in an essential network of the cellular system. A multidisciplinary approach to network evolution that combines systems biology with synthetic and evolutionary biology can provide a better understanding for how networks evolve. We anticipate that this combination will allow researchers to expand on what has evolved in nature by introducing or directing functionality into networks. We thank W. ‘Tachyon’ Butler and Z. Adam for the critical reading of the final paper before submission. B.K. is supported by the NASA Astrobiology Institute through a NASA Postdoctoral Fellowship. The NASA Astrobiology Institute and NASA Exobiology and Evolutionary Biology supported this work.

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BBA Environmental Studies Questions Unit 3 Q.1. Describe structure and functions of ecosystem (2011) Classify ecosystem. (2013) Ans. The term ecosystem was coined by Tinsley (1935). Ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of biosphere, comprising living beings and their non-living environment. The ecosystem may be temporary (rained pond) or permanent (forest). The size is also variable. It may be like a flowerpot (micro-ecosystem) or ocean (macro-ecosystem). Structure : The components are of two types (a) Biotic Components : These plants, animals and microbes which are known producers, consumers and decomposers, respectively are known as biotic components. (i) Producers : These are photo-autographs and chemoautotroph’s. (ii) Photoautotroph : These are green plants, Euglena, green sulphur bacteria etc. They can perform photosynthesis and prepare food. They dominate terrestrial ecosystem. All animals and human beings are dependent on them for food. (iii) Chemoautotroph : They are iron, sulphur bacteria which releases energy during chemical reaction and prepares organic food. This process is known as chemosynthesis. Producers use CO2 and release 02. Hence, maintain CO2 – 02 balance in nature. They also convert radiant energy of sun into Ecosystem : Concept chemical energy and are known as transducers. This process is ecosystem, structure and fun known as transduction. an ecosystem, prod. (b) Consumers : They are tropospheres and cannot produce food. These are of three types: (i) Primary Consumers : These are called herbivores and eat ecological succession, too plants and their products e.g. cattle, goat, rabbit, rat, grasshopper (terrestrial ecosystem) and snails, tadpols, tortoise, (aquatic ecosystem) etc. Elton used the term key industry animals for primary consumers as they convey plant material into animals material. (ii) Secondary Consumers : These are called carnivores Aquatic ecosystems which eat herbivores. Cats, dogs, foxes are examples of terrestrial streams, lakes, rivers, ecosystem. Hydra, water bug, frogs, small fish are examples of aquatic ecosystem. (iii) Quaternary Consumers : These are largest carnivores e.g. lions/tigers on land and whales in aquatic ecosystem, these are also known as top carnivores. (c) Decomposers (Saprophytes) : These are bacteria/fungi which derive their food from dead plants and animals and their waste products.These are also called micro consumers (reducers) due to their small size. They add inorganic materials to the environment and help in mineralization. E. coli, Tapeworm etc are parasites or consumers which derive their food from dead plants and animals and their waste products. Some animals like frog is herbivore at tadpole stage and secondary consumer at adult stage. Man, ants, etc. are omnivores. BBA Environmental Studies Questions Unit 3 Insectivorous plants (Drosera) act as producer and consumer. Some animals like termites, vultures feed on dead organisms and are known as scavangers (detrivores). 2. Abiotic Components: These include non-living factors which affect the distribution/structure of organisms. These are as follows: (a) Inorganic substances like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, CO2, calcium, phosphorus, sulphur and micro-nutrients etc. which occur in form of compounds dissolved in water, in soil or in free state. (b) Organic compounds like lipids, proteins, carbohydrate, nucleic acids, vitamins, humid substances on which all living beings are dependent for their sustenance. (c) Temperature, light, water, gases, wind, humidity, soil, animals etc. are also the part of abiotic components. Producers : Green plants (herbs, shrubs, trees) photosynthetic bacteria, cyanobacterias, phytoplankton includes the producers. Macro-consumers: These are of four types. They eat or inject producers directly or indirectly. - Primary consumers (herbivores) - Rabbit, rat, deer, goat, grasshopper, cattle etc. (terrestrial ecosystem). - Molluscs, Crustacean (Aquatic ecosystem). - Secondary consumers : primary carnivores feed upon herbivores, snake, wild cat, foxes, frogs, centipedes etc. - Tertiary consumers (secondary carnivores)-wolves etc. - Quaternary consumers (tertiary carnivores)-tiger, lion etc. The decomposers are essential as they secrete enzymes to digest organic compounds externally, help in mineral recycling and cleaning of environment, e.g. bacteria, fungi etc. Functions of Ecosystem The functions of ecosystem are : - Production of food by autotrophs, chemo autotrophs. - Use of solar energy by green plants - Recycling of minerals. - Helps in maintaining CO2/02 ratio in atmosphere. - To maintain flow of energy - Ecosystem is a discrete structural, functional and life sustaining environmental system. Q.2. Describe ecological pyramids. (2013) Effect of ecological pyramid. (2013) Ans. Ecological Pyramids: The relationship between the various trophic levels of a food chain can be expressed in terms of number/biomass and energy by graphic diagrams, called ecological pyramids. These were first divided by C.Elton in 1927 and are called as eltonian pyramids Pyramid of Numbers: It is the graphic representation of the number of individuals or various trophic levels of food chain/unit area at any time. The base is represented by number of producers and apex is represented by the number of top carnivores. The intermediate consumers are placed in between the two depending upon their relationship in food chain. The number of individuals goes on decreasing from base to top. Pyramid of Biomass : The amound of living material present in an organism is called biomass. In terrestrial ecosystem, biomass of producers is maximum. The biomass of herbiovers is less but their number may be more. The biomass of carnivores shows further decrease toward top. So, the pyramid is always upright. Pyramid of Energy : It is always upright, producers represent maximum energy content. They obtain energy from sun and manufacture food. Herbivores contain less energy as compared to producers, secondary consumers contain still smaller amount of energy and so on. There is gradual decrease in energy at successive trophic levels. Energy is maximum at producer level and decreases as one moves to subsequent trophic levels. Q.3. Write an essay on functional aspect of ecosystems. Ans. Periodism: In order to discuss vegetational structures, essential and characteristic features were abstracted to a kind of static model. But in this the dynamic, ever changing aspect of physiognomy and compostition is missing. There is a sharp difference between vegetation on the North and South slopes of mountain. The North slope is rather cooler and moist, many herbs are about to bloom or one in bloom or fruit by late spring. The maximum period of herbaceous activity dries and warms south slope is found during early summer. The vegetational difference between the slopes is large due to relative density, frequency and cover and not due to the exclusive presence of slopes in one area and absence in the other. The difference in flowering activity is because of both subtle physiological variations within each species and by subtle but real microclimatological differences between the slopes. Each species has its own characteristic pattern of sequential development and flowering which is attributed to and regulated by the major environmental climatic gradients. BBA Environmental Studies Questions Unit 3 In a deciduous forest, biome spring brings release from dormancy and a resurgence of vegetative activity culminating in leafing out in deciduous trees. Leaf fall brings the onset of dormancy and curtailment of activity manifested in leaf colour change and fall. The natural geophysical phenomenon reach at different intervals and as different species respond differentially to such stimuli, different rhythms would be expected, a prior, among different communities. Photoperiods have major effect on plant behavior. We may observe it as follows: (a) The regulatory effect of photoperiodism on growth, development and flowering of a single species and there by of the community of which it is a part. (b) The variation existing within widely distributed species regarding the response to photoperiodism and the conconitant effect on the ecosystem of which they are a part. (c) The diurnal metabolic pattern of an ecosystem. Photoperiodism and Ecotypes The species has a specific physiological response to photoperiodism as it has a specific morphological adaptation to another environmental parameter. Charles Olmsted demonstrated that different population of a common prairie grass known as side-oats grama (Bouteloua curtipendual) did not have indentical response to given photoperiods. Long day plants demonstrate normal vegetative and flowering behaviour only with photoperiods of 14 hours or longer. Short day plants, functions normally under 13 hours of light but failing to bear flower on photoperiods longer than 14 hours. Alpine sorrel (Oxyria digyna) requires 15 hours of light for flowering. There is physiological difference in population at different latitudes. Northern populations have more chlorophyll, higher respiratory rates at the same termperature and an attainment of peak photosynthesis at lower temperature. The ecological races or ecotypes may show little or no morphological difference. Photoperiodism and Temperature Effects On a divernal basis, a number of significant periodic phenomenon affect the function of a community. The desert shrubs are differentially adapted to withstand daily changes of 55°C at the The forces in the series of changes involve the changes in density of water with temperature and the action at wind. Because water is most dense at 4°C. warmer and colder water will float on top of a layer at this temperature. After the ice melts the surface water warms to less dense layer immediately beneath it. This overtiming of water in the absence of wind, will occur at 4°C ultimately resunsa temperature that is uniform from top to bottom. Subsequent heating of surface water wonen accompanied by a corresponding decrease in density, results in warmer water at the sunlar. w action results in stirring of the surface water, mixing them to depths according to the sun and direction of wind and relative to exposure or orientation of the system. Q.5. Describe flow of energy in the living world. Ans. Flow of energy in the Living World The radiant energy that originates in thermonuclear reactions in the sun reaches to earth in the form of light (and other forms of radiation) and sustains all living organisms. Over the entire globe about 25% of the incoming solar radiation is scattered or reflected by the atmosphere back into the back into the space. This fraction of arriving solar radiation is lost to the earth. Another 25% is absorbed by the atmosphere. The remaining 50% that manages to reach the earth surface, some 45% of the total is absorbed as heat by lands or oceans; 5% (of the total) is reflected back into space; 24% 1s consumed in promoting water evaporation and related meteorological (weather) phenomena. A very small fraction drives the winds and waves. An even ‘smaller fraction is captured by the leaves of green plants. Indeed, the total solar energy reaching on earth per year is said to equal1,73,000 X10 watts. Of this, only 40 x1012 Watts is used in photosynthesis. It is noteworthy that both the atmosphere and earth surface reflects a significant fraction of the incoming solar radiation. Bare ground and rocks reflect a much larger portion of the incident radiation than green fields and forests, which are more absorbent. Recently satellite engineers have acquired the capacity to estimate on a global scale the total mass of green plants and by inference terrestrial photosynthesis with a high level of resolution. BBA Environmental Studies Questions Unit 3 - Euphoric Zone (Phobic zone): It extends to 200 mts. from the surface. It is a thin zone through which light can pass. - Aphetic Zone : It ranges from 200-2000 mts. and gets less light comparatively but photosynthesis is possible - Abyssal Zone: It is a dark region lying below 2000 mts. - The Littoral Zone: It represents an area from shore to edge of continental shelf. It is euphoric zone. - Benthic Zone: It is formed by continental slope extending into the ocean floor. It includes aphetic and abyssal zone. - The Pelagic Zone : It constitutes the open sea and has variety of flora and fauna. It has euphoric, aphetic and abyssal zone. Q.7. Give an account of food chain and food web. Ans. Food Chain : It is a serias of populations through which food and energy passes into an ecosystem. The various steps in the passage of food are called trophic levels. (i) Predator food chain. (ii) Parasite food chain. (iii) Saprophyte food chain Land Food Chain Grass→ cattle + man Vegetation → bees bear Vegetation → insect frog → snake → peacock Pond Food Chain Diatomas/algae-zooplankton small crustaceons → insects → fish crocodile kingfisher Detritus Food Chain Dead organic matter termites/worms/bacteria (detrivores) → Fungi/Bacteria/Actinomycetes (decomposer) - The food chain is always straight. - Energy flow is unidirectional, i.e. sun producer consumers. - food chain, the successive members are larger in size but lower in number. Food Web: A complex of inter-related foodchains is called food web. In nature food chains do not operate in isolation and are interconnected forming a sort of interlocking pattern. - Food webs are never straight. - Food webs are formed by interlocking of food chains. - Food web provides alternative pathways of food availability. - Food webs make ecosystem more stable. - Food webs check over population of organisms. - Also helps in development of ecosystems. Q.8. Describe the sulphur cycle. Ans. Sulphur Cycle: Sulphuris an important part of some amino acids. It is absorbed by plants as suphates. Its main source is earth’s crust. The sulphur is released back to soil by decomposition. Microbes convert sulphates. sulphates. In marshes under anaerobic conditions, sulphur may be converted to sulphides by bacteria. Sulphides may be oxidized to sulphates. Sulphur may be added to atmosphere as oxides (SO2) due to the burning of fossil fuels or by volcanic activities or smelting of sulphur ores and factories. BBA Environmental Studies Questions Unit 3 Q.9. Describe oxygen cycle. Ans. Oxygen Cycle Oxygen is an essential element. It is found as O2 in atmosphere and as compounds like H20 and CO2 Utilization : o2 is used by animals for respiration. Oxygen is utilized during combustion and oxidative weathering of rocks. Release of Oxygen - Oxygen is released during photosynthesis. - Oxygen is released as CO2 during decay of dead organic matter by microbes. - Oxygen and carbon cycles are completely dependent on one another. - Oxygen is converted to 03 (ozone) and protects earth from ultraviolet rays. Q.10. Describe Nitrogen Cycle. Nitrogen is an important constituent of proteins, nucleic acids etc. Nitrogen Fixation: a Largest reservoir of nitrogen (79%) is atmosphere but it cannot be utilized by plants directly unless it is fixed. 150-750. Mg/m2 / nitrogen is usually fixed by Rhizabium, Azotobacter, Clostridium, Anabaena, Tolypothrix. Some amount of nitrogen is fixed by electro-chemical and photochemical methods (35 mg/m2 yr. ) Some nitrogen is fixed by chemical fertilizer factors (Haber’s process). Uses of Nitrogen : Plants take nitrates from soil. Animals eat plants and proteins are converted into animal proteins. The breakdown of proteins is done into urea, uric acid or ammonium compounds. In soil or water decomposition of wastes takes place and nitrogen is changed to free nitrogen. Decomposition: It takes place by actinomycetes, ammonifying bacteria, nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter) and denitrifying bacteria (Pseudomonas). Q.11. Describe Water Cycle. Ans. Water Cycle : Water is an important constituent of living cells. Water may exist in gaseous, liquid or solid state. In global water cycle, water evaporates from water bodies (oceans, rivers, lakes) and on clouds. The water vapour in clouds cools and condenses to form rain or snow. The water may fall directly into oceans or may flow to oceans through rivers or underground water. Some water of landmass may seep in as ground water. Some water may remain as perennial snow on mountain peaks or in polar regions. In smaller cycle, the environmental water moves in living organisms and back to environment. Aquatic animals take water directly and give it back through excretion etc. Land animals take water directly or as food from plants or other animals. In case of plants, water is absorbed by roots and returned to atmosphere through transpiration. Q.12. Define primary and secondary successions. Ans. Primary Succession: The primary succession takes place in the barren, soilless uninhabited regions like igneous rock emerged from the sea or a pile of rocks left when a mountain side caves in or areas exposed by a retreating glacier or lake, sand dunes, lava deposites, submerged area. It takes long time usually 1000 years or even more. Secondary Succession: The secondary succession takes place in the previously inhabited but some how disturbed area burning, grazing, falling of trees, development of industries or roads. It takes less time comparatively, about 50-200 years. Q.13. Write main differences between primary and secondary succession. Difference between Primary Succession and Secondary Succession Q.14. Write main differences between nitrification and denitrification. Difference between Nitrification and Denitrification Q.15. Write a short note on “Efforts of eco-development is India”. Ans. Efforts of Eco-development in India: In Indian context, the exclusivity of Protected Areas (PA), as envisaged in the developed countries is not possible, due to human dominated landscapes in and around them. The population is largely rural that draws on the resources of the PA for subsistence. A participatory management strategy of protected areas, eco-development aims at conserving the bio-diversity by addressing both the impact of local people on the protected areas and the impact of the protected areas on local people. In response to the changed paradigm of partnership, Eco-development Committees (EDCs) emerged around many PAs. The National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB), set up in August 1992, is responsible for promoting A forestation and Eco-development committees (NAEB), set up in August 1992, is responsible for promoting afforestation, free planting, ecological restoration and eco-development activities in the country, with special attention to the degraded forest areas and lands adjoining the forest areas, national parks, sanctuaries and other protected areas as well as the ecological fragile areas like the Western Himalayas, Aravallis, Western Ghats etc. The detailed role and functions of the NAEB are given below. BBA Environmental Studies Questions Unit 3 Goal: The goal of the project is conservation of bio-deversity through people’s participation. Objectives: These are as follows: - To improve capacity of PA management to conserve bio-diversity and increase opportunities for local participation in PA management - To reduce negative impact of local people on biodiversity, reduce negative impact of PA on local people, and increase collaboration of local people in conservation efforts. - To develop more effective and extensive support for community development activities. - Evolve mechanisms for ecological restoration of degraded forest areas and adjoining lands through systematic planning and implementation, in a cost effective manner; - Restore through natural regeneration or appropriate intervention the forest cover in the country for ecological security and to meet the fuel wood, fodder and other needs of the rural - Restore fuel wood, fodder, timber and other forest produce on the degraded forest and adjoining lands in order to meet the demands for these items. Previous Post :- Also Follow Me :-

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To edit or add records to any of the catalogs, log in or create an account. Directory entires that have specified Canada as one of the geographic regions for the project/activity and are included in the AMAP, ENVINET, SAON and SEARCH directories. Note that the list of regions is not hierarchical, and there is no relation between regions (e.g. a record tagged with Nunavut may not be tagged with Canada). To see the full list of regions, see the regions list. To browse the catalog based on the originating country (leady party), see the list of countries. It is also possible to browse and query the full list of projects. Objectives 1. To determine tissue residue levels of metals and radionuclides in caribou given its importance as a country food species. 2. To monitor contaminant exposure in caribou as a representative species of the terrestrial arctic ecosystem. 3. To examine metal speciation and isotopes ratios (uranium, thorium, strontium, titanium) which may provide insight into the source of contamination (anthropogenic vs. natural). 4.To provide information on temporal trends in radionuclide and metal levels in several caribou herds to determine whether levels are increasing, decreasing or remaining the same over time. 5. To determine the efficacy of international controls in reducing or eliminating pollutants entering the Canadian Arctic terrestrial ecosystem. Barren-ground caribou are found across northern Canada, and are a major component of the traditional diet in communities across the Northwest Territories (NWT) and Nunavut. Caribou are a good indicator species for terrestrial ecosystem contamination given their wide distribution across northern Canada, the simple air-lichen-caribou food chain, the existing baseline data set, and their importance as a country food species. Three (3) caribou herds from across the NWT and Nunavut have been selected as sentinel herds, with a different herd to be sampled each year to determine tissue residue levels and monitor temporal trends. Field collections will be conducted in cooperation with local Hunter’s and Trapper’s Organizations and/or local aboriginal organizations, utilizing local hunters in planning and conducting the field work. Samples will be tested for a wide range of environmental contaminants including 10 heavy metals and 7 radionuclides. The Northern Contaminants Program aims to reduce and where possible eliminate long-range contaminants from the Arctic Environment while providing Northerners with the information they need to make informed dietary choices, particularly concerning traditional/country food. To achieve these objectives the NCP conducts research and monitoring related to contaminants in the Arctic environment and people. Monitoring efforts focus on regular (annual) assessment of contaminant levels in a range of media, including air, biota and humans. Environmental research is conducted into the pathways, processes and effects of contaminants on Arctic ecosystems while human health research focuses on assessing contaminant exposure, toxicity research, epidemiological (cohort) studies, and risk-benefit assessment and communications. Main gaps: Contaminant measurements in Arctic seawater, toxicity data specific to Arctic species. Network type: - Thematical observations: Contaminants levels and relevant ancilliary parameters - Field stations: Atmospheric observing stations at Alert, Nunavut and Little Fox Lake, Yukon. - Community based observations: Numerous communities throughout the Canadian Arctic participate in sample collection - Coordination: National coordination of the program provided by the NCP secretariat, which also acts as liaison with AMAP. i. Determine mercury, metals and persistent organic contaminant pollutants (POPs) concentrations in lake trout harvested from two locations (West Basin near Hay River, East Arm at Lutsel K’e) and burbot harvested from one location (West Basin at Fort Resolution) in 2015 to further extend the long-term (1993-2013 (POPs) and 1993-2014 (mercury)) database. ii. Determine POPs trends in lake trout and burbot using our 1993-2014 data base. iii. Continue our investigations of mercury trends in predatory fish to include lakes in the Deh Cho, Great Bear Lake, and other lakes as opportunities arise. iv. Participate in and contribute information to AMAP expert work groups for trend monitoring for POPs and mercury. v. Integrate our mercury trend assessments with studies we are conducting in the western provinces as part of Canada’s Clear Air Regularly Agenda for its Mercury Science Assessment. vi. Work with communities in capacity building and training. In order to assess the spatial and temporal patterns of the a-, b- and g-isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) in the arctic biotic and abiotic environment, it is proposed that: (1) concentrations and ratios of HCH isomers be compared over time in air, water, seals, beluga, polar bears and seabirds to determine any shifts in isomeric ratios and how those shifts interrelate among the various media, and (2) concentrations and ratios of HCH isomers be compared spatially in the abiotic and biotic media and reasons for any patterns explored. In order to determine the role of contaminants in declining populations of seaducks, it is proposed that: (1) archived samples of Oldsquaw collected from their Canadian arctic breeding grounds be analyzed for Hg, Se and Cu (in liver), Cd (in kidney), Pb (in wing bone), and selected samples be screened for a wider range of metals (in liver), and (2) archived samples of Oldsquaw wing bone be analyzed for stable isotopes (13C/12C; 15N/14N, and 34S/32S) and strontium (Sr) to discriminate whether birds from certain geographical areas of the Arctic are overwintering in freshwater (i.e. Great Lakes) or marine environments. 1) To determine tissue residue levels of organochlorines and metals in arctic fox feeding in or near an arctic coastal environment. 2) To assess whether or not residue levels found in arctic fox pose a potential wildlife health risk. 3) As part of a pilot project, to determine residue levels and assess potential wildlife health risk to wolverines feeding in or near a coastal environment. Project intends to produce remote sensing information of sea ice and snow cover in Northern Europe. It is joined international project between ESA, GMES, Polarview and Finnish Environmental Institute. FEM uses the satellite images to follow the snow and ice melt in spring months (march-June) in Finland. The NCP aims to reduce and, wherever possible, eliminate contaminants in traditionally harvested foods, while providing information that assists informed decision making by individuals and communities in their food use. The biomonitoring program monitors concentrations of contaminants in human tissues in the North and assesses spatial and temporal patterns/trends. Where available, contaminant guidelines are used to evaluate risk to populations/communities. A multi-disciplinary approach is used to evaluate contaminant concentrations, health effects, dietary research, and risk management/communication to meet the objectives of the NCP. Main gaps: Trend data of legacy POPs and metals, particularly for communities having only two sampling periods; measurements of tissue concentrations of emerging contaminants and other contaminants of interest (e.g., food preservation/storage, personal care products); health effects data. Network type: Thematical observations: Contaminant concentrations and health effects data - Field stations: None, community / population based research. - Community based observations: Participation of community health workers and community residents is essential for data collection through tissue samples - Coordination: NCP management committee, review teams, and regional contaminant committees all involve members from federal governments, territorial and provincial governments, northern Aboriginal partner organizations throughout all phases of research planning, implementation and reporting. To provide for the collection, interpretation, and dissemination of surface water quantity data and information and services that are vital to meet a wide range of water management, engineering and environmental needs across Canada. Main gaps: The current hydrometric network is deficient in terms of understanding the regional hydrology and river regimes across Canada. The map below integrates Environment Canada’s two key frameworks: the National Drainage Area Framework with the National Terrestrial Ecological Framework to identify network deficiencies. In order to have sufficient information there needs to be at least one active hydrometric station measuring natural flow in each corresponding ecodistrict within a sub-sub drainage area. This strategy ensures that there will be sufficient information to understand the hydrological processes and the interrelationships with the landscape. This information is essential for research and enhancing our predictive capabilities and data transfer. As the map shows, areas of sufficiency are concentrated in the southern, more populated regions of the country. Network sufficiency declines to the north and northeast, with great extents of northern Canada having no coverage at all. Network type: in-situ.water level and streamflow monitoring stations The main objective of the Arctic Avian Monitoring Network is to characterize the occurrence of birds in the Arctic to support regulatory responsibilities and conservation of birds and the biodiversity on which they depend. Temporal and spatial changes can be used to indicate changes in ecosystems that might otherwise be difficult to detect (e.g. marine areas) and can also be used to model predicted changes due to human activity. Main gaps: Large gaps both spatially and temporally. Many datasets cover short periods. Some species groups not well covered (e.g. landbirds and shorebirds) Network type: Network consists of programs divided into three species themes that combine common aspects of biology and human use: Waterfowl: e.g. ducks geese and swans • centered on aerial surveys of high density breeding areas and following non-breeding birds using satellite telemetry Seabirds: e.g. gulls, terns and auks • centered on surveys at breeding colonies and of birds at sea (either by direct observation or through the use of data loggers) Shorebirds: e.g. sandpipers, plovers and phalaropes • focused on broad-scale, stratified sampling of terrestrial areas and aerial surveys of non-marine habitats ArcticNet brings together scientists and managers in the natural, human health and social sciences with their partners in Inuit organizations, northern communities, government and industry to help Canadians face the impacts and opportunities of climate change and globalization in the Arctic. Over 110 ArcticNet researchers and 400 graduate students, postdoctoral fellows, research associates and technicians from 28 Canadian universities and 8 federal departments collaborate on 28 research projects with over 150 partner organizations from 15 countries. The major objectives of the Network are: • Build synergy among existing Centres of Excellence in the natural, human health and social Arctic sciences. • Involve northerners, government and industry in the steering of the Network and scientific process through bilateral exchange of knowledge, training and technology. • Increase and update the observational basis needed to address the ecosystem-level questions raised by climate change and globalization in the Arctic. • Provide academic researchers and their national and international collaborators with stable access to the coastal Canadian Arctic. • Consolidate national and international collaborations in the study of the Canadian Arctic. • Contribute to the training of the next generation of experts, from north and south, needed to study, model and ensure the stewardship of the changing Canadian Arctic. • Translate our growing understanding of the changing Arctic into regional impact assessments, national policies and adaptation strategies. Main gaps: [Not specified] Network type: Thematical observations:Yes Field stations: Yes on Land (see CEN sheet) and Marine (CCGS Amundsen) Community based observations: Yes Coordination: Yes The Centre for Northern Studies (www.cen.ulaval.ca; CEN: Centre d’études nordiques) is an interuniversity centre of excellence for research involving Université Laval, Université du Québec à Rimouski and the Centre Eau, Terre et Environnement de l'Institut national de la recherche scientifique (INRS). Members also come from the following affiliations: Université de Montréal, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, à Montréal and à Trois-Rivières, Université de Sherbrooke, and the College François-Xavier Garneau. The CEN is multidisciplinary, bringing together over forty researchers including biologists, geographers, geologists, engineers, archaeologists, and landscape management specialists. The CEN community also counts two hundred graduate students, postdoctoral fellows, and employees. CEN’s mission is to contribute to the sustainable development of northern regions by way of an improved understanding of environmental change. CEN researchers analyze the evolution of northern environments in the context of climate warming and accelerated socio-economic change and train highly qualified personnel in the analysis and management of cold region ecosystems and geosystems. In partnership with government, industry and northern communities, CEN plays a pivotal role in environmental stewardship and development of the circumpolar North. CEN research activities are focused on three themes: 1 -Structure and function of northern continental environments. 2 -Evolution of northern environments in the context of global change. 3-Evaluation of the risks associated with environmental change and development of adaptation strategies. In 2009, CEN organised an international workshop with the European SAON network SCANNET and also partners throughout Canada. The workshop culminated in the formal incorporation of CEN stations within SCANNET (http://www.scannet.nu/). Main gaps: [Not specified] Network type: CEN operates the CEN Network, an extensive network of meteorological and field stations that were established in consultation with northern communities. The CEN Network comprises over 75 climate and soil monitoring stations and eight field stations distributed across a 4000 km North-South gradient from boreal forest to the High Arctic. The eight field stations are situated at the following sites: Radisson, Whapmagoostui- Kuujjuarapik, Umiujaq, Lac à l’Eau Claire (in the proposed new park Tursujuq), Boniface River, Salluit, and Bylot and Ward Hunt Islands, which are part of two National Parks in Nunavut. The main field station at the heart of the CEN Network is at Whapmagoostui-Kuujjuarapik. • collect field based measurements of permafrost thermal state and active layer thickness (Essential Climate Variables identified by WMO/GCOS) • disseminate information on permafrost thermal state and active layer thickness (increase public availability • document current permafrost conditions and changes in these conditions and conduct analysis to explain these changes • provide essential information on permafrost conditions for decision making in Canada’s north to ensure sustainable development and to develop strategies to adapt to climate change Main gaps: Large regional gaps still exists especially in central region between Mackenzie Valley and Hudson Bay There is also a lack of long-term funding to maintain network operation and ensure ongoing data collection. Network type: Thematic observations (permafrost thermal state and active layer thickness), consisting of several field sites (>150) throughout northern Canada (see recent GCOS ECV report for map). Most sites in remote areas Limited community based monitoring The Canadian Ice Service (CIS), a branch of the Meteorological Service of Canada, is the leading authority for information about ice in Canada’s navigable waters. CIS provides the most timely and accurate information about sea ice, lake ice, river ice and icebergs to: • Ensure the safety of both mariners and Canadians, their property and their environment through the provision of hazardous ice condition warnings • Provide present and future generations of Canadians with sufficient knowledge to support sound environmental policies In summer and fall data collection and analysis is focussed on the Arctic and the Hudson Bay regions with daily satellite acquisitions. In winter and spring, the data collection is focussed on the Great lakes, the St. Lawrence River and the Gulf of the St. Lawrence and the Newfoundland and Labrador coasts The following products are produced: • In situ briefings, warnings, daily ice charts, image analysis charts, regional charts, observed charts, short- and long-term forecasts and iceberg bulletins and charts; specialised ice information services for Other Government Departments and research communities • Oil spill monitoring; satellite image analysis for oil spill detection • Annual Ice Atlas • Archive of climatic ice information Main gaps: Satellite monitoring of Arctic sea ice is limited to: • Canadian waters, • Bi-Weekly acquisitions from January to March • Weekly acquisitions from April to May • Daily acquisitions of areas where shipping is active from June to November Network type: various: satellite data, observations from ships and aircraft. CIS acquires and analyses thousands of satellite images, conducts millions of square kilometres of airborne reconnaissance and receives hundreds of ship and shore ice reports annually. The State and Evolution of Canada's Glaciers initiative provides information and data products produced by the Federal Government's National Glacier-Climate Observing System (monitoring, assessment and data portal) and related freshwater vulnerability research in western and northern Canada. The Glacier-Climate Observing System is delivered through an integrated monitoring and research collaborative comprised of Natural Resources Canada-Geological Survey of Canada (lead agency), Geomatics Canada-Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Environment Canada-National Water Research Institute and Water Survey of Canada, Parks Canada Agency, C-CORE Polar View, and academic partners that include the universities of British Columbia, Northern British Columbia, Alberta, Calgary, Lethbridge, Saskatchewan, Regina, Toronto, Brock, Trent and Ottawa, and related academic initiatives such as the Cold Water Collaborative and those supported by the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Science. SECG is a contribution to the NRCan Earth Sciences Sector - Climate Change Geoscience Program. With this data research is conducted on the relationship between climate, glacier fluctuations and their impacts on freshwater systems (e.g., river flow, cold stream ecology, groundwater recharge, flow to oceans). The development of improved remote sensing tools is also a major research thrust. With the support of the Canadian Space Agency, European Space Agency, the Canadian Consortium for Lidar Environmental Applications Research (C-CLEAR), and the NASA - Wallops Flight Facility, new tools and a systematic approach are increasingly brought to bear to understand more completely and with reduced uncertainty the magnitude, causality and impacts of Canada's changing glaciers. System outputs are used to a) inform national and international climate change programs and process; b) improve knowledge regarding the nature and locations of historical, current, and potential future impacts of climate change, c) assist Canadians in understanding and adapting to climate change impacts on natural resources at a regional and national scale. The System also provides leadership and co-ordination of Canada's contribution to World Meteorological Organization’s Global Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS) and its Global Terrestrial Network for Glaciers (GTN-G), the contribution of Essential Climate Variables for GEO/GEOSS, and providing such as Official Communications to the Parties of the Convention UNFCCC. Main gaps: Regional representativeness has been improving with the re-establishment of former sites or the establishment of new sites. Contributions to thematic needs such as water resources, flow to oceans and sea-level change will require improved co-ordination with hydrometric and other monitoring entities. Which Network type: - Thematical observations: yes - Field stations: yes, 20 reference observing sites - Community based observations: some in development (Grise Fjord) - Coordination: SECG guides and co-ordinates observations conducted by partners; SECG co-ordinates reporting for Canada (e.g., GCOS-GTN-G, WGMS) The main objective of the Arctic Marine Biodiversity Monitoring Network is to develop and implement, for priority marine ecosystems, an integrated, long-term biodiversity monitoring plan to detect changes in biodiversity temporally and spatially, and to establish links between such changes and anthropogenic drivers. Main gaps: Large gaps both spatially and temporally. Many datasets cover short periods. Network type: - Thematical observations: all trophic levels and appropriate proxy variables for biodiversity - Field stations: fixed locations on land; research ships and icebreakers of the Canadian Coast Guard; other ships of opportunity as available; moorings - Community based observations: connected to scientific projects - Coordination (e.g. not directly involved in observations, but coordinates data and use (for instance AMAP) : national coordination of the network, development of plans, data analysis, reporting Observations of the Arctic Ocean have been made since the 1800s at varying levels of intensity. The objective is to gain a better understanding of the physical and chemical composition of Arctic waters, the circulation of the waters within the Arctic Ocean, and flows into and out of the Arctic Ocean. Physical observations are conducted on properties of the water column including ocean temperature, sea surface temperature, salinity, pH, carbon, changes in ice coverage and extent, hydrographic measurements, nutrients, etc. Surface drifters either embedded in the ice, or (lately) able to float and operate in ice infested waters, provide measurements of a limited number of surface ocean and meteorological variables. . Additional observations are obtained on ocean currents, waves and tides. Biological observations are captured within a separate inventory item titled “Arctic Marine Biodiversity Monitoring”. Recently, a focus has been on increasing understanding of the impacts of climate change on Arctic waters (e.g., increasing temperature, decreasing pH, decreasing salinity, changing ice conditions, etc.). Data is gathered by ship with in situ measurements, deployment of moorings and buoys, helicopters (e.g. for ice measurements), and satellites (e.g. sea surface temperature). Main gaps: Large geographic areas of the Arctic are not covered regularly. Network type: - Thematical observations: of all oceanographic parameters - Field stations: Research ships and ice breakers of the Canadian Coast Guard; other ships of opportunity as available; moorings and buoys - Community based observations: - Coordination: National coordination of the program provided within Fisheries and Oceans Canada, and the National Centre for Arctic Aquatic Research Excellence (NCAARE) Connect public health laboratories and institutes throughout the circumpolar north for the purposes of monitor infectious diseases of concern. Main gaps: russia To acquire atmospheric data in support of both the prediction and detection of severe weather and of climate trend and variability research. This serves a broad range of users including researchers, policy makers, and service providers. Main gaps: Long-term, atmospheric monitoring in the North poses a significant challenge both operationally (e.g. in-situ automated snowfall measurements) and financially (charterd flights for maintenance and calibration).Most monitoring in the North is limited to populated areas. Attempts to develop an AMDAR capacity out of First Air and Canadian North fleets failed due to economical and technical difficulties. As demonstrated through impact studies, benefits of AMDAR in the North would be tremendous, however would require acquisition and deployment of specialized sensing packages such as TAMDAR (which includes measurements of relative humidity), development of datalink capacity through satellite communications (e.g. Iridium), and upgrading some aircraft systems when possible, especially the aircraft navigation systems. Network type: Atmospheric observing stations over land and sea composed of: - Surface Weather and Climate Network: o In-situ land stations comprising both Hourly stations and Daily Climate observations - Marine Networks: o Buoys (moored and drifting) o Ships: Automatic Volunteer Observing System - Upper Air Network: o In situ (radiosonde) o In situ Commercial Aircraft (AMDAR) Coastal Module of GOOS

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The muscles may be used not only to produce those general influences which are necessary to the maintenance of health, but also to produce desirable special effects, among which the prevention and correction of faulty carriage and action are of great importance. In considering the use of muscular work for this purpose, our subject naturally groups itself under two main divisions: first, faults of form or carriage of the body at rest, - in other words, a bad figure; and second, faults of handling the body while it is in motion, - in other words, awkwardness or clumsiness. The human body may be chiseled in marble or molded in bronze, and the statue thus formed may recall to the mind the shape or figure of the person it represents. But the shape of the living body is not rigidly fixed, as is that of the statue. The bony skeleton is sometimes called a framework, which supports the muscles, viscera, skin, etc. While this is to some extent true, the organs are not rigidly supported by the skeleton, as the canvas is supported by the poles and ropes which constitute the framework of a tent. In other words, the bones of the skeleton are not rigidly joined together; they do not of themselves make a self-supporting framework; the strong ligaments which pass from one bone to another simply limit or guide the movement of the bones they do not, strictly speaking, bind them together. If all organs save the bones and ligaments were removed, the skeleton would collapse. It is itself held upright by the muscles, which determine what position the bones shall have with regard to one another; and it is more correct to say that the muscles support the skeleton than that the skeleton supports the muscles. The carriage of the shoulders well illustrates the closing statement of the last paragraph. Some people have square; while others have sloping, shoulders; in some the shoulders are held back so that the upper portion of the back is approximately flat, while in others they droop forward, thus causing the upper chest to be more or less contracted and the back "round." To some extent, these differences may be due to hereditary structure; but they result, for the most part, from causes which are largely, if' not entirely under individual control. There is little or no excuse for round shoulders in healthy people, and the marked effect of training is evident in the fine bearing of well-trained soldiers. The truth of this statement is seen when we consider how the deformity is usually acquired, the chief causes being the following. (a) Faulty Posture. - Round shoulders are uncommon among people whose work requires an erect carriage of the body; for example, among those who carry things upon the head. With most, however, the occupations of daily life lead to bending forward over work; writing, drawing, sewing, lifting, gardening, paving, machine and tool work at once occur as examples. The trunk is held in such a position that the shoulders tend to fall forward of their own weight. This tendency is aided by the wrongly curved backs of most chairs, - which seem as if planned especially to force the shoulders forward, - and in boys, by the use of many forms of suspenders. (b) Improper Balance in the Play of Antagonistic Muscles. - The position of the shoulders with reference to the ribs, vertebral column, and breastbone is largely dependent upon the action of several groups of antagonistic muscles, the most important of which are those of the breast and those of the back. Figures 106 (above) and 107 show the general antagonistic action of these muscles. The contraction of the (a) great breast (or pectoral) muscle pulls the shoulder forward and nearer the breastbone; the contraction of the (b) back muscles (rhomboideus, trapezius, and others) pulls them backwards and nearer the backbone. Both groups of muscles are kept in a state of sustained moderate contraction (or tone) by the nervous system; but if the back muscles relax, while those of the pectoral group remain in tonic contraction, the shoulder will be pulled forward and the back will be round. Obviously, the maintenance by the nervous system of the proper balance in the action of these and other antagonistic groups of muscles is essential to correct carriage of the shoulder. Arrows indicate the direction of the pull, the feet serving as a fixed basis of support. The muscles A, B, H, and C keep the body from falling forward; D, E, F, and G keep it from falling backward. |Correct and incorrect positions of the shoulder girdle.| 14. The Period of Growth Especially Favorable for the Acquisition of Round Shoulders and Other Deformities. The length of a growing muscle is determined largely by the distance between its origin and insertion during the period of growth. The breast muscle will grow to be a longer muscle when the shoulders are held back by the back muscles than when they are habitually allowed to droop forward. In the former case, the pectorals grow to sufficient length and do not tend to pull the shoulders forward and downward; and we avoid the excessive length of the back muscles, which makes it necessary for them to take up their own slack before they can keep the shoulders in position. The student, can now appreciate the fact that, it is in youth, during the period of growth, that deformities are most readily acquired and most easily corrected; for the muscles, the ligaments, the bones, are then in their formative stage. In the case in point, if the boy or girl holds the shoulders properly, the pectoral and back muscles of each side adjust themselves to their proper length; and the shoulders grow into the correct form, just as the sapling which is not bent nor deprived of proper sunlight grows into a symmetrical, beautiful tree. During the period of growth, then, - say up to at least the twentieth year, -we can hope to accomplish most in correcting and especially in preventing deformities. The correction and prevention of round shoulders evidently depend upon the... proper training and use of the muscles which play upon the shoulder; it is therefore a legitimate part of gymnastic training, for gymnastic training is largely the art of learning to use the muscles properly. Where there is a special defect to remedy or prevent, special exercises are required. These are of the general character of the “setting-up” drill of the soldier, and in the case in point, we accomplish our purpose by using movements which in the first place stretch the pectorals and even overextend them; in the second place, give to the back muscles the exercise which they fail to get in our ordinary occupations, and so bring up their strength, their ability to withstand fatigue and to maintain the tonic contraction demanded of them; and which, in the third place, give us the knowledge of the correct position of the shoulders. In explanation of the last point, we may say that when one habitually carries the shoulders properly, he feels that he is taking an awkward position when he allows the shoulders to droop; on the other hand, the man who habitually allows the shoulders to droop forward feels that he is in an unnatural position when he holds his shoulders back. This is largely because in the first case the back muscles and in the second the pectorals must be put on a stretch; it is also due to the fact that the sensations derived from the habitual posture, whether it be correct or incorrect, have impressed themselves on consciousness as signs of the normal conditions; to take any other position is to experience the feeling of something unusual or abnormal. We learn of the position of parts of our body with reference to one another by sensations derived from the muscles, tendons, joints, etc.; and the sensations of position which result when we assume the habitual posture fix themselves in our thought as signs of the normal posture. Our practical, working idea of normal posture indeed, is nothing more nor less than our experience of the sensations of position resulting from habitual posture. The man who never carries his shoulders back really knows nothing of their correct position, because the sensations from correct posture are lacking; he knows no more about them than a man blind from his birth knows of the color of a landscape. One of the first steps in correcting this and similar faults must be to experience the muscular sensations which come from correct carriage; and the more frequently these sensations are experienced, the better does the subject become acquainted with them, the more likely are they to replace his erroneous judgment. It is only through the sense of position that we can hope to acquire the practical working knowledge of correct carriage. What we learn by reading about the matter or by looking at pictures or statues of the correct figure is of little use; for such ideas come to us only through the eye, and we obviously cannot depend on our sense of vision to inform us whether we are carrying ourselves properly or not. We do not "see ourselves as others see us"; generally we do not "see ourselves" at all. It is only the sense of position that is capable of reminding us the instant we go wrong; and this sense can be trained properly only by actually assuming the correct posture. We may now pass, to the consideration of the more important deformities, which it is the aim of special muscular exercises to prevent or correct. (a) The failure to hold the neck erect (allowing it to bend forward). This results naturally from the fact that the weight of the head will do this, provided the tendency is not corrected by the proper training of the muscles of the back of the neck and trunk. The position of the head usually taken in reading, sewing, etc., is another cause of this bad habit. (b) Round or stoop shoulders. These defects have already been sufficiently dwelt upon (see round shoulders). (c) Too great backward (dorsal) convexity of the spine in the thoracic region, and too great forward (ventral) convexity of the spine in abdominal region. A certain amount of such curvature is normal in these regions; but there is usually a tendency to excessive curvature because of the weight of the parts of the body which the spine must support. Everyone knows that it is an effort to sit erect; and this feeling of effort comes from the fact that the spine is straightened, or rather its curvature kept normal, by the action of a rather complicated group of muscles, - the erectors of the spine. To sit, or stand, or walk erect involves the activity of these muscles; when they cease to act, the faulty curvature becomes more pronounced. Hence the value of all exercises which tend to straighten the spine, -exercises, for example, in which, while standing on the feet, we try by our own, muscular effort to make ourselves as tall as possible. They train and strengthen the muscles in question; they stretch their antagonists; just as throwing the shoulders back stretches the pectorals; and they impart to us by actual experience the sensation of being erect. (d) Lateral curvature of the spine. When the spinal column and its attached ligaments and muscles are properly developed there is little or no lateral curvature of the spine; the two halves of the body are symmetrical with regard to the median plane of the body, although a considerable amount of bending of the spine as a whole to one side or the other is possible. It is, however, quite possible, by maintaining incorrect positions, to acquire a more or less pronounced lateral curvature in which the muscles and ligaments of the concave side become shortened, and those of the convex side lengthened. Perhaps, nothing is so responsible for all these faults of curvature of the spinal column as improper positions at the school desks, and much can be done to prevent them by properly constructed school furniture and careful attention to correct position. But, it is not wise to depend on these alone. No desk has been constructed in which correct posture can be indefinitely maintained with ease, and we have still in any case to contend with the force of gravity. Active exercises which straighten the spine should supplement the other measures. Experience has well established the fact that, the true preventive and remedy lies in movements which elongate the spine. (e) We have elsewhere pointed out the important action of the muscles of the abdominal wall in supporting the abdominal viscera, especially those like the stomach, the spleen, and the intestine, which are suspended from the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity. Fig. 137 will at once make clear how the relaxation or elongation of the abdominal muscles, by removing support from these viscera, permits their weight to pull unduly upon the mesentery, and so to stretch this support. It is also not improbable that the tense mesentery at times, by pressing upon thin-walled veins and lymphatics, interferes with the circulation of blood and the flow of lymph in some organs, and so leads to trouble. A pot belly is not a thing of beauty, and there is every reason for thinking it to be undesirable from the hygienic point of view. It is prevented in the first place, by every movement which prevents undue lumbar curvature of the spine, and, in the second place, by exercises of the abdominal muscles, which result in their improved tone. These, however, like all corrective exercises, must be followed up with maintenance of the correct position of the trunk. A man or woman may possess none of the deformities noticed above, - the anatomical form of the body may conform to the best ideals, - and yet the positions and movements of the body may be awkward, inexpert, ungraceful. In other words, the muscles may be well developed, but the individual may be deficient in the power of easily coördinating their action in the accomplishment of desired ends. After what has been learned of the part which the nervous system plays in directing our actions, the brevity of any reference to this purpose of physical training will not mislead the student into thinking that it is of little importance. We have learned that the maintenance of equilibrium, when the body is at rest and when it is in motion, and the execution of complicated movements, both require training of the nervous system by use. The range of activities for which we can train is very extensive; playing upon musical instruments, the execution of gymnastic feats on the parallel and horizontal bars, the traveling rings, or the trapeze, are only a few examples of what can be done by the training of the nervous system by practice. A large part of gymnasium work consists in this sort of training, and there is almost no limit to the forms of exercise to which we may train, - vaulting, jumping, balancing the body on one foot while various movements are made, the tricks of the parallel and horizontal bars, trapeze, etc. Is there any principle to guide us in the choice of what we shall do? In reply to this question, we may say that the leading principle should undoubtedly be that of training for what will be useful, and while we need not discard all training which cannot be justified on this ground, that which is useful should not be sacrificed to that which is not useful. A large amount of skill is required to walk upon the hands with the feet in the air, and the thing can be done very gracefully by training; but it is certainly better to cultivate the habit of walking gracefully upon the feet. And yet, one may see professional gymnasts who are extremely graceful while performing their tricks, but whose gait is clumsy and awkward. It is evident that by far, the greater number of our customary coördinated movements are made on the feet. Hence, the value of so-called balance exercises in the widest sense, whether they consist in the execution of difficult movements while standing on one foot or on the" walking beam," or in making a proper landing from a jump or a vault; all of them afford training of those reflexes by which we retain control of the body in motion, thus securing grace of posture and carriage. The general purpose of training these reflexes is the same as the purpose of those exercises which correct deformities; they do for the nervous mechanism of the movement what the others do for the skeletal parts and the muscles which play upon them; they give the training of use and prevent atrophy from disuse. Both these ends, the corrective and the so-called coordinative, are best secured by the use of gymnastic movements; and the increasingly sedentary character, of much of our modern life correspondingly increases the value of gymnastic work, especially in the period of youth. It is well to learn and understand the most useful exercises, and even in adult life to have resort to them two or three times a week in order to hold fast what has been gained. Under the conditions of city life, especially in winter time, the gymnasium is also useful in supplying general exercise in the form of running, gymnastic games, etc. It is better to seek outdoor work as far as possible for this exercise, but there are times when those living in the heart of crowded cities cannot get into the country, and outdoor exercise in town is not all that is to be desired. While there is sometimes a tendency to extol unduly the value of gymnastic work, there is equally marked ignorance in other quarters as to what the gymnasium may accomplish. Our cities are vastly better off for their Y.M.C.A. and other gymnasia, and we cannot afford to discourage any means of properly directed physical training. Before leaving the subject of corrective and coordinative work, we may answer a question which is frequently asked: Has it, after all, any hygienic value? All will readily grant that this part of physical training has an æsthetic value, and that the cultivation of the taste for correct form and carriage in one's own person is to be commended. But is a man less healthy for being round-shouldered? The answer is that, he may or may not be less healthy. The deformity of round shoulders carries with it the lessened use of the upper ribs in breathing; and while one man or woman may escape dangerous consequences, another may not, - indeed we know does not, and it is the part of wisdom to avoid the danger as far as possible. In one, a pot belly may be consistent with perfect health, while in others it is not. One may go through life with some faulty curvature of the spine and not suffer from it; but thousands of persons have to consult physicians every year because of such faults. Many a man wears improper shoes without bad results; hundreds pay for it with flat foot and suffering which at times amounts to torture. There is not a single deformity enumerated above which may not prove a serious matter; and when it is so easy to avoid most of them, it would seem from a hygienic point of view well worthwhile to do so. The hygienic value of corrective and coördinative work is justified, however, still more effectively on another ground. The tendency to take general exercise is directly proportional to the excellence of the neuromuscular mechanism of the body. The man who is awkward and clumsy, who can make but few movements, does not enjoy general exercise as does the man who has good control of his muscles and can make many movements. It is probably not too much to say that, a very large proportion of the people who settle down to a sedentary life with the coming of their thirty fifth or fortieth year do this because they can do so little with the body, and because exercise is consequently monotonous and distasteful. We can undoubtedly preserve more readily the love of movement for its own sake when we have a body which can move freely and easily, skillfully and joyously, than when we have one which is never so much at home as in an easy-chair or upon a soft bed; and we have shown above (see enjoyment of muscular activity) how valuable is this joy of movement to the body as a whole. Insertion: Where a muscle is attached by its two tendons, the point of attachment against, which it usually pulls or is fixed is known as its origin, while the one it usually moves is known as its insertion. Thus the origin of the pectoral muscle is the breastbone and ribs, its insertion the shoulder and the upper arm. Hough T & Sedgwick WT (1906). Muscular Activity (Chapter XVII), The Human Mechanism Its Physiology and Hygiene and The Sanitation Of Its Surroundings, Ginn & Company, pg 321-333.

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Another #ETCoaches book study and Twitter slow chat has come and gone, but my head is still reeling from all the awesome information I gained from reading Learning Supercharged and engaging in some awesome discussion and reflection with hundreds of other coaches and educators. If you haven't participated in one of their book studies and slow chats I highly recommend it as a great way to experience Twitter PD in a fun and informative way. The hardest part is trying to process all the information that is circulating, but with the use of hashtags and tools like TweetDeck you can keep yourself organized. The Edtech Coaches Network also curates all the information regarding the book study and slow chat on a website archive to enable participants to review any and all the information shared (which is a lot!!). In addition to perusing the web archive yourself here are my biggest take-aways from the book and the slow chat: STEM and Makerspaces come in all sorts of shapes and sizes - I think many educators struggle with the thought of implementing STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, & Math) and makerspaces in their teaching, classrooms, and schools. Though the concepts are "new" the drive and ability to enact them is not. Take a look at my last post to see how STEM is not as scary as you think. The book talks about the focus of STEM moving towards coding and robotics which is the easy and sexy pick to get students excited about diving in. Teachers may hesitate at the thought of trying to incorporate code or program robots, but in reality I don't think there is a better way to incorporate STEM skills into your existing curriculum. Makerspaces are even less intimidating when you get down to the nuts and bolts of what makes a space into a makerspace. Whatever you can provide to all students the chance to explore, tinker, create, invent, and build can constitute as a makerspace. These can be designated spaces or mobile labs depending on your logistics. From the simplest form of creating with recycled materials like cardboard to complex designing and printing objects with a 3D-printer. When you provide students with a chance to problem-solve and create their own solutions you are opening up a whole new world of learning to them! Will Gamification & Game-Based learning work in education and how do we stress the importance of Digital Citizenship?- It seems like a no-brainer, make learning a game and students will absorb any and all information we can put in front of them without feeling the typical lag of traditional learning methods. So began the hype of gamification and game-based learning, badges, points, levels are available in a variety of platforms or by your own creation to keep students engaged during class and motivated to perform for that next 'thing'. The digital classroom has made turning learning into a game as easy as a couple of clicks of the mouse. Tools and sites like Kahoot, Flippity.net, Scratch, Minecraft, Code.org, Classcraft etc..., plus the plethora of apps for iOS or Android devices (check out CommonSense Media's curated lists of teacher/parent approved apps) all provide ways to take learning objectives and put them in a game simulation to engage students. With everything being so ingrained in the digital realm as we evolve in education the importance of Digital Citizenship cannot be overstated. Students and staff are coming face to face with the consequences of improperly using technology or the content they find online. We celebrate Digital Citizenship week in my district and have attempted to integrate the CommonSense Media curriculum into all grade-levels, but have run into some resistance as Teachers view it as 'one more thing' they have to do. As more and more teaching and learning is happening digitally the option to discuss digital citizenship is no longer an option, but a necessity. The key is creating a collective responsibility for raising digital citizens. It's not the sole responsibility of the teacher, or the tech team, or the student, or the parent. It's the responsibility of all these stakeholders to reinforce the concepts that help make up the core of Digital Citizenship: Digital Communication, Digital Literacy, Digital Etiquette, Digital Law, Digital Rights and Responsibilities, and Digital Security. Everyone wants to implement PBL (Project-based Learning) and how we bridge the Digital Divide- From all sides the concept is great, use student driven projects to engage, excite, and motivate student learning and meet standards and objectives. It takes a shift in teacher mindset as they no longer become the drivers of content delivery, but rather facilitators of student learning and they make progress in a project of their choosing. Since a big focus of PBL is the students' ability to construct new knowledge the shift towards a digital classroom has opened up countless opportunities to accomplish this with a variety of student learning types. Learning can be personalized to meet individual student needs without creating an overwhelming amount on analog work for a teacher. The same way the new digital classroom is making PBL easier to implement it also has an affect on how our students are able to access digital tools and materials that wasn't previously possible. The technology we have whether it be things like Chromebooks, Google accounts, iPads, high speed internet access, assistive technology, and the countless amount of web 2.0 resources, iOS, and Android apps are leveling the playing field when used purposefully and thoughtfully. The importance of ensuring students all have equity of access to these resources is crucial to ensure everyone has a fair chance to prepare to take the next steps in their educational or life careers. Countless programs exist to assist in ensuring this access for our students. One great resource mentioned in the book is the CoSN (Consortium for School Networking) Network to help get you started on addressing this need. Blending Formal, Non-formal, and Informal Education and what are the big take-aways- There has been a wide-spread recognition of the differences in student learning success. It feels like we have finally accepted the fact that our students all excel in different ways and we need to do our best to try and accommodate these styles and preferences to help them be successful. As the theme that runs throughout this book and blog post the ability to blend these educational styles has become far easier with the advent of technology and the digital classroom. We no longer need to focus on a traditional, boring classroom style that only benefits a few students, but can bring in the dynamic learning that happens outside of the classroom to engage our students in real-world learning that they and their peers can relate to. So what are the big take-aways? It all boils down to taking advantage of what the development of digital age and classroom has to offer to our teachers and students. We don't have to reinvent the wheel when it comes to education, but we do have access to a lot of tools that are going to make that wheel much faster and efficient. Reading this blog is not a sufficient replacement for taking the time to read the book Learning Supercharged (though it's much appreciated!) and getting all the great resources at the end of each chapter and reviewing the case studies and spotlights on how these topics/concepts can be put into action. The ability to not only read this amazing resource, but then discuss and reflect on it with hundreds of fellow educators amplified the professional learning I took away and empowered me to put plans into action. If you are an Edtech Coach or highly motivated educator I would strongly encourage you to participate in the #ETCoaches twitter community and their vast offering of webinars, book studies, and twitter chats. Please comment below if you have read Learning Supercharged or participated in this year's #ETCoaches book study. We can all agree that we need to include STEM integration into our students' education. The hard part is figuring out how to best and most effectively do that. Though we have been talking about STEM for a while I feel like it's often thought of as an unrealistic goal and something only really tech savvy teachers could even begin to understand and relay to their students. Even as a "tech" person I often found myself questioning if I could effective speak on the subject and share that information with teachers and students. Enter my amazing co-integrator, Anita Moose (@amooseIT), with a plan to provide quick and easy professional development to math teachers on ways to integrate STEM into their existing teaching and open the door to using the robotics coach (@amshanson) and tech team as supports in making it happen. You can review the brief presentation below, but the main focus was on using two tools we have readily available to teachers: Lego Mindstorms are great robots for teachers and students of all skill levels to dive into robotics. The activity we used to get teachers an idea of how robots could help teach math is the very simple "Closer" activity which has students guess how many rotations and how much power is needed to get the robot closet to an object. There are many modifications and adaptions that can be done to make the math more challenging or complex and address several different concepts such as place value, measurement from standard to metric, estimation, multiplication, ratios, degrees, geometry vocabulary: diameter, radius, circumference, proportions, variables, graphing, statistics, interquartile range, graphing, Pythagorean Theorem, and systems of equations. Check out more details with the links from the presentation and interject some awesomeness into your math class! If you read my last post you already know about my love affair for Ozobots! These little guys are such an easy and fun way to dive into the basics of robotics and block coding that I guarantee you could be up and running with a class in 15 mins or less! We showed teachers a really simple lesson they could do to cover geometry concepts, but there are many other lessons out there to teach things like Slope Practice, Calculating Areas of Common Geometric Figures, Determining the Value of π with Ozobot and a Stopwatch, and Make a Multiplication Algorithm. Ozobots lessons don't just cover math topics so be sure to check out their educator portal and search for a variety of topics you may be teaching that can be spiced up with some robotics! That's it! With this simple presentation and links to resources and roughly an hour we had exposed teachers to a few quick and easy ways to become STEM educators themselves and not have to add more to their already overflowing plates, but simply rethink how they could teach concepts they were going to do anyway. One last piece that really added some authenticity to the whole process was having a couple of robotics students come talk to the group and help show them how to use everything. Seeing students who were already engaged and capable of using these tools effectively really hit home with the teachers in attendance. Hats off to Anita for taking the lead and making this a priority for our schools and backing up her thoughts with actions and support. Feel free to use the resources shared in this post and share any other great ways you are doing STEM in the comments below! Another year, another chance to get students and teacher excited about computer science and coding during #CSEdWeek! This year we reloaded many of the activities we used previously because of the success we had with them, but we did some exploring and took our use of Ozobots to the next level and were extremely happy with the results. We decided to use a push-in model this year to try and bring fun, engaging activities right to the classroom and give teachers the experience of how CS can be implemented in their classes for a variety of subjects. We made this effort because in previous years we only offered lunch time activities and stations in library which resulted in teachers not being present when students were engaged and participating making those classroom connections tough to make and try and continue the momentum throughout the year. For those of you not familiar with Ozobots they are great little devices to take students from basic introduction of coding all the way through more complex block coding sets. We currently have a class set of Evos which are the slightly more robust version that include a few more bells and whistles as well as the ability to update firmware. The Ozobot website has an amazing resource of lessons you can search through (grade-level, topic, standard) to really take advantage of their capabilities from the basic color coding through the more complex Ozoblockly coding. Ozobots start simple with color-based coding using markers and paper. The colors you need are black, red, green, and blue which allow you to create paths for the Ozobot sensors to follow. Colors can be combined to create simple codes for speed changes, directions, timers and fun moves like tornadoes or zig-zags! We used the color coding function as a way to introduce coding and the Ozobots to younger grades (K-2) and had them create code paths that spell out their names or initials. Though this is the second year we have had the Ozobots, this was the first year we dove into using the Ozoblockly coding aspect of them and frankly, we were blown away at how easy it is to get started and have students do simple to complex programming in such a short amount of time. Loading the code can be done across multiple different devices including our favorite, Chromebooks, as it just takes a series of flashing color lights read by the Ozobot sensors. We had our older students (3rd-8th) use the Ozoblockly coding to guide their Ozobots through a maze of their own creation and program their bot to move from one point on a grid to another to combine the coding practice with identifying points on a x and y-axis. We had such great success and engagement with the Ozobots during #CSEdWeek that my fellow integrator, Anita Moose (@amooseIT), and I are currently creating schedules to continue push ins with classrooms in all three buildings and allowing for Teachers to request specific topics and standards for us to plan around to make the best use of the Ozobots integration into a teacher's curriculum. If you have had similar success or other great experiences with the Ozobots please leave any feedback in the comments below. With Google Cast for EDU student sharing has just taken on a whole new level! This amazing extension for the Chrome Web Browser allows a teacher to easily give students access to share what they are working on quickly and in real-time. The Google Cast for EDU extension is quick to install and very easy to setup for teachers, enabling them to turn their device into a display for an entire classes' devices when it comes time to share with the group. At the admin level we have limited the ability for students to install this extension in the admin console since teachers are the primary users for displaying content being shared by students. With Chrome now having Cast built directly into the settings it's very easy for students and teachers to access the tool in order to share their screen. Within a few clicks you can access a preset teacher device and quickly begin sharing your screen to present. Refer to the screenshots below for visuals on how to get started, but don't miss this opportunity to take advantage of a great tool to seamlessly share student work! **For all my techies out there, all of our testing has shown that devices don't have to be on the same network in order to cast to one another. This has been extremely important since we have student and teacher devices on separate networks** Providing meaningful feedback for students is one of the most powerful tools for educators to create meaningful connections and learning. It never seems like one method will check all the boxes in allowing students or teachers to get that feedback to other students so they can reflect on their own work. With the addition of technology in the mix, it has proven even more difficult to find effective ways to allow students to give and receive feedback on digital work. Working with a 2nd grade teacher we were struggling to find ways for her students to make comments on hand-written and digital writing in a way that could be collected and reviewed later by both the teacher and the students. Some of the obvious options came up: wanting to use Google Forms for students to easily type in comments and Google Classroom to collect and share digital writing. We had the outline to how we thought we could get it done and now we had to find how to best adjust the tools at hand to work in a way that was easy for the students and teachers and could be replicated over and over again. docAppender - If you haven't heard of docAppender it's a Google Forms add-on that will send responses to an specific Google Doc based on some of the parameters you set-up ahead of time. The initial set-up can take a bit of time (this is where Google Classroom comes in), but then you have a form that will send each response to a easily readable Google Doc that can be shared and used repeatedly to create a running record of feedback. Google Classroom - I'm only going to assume you haven't heard of Google Classroom because you have been living under a rock with no Wifi and refuse to join most of the world in utilizing GSuite (j/k, well kinda...). The ability to organize a workflow between students and teachers with Classroom is game changing. It has made working in a digital, "mostly" paperless environment user-friendly and effective. When it comes to creating assignments, handing out individual templates, and easily collecting student work of a variety of medias I don't have much negative to say. There are no perfect systems, but we won't get into those in this post. So now you know the tools, but the key is how you make them work together. The docAppender add-on doesn't need Google Classroom in order to function, but it makes it go much smoother. As mentioned above the docAppender add-on will allow you to sort and separate responses to a Google form onto specific Google docs which makes it a great way to get written feedback for specific people and then share that data with those people without sharing other feedback. Using Google Classroom lets you easily create a document and folder location to keep all the feedback documents together for easy sharing and use. Take a look at the screenshots below to get an idea how to get the process started. So there you have a "daisy-chain" of two great tools to help facilitate peer feedback in your class. Many modifications can be made to suit your specific needs such as creating multiple documents for different types of writing, but if you include the right identification questions it may be just as easy to keep one big running record of feedback to not overwhelm a student with different documents to sort through in order to see their feedback. Making the connection through Classroom makes it really easy to create the documents and identify them by student name as well as give you as the teacher access to everyone's work and feedback. If you have any systems like this or good modifications/suggestions please leave them in the comments below. What is the best way to provided professional development to staff, especially when your focus is educational technology? What my fellow integrator, Anita Moose, and I have found is to remove the concept of educational technology out all together! One of the biggest complaints and issues we hear from teachers is a lack of time to thoughtfully plan anything out and feel confident implementing it in the classroom. So after sitting down to brainstorm how we can create a PD that will hold value to teachers of a a variety of subjects and grade-levels we decided to keep it simple. We hosted half-day sessions of Curriculum Planning for teachers to come in and have paid time (stipend or PD hours) to work on any upcoming curriculum they need to plan out and have our Technology Integrators "moderating" and available to answer any questions and provide support in finding places to use technology to enhance teaching and student learning. We marketed these sessions as opportunities to get planning done on 'paid' time (we offer stipends or PD hours for in-house salary advancement programs). We had a variety of teachers attend from all grade levels and subjects and use their time to get organized for the start of the year with tools like Google Classroom, create content with Google Slides and SMART notebook, flipping the classroom with Edpuzzle and Educreations, and setup digital portfolio templates with Google Sites. We were consistently told how helpful this time was and one of the best PD offerings they've attended! So by removing the focus on trying to master a tech tool or process we were able to attract a variety of teachers to make use of always needed planning time and then hold meaningful discussions about where technology might help accomplish curriculum and student learning goals. Teachers weren't overwhelmed by a sit and get and were engaged in getting work done that was specific to them. It turns out one of our simplest attempts at PD was one of the most successful and created an easy recipe to repeat at various times throughout the year. Please make any comments regarding some of the most effective and successful PDs you've designed, run, or attended. Another school year down and another amazing visit to InnEdCO 2018 in Keystone, CO! It's been so great to have such an amazing conference local to Colorado when ISTE only comes to Denver once every 5 years. After 4 days of learning, connecting, and growing I want to highlight several things I took away from this incredible experience. Everyone needs to be at the table when it comes to innovation - Several of the sessions I attended discussed how we can innovate in our teaching, student learning, curriculum, and professional development. There are so many great tools and resources to help us become innovative but one of the most important themes I took away is who you have at the table in order to accomplish this innovation. Without the support and shared vision of administrators, an educator may not feel comfortable or supported in taking the risks and making the changes necessary to help students become innovative. Building relationships is crucial - Edtech Coaches, Technology Integrators, Digital Coaches, etc.. are becoming more and more common in school districts across Colorado. Many sessions focused on how these positions can be successful in helping support teachers and students in using technology to accomplish learning goals. With these roles being often viewed as 'one more thing' for a teacher it has become important to show value to teachers so they feel like using coaches or integrators as a resource will greatly help them and be an asset. Two of the sessions centered around the DPS MyTech program which looks to successfully implement 1:1 devices in 14 schools and that included putting Digital Coaches in place to help support teachers and students. All the groups and individuals I listened to from DPS, St. Vrain, Boulder Valley and others made a point to emphasis how important it was to establish relationships with their teachers and administrators to create meaningful connections. Once these relationships were established it then became possible to help teachers integrate technology to dynamically accomplish learning goals. Design Thinking, Inquiry Learning, & Project/Problem based Learning are still the goal - These aren't new ideas and over the past few years the ways to implement them has been all over the map (and I don't think that's a bad thing). Many sessions used the design thinking framework to help the audience work through concepts and rethink how they are addressing student learning, teacher professional development, and technology implementation. I really like this process and find it so useful in designing dynamic experiences and coming up with great ideas. It is exciting to see it become somewhat of a standard for working through a process to utilize the best thinking of all the people in the room. Can you really create an innovative and dynamic lessons if you aren't incorporating inquiry or project-based learning? Students are no longer engaged with old school drill and kill pedagogy. If we aren't letting our students identify problems, ask questions, and come up with solutions then we aren't preparing them for the next level in their education and beyond. Thankfully with the help of edtech there are a ton of ways to implement these strategies. How do we teach Digital Citizenship and Digital Skills to our students?- We can't expect to inject all of this educational technology in our teaching and not help prepare students to be thoughtful and purposeful with its use. There are several programs out there to try and help a educator pass on these skills to students, but Google has recently jumped in the game with their Be Internet Awesome digital citizenship program and Applied Digital Skills program for utilizing GSuite. Both of these programs are filled with resources that can be modified or plug and play to get a teacher going with their class. Check them out if you haven't already! Google now has a digital citizenship & safety curriculum (3-5th grade) that’s free online and doesn’t require a sign-in https://beinternetawesome.withgoogle.com/en Applied Digital Skills curriculum provided by Google to help teachers teach applicable digital skills to students using GSuite. Resources are available online and can be modified for differentiation. https://applieddigitalskills.withgoogle.com/ -Does require Google account to track progress and access materials. So there you have my big take-a-ways from this year's InnEdCO conference in Keystone, CO. If you've never been make sure to plan on attending this summer and connecting with a ton of amazing educators who all are looking to utilizing edtech and innovative thinking to improve how we educate in Colorado. Please add any of your highlights in the comments section if you did attend. In my role as Technology Integrator it can be overwhelming to decide on the right direction when looking to advance staff in their teaching practice and students in their potential. It's easy to get lost in the bells and whistles of technology engagement instead of focusing on the purposeful use to deliver curriculum and achieve academic standards. Thankfully, one of the best ways I have found to keep things in perspective is using the ISTE standards (Student, Teacher, Coach, & Administrator) when trying to be thoughtful about how we are using technology to enhance our teaching. We have been making progress in meeting regularly with grade-level teams and departments K-12th. They were originally set up as 'tech check-ins' to give teachers a voice to address immediate and small concerns and then allow for planning conversations in upcoming lessons. My fellow integrator and I wanted to move the needle a bit faster and felt many teachers time and ability to process the ISTE standards when planning lessons was often limited. We decided to use some of the time already dedicated to our tech check-ins could be used to help teachers process the ISTE standards and jump start the conversation about effective technology use in their classrooms. So the question was: "How do we quickly introduce portions of the ISTE standards to teachers during these check-ins and still have time to let teachers ask other questions or bring up concerns?" Our first decision was to start with the Student Standards in order to hold discussions that would engage teachers around student learning, we would circle back with the teacher standards in larger-scale PD. It was then determined that we needed to develop protocols in which to frame these discussions. My fellow integrator, Anita Moose, has been well-versed in our District initiatives of Cognitive Coaching and Adaptive Schools so we decided to adapt several of their protocols in order to hold meaningful and productive discussions with our teachers that could be executed quickly. We broke the standards review into two pieces: 1. A general overview of all 7 of the student standards. (Empowered Learner, Digital Citizen, Knowledge Constructor, Innovative Designer, Computation Thinker, & Creative Communicator) 2. A deeper dive into the sub-standards. This process has just begun and we plan on carrying over into next year, but the first few meetings we have had promoted some great discussion and got teachers thinking critically about the ISTE standards and how they apply to their own teaching and student learning. You can review and use the protocols we came up with below and feel free to make any suggestions for improvement in the comments. I'm sure I'll be writing an update post as we dive deeper with what's working and what needs improvement so stay tuned! We did it! Aspen Schools has successfully held its first EdTechTeam summit to promote some great things happening in edtech and motivate and empower educators from across the state. The goal of the summit is to improve teaching and students' learning with the help of some awesome tech tools and ideas. The process of hosting the summit at your home school is time-consuming and exhausting, but incredibly rewarding. Here are 5 takeaways or ah-ha's I had from this amazing experience: 1. We need to give Geo a chance- One of the incredible members of the EdTechTeam, Jeffery Heil, gave an inspiring keynote to kick off our summit and presented a session on taking advantage of the Google Geo tools to engage and excite your students. Taking advantage of Google Earth now being web-based is a must for teachers of just about any subject or content area. The 'Voyager' component of Google Earth is an incredible educational tool that curates content normally not available to students. Google Maps and My Maps are great ways to create custom maps and really individualize your experience in a variety of places. Once you have created a map you can export it as a KML file to import into another My Map or do a Google search for relevant KML files that have been created by others that you could use. Street View lets students get up close and personal with places inside and out that they may never have a chance to visit in person. The ability for everyone to contribute to Street View puts an incredible amount of power and agency in students' hands that can lead to powerful learning and connections, but please be considerate of students' privacy and safety when encouraging sharing. Google Expeditions is a powerful AR (Augmented Reality) tool that lets you use mobile devices to take students all over the world and beyond for fun and interactive experiences. Starting its full roll-out this fall the power of this is unlimited whether you have a full class set or a few to run an engaging center. I can't wait to see how this develops! 2. Google Applied Digital Skills Curriculum- Google has recently released it's Applied Digital Skills Curriculum which walks through practical life applications that can be accomplished with the GSuite tools. Use this to teach students (or adults) how to research properly, create a budget, stay organized, and much more. Teachers can guide students through the self-paced learning that can be done individually or in groups and the lesson plans and resources can be downloaded to allow modification to meet your specific needs. I think we are finally getting to the answer to all teacher's favorite question: "When am I going to use this in real-life?" 3. Tinker Thinking is important- We were extremely lucky to have very energetic and innovative Jessica Loucks presenting at our summit. I attended her session called Thinkers That Tinker and was motivated to integrate more design thinking into our teachers' lessons and students' learning starting at the most basic of levels. Our first activity was using Makedo kits to design and build a creature out of cardboard! We were given a few requirements and then set off in groups to get creative. In a short amount of time we had all created very different concepts that we presented to each other and participate in a Launch Cycle that can easily be adapted to working with our students. I think the simplicty of design thinking and creativity is often lost on educators as we are pressured to juggle so many things and to step back and slow down is good for us and our students to be creative problem solvers that aren't defined by the barriers around us. Moral of the story: don't be afraid to tinker and let your students tinker! 4. Leadership- In addition to hosting the weekend summit we were also able to have a leadership pre-summit specifically for administration, teacher-leaders, and other school leadership positions. The Leading & Learning session was led by Mark Garrison who did an amazing job of motivating and inspiring us to think about how our students are learning and what ways technology can play a role. We covered several of the models for thinking about and evaluating tech use with teachers (TPACK & SAMR) and students (4Cs, TIM, & T3) and framed our discussion about what good teaching can look like with the assistance of technology as well as how we can coach teachers to use technology effectively in their teaching practice. Participating in the pre-summit and the full summit made one thing clear to me regarding leadership: we need our leaders to participate in these types of events in order to better understand how technology fits into the educational model and can be leveraged to promote student and teacher success. We had several principals attend the full summit and one summarized his revelation perfectly: "I went in thinking this would be all about the gadgets, and soon realized it was about ways to promote and improve student learning and great teaching!" So refreshing to hear this coming from the leader of a building who will then hopefully pass down that excitement and energy to their own staff when looking to set goals for improvement. Teachers and staff can do a lot by "leading from the middle" when it comes to improving our students educational experience with the aide of technology, but getting our leadership on board is crucial to long-term success! 5. Do you say it GIF or GIF (JIF)?- I am a lover of GIFs. Several years ago I attended a session in an EdTechTeam summit that really showed me the power of these simple graphics and how they can be easily created and used creatively to achieve a lot of different goals in the educational sphere. In hosting our first summit I decided it was time to share my love of the GIF by participating in the Demo Slam. For those of you not familiar with the Demo Slam it is an exciting, fast-paced, and competitive showcase of innovative & fun tech tips to get people motivated to try great things. We use this model in our own district to get people engaged before staff meetings and showcase the amazing things happening in the classroom. In my attempts to be funny I opened my presentation with the statement that it's pronounced GIF not JIF along with an attempt at a witty jab at those who think otherwise and then proceeded to do a mediocre job of presenting my information. My new best friend and nemesis, Jeff Heil, decided to take it upon himself to impromtively change his original topic and troll me to the point of destruction using this simple video below: After that short video and a quick tutorial on a very easy way to make GIFs using Google photos I lowered my head in shame and accepted defeat... Until the next day when the entire summit was presented a video message from the amazing Ken Shelton (c/o Tracy Purdy) making his case for the use of phonics and linguistics that result in Graphic Interchange Format (GIF) pronounced with a hard G! I stand with Ken and will forever hold on to my opinion that it's pronounced GIF and not JIF! There are my 5 big take-aways from the 1st (hopefully not the last) EdTechTeam summit in Aspen, CO. If you attended please feel free to share any of your favorite moments in the comments section. As my school staff move towards a full integration of GSuite for EDU tools to optimize our workflow. We have begun to really take advantage of Google Calendars to keep our schedules organized and accessible to others. Here are some tips and suggestions I have after working with staff in developing best practices: Layering & different views - Google Calendar works on the premise that you can easily meld a lot of different calendars together in order to stay organized. When you have a whole organization using the calendar it allows for easy sharing and access to calendars making coordination with peers simple and effective. Don't forget that you can alter how you are viewing your calendar based on your needs. Schedule view is often forgotten and can really help keep you organized if you have a lot of events. Day, Week, or 5-day view might help keep things organized if you need a clear picture of several calendars all at once. Sharing - Much like Google Docs one of the big advantages of Google Calendar is the ability to easily share it with other Google users and control what exactly they can see. Calendars can be made public or shared individually with a varied level of detail/access depending on what you deem appropriate. Avoid unnecessary emails about your availability by giving some level of access to your calendar/schedule to your cohorts. Invites & Attaching documents - One of the lynch pins of organizing your calendar with others is sending invites. This insures other parties are aware of a meeting or event you have scheduled, inserts it on their calendar, and will let you know who has confirmed or denied their ability to attend. Use the 'Find a Time' tab when creating an invite to easy see invitees availability (if you have access) to avoid back and forth correspondence about best times. When any corresponding documentation (i.e. agendas, supplemental reading, notes, etc...) would be helpful, simply attach it to the calendar invite so you have quick access. This feature is great for standing meetings that you may have a running agenda for, no need to search your Drive for the document! Making appointments - One feature only available for organizations like schools and businesses is the ability to make appointment slots that users can then sign up for and make an event on both calendars as a reminder. When you are in a support role, like myself, it is an easy way to stay organized and again avoid unnecessary emails back and forth to find times that work for everyone. View the Google Help center documentation HERE and watch the quick GIF below walking through the process. Syncing & Embedding - Everyone's using GSuite aren't they? Though a tool like Google Calendar always works best in it's home environment, it's easy to give someone (or larger audience) access to a calendar in a few different ways regardless of their Googleness. Each Google Calendar you create has the ability to be imported into a calendar viewer and grab an embed code to easily display your calendar on any webpage that allows for custom HTML. Spreadsheet import - When you have a lot of events you'd like to put in a calendar all at once, the thought of clicking on each day and entering the details can seem like a massive time suck, and it is. The ability to create a quick import template via Google Sheets is an incredible time-saver that makes populating a calendar quick and easy. Find the instructions from Google HERE and access a template I've created HERE. There you have my advice for some of the best features and tools of Google Calendars that have really helped my district get the most out of this tool. If you have been a longtime user of Google Calendar none of this should come as a surprise, but getting everyone on your team and organization on board with these features and tools is paramount to getting the most out of Google Calendar and being efficient and organized. Please leave any tips or advice in the comment section that you've found helpful that wasn't mentioned above. Tech Integration Specialist at the Aspen School District. Level 2 Google Certified Educator. Former 4th grade teacher and Spartan for life! Go Green!

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For most projects, a brief Project Charter of five to ten pages. Mapping construction projects happening in New Orleans right now The National WWII Museum broke ground on its new $66 million hotel on the corner of Andrew Higgins Drive and Magazine Street. A project charter is a critical document that provides written authorization for a task to either start or continue to move forward. It is the initial deliverable prepared for the Extended Accounting System project and defines why the project was initiated, the scope of the project, the purpose & objectives of the project, the project milestones and a high level estimate on the. Sign off the Project Charter, Project Plan and any change requests. 7 October 2004. Implementation of a project will not take place smoothly if you are a Project Manager is not an appropriate tool, which can control all components of the project in order to stay within the defined on project planning. Charters Brothers Construction has experience with an array of different construction projects including; Colleges and Universities, Athletic Facilities, Healthcare, Historic Renovations, Government, Multi-Unit Housing, and Retail. The project charter is a document stating the purposes of the project. The Master of Science in Project Management self-paced flexible option is 100% online and offers a set of 15 courses, including 1-2 experiential project opportunities as well as a capstone project. Writing a project charter is an iterative process and typically requires a few. A Project Charter is a document issued by the project initiator or sponsor that formally authorizes the existence of a project, and provides a project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities. A project charter template is a document that outlines project objectives and defines the authority of the project manager. The project charter is usually created by the Project Manager early in the Project Management Life Cycle. Six Sigma professionals must establish a communication plan when developing and validating a team charter. It authorizes the project, the project manager and the budget and sets out an expected return. Leverage your professional network, and get hired. This team will continually evaluate and assess project risks and make sure all project requirements are met as defined in the project plan. Ideally, the project charter is the first step in project management. The project charter needs to be clear about how these review points will be defined and managed, the extent of the current authorisation and how the authorisation will be, extended or a new charter (implying a new project) created - there should only be one charter for each project. Use the template that is provided following the case study as a basis for your work. Project Title and Description (What is the project?) Customer Satisfaction Fix-It Project Over the last few months, the quality assurance department has discovered many of our customers' orders for our XYZ equipment have taken the customer ten times longer to place through our computer network than our competitors' networks. best image 20 Construction Project Charter Example. Sign off the Project Charter, Project Plan and any change requests. This charter also includes the major risks and risk mitigation strategies associated with this construction Project. This failure is especially common when the project customer is within the same organization as the project team. UCSF ITS Product and Project Management Office Project Charter 1. The project charter should stay basically static over the lifecycle of the project. Charter Version 1. Project Charter. ARTIFACT DEPENDENCIES COMPLETED BY SIGNED BY NOTES Project Request Form N/A Customer Intake Authority Project Evaluation Form Project Request Form Technical Assessor Director Project Charter Project Request & Evaluation Project Manager PM, Customer, Sponsors Project Plan Project Chart. Projects often fail without enough early thinking during an initiation phase. com announced their latest online tool, which helps create Project Management Charters. In many cases, the persons or authority authorizing the Sample Project Plan Templates will prefer to issue the charter in a groundbreaking ceremony to signify its importance. Project Charter. Develop Project Charter implies working with stakeholders to create the project charter, the foundation document for the project. The second project management step is definition and planning. The Charter also defines the. The risk assessment sheet (RAS), or Risk Entry Form, is the appropriate place to record all known information about the risk. 15 Questions You Should Ask Every Time You Start A Project. 9/25/2015 www. com announced their latest online tool, which helps create Project Management Charters. Hotel Construction keeps you updated with hotel projects in the planning, bidding and pre-construction stages. Through a single project or in multiple installments, a project manager engages in the hotel from the preliminary blueprints to the final finished project. Project Charter Project Name : XYZ Computer System Page 2 of 9 Project Charter Purpose The Project Charter defines the scope, objectives, deliverables and overall approach for the work to be completed. The simple project charter templates enable you to make a project charter for your project in the right way. Christy has over 16 years of experience in the construction industry with extensive Institutional and Healthcare project portfolios as well as experience managing large, complex multi-use development projects. (See Project Program for complete details). 2 PROJECT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The executive summary of this project is to highlight all aspects of the "W" hotel renovation. Use these guidelines to optimize these pre-formatted templates. The construction industry is moving to digital integrated design team project delivery on platforms such as Trimble Connect (www. Project Charter Page 3 of 12 D. The Project Charter can also act as a contract between the project sponsor, key stakeholders, and the project manager. Today, Method123. Multnomah County Southeast Health Clinic Primary Care Remodel. The creation of a PMO will also help keep ODU in compliance with the Higher Education Finance. Assigned project manager As stated in the PMBOK above, one of. Key Project Assumptions for the LCLS Project 01Sep07 Risk Management Assumptions • The Risk Management process assesses and quantifies potential cost and schedule impacts to the Project which are not explicitly budgeted or otherwise acknowledged in the Project cost and schedule baseline or bottoms-up contingency estimates. Information should come from Project Charter. 0 Project Purpose The purpose of this project is to produce a Burnside-Gorge/Douglas Area Plan (Plan) that will advance the objectives of the Official Community Plan (OCP), respond to current conditions, and present a greater level of detail regarding how the area will grow and. (Additional types of information, processes and considerations may be required for certain projects. So, if you want to get this wonderful photo about Construction Project Charter Example Ucedg Elegant Project Charter Sample Agipeadosencolombia, just click save button to save this images to your computer. 4- Project Manager responsibility is completing the project on time, within the provided or given budget, and maintain the quality criteria provide training for the project staffs, maintain the project quality, identify the project procurement, develop and approve project charter, define the goals and objectives. By providing a commercial foundation we ensure our customer’s projects are delivered and expectations are realized. Example 1: Rice University is planning to create a store to sell computer supplies. Project Charter CTSO Fundraiser Example STAKEHOLDERS WWW. CiteScore: 6. - Specific tasks to be performed. Project Charter Definition. In conclusion, the project charter is a formal authorization document issued by the sponsor that acknowledges that the project satisfies their needs and expectations. These sections will vary in the amount of detail depending on the type of project you are managing. Home Producers, Inc. A project charter, project definition, or project statement is a statement of the scope, objectives, and participants in a project. 0 – 5/11/2015 Project Team will include Business Process Reengineering (BPR) specialists and Organizational Change Management (OCM) specialists to drive the required changes. The company is recognized for pioneering the next-generation of multi-function jobsite cameras that seamlessly integrate progress monitoring, collaboration, site security, safety, and documentation functions. PROJECT ORGANIZATION. Sample Project Plans, Project Charter Sample Project Charter. This charter will define the vision, scope, goals, objectives, and overall approach for the South Jersey Behavioral Health Innovations Collaborative. Experience, Innovation, and Precision has enabled WITNESS Construction to deliver high quality, cutting-edge properties on-time and on-budget. Before we present our project charter article, we are happy to announce that we have partnered with Master of Project Academy to bring you a real Project Charter Template you can download. Project Design and Construction. PROJECT ORGANISATION 1. We intend to do this. If it is a great product that is in need, but overpriced, it will not be acceptable by the market and could fail. It provides a preliminary delineation of roles and responsibilities, outlines the project objectives, identifies the main stakeholders, and defines the authority of the project manager. com) or Bentley ProjectWise, with all of the required information (specification, models, point clouds, drawings, reports, etc. Project Charter Template tips will help you make the most of your charter. Update the Charter when changes occur or on a semiannual basis. New, Ground up, Turn-key construction. They should be issued by management and they should provide a summary of the business opportunity the project is intending to capitalize on. Teams use the charter to clarify the process issue being addressed, the reason for addressing it and what “success” looks like for those working on it. A project charter is a document that sets out the purpose of the project and is therefore both a common reference point throughout the lifecycle of the project and an aid to communication. A proposed four-story, 56,000-square foot La Quinta Inns & Suites is promising to create 25 jobs and generate $300,000 per year in tax revenue for the city of Lincoln, according to a city staff. The following "samples" have been created to provide an illustration of some of the QAIassist Integrated IT Methodology® - Project Management deliverables. More than 60 Project Management Templates in MS word and Excel. Identifying your objectives, stakeholders, methods, parameters, risks, and resources launches you on your way to project success. Left and right arrows move across top level links and expand / close menus in sub levels. The Sydney Opera House is one of the best-known iconic buildings, recognized around the world as a global symbol of Australia. Key Project Assumptions for the LCLS Project 01Sep07 Risk Management Assumptions • The Risk Management process assesses and quantifies potential cost and schedule impacts to the Project which are not explicitly budgeted or otherwise acknowledged in the Project cost and schedule baseline or bottoms-up contingency estimates. Apply to Construction Project Manager, Project Manager, Hotel Manager and more!. Project Charter Development is a critical step in enterprise project management. what is a project charter? It is a document where you and the team has to write down the information about the project you have to carry out. After the project charter is approved, it is officially accepted by the organization. in the construction phase, 5 projects are in the design/planning phase, 1 project has not yet begun, 13 projects have been re-allocated, and 22 projects have been eliminated. They are used to envision schedules for building residential and commercial projects. A Project Charter is a must-have in any project, as prescribed by the PMBOK® Guide and other methods. The aim of the charter is to act as an approval point for the project and remain a focus point throught the lifecycle of the project to ensure the project. A project charter template is an official document authorizing the commencement of a particular project. The Project Charter Template helps project managers and teams around the world, to complete one of the most critical tasks in any project– the creation of the Project Charter document. Thenew residence will be afree-standing, single-family. Ali Imran Project Customer VVIP class of Pakistan and foreigners 3. Managed by Planning, Design & Construction. First, start with the date that the renovated space must be ready; work backward. Project Charter Guide 1 Introduction This guide explains the steps needed to create a project charter for the delivery of a project. As part of the I-91 Charter Oak Bridge Project, the exit will be closed for two years starting Wednesday. Lead Design Firm: Lothan Van Hook Destefano Structural Engineer: Rubinos. Robert 09-3-9 2:24 PM Comment: Document is dated and versioned to allow different versions to be identified, thereby preventing confusion from people having different Background. They should be issued by management and they should provide a summary of the business opportunity the project is intending to capitalize on. Sponsors and Stakeholders. Engineering 210 Martin Luther King Jr. Download ms project related templates, we have free microsoft word 2007, 2010, 2013 and 2013 templates in various topics and designs. , 500-space parking garage in close proximity to the beach. However often management does not produce the charter and it is frequently up to the project manager to. Most construction contracts for construction projects require periodic schedule updates. The Project Charter deliverable is used to establish a formal project. , frequency of status reports, frequency of Project Team meetings, etc. A project charter is a document that sets out the purpose of the project and is therefore both a common reference point throughout the lifecycle of the project and an aid to communication. If you’re building a house, perhaps the interior decorating is defined as outside the scope of your project, or perhaps the landscaping is out-of-scope. Pre-Project Planning 1 q Document the role of the Project Steering Committee (Review Board). Dear CMP Community, The first day of school is here and we are excited to welcome you all back tomorrow. PROJECT ORGANISATION 1. Provide a simple but precise statement of the project. Sphere Project, consequently, was one of the first of what are now known as the quality and accountability (Q&A) initiatives. Project Charter. Thenew residence will be afree-standing, single-family dwelling built on a two-acre lot (lot #24) located at 200 North Maple Avenue,MyTown,MyState,20001-1234,USA. It is also. A project charter is a document that sets out the purpose of the project and is therefore both a common reference point throughout the lifecycle of the project and an aid to communication. The Project will also require moving and relocating staff to accommodate the construction work. The plan development process will build directly on recent city initiatives, including Vision 2015, the My Saint John Project and the Integrated Community Sustainability Plan. Below are some of our recently completed projects. Assigning a project manager to the project right when project charter is created is of great advantage for the project manager. 1 This charter applies to all enterprises that are involved in the creation, expansion, and/or maintenance of fixed assets related to residential or non-residential buildings, infrastructure, or any other form of construction works in South Africa. Projects often fail without enough early thinking during an initiation phase. The charter hence spells out the limits and powers of the project manager when it comes to resource utilization. com announced their latest online tool, which helps create Project Management Charters. The purpose of a Project Charter is:. By approving the Project Charter you are also agreeing to commit resources from your area as necessary to complete this project. Communicate with the sponsor of your project to ensure that this stakeholder meets commitment to the project. It helps you to set the direction for the project and gain buy in from your stakeholders as to how the project will be organized and implemented. The project charter needs to be clear about how these review points will be defined and managed, the extent of the current authorisation and how the authorisation will be, extended or a new charter (implying a new project) created - there should only be one charter for each project. Top construction project charter example - What is up? This time we will show you several rushing snap shots that we've got accumulated if you want more example, for today we are focused concerning branch charter templates. They manage the. A project charter is the statement of scope, objectives and people who are participating in a project. Edit, fill, sign, download Project Charter Template Pdf online on Handypdf. The first settlement of Mérida was not the current one but 30 kilometres (19 miles) to the south, in Xamú, where today stands Lagunillas. This project is valuable for the ABC Construction from three perspectives: ABC Construction shall generate the experience and obtain the skills necessary for the design and construction of luxury energy efficient homes. It may be written for a large volunteer project (a seasonal spectacular convention) or it may be designed to resolve a particular problem. Top construction project charter example - What is up? This time we will show you several rushing snap shots that we've got accumulated if you want more example, for today we are focused concerning branch charter templates. The purpose of a Project Charter is:. Business Case and Project Background:. Many Partnering charters exist, and the essence of the charter is to show a commitment to common, (hopefully) measurable goals of the parties. com by assisting hotel supply and service companies increase their sales. Example 1: Rice University is planning to create a store to sell computer supplies. What is the purpose of this tool? The purpose of the project charter is to describe the performance improvement rationale, goals, barriers, and anticipated resources to which the team will commit. A project manager (PM) is responsible for the entire project through initiation, planning, implementing, controlling, and completion. When the charter is presented, the organization gets an initial look at what the project is going to produce what it will cost and duration. com/articles/304593/A-Project-Lifecycle. Project Governance. These include a 354-key hotel in Hawthorn, Calif. " Further, "HEP underpins and advances the DOE missions and objectives through this research, and. This charter besides includes the major hazards and hazard extenuation schemes associated with this building Undertaking. Subscribe to our newsletter. Christy has over 16 years of experience in the construction industry with extensive Institutional and Healthcare project portfolios as well as experience managing large, complex multi-use development projects. Ltd to evaluate the feasibility of investing in a project to develop a five star hotel island under the name of “Mendhoo Island Resort Development project” by using project development methods with financial assessment. It is a key asset in the project management process and helps improve both project planning and execution. 2 PROJECT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The executive summary of this project is to highlight all aspects of the "W" hotel renovation. An understanding of the. This also includes how you intent to accomplish the project. Hotel Renovation, Hotel Construction, Hotel Development, Hotel Projects & Hotel Supply leads is the focus HotelProjectLeads. The Charter provides a high -level overview of the project, including the definition of project success and project resource (people and funds) requirements. 316 videos Play all Project Management Videos Project Management Videos How to Sell A Product - Sell Anything to Anyone - The A. In each phase the suggested deliverables are included automatically. SCOPE, ASSUMPTIONS, AND CONSTRAINTS Scope The scope of the project is focused on replacing the core MVD systems with a modernized solution. project Charter approval. Executive Summary. If the case study does not provide enough information for a particular. 880 Project Manager jobs available in Atlanta, GA on Indeed. We have learnt what is project management. The first major variable for this project is the project charter that identifies the project needs, duration, cost, and acceptance criteria. Contents of the Project Charter. We intend to do this. Project Charter Template tips will help you make the most of your charter. The Project Charter project team has the following project mission within their project Charter: To Read more Project Charter Standards and Guidance Document - $0. Mérida was founded by Juan Rodríguez Suárez on October 9, 1558 in one of the Pamplonian mining expeditions he led. Typically, the executive summary also provides the background information and general statements regarding the project's purpose or justification which will be covered in more detail in the appropriate section(s) of the charter. Notes New York University. The project charter is the final deliverable document that is required at the end of the first step of the Define Phase. These assumptions are what the project manager/team expect to have or be made available without anyone specifically stating so. Pompano Beach Pier Parking Garage. PROJECT CHARTER Updated 8/14/2018 STRATEGIC PRIORITY 5. Requirements stated in Section 3, "Performance Objectives," of this Project Charter. Get expert tips on writing a project charter. (specify how the project manager will communicate to the Executive Sponsor, Project Team members and Stakeholders, e. Anthony Carter and family in the area with main intersection Sheppard Ave and Warden Ave, Scarborough, Ontario. The Author. The Charter provides a high -level overview of the project, including the definition of project success and project resource (people and funds) requirements. All construction, renovations, modifications or changes to existing facilities on campus requires a Project Request Form* before work on a project may begin. (See Project Program for complete details). PROJECT ORGANISATION 1. This Project Charter provides essential project information that will inform and shape Phase 1 work, including the overall project scope, timelines, and budget as defined in the RTA. 2 Make an independent cost estimate before receiving bids or proposals. Project Charter Example PROJECT OVERVIEW This project is being undertaken to establish a new residence for Mr. It is an ideal place to document the relationships between the project and the organizational strategy. A project charter includes high-level planning components of a project, laying the foundation for the project. Marriott International has built 50 hotels whose construction included assembly of prefabricated guestrooms or bathrooms. Exclusions are often mentioned in project charter documents and/or project scope statements, and are sometimes referred to as project boundaries. C takes special care to make sure your project is on time and on budget. In the next phase of project integration management, project managers are responsible for directing the actual work that is to be done. Our cadre of subcontractors and supplies make our commitment to our clients possible. The project charter template is the selling document for the project. This section of the project charter forms the early version of your project risk log. There’s no doubt about it, lining up all your key contractors and resources is one of the most important things you can do on a renovation project. Sets Out Project Objectives. Project management is a standout amongst the most complex fields of work out there. Allows progression, which is aimed at attaining industry best practices. The Project Charter documents the formal conversation between the Project Sponsor and the Project Manager/Team, including identifying metrics of success for the project. So, if you want to get this about 20 Construction Project Charter Example, just click save button to save this images to your computer. The next boxed-off space can be for the Project’s Budget. The multi-page project charter template can be visited at: Project Charter Template (Multi-Page Version). Every _____ and project manager should be aware of the impact of project management challenges and anticipate how to avoid them in order to ensure the success of their projects. , Construction Engineering depart Zagazig University Consultant Engineer Alex. Or describe how this project originated, who is involved, and what the purpose is. com by assisting hotel supply and service companies increase their sales. 1 Develop Project Charter. Please put this in proper business writing format. Charter is uniquely qualified to create value through innovative project structures that result in challenging sites being remediated and redeveloped. Project Charter for the YourGard CRM Implementation Project Project Purpose and Justification YourGard is a rapidly growing technology company that provides hardware and software products for the business security sector, they currently have revenues of more than $200 million. New charter school to open this year in. With construction costs soaring and the original general contractor unable to provide capable manpower and project management, Charter Construction stepped in. After the project charter is approved, it is officially accepted by the organization. The project charter is an important source document that all other project documents typically use as a reference. This process / step is mainly determined by the project sponsor because the project charter contains descriptions of the targets, wishes and constraints which the project sponsor and his. The Project Charter documents the formal conversation between the Project Sponsor and the Project Manager/Team, including identifying metrics of success for the project. The Project Charter identifies the project vision, targets, range, organization and execution plan. They manage the. A project charter is the statement of scope, objectives and people who are participating in a project. This is a FREE Project Charter Template in Word and PDF. A project charter outlines the key aspects of your project, including its general scope, goals, milestones, budget and participants. 15 Project management (student) Tim Howard By approving the Project Charter you are in agreement with the schedule, the scope, the budgeted costs, and the project resources as described herein. After signing and approving the Project Proposal a business starts drafting the following documents: a project charter, project plan, contract, etc. com (Direct file, Word) 4. The Project Charter is written by the project manager and approved by the project sponsor to show that there is an agreement on the work to be completed. , PMP University of Cincinnati Cincinnati, OH In partial fulfillment of the requirements for a capstone project, Construction Management students are required to prepare a construction project manual, in addition to developing a complete proposal for a. 0 4 Project Team Roles and Responsibilities Team Member Roles Responsibilities Rebecca Nguyen ITSM Product Manager The Product Manager is the liaison to the Project Sponsor and Project Stakeholders, and is responsible for facilitating and organizing the project roadmap,. Reference Date Reason For Changes Version Refer to Table 1. Burnside-Gorge/Douglas Area Plan Project Charter Page 1 of 13 1. Project charter template portrays the authority the project manager has in the bureaucratic kind of the environment and is counted on in terms of return in investment for the company. Authorises all expenditure. com, a construction project manager earns $72,503 per year on the average, while senior project managers can earn as much as $112,000. The Project Charter identifies the project vision, targets, range, organization and execution plan. An understanding of the. This template has been pre-populated with an example of what a website redesign project charter might look like. Our team of experienced professionals help you accomplish your goals when looking for a rental space or a new investment property in Texas. Project Objectives: This party is to celebrate Ben's contributions to the company and wish him well in his retirement. Our expertise in complex site remediation, combined with our market knowledge and financial capacity yield successful outcomes for all parties involved. Sign-off Name Signature Date (MM/DD/YYYY) Executive Sponsor Department Sponsor Project Manager 7. The only real difference is the amount of detail found therein. Project Charter Template. Document/System Access – the project manager is authorized access to any company document or system in the pursuit of this project completion. When you see a need for improvements to a building, you may initiate the process by completing the Project Request Form, obtaining the proper. Charter’s skilled management team redeveloped the project’s schedule and costs to ensure the project was completed the way the client had originally envisioned it. Project Team Roles and Responsibilities NMU’s Information Technology (IT) department believes that a successful project requires the creation and active participation of a project team. EXAMPLE PROJECT CHARTER - PAGE 3 PROJECT ORGANIZATIONAL IMPACTS PROJECT PLANNING TEAM NAME ORGANIZATION & TELEPHONE Joan McLean Facilities Management 919-0001 John Lyle Facilities Management 919-2323 Susan Anderson Human Resources 919-3333 Jim King Manufacturing 374-5574. Here is a six-step approach to creating a project plan. 2012 – 14). Archibald1 Ivano Di Filippo2 Daniele Di Filippo3 Abstract A holistic systems perspective of projects and programs is required today to achieve the full benefits of. Project Charter. Participating agencies will continue to support staff involvement with this project. 8 million square feet. The investors can get a good return for his investment as the facilities available in the town is not sufficient and the. Dismas Assisted Living Facility case study you will need to prepare the project charter are listed below. These sections will vary in the amount of detail depending on the type of project you are managing. Project Charter Definition. The Charter also defines the. headquarters turned into an independently owned 110-room facility that quickly grew into a lodging spot for celebrities playing concerts or getting their time on stage in the Denver Center for the Performing Arts that sits across the street. Download the Project Charter Template in MS Word. Agency project charter/business proposal template This project charter template is designed specifically for use by project. The project charter is one of the more important project documents. Upon completing this series, you will be able to (1) write a narrative charter statement, (2) create a work breakdown structure, (3) sequence project activities,(4) build a project schedule, (5) create a project budget, (6) create a responsibility assignment matrix, (7) identify project risks and (8) define responses for those risks. It is required for UIT-managed projects. A project charter is the first step in the Six Sigma methodology. The Project Charter deliverable is used to establish a formal project. Written in Medieval Latin almost 800 years ago, it set out the rights of citizens in feudal England and formed the foundation of modern democracies. You need this – it gives you the authority to act as project manager for the project. and local infrastructure and rollout in the facilities. James Massett. UCSD Daycare Project Team 1 Scope Statement (Version 1. It is required for UIT-managed projects. As part of the I-91 Charter Oak Bridge Project, the exit will be closed for two years starting Wednesday. New City Hall Construction Sensera Systems® is a leading innovator of comprehensive, real-time jobsite monitoring solutions. Construction Project Charter Example Ucedg Elegant Project Charter Sample Agipeadosencolombia. The Sidney Opera House construction: A case of project management failure. Different inputs are used to develop project charter and these inputs are; Inputs 1. The Project Manager (PM) in the Project Planning and Management Division (PPMD) is the lead IPT member responsible for the overall execution of the project from initiation of the Design Phase through the completion of Construction Bid documents, including follow-on post construction services. what is a project charter? It is a document where you and the team has to write down the information about the project you have to carry out. For most projects, a brief Project Charter of five to ten pages. Archibald1 Ivano Di Filippo2 Daniele Di Filippo3 Abstract A holistic systems perspective of projects and programs is required today to achieve the full benefits of. A comprehensive committee charter is the primary deliverable used to organize successful project committees, providing a roadmap for committee operation, deliberation and action. Work towards consensus among [WORKING GROUP] members on the desired project goals, alternatives, construction phasing, and mitigation measures to include in the EIS. Project Charter Development is a critical step in enterprise project management. This output begins to organize and document a project's need and expected outcomes at the beginning of the project management process and provides a foundation on which to base project decisions. Project Charter Template is a tool that is very familiar by a professional Project Manager. Instead, it is issued by the sponsor to empower the Project Manager with the authority to begin the project and obtain resources for project activities. A finely executed Black Belt project can suffer disappointing results if an efficient mechanism is not already in place to ensure that vital information is relayed to those members who need it. ” This document, oftenprepared by a senior executive and a project manager, gives the project managerthe go-ahead and the authority to get moving on a project. It serves as an informal contract that helps the team stay on track with the project objectives. The technique was initially developed by the Navy in the 1950s for the Polaris submarine project. The Project Charter. The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) defines a project charter as a document that formally authorizes a project. This document is created at the start of a project and its role is to define its purpose and requirements. Printable and fillable Project Charter Template Pdf. The Six Sigma project charter is a building block for any successful project. Robert 09-3-9 2:24 PM Comment: Document is dated and versioned to allow different versions to be identified, thereby preventing confusion from people having different Background. Project charter Project Title Construction of 5 star hotel Project Sponsor (OPIC) Date Prepared 12/11/2015 Project Manager Amina Nawaz. PROJECT CHARTER VERSION 0. Communicate with the sponsor of your project to ensure that this stakeholder meets commitment to the project. Provide a simple but precise statement of the project. All construction, renovations, modifications or changes to existing facilities on campus requires a Project Request Form* before work on a project may begin. The Purpose of the Project Charter. Project Team Members: Steve Dunn, Ruhun Goonewardena, Peggy Hoene, Jeff Johnson, Dave. 2 ACTIVITIES The process includes several business rules, the most important are: On entry to the Project Charter activity, the five phases of the DMAIC cycle are included. For example, in the mine building project mentioned above, the government approval for mine construction is so integral to the project that it could be mentioned in the project charter. This Charter formally authorizes the Payroll Project to develop and implement a new payroll system for use in Jones Consulting Company's payroll group. Simply finishing doesn't ensure that the organization benefits from the project's outcome. Top construction project charter example - What is up? This time we will show you several rushing snap shots that we've got accumulated if you want more example, for today we are focused concerning branch charter templates. It´s often used as the social document that authorizes the project and defines the mandate provided to the Project Manager. Anthony Carter and family in the area with main intersection Sheppard Ave and Warden Ave, Scarborough, Ontario. ISPMO Project Charter 16/03/2012 2 of 36 1. Project managers use the Scope Statement as a written confirmation of the results your project will produce and the constraints and assumptions under which you will work. Most construction contracts for construction projects require periodic schedule updates. Allrightsreserved ' Project(Charter-(Waftly(Towers. Dear CMP Community, The first day of school is here and we are excited to welcome you all back tomorrow. The technique was initially developed by the Navy in the 1950s for the Polaris submarine project. , that may have saved a year in construction time, says Jennifer Abuzeid, Senior Director–Global Design Strategies. Project Objectives: This party is to celebrate Ben’s contributions to the company and wish him well in his retirement. CHARTER – INTEGRATED PROJECT TEAM 2 DOE SLAC Site Office Deputy Federal Project Director – Evaristo Jose Valle DOE SLAC Site Office Contracting Officer – Tyndal L. NH has established a project governance structure for the Fort St. Core Tech International is a full-service general contractor with a proud tradition of success in providing the highest standards of planning, estimating, engineering, and construction services on a variety of award-winning projects. Marriott International has built 50 hotels whose construction included assembly of prefabricated guestrooms or bathrooms. Charter’s skilled management team redeveloped the project’s schedule and costs to ensure the project was completed the way the client had originally envisioned it. The free project charter template below provides for these two purposes. Information should come from Project Charter. The Project Team is pleased to submit this Project Charter for preparation of Saint John's comprehensive new Growth and Municipal Plans.

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Delusions—beliefs divorced from reality and yet firmly, oftentimes fiercely, maintained by people who are otherwise rational—are of great interest to me. People experiencing these kinds of delusions don’t hear voices or see visions or display signs of mental disturbance. “Functioning is not markedly impaired, and behavior is not obviously bizarre or odd,” according to the most recent edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association. Even if you were to spend extended periods of time with someone harboring an isolated delusion, you most likely wouldn’t notice anything out of the ordinary—unless the conversation veered toward the subject of the delusional belief. I once assumed that delusions were rare and almost always associated with mental illness, but as I discovered, delusions frequently occur among perfectly “normal” people. In a 2011 study, 1,000 participants drawn from the general population were asked to rate the intensity of their conviction (“weak,” “moderate,” or “strong”) about what researchers determined were delusion-like beliefs, which were defined as “false beliefs different from those that almost everyone else believes.” Ninety-one percent reported some level of acceptance of one or more such beliefs, and 39 percent expressed strong beliefs, most notably regarding political, social, and science-related topics. A Harris poll found that a substantial minority of adults in the United States report a belief in ghosts. Such findings suggest that delusions are widespread, often subtle, and sometimes merge imperceptibly into normal thinking. If, as seems reasonable to assume, we have delusions more often than we think we do, then how, in a given instance, can we be certain that we aren’t suffering from a delusion? This question is especially important today, when 85 percent of U.S. adults regularly use the Internet, which can spread delusional beliefs with the rapidity and randomness of plagues. Delusion-inspired ideologies, such as those that sanction violence as a response to religious differences, proliferate on the Web. They harken back to pogroms, witch hunts, and other persecutions that targeted individuals and groups thought to be associated with devils and demons. We may assure ourselves that nothing like that could happen today. We may take comfort in the thought that delusions can always be confidently separated from logically valid conclusions. But can they? To distinguish the offbeat from the just plain crazy, most of us rely on our inner feelings of certainty about such things as, say, our name, location, close friends, and family. Yet research reveals equally strong feelings of certainty about delusional beliefs. It’s fair to say that for “normals” as well as for those harboring delusions, the strength of one’s convictions isn’t a totally dependable indicator of the correctness of one’s conclusions. SOMETHING IS GOING ON As an entry point to understanding the delusional state of mind, consider this account by English anthropologist and explorer Francis Galton (1822–1911) of a deliberately induced delusion using himself as the subject: The method tried was to invest everything I met, whether human, animal, or inanimate, with the imaginary attributes of a spy. … I started on my morning walk from Rutland Gate, and found the experiment only too successful. By the time I had walked one and a half miles, and reached the cabstand in Piccadilly … every horse on the stand seemed [to be] watching me, either with pricked ears or disguising its espionage. Hours passed before this uncanny sensation wore off, and I feel that I could only too easily re-establish it. Galton recognized that the horses were not singling him out for attention; he was self-inducing the delusion-like experience. Psychiatrists refer to this ability to stand back and take a critical stance toward one’s inner thoughts and experiences as insight. It distinguishes imagination and fantasy from psychosis. As Galton’s description makes clear, a delusion may start with a misperception or misinterpretation of what’s happening. Since all of us are susceptible at every waking moment to misperceptions and misinterpretations, a high prevalence of delusion in the population should come as no surprise. Contrast Galton’s deliberately induced and controlled experience with this description (originally published in 1960 in the Canadian Medical Association Journal ) by a schizophrenic woman during what she referred to as an “exaggerated state of awareness.” At first it was as if parts of my brain “awoke” which had been dormant, and I became interested in a wide assortment of people, events, places, and ideas which normally would make no impression on me. … I felt that I was duty-bound to ponder on each of these new interests, and the more I pondered the worse it became. The walk of a stranger on the street could be a “sign” to me which I must interpret. Every face in the windows of a passing streetcar would be engraved on my mind, all of them concentrating on me and trying to pass me some sort of message. Based on description alone, distinctions between Galton’s auto-experiment and the patient’s psychotic delusional experience aren’t easy to make. Both share a common aura of threat described as a “delusional atmosphere” by German psychiatrist and philosopher Karl Jaspers (1883–1969): “Something seems in the air which the patient cannot account for, a distrustful, uncomfortable, uncanny tension invades him. There is some change which envelops everything with a subtle, pervasive and strangely uncertain light.” As one of Jasper’s delusional patients expressed it, “Something must be going on.” SEEING ISN’T ALWAYS BELIEVING Any one of us may explain inexplicable experiences in delusion-like terms yet stop short of succumbing to a full-blown delusion. We know this on the basis of an experiment carried out by psychologist Brendan Maher. Maher asked volunteers to track a target on a computer screen while watching the movement of what appeared to be their hands manipulating a joystick. But things were not as they seemed. A trick was being played on some of the volunteers: the hands shown on the screen were not their own and failed to comply with their intentions. If they willed the joystick to move the arrow up and to the left, the arrow moved down and to the right instead. As a result, the volunteers performed poorly on the tracking task. When asked later to explain their poor performance, they offered an assortment of delusion-like responses. “My hand was controlled by an outside physical force”; “I tried hard to make my hand go to the left, but my hand tried harder and was able to overcome me and went off to the right.” But after initially expressing their puzzlement at such a strange experience, the volunteers moved on to other concerns. None of the volunteers maintained delusion-like conclusions. Maher’s experiment suggests that in order for a delusion to form, one must make the decision to give greater credence to an anomalous perception (one’s hands moving on their own) than to long-held beliefs about causation (“I am in control of my hands, and they do what I want them to do”). The person prone to delusions adopts a “seeing is believing” approach. This choice of perception over logic, of intuition over reasoning, forms the nidus (origination point) for the delusion. As one delusional patient described her experience, “If I’m mad, so be it, but this is the most real thing I’ve ever known.” On occasion we can observe in ourselves the kind of mental rebalancing required to prevent a delusional explanation for an unusual experience. Several years ago I took an overnight flight from Washington, D.C., to Munich, where I was to deliver a lecture on the human brain the day after my arrival. I had been up late the night before and was unable to doze on the plane. Despite my fatigue, I forced myself to stay awake all that day, resulting in more than 36 hours of sleep deprivation. Walking at dusk that evening along a fashionable street, I saw a woman step out of a department store into a waiting limousine. Although I could not have seen her for more than a few seconds, her looks, gait, and style of dress quickly convinced me that the woman was my wife. I speculated that she had flown to Munich to surprise me and had hired the limousine to do some shopping before heading over to my hotel—an extravagance that I mentally registered as uncharacteristic of my wife. Nevertheless, I was convinced that when I arrived back at my hotel room, she would be waiting there for me. So strong was my emotional identification with the woman that I briefly considered approaching the vehicle, tapping on the window, and surprising her. But as the limousine pulled away, the psychological linkage to the woman abruptly faded, leaving me with the realization that I had observed a stranger who, at a distance and in the fading light of early evening, resembled my wife. This unsettling incident conformed in several respects to the conditions that could lead, in the predisposed, to the development of a delusion. First was the momentary intensity of feelings upon noting physical similarities between the unknown woman and my wife. But in this instance I was able to recognize my misperception as resulting from nervous tension and my lack of sleep. If, however, I had given more credence to my misperception, I might well have taken the second step toward a delusion. For instance, if I called home and my wife wasn’t there for some reason, this could have strengthened the conviction that the woman I had briefly observed really was my wife. Various delusional beliefs could then follow. As with my Munich experience and those of Maher’s joystick-wielding subjects, something in addition to altered perception is required to induce a delusion. EXPLAINING AWAY THE UNCANNY To discover that added something, I suggest a 10-minute experiment designed by Giovanni Caputo, a psychologist at the University of Urbino in Italy. It will enable you to experience a discomfiture that can lead to the onset of a delusion. (You may prefer to read the following description rather than carry out the experiment.) Set out two chairs about two feet apart in a dimly lit room. Place a large mirror on one chair and sit on the other so that you can stare at your reflection in the near darkness. “After about one minute of mirror-gazing, most people begin to perceive a sense of unsettling distortion in their reflected face,” according to Caputo. “The eyes start to move or shine, the mouth opens, or the nose becomes very large. If you continue to gaze, very big changes occur, until completely new faces appear.” The participants in Caputo’s experiment reported perceiving strange faces—often unknown, human or animal, living or dead, along with “fantastical and monstrous beings.” Strong emotional responses accompanied these apparitions. Some people felt that the “other” in the mirror watched them with an enigmatic, even threatening expression that created anxiety and dread in the viewers. Dynamic deformations of the new faces (“pulsations or shrinking”) resulted in “an overall sense of inquietude for things out of control.” Although an explanation of Caputo’s mirror illusion remains conjectural, the dim lighting was an important component of the effect: turn up the lights, and the perceived facial alterations disappear, which suggests that viewing one’s face in the semidarkness disrupted the brain’s ability to bind together the facial components into a recognizable pattern. “This long-term viewing of face stimuli of marginal strength may generate a haphazard assembly of face traits that generate deformed faces or scrambled faces,” Caputo wrote in “Strange-face-in-the-mirror illusion,” published in 2010 in the journal Perception. Haphazard assembly results in a temporary disturbing interruption in the mirror-gazer’s sense of identity. The subjects know who they are—the sense of identity remains basically intact—but somehow the feeling of their identity seems altered. In Vladimir Nabokov’s short story “Terror,” an unnamed character undergoes an experience similar to those of Caputo’s subjects: I now stood considering my own reflection in the glass and failed to recognize it as mine. And the more keenly I examined my face … and the more insistently I told myself “This is I,” the less clear it became why this should be “I,” the harder I found it to make the face in the mirror merge with that “I” whose identity I failed to grasp. When I spoke of my odd sensations, people justly observed that the path I had taken led to the madhouse. In point of fact, once or twice, late at night, I peered so lengthily at my reflection that a creepy feeling came over me and I put out the light in a hurry. If you decided to try Caputo’s experiment for yourself, you likely experienced at the very least an eerie sensation of disquiet. Now hold that feeling for a moment and consider several classic delusions. Capgras delusion: the belief that a family member or close intimate is an imposter rather than the person he or she claims to be. Fregoli delusion: the belief that a person is capable of changing his appearance to resemble others while maintaining his psychological identity. Cotard delusion: the belief that one is dead. The original patient, described by 18th-century scientist and philosopher Charles Bonnet, not only claimed to be dead but also reclined in a coffin and demanded to be buried. Intermorphosis: the delusion that people are changing both their physical and psychological identities. Doppelgänger delusion: the belief that one has a double or impersonator. Think of these delusions as an attempt to make sense of misperceptions and altered experiences similar to those described by Caputo and Nabokov. Delusion thus becomes a response to the tension between what is seen or heard and what is believed. But instead of stepping back from the strange misperceptions and realizing that things are not what they seem, the person given to delusions unquestioningly accepts the “evidence” provided by his anomalous perceptual experience. A COMMUNITY OF DELUSIONS Delusions can transfer to others by a kind of mental infectivity. French psychiatrists in the latter part of the 19th century coined the term folie à deux to describe a deluded person successfully persuading another person in close contact with him to accept the delusional belief. In folie simultanée the delusion occurs simultaneously in a pair of “predisposed” closely associated individuals who live in isolation from others. Although usually occurring in persons afflicted with a psychiatric illness, the communication of a delusion or delusion-like idea from one person to another can easily occur, under certain circumstances, in people without any mental disturbance. In 1942 a British intelligence officer with advance knowledge of an impending secret military mission in Dieppe, France, was idly paging through a newspaper when he came upon an advertisement. The headline “Beach Coat from Dieppe” was accompanied by a drawing of a young woman in a house coat snipping branches with a pair of garden shears. The officer, in a moment of “insight,” concluded that the advertisement was a code intended to warn the enemy of the upcoming military operations. “Coat” represented “Combined Operations Attack,” which was the official designation for the Dieppe raid. What’s more, the number of buttons on the woman’s coat conformed to landing points of the raid. Finally, the use of shears represented the British use of tanks against barbed wire, which was part of the planned Dieppe operation. Thoroughly convinced of the validity of his conclusions, the officer persuaded his superiors to allow him to convey the information to Scotland Yard. Experts there quickly concluded that the items in the ad and the planned raid shared only purely coincidental features. The explanation convinced the officer that the ad was not intended to convey secret information. In contrast to formulating a delusion, the intelligence officer readily abandoned his misinterpretation when another interpretation seemed more plausible. Contemporary examples of widespread delusion-like ideas include the conspiracy theories that persist regarding the assassination of President Kennedy. According to polls, between 61 percent and 81 percent of Americans adults believe that Lee Harvey Oswald did not act alone but was part of a conspiracy. Such theories endure despite painstaking investigations that have failed to support any explanation for Kennedy’s death other than a lone gunman. As Adam Gopnik points out in a New Yorker article, conspiracy theory-based explanations of Kennedy’s assassination merge imperceptibly into delusion. “It is possible, in other words, to construct an intricate scenario that is cautiously inferential, richly detailed, on its own terms complete, and yet utterly delusional,” Gopnik writes. THE ABSENCE OF DOUBT How do you go about recognizing a delusion? The first step is to distinguish bizarre from nonbizarre delusions. If someone asserts that he or she has recently been kidnapped by Martians, taken into a spaceship, and brainwashed, the bizarreness of the claim makes for an easy determination that the person is delusional. Compare this with a nonbizarre delusion: a man alleges that a next-door neighbor has planted cameras and other electronics in his house and is monitoring his every move. In this case the detection of a delusion is harder because—however weird and unlikely it may sound—the surveillance could conceivably be true. Such cases call for a different approach. When evaluating a nonbizarre delusion, it’s important not to get caught up in the question of whether the allegation is objectively true or false. It doesn’t matter. The distinction is that a person with the delusion is so convinced of its reality that he or she will not even consider other possible explanations. Indeed, suggesting alternative possibilities usually leads to impatience and arguments, followed by verbal and in some instances even physical aggression. I learned this firsthand several years ago when I encountered a tragic example of a delusion in a woman imprisoned for murder. Grace H. admitted to killing her lesbian partner of 15 years after she became convinced the partner was sexually abusing the 11-year-old boy whom they had adopted as a baby. So strong was her conviction that she set up concealed cameras around the house, placed baby powder on the floor outside the bedrooms “to detect footprints,” and began a “secret diary,” which she password-protected. (Software analysis later revealed the password to be death.) After finding “strange events … someone has moved things around the house,” Grace H. redoubled her surveillance efforts. A grim diary entry the night of the murders became a crucial piece of evidence: “IT IS DONE! I finally caught her in his bedroom after she had been with him.” By the time she wrote this, she had hacked both partner and child to death. As a defense consultant on the case, I had access to police files, pictures of the recording equipment, and Grace H.’s diaries. But these sources of information established only what Grace H. believed, not what was actually going on. In the first few minutes of our interview, Grace H. became angry when I asked her to describe what she had seen when she entered the bedroom. She ignored my request and continued to speak only of her unalterable conviction that her lover was sexually molesting the child. When I pointed out that her diary entry stated she had found her lover in the boy’s room but did not say that she had witnessed anything happening, Grace became increasingly agitated. I asked if it were possible that she had been mistaken about the alleged abuse, and I suggested alternative explanations. The more accounts I proposed, the more agitated and enraged she became. At one point in the interview I felt physically threatened by a shackled woman considerably smaller than I am. Eventually her shouting and frenzied excitement prompted the guard to check on my safety in the interview room. Was the alleged sexual abuse actually going on? I don’t believe there is any way of answering that question, since the only ones who knew the facts are now dead. But there was no doubt in my mind then, nor is there now, that at the time of the murders Grace H. was suffering from a psychotic delusion and therefore was not fully responsible for her actions. CAN DELUSIONS BE CONTROLLED? The tragic case of Grace H. raises a question: to what extent can a delusional person control his or her aberrations? Although delusions may be resistant to all counterarguments, they seldom are accompanied by a need to convince or intimidate nonbelievers with force. In many cases, some degree of control is possible. People in the thrall of a delusion are often evasive about their delusional beliefs and go to great lengths to avoid speaking about them, especially to people who are likely to react critically—the principal reason delusions often go undetected. What’s more, deluded people perform normally on tests of logical reasoning and possess at least average intelligence. In the few instances when reasoning deficits are found, they are limited to what has been referred to as a “reasoning bias”: drawing inferences and reaching conclusions much more rapidly and impulsively than the average person. A substantial subgroup (between a third and a half) is willing to arrive at a conclusion on the basis of examining just one line of evidence. This “jumping to conclusions bias,” as it has been called, leads to premature determinations that form the groundwork for delusions. But eventually, as with physicist John Nash, the subject of A Beautiful Mind (Sylvia Nasar’s biography and Ron Howard’s movie), the deluded person may progress to the point of being able, as Nash describes it, to “discriminate between delusional and real experience.” Over time and with repeated effort, Nash gradually became able to reject “some of the delusionally influenced lines of thinking which had been characteristic of my orientation.” Nash attributes this ability to discriminate between the delusional and the real to the exercise of willpower. “If one makes an effort to ‘rationalize’ one’s thinking then one can simply recognize and reject the irrational hypotheses of delusional thinking.” My experience with delusional patients leads me to agree with Nash on this point. Many times the delusion resolves itself and eventually disappears as part of a slowly evolving healing process. Recovery most often begins with a “double-awareness phase,” during which the deluded person starts to question the validity of the delusional belief while continuing to maintain it. Only gradually does the patient decide to abandon the belief. Treatment of a delusion takes advantage of this willingness to consider alternative possibilities by encouraging and affirming the first stirrings of the patient’s doubts about the delusion. But the process cannot be rushed. Since delusion is an affliction of belief, reasoning can go only so far in combatting it. What proves most effective is a calm acceptance on the part of the listener to the existence, but not the content, of the delusion. DELUSIONS AND THE BRAIN Although delusions have been recognized for centuries, physical explanations for them are of comparatively recent origin. The late-in-life delusion of Henry James provides a window into neuropsychiatric causes of the disorder. On December 2, 1915, the novelist collapsed in the bedroom of his London flat. Still conscious when his secretary found him, James told her that his left leg had buckled and correctly concluded that he had suffered a stroke. Two days later, another stroke left James paralyzed on his left side. Following the second event, James ascribed to himself a “sketchy state of mind” and expressed the wish that others not speak of his “madness.” On December 12 James dictated to his secretary a letter that would later be known as his Napoleonic fragment. In the words of his secretary, “he dictated perfectly clearly and coherently two letters from Napoleon Bonaparte to one of his married sisters [and her husband].” Dear and most esteemed brother and sister, I call your attention to the precious enclosed transcripts of plans and designs for the decoration of certain apartments of the palaces, here, of the Louvre and the Tuileries, which you will find addressed in detail to artists and workmen who are able to take them in hand. I commit them to your earnest care till the questions relating to this important work are fully settled. James ended the letter, “This will be the case with all further projects of your affectionate James died two months later. No autopsy was performed, but certain conclusions about his brain injury can be drawn with a reasonable degree of confidence. The occurrence of left-sided paralysis suggests that the stroke originated in the right hemisphere, which controls the left side of the body. In the 30 years preceding James’s terminal delusion, neurologists and neuropsychiatrists had uncovered abundant evidence that delusions could result from brain injury involving in almost all instances the right hemisphere. After right-hemisphere damage, patients often experience a host of strange alterations in identity and self-image. The most common is anosognosia: unawareness of disability after brain injury. Despite left-sided paralysis, the patient denies being unable to move his left arm or leg. On occasion he declares that his left limbs don’t belong to him. It’s likely that delusions in such settings provide sudden “clarification” for puzzling and inexplicable impairments. (“My left arm doesn’t seem to be working and doesn’t follow any commands that I give it. Therefore it doesn’t belong to me but is somebody else’s arm.”) Such a delusional belief is accepted because it provides comfort and an antidote to perplexity. But so far no one has come up with a fully satisfactory explanation for why delusions occur much more frequently after right-sided brain damage than after left-sided damage. On occasion the delusions caused by brain damage can be extraordinarily bizarre. Several years ago, I examined a woman in her 60s who had suffered a stroke that affected that part of her brain responsible for vision. She was blind but seemed curiously unconcerned about her visual loss. In fact, she denied any problem with her vision. When I tried to tell her as gently as I could that her claim of normal vision was impossible in light of the severe damage done to her brain’s visual centers, she angrily leapt out of bed, strode across the room, and collided with a wall. Did my patient really believe that her vision was normal? Her willingness to get out of bed and injure herself suggests that she did. The Roman poet Seneca described a similar situation in Epistulae morales ad lucilium. “You know Harpaste, my wife’s female clown. … Now this clown suddenly became blind. The story sounds incredible, but I assure you that it is true: she does not know that she is blind. She keeps asking the attendant to change her quarters; she says that her apartments are too dark.” What do we conclude in such instances about a person’s “real” belief when words and actions are so inconsistent with reality? Whether resulting from brain damage in the right hemisphere or arising from no discernible cause in people whose brains seem perfectly normal, delusions provide an unsettling insight that we are not always the reasonable creatures we consider ourselves to be. Permission required for reprinting, reproducing, or other uses.

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The Bible and the Paranormal A New Perspective Evil, Familiar, and Unclean Spirits The phrase “evil spirit” appears seven times in the Old Testament and every time it is found, those spirits are sent directly from God; certainly, not an evil source. The phrases “evil spirit and evil spirits” appear six times in the New Testament and refer directly to the devils, commonly called “demons”, that were exorcised from people by Jesus and his apostles. The phrase “familiar spirits” is found only in the Old Testament and “familiar” is taken from the Hebrew word owb, pronounced obe; properly, a mumble. In the biblical event associated with the “Witch of Endor”, we get a clear understanding that these entities are spirits of dead humans. In 1 Samuel 28, Saul seeks out this woman, who is not actually called a witch, but has contact with “familiar spirits”, in order to communicate with the spirit of deceased Samuel, whom she is able to successfully summon. Thus, “familiar spirits” are actually the spirits of the dead and, of course, not necessarily spirits of evil or lost souls. The phrases “unclean spirit and unclean spirits” appear 21 times in the New Testament and refer directly to devils, commonly called demons, which are considered “evil” only within the bodies they possess. The word “unclean” is taken from the Greek word akathartos, pronounced ak-ath’-ar-tos, meaning; impure. Although devils are of a spiritual nature, there is no indication that devils have any powers they are able to project beyond their hosts. Devils and Demons The word “demon” does not appear in in the Bible, but the word “devil” does. These beings that inhabit the bodies of living creatures, including humans, were the focus of many events in the New Testament. The most recognizable of those events was the encounter Jesus had with a possessed man, who lived in the tombs and mountains of the Gadarenes. Jesus’ encounter with this hoard of devils is described in Mark 5 and Luke 8. We will give a capsulation of what occurred taken from those two chapters. This man had been infested with about 2000 devils and had defied all previous attempts to restrain the individual they possessed, including breaking chains. He roamed around naked, crying out night and day, and cutting himself with stones. When Jesus first approached the man, the devils recognized him and knew they were about to be exorcised. They also perceived that Jesus was about to cast them all into the sea; obviously something they dreaded for some unknown reason, so they begged him to send them into a herd of swine grazing nearby. Jesus obliged their request, but, then, something happened, which is seldom considered from the pulpit; they suddenly bolted over a cliff right into the sea, which the devils had just begged Jesus not to send them into. We know from biblical descriptions, history, and modern revelations about demonic possession that these entities control the hosts they possess, which leaves an unasked and unanswered question. Why did the herd of swine defy that control and carry these devils exactly where they did not want to go? Although no reason is given as to why this suicidal event took place, it is not hard to consider a very interesting possibility. First, it does seem odd that Jesus seemed to have no problem accommodating their request to possess the swine, even though his first thought was to deep-six them. Two-thousand powerful and viciously evil entities were probably a handful, even for the human form of a god. Could it be that Jesus tricked them, by allowing them to enter the swine, which may have been easier to control, and then used his power to run the herd into the sea? Speculation, of course, but this may give new understanding to how this bizarre event ended. Who are the Demons? Little is ever considered about what the demons are and how they came to be persecutors of humans, but the answer is found in the very first book of the Bible. Genesis 6:4 states: ♦ “There were giants in the earth in those days; and also after that, when the sons of God came in unto the daughters of men, and they bare children to them, the same became mighty men which were of old, men of renown.” But, of course, this says nothing about demons and requires we go to another book written by a patriarch, who was so loved by God that he just took him off the Earth and kept him with him: ♦ “And all the days of Enoch were three hundred sixty and five years: And Enoch walked with God: and he was not; for God took him.” (Genesis 5:23-24) The Book of Enoch was known and used before the original Bible was compiled by the first theologian, Eusebius of the Universal, (Catholic), Church, which was established by the Emperor Constantine in the 4th Century. Eusebius chose not to include the writings of Enoch in that original Bible. In the writings of Enoch we find the origins of demons. We know from the single verse in Genesis that angels mated with demons and produced mutant giants, but nothing more. What Enoch tells us is that those giants became a serious threat to the environment and were killed by the flood. But, only being partially human, the spirits of those giants survived the deluge and left their original bodies. Here are excerpts from Enoch’s description of what occurred before and after the flood: ♦ “And they became pregnant, and they bare great giants, whose height was three thousand ells: Who consumed all the acquisitions of men. And when men could no longer sustain them, the giants turned against them and devoured mankind. And they began to sin against birds, and beasts, and reptiles, and fish, and to devour one another’s flesh, and drink the blood.” (Enoch 7:2- 6) ♦ “And now, the giants, who are produced from the spirits and flesh, shall be called evil spirits upon the earth, and on the earth shall be their dwelling. Evil spirits have proceeded from their bodies; because they are born from men and from the holy Watchers is their beginning and primal origin; they shall be evil spirits on earth, and evil spirits shall they be called. As for the spirits of heaven, in heaven shall be their dwelling, but as for the spirits of the earth which were born upon the earth, on the earth shall be their dwelling. And the spirits of the giants afflict, oppress, destroy, attack, do battle, and work destruction on the earth, and cause trouble: they take no food, but nevertheless hunger and thirst, and cause offences. And these spirits shall rise up against the children of men and against the women, because they have proceeded from them.” (Enoch 15:8-12) Here we have the origin of the demons, which is completely ignored by the pulpit. They are called fallen angels and the Nephilim, and associated with Satan, but the truth is quite simple. They are the spirits of the Nephilim, the giants, which were hybrids produced by angels, and have no scriptural relationship to Satan. The Biblical Bestiary Merriam-Webster defines cryptozoology as the study of the lore concerning legendary animals, especially in order to evaluate the possibility of their existence. The word “cryptozoology” did not appear in the English language until 1969, but it has sparked the imagination and spawned debate throughout modern history. With the uncompromising attitude of modern science and the enterprise of the sensationalist tabloid industry, it has long been the brunt of official ridicule. A classic example of scientific refusal to accept anything out of the ordinary is the infamous “Platypus Fraud”. When first seen in 1797 near Sydney Australia, it generated local excitement, but scientific denial. The duck-billed, web-footed, beaver-tailed, egg-laying, warm-blooded amphibian was declared a fraud and written off as a clever taxidermist trick by science. Though somewhat more sophisticated now, science is no less skeptical; denying a wealth of cultural evidence in ancient writings that the creatures of ancient lore may have been more than myth. One of the more prominent ancient writings, clearly presenting evidence of anomalous creatures, is also the world’s longest-running bestseller; the Bible. In the pages of the Bible are found leviathans, dragons, behemoths, unicorns, flying, fiery serpents, and cockatrices. Leviathan: A Gigantic and Terrifying, Fire-Breathing, Smoke-Snorting, Stone-Hearted Sea Monster We will start at the top, the biggest of the animal kingdom; Leviathan. The detailed description of this creature, which is found in Job 41:1-33, begins with taunting from God. He asks Job if leviathan can be caught with hook and line, led around by the nose with a rope, or kept in a cage like a pet? He asks if this beast will serve man, if any can make a meal of it, could anyone ride leviathan like a horse, or could it be butchered and eaten, or sold in the market? Or, if Job could catch him with a harpoon or hurt him with spears? In other words. God is showing Job that he is powerless to control this creature. Just from some of the less remarkable statements about Leviathan, we can see it is not domestic and won’t be tamed or ridden and cannot be caught or harmed, which obviously indicates it is large, powerful, and beyond any human effort to control or harm. Here are some of the other interesting descriptions found in Job about Leviathan: ♦ “Behold, the hope of him is in vain: shall not one be cast down even at the sight of him? None is so fierce that dare stir him up..” (Job 41:9-10) This indicates that just the very sight of this creature causes men to faint and even the bravest do not dare to disturb Leviathan. ♦ “Who can open the doors of his face? his teeth are terrible round about.” (Job 41:14) Just the teeth of Leviathan are frightful. ♦ “His scales are his pride, shut up together as with a close seal. One is so near to another, that no air can come between them. They are joined one to another, they stick together, that they cannot be sundered.” (Job 41:15-17) Leviathan is covered with tight-fitting, air-tight, impenetrable, shield-like scales. ♦ “By his neesings a light doth shine, and his eyes are like the eyelids of the morning.” (Job 41:18) The word “neesings” comes from etiyshah, meaning; sneezing. Lights shine from the nose of Leviathan when it sneezes, and its eyes project beams of light. ♦ “Out of his mouth go burning lamps, and sparks of fire leap out.” (Job 41:19) From Leviathan’s mouth come bright lights and fire-like sparks. ♦ “Out of his nostrils goeth smoke, as out of a seething pot or caldron..” (Job 41:20) Steam-like vapors come from the nose of Leviathan. ♦ “His breath kindleth coals, and a flame goeth out of his mouth.” (Job 41:21) The breath of Leviathan glows and gleaming beams of light come from its mouth. ♦ “In his neck remaineth strength, and sorrow is turned into joy before him.” (Job 41:22) Leviathan has great force in his neck and terror dances before it. ♦ “When he raiseth up himself, the mighty are afraid: by reason of breakings they purify themselves.” (Job 41:25) To put it gently, mighty men lose control of their bowels, when Leviathan stands up. ♦ “The sword of him that layeth at him cannot hold: the spear, the dart, nor the habergeon. He esteemeth iron as straw, and brass as rotten wood. The arrow cannot make him flee: slingstones are turned with him into stubble. Darts are counted as stubble: he laugheth at the shaking of a spear. ” (Job 41:26-27) No weapons of Job’s era have any effect against Leviathan. ♦ “He maketh the deep to boil like a pot: he maketh the sea like a pot of ointment. 32 He maketh a path to shine after him; one would think the deep to be hoary.” (Job 41:31-32) Here we see that Leviathan is amphibious, as is verified in Isaiah 27:1 and Psalms 104:26. When swimming, the water around Leviathan seems to boil like a pot, and behind him the water glows as though the water was on fire. The previous descriptions of Leviathan show that it is unlike any other creature known to have existed on Earth. Amazingly, the most common explanation from the pulpit for what Leviathan was, is the crocodile. Only one creature has ever been portrayed in history that very closely resembles Leviathan, which is found in the Japanese culture and called Gojira; commonly known as Godzilla. Dragons in the Bible The concept of flying, fire-breathing reptiles is, to most, only the stuff of fairy tales. There is however, so much cross-culture evidence from civilizations having no known interaction that it defies the laws of chance that all are mythical accounts. There are also several historical accounts relating eyewitness testimony of dragon encounters. Dragons have appeared in such widely separated cultures as China, Europe, Iceland, Hawaii, and Vietnam. St. George, the most famous of the dragon slayers, earned his place in dragon lore as a soldier in the Roman army by ridding the city of Silene in Libya of a dragon that had been terrorizing the town, devouring its sheep, as well as its children. England is rife with historical references with actual differences in dragon types reported in several areas. The references to dragons in the Bible have been dismissed as everything from overactive imaginations, to hippos, to metaphor. Satan is referred to as a dragon, but the several Old Testament references to dragons are anything but metaphor. Simple observation reveals that they are described in context with well known living creatures. There are several references to dragons in the Bible: Deuteronomy 32:23, Nehemiah 2:13, Job 30:29, Psalms 44:19, 74:13, 91:3, 148:7, Isaiah 13:22, 27:1, 34:13, 35:7, 43:20, Jeremiah 9:11, 10:22, 4:6, 49:33, 51:34, 51:37, Micah 1:8, and Malachi 1:3. Behold Now Behemoth The description of Behemoth can be found in Job 40:15-24. Behemoth is described as a mountain grazing animal with incredible strength, a tail as large as a cedar tree, bones like tubes of brass or rods of iron, and an incredible thirst. As with Leviathan, the church has a strange explanation of Behemoth; claiming it is either a hippo or an elephant. The “Fearsome” Unicorn Contrary to popular belief, Unicorns are not the gentle “white horses with horns” commonly portrayed in paintings. Numbers 23:22 and 24:8 speak of the great strength of the Unicorn. The word “unicorn” comes from the Hebrew word r’em, pronounced reh-ame’, meaning; a wild bull, from its conspicuousness. The Unicorn is described in Job 39:9-12 as being an incredibly strong creature that cannot be domesticated or trusted: ♦ “Will the unicorn be willing to serve thee, or abide by thy crib? Canst thou bind the unicorn with his band in the furrow? or will he harrow the valleys after thee? Wilt thou trust him, because his strength is great? or wilt thou leave thy labour to him? Wilt thou believe him, that he will bring home thy seed, and gather it into thy barn?” (Job 39:9-12) In history there are many references to the Unicorn: ♦ In 416 BC, the Greek physician Ctesias set out to attend to the Persian King Darius II, where he spent 18 years. He later wrote a book called Indica, in which he said: “There are in India certain wild asses which are a large as horses, and larger. They have a horn on the forehead which is about eighteen inches in length.” ♦ Pliny the Elder, in the first century AD, describes “an exceedingly wild beast called the Monoceros (one – horned)…It makes a deep lowing noise, and one black horn two cubits long projects from the middle of its forehead. This animal, they say, cannot be taken alive.” ♦ Aristotle frequently mentioned the unicorn. He said in one passage: “I have found that wild asses as large as horses are to be found in India. It has a horn on the brow, about one cubit and a half in length..” ♦ Julius Caesar said they could be found in the Hercynian Forest. ♦ Alexander the Great is said to have seen one before attempting to invade a certain territory, and took it as a sign not to attack, because the land was protected. The church, of course, has an explanation for Unicorn, as well; a mountain goat. Flying, Fiery Serpents Flying, fiery serpents are mentioned four times in scripture: ♦ And the LORD sent fiery serpents among the people, and they bit the people; and much people of Israel died.” (Numbers 21:6) * “Who led thee through that great and terrible wilderness, wherein were fiery serpents, and scorpions, and drought, where there was no water; who brought thee forth water out of the rock of flint;” (Deuteronomy 8:15) ♦ “Rejoice not thou, whole Palestina, because the rod of him that smote thee is broken: for out of the serpent’s root shall come forth a cockatrice, and his fruit shall be a fiery flying serpent.” (Isaiah 14:29) ♦ “The burden of the beasts of the south: into the land of trouble and anguish, from whence come the young and old lion, the viper and fiery flying serpent” (Isaiah 30:6) They are also described by the highly respected historian Flavius Josephus in his writing “Antiquities of the Jews”, Book II, Chapter 10: “But Moses prevented the enemies, and took and led his army before those enemies were apprized of his attacking them; for he did not march by the river, but by land, where he gave a wonderful demonstration of his sagacity; for when the ground was difficult to be passed over, because of the multitude of serpents, (which it produces in vast numbers, and, indeed, is singular in some of those productions, which other countries do not breed, and yet such as are worse than others in power and mischief, and an unusual fierceness of sight, some of which ascend out of the ground unseen, and also fly in the air, and so come upon men at unawares, and do them a mischief,) Moses invented a wonderful stratagem to preserve the army safe, and without hurt; for he made baskets, like unto arks, of sedge, and filled them with ibes, and carried them along with them; which animal is the greatest enemy to serpents imaginable, for they fly from them when they come near them; and as they fly they are caught and devoured by them, as if it were done by the harts; but the ibes are tame creatures, and only enemies to the serpentine kind: but about these ibes I say no more at present, since the Greeks themselves are not unacquainted with this sort of bird. As soon, therefore, as Moses was come to the land which was the breeder of these serpents, he let loose the ibes, and by their means” The church is conspicuously silent on the subject of flying, fiery serpents. Cockatrices are considered as purely mythical creatures, yet they are described 4 times in scripture: ♦ “And the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice’ den.” (Isaiah 11:8) ♦ “Rejoice not thou, whole Palestina, because the rod of him that smote thee is broken: for out of the serpent’s root shall come forth a cockatrice, and his fruit shall be a fiery flying serpent.” (Isaiah 14:29) ♦ “They hatch cockatrice’ eggs, and weave the spider’s web: he that eateth of their eggs dieth, and that which is crushed breaketh out into a viper.” (Isaiah 59:5) ♦ “For, behold, I will send serpents, cockatrices, among you, which will not be charmed, and they shall bite you, saith the LORD.” (Jeremiah 8:17) In this series we covered descriptions of levitation, psychokinesis, astral projection, telepathy, pyrokinesis, physical transmutation, invisibility, and super human strength in scripture. None of those anomalous human powers are associated with evil. We have shown that witches, wizards, and sorcerers are associated with magic and discouraged, but not fraught with the evil the Church claims. Appearances by ghosts, and contacting the dead, have no evil associated with them. We have seen that the origin of the only truly threatening paranormal reality in the Bible, evil spirits or demons, is completely misrepresented or, at least, misunderstood by the Church. And, we have demonstrated that the pulpit is clueless, when it comes to the reality about crypto-creatures clearly described in the Bible. The true anomaly, and perhaps, the saddest aspect of this paradigm is that the Church condemns any of those that believe in these anomalies and labels them as a threat, at least, and satanic, at worst. Of course, with that attitude, why would this make any difference to those in the paranormal community? The Church doesn’t want them in their midst and why would they want to be? However, as has been demonstrated, the Bible does not agree with Church dogma, but since the Church misrepresents these anomalies in the Bible, most in the paranormal community view the Bible as suspect. We have not covered many other paranormal events found in scripture, nor have we even mentioned the hundreds of verses indicating the presence of amazing flying vehicles and technology in the Bible. But, we hope that this writing has presented enough evidence to show those who believe in the paranormal that the Bible agrees with them, and not the radical views of Christian dogma. There is a biblical verse predicting this concept: ♦ “And they shall turn away their ears from the truth, and shall be turned unto fables.” (II Timothy 4:4) This verse is used by the Church to condemn those who believe in the paranormal. This closer look at scripture shows that it is, in fact, the Church that not only has made fact a fable, but is the origin of those fables. It gives a whole new meaning to the words of Isaiah, when he said: ♦ “Woe unto them that call evil good, and good evil; that put darkness for light, and light for darkness; that put bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter! Woe unto them that are wise in their own eyes, and prudent in their own sight!” (Isaiah 5:20-21)

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OF THE ARCHDIOCESE OF BOMBAY Our earliest historical reference to Christianity in Bombay (now, Mumbai) comes from a Greek merchant, Cosmas Indicopleustes. He writes about a community of Christians in Kalyan served by a Bishop appointed in Persia in the 6th Century. In 1321, we have the letter of a French Friar, Jordanus of Sèvèrac, regarding the martyrdom of his companions Franciscans of the Friars Minor - priests Thomas of Tolentino, James of Padua, Peter of Sienna and, a lay brother and linguist, Demetrius of Tiflis, ‘on the Thursday before Palm Sunday in Thana of India.’ These Italians were hosted by the fifteen odd Christian (Nestorian) families to be found in the port city of Thana. Friar Jordanus himself was serving a Christian community in Sopara (now Nallasopara). Since Kalyan, Sopara, Chaul (Revdanda) and Thana have been, at varied points in time, port-cities claiming internationally mixed populations with an ancient tradition of trade links with West Asia, it follows that Christians could be counted among the demographic. In 1534, the same year as the Archdiocese of Goa was founded, the Portuguese took control of the territories of Bassein (Vasai), Salsette, Thana and the Bombay (now Mumbai) group of islands. Missionaries accompanied the conquering fleets to serve as chaplains. They further, fanned out into the countryside evangelising, gathering communities and providing for their spiritual sustenance. Just a few years before this, at the southernmost reach of the present Archdiocese, the first Portuguese Churches sprang up in Chaul (today's Revdanda). The Franciscans were the first Religious Order to make its presence felt in Bassein and its surrounding territories. Under the indefatigable Antonio do Porto, the Franciscans established churches in and around Bassein and, more successfully, in neighbouring Salsette from 1547 onwards. In 1551, the Jesuits set up a small house and school for the converts in Thana. A few years later in 1557, in the valley now covered by the waters of the Powai-Vihar lakes, a unique community of Christians lived and worked and this may be seen as an experiment that inspired the later internationally renowned Jesuit Reductions of Paraguay and Brazil. The year 1637 marked the establishment of the Vicariate Apostolic of Bijapur by the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (henceforth, "Propaganda"). The Vicariate of Bijapur increased rapidly in size, absorbing Golconda, and extended from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, from Madras-Mylapore to Calcutta. It finally comprised the whole Moghul Empire and was also referred to as the Vicariate of the Great Moghul. From the end of the 17th century, this Vicariate was served by the Carmelite Fathers, whose headquarters was at Surat, north of Bombay. 1665: Brief Overview of the British Era In 1665, Bombay (now Mumbai) passed into the hands of the British. This was done through the marriage treaty of 1661 between Charles II of England and the Infanta of Portugal, whereby Bombay was ceded to the British as part of the marriage dowry. At the time of transfer, the Church on Bombay Island continued to be under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa. On February 14, 1689, Bombay was invaded by Sidi Yacut, which provided the British with the opportunity to seize Jesuit property at Parel. This was a retaliatory measure, because they believed that the Jesuits were supporting the Sidi. The Jesuits made attempts to get the property back but failed. They were officially deprived of the property in 1791. 1720: The Padroado vs Propaganda Controversy The Decree expelling the Portuguese Franciscans from the Bombay Island was issued on May 24, 1720. Since the British were determined on getting rid of the Portuguese Franciscans, Rome approved the entry of the Carmelites into Bombay. The Franciscans left Bombay and Bishop Mauritius with four or five Carmelites came to Bombay. Four churches were taken over by the Carmelites. In the 1828 civil war, in Portugal, King Dom Miguel, to whom the Religious Orders lent moral and financial support, was defeated. The new government not only suppressed all Religious Orders in Portugal but also broke off diplomatic relations with the Holy See in 1833. Pope Gregory XVI issued the Brief ‘Multa Praeclare’ on April 24, 1838, which confirmed the Vicars-Apostolic in their office, extended their field of work and deprived the Padroado clergy of all jurisdiction within the established Vicariates. The authorities in Goa rejected the Papal Brief, they claimed that since the Brief had not received the "regium placet'', it was null and void. In January 1844, Archbishop Dom Jose Maria da Silva Torres landed in Bombay, on his way to Goa. The Padroado party, clergy, and laity, escorted him to Gloria Church in a triumphant procession. Archbishop Torres administered the sacraments, began a series of visitations and acted as if ‘Multa Praeclare' had never been written. His behaviour threw the whole of Bombay into a ferment. The 10-year period of dispute spanned the years 1840 to 1850 in which all parties in the conflict appear to have shared responsibility namely the Portuguese Government in Lisbon, the civil and religious authorities in Goa, the Bombay Government, the Padroado and Propaganda parties in Bombay, the Carmelite fathers, and the Carmelite Vicars – Apostolic. 1850: The Birth of ‘The Examiner’ & Bishop Hartman When Bishop Hartmann came to Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1850, the only Catholic newspaper for those under the Vicar-Apostolic's Jurisdiction was the ‘Bombay Catholic Layman.’ It was authored by two Irish laymen, who used the paper to oppose first Bishop Whelan and then Bishop Hartmann. Rather than cross swords with them, Bishop Hartmann encouraged the starting of the ‘Bombay Catholic Standard,’ under the editorship of another Irishman. Soon, disappointed with that paper as well, the Bishop approached a certain Mr. Borges, who in July 1850 started a monthly publication, ‘The Examiner.’ Three months later in September 1850, with Mr. Borges' consent ‘The Examiner’ became the ecclesiastical organ of the Vicariate under the Bishop's control and management, but under another title, ‘The Bombay Catholic Examiner.’ By 1852, the other two publications folded up while ‘The Bombay Catholic Examiner’ kept on going. In April 1905, its title was shortened once again to ‘The Examiner’ which, incidentally, completes 170 years in 2019. 1886: Creation of the Archdiocese of Bombay and Induction of the First Archbishop The year 1886 is significant for two events: A new Concordat signed between the Holy See and Portugal on June 23 and the establishment of the Episcopal Hierarchy in India on October 1 by Pope Leo XIII. The Concordat of 1886 was a triumph of papal diplomacy over Portuguese pretensions. It was also a victory in the long struggle between the Propaganda and Padroado, wherein, the Propaganda policy of saving and expanding the Vicariate triumphed. Three months later, Pope Leo XIII issued the Bull, ‘Humanae Salutis’ which enabled him to establish the Indian Hierarchy. As a result of the Bull, Bombay (together with Agra, Verapoly, Calcutta, and Colombo) was raised to the status of an Archdiocese and had at its head an Archbishop. His jurisdiction extended from Bombay island and, after an interval of 3000 kilometres to Gujarat, Kathiawar, Sind and British Baluchistan. Bishop George Porter, S.J. was the first Archbishop of Bombay. He served the Archdiocese of Bombay from 1886 – 1889. It is important to note that the Concordat of 1886 did not put an end to the tensions and troubles of the double jurisdiction. The Concordat introduced the idea of territorial jurisdiction for the first time. Prior to this, Catholics in Bombay were free to worship in any Church of their choice. 1905: The New Cathedral The story of the ‘Holy Name Cathedral’ tells a unique history of the Archdiocese of Bombay. This dates back to 1720 which marked the exit of the Franciscans from the Bombay island. Soon after, the Carmelites took over the administration of the Church. The Carmelite Vicar-Apostolic resided in Medows Street at Fort and set up a Chapel dedicated to Our Lady of Mount Carmel, which was open to public worship in 1760. The Chapel was made an independent Parish in 1767. The parish grew and in order to accommodate the increasing congregation the then Archbishop Theodore Dalhoff S.J. felt the need to secure a site for a new Church, school and residence. The foundation stone of the new Church was laid by Archbishop Dalhoff on July 9, 1902, at Wodehouse Road. The Church was blessed on the feast of The Holy Name of Jesus on January 15, 1905. In 1920, the building on Meadow Street was demolished. The Church of the Holy Name of Jesus was effectively raised, on January 1, 1942, to the status of a Pro-Cathedral after the existing Cathedral at Bhuleshwar was closed to the public and later demolished in 1941. On March 3, 1964, at the request of Cardinal Valerian Gracias, the Church was elevated to the status of a Metropolitan Cathedral. It was consecrated on November 28, 1964, during the 38th International Eucharistic Congress in Bombay. 1928: End of the Double Jurisdiction In the year 1928, the ‘Double Jurisdiction’ came to end in India. The surprising development in the history of Church in Bombay (now Mumbai) goes back to October 3, 1910 when a revolution broke out in Portugal and King Manoel had to flee to England. The new rulers commanded that the religious congregations be expelled, seized their properties and separated the Church and State in Portugal. In the wake of these events the Holy See insisted on the Law of Separation by which the Portuguese Republic had renounced the privileges previously given to the Catholic King of Portugal. Thus, the Concordat of 1886 lapsed and consequently the right of patronage was extinct. The Agreement of 1928 marked the beginning of a new era in the Church of Bombay. 1928 to 1950: The Archdiocese under the Leadership of Archbishops Joaquim Lima and Thomas Roberts The 22-year period between 1928 to 1950 was considered to be a phase of transition for the Church in Bombay. The Church passed from 130 years of life under the institution of the double jurisdiction to a life of unity and co-responsibility. This period also saw a shift in administration from foreign prelates and the religious clergy to Indian prelates and the secular clergy. The Church in Bombay made this successful transition due to the timely presence of two great Archbishops - Joaquim Lima S.J. and Thomas d’Esterre Roberts S.J. 1950: Induction of the First Indian Archbishop Msgr. Valerian Gracias was appointed as the seventh Archbishop of Bombay in 1950. He was also the first Indian Archbishop. Though inducted in 1950, Archbishop Valerian Gracias was effectively at the helm of ecclesiastical affairs in Bombay since 1946. “The period between 1950 – 1978 is known as the ‘Gracias Era’ because whether in the area of consolidation and growth of the Church in Bombay (now Mumbai) or matter of participation in national or international events, it was the person of the Cardinal Archbishop that was the driving spirit.” 1954: National Marian Congress The National Marian Congress was held in Bombay, and was convened from December 4-8, 1954, during the Marian Year. Cardinal Valerian Gracias was appointed by Pope Pius XII as Papal Legate to this Congress held at Azad Maidan. The Congress marked the concluding celebrations of the Centenary (1854 – 1954) of the pronouncement of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception. In the course of the Congress, on December 5, the Shrine of Our Lady of the Mount, Bandra was raised to the status of a Minor Basilica. The beautiful statue of Mary was crowned by Cardinal Valerian Gracias. 1964: 38th International Eucharistic Congress The 38th International Eucharistic Congress was held in Bombay from November 28 to December 6, 1964. The Oval Maidan witnessed the main events of the Congress including the inaugural and concluding Eucharists. The Congress was attended by thousands of national and international delegates. It fell between the third and fourth sessions of the Vatican Council II. The Congress organizations numbered more than 60 committees and 500 members. 1973: Inauguration of the Archdiocesan Pastoral Council The Archdiocesan Pastoral Council was inaugurated on June 10, 1973, at the Cathedral of the Holy Name. The Council was seen as a body that effectively involved the whole Church in Bombay (now Mumbai). The task here was to establish the presence and mission of the Church in keeping with the demands of the Gospel. 1978: The XIV World Congress of International Federation of Catholic Medical Associations The XIV World Congress of the International Federation of Catholic Medical Associations was held in Bombay (now Mumbai) from January 29 to February 1, 1978. The theme for the Conference was ‘The Changing Society.’ Archbishop Giuseppe Caprio, Substitute of the Secretariat of State, was appointed by Pope Paul VI to attend the Conference. 1978: Death of Cardinal Valerian Gracias & Induction of the New Archbishop Cardinal Valerian Gracias passed away on September 11, 1978 and was interred in the Cathedral of the Holy Name. Coadjutor Archbishop Simon Pimenta was installed as the eighth Archbishop of Bombay on September 21, 1978. He was the second Indian Archbishop. 1979: The Freedom Of Religion Bill The ‘Freedom of Religion Bill,’ was introduced in Parliament by Mr. O.P. Tyagi, a Janata Party MP, on December 22, 1978. The Bill, aimed at preventing conversions by force, inducement or fraud. However, it rendered genuine conversions as illegal given the wide ambit of the bill. A campaign to challenge the bill was organized all over the country. In Bombay, Christians from Maharashtra protested against it on March 29, 1979 in a rally organized by the Maharashtra Christian Forum. The bill soon fell in disfavour and was withdrawn, with the fall of the government. 1980: The First Priests’ Synod of Bombay The first Priests’ Synod (Consultation) of Bombay was held at St. Pius X College (Diocesan Seminary), Goregaon, from November 3-7, 1980. It was attended by 331 diocesan and religious priests engaged in the pastoral ministry. The focus of the Synod was to evaluate the lives of the priests and their ministry ‘in order to make themselves more responsive and relevant to the changing needs of the Archdiocese.’ 1986: Pope Saint John Paul II’s Visit to India His Holiness Pope Saint John Paul II visited India from February 1 – 10, 1986. He was the guest of the Government of India and the Catholic Church in India. The Pope’s pilgrimage to the Indian subcontinent included 14 cities in all: Delhi, Ranchi, Shillong, Calcutta (Kolkata), Madras (Chennai), Goa, Mangalore (Mangaluru), Cochin (Kochi), Trichur, Kottayam, Trivandrum, Vasai, Pune and Bombay(Mumbai). His Holiness arrived in Delhi on 1st February, 1986 and was received by the then Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to India, Agostino Cacciavillan; Archbishop of Delhi, Angelo Fernandes; Archbishop of Bombay and President of the Episcopal Conference of India, Simon Ignatius Pimenta. The Holy Father was also greeted by eminent personalities of the country – Zail Singh, Former President of India, and the then Prime Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi, at a welcome ceremony. During the Pope’s visit to Calcutta on February 3, 1986 he met the destitute people of Nirmal Hriday Ashram. He was accompanied by Saint Mother Teresa and was visibly touched by the experience. The Holy Father arrived at Bombay on February 9, 1986, and immediately departed, by helicopter, for Vasai to bless the foundation stone of the University dedicated to St. Gonsalo Garcia. From Vasai, the Holy Father returned to Bombay and paid homage to Our Lady at Mount Mary’s Basilica. Pope Saint John Paul II also addressed the congregation at the Cathedral of the Holy Name and led them in prayer. At the Eucharistic celebration that followed at Shivaji Park the Pope spoke elaborately on ‘Responsible Parenting’ reiterating the Second Vatican Council. On the last day of his Pilgrimage to the Indian subcontinent, the Holy Father met the Religious at St. Pius X College, Goregaon. In his address to the Religious the Holy Father said, “…through the faithful observance of your vows in humble service to others, especially the poor, you penetrate to very heart of Indian life, so steeped in religious value. There, in the spiritual heart of your people, you help to promote the Kingdom of God.” The same day, Pope Saint John Paul II delivered a short discourse at the Shivaji Park, where he spoke to the youth of Bombay. In his speech he affirmed “that a Church offers a fundamental help to understand life, exhorting the youth to apply the Christian message to the social reality of India.” After ending his address to the youth, the Holy Father pronounced his farewell greeting to India and left for Rome. 1987: The Syro-Malabar Rite Pope John Paul II issued a letter to the Bishops of India on May 28, 1987, in which he addressed the relationship between the Latin, the Syro-Malabar and the Syro-Malankara Churches in India, and stated, “Given the number of Catholics of the Syro Malabar rite in the Bombay-Pune region of India, the situation presently existing there can be considered mature enough for the establishment of an Eparchy of the Syro Malabar rite.” 1988: The Syro-Malabar Eparchy (Diocese) of Kalyan The Syro-Malabar Eparchy or Diocese of Kalyan was formed in 1988. The boundaries of the new diocese were coterminous with the boundaries of the Latin ecclesiastical units of Bombay (now Mumbai). Monsignor Paul Chittilapilly was ordained its first Bishop on August 24, 1988. The establishment of the Eparchy of Kalyan is a landmark in the ecclesiastical history of India. 1989: National Convention Of Catholics The National Convention of Catholics was held at St. Pius X College, Goregaon, from June 2-5, 1989. Over 500 delegates participated in this Convention which had as its theme, “The Catholic Community in India – towards the 21st Century”. 1989 - 1990: First National Catholic Youth Convention The first National Catholic Youth Convention was held in Vasai from December 27, 1989 – January 1, 1990. Inaugurated by Cardinal Simon Pimenta, the Convention had as its theme: “Youth with Jesus – a Challenge for National Integration.” It was attended by 1400 participants from all over India including animators from 89 dioceses of India. 1990: Auxiliary Bishop of Bombay with special charge of Vasai On May 27, 1990, the Archdiocese of Bombay received its third Auxiliary Bishop. Thomas Dabre was ordained bishop with special charge of Vasai. This was a significant step, in the formation of the diocese of Vasai - “which would start from beyond the Thane creek (Naigoan) and extend to Virar and, even beyond to the Talasari region.” 1990: First All Bombay Catechists’ Convention The first All Bombay Catechists’ Convention was inaugurated by Cardinal Simon Pimenta on January 7, 1990. Around 900 catechists representing eight deaneries of the Archdiocese attended the Convention. 1990: Bombay Priests’ Consultation Ten years after the first Priest’s Synod in 1980, the second Bombay Priests’ Consultation was convened at St. Pius X College, Goregaon, from November 5 – 9, 1990. The theme chosen for common reflection was: ‘Parish renewal, a call to priestly renewal.’ Cardinal Simon Pimenta, three Auxiliary Bishops, 350 priest and 25 active observers from among the faithful, participated in the Consultation. The theme of the Consultation was divided into three topics: 1) priestly renewal, 2) parish renewal and 3) diocesan renewal. 1990: The Parish Pastoral Plan The Parish Pastoral Plan was formulated in order to give thrust, direction, and continuity in the life and activities of the parish. The idea was approved and discussed at a special meeting, attended by 300 of the lay faithful and clergy on December 2, 1990, at St. Pius X College, Goregaon. Parish Pastoral Councils across parishes were formed to understand the needs of the Archdiocese of Bombay and the direction it needed to take. 1990 – 1991: The Ignatian Year The Ignatian year marked the 500th birth anniversary of St. Ignatius of Loyola and the 450th anniversary of the ‘Foundation of the Society of Jesus.’ The jubilee year commenced on September 27, 1990 and ended on July 31, 1991. The Bombay Jesuits celebrated these centenaries with three days of festivity from April 20-22, 1991. Day one of the occasion was graced by former governor Shri C. Subramanian and the then British Commissioner Sir David Goodall, along with Cardinal Simon Pimenta, at St. Xavier’s College. 1994: All India Catholic Union Platinum Jubilee The Platinum Jubilee celebration of the ‘All India Catholic Union’ was held at St. Pius X College, Goregaon on June 3-4, 1994. The seminar themed ‘Towards an Adult Church’ was addressed by speakers and sessions that developed a vision of a laity, awakened to greater dynamic participation in the life and mission of the Church in society. 1996: Retirement of the Archbishop On completion of his tenure as Archbishop of Bombay, Cardinal Simon Pimenta resigned from his post on March 1995. His resignation was accepted by the Holy Father on January 22, 1997. The Cardinal had served the Archdiocese as Archbishop of Bombay for seventeen years and four months. Although his resignation was accepted in January, he continued to serve as administrator of the Archdiocese until his successor took over in March 1997. 1997: Induction of the new Archbishop Archbishop Ivan Dias was installed as the ninth Archbishop of Bombay on March 13, 1997. He was the third Indian Archbishop. He chose ‘Servus’ as his episcopal motto, an indication of his understanding of his ministry as “servant of the Lord” and of his staunch devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary, “the handmaid of the Lord.” 1997: Appointment of a new Auxiliary Bishop Bishop Oswald Gracias was appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Bombay on July 25, 1997, by Pope John Paul II. He was ordained Bishop at St. Michael’s Church, Mahim. Prior to his appointment as Auxiliary Bishop, he served as the Chancellor and Judicial Vicar of the Archdiocese of Bombay. 1997: Fourth Centenary Celebration of the Martyrdom of St. Gonsalo Garcia The Fourth Centenary celebrations of the martyrdom of St. Gonsalo Garcia concluded in 1997. Three main events took place in the course of the Centenary year within the precincts of the Vasai Fort: Eight young men from Vasai were ordained priests by Cardinal Simon Pimenta. On November 16, 1997, a rally was held of all parish associations, presided over by Archbishop Ivan Dias. The concluding celebration was held on February 8, 1998 during which the Sacrament of Confirmation was administered to 2000 children from the Vasai zone. 1997: Deanery of Navi Mumbai On August 1, 1997, a new deanery of Navi Mumbai that comprised seven parishes and quasi-parishes was erected on August 1, 1997. The decision was taken by the Archbishop after due consideration, given the pastoral needs of the area. The deanery of Navi Mumbai incorporated parish units detached from the deaneries of Kurla, Thane, and Raigad. 1998: The New Diocese of Vasai Vasai was carved out of the Archdiocese of Bombay and erected as an independent diocese with the Decree “Cum ad aeternam.” The Decree was promulgated by Pope John Paul II on May 22, 1998. A public announcement was made by the Vatican on June 28, 1998, and by Archbishop Ivan Dias the same evening at Our Lady of Remedy Church, Vasai. Rt.Rev.Dr. Thomas Dabre was installed the first Bishop of Vasai at the Cathedral of Our Lady of Grace, Papdy, on August 15, 1998. 1999: Feast of Divine Mercy Archbishop Ivan Dias approved the devotion to Divine Mercy in the Archdiocese of Bombay on March 29, 1999. He recommended that the clergy and the faithful in the Archdiocese celebrate the Feast of Divine Mercy every year on the first Sunday after Easter. Archbishop Ivan Dias also encouraged the daily recitation of the Chaplet of Divine Mercy as also the observation of the Divine Mercy Novena which commences on Good Friday, in preparation for the Feast. 2000: Farewell to Bishop Ferdinand Fonseca and Bishop Oswald Gracias Cardinal Ivan Dias bade farewell to Bishop Ferdinand Fonseca and Archbishop Oswald Gracias on December 3, 2000, at a special Eucharistic Celebration, at the Holy Name Cathedral. Bishop Fonseca had reached the age of retirement, and Bishop Oswald Gracias was leaving for his new office as Archbishop of Agra. 2001: Archdiocesan Synod: The Church in Mumbai: Light to the Nations and Glory of God’s Holy People The Archdiocesan Synod, the first of its kind in the history of the Archdiocese of Bombay, was inaugurated on January 6, 2001 with a mammoth rally. This was a gathering of representatives from various parishes together with Simon Cardinal Pimenta, Archbishop Ivan Dias, Bishops Ferdinand Fonseca, Bosco Penha, Gilbert Rego, Priests and religious men and women. After Cardinal Ivan Dias’ inaugural address, Bishop Bosco outlined the plan of action, the main thrust being a definitive pastoral plan to take the Archdiocese forward. The actual sessions were held between January 21 – 26, 2001 at St Pius X College, Goregaon and after much discussion and interaction, resolutions were passed covering three main categories: incarnational, communitarian and dialogical. The Synod committed itself to mission which embraced the marginalised, the family and the youth. The Synod statement was presented to the Archbishop on January 26, 2001 and in April 2001, Cardinal Ivan Dias issued a Pastoral Letter which provided a comprehensive framework to implement the desires and aspirations of the Archdiocese as represented by the Synod. 2001: Appointment of two new Auxiliary Bishops On March 24, 2001, His Holiness Pope John Paul II appointed two new Auxiliary Bishops for the Archdiocese of Bombay. Fr. Percival Joseph Fernandez and Fr. Agnelo Rufino Gracias were assigned titular Episcopal Sees of Bulla and Molicunza respectively. 2006: Mumbai’s New Archbishop: Oswald Gracias Archbishop Oswald Gracias was appointed by the Holy Father as the tenth Archbishop of Bombay on October 14, 2006. He is the fourth Indian Archbishop. He was installed at the Holy Name Cathedral in the presence of the Holy Father’s representative, His Excellency Pedro Lopez Quintana. At a public reception, that followed, he addressed the priests, religious men and women, lay people, youth and women outlining his vision for the church in Mumbai. 2011: The Inauguration of the Archdiocesan Heritage Museum The Archdiocesan Heritage Committee was set up in 2006 by the former Archbishop of Bombay, Cardinal Ivan Dias, in order to preserve the rich and ancient traditions of the Church. On September 25, 2011 the Archdiocesan Heritage Museum housed on the first floor of St. Pius X College, Goregaon was blessed and inaugurated by His Eminence Cardinal Oswald Gracias. Its vast collection of artefacts has successfully managed to showcase the stages of Christianity in Bombay (now Mumbai) from 6 A.D. onwards. 2011: The Establishment of a Catholic Communication Centre Previously known as the Centre for Social and Pastoral Communications (S&PC), the Catholic Communication Centre (CCC) was reorganised to ensure a strong presence across digital and social media platforms. Located at Eucharistic Congress Building III, the Centre was inaugurated by Cardinal Oswald Gracias on November 5, 2011. 2012: The Archdiocesan Consultation The Archdiocesan Consultation was held from November 12-14, 2012. The Consultation was set up to facilitate the process of a spiritual-pastoral renewal. It was an after product of the Archdiocesan Synod held in Mumbai in 2001. The Archdiocesan Consultation witnessed a vibrant renewal of pastoral commitment with the cooperation and inclusion of all who comprise the Archdiocese: Clergy, Religious, Laity. 2013: Appointment of two new Auxiliary Bishops On May 15, 2013, His Holiness Pope Francis appointed Fr. Dominic Savio Fernandes and Fr. John Rodrigues as Auxiliary Bishops for the Archdiocese of Bombay. They were ordained Bishop at St. Michael Church, Mahim by Cardinal Oswald Gracias on June 29, 2013. 2013: Death Of Cardinal Simon Pimenta Cardinal Simon Ignatius Pimenta, Archbishop Emeritus of Bombay passed away at the Clergy Home, Bandra on July 19, 2013. He was buried at St. John the Evangelist Church cemetery on July 23, 2013. The Funeral at St. John the Evangelist Church in Marol was presided over by his Eminence Oswald Gracias and the Apostolic Nuncio, His Grace, Archbishop Salvatore Pennachio, and was attended by many senior prelates, priests, Religious and lay people. 2014: Golden Jubilee Celebration - 38th International Eucharistic Congress The Archdiocese of Bombay celebrated the golden jubilee of the 38th International Eucharistic Congress that showcased the spiritual life of the Church in India. On November 6, 2014, the Archdiocese inaugurated the ‘Circle of Life’ which was a precursor to the main event. The Golden Jubilee celebration commenced on November 28, 2014 and ended on December 7, 2014. Events held during this period were an actual representation of the activities that took place 50 years ago. In 2014, people were invited to focus on ‘The Eucharist and Life.’ This helped to connect with the theme of the 38th International Eucharistic Congress – ‘The Eucharist and the New Man.’ In view of the significance of the spiritual outcome of this event, a ‘National Eucharistic Congress’ was planned for the succeeding year. 2015: National Eucharistic Congress The National Eucharistic Congress was held in Mumbai from November 12 – 15, 2015. It attracted hundreds of people from all over the country. The four Cardinals, all the Bishops, representatives of Priests, Religious, Lay people and Youth from 170 dioceses in the country participated in the four-day event. This Congress aimed at deepening the understanding, appreciation and love of the Eucharist. The theme for the National Eucharistic Congress was ‘Nourished by Christ to Nourish Others.’ At the conclusion of the Congress the participants made a public commitment to live lives centred on the Eucharist, reaching out to others in love and service. 2017: Death of Cardinal Ivan Dias Emeritus Ivan Cardinal Dias passed away in Rome on June 19, 2017. His funeral Mass was celebrated at St. Peter’s Basilica and his body was laid to rest at the Propaganda Fide Chapel in the Roman Cemetery. His Eminence Cardinal Oswald Gracias celebrated a Requiem Mass for the repose of the soul of Cardinal Ivan Dias at the Cathedral of The Holy Name. 2017: Two New Auxiliary Bishops His Holiness, Pope Francis, appointed Fr. Allwyn D’Silva and Fr. Barthol Barretto, as Auxiliary Bishops for the Archdiocese of Bombay. Bishop Allwyn was assigned the Titular See of Dura while Bishop Barthol was assigned the Titular See of Strongoli. They were appointed on December 20, 2016, and ordained Bishops on January 28, 2017.

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King James Version (KJV) For he has made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin; that we might be made the righteousness of God in him. American King James Version (AKJV) For he has made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin; that we might be made the righteousness of God in him. American Standard Version (ASV) Him who knew no sin he made to be'sin on our behalf; that we might become the righteousness of God in him. Basic English Translation (BBE) For him who had no knowledge of sin God made to be sin for us; so that we might become the righteousness of God in him. For he hath made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin; that we might be made the righteousness of God in him. World English Bible For him who knew no sin he made to be sin on our behalf; so that in him we might become the righteousness of God. English Revised Version (ERV) Him who knew no sin he made to be sin on our behalf; that we might become the righteousness of God in him. Clarke's 2-corinthians 5:21 Bible Commentary For he hath made him to be sin for us - Τον μη γνοντα ἁμαρτιαν, ὑπερ ἡμων ἁμαρτιαν εποιησεν· He made him who knew no sin, (who was innocent), a sin-offering for us. The word ἁμαρτια occurs here twice: in the first place it means sin, i.e. transgression and guilt; and of Christ it is said, He knew no sin, i.e. was innocent; for not to know sin is the same as to be conscious of innocence; so, nil conscire sibi, to be conscious of nothing against one's self, is the same as nulla pallescere culpa, to be unimpeachable. In the second place, it signifies a sin-offering, or sacrifice for sin, and answers to the חטאה chattaah and חטאת chattath of the Hebrew text; which signifies both sin and sin-offering in a great variety of places in the Pentateuch. The Septuagint translate the Hebrew word by ἁμαρτια in ninety-four places in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, where a sin-offering is meant; and where our version translates the word not sin, but an offering for sin. Had our translators attended to their own method of translating the word in other places where it means the same as here, they would not have given this false view of a passage which has been made the foundation of a most blasphemous doctrine; viz. that our sins were imputed to Christ, and that he was a proper object of the indignation of Divine justice, because he was blackened with imputed sin; and some have proceeded so far in this blasphemous career as to say, that Christ may be considered as the greatest of sinners, because all the sins of mankind, or of the elect, as they say, were imputed to him, and reckoned as his own. One of these writers translates the passage thus: Deus Christum pro maximo peccatore habuit, ut nos essemus maxime justi, God accounted Christ the greatest of sinners, that we might be supremely righteous. Thus they have confounded sin with the punishment due to sin. Christ suffered in our stead; died for us; bore our sins, (the punishment due to them), in his own body upon the tree, for the Lord laid upon him the iniquities of us all; that is, the punishment due to them; explained by making his soul - his life, an offering for sin; and healing us by his stripes. But that it may be plainly seen that sin-offering, not sin, is the meaning of the word in this verse, I shall set down the places from the Septuagint where the word occurs; and where it answers to the Hebrew words already quoted; and where our translators have rendered correctly what they render here incorrectly. In Exodus, Exodus 29:14, Exodus 29:36 : Leviticus, Leviticus 4:3, Leviticus 4:8, Leviticus 4:20, Leviticus 4:21, Leviticus 4:24, Leviticus 4:25, Leviticus 4:29, Leviticus 4:32-34; Leviticus 5:6, Leviticus 5:7, Leviticus 5:8, Leviticus 5:9, Leviticus 5:11, Leviticus 5:12; Leviticus 6:17, Leviticus 6:25, Leviticus 6:30; Leviticus 7:7, Leviticus 7:37; Leviticus 8:2, Leviticus 8:14; Leviticus 9:2, Leviticus 9:3, Leviticus 9:7, Leviticus 9:8, Leviticus 9:10, Leviticus 9:15, Leviticus 9:22; Leviticus 10:16, Leviticus 10:17, Leviticus 10:19; Leviticus 12:6, Leviticus 12:8; Leviticus 14:13, Leviticus 14:19, Leviticus 14:22, Leviticus 14:31; Leviticus 15:15, Leviticus 15:30; Leviticus 16:3, Leviticus 16:5, Leviticus 16:6, Leviticus 16:9, Leviticus 16:11, Leviticus 16:15, Leviticus 16:25, Leviticus 16:27; Leviticus 23:19 : Numbers, Numbers 6:11, Numbers 6:14, Numbers 6:16; Numbers 7:16, Numbers 7:22, Numbers 7:28, Numbers 7:34, Numbers 7:40, Numbers 7:46, Numbers 7:52, Numbers 7:58, Numbers 7:70, Numbers 7:76, Numbers 7:82, Numbers 7:87; Numbers 8:8, Numbers 8:12; Numbers 15:24, Numbers 15:25, Numbers 15:27; Numbers 18:9; Numbers 28:15, Numbers 28:22; Numbers 29:5, Numbers 29:11, Numbers 29:16, Numbers 29:22, Numbers 29:25, Numbers 29:28, Numbers 29:31, Numbers 29:34, Numbers 29:38. Besides the above places, it occurs in the same signification, and is properly translated in our version, in the following places: - 2 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles 29:21, 2 Chronicles 29:23, 2 Chronicles 29:24 : Ezra, Ezra 6:17; Ezra 8:35 : Nehemiah, Nehemiah 10:33 : Job, Job 1:5 : Ezekiel, Ezekiel 43:19, Ezekiel 43:22, Ezekiel 43:25; Ezekiel 44:27, Ezekiel 44:29; Ezekiel 45:17, Ezekiel 45:19, Ezekiel 45:22, Ezekiel 45:23, Ezekiel 45:25. In all, one hundred and eight places, which, in the course of my own reading in the Septuagint, I have marked. That we might be made the righteousness of God in him - The righteousness of God signifies here the salvation of God, as comprehending justification through the blood of Christ, and sanctification through his Spirit or, as the mountains of God, the hail of God, the wind of God, mean exceeding high mountains, extraordinary hail, and most tempestuous wind; so, here, the righteousness of God may mean a thorough righteousness, complete justification, complete sanctification; such as none but God can give, such as the sinful nature and guilty conscience of man require, and such as is worthy of God to impart. And all this righteousness, justification, and holiness, we receive in, by, for, and through Him, as the grand, sacrificial, procuring, and meritorious cause of these, and every other blessing. Some render the passage: We are justified through him; before God; or, We are justified, according to God's plan of justification, through him. In many respects, this is a most important and instructive chapter. 1. The terms house, building, tabernacle, and others connected with them, have already been explained from the Jewish writings. But it has been thought by some that the apostle mentions these as readily offering themselves to him from his own avocation, that of a tentmaker; and it is supposed that he borrows these terms from his own trade in order to illustrate his doctrine; This supposition would be natural enough if we had not full evidence that these terms were used in the Jewish theology precisely in the sense in which the apostle uses them here. Therefore, it is more likely that he borrowed them from that theology, than from his own trade. 2. In the terms tabernacle, building of God, etc., he may refer also to the tabernacle in the wilderness, which was a building of God, and a house of God, and as God dwelt in that building, so he will dwell in the souls of those who believe in, love, and obey him. And this will be his transitory temple till mortality is swallowed up of life, and we have a glorified body and soul to be his eternal residence. 3. The doctrines of the resurrection of the same body; the witness of the Spirit; the immateriality of the soul; the fall and miserable condition of all mankind; the death of Jesus, as an atonement for the sins of the whole world; the necessity of obedience to the Divine will, and of the total change of the human heart, are all introduced here: and although only a few words are spoken on each, yet these are so plain and so forcible as to set those important doctrines in the most clear and striking point of view. 4. The chapter concludes with such a view of the mercy and goodness of God in the ministry of reconciliation, as is no where else to be found. He has here set forth the Divine mercy in all its heightenings; and who can take this view of it without having his heart melted down with love and gratitude to God, who has called him to such a state of salvation. 5. It is exceedingly remarkable that, through the whole of this chapter, the apostle speaks of himself in the first person plural; and though he may intend other apostles, and the Christians in general, yet it is very evident that he uses this form when only himself can be meant, as in 2 Corinthians 5:12 and 2 Corinthians 5:13, as well as in several places of the following chapter. This may be esteemed rather more curious than important. Barnes's 2-corinthians 5:21 Bible Commentary For he hath made him to be sin for us - The Greek here is, 'for him who knew no sin, he hath made sin, or a sin-offering for us.' The design of this very important verse is, to urge the strongest possible reason for being reconciled to God. This is implied in the word (γὰρ gar) "for." Paul might have urged other arguments, and presented other strong considerations. But he chooses to present this fact, that Christ has been made sin for us, as embodying and concentrating all. It is the most affecting of all arguments; it is the one that is likely to prove most effectual. It is not indeed improper to urge on people every other consideration to induce them to be reconciled to God. It is not improper to appeal to them by the conviction of duty; to appeal to their reason and conscience; to remind them of the claims, the power, the goodness, and the fear of the Creator; to remind them of the awful consequences of a continued hostility to God; to persuade them by the hope of heaven, and by the fear of hell 2 Corinthians 5:1 l to become his friends: but, after all, the strongest argument, and that which is most adapted to melt the soul, is the fact that the Son of God has become incarnate for our sins, and has suffered and died in our stead. When all other appeals fail this is effectual; and this is in fact the strong argument by which the mass of those who become Christians are induced to abandon their opposition and to become reconciled to God. To be sin - The words 'to be' are not in the original. Literally, it is, 'he has made him sin, or a sin-offering' ἁμαρτίαν ἐποίησεν hamartian epoiēsen . But what is meant by this? What is the exact idea which the apostle intended to convey? I answer, it cannot be: (1) That he was literally sin in the abstract, or sin as such. No one can pretend this. The expression must be, therefore, in some sense, figurative. Nor, (2) Can it mean that he was a sinner, for it is said in immediate connection that he "knew no sin," and it is everywhere said that he was holy, harmless, undefiled. Nor, (3) Can it mean that he was, in any proper sense of the word, guilty, for no one is truly guilty who is not personally a transgressor of the Law; and if he was, in any proper sense, guilty, then he deserved to die, and his death could have no more merit than that of any other guilty being; and if he was properly guilty it would make no difference in this respect whether it was by his own fault or by imputation: a guilty being deserves to be punished; and where there is desert of punishment there can be no merit in sufferings. But all such views as go to make the Holy Redeemer a sinner, or guilty, or deserving of the sufferings which he endured, border on blasphemy, and are abhorrent to the whole strain of the Scriptures. In no form, in no sense possible, is it to be maintained that the Lord Jesus was sinful or guilty. It is a corner stone of the whole system of religion, that in all conceivable senses of the expression he was holy, and pure, and the object of the divine approbation. And every view which fairly leads to the statement that he was in any sense guilty, or which implies that he deserved to die, is "prima facie" a false view, and should be at once abandoned. But, (4) If the declaration that he was made "sin" (ἁμαρτίαν hamartian) does not mean that he was sin itself, or a sinner, or guilty, then it must mean that he was a sin-offering - an offering or a sacrifice for sin; and this is the interpretation which is now generally adopted by expositors; or it must be taken as an abstract for the concrete, and mean that God treated him as if he were a sinner. The former interpretation, that it means that God made him a sin-offering, is adopted by Whitby, Doddridge, Macknight, Rosenmuller, and others; the latter, that it means that God treated him as a sinner, is adopted by Vorstius, Schoettgen, Robinson (Lexicon), Dr. Bull, and others. There are many passages in the Old Testament where the word "sin" (ἁμαρτία hamartia) is used in the sense of sin-offering, or a sacrifice for sin. Thus, Hosea 4:8, "They eat up the sin of my people;" that is, the sin-offerings; see Ezekiel 43:22, Ezekiel 43:25; Ezekiel 44:29; Ezekiel 45:22-23, Ezekiel 45:25. See Whitby's note on this verse. But whichever meaning is adopted, whether it means that he was a sacrifice for sin, or that God treated him as if he were a sinner, that is, subjected him to sufferings which, if he had been personally a sinner, would have been a proper expression of his hatred of transgression, ands proper punishment for sin, in either case it means that he made an atonement; that he died for sin; that his death was not merely that of a martyr; but that it was designed by substituted sufferings to make reconciliation between man and God. Locke renders this: probably expressing the true sense, "For God hath made him subject to suffering and death, the punishment and consequence of sin, as if he had been a sinner, though he were guilty of no sin." To me, it seems probable that the sense is, that God treated him as if he had been a sinner; that he subjected him to such pains and woes as would have been a proper punishment if he had been guilty; that while he was, in fact, in all senses perfectly innocent, and while God knew this, yet that in consequence of the voluntary assumption of the place of man which the Lord Jesus took, it pleased the Father to lay on him the deep sorrows which would be the proper expression of his sense of the evil of sin; that he endured so much suffering, as would answer the same great ends in maintaining the truth, and honor, and justice of God, as if the guilty had themselves endured the penalty of the Law. This, I suppose, is what is usually meant when it is said "our sins were imputed to him;" and though this language is not used in the Bible, and though it is liable to great misapprehension and perversion, yet if this is its meaning, there can be no objection to it. (Certainly Christ's being made sin, is not to be explained of his being made sin in the abstract, nor of his having actually become a sinner; yet it does imply, that sin was charged on Christ, or that it was imputed to him, and that he became answerable for it. Nor can this idea be excluded, even if we admit that "sin-offering" is the proper rendering of ἁμαρτία hamartia in the passage. "That Christ," says an old divine commenting on this place, "was made sin for us, because he was a sacrifice for sin, we confess; but therefore was he a sacrifice for sin because our sins were imputed to him, and punished in him." The doctrine of imputation of sin to Christ is here, by plain enough inference at least. The rendering in our Bibles, however, asserts it in a more direct form. Nor, after all the criticism that has been expended on the text, does there seem any necessity for the abandonment of that rendering, on the part of the advocate of imputation. For first ἁμαρτία hamartia in the Septuagint, and the corresponding אשׁם 'aashaam in the Hebrew, denote both the sin and the sin-offering, the peculiar sacrifice and the crime itself. Second, the antithesis in the passage, so obvious and beautiful, is destroyed by the adoption of "sin-offering." Christ was made sin, we righteousness. There seems in our author's comment on this place, and also at Romans 5, an attempt to revive the oft-refuted objection against imputation, namely, that it involves something like a transference of moral character, an infusion, rather than an imputation of sin or righteousness. Nothing of this kind is at all implied in the doctrine. Its advocates with one voice disclaim it; and the reader will see the objection answered at length in the supplementary notes at Romans 4 and Romans 5. What then is the value of such arguments or insinuations as these: "All such views as go to make the Holy Redeemer a sinner, or guilty, or deserving of the sufferings he endured, border on blasphemy," etc. Nor is it wiser to affirm that "if Christ was properly guilty, it would make no difference in this respect, whether it was by his own fault or by imputation." What may be meant in this connection by "properly guilty," we know not. But this is certain, that there is an immense difference between Christ's having the guilt of our iniquities charged on him, and having the guilt of his own so charged. It is admitted in the commentary, that God "treated Christ as if he had been a sinner," and this is alleged as the probable sense of the passage. But this treatment of Christ on the part of God, must have some ground, and where shall we find it, unless in the imputation of sin to him? If the guilt of our iniquities, or which is the same thing, the Law obligation to punishment, be not charged on Christ, how in justice can he be subjected to the punishment? If he had not voluntarily come under such obligation, what claim did law have on him? That the very words "sin imputed to Christ" are not found in scripture, is not a very formidable objection. The words in this text are stronger and better "He was made sin," and says Isaiah, according to the rendering of Dr. Lowth, "The Lord made to meet upon him the iniquities of us all. It was required of him, and he was made answerable." Isa, Isaiah 53:6.) Who knew no sin - He was not guilty. He was perfectly holy and pure. This idea is thus expressed by Peter 1 Peter 2:22; "who did no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth;" and in Hebrews 7:26, it is said he was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners." In all respects, and in all conceivable senses, the Lord Jesus was pure and holy. If he had not been, he would not have been qualified to make an atonement. Hence, the sacred writers are everywhere at great pains to keep this idea prominent, for on this depends the whole superstructure of the plan of salvation. The phrase "knew no sin," is an expression of great beauty and dignity. It indicates his entire and perfect purity. He was altogether unacquainted with sin; he was a stranger to transgression; he was conscious of no sin; he committed none. He had a mind and heart perfectly free from pollution, and his whole life was perfectly pure and holy in the sight of God. That we might be made the righteousness of God - This is a Hebraism, meaning the same as divinely righteous. It means that we are made righteous in the sight of God; that is, that we are accepted as righteous, and treated as righteous by God on account of what the Lord Jesus has done. There is here an evident and beautiful contrast between what is said of Christ, and what is said of us. He was made sin; we are made righteousness; that is, he was treated as if he were a sinner, though he was perfectly holy and pure; we are treated as if we were righteous, though we are defiled and depraved. The idea is, that on account of what the Lord Jesus has endured in our behalf we are treated as if we had ourselves entirely fulfilled the Law of God, and bad never become exposed to its penalty. In the phrase "righteousness of God," there is a reference to the fact that this is his plan of making people righteous, or of justifying them. They who thus become righteous, or are justified, are justified on his plan, and by a scheme which he has devised. Locke renders this: "that we, in and by him, might be made righteous, by a righteousness imputed to us by God." The idea is, that all our righteousness in the sight of God we receive in and through a Redeemer. All is to be traced to him. This verse contains a beautiful epitome of the whole plan of salvation, and the uniqueness of the Christian scheme. On the one hand, one who was perfectly innocent, by a voluntary substitution, is treated As if he were guilty; that is, is subjected to pains and sorrows which if he were guilty would be a proper punishment for sin: and on the other, they who are guilty and who deserve to be punished, are treated, through his vicarious sufferings, as if they were perfectly innocent; that is, in a manner which would be a proper expression of God's approbation if he had not sinned. The whole plan, therefore, is one of substitution; and without substitution, there can be no salvation. Innocence voluntarily suffers for guilt, and the guilty are thus made pure and holy, and are saved. The greatness of the divine compassion and love is thus shown for the guilty; and on the ground of this it is right and proper for God to call on people to be reconciled to him. It is the strongest argument that can be used. When God has given his only Son to the bitter suffering of death on the cross in order that we may be reconciled, it is the highest possible argument which can be used why we should cease our opposition to him, and become his friends. Wesley's 2-corinthians 5:21 Bible Commentary 5:21 He made him a sin offering, who knew no sin - A commendation peculiar to Christ. For us - Who knew no righteousness, who were inwardly and outwardly nothing but sin; who must have been consumed by the divine justice, had not this atonement been made for our sins. That we might be made the righteousness of God through him - Might through him be invested wi th that righteousness, first imputed to us, then implanted in us, which is in every sense the righteousness of God.

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Glossary of Selected Brewing Terms Beer Glossary of Terms. (n.d.). Retrieved June 6, 2015, from http://www.craftbeer.com/beer-studies/beer-glossary ABV (Alcohol by Volume) A measurement of the alcohol content of a solution in terms of the percentage volume of alcohol per volume of beer. This measurement is always higher than Alcohol by Weight. To calculate the approximate volumetric alcohol content, subtract the final gravity from the original gravity and divide by 0.0075. For example: 1.050 – 1.012 = 0.038/0.0075 = 5% ABV. Ales are beers fermented with top fermenting yeast. Ales typically are fermented at warmer temperatures than lagers, and are often served warmer. The term ale is sometimes incorrectly associated with alcoholic strength. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a top fermenting yeast that ferments at warm temperatures (60-70 F) and generally produces more flavor compounds. A cereal grain derived from the annual grass Hordeum vulgare. Barley is used as a base malt in the production of beer and certain distilled spirits, as well as a food supply for humans and animals. (BBL) A standard measure in the U.S. that is 31 gallons. A wooden vessel that is used to age/condition/ferment beer. Some brewer’s barrels are brand new and others have been used previously to store wine or spirits. A critical step during the brewing process during which wort (unfermented beer) is boiled inside the brew kettle. During the boiling, one or more hop additions can occur to achieve bittering, hop flavor and hop aroma in the finished beer. Boiling also results in the removal of several volatile compounds from wort, especially dimethyl sulfide (see below) and the coagulation of excess or unwanted proteins in the wort (see “hot break“). Boiling also sterilizes a beer as well as ends enzymatic conversion of proteins to sugars. A 22-ounce bottle of beer. A type of yeast and more specifically a genus of single-celled yeasts that ferment sugar and are important to the beer and wine industries due to the sensory flavors they produce. Brettanomyces, or “Brett” colloquially, can cause acidity and other sensory notes often perceived as leather, barnyard, horse blanket and just plain funk. These characteristics can be desirable or undesirable. It is common and desirable in styles such as Lambic, Oud Bruin, several similarly acidic American-derived styles, and many barrel-aged styles. One of the vessels used in the brewing process in which the wort (unfermented beer) is boiled. The hue or shade of a beer, primarily derived from grains, sometimes derived from fruit or other ingredients in beer. Beer styles made with caramelized, toasted or roasted malts or grains will exhibit increasingly darker colors. The color of a beer may often, but not always, allow the consumer to anticipate how a beer might taste. It’s important to note that beer color does not equate to alcohol level, mouthfeel or calories in beer. A step in the brewing process in which beer is matured or aged after initial fermentation to prevent the formation of unwanted flavors and compounds According to the Brewers Association, an American craft brewer is small, independent and traditional. Small: Annual production of 6 million barrels of beer or less (approximately 3 percent of U.S. annual sales). Beer production is attributed to the rules of alternating proprietorships. Independent: Less than 25 percent of the craft brewery is owned or controlled (or equivalent economic interest) by a beverage alcohol industry member that is not itself a craft brewer. Traditional: A brewer that has a majority of its total beverage alcohol volume in beers whose flavor derives from traditional or innovative brewing ingredients and their fermentation. Flavored malt beverages (FMBs) are not considered beers. Not to be confused with Cream Soda, this beer style is largely an American-style lager brewed with Ale yeast. Beer drawn from kegs, casks or serving tanks rather than from cans, bottles or other packages. Beer consumed from a growler relatively soon after filling is also sometimes considered draught beer. The addition of hops late in the brewing process to increase the hop aroma of a finished beer without significantly affecting its bitterness. Dry hops may be added to the wort in the kettle, whirlpool, hop back, or added to beer during primary or secondary fermentation or even later in the process. Essential Hop Oils Essential hop oils are what is isomerized in wort and provide the aromatic and flavor compounds that are associated with hop additions. Volatile flavor compounds that form through the interaction of organic acids with alcohols during fermentation and contribute to the fruity aroma and flavor of beer. Esters are very common in ales. Ethyl alcohol, the colorless primary alcohol constituent of beer. One of the essential oils made in the flowering cone of the hops plant Humulus lupulus. Sugars that can be consumed by yeast cells which in turn will produce ethanol alcohol and c02. The chemical conversion of fermentable sugars into approximately equal parts of ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide gas, through the action of yeast. The two basic methods of fermentation in brewing are top fermentation, which produces ales, and bottom fermentation, which produces lagers. The passage of a liquid through a permeable or porous substance to remove solid matter in suspension, often yeast. The specific gravity of a beer as measured when fermentation is complete (when all desired fermentable sugars have been converted to alcohol and carbon dioxide gas). Synonym: Final specific gravity; final SG; finishing gravity; terminal gravity. The process of adding clarifying agents such as isinglass, gelatin, silica gel, or Polyvinyl Polypyrrolidone (PVPP) to beer during secondary fermentation to hasten the precipitation of suspended matter, such as yeast, proteins or tannins. The behavior of suspended particles in wort or beer that tend to clump together in large masses and settle out. During brewing, protein and tannin particles will flocculate out of the kettle, coolship or fermenter during hot or cold break. During and at the end of fermentation, yeast cells will flocculate to varying degrees depending on the yeast strain, thereby affecting fermentation as well as filtration of the resulting beer. Growth of a barley grain as it produces a rootlet and acrospire. List of grains used in a particular beer recipe. Tasting or smelling like cereal or raw grains. Ground malt and grains ready for mashing. A jug- or pail-like container once used to carry draught beer bought by the measure at the local tavern. Growlers are usually ½ gal (64 oz) or 2L (68 oz) in volume and made of glass. Brewpubs often serve growlers to sell beer to-go. Often a customer will pay a deposit on the growler but can bring it back again and again for a re-fill. Growlers to-go are not legal in all U.S. states. An old-fashioned herb mixture used for bittering and flavoring beer, popular before the extensive use of hops. Gruit or grut ale may also refer to the beverage produced using gruit. The foam stability of a beer as measured, in seconds, by time required for a 1-inch foam collar to collapse. Used to cool hot wort before fermentation. The art of making beer at home. In the U.S., homebrewing was legalized by President Carter on February 1, 1979, through a bill introduced by California Senator Alan Cranston. The Cranston Bill allows a single person to brew up to 100 gallons of beer annually for personal enjoyment and up to 200 gallons in a household of two persons or more of legal drinking age. Learn more from the American Homebrewers Association. A perennial climbing vine, also known by the Latin botanical name Humulus lupulus. The female plant yields flowers of soft-leaved pine-like cones (strobile) measuring about an inch in length. Only the female ripened flower is used for flavoring beer. Because hops reproduce through cuttings, the male plants are not cultivated and are even rooted out to prevent them from fertilizing the female plants, as the cones would become weighed-down with seeds. Seedless hops have a much higher bittering power than seeded. There are presently over one hundred varieties of hops cultivated around the world. Some of the best known are Brewer’s Gold, Bullion, Cascade, Centennial, Chinook, Cluster, Comet, Eroica, Fuggles, Galena, Goldings, Hallertau, Nugget, Northern Brewer, Perle, Saaz, Syrian Goldings, Tettnang and Willamettes. Apart from contributing bitterness, hops impart aroma and flavor, and inhibit the growth of bacteria in wort and beer. Hops are added at the beginning (bittering hops), middle (flavoring hops), and end (aroma hops) of the boiling stage, or even later in the brewing process (dry hops). The addition of hops to beer dates from 7000-1000 BC; however hops were used to flavor beer in Pharaonic Egypt around 600 BC. They were cultivated in Germany as early as AD 300 and were used extensively in French and German monasteries in medieval times and gradually superseded other herbs and spices around the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Prior to the use of hops, beer was flavored with herbs and spices such as juniper, coriander, cumin, nutmeg, oak leaves, lime blossoms, cloves, rosemary, gentian, gaussia, chamomile, and other herbs or spices. One of the essential oils made in the flowering cone of the hops plant Humulus lupulus. International Bitterness Units (IBU) The measure of the bittering substances in beer (analytically assessed as milligrams of isomerized alpha acid per liter of beer, in ppm). This measurement depends on the style of beer. Light lagers typically have an IBU rating between 5-10 while big, bitter India Pale Ales can often have an IBU rating between 50 and 70. A cylindrical container, usually constructed of steel or sometimes aluminum, commonly used to store, transport and serve beer under pressure. In the U.S., kegs are referred to by the portion of a barrel they represent, for example, a ½ barrel keg = 15.5 gal, a ¼ barrel keg = 7.75 gal, a 1/6 barrel keg = 5.23 gal. Other standard keg sizes will be found in other countries. The process of heat-drying malted barley in a kiln to stop germination and to produce a dry, easily milled malt from which the brittle rootlets are easily removed. Kilning also removes the raw flavor (or green-malt flavor) associated with germinating barley, and new aromas, flavors, and colors develop according to the intensity and duration of the kilning process. The lacelike pattern of foam sticking to the sides of a glass of beer once it has been partly or totally emptied. Synonym: Belgian lace A microorganism/ bacteria. Lactobacillus is most often considered to be a beer spoiler, in that it can convert unfermented sugars found in beer into lactic acid. Some brewers introduce Lactobacillus intentionally into finished beer in order to add desirable acidic sourness to the flavor profile of certain brands. Lagers are any beer that is fermented with bottom-fermenting yeast at colder temperatures. Lagers are most often associated with crisp, clean flavors and are traditionally fermented and served at colder temperatures than ales. Saccharomyces pastorianus is a bottom fermenting yeast that ferments in cooler temperatures (45-55 F) and often lends sulfuric compounds. Storing bottom-fermented beer in cold cellars at near-freezing temperatures for periods of time ranging from a few weeks to years, during which time the yeast cells and proteins settle out and the beer improves in taste. A large vessel fitted with a false slotted bottom (like a colander) and a drain spigot in which the mash is allowed to settle and sweet wort is removed from the grains through a straining process. In some smaller breweries, the mash tun can be used for both mashing and lautering. The process of separating the sweet wort (pre-boil) from the spent grains in a lauter tun or with other straining apparatus. The name given, in the brewing industry, to water used for mashing and brewing, especially natural or treated water containing high amounts of calcium and magnesium salts. A scale used to measure color in grains and sometimes in beer. Processed barley that has been steeped in water, germinated on malting floors or in germination boxes or drums, and later dried in kilns for the purpose of stopping the germination and converting the insoluble starch in barley to the soluble substances and sugars in malt. The most abundant fermentable sugar in beer. A mixture of ground malt (and possibly other grains or adjuncts) and hot water that forms the sweet wort after straining. The vessel in which grist is soaked in water and heated in order to convert the starch to sugar and to extract the sugars, colors, flavors and other solubles from the grist. The process of mixing crushed malt (and possibly other grains or adjuncts) with hot water to convert grain starches to fermentable sugars and non-fermentable carbohydrates that will add body, head retention and other characteristics to the beer. Mashing also extracts colors and flavors that will carry through to the finished beer, and also provides for the degradation of haze-forming proteins. Mashing requires several hours and produces a sugar-rich liquid called wort. The grinding of malt into grist (or meal) to facilitate the extraction of sugars and other soluble substances during the mash process. The endosperm must be crushed to medium-sized grits rather than to flour consistency. It is important that the husks remain intact when the grain is milled or cracked because they will later act as a filter aid during lautering. The textures one perceives in a beer. Includes carbonation, fullness and aftertaste. One of the essential oils made in the flowering cone of the hops plant Humulus lupulus. Traditional European hop varieties prized for their characteristic flavor and aroma. Traditionally these are grown only in four small areas in Europe: Hallertau in Bavaria, Germany Saaz in Zatec, Czech Republic Spalt in Spalter, Germany Tettnang in the Lake Constance region, Germany Original Gravity (OG) The specific gravity of wort before fermentation. A measure of the total amount of solids that are dissolved in the wort as compared to the density of water, which is conventionally given as 1.000 and higher. Synonym: Starting gravity; starting specific gravity; original wort gravity. The top part of the inside of your mouth and is generally associated with how humans taste. Abbreviation for potential Hydrogen, used to express the degree of acidity and alkalinity in an aqueous solution, usually on a logarithmic scale ranging from 1-14, with 7 being neutral, 1 being the most acidic, and 14 being the most alkaline. A class of chemical compounds perceptible in both aroma and taste. Some phenolic flavors and aromas are desirable in certain beer styles, for example German-style wheat beers in which the phenolic components derived from the yeast used, or Smoke beers in which the phenolic components derived from smoked malt. Higher concentrations in beer are often due to the brewing water, infection of the wort by bacteria or wild yeasts, cleaning agents, or crown and can linings. Phenolic sensory attributes include clovey, herbal, medicinal or pharmaceutical (band-aid). The addition of yeast to the wort once it has cooled down to desirable temperatures. The first stage of fermentation carried out in open or closed containers and lasting from two to twenty days during which time the bulk of the fermentable sugars are converted to ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide gas. Synonym: Principal fermentation; initial fermentation. The German beer purity law passed in 1516, stating that beer may only contain water, barley and hops. Yeast was later added after its role in fermentation was discovered by Louis Pasteur. A measurement of the mash’s ability to buffer, or resist, attempts to lower its pH. Any leftover sugar that the yeast did not consume during fermentation. The gummy organic substance produced by certain plants and trees. Humulone and lupulone, for example, are bitter resins that occur naturally in the hop flower. The conversion of malt starch into fermentable sugars, primarily maltose. The genus of single-celled yeasts that ferment sugar and are used in the making of alcoholic beverages and bread. Yeasts of the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces pastorianus are commonly used in brewing. The second, slower stage of fermentation for top fermenting beers, and lasting from a few weeks to many months, depending on the type of beer. A renewed fermentation in bottles or casks and initiated by priming or by adding fresh yeast. A beer of lighter body and alcohol of which one might expect to drink more than one serving in a sitting. In lautering, an operation consisting of spraying the spent mash grains with hot water to retrieve the liquid malt sugar and extract remaining in the grain husks. The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water. This method is used to determine how much dissolved sugars are present in the wort or beer. Specific gravity has no units because it is expressed as a ratio. See also Original Gravity and Final Gravity. Temperature Rests during the beer making process allows the brewer to adjust fermentable sugar profiles so as to influence characteristics of the resulting beer. At the outset of lautering and immediately prior to collecting wort in the brew kettle, the recirculation of wort from the lauter tun outlet back onto the top of the grain bed in order to clarify the wort. One of the four ingredients in beer. Some beers are made up by as much as 90% water. Globally, some brewing centers became famous for their particular type of beer, and the individual flavors of their beer were strongly influenced by the brewing water’s pH and mineral content. Burton is renowned for its bitter beers because the water is hard (higher PH), Edinburgh for its pale ales, Dortmund for its pale lager, and Plzen for its Pilsner Urquell (soft water lower PH). A method of collecting hot break material in the center of the kettle by stirring the wort until a vortex is formed. A brewhouse vessel designed to separate hot break trub particles from boiled wort. The bittersweet sugar solution obtained by mashing the malt and boiling in the hops, which becomes beer through fermentation. During the fermentation process, yeast converts the natural malt sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide gas. Yeast was first viewed under a microscope in 1680 by the Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek; in 1867, Louis Pasteur discovered that yeast cells lack chlorophyll and that they could develop only in an environment containing both nitrogen and carbon. The branch of chemistry that deals with fermentation processes, as in brewing.

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4Saint-Petersburg State University, Institute of Chemistry, Universitetskii pr. 26, 198504 St. Petersburg, Russia Associate Editor: P. Leiderer Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 157–167. doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.15 Received 13 Jun 2018, Accepted 19 Dec 2018, Published 11 Jan 2019 For the oxidation of water to dioxygen, oxide-covered ruthenium metal is known as the most efficient catalyst, however, with limited stability. Herein, we present a strategy for incorporating a Ru/C composite onto a novel nanoporous electrode surface with low noble metal loading and improved stability. The Ru/C is coated on the pore walls of anodic alumina templates in a one-step laser-induced deposition method from Ru3(CO)12 solutions. Scanning electron microscopy proves the presence of a continuous Ru/C layer along the inner pore walls. The amorphous material consists of metallic Ru incorporated in a carbonaceous C matrix as shown by X-ray diffraction combined with Raman and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopies. These porous electrodes reveal enhanced stability during water oxidation as compared to planar samples at pH 4. Finally, their electrocatalytic performance depends on the geometric parameters and is optimized with 13 μm pore length, which yields 2.6 mA cm−2, or 49 A g−1, at η = 0.20 V. Keywords: electrochemistry; nanostructures; noble metals; ruthenium catalyst; water splitting The replacement of fossil fuels as the dominant global source of power by renewable energy sources has been and still is one of the major scientific and technological challenges faced by mankind. Among conceivable alternative energy sources, solar energy is the most suitable candidate due to its highest abundance on the global scale. Solar energy application on a large scale, however, necessitates its storage [1-4]. Here, nature provides the blueprint for the production of solar fuels by rearranging the chemical bonds of water to dihydrogen and dioxygen [1,5]. For the realization of artificial water splitting, catalysts are required for the rate-limiting half reaction, the dioxygen evolution, which must be driven at low overpotential (for maximizing conversion efficiency) . The most active catalyst materials for this transformation are metallic iridium and ruthenium particles, the surface of which consists of the corresponding oxide (Figure 1) [6,7]. Of the two, ruthenium (as its ruthenium(IV) oxide at the surface) not only proves to be the more efficient catalyst but is also the more abundant, and thus, the more cost-effective material . However, its practical application is limited by its significant dissolution (corrosion) at high anodic potential over the whole pH range (Figure 2) [10-12]. One strategy to address this limitation has involved mixing metallic Ru (or its oxides) with other solids (such as Ir [13-18], Ta , or Pt , TiO2 , Ni and Co ). Another approach entails increasing the specific surface area, which allows one to generate current at lower overpotential, for example by supporting RuO2 nanoparticles on siliceous mesoporous materials [23-26], with mesoporous RuO2 , or with RuO2 supported on Sb-doped SnO2 nanoparticles [18,28]. A carbonaceous support has also been used, with the advantages of chemical durability and electrical conductivity, as demonstrated in the context of alcohol dehydrogenation [29,30]. Such a support, however, has not been applied to the water oxidation reaction so far. In this paper, we address this goal with the synthesis of metal/carbon composites via the laser-induced deposition method already described for carbon-encapsulated Ag/Au nanoparticles (AgAu/C) [31-33]. This practically appealing one-step technique bases on the photo-induced decomposition of a dissolved organometallic complex and the subsequent self-organization into hybrid metal/carbon nanostructures with controlled composition and morphology . With the appropriate choice of laser wavelength and solvent, which both need to be adjusted to the absorption behavior of the organometallic complex, metal/carbon composites (M/C) can be generated in a straightforward manner onto the surface of any substrate with 2D or 3D architecture . We first establish a novel laser-induced deposition method for Ru/C on planar substrates from commercially available triruthenium dodecacarbonyl (Ru3(CO)12). We then transfer the successful deposition method to the functionalization of highly ordered nanostructured anodic alumina templates [35-39] (Note: as our system is based on pores of diameter >50 nm, it is macroporous according to the IUPAC definition; we will use the more general wording “nanoporous” and “nanotubular” in the rest of the paper). These novel metal/carbon nanostructures are characterized regarding their morphology and phase composition. Finally, the electrocatalytic water oxidation performance of planar and nanostructured Ru/C electrodes is studied at pH 4. The focus lies on (1) the optimization of the nanoporous geometry (variation of the pore length) towards obtaining reasonable current densities at low overpotential, (2) the minimization of corrosion via minimized overpotential and nanoparticle morphology, and (3) the minimization of noble metal loading. These efforts result in a very high activity (current per mass of noble metal) for electrocatalytic water oxidation. According to previous studies on the one-step laser-induced deposition method of AuAg/C composite, the choice of organometallic precursor, solvent, irradiation wavelength, and time crucially affect the quantity and quality of the coating [31,33,40]. For Ru/C deposition, we chose triruthenium dodecacarbonyl, Ru3(CO)12, as a 1 mg/mL 1,2-dichloroethane solution irradiated within its absorption band at 325 nm [41,42]. As planar substrates, microscope cover glasses provided with approx. 700 nm of heat-treated indium tin oxide (ITO, which serves as the electrical contact in subsequent electrochemical measurements) are placed for laser-induced coating on a microcuvette filled with the precursor solution. An unfocused He-Cd laser beam irradiates the substrate/solution interface from the substrate side for 30 min (Figure 3a,b). Scanning electron micrographs of a sample prove the successful deposition of a continuous albeit somewhat rough thin (≤20 nm) film (Figure 4a,b). Furthermore, energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis confirms the presence of Ru and C in the deposited film (see Figure S1 in Supporting Information File 1). This is the first demonstration of Ru/C hybrid material generated by laser-induced deposition. Furthermore, this represents the first use of a commercially available precursor in this method, which simplifies the procedure and renders it widely available. This successful Ru/C laser deposition can now be transferred to anodic alumina templates featuring ordered arrays of parallel and cylindrical nanopores. The full preparation procedure is delineated in Figure 5. In the anodization conditions used here, the pitch P and diameter D are set to approx. 425 nm and 370 nm, respectively. This value of D is the maximum possible given a set P. It maximizes the specific surface area and thereby the electrocatalytic current density reachable . The pore length is varied in the range of 11 ≤ L ≤ 24 μm. In contrast to planar substrates, the laser beam must be directed to the solution/substrate interface after traversing the solution (Figure 3c,d). In these conditions, deposition durations of 15 min are sufficient for the successful deposition of thin Ru/C coatings inside the Al2O3 pores (with additional material on the front sample side, Figure 6a,d). In a last step, an ITO electrical contact is sputter-coated onto the front side of the sample. EDX spectroscopy reveals the presence of expected elements Al, O, P and In of the substrate and electrical contact, as well as Ru and C in the deposited layer (Figure 6c,d, Figure S2, Supporting Information File 1). The atomic ratios Ru/Al = 0.009 (±0.005) and C/Al = 0.137 (±0.031) (Table S1, Supporting Information File 1) demonstrate the low noble metal loading. These numbers can be expressed as 1.5 wt % Ru in our samples, or equivalently, 41 mg cm−3 (given the density of the Al2O3 framework) , or alternatively, as areal loadings, for example 53 µg cm−2 for a pore length of 13 µm. The volumetric value is comparable to state-of-the-art catalytic water oxidation systems based on supported RuOx (40–50 mg cm−3 have been reported on siliceous supports) [23,24]. The areal loadings are as low as the lowest values found in the literature (amorphous RuO2 with 49 µg cm−2 , mixed Ru–Pt catalyst with 15–35 µg cm−2 , and RuO2 nanoparticles with 49 µg cm−2) . The chemical and phase identity of the Ru/C material obtained by laser-induced deposition is delivered by a combination of X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Firstly, the Ru/C layer is amorphous, since only crystalline Al peaks of the substrate are visible in the X-ray diffraction pattern (Figure S3, Supporting Information File 1). The Raman spectra recorded on the Ru/C coated nanostructured sample (Figure 7a) can be divided into two distinct regions below 800 cm−1 and beyond it. In the low- frequency region, the broad peaks centered at 465 and 690 cm−1 can be attributed to hydrous ruthenium oxide (RuO2∙nH2O) [47-51], whereby an overlap with Ru–C stretching modes cannot be excluded (see also the signal generated by the molecular precursor, Figure 7b). The 313 cm−1 peak originates from metallic Ru [52-55]. In the high-frequency region, the conspicuous maximum at ≈1600 cm−1 is due the stretching vibration of C=C bonds in aromatic or graphitic carbon. The peak at 1224 cm−1 corresponds to stretching vibrations of C–C and C–O single bonds (the ‘disorder’ peak usually found for graphitic material) [56-61]. Importantly, the absence of carbonyl stretching vibrations around 1950–2190 cm−1 rules out any remnants of molecular precursor Ru3(CO)12 (Figure 7b [52,62]). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, Figure 8) is used to differentiate between the oxidation states of ruthenium at its surface and in its inner (“bulk”). The overview XPS spectrum of an as-prepared nanostructured sample features only Ru, O and C (Figure 8a) from the Ru/C layer, whereas the Al2O3 substrate is completely covered and reveals no Al signal. Deconvolution of the Ru 3d region, which is superimposed with C 1s (Figure 8b), reveals two doublets for two chemically different Ru environments. Their Ru 3d5/2 maxima are located at 281.1 eV and 281.8 eV, respectively, consistent with Ru(IV) oxide and Ru hydroxide [63-65]. Large carbon contributions are additionally observable (partly O-bonded, Figure S4, Supporting Information File 1), which are due to the Ru/C layer and adventitious carbon. Argon ion sputtering results in a reduced carbon content (observable in both the C 1s and O 1s regions), as well as in a shift of the Ru 3d doublet of peaks to lower binding energies (Figure 8b and Figure S4, Supporting Information File 1). Thus, below the surface ruthenium is present in its metallic state (280.3 eV), whereas Ru(IV) oxide (281.1 eV) is still observable [63,66]. In conclusion, laser-induced deposition yields amorphous metallic Ru in close interaction with an amorphous carbonaceous C matrix, whereas the surface is completely oxidized, and in part hydrated. We then applied our nanoporous Ru/C electrodes to the water oxidation reaction. Therefore, an approx. 1 μm thick ITO layer at one pore extremity serves as an electrical contact. We choose pH 4 (KH2PO4 buffer) for the investigations in order to secure the stability of the Al2O3 template, ITO and ruthenium (Figure 2). In cyclic voltammetry (Figure 9a), our nanotubular nt-Ru/C electrodes feature two broad oxidative peaks located around 0.0 V and +0.5 V vs the Ag/AgCl reference electrode. These peaks correspond to the oxidation of metallic Ru to Ru(II) and subsequently to Ru(IV) at the solid surface [10,67,68]. The oxygen evolution reaction starts beyond +0.8 V (E’ = +0.79 V) vs Ag/AgCl at pH 4 whereas electro-corrosion to dissolved species (H2RuO5, RuO4−) begins at +0.95 V (Figure 2) [10,11]. These restrictions force us to never exceed +1.0 V applied potential. On the cathodic scan, only one reductive peak is present near 0.0 V, corresponding to the reduction of surface oxides to metallic Ru . The absence of surface oxidization current during the first CV cycle (blue curve in Figure 9a) indicates that the ruthenium catalyst as prepared is present as oxidized Ru(IV). This observation is consistent with the XPS analyses presented above. The consecutive cycles yield a rather constant hysteresis area, which indicates a low loss of material in electrochemical conditions. This relative stability of our nanoporous electrode stands in stark contrast to the planar Ru/C electrode (Figure 9b). Firstly, the current density J (defined with respect to the experimentally accessible macroscopic sample area) starts out 6 times lower in the planar case than for the porous electrode. Secondly, the loss of catalytic turnover of H2O to O2 visible at >0.9 V within 10 cycles is much more significant with the planar surface than with its porous counterpart. The area of the voltammetric hysteresis decreases concomitantly. These observations point to the rapid loss of noble metal catalyst from planar Ru/C surfaces. The contrasting stability of planar and structured Ru/C electrodes can be tested further upon prolonged electrolysis. For this purpose, both types of electrodes were maintained at +0.90 V for 5 h (Figure 10). The water oxidation current density J on the planar Ru/C electrode declines to almost zero within about five minutes, whereas the nanostructured sample reaches a constant steady-state value J = 11.2 μA cm−2 after about three hours. This value is low, but is achieved at a very low overpotential, η = 0.11 V. We note that the integrated current (total charge passed over five hours) cannot be due solely to corrosion given the amount of carbon present. Thus, the application of the Ru/C laser deposition to nanoporous Al2O3 substrates yields a significant improvement of the catalyst stability in comparison to planar substrates. EDX analyses (Figures S1 and S2, Table S1, Supporting Information File 1) and cyclic voltammetry (Figure S5, Supporting Information File 1) performed after long-term bulk electrolyses support this statement. Our preparative procedure now allows us to adjust the geometric parameters of the nanoporous substrate in order to optimize the catalytic turnover of H2O to O2. Specifically, we will study the dependency of the current density J on the electrodes’ geometric surface area via the variation of the pore length L (maintaining a constant pore diameter D). Figure 11 illustrates Tafel plots of Ru/C electrodes determined for pore lengths 11 ≤ L ≤ 24 μm measured within an applied overpotential range of 0.00 ≤ η ≤ 0.21 V (+0.79 ≤ E ≤ +1.00 V vs Ag/AgCl). All curves follow a similar trend and are located in close proximity of each other. However, the best performer is not the electrode type with the longest pores of L = 24 μm. Instead, those with 13 μm length yield the largest current densities at all overpotentials. They enable a water oxidation turnover that exceeds those of planar electrodes (L = 0 μm, Figure 11 inset) by approximately 1.5 decimal logarithmic units, or, equivalently, a factor 35. A clearer view of the length effect is provided by plots of J–L dependence at two distinct overpotentials, η = 0.10 V (mean values as green data points in Figure 12) and η = 0.20 V (blue data points). In both cases, pore elongation yields a rapid current density increase until a maximum is reached at 13 μm, followed by an activity loss for L > 13 μm. The current density loss is even more pronounced for η = 0.20 V than for 0.10 V, which can be attributed to transport limitation, since diffusion becomes more limiting at faster catalytic turnover. A similar observation was already made for Fe2O3-coated Al2O3 nanopores in the oxygen evolution reaction [69-71]. With this, we have established a novel type of nanostructured Ru/C composite electrode for the oxygen evolution reaction at pH 4 by laser-induced deposition. Laser irradiation of Ru3(CO)12 in 1,2-dichloroethane at 325 nm provides the first laser-induced coatings of hybrid Ru/C material on planar and porous substrates. Along ordered cylindrical pores of high aspect ratio, the method yields thin and continuous films consisting of surface-oxidized metallic Ru incorporated in an amorphous carbonaceous carbon matrix. Table 1: Comparison of loadings , current densities J, and activities (specific currents isp = J/) between selected literature precedents and the current results. At an overpotential of 0.2 V, our system reaches current densities comparable to the highest of the literature with Ru catalyst loadings comparable to the lowest in the literature. The activity is correspondingly maximal. |µg cm−2||Jη = 0.2 V mA cm−2||isp, η = 0.2 V A g−1||measurement conditions| |this work||53||2.6||49.1||5 mV s−1| |Shao-Horn a||50||0.01||0.2||10 mV s−1| |Kokoh ||380||0.8||2.1||5 mV s−1| |Haverkamp ||160||1.0||6.3||20 mV s−1| |Mayrhofer ||370||5.0||13.5||10 mV s−1| |Strasser ||(14–35)||0.8||(23–56)||5 mV s−1| |Nakato ||49||7.5||154||5 mV s−1| aThe values reported in the Shao-Horn paper are without internal resistance correction (to allow for a relevant comparison with other papers), at a slightly more elevated overpotential of η = 0.25 V. The improved stability demonstrated here, the significant current densities, and the large activities obtained at low overpotential question the relative neglect of ruthenium in the water oxidation literature. This less costly metal could, given proper preparation procedures, advantageously replace iridium for some applications – most prominently electrical energy storage under nearly reversible conditions. Chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, VWR, or Roth and used as received. Water was purified in a Millipore Direct-Q system for the application in electrolytes. As planar substrates, microscope cover glasses (borosilicate glass, 18 × 18 mm2, 0.13–0.16 mm thickness) were purchased from Marienfeld-Superior. Aluminum plates (99.99%) for the anodization procedure were supplied by Smart-Membranes. The indium tin oxide sputter target (99.99%) was purchased from AEM. For planar electrodes microscope cover glasses were ultrasonically cleaned with ethanol and water, then dried in a flow of nitrogen. In a next step, the slides were sputter-coated with approx. 700 nm of indium tin oxide (ITO) in radio frequency (RF) mode in a reactor from Torr International Inc. The conductive layer was subsequently annealed in N2 atmosphere for 4 h at 400 °C in a high-temperature P330 furnace from Nabertherm. The planar substrates were then coated with Ru/C layers via laser-induced deposition. The precursor solution was prepared by ultrasonic dissolving of 1 mg of triruthenium dodecacarbonyl (Ru3(CO)12) in 1 mL of 1,2-dichloroethane (C2H4Cl2) of analytical grade purity for 15–20 min. To remove the undissolved components, the solution was centrifuged with a SIGMA 2-16P centrifuge at 10000 rpm for 5 min. A microcuvette (d = 9 mm) was filled with the precursor solution and covered with the planar substrate with the ITO side facing the solution. Bubble formation in the solution was prevented via axial sliding of the substrate on the cuvette. An unfocused beam (ca. 2 mm in diameter) of a Plasma He-Cd laser (continuous wave (CW), λ = 325 nm, P = 10 mW) was directed to the substrate/solution interface from the side of glass for an irradiation duration of 30 min (Figure 3a,b). The maximum temperature in the laser focal spot does not exceed 27 °C as recorded with a Thermovision camera Ti32 from Fluke. After the deposition procedure the planar samples were washed in a flow of acetone and isopropanol. Nanostructured Ru/C electrodes were prepared in several steps as illustrated in Figure 5. A standard two-step anodization of aluminum (represented as (a) in Figure 5) delivered the nanoporous aluminum oxide membranes further used as templates . Aluminum plates of 2.2 cm diameter were anodized in home-made two-electrode cells consisting of a PVC beaker with four circular openings at the bottom. They were therefore held between an O-ring and a thick copper plate operating as an electrical contact. Adequate cooling of the beaker was ensured via a cold plate connected to a closed-circuit cooler by Haake. The PVC beaker was filled with the electrolyte and closed with a lid equipped with a mechanical stirrer and silver wire mesh as counter-electrode. The whole setup was thermally insulated laterally. Electropolishing of the aluminum plates in a cooled perchloric acid/ethanol solution (1:3 v/v HClO4/EtOH) for 5 min under +20 V represented the first process step. They were then rinsed, cooled and anodized under +195 V for 23 h at 0 °C in 1 wt % H3PO4. In the following, the anodized plates were exposed to a chromic acid solution (0.18 M CrO3 in 6 wt % H3PO4) for 23 h at 45 °C for the removal of the disordered, porous Al2O3 generated. The second anodization was performed subsequently for 3, 4, 6 or 8 h at 0 °C in 1 wt % H3PO4 in order to vary the pore length. The next procedures (step (b) of Figure 5) included removing the metallic Al on the backside of the anodized Al2O3 with 0.7 M CuCl2 solution in 10% HCl, followed by opening the Al2O3 barrier layer closing the pores with simultaneous isotropic pore widening in 10 wt % H3PO4 at 45 °C for 37 to 47 min. The laser-induced deposition of Ru/C coatings followed was adapted from the planar case (vide supra) (Figure 5 step (c)). 10 μL of the 1 mg/mL Ru3(CO)12 dichloroethane solution were dropped on the Al2O3 templates. The laser beam was directed to the solution/substrate interface from the side of the solution droplet (see Figure 3c,d) with an irradiation time of 15 min. As soon as the solution evaporated (approx. each 30 s) a new droplet was placed on the same spot. The nanostructured samples were then washed in a flow of acetone and isopropanol. Four to five depositions were performed on each substrate. In a last step, the electrical contact was generated by sputter-coating of approx. 1 μm ITO in RF mode on the sample side of laser deposition (step (d) in Figure 5). Scanning electron micrographs were obtained on a Zeiss Merlin field-emission SEM with a field-emission cathode and standard In-lens SE and SE2 detectors. All measurements were performed in the chamber with a base pressure in the range of 10−7 mbar. The acceleration voltage was 10 to 1 keV with a beam current of 124–450 pA. Line averaging procedure was used for all images to reduce noise. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) was obtained on a JEOL JSM 6400 PC implemented with a LaB6 cathode and silicon drift detector (SDD). All Raman spectra were collected at room temperature in a backscattering geometry using a Horiba Jobin-Yvon LabRam HR 800 Raman spectrometer equipped with an Olympus BX41 microscope. The spectra were obtained with 488 nm radiation from an Ar+ gas laser and recorded in the 35–3290 cm−1 spectral range. The acquisition time was set to 500 s. The laser power was focused with a 100× objective on the sample and always kept at 5.4 μW. The spectra presented in this work are averaged from at least 5 measurements. The spectra were processed with LabSpec 5.78 including spike removal and baseline correction. The crystal structure was studied by powder X-ray diffraction measurements using a Bruker D8 Advance diffractometer in reflection mode and with Cu Kα1 radiation (λ = 1.54056 Å) and LynxEye XE-T detector. Monochromatized Al Kα XPS spectra were acquired on a PHI Quantera II system with a base pressure of 10−9 mbar. Adventitious carbon was removed from the surface by 1 min, 2 kV Ar+ ion sputtering. To prevent charging a combination of electron and ion neutralization was employed. The Ru 3d and O 1s XPS core level spectra were analyzed using a fitting routine which decomposes each spectrum into individual mixed Gaussian–Lorentzian peaks using a Shirley background subtraction over the energy range of the fit. Finally, all spectra were shifted to give a C 1s binding energy position of 284.4 eV to correct for a slight overcompensation in the neutralization. Planar samples were laser-cut with a GCC LaserPro Spirit LS Laser into smaller areas of 1 cm2, placed on small copper plates, whereby the electrical contact was established by double-sided conductive copper foil at the edges of the glass slide. In the case of nanostructured samples the individual deposition areas were laser-cut and subsequently glued with the ITO contact on small copper plates using double-sided conductive copper foil. A chemically resistant and electrically insulating polyimide (Kapton®) adhesive tape featuring a laser-cut circular window of 1.5 mm diameter was used to define the sample area exposed to the electrolyte. This macroscopically defined exposed sample area of 0.018 cm2 is the value A used to define current densities (J = I/A) from the measured currents I. The samples were then adjusted into three-electrode electrochemical cells, exposing the defined sample area to a pH 4 phosphate electrolyte prepared from 0.1 M KH2PO4. The stability of the Al2O3 template and ITO backside contact in pH 4 conditions was verified with SEM after 20 h in the electrolyte. All electrochemical measurements including cyclic voltammetry (CV), linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) and steady-state electrolysis were performed from the open-circuit potential at room temperature using Gamry Interface 1000 potentiostats. The standard redox potential of the Ag/AgCl/KCl(sat.) reference electrode is shifted by +0.20 V relative to the normal hydrogen electrode (NHE). Cyclic and linear sweep voltammograms were measured at scan rates of 50 mV s−1 or 5 mV s−1, respectively. Using the LSV data, Tafel plots were obtained for +0.79 V ≤ E ≤ +1.00 V vs Ag/AgCl (overpotentials 0.00 ≤ η ≤ 0.21 V). Steady-state electrolysis was measured for 5 h at +0.90 V. Additionally, a control experiment performed with a pure ITO contact on flat and nanostructured substrates demonstrated that the presence of ITO is irrelevant to the electrochemical performance. |Supporting Information File 1: Additional experimental data.| |Format: PDF||Size: 469.9 KB||Download| We thank A. Vasileva (Saint-Petersburg State University) for her support with laser deposition and Prof. K. Mayrhofer (Helmholtz Institute Erlangen-Nürnberg for Renewable Energy) for the use of the X-ray photoelectron spectrometer. This work was supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG) via the bridge funding of the excellence cluster “Engineering of Advanced Materials” (EXC315) and by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) via the German-Russian Interdisciplinary Research Center (projects; C-2016b-2, C-21017a-2). The Raman measurements were performed at Research Park of Saint-Petersburg State University at Center for Optical and Laser Materials Research. The SEM micrographs were recorded at Saint-Petersburg State University Interdisciplinary Resource Center for Nanotechnology. Saint-Petersburg State University grant for equipment #12.40.1342.2017.

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Volume 19, Number 6—June 2013 Prospects for Emerging Infections in East and Southeast Asia 10 Years after Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome It is 10 years since severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) emerged, and East and Southeast Asia retain a reputation as a hot spot of emerging infectious diseases. The region is certainly a hot spot of socioeconomic and environmental change, and although some changes (e.g., urbanization and agricultural intensification) may reduce the probability of emerging infectious diseases, the effect of any individual emergence event may be increased by the greater concentration and connectivity of livestock, persons, and products. The region is now better able to detect and respond to emerging infectious diseases than it was a decade ago, but the tools and methods to produce sufficiently refined assessments of the risks of disease emergence are still lacking. Given the continued scale and pace of change in East and Southeast Asia, it is vital that capabilities for predicting, identifying, and controlling biologic threats do not stagnate as the memory of SARS fades. It is a decade since severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) emerged and in a few dramatic months redefined perceptions of global vulnerability to emerging infectious diseases. It is believed that SARS originated from southern China, with the first cases identified in Guangdong Province, China, where sporadic cases and small outbreaks occurred between November 2002 and early January 2003. A larger outbreak, triggered by nosocomial transmissions in 2 hospitals, began during mid-January 2003 in Guangzhou city, the capital of Guangdong Province (1). On February 11, 2003, the international community, including the World Health Organization (WHO), became aware of this unusual cluster of severe pneumonia cases, which included many health care workers. Detailed information about the outbreak was not available to the international community, and when WHO issued a global alert on March 12, 2003, the virus had already spread to other countries and caused outbreaks in areas outside Guangdong, including Hong Kong, China; Hanoi, Vietnam; Singapore; and Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The SARS epidemic provided a dramatic demonstration of the weaknesses in national and global capacities to detect and respond to emerging infectious diseases, and it was in many ways a watershed event that had a transformative effect on many of the clinical, public health, and other professionals involved. But has the response to SARS had any lasting effect on the probability of new infectious agents emerging, being detected at an early stage of emergence, and being effectively controlled? More than 30% of the global population lives in East and Southeast Asia, and despite impressive improvements in health, infectious diseases remain a major problem in the region. In 2010, 47% of the estimated 2.1 million deaths among children <5 years of age in Southeast Asia were attributable to infectious diseases (e.g., pneumonia and acute diarrhea) (2). Alongside this existing pool of known human pathogens, a large and diverse population of mammalian wildlife species and domestic livestock reside in the region, acting as reservoirs or amplifying species from which new infectious diseases of humans might emerge (3,4). The reemergence of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus in 2004, the isolation of novel bat-associated reoviruses from humans in Malaysia in 2006, and the discovery of a novel tick-borne bunyavirus associated with fever and thrombocytopenia in rural farmers in China in 2009 attest to the existence of a pool of potential zoonotic pathogens in East and Southeast Asia (Table) (8,9,12). We review how the conditions that drive the emergence of infectious diseases and the systems to detect and control them have changed in East and Southeast Asia in the decade since SARS. Over the past decade, East and Southeast Asia have been home to many of the top-performing world economies, and this macroeconomic success has resulted in large increases in the demand for natural resources. The demand for hardwood, firewood, wood pulp, agricultural and grazing land, living space, roads, minerals, and power has had an enormous effect on the ecosystems of the region. Deforestation occurred throughout the 1990s, but the last decade has seen net increases in forested areas of China, the Philippines, and Vietnam because of active afforestation (including new commercial plantations). Net forest losses continue, however, in Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea (Figure 1) (13). The conversion of natural environments into agricultural or other commercially viable land (e.g., dams, mines) is usually associated with a decrease in biodiversity. A reduction in biodiversity can lead to increased disease transmission through a variety of mechanisms (e.g., reduced predation and competition) and cause an increase in the abundance of competent hosts and the loss of buffering species, leading to increased contact between amplifying host species and compatible pathogens (14). Although a reduction in biodiversity can lead to increased disease transmission, a large diversity of mammalian wildlife species is also associated with a large diversity of microbial species, which both increase toward the equator (3,4). Therefore, tropical areas (e.g., Myanmar, Cambodia, and parts of Indonesia) that have a rich pool of existing and potential pathogens but are experiencing ongoing ecosystem disruption and biodiversity loss may be at a particularly high risk for the emergence of zoonotic diseases. Land-use changes are ongoing, but much of East and Southeast Asia already has very high pressures on productive land. The rate of land-use change in much of the region has probably peaked, and the region is now in an era of increasing intensification of land productivity. In fact, over the last decade, China has increased agricultural output despite a slight decrease in total agricultural land area (Figure 2) (15). This intensification is driven largely by demographic pressures, which are predicted to result in a 70% increase in food production by 2050; the consumption of grains is expected to decrease and demand for meats, fruits, and vegetables is expected to increase (15). The recent high and volatile prices for food commodities are a good indicator of the current vulnerability of agricultural production systems. The environmental consequences of intensified agricultural production include the depletion and degradation of river and groundwater, reduced soil quality, and water and soil contamination with chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The loading of aquatic ecosystems with nitrogen and phosphorous (eutrophication) is a widespread environmental change with an as-yet unquantified effect on the risk for disease emergence. Eutrophication can result in potentially harmful blooms of cyanobacteria, but little is known about the effect on pathogens that cause disease in animals and humans. There is, however, evidence that eutrophication can alter ecosystems in such a way as to increase the transmission of parasitic diseases of amphibians, the concentration of Vibrio cholerae, and the abundance of mosquito vectors (16). Given the trend of increasing intensification of crop and animal production in East and Southeast Asia, much more attention should be given to the effect of the large-scale contamination of water and soil with nitrogen, phosphorous, and other chemicals on the functioning of ecosystems and on disease dynamics. Demand for livestock products in East and Southeast Asia has risen dramatically over the past 50 years: the per capita consumption of meat in developing countries has more than tripled since the early 1960s, and egg consumption has increased 5-fold (17). The increased demand for meat has been met by more intensive and geographically concentrated production of livestock, especially pigs and poultry. East and Southeast Asia are home to 569 million pigs (60% of the world pig population) and 9.2 billion poultry (43% of the world poultry population) (18). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has projected that pork consumption in China will increase by 55% between 2000 and 2030 (19), and Rabobank, an agricultural finance group, predicts a 45% increase in global meat demand over the next 20 years, with 70% of that occurring in Asia. The demand will be particularly strong for poultry because of its relatively low cost and short production cycle, and because there are fewer cultural restrictions regarding poultry than there are that concern pork and beef. In addition, meat-producing companies will continue to consolidate at the global level. The intensification of livestock farming often results in more effective separation of domestic and wild animals, improved veterinary supervision and input, reduced movement of animals, and reduced species mixing, all of which may reduce the likelihood of disease emergence. However, higher densities of short production–cycle domestic animals, such as pigs and, in particular, poultry, introduce a vulnerability because such animals usually have limited genetic variation. Higher genetic diversity within a host species is often associated with differences in susceptibility to infection, thereby limiting the potential for infections to spread rapidly (20). Recent outbreaks of highly pathogenic porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus throughout East and Southeast Asia, which at times co-occurred with outbreaks of Streptococcus suis infections, and the detection of Reston Ebola virus infection in pigs in the Philippines highlight the ongoing risk for disease emergence, amplification, and crossover from livestock to humans in East and Southeast Asia (6,11). In East and Southeast Asia, antimicrobial drugs are used extensively in the livestock and aquaculture sectors to treat or prevent infections, and they are used non-therapeutically as growth promoters, which requires the prolonged administration of sub-therapeutic doses. This practice has a demonstrable effect on the emergence and prevalence of potentially clinically relevant resistant microorganisms in food animals. Furthermore, the subsequent excretion of antimicrobial drugs into the environment may subject environmental bacteria to antimicrobial selection pressures (21). It is clear that the continued use of non-therapeutic antimicrobial drugs in livestock and aquaculture industries that are increasing in scale and intensity poses a threat to human and animal health (22). Reducing contact between domestic and wild animals, whether the wild animals remain wild or are captive in breeding farms or markets, is a key tactic recommended by the FAO for reducing risk to human health, and this reduced contact is part of the wider FAO strategy for biosecurity. Improving biosecurity in farms in East and Southeast Asia is a major challenge because a large proportion of the farming is done in backyard and small- to medium-scale commercial farms, and there is often a mix of commercial and backyard farming in any 1 location (23). The longer-term vision is to restructure the livestock production sector toward a more integrated and controlled system in which controls benefit animal health and welfare, human health, and commercial profitability without adversely affecting the livelihood of poor persons. In East and Southeast Asia, increasing intensification of animal husbandry may lead to healthier, better isolated animals and a subsequent lowered risk for emerging disease events. However, should an emerging infectious disease event occur, this intensification may result in greater amplification of disease in large, naive monocultures, as demonstrated in the Netherlands when they experienced major outbreaks of classical swine fever in 1997–1998 and avian influenza in 2003. The role of civet cats in the SARS pandemic and the smuggling of avian influenza A(H5N1) virus–infected birds of prey into Europe showed that the legal and illegal wildlife trade is an effective conduit for zoonotic pathogens to enter new niches (24,25). Wild animal products remain popular in East and Southeast Asia as traditional medicines, tonics, food delicacies, or symbols of wealth. Although all 10 countries in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) are signatories to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Asia continues to host the largest illegal wildlife trade in the world (26). The regional and global connectivity of East and Southeast Asia continues to increase; there is visa-free travel between ASEAN countries, relaxation of previously restrictive international travel policies in some countries, and a proliferation of budget airlines. Increased travel and trade between Africa and Asia is a particularly notable phenomenon: exports from Africa to Asia increased 20% from 2003 to 2008. This Africa–Asia traffic is a new corridor for the exchange of potential emerging infectious pathogens. The ongoing development of a regional road transport network within East and Southeast Asia will also offer new opportunities for pathogen dispersal because, compared with air travel, roads offer a more egalitarian form of connectivity that includes animals as well as humans. Increases in domestic travel also continue; only 10% of the world is now classified as remote (i.e., >48 hours travel time to a big city), and an estimated 2.5 billion passenger trips were made during China’s 2011 Lunar New Year celebrations—the greatest annual human migration on earth. Increased connectivity provides greater opportunities for pathogens to disperse beyond their traditional niches and presents a formidable challenge to the tracking and containment of outbreaks (27). Between 2011 and 2050, the global population is expected to increase from 3.6 billion to 6.3 billion (an increase of 2.6 billion [72%]), and this increase will be concentrated in cities (28). Most of the growth will occur in developing countries, particularly in Asia, which will experience an increase in its urban population of 1.4 billion persons. In many ways, this concentration of population growth in urban areas is a positive development, and the popularity of cities is a testament to the fact that cities generally provide better economic and education opportunities, better living and sanitation conditions, better nutrition, and therefore better health than in underdeveloped rural areas. Cities are, however, key in the epidemiology of many infectious diseases because they can function as “pace-makers” that drive temporal and spatial transmission dynamics of local epidemiology (e.g., dengue), hubs for national and global spread (e.g., SARS and HIV), or bridges between human and animal ecosystems (e.g., influenza A[H5N1]). East and Southeast Asia have made considerable progress in health and social welfare improvements: during 2000–2010, a total of 125 million persons in China and India moved out of slum conditions. However, urban poverty remains a concern. In 2010, an estimated 500 million persons in Asia lived in slums (29), and, at the end of 2008, there were an estimated 140 million rural migrant workers in China, many of whom lacked residency rights and had limited access to health care and other social supports (30). Circular migration between rural and urban settings is common and may facilitate the transfer of pathogens from wild or rural ecosystems to urban areas, with the potential for rapid amplification in settings with high concentrations of migrant workers. Almost 35% of the emerging infectious diseases identified in Asia during 1940–2004 represent the emergence of a new pattern of antimicrobial drug resistance (4). The major driver of such resistance is drug pressure. In East and Southeast Asia, the sequential development of resistance by malaria parasites to chloroquine, sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, mefloquine, and now artemisinin is a measure of both the adaptive capacity of the parasite and the failure of health systems to implement effective drug combination and cycling strategies to avoid resistance. Bacteria in East and Southeast Asia show high rates of resistance to antimicrobial agents; examples include multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii, Salmonella enterica, and Enterobacteriaceae (31). A high level of antimicrobial resistance is a marker of the failure to control access to antimicrobial drugs and to influence prescribing behaviors. Over-the-counter antimicrobial drugs are available without a prescription throughout much of East and Southeast Asia, even though antimicrobial drugs are officially prescription-only medicines in most countries. Left unchecked, the supply- and demand-side incentives for inappropriate antimicrobial drug use will lead to a region awash with antimicrobial drugs and with the potential for public health disasters, such as artemisinin resistance, which now threatens global malaria control. The SARS pandemic highlighted what had been apparent to some since the 1990s: few countries possessed the necessary surveillance and response capacities to rapidly detect and control emerging infectious diseases (32). The deficiencies of the 1969 International Health Regulations at the global level had long been recognized, and attempts to revise them were ongoing before 2003, but the SARS outbreak added new urgency and momentum for change. The International Health Regulations were successfully revised in 2005, and for the first time they defined a series of core capacities that each country is required to establish to detect, report, and control public health emergencies of international concern. The target for attaining these core capacities was set as June 2012, and an assessment undertaken in 2011 found that although these core capacities had not yet been fully achieved in several countries of East and Southeast Asia, considerable progress had been made (Figure 3) (33). For example, the influenza surveillance network in China expanded from 63 laboratories and 197 sentinel hospitals in 2005 to 441 laboratories and 556 sentinel hospitals in 2009 (34). Field epidemiology training programs have played a central role in strengthening epidemiology capacity in human and animal health, and new field epidemiology training programs were implemented in Laos, Mongolia, and Vietnam in 2009 and in Cambodia in 2011 (35). An analysis of the global capacity for detecting outbreaks showed improvements in the median time from outbreak start to outbreak discovery between 1996 (29.5 days) and 2009 (13.5 days) and from start to public communication (40 days in 1996 to 19 days in 2009); the WHO Western Pacific Region was the only WHO region that showed a statistically significant improvement in both areas (36). Many of these improvements were facilitated by a large increase in political and financial support for emerging infectious disease surveillance and response from national governments and donor agencies after the outbreaks of SARS and influenza A(H5N1). Although data on the total expenditure for emerging infectious disease surveillance, preparedness, and response in East and Southeast Asia are not available, examples of international support include the first and second Asian Development Bank Greater Mekong Subregion Regional Communicable Diseases Control Projects ($38.75 million and $49 million, respectively), the Canada–Asia Regional Emerging Infectious Disease Project ($4.3 million), the US Government foreign assistance for disease control, research, and training (>$500 million in Asia during 2004–2011), and the US Agency for International Development’s Pandemic and Emerging Threats Program. As a consequence, pandemic and epidemic preparedness planning has improved in most countries of East and Southeast Asia, but gaps between the plans and the ability to operationalize them remain in many countries (37,38). Since 2003, international and national authorities have increasingly recognized the importance of more effective animal health surveillance. However, limited resources in most countries have meant that investments into improved surveillance capacity have occurred largely in those countries affected by major outbreaks, such as the case with an outbreak of Nipah virus infection in Malaysia and of influenza A(H5N1) virus infection in Thailand, China, Vietnam, and Indonesia. Where these types of investments did occur, they were often species- and threat-specific, rather than to facilitate strategic enhancement of generic surveillance efforts for dealing with emerging disease threats. Not too dissimilar from the situation in high income countries, institutional and administrative boundaries between the human and animal health sectors have largely prevented the development of integrated surveillance systems. It has been said that there have been more international meetings about influenza A(H5N1) virus than human cases of the disease. Whether this is true or not, a benefit of the many meetings held after the outbreaks of SARS and influenza A(H5N1) virus has been a strengthening of regional and international professional partnerships. Clinicians, epidemiologists, virologists, veterinarians, and public health officials in East and Southeast Asia are now better connected and familiar with their colleagues than they were before 2003: examples include the South East Asia Infectious Disease Clinical Research Network, the Mekong-Basin Disease Surveillance System, increasing membership of East and Southeast Asia countries in the Training Programs in Epidemiology and Public Health Interventions Network , and the establishment in 2003 of the ASEAN+3 Expert Working Group on Communicable Diseases (39,40). Networks of trusted colleagues are a powerful force for sharing expertise, clearing confusion, and bridging divides, and these newly formed partnerships are perhaps one of the greatest unquantified achievements of the last decade. To coordinate and harmonize the diversity of initiatives spawned by SARS, the WHO South East Asia Office and Western Pacific Office jointly developed the Asia Pacific Strategy for Emerging Diseases in 2005. This plan provides a common framework for strengthening national and regional surveillance and response capacity for emerging infectious diseases in the 48 countries of the Asia Pacific Region; it was revised and re-endorsed by the WHO Regional Committees in 2010. A more troublesome dimension of international partnerships since 2003 has been the dispute over the sovereignty and sharing of pathogen samples. Although these disputes have not benefited disease surveillance in the short term, they do have a legitimate basis, and it must be hoped that in the medium term, an airing and resolution of these issues will result in greater trust, improved surveillance, and a more equitable distribution of benefits. In this context, the ratification in 2011 of WHO’s Pandemic Influenza Preparedness Framework for the Sharing of Influenza Viruses and Access to Vaccines and Other Benefits is a major step forward. A major shift, from West to East, is underway in the global center of gravity: East and Southeast Asia are becoming the dominant force of economic, social, and environmental change. While rapid development has brought East and Southeast Asia many benefits, it has also resulted in widening health inequalities, environmental degradation, increased migration and urbanization, and a concentration of persons, food production, and economic activity. These changes might facilitate the emergence and transmission of new pathogens, but it would be simplistic and disingenuous to present the extensive changes in East and Southeast Asia as inevitably increasing the risk of emerging infectious diseases. It seems likely that the probability of new emerging infections may be reduced by many of these socioeconomic changes, such as urbanization and the industrialization and commercialization of agriculture and food production; however, the scale and effect of any individual emergence event may increase because of a greater concentration and connectivity of livestock and persons. Surveillance and response capacities have improved in the last decade, and East and Southeast Asia are far better prepared to detect and respond to emerging infectious diseases. However, we are still lacking the tools and methodologies to produce a sufficiently refined assessment of the distribution and profile of disease emergence risks that encompasses geographic heterogeneity; the interaction of different drivers of pathogen evolution, crossover, and dispersion; and dynamic systems and the uncertainty inherent in such assessments. Given the continued scale and pace of change in East and Southeast Asia, it is vital that the capacity to predict and identify biologic threats and to protect the public’s health does not stagnate as the memory of SARS fades. Dr Horby is a senior clinical research fellow at the Oxford University Clinical Research Unit in Vietnam and an adjunct associate professor in the Department of Infectious Diseases, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore. 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The feline is one of the few animals that domesticated on its own. The process of selective breeding of animals was at first unintentional and probably unobserved. There are more than 500 million domestic cats in the world, with approximately 40 recognized breeds. Animal Behavior and Restraint Poultry Poultry Birds reared for commercial purposes – Chickens, turkeys – Ducks, geese – Pheasant, quail – Others… Just InTimeTraining Animal BehaviorandRestraint:Poultry Poultry Characteristics Prey animals Fast heart rate and respiration rate Pneumatic bones Most cannot fly Pecking order – Hierarchy. D (LO) , IST‑5 (EU) , IST‑5. The modern domesticated turkey descends from the wild turkey. The organisms belong to the two genera of fungi Imperfecti, a large group of fungi whose life history is not completely known. The domestication of animals is based on an ancient contract, with benefits on both sides, between man and the ancestors of the breeds familiar to us today. You can also watch more such English. Ewe lambs continue to follow the dam, but ram lambs do not. You can find out more about each animal by clicking on its picture. Although there are examples of "tools" being used by animals, from ants to apes, the development of tools is one of the distinguishing characteristics of humans. There is no strong evidence that Przewalski’s horses are feral descendants of domestic ancestors. Dogs can differ in appearance, function, temperament and size. Pastoralism is characterized by extensive land use. You likely prefer greens with leaves rather than just stems. 35 Of The World's Rarest Animals. Sheep have a cleft upper lip that permits very close grazing, lower incisor teeth and upper dental pad. Domestication is the process by which farmers select for desirable traits by breeding successive generations of a plant or animal. A tall desert-dwelling creature, the camel has become an icon of the Asian and African deserts. Negative:. Besides, the words and sentences are found easy to understand which is suitable to the level of year 3 students. WASHINGTON - U. Cardiogenic shock occurs as a consequence of heart muscle or heart valve disease. Web-footed aquatic bird spending most of its time on water; the domestic duck is raised for its meat and for the production of foie gras. Camels are found in Asia and Africa. Cats have evolved as predatory hunting animals with great agility and keen senses - particularly hearing, sight and smell. Selective cat breeding refers to arranging and managing the breeding of selected cats, nearly always purebred cats, that possess certain desirable characteristics, the most important of which is probably appearance. The word familiaris acts as a descriptor to further differentiate the domestic dog from its wild cousins. The first domesticated animals may have been tamed twice. The animals which possess notochord are called chordates. The effect of phenolic compounds and protein matrix on microbial fermentation of three sorghum grains (S1, S2 and S3) were studied in vitro. They are commonly depicted as large flying reptiles that breathe fire or shoot deadly poison from their nostrils. Animals have basic needs for air, water, food, shelter, and space. 5)Body covered in a complex cuticle. For more Articles on Abusive Fathers and Signs of Domestic Abuse please see: Domestic Abuse Hotline Domestic Violence Shelters Effects of Child Abuse. Their physical appearance is similar but their instincts, disposition and temperament are widely different. 01), spermatozoa head lengths and midpiece lengths (r = 0. From only a few weeks of age the kittens of all species of cat (including our domesticated varieties) show instinctive behaviour typical of hunter-killers. Arguably these domesticated breeds are of significance equal to their brethren who live in the wild and just like their wild counterparts,. Most domestic turkeys are so heavy they are unable to fly. China’s economic growth slid to 6% in the third quarter of the year, its lowest level in almost three decades amid weakened domestic demand for everything from cars to apartments. Within any particular species of animal, certain behaviors may be present in all members while others are more specific to certain individuals, locations or situations. In true feline form, cats took their time deciding whether to jump into humans' laps. Behavior and Habits The raccoon's sense of touch is highly developed, and it can unlock doors and open trashcans quite easily, so expect a pet raccoon to get into mischief in your house. Mollusk — There are over 85,000 different kind of mollusks, and about 23% of the animals in the ocean belong to this animal order. National Statistics. These are all ready to use, free, and printable which makes the site a great resource for teaching materials. Domestication of the horse has influenced the characteristics of the horse, and this domestication took place around 5000 to 6000 years ago. What Characteristics Do All Animals Have in Common? The key characteristics all animals share are multicellularity, eukaryotic cells and heterotrophy, according to About. Darwin's passion for the birds influenced his 1868 book The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication, which has not one but two chapters about pigeons (dogs and cats share a single. It's a group of living things which comprise of multicellular organisms. These are two of the few species of tortoise that dig burrows. Przewalski's horse was previously extinct in the wild, but in the past decade several dozen animals have been reintroduced to protected areas in the steppes of Mongolia. Bennett ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems(EOLSS) Fields are actively managed for a period ranging from a few to 5-10 years before new. No matter which continent, grasslands support a wide variety of animal life. Domestic chickens have essentially lost the ability to fly. Even domesticated birds as large as turkeys have fallen prey to the Great horned owl. Some domestic violence is life threatening. For example: petrol and diesel engines, coal, gas and oil boilers, and even smoking. The domestic pig originates from the Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa). When domestic ruminants are faced with food diversity, they can use pre-ingestive information (i. That is why we do not release captive animals without extensive rehabilitation. From the tiny flea to the great blue whale, each animal possesses a unique quality that makes it stand out from the rest. In today's world, we take animal domestication for granted. In a process known as parallel evolution, unrelated animal species, separated by vast distances, exhibit the same behavioral and physical characteristics. D (LO) , IST‑5 (EU) , IST‑5. So, read each question carefully and try to answer as much right as you can. Average and Range of Weights (g) of Rats held at the ARC*. It may be present in embryonic or adult stages. Cultural evolution is the development of learned behaviour as it is passed from one generation to the next. 3)Body cavity is a pseudocoel, body fluid under high pressure. Classification of Animals. 5 million pet dogs! Check out our 10 facts about dogs in celebration of man's best friend. 7 Printable Fact Sheets. Plants, animals, and even humans choose habitats for many different reasons, depending on their needs. However, only aflatoxin B1 is considered by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as having produced sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals to be identified as a carcinogen. most are small air-breathing animals; 6 legs CSU > Libraries > Archives > Digital Collections > Garst Wildlife Photographic Collection > Animal Types and. FACT: Of the estimated 15,000 species of mammals and birds, only about 30-40 have been used for food. In: The welfare of laboratory animals, Kaliste E (Ed. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of wild animals and plants. They like to nest in holes in trees. Felis is a genus of the Felidae family that includes several small and medium-sized cat species including the favorite human pet, the domestic cat. If you want a particular color or pattern, you may have to wait six months or more for the right kitten to be available. Principle Six. Here are the top 5 characteristics of leaders: Characteristic 1. But whether they end up naming their kid something generic like "Ashley" or "John," or if they happen to despise the fruit of their loins and name him "Audio Science," most moms and dads will agree that names are part of what makes their babies unique and help to forge their individual identity. Animal definition, any member of the kingdom Animalia, comprising multicellular organisms that have a well-defined shape and usually limited growth, can move voluntarily, actively acquire food and digest it internally, and have sensory and nervous systems that allow them to respond rapidly to stimuli: some classification schemes also include protozoa and certain other single-celled eukaryotes. Animals are divided into vertebrates and invertebrates. Mercantilism increases the profit gained through domestic trade (i. Caroline Inge. The mouflon is thought to be the ancestor of our modern, very familiar domestic sheep. Once you get to know your cat, you will understand his preferences. This family includes the coyote, jackal, dingo, domestic dog, fox, bush dog, hunting dog, dhole, and the wolf. This occurs in very different ways in different kinds of living things. PDF | Over the past 11,000 years humans have brought a wide variety of animals under domestication. Due to its popularity as a game animal and a food source, O. And although Darwin began Variation with a discussion of the dog and cat, the two could hardly be more different from each other (or from contemporary barnyard domesticates) in temperament, utility, and evolutionary origin. Dogs have lived with people for at least 30,000 years. Lehmann M (1991) Social behaviour in young domestic rabbits under semi-natural conditions. The Red Jungle Fowl, ancestor of most domestic chickens, is Gallus bankiva. If the animal is not euthanized, it should be kept under close observation for 6 months. The influence of domestication on the horse's characteristics. The Origins of Species: Chapter 1. Numerology 6 - Characteristics of Numerology Number 6 Below you find a list of the main characteristics of the numerology number 6. The oldest organized industry is raising sheep. Domesticated animals can’t survive in the wild. Animal publishes the best, innovative and cutting-edge science that relates to animals (farmed or managed) used for animal production, and that is relevant to whole animal outcomes, and/or to animal management practices. These items will make that possible for you to effectively control your dog’s waste. Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. animals living in a closer proximity to people and passing. Using animals in research is a concern to some; however, the benefits derived from the ethical, humane use of laboratory animals for biomedical research are huge. animals, on a vast scale, from their barbarian neighbours. We review the evolution of domestic animals, emphasizing the effect of the earliest steps of domestication on its course. When any two of the multiple alleles are crossed, the phenotype is of a mutant type and not the wild type. They are. Most domestic turkeys are so heavy they are unable to fly. However, the problem of dangerous dogs will not be remedied by the “quick fix” of breed-specific laws—or, as they should truly be called, breed-discriminatory laws. We have sequenced mitochondrial DNA and nuclear genes from wild and domestic pigs from Asia and Europe. If you're six feet tall, 10 miles per hour probably doesn't feel very fast. The Origins of Species: Chapter 1. This type of behavior has its origins in the ancestral wolf pack of the modern domesticated dog. That’s because one big problem facing the world’s wild cats is their tendency to breed with feral relatives of nearby domestic cats. What I'm looking for is an answer to the question what characteristics must an animal fulfil to be domesticated/trained. The development. People wanting to keep domestic ducks are often advised. Most of these animals had once been hunted for hides and meat. 5–3 inches (6. Goats are excellent scavengers. The Origins of Species: Chapter 1. Animal Totems: Dictionary of Birds by StarStuffs. Wild cattle are selectively bred to make a herd docile (easy to control). “Of the 36 or 37 species of cat, all of them are threatened or endangered except for the domestic cat. In today’s times, dairy cows typically live in barns that provide soft mattresses, sand beds or water beds. 5%, respectively. animals, on a vast scale, from their barbarian neighbours. impact of geographic environment on hunter-gatherer societies • b. Natural selection explains how evolution occurs. Dogs, used for hunting and. Similarly a domestic cat can be linked to other wild felines such like lions, tigers and leopards. Cats are often furry, and always carnivorous, animals. The importance of domestic animal diversity. Pastoralism is characterized by extensive land use. Overview of U. The picture to the right shows different animals and the habitat that best fits it's needs. The IUCN Red List is a critical indicator of the health of the world’s biodiversity. These ducks weigh around 4. The hope of making this selection is that the offspring will inherit the desirable traits, allowing future generations to benefit from the chosen changes. The way I like it. So while explaining, you can use the bottom up instead of the top down approach, starting from the species and ending with the Kingdom. In other words, these species are not popular pets for a reason—they may have bad house manners, a need for large enclosures, and require an owner with the flexibility to adapt to unexpected behaviors. Dogs and cats are domestic animals belonging to different species. From only a few weeks of age the kittens of all species of cat (including our domesticated varieties) show instinctive behaviour typical of hunter-killers. an "incipient. 4)Body possesses a through gut with a subterminal anus. Yet most living species on the planet do not possess it. orgChapter 1. Through this process, a dog’s behavior, life cycle and physiology have become permanently altered from that of a wolf. An overview of all CFA accepted breeds, with a short description of characteristics and personality. 6 Specialist relationships of predators, guests and parasites of social insects 244 11. The number of genetically modified animals used in agriculture has increased significantly in recent years. Most house cats crave your love and attention, but they prefer they get it on their terms instead of yours. They were once a major form of transportation for humans. Domestication of the horse has influenced the characteristics of the horse, and this domestication took place around 5000 to 6000 years ago. The wild Muscovy duck measures 66 – 84 cm (26 – 33 in) by length. Including a distinctive gobble, produced by males, which can be heard a mile away. Siberian horse has distinct appearance and characteristics as compared to the Arabic horse. Although there are more than five characteristics, these five characteristics top the list. Due to the somewhat unclear outlines of what, precisely, constitutes domestication, there are some species that may or may not be fully domesticated. These animals are found in lands, ponds, oceans and other water bodies. Epidemiologic studies and. Dense Fur: This is an important adaptation as it protects the organisms from the extreme cold. Domestication is the process of making wild plants and animals more useful to humans, through selective breeding. livestock, poultry, and aquaculture populations are published by the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) of the U. When domestic ruminants are faced with food diversity, they can use pre-ingestive information (i. Animal tattoos carry personal meaning before cultural symbolism, but here are some general messages associated with popular animal tattoos. In research studies, animals that have been safely genetically engineered (GE) include cattle, pigs, chickens, goats, sheep, dogs, cats, fish, rats, and mice. The same kinds of genetic transformations occured in the animals domesticated by early farmers and pastoralists. (1998) Domestic Animal Behavior for Veterinarians and Animal Scientists 3rd Ed Iowa State University Press, Ames. ' 'No one believes that animals are in an equal position with human beings and animals are regarded as a source of food for humans. In this animals lesson plan, which is adaptable for grades 3-12, students explore various types of animals and their classification. Science: Animal Worksheets Worksheets for teaching students about vertebrates, invertebrates, and animal classifications. Horses can. Horses as a breed have characteristics that separate them from all other animals. The average age of this animal ranges from 20 to 33 years, though it really depends on the treatment provided by his master. (2) He’s smaller than the wolf but has the same muscular appearance and protective coat of his cousin. • Humans began domesticating animals more than 10,000 years ago beginning with dogs. Domestication syndrome is a term often used to describe the suite of phenotypic traits arising during domestication that distinguish crops from their wild ancestors. The dog is the do. They tend to arise alongside domestication. Their wool can be spun to make felt purses, hats and socks. Their eyesight is poor, but they compensate by possessing an exceptional sense of smell. The Family Violence Wheel is one way to visualize the impact domestic violence has on children. animals, on a vast scale, from their barbarian neighbours. Evolution is the cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population. Each diagram shows a general type of animal showing the basic track shape, standard walking gait and some basic facts about the tracks of the animals in that family. they also tried to get ride of it either by shooting or poisoning. Projections for the total number of species on Earth range from 2 million to 50 million. Many breeders won’t release kittens to new homes until they are between 12 and 16 weeks of age. They are often known as the Duprasi Gerbil, Fat-Tailed Jird, Fat-Tailed Rat or Beer Mat Gerbil and they are native to the deserts of northern Africa. Dogs have lived with people for at least 30,000 years. The organisms belong to the two genera of fungi Imperfecti, a large group of fungi whose life history is not completely known. Generally speaking, pastoralists live in extended families in order to have enough people to take care of all of the duties associated with animal care and other domestic duties. Mention some benefits this animal offers to answer the question why this is your favourite animal. Steve Parker. 1) Density: Density is a measure of an object's mass in comparison to its volume. The scats of domestic cats appear similar to those of wild cats, such as bobcats. What I'm looking for is an answer to the question what characteristics must an animal fulfil to be domesticated/trained. The median. Domestic chickens have essentially lost the ability to fly. Horses can sleep both lying down and standing up. The stripes on Grevy's zebras are more numerous and narrow than those of the plains zebra and do not extend to the belly. Interesting Yak Facts: Yak is a large animal. If you want a particular color or pattern, you may have to wait six months or more for the right kitten to be available. 6 Common Traits of Narcissists and Gaslighters sexual harassment, date rape, domestic abuse, hate crimes, human rights violations, and other forms of criminality. between your own population centers), and decrease the profit from international trade (both. The warning signs of a domestic abuser can give us a clear indication of who is likely to be an abusive personality, Effectively, they are signs of abusive relationships which we want to avoid!. 5)Body covered in a complex cuticle. In today's world, we take animal domestication for granted. Click to learn more about & support the UK's leading animal welfare charity. The disease is caused by RVF virus (RVFV), a member of the genus Phlebovirus in. Dense Fur: This is an important adaptation as it protects the organisms from the extreme cold. The portable and lightweight material possessions of many hunter-gatherers were replaced by heavier tool kits and more lasting houses. Animal tattoos carry personal meaning before cultural symbolism, but here are some general messages associated with popular animal tattoos. Every horse is an individual and, whether wild or domestic, wants to be recognized entirely for himself. Before Civilization. Epidemiologic studies and. Interesting and Amazing Facts about Sheep. The physical characteristics of an animal's surroundings. Monday, October 28, 2019. Wildlife is a term which is usually associated with the non-domesticated vertebrates, and is more readily used with reference to animals, organisms, and wild plants. As the animal grazes, it jerks its head slightly forward and up to break stems, leaves and grass blades against the dental pad and lower incisors. Or, sheep yield more wool. They have only a relatively small ski area in relation to their total volume and may have trouble keeping cool. 2 Early development of humankind from the Paleolithic Era to the agricultural revolution a. Baby Animals: A Scavenger Hunt Using the Little Explorers Picture Dictionary This is a dictionary "scavenger hunt," a simple activity for children who are starting to be familiar with the alphabet and the sounds the letters make. Throughout the years, as humans domesticated and bred horses, gentler horses emerged. The pebble of course will not grow. The scientific name for horse is Equus ferus caballus. However the heart rate will still be high. DNA analyses have revealed little genetic variation among these animals,. The following formulas can be. Domesticated animals, on the other hand, were also once wild animals, but over time have been bred in order to select traits that make them more useful for human needs. By Allison Fass Executive director. Pasteurella spp can also cause meningitis, ocular infections,. 5 Crocodile 45 Deer 26. They advocate for abstaining from the consumption of cattle-related animal products (such as beef, cow's milk, veal, and leather) and cattle-based entertainment (such as rodeos and bullfighting) in order to end one's participation in the cruelty, claiming that the animals are only treated this way due to market forces and popular demand. There are about 920 different breeds of cows in the world. 25 = 25% inbreeding (typically brother-sister) and a COI of 0. W elcome to the Breeds of Livestock resource presented by the Department of Animal Science at Oklahoma State University. :- Porifera to Hemichordata. The dog chosen for breeding is the stud. Plants, animals, and even humans choose habitats for many different reasons, depending on their needs. In true feline form, cats took their time deciding whether to jump into humans' laps. The gray wolf ( Canis lupus) is thought by most scientists to have given rise to Domestic dog. Total number of Animal words and adjectives: 72 words. There are about 920 different breeds of cows in the world. They are fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The domesticated animals are different from their wild ancestors because of the changes in term of morphology, genetics and behavior. 2 Rattlesnake 22 Red Eared Turtle 30. They are the animals most people consider first, and they make some of the best pets. In guns, germs, and steel what are the 6 characteristics of domesticated animals? How did they domesticate dogs enough so that they were not wild animals anymore? Are you comfortable eating genetically modified plants and animals when?. –Isn’t afraid to tell someone off if they do any harm to an animal. In all zebra species, the stripes on the forequarters form a triangular pattern; Grevy's have a similar pattern on the hindquarters, while others have a slanted or horizontal pattern. This set of characteristics gives adult animals (including humans) larger heads, ears, and eyes, smaller jaws, and juvenile behavior. Raccoons are classified as carnivores, and like all such animals, have five toes on each paw and large canine teeth. HUD and Justice Department Sign Interagency Memorandum on the Application of False Claims Act. Some studies indicate that a cause of domestic violence stems from an intersection of both. Classification of Animals. Even the smallest bacteria must grow. They are the animals most people consider first, and they make some of the best pets. Neolithic Revolution and the Discovery of Agriculture The Great Technological Discoveries of Pre-history 1. I infer that every animal, of any pretensions, has been tamed over and over again, and has had numerous opportunities of becominœ do- mesticated. Animal Jokes. Most domestic turkeys are so heavy they are unable to fly. The NSR Show Ring is the official app for the National Swine Registry. When we think about omega-3 fats and their availability from plants versus animals, we usually think about nuts and seeds on the plant side of things and fish on the animal side. Domestication is the genetic and change of animals so they have a predisposition to certain acts. National Statistics. Research shows children who live with domestic violence often develop psychological, emotional, and behavioral. Shoulder height ranges between 2 and 3. The domestication of dogs and cats (today's two most popular companion animals) was a bit different from the barnyard animals. From only a few weeks of age the kittens of all species of cat (including our domesticated varieties) show instinctive behaviour typical of hunter-killers. Self awareness is a measure of intelligence in the animal kingdom. Monday, October 28, 2019. • Ruminants (cattle, sheep and goats) were the first food animals to be domesticated followed by pigs, possibly to dispose of table scraps and waste products. Binomial Nomenclature Examine the table showing the classification of four organisms. The Origins of Species: Chapter 1. The process of selective breeding of animals was at first unintentional and probably unobserved. Apply that knowledge as they practice classifying animals. Hides, or the skins of animals, were used for clothing, storage, and to build tent shelters. As with other animal types, Iceland has preserved the Viking Age cattle breed. Their primary purpose, after all, is to provide their owners with a steady and reliable source of meat - and. Before Civilization. 01 = 1% inbreeding. If ill-treated, they can become very stubborn. Here at BusyTeacher there are 635 worksheets in this section that focus on animals as well as a variety of grammar points. Most animal symbolism is based on characteristics possessed by the animal. Zorses are bred and kept today for riding, as work animals and as attractions in zoos and animal institutes around the world. Such animals are not wild animals and depend on humans for their survival. Clark, DVM, PhD, JAVMA, February 15, 2001. guinea fowl Wild terrestrial bird with a bald head and horned comb originally from Africa and domesticated in Europe for its meat. Comprehensive list of synonyms for words used to describe animals, by Macmillan Dictionary and Thesaurus a domestic animal is one that is kept as a pet or on a farm. Domestication has also favored the non-aggressive, docile nature of sheep, making it easier for people, especially women and children, to care for sheep. Farmers select and plant only the best seeds from their last crop. About 97% of the animal kingdom is made up of the invertebrates. Animals such as polar bears have fur even covering the soles of their feet. between your own population centers), and decrease the profit from international trade (both. Though sometimes called a buffalo, the American bison is not related to the water buffalo or. 1 Introduction 251 12. The identifying characteristics given are general and apply in most cases. Females are three times smaller than males. A trusted family member or friend – remember they might not react in the way you expect as they’re not trained in domestic abuse. Research points to many causes of domestic violence, but all of these causes and risk factors have one underlying commonality: the abuser feels the need to exert complete control over his or her partner. A New Origin Story for Dogs. Their primary purpose, after all, is to provide their owners with a steady and reliable source of meat – and. com provides canary bird care for all types of canaries including bird information on canary cages, bird food and canary seed, bird baths, canary singing and the canary song, canary colors and canary breeding, and bird health care for the pet canary. Winters across their natural habitat can see temperatures as low as 50°F (10°C); common leopard geckos survive such periods by going underground and into a state of semi-hibernation called brumation while living on their body’s fat reserves. We can see both wild and domestic horses within the herd finding a favorite partner. Young owned cats are more likely to hunt than older animals. In a process known as parallel evolution, unrelated animal species, separated by vast distances, exhibit the same behavioral and physical characteristics. Even if you’re a zoology expert, this list might just surprise you. Emphasis will be placed on studies involving farm animals such as cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and poultry. Designed a system to classify organisms based on similarities in body structures and life cycle (development). Animal definition, any member of the kingdom Animalia, comprising multicellular organisms that have a well-defined shape and usually limited growth, can move voluntarily, actively acquire food and digest it internally, and have sensory and nervous systems that allow them to respond rapidly to stimuli: some classification schemes also include protozoa and certain other single-celled eukaryotes. ✦ Other than the genus name and species name, there is the trinomial name (in case of animals it is referred to as trinomen), which is given to subspecies. Total number of Animal words and adjectives: 72 words. They advocate for abstaining from the consumption of cattle-related animal products (such as beef, cow's milk, veal, and leather) and cattle-based entertainment (such as rodeos and bullfighting) in order to end one's participation in the cruelty, claiming that the animals are only treated this way due to market forces and popular demand. Dogs, used for hunting and. Web-footed aquatic bird spending most of its time on water; the domestic duck is raised for its meat and for the production of foie gras. I only meet other people for sex or food. The six species in this family are found in two groups. Adopting a baby, international orphans or foster children. Fox, bear, human being, crow, etc. A to Z animals list with pictures, facts and information for kids and adults. • Anxiety disorders frequently co-occur with depressive disorders or substance abuse. Bobcats are not often responsible for killing domestic animals, but occasionally are responsible for losses of poultry, lambs, small goats, pigs, and house cats. 13 of the coolest characteristics about dogs. Aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin M1, and aflatoxin G1 have been shown to cause various types of cancer in different animal species. Most bedding is dusty, but hedgehogs can be housed on a variety of beddings that may help to eliminate a dust irritation. The portable and lightweight material possessions of many hunter-gatherers were replaced by heavier tool kits and more lasting houses. Recognizes that animals go through predictable life cycles Describes how animal characteristics adapt to changes in the environment Teacher Background Animals are classified according to the physical characteristics they share. Animal evolution began in the ocean over 600 million years ago with tiny creatures that probably do not resemble any living organism today. Pictures have been included wherever possible, although some cat species are so rare that finding images was impossible! The taxonomy (how animals are classified) of many of the cats on this list is continually changing. For example, if a human notices that one particular plant in the field is taller, and taller plants are considered more valuable, s/he may choose seed from. >Animal Farm is George Orwell's satire on equality, where all barnyard animals live free from their human masters' tyranny.

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Do non-human animals have consciousness? Does this question belong to philosophy, ethology, neurobiology or physics? Many philosophers distinguish between awareness and consciousness, awareness being a form of perception, and consciousness involving a special kind of self-awareness. Consciousness, in this view, requires a propositional awareness that it is I who am feeling or thinking. However, a dissociation between conscious and unconscious perception can occur in people with brain damage, who yet can make correct judgments even though they are not conscious of what they see. The question of animal consciousness is indeed a difficult one. The spectrum of scientific opinion is vast. Some believe that consciousness does not occur in animals, and others maintain that most animals have consciousness. The difficulty of arriving at an acceptable and consensual definition of consciousness confounds the situation further. To define consciousness in such a way that it only fits Homo sapiens sapiens seems to me too anthropocentric. To argue that if we have it, they can’t have it, is definitely committing the fallacy of anthropodimorphism, the opposite of anthropomorphism (Abrantes 2017). Our tentative definition is: “Consciousness is the presence of mental images and their use by the organism to regulate its behavior. To be conscious is to be aware of what one is doing or plans to do. It is having a purpose and intention in one’s actions” (Abrantes 2012). This definition is quasi-identical to McFarland’s (1998). Yet, we can imagine intentional behavior that does not involve consciousness. The standard examples of automatic, absent-minded activities, are walking and driving, where we solve relatively complex problems apparently without being conscious of (at least) some of the intentional states through which we must be passing. “Another way to put the point is to note that intentionality alone is not sufficient for introspectibility, and so, insofar as introspectibility in the normal human case is a necessary condition for a state’s being conscious, intentionality is therefore also not sufficient for consciousness” (Rey 2008). Another definition, proposed by Chandroo et al., is, ” Consciousness might be broadly described as an awareness of internal and external stimuli, having a sense of self and some understanding of ones place in the world” (Chandroo et al. 2004). Damasio (2010) states that “[…] no one can prove satisfactorily that nonhuman, nonlanguage beings have consciousness, core or otherwise, although it is reasonable to triangulate the substantial evidence we have available and conclude that it is highly likely that they do.” Emotion has subjective, physiological, and behavioral manifestations that are difficult to reconcile with each other. An emotion is a private experience. There is no way we can know the emotional experiences of another person. We tend to assume they are the same as ours, but we have no experimentally conclusive or logical way of verifying this. In scientific terms, we cannot assume that animals have particular subjective feelings any more than we are entitled logically to make such assumptions about other people. In physiological terms, emotional states in humans are typically accompanied by autonomic changes, but these are not a reliable guide to identifying particular emotional states. Most animals, at least vertebrates, react to stressors in roughly the same way whether their emotional response is one of fear, of aggression or sexual nature. Darwin (1872) postulated that facial expressions and other behavioral signs of emotion had evolved from protective responses and other utilitarian aspects of behavior. Darwin’s description was somehow anthropomorphic, which prompted psychologists to react. Lloyd Morgan (1882) advocated an approach devoid of speculation about the private thoughts and feelings of animals. The behaviorist attitude that the private mental experiences of animals cannot be the subject of scientific investigations dominated the first three-quarters of the 20th century. The behaviorist position seems unassailable, but we can circumvent it in two ways. One argument (the logical one) is that although we cannot prove that animals have subjective experiences, it may be true nevertheless. No proof (yet discovered) does not conclusively imply non-existence. Another (the evolutionary probability argument) is to argue that it is unlikely, from an evolutionary stance, that there should be a marked discontinuity between humans and other animals in this respect. Therefore, if we accept the existence of subjective experiences in humans, then we are forced to admit that animals might have them as well. Are animals aware of themselves in the sense that they know what posture they are adopting and what action they are taking? Sensory information from the joints and muscles is available to the brain, so it seems that animals should be aware of their behavior. In an experiment, researchers trained rats to press one of four levers (Beninger et al. 1974). The rats learned to push a different bar, depending on whether they were grooming, walking, rearing up or remaining still when the buzzer sounded. In a sense, the rats must have been aware of their actions, which does not necessarily mean that they are conscious of them. They may be aware of their actions as they are aware of external stimuli. The MSR (Mirror Self-Recognition) Test Many animals respond to a mirror as if they saw another member of their species. Does that prove self-awareness? After many years of research, this remains a controversial question. There is evidence that chimpanzees and orangutans can recognize themselves in the mirror. Does the ability to respond to parts of one’s body seen in a mirror indicate self-awareness? The questions are whether the MSR test is suitable for some species and whether it demonstrates self-awareness. Animals can be self-aware in ways the mirror test cannot measure, e.g., distinguishing between their own and others’ songs or scents (Bekoff 2002). Also, animals can pass the MSR, not necessarily having self-awareness (Cammaerts 2015). Very few species have passed the MSR test (Turner 2015). The MSR test has limited value when we apply it to species that primarily use senses other than vision, as for example in dogs that mainly use olfaction and audition. Dogs do seem to discriminate their own odor from that of other dogs and to spend more time investigating their own modified odor ‘image,’ precisely as subjects who pass the MSR test do (Horowitz 2017). A capacity for self-recognition in a mirror does not necessarily imply an awareness of one’s own psychological states and the understanding that others possess such states (Povinelli, 1998). Does the ability to imitate the actions of others indicate self-awareness? Imitations do not demonstrate the implication of mental states because of the extensive training involved in the experiments. We take the ability to imitate as a sign of intelligence. Parrots, Psittaciformes, and mynah birds, Sturnidae, can reproduce human sounds with extraordinary fidelity. Are they particularly intelligent? To be able to imitate, an animal must perceive the external auditory or visual example and match it with a set of motor instructions of its own. For example, a baby who imitates an adult waving must somehow associate the sight of the hand with his own motor instructions for waving. The baby does not need to be aware that he has a hand, it merely has to connect a particular perception with a specific set of motor commands. How that is done, it is a mystery, but the question of whether imitation necessarily involves self-awareness is debatable. Even though deliberately copying behavior would be a strong argument for self-awareness, we cannot be sure all apparently imitative behavior is. Allelommetic behavior (synchronous behavior, mimetic behavior, imitative behavior, and social facilitation) may have evolved because a specific synchronization was advantageous. Sometimes, environmental cues initiate this behavioral synchrony (seen in dogs, horses, sheep, chicken, etc.) (Miller 1996, Stoye, S. et al. 2012). Humans often find themselves assuming similar postures without being aware of that (not conscious of that). It may be the result of empathy, which may also have developed in some species because of the conferred benefits. Does the brain potential associated with movement occur before or after we are aware of our movement intention? Do I think, “I’m going to move my finger” and then do it? Or does it happen the other way round: I move my finger, and then I’m aware of that? Does consciousness have a causal influence on movement decision? (Guggisberg et al. 2013). Awareness of Others—Empathy Empathy means some awareness of others as beings with feelings similar to our own. Some researchers argue that the evolution of close-knit societies made recognition of others, i.e., empathy, advantageous. Empathic behavior is subject to evolutionary laws as any other behavior. Bischoff-Köhler (1990) investigated the onset of empathy in infants. The results showed that between 16 and 24 months of age, there was a transition from non-recognition to mirror recognition and a simultaneous transition from non-empathy to empathy. Moreover, these transitions occurred at the same age in a given child. The nature of the phenomenon of empathy in animals is also a topic of investigation (Preston & de Waal 2002). Mice that observe a cagemate in pain are more sensitive to painful stimuli than mice that see an unfamiliar mouse similarly treated (Langford et al. 2006). Empathy can also be the best explanation for some elephant behavior (Byrne et al. 2008). Finally, empathy does not need to be an all-or-nothing phenomenon (DeWall 1996). Neither does consciousness. As there are various degrees of empathy, there are possibly different levels of consciousness. The concrete encounter of self and other fundamentally involves empathy, as a unique and irreducible kind of intentionality. Thus, empathy seems to be a precondition for consciousness (Thompson 2001). However, self-awareness (consciousness) does not always require empathy. That means we can conclude that animals showing empathy must be self-aware. However, we cannot conclude that those who lack manifestations of empathy do not possess self-awareness. Pain—Do Animals Have to be Conscious in Order to Suffer? It is difficult to define and analyze pain as the interpretation of findings rest primarily on the behavioral criterion we use. A pure withdrawal reflex would probably not be a good indication of pain. Such reflexes are widespread in the animal kingdom, occur in very primitive animals, and are not always associated with any strong aversive. The criterion of crying out in pain is not good either. While a dog or a monkey scream in pain when they are seriously injured (or even less seriously), an antelope torn to pieces by a predator remains relatively silent. Do animals have to be conscious in order to suffer? When we are unconscious, we do not suffer pain or mental anguish because parts of our brain are deactivated. However, we do not know whether these parts are involved only in consciousness or also in other aspects of brain activity. Thus, we cannot say that because we do not experience pain when we are unconscious means that consciousness and suffering are intrinsically related. Perhaps whatever makes us unconscious also stops the pain, but the two are not causally connected. The truth is that we have no conception of what the conscious experiences of animals might involve if they exist because we have no precise understanding of what consciousness is. Therefore, we can draw no conclusions about the relationship between consciousness and suffering in animals. Amidst our ignorance, it would be wrong to assume that suffering in animals is confined to those that are intelligent, that use language or that show evidence of conscious experience. Orch-OR is fully compatible with the view that non-human animals possess consciousness to some degree or another. In fact, the opposite would be absurd (illustration from “Consciousness in the Universe: A Review of the ‘Orch OR’ Theory.” Physics of Life Reviews, 2014). Consciousness as a Quantum State—Orchestrated Objective Reduction (Orch OR) The Orch-OR model, based on quantum physics, suggests that consciousness originates from microtubules and actions inside neurons (Hameroff 1988, Hameroff and Penrose 2016). Classic and quantum physics differ in their accounting of events. When I hit a pool ball, I use traditional physics (and geometry) to predict where it will be at any particular moment. I expect it to do so (assuming I hit it correctly). However, in quantum physics, such expectation is null and void. According to the (Copenhagen) interpretation of quantum mechanics, any movement is unknown until it is observed. That is not as weird as it might seem. Imagine, I close my eyes just before I hit the cue ball. While my eyes remain shut, the object ball is both pocketed and non-pocketed. It is first when I open them, that the ball is definitely in one place. Physicists refer to this observation, which determines what happened, as a wave collapsing into a single state. In quantum systems, inside the neuron, Hameroff and Penrose argue that it is every single collapse of the wave function that returns a conscious moment. Their model met some criticism. Most scientists believe the brain is too warm and wet for quantum states to have any influence on neuronal activity because quantum coherence only seems possible in fairly shielded and cold environments. Biological processes, in general, seem too messy for quantum physics o thrive. However, researchers have recently found that quantum effects are indeed significant for particular biological processes, like photosynthesis (Engel 2007, Brookes 2017). When a photon hits an electron in a leaf, the electron delivers it to another molecule (the reaction center), which converts light into chemical energy (and feeds the plant). The electron uses the quantum effect of superposition, where a particle can be in two places at once while testing various routes to the reaction center where the photosynthesis occurs. Then, it takes the most efficient one. Besides photosynthesis, olfaction may also be a product of quantum processes (Brookes 2017). Another support for the idea that quantum physics are indeed possible in the inhospitable organic environment of the brain is via the Phosphorus molecule. The central idea is that the Phosphorous molecule in the brain with its nuclear spin can potentially act as a qubit (quantum bit) and promote quantum computation. This hypothesis circumvents the problem of quantum decoherence by proposing that the qubits remain stable, in spite of the higher temperature of the brain, by organizing themselves into a Phosphate ring (Fisher 2015). The microtubules, essential in the Orch-OR model, may very well be the first cause of thought. The traditional view is that neurons fire when a channel within the cell membrane opens, flooding the neuron with positively charged ions. Once a determined threshold is reached, an electrical signal travels down the axon—the nerve fibers within the neuron—and the neuron fires. Axons connect neurons to other cells, and inside each axon are nanowires, including the microtubule. Bandyopadhyay found that he could apply a charge to the microtubule, causing activity to raise in the neuron. The nanowires fire thousands of times faster than the average activity in a neuron. The neuron, opposite prevailing scientific knowledge, wasn’t the first cause of the human thought process (Bandyopadhyay 2014). According to the Penrose–Hameroff model, consciousness results from discrete physical events; such events have always existed in the universe as non-cognitive, proto-conscious events. Biology evolved a mechanism to orchestrate such events and to pair them to neuronal activity, resulting in meaningful, cognitive, conscious moments of quantum state reduction. In the Orch OR theory, these conscious events are terminations of quantum computations in brain microtubules reduced by objective reduction (OR), and having experiential qualities. In this view, consciousness is an intrinsic feature of the action of the universe (Hameroff 1998, Hameroff & Penrose 2016). Darwin’s theory of natural selection suggests that life evolved by natural selection in incremental steps and random mutations. Therefore, we would not expect the substantial level of coherence across the brain that would be necessary for the non-computable Orch OR of conscious human understanding to appear any other way. More primitive (less elaborated) forms must have preceded it, shown variation, and been subject to natural selection. Thus, proto-conscious Orch OR states might have emerged step by step in the course of evolution. Orch-OR is fully compatible with the view that non-human animals possess consciousness to some degree or another. In fact, the opposite would be absurd. When I hit the cue ball, I use traditional physics (and geometry) to predict where it will be at any particular moment. I expect it to do so (assuming I hit it correctly). However, according to the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, any movement is unknown until it is observed. Imagine, I close my eyes just before I hit the cue ball. While my eyes (and my opponent’s, Michael McManus, in this case) remain shut, the object ball is pocketed and non-pocketed at once. It is first when we open our eyes, that the object ball is definitely pocketed. The Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness Publicly proclaimed in Cambridge, UK, on July 7, 2012, at the Francis Crick Memorial Conference on Consciousness in Human and non-Human Animals, reads: “The absence of a neocortex does not appear to preclude an organism from experiencing affective states. Convergent evidence indicates that non-human animals have the neuroanatomical, neurochemical, and neurophysiological substrates of conscious states along with the capacity to exhibit intentional behaviors. Consequently, the weight of evidence indicates that humans are not unique in possessing the neurological substrates that generate consciousness. Non-human animals, including all mammals and birds, and many other creatures, including octopuses, also possess these neurological substrates” (Low, Philip, et al. 2012). The essential point in this declaration is that concurrent studies concluded that human and some non-human animals share the neurological substrates that we consider indispensable to generate consciousness. That may indeed be helpful in our quest for non-animal consciousness. Otherwise, the document (as other similar ones) is more a political statement than scientific proof. The fact that it is signed by many (argumentum ad populum) prominent (argumentum ad verecundiam) persons does not add anything to the truth or falsity of its statement about consciousness (Copi 2014). Were the opinion of many the truth, the earth would be flat, after having been created in seven days (Genesis 1 and 2). Were the opinion of prominent persons the truth, DNA would have three intertwined strands (Linus Pauling), and life could originate from inanimate matter (Aristotle); and the Spiroptera carcinoma would (falsely) cause cancer (for which, in 1926, Johannes Fibiger won the Nobel Prize in Medicine). Human consciousness is by definition subjective and private. We access it through verbal, non-verbal, and instrumental records. Animals do not have language (as we define it), but we can still study their consciousness via behavioral investigations, as we do in preverbal infants. Like humans, animals display different behaviors depending on levels of consciousness. During sleep or anesthesia, no individual—unconscious or having low levels of consciousness—independently of species, can process information (not the full range, at least). On the other hand, behavioral and neurobiological data lead us to the conclusion that animals can express some forms of what we call a higher level of consciousness. The subject of non-human animal consciousness is relevant to many topics, e.g., ethics and theory of mind. Some scientists and philosophers believe that the foundations have been set for addressing (at least) some of the questions about animal consciousness in an empirically way. Some remain skeptical, maintaining that subjective phenomena are beyond the reach of scientific research. The arguments on both sides are many, and the jury is still out. As a sort of conclusion, it is the view of this author that we have two main unsolved problems related to consciousness: (1) to formulate a conclusive and clear operational definition, and (2) to devise a valid verification method for single species. As such, at this moment, the most prudent statement seems to be that animals (humans included) show varying degrees of consciousness depending on species. It appears beyond any reasonable doubt that some have it and, therefore, (1) if some have it, others (high) probably have it, too, albeit differently—and (2) that some have it, doesn’t necessarily imply all have it—unless, of course, Hameroff and Penrose are right. Thank you to John Larsen and Parichart Thongparkdee Abrantes for the exciting exchange of ideas we have had while I wrote this paper. Abrantes, R. 2012. Ethology—The Study of Animal behavior in the Natural Environment. Wakan Tanka Pub. Online flipping-page book. Abrantes, R. 2017. Do Animals Have Feelings? Ethology Institute Website. Bandyopadhyay, A. 2014. Evidence of massive global synchronization and the consciousness. Physics of Life Reviews. Bekoff, M. (2002). Animal reflections. Nature. 419 (6904): 255. doi:10.1038/419255a. Bekoff, M. and Sherman, P.W. 2004.Reflections on animal selves. TRENDS in Ecology and Evolution Vol.19 No.4 April 2004. Beninger et al. 1974. The ability of rats to discriminate their own behaviours. Canadian Journal of Psychology (Revue Canadienne de Psychologie) 28(1):79-91 DOI: 10.1037/h0081979 Bischof-Köhler, D. (2012). Empathy and Self-Recognition in Phylogenetic and Ontogenetic Perspective. Emotion Review, 4(1), 40–48. Brown 2015. Brown, C., 2015. Fish intelligence, sentience and ethics. Animal Cognition, 18(1): 1-17. Brookes, J.C. 2017. Quantum effects in biology: golden rule in enzymes, olfaction, photosynthesis and magnetodetection. Proc Math Phys Eng Sci. 2017 May; 473(2201): 20160822. doi: 10.1098/rspa.2016.0822. Byrne, R. W., et al. (2008). Do Elephants Show Empathy? Journal of Consciousness Studies, 15(10–11), 204–225. Cammaerts, M-C, and Cammaerts, R. 2015. Are ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) capable of self recognition? (PDF). Journal of Science. 5(7): 521–532. Chandroo et al. 2004 Chandroo, K.P.; Yue, S.; Moccia, R.D. 2004. An evaluation of current perspectives on consciousness and pain in fishes. Fish and Fisheries, 5(4): 281-295. Clayton, D.A. 1978. Socially facilitated behavior. Quarterly Review of Biology, 53: 373-392. Collin, A. and Trestman, M. 2017. Animal Consciousness. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Copi, I. 2014. Introduction to Logic. Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 10: 1-292-02482-8. Damasio, A.R. 2010. Self comes to mind: constructing the conscious brain (PDF). New York: Pantheon Books, 2010. ISBN-10: 150124695X Darwin, C. 1859. On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or The preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. London: J. Murray. Darwin, C. 1871). The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. London; Princeton, NJ: J. Murray ; Princeton University Press, 1981. Darwin, C. 1872. The expression of the emotions in man and animals. London; Oxford: J. Murray ; Oxford University Press, 1998. Dawkins, M.S., 1998. Through our eyes only? The search for animal consciousness. Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN-10: 0198503202 Dawkins, M. S. 2012. Animal Suffering: The Science of Animal Welfare. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9400959052, 9789400959057. Dennett, D. C. (1969). Content and Consciousness—An Analysis of Mental Phenomena. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. ISBN: 9780710065124 Dennett, D.C. 1991. Consciousness Explained (PDF). New York: Back Bay Books/Little, Brown and Company, 1991. 511 p. Dennett, D.C. 1995. Darwin’s Dangerous Idea—Evolution and the Meanings of Life. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN: 0-684-80290-2. http://www.inf.fu-berlin.de/lehre/pmo/eng/Dennett-Darwin%27sDangerousIdea.pdf. Engel, G.S. et al. 2007. Evidence for wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in photosynthetic systems. Nature volume 446, pages 782–786 (12 April 2007). Fisher, M. P.A. 2015. Quantum cognition: The possibility of processing with nuclear spins in the brain. Annals of Physics 362 (2015) 593–602. Gallego, M.B. 2011. The bohm-penrose-hameroff model for consciousness and free will theoretical foundations and empirical evidences. Pensamiento 67 (254):661-674 Gallup, G. G. Jr. 1970. Chimpanzees: Self-Recognition (PDF). Science, 167 (3914), 86-87. Gallup, G. G. Jr. 1982. Self‐awareness and the emergence of mind in primates. American Journal of Primatology, 2(3), 237–248. Guggisberg et al. 2013. Timing and awareness of movement decisions: does consciousness really come too late? Front Hum Neurosci. 2013;7:385. Hameroff, S.R. 1998. Quantum computation in brain microtubules? The Penrose–Hameroff ‘Orch OR’ model of consciousness. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A (1998) 356, 1869–1896 Hameroff, S.R. and Penrose, R. 2016. Consciousness in the Universe: An Updated Review of the “ORCH OR” Theory. In Biophysics of Consciousness: A Foundational Approach by R. R. Poznanski, J. A. Tuszynski and T. E. Feinberg. World Scientific, Singapore. (pp 520-630). Horowitz, A. 2017. Smelling themselves: Dogs investigate their own odours longer when modified in an “olfactory mirror” test. Behavioural Processes. 143C: 17–24. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2017.08.001. PMID 28797909. Hume, D. 1888. A Treatise of Human Nature, edited by L.A. Selby-Bigge (PDF). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN: 9780198245889. Huxley, T. H. 1874. On the hypothesis that animals are automata, and its history. Fortnightly Review, 95, 555-580. James, W. 1879. Are we automata? Mind, 4, 1–22. Online. Langford, D. et al. 2006. Social Modulation of Pain as Evidence for Empathy in Mice. Science 312(5782):1967-70. DOI: 10.1126/science.1128322. Libet B., Gleason C. A., Wright E. W., Pearl D. K. 1983. Time of conscious intention to act in relation to onset of cerebral activity (readiness-potential). The unconscious initiation of a freely voluntary act. Brain 106, 623–642 10. Low, Philip et al. 2012. The Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness Publicly proclaimed in Cambridge, UK, on July 7, 2012, at the Francis Crick Memorial Conference on Consciousness in Human and non-Human Animals. Nagel, T. 1979. Mortal questions. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press (1613). ASIN: B074RB5VTD. Neindre, P. et al. 2017. Animal consciousness. European Food Safety Authority. 2017, 165 p. McFarland, D. 1998. Animal Behaviour: Psychobiology, Ethology and Evolution. Benjamin Cummings; 3 ed. ISBN-10: 0582327326. Morgan, C. L. 1882. Animal intelligence. Nature, 26, 523-524. Miller, R.M. 1996. Allelomimetic behavior. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science. 16(7): 282–284. Povinelli, D.J. 1998. Can animals empathize? Maybe not. Scientific American, pp. 67–75. Preston, S. and de Waal F.B.M. 2002. Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases. Behav. and Brain Science (2002) 25, 1–72. Rey, G. 2008. Even Higher-Order) Intentionality Without Consciousness. Revue internationale de philosophie 2008/1 (n° 243), pages 51 à 78. Stoye, S. et al. 2012. Synchronized lying in cattle in relation to time of day. Livestock Science. 149(1–2): 70–73. de Waal, F. (1996), Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Zahavi, D. (2011). Empathy and direct social perception. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 3, 541–558. Learn more in our course Ethology. Ethology studies the behavior of animals in their natural environment. It is fundamental knowledge for the dedicated student of animal behavior as well as for any competent animal trainer. Roger Abrantes wrote the textbook included in the online course as a beautiful flip page book. Learn ethology from a leading ethologist.

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The Cape of Good Hope and surrounding countries. 19th century. The beginning of modern historiography in South Africa is set to 6 April 1652, when the Dutchman Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of the Dutch East India Company (Dutch Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) established a supply station at the Cape of Good Hope. The Cape Dutch brought many slaves from Indonesia, Madagascar and India into the country. Beginning of the year 1743 the number of slaves in the province was significantly higher than that of European settlers. In 1797, British troops occupied the region around the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. As in 1833, the British Parliament decreed the abolition of slavery in their global sphere of influence, many Buren’s livelihood has been withdrawn. On the trek 1835-1841 wandered around 14,000 Boers in the areas north of the Orange River. They founded the Boer republics, including the Republic of South Africa, also known as the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Excerpts from the book. In this book describes an English officer in the form of letters his impressions on a trip to South Africa. He reflects on the then historical widespread slavery and gives an insight into the contemporary moral ideas of a privileged class. In addition, he describes his journey through the provinces of South Africa, the lives of farmers and citizens in the towns, and describes a landscape and their properties at the beginning of the 19th century. Notes about slavery. THE unfortunate class of mankind, who, by Christians, are doomed to perpetual slavery, is in general disregarded by the observers of men and manners, and not considered worthy the attention of the sons of ease and affluence, to whom fortune, or rather Providence, has been more favorable. … The vast theatre of the moral world does not, among all its diversified scenes, exhibit a more disgusting spectacle than the existence of slavery, that odious and detestable system, which gives to one man so undue and unnatural a power over another. Equality among men is a chimera formed in the imagination of enthusiastic reformers; an ideal thing pleasing in an abstract theory, but incompatible with the plan of Divine Providence in the constitution of the moral system. In their origin, it is true, all men are equal, but in their powers, natural as well as acquired, they are very unequal, and Nature has varied their talents as much as fortune, or rather Providence has diversified their condition. Some men are as evidently born to govern, as others to obey. Due subordination must, therefore, be maintained between the governors and the governed, otherwise the bonds of civil society will be relaxed, and no numerous community can long subsist in tranquillity. This is the chain which links together all civilized society, and is the foundation and support of all rational liberty. Slavery, on the contrary, that odious and abominable system, which renders one man the property of another, is the degradation of humanity, and a direct violation of the laws of Nature. To bring forward to distinct inspection, the circumstances of that system, as it has existed among the ancients and moderns; to trace its history; to examine the principles on which it has been founded and carried on; to develop its causes, and display its effects; to endeavor to demonstrate the expediency and practicability of its abolition, is my peculiar aim at present. In the course of the investigation, a comparison will be made between a state of slavery, as it existed among the ancients, and the modern system of negro slavery. Slavery has existed in one part of the world or another, in every age since the time when men first began to be collected in numbers, and regular communities were formed. It is well known that it existed among the Egyptians, the Babylonians, the Jews, the Greeks, and the Romans, and there is little room to doubt of its prevalence among all other nations of antiquity. The circumstances from which it originated, and the principles on which it was founded, were different. Sometimes slavery was the punishment of crimes, as it is now, in some instances, among most nations; but with this difference, that in the modern nations (of Europe at least,) delinquents condemned to slavery are employed in the service of the state, and commonly for a limited time; whereas, among the ancients, they were generally sold to individuals either natives or foreigners. This kind of slavery has been sanctioned by most legislators, and, in its principle, does not appear unjust; at least, in civilized nations, where criminals have the privilege of a legal trial; and such a mode of punishment, properly regulated, may have a salutary influence on the morals of those who have rendered themselves obnoxious to it, and prove ultimately beneficial to the state. Visits from the hyena at night. IT is from the east side of the Table Mountain that I again address my friend. Here we enjoy the cool, refreshing breeze wafted from the southern ocean. At night the hyena pays us a visit, and prowls around our camp. He gives notice of his approach by his hoarse and plaintive howling. When the dogs find their enemy is at hand, they set up an hideous howling, expressive of their terror, and this mingled concert of discordant sounds banishes all sleep from the eye-lids. When the hyena boldly advances, the barking of the dogs suddenly ceases, and they remain in silent terror at his approach. The farmers in our neighborhood lay a snare for taking them alive, which is a simple contrivance. A building of about six feet square, and as many feet in height, open at top, with a sliding door, is all that seems necessary for the purpose. The bait that attracts them is placed within, and fixed in such a manner, that on their attempting to devour it, the door falls down instantaneously, and thus they become prisoners. I have seen one caught in this manner; it was the spotted wolf which I believe to be the common hyena of the Cape. Our farmer called it the Cape Bear; indeed, the name seems sufficiently appropriate, for they bear no small resemblance to that animal in their form. He mentioned at the same time, that the hyena possesses uncommon strength in its head, and that the most violent and repeated blows on that part could hardly deprive it of life. I have seen it attacked by an English bull-dog with the most savage ferocity, but its hard, tough skin was impenetrable to the teeth of his opponent. The hyenas take up their abode amidst the rugged cliffs of the Table Mountain, and along that chain of mountains running in a southerly direction, till they terminate in what we may with propriety call Cape Point. At times they are met with by the traveller at night, on the road leading from Wynberg to Cape Town, but are never sufficiently daring to venture an attack. It is no uncommon thing to hear of their falling upon strayed oxen and horses, and when left alone in any sequestered spot, there remains little chance of their escaping. The Steen-bok and Grys-bok spring from the thickets on every side. Jackalls and hares are also numerous, and this country is peculiarly favorable to the pursuits of the sportsman. When a colonist goes on a shooting party, he travels in a light cart made for the purpose, and he can thus carry along with him every conveniency suited to the journey. Seated in his wagon, with his gun by his side, he is driven along with rapidity. When the game is started, he stops his vehicle, and can then with, coolness take his aim. Many of the farmers, when they have a mind to partake of this amusement, prefer oxen to horses, as the slow, deliberate pace of the former is, in their opinion, better calculated for ensuring sport, than the quick ambling step of the latter. Introduction to a Xhosa chief I HAVE been highly gratified by having been introduced to the presence of a Caffre chief *, who had accompanied a Dutch gentleman from Caffraria, in order to pay his respects to His Excellency the Governor of the Cape. He entered the room with a dignified step, and seemed neither startled nor abashed on being brought before a crowded company. Wine and fruit were presented him, which he accepted with apparent satisfaction; his eyes glistened with delight on viewing the table and the guests. All evinced a pleasing emulation in paying court to this swarthy son of Africa,by every mark of attention which might convey favorable impressions of the British character. On returning to his country and government, he could not fail to make known the hospitable reception, and kind treatment which he met with at the Cape. It was no bad policy for the government to make friends of such a brave and enterprising race of men, and may eventually be attended with the happiest consequences. The dress of the Xhosa chief was of that kind, that seemed ill-calculated for the parade of the drawing-room. It brought to recollection the primeval state of man, when his wants were few, and easily satisfied. His head-dress consisted of a plume of ostrich feathers, fastened by a brass fillet; his body wrapped round with the skin of a tiger, with the rough side turned inwards. A brass girdle encircled the lower part of it. He wore three large ivory bracelets on his left arm, which latter is, among the Caffres *, an honorable mark of distinction, being the badge of merit, or reward of prowess. The killing of a lion, or an elephant,is sometimes honored with an additional ring of ivory. It fits closely to the arm, and has received a very neat polish from their hands. - Caffres is from the Arabic word kaafir (“infidel”) derived name, the first two Muslims non-Muslim peoples filed with, namely the Nuristani (Kafirs) in Central Asia and the Xhosa in Southern Africa. The European colonialists and immigrants used him at first only for the South African people of the Xhosa. He was later applied to other Bantu peoples. In the times of colonialism and of apartheid on the other hand, he was used as a swearword. The use of the word is now banned in South Africa and Namibia as hate speech (hate words). In Sri Lanka, however, the derived term Kaffir is not discriminatory meaning. There he called a descendant of African slaves of the Portuguese ethnic group. Their popular dance music style Kaffirinna is formed in the 1970s version of the African-Portuguese Baila. Manner of threshing their corn. The manner in which they perform the operation of threshing out their corn, may at first sight be condemned, but when we see how effectually it is completed, and the little that is lost in the process, we shall be apt to suspend so hasty a decision. The corn-ricks are generally built close by these circular floors, which are surrounded by a fence of clay, perfectly hard, of about three feet in height. When the floor is swept clean, the sheafs are placed upon it, sometimes to the number of a thousand; then all the young horses of the farm are driven round this amphitheater for a number of hours, till the whole is completely broken under their feet. A person stands with a long whip in the middle of the circle, to regulate their course, to quicken or moderate their pace as he finds it necessary, while a few more hands are employed in turning over the sheafs with forked sticks, so that the whole may have the benefit of an equal pressure. They separate the grain from the chaff by throwing it against the wind, which they continue to do till the lighter part is thus carried away by the force of the breeze. Perhaps a great deal of time and labor might be saved by using fanners, and the grain be more free from sand, of which the Cape flour has always a tolerable portion. To shake off long established customs and habits in the manners or arts of life, is in all countries a business of time. We are slow to adopt improvements, though convinced of the necessity of so doing. The serene, parching atmosphere of the Cape during the harvest months, hardens the grain to such a degree, that it does not require the operation of kiln-drying to fit it for the mill. In the months of January and February, when they are most busily employed in threshing out their corn, and conveying it to market, they have no rains to dread;— the violence of the south-east winds may a little incommode them in their labors, but no where is this wind so tempestuous and disagreeable as in town. As the harvest approaches, and the crops invite the sickle, the weather becomes more dry and serene;- with you, my friend,it is quite the reverse, the moisture of the atmosphere increases with the yellow tinge of the fields; and the rains of August but too often overwhelm the husbandman in ruin. Want of rain is here the most general complaint; if the winter months sufficiently soak the ground, so as to fit it for the reception of the seed, and a few successive showers bring forward the crop, the husbandman need be under no apprehension of the want of a sine season to gather in the fruits of his labor. I find peculiar satisfaction in gleaning amid the rural walks of Southern Africa; but I confess I feel at present a diminution of my pleasure, when I reflect— when I see, that the colored group now before me are slaves. The Governors villa In the evening we arrived at Greene Kloof. Here is a pleasing variety of hill and dale, and it is much resorted to by the sportsmen of the Cape. This is one of those government farms, which, during the Dutch administration, the governor of the colony always took care to turn to his own emolument and advantage. A tolerably good house had been built here, but it is rapidly falling into decay: every thing around bears strong impression of the ravages of time, and neglect. The Dutch governor and his family were wont to retire thither at certain seasons, and to employ it as a shooting lodge.— Wolves, in great numbers, infest this neighborhood, and are so bold and daring at times, as to attack their cattle in the kraal, though close by the house. The night before, a young foal had been mangled and torn by one of these destructive animals, in a most shocking manner. The mother of the foal made a noble stand in its defence, but had suffered so much in the conflict, that she died two days after. The whale fishery. In the winter months Table Bay is frequented by whales, and they sometimes approach very near to the shore. The fishery is rather on the decline; but is still carried on with considerable success. The average fishing of a season is about sixteen whales, and a few of them measure seventy feet in length. There is a house erected near the shore for cutting up and manufacturing the blubber. Eighteen leagers of oil, of about one hundred and fifty-four gallons each, is what is commonly produced from a good whale. A leager of oil generally fetches eighty Rixdollars (English term for silver coinage used throughout the European continent). Cast anchor in Simon’s Bay. Simonstown near Cape Town, South Africa. On the morning of the 9th we anchored in Simon’s Bay, which was crowded with ships from all quarters of the globe. The winter season having set in, it was no longer safe for ships to remain in Table Bay. The village of Simonstown, running along the beach, almost at the foot of the overhanging mountains, presented a gay and picturesque appearance, rendered still more striking when contrasted with the dreary prospect of the surrounding country. When a new page in the volume of nature is, as it were, laid open before us, impelled by a spirit of novelty, we are hurried from the contemplation of one object to that of another, with hardly a moment left for reflection; prompted by a laudable curiosity, we wander over the diversified scene with emotions of pleasure, at one time pleasingly employed in observing the different appearances in the newly discovered land, and at another time the customs, habits, and manners of those among whom we are going to reside. A farmer of the name of Pringtloo, is said to possess 18,000 sheep in the distant district of Bruntjes Hoogte (Bruintjieshoogte, Eastern Cape province of South Africa). A muid of grain weighs about one hundred and ninety pounds. On leaving Greene Kloof, we visited the Roe hill, Botter hill, and Tiger hill, small districts in an elevated exposure, and very fertile in corn. From their vicinity to Cape Market, encouragement is held out to them for the enlarging their possessions, and encreasing their crops. Their heavy bullock-wagons are almost daily employed at this season, in transporting to the Cape, corn and chaff for the government stores. The corn-farmers in this part of the country, are obliged to send their cattle to graze on the other side of the mountain, after the labour of their farm is completed, to recruit the strength of their oxen, and put them into good plight. The trifling sum of a few shillings a month, is all that is exacted from them by the grazier, and two or three months at most are sufficient to make them fat. Gleanings in Africa; exhibiting a faithful and correct view of the manners and customs of the inhabitants of the Cape of Good Hope and surrounding countries. Interspersed with observations and reflections on the state of slavery in the southern extremity of the African continent. In a series of letters from an English officer during the period in which that Colony was under the protection of The British Government. Albion Press printed. Published by James Cundee, Ivy – Lane; Paternoster- Row, London 1804. You will find the book to read online or download as PDF by following this link. - Suisse costumes nationaux - Traditional French national costumes. - Tyrolean national costumes 1835. - Souvenir de L’Exposition Universelle de Vienne. - Costumes of Japan and Java. - Historical Asia costumes by Auguste Wahlen. - Our islands and their people. Hawaii, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Cuba. - Costumes of all countries by Alexandre Lacauchie 1850s. - Historical and folk costumes by Franz Lipperheide. - The costume of Turkey. Ottoman Empire 18th century. - Traditional Dutch national costumes. - The Switzerland national costumes of 17th ‚18th, 19th century originals. - Folk dresses from Norway, Dutch, Germany and Hungaria. - Mexico by Carl Nebel 1836. - Provincial Russia. Costume and Culture. - Costume of the Russian empire by Edward Harding. - Serbian national costumes by Vladimir Kirin. - Historical European costumes by Auguste Wahlen. - The Highlanders of Scotland, 1870. - Costumes and scenery of Afghanistan. - Views of Darjeeling: With typical native portraits and groups. - Historical costumes from Africa, America and Oceania. - Traditional folk costumes of Italy and France in 1821. - The Serbs in the Adriatic. Their types and costumes 1870-1878.

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The Oasis of the desert A long desert and agriculture related tradition encompasses the City of Ica, capital of the department of the same name. From Colonial times, Ica became an important wine producing center. Tradition tells that few years after the Spanish conquest, vines brought from the Canary Islands were planted in this sunny land, and everyone was surprised at how easily the plant adapted to its environment. This not only made it possible to produce excellent wines, but it was also the beginning of the Spaniards themselves and which continues to conquer all those who try it. However, the creativity of the people from Ica also gave origin to a new product: the cachina, a liquor prepared from fermented grape must, a very popular drink at local festivities. Back to top In addition to enticing us with its drinks, Ica invites us to taste the variety of dishes made from pallares, or Lima beans, as well as delicious desserts like frejol colado (strained black beans mixed with milk, sugar and sesame seeds) and tejas, which consist of pecan, lenon or figs filled with manjarblanco (liquid fudge) and covered with a coat or two of sugar glazing. [lwptoc numeration=”decimalnested” float=”none” itemsFontSize=”default”] History of Ica The strong winds which so easily raise clouds of sand, locally known as Paracas singular dunes, covering the famous Pampas of Ica with sand, jealously guarding the mysteries of gold regional cultures. In spite of the shortage of water in the area, the inhabitants of Ica have achieved an admirable level of agricultural development, thanks to the design of complex irrigation canals, which took advantage of underground water filtering. Signs of the first inhabitants of the region date back to at least 5,000 years ago, as evidenced by the remains found in the Paracas Península. Ica has been the deveploment center for important cultures, like the Paracas (600 B.C. – 400 A.C.) and the Nazca (200 B.C. – 800 A.C.). Famous for their advanced knowledge of medicine, the Paracas were successful in brain surgery trepanation and deformation. They also mastered the manufacturing of beautiful knits, interweaving highly colorful wool and cotton yarn, the embroidering and designs of which are still widely admired. Much later, the Nazcas left aqueducts in the pampas, some of which are still being used to irrigate the fields and impressive archaeological evidence which is still to be deciphered, such as the case of the Nazca Lines. The region became part of the Tahuantisuyo during the government of Inca Pachacútec, who ordered the building of an important administrative and religious center, known as Tacaraca, which is said to have been the residence of the local governor Aranvilca. With the Spanish conquest, the area was initially divided into two rich encomiendas (estates granted to Spanish colonist by royal decree): Hanan Ica. Later, in 1563, the Viceroy Count of Nieva, ordered Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera to found the Villa de Valverde, which since June 1640 came to be known as Ica. The village which preceded the present city was initially situaded in a place which had to be abandoned as a result of the terrible destruction produced by an earthquake, causing its relocation to its present site. Ica has always been a city recognized for its agricultural importance, as well as for being a key point in Southern Peru’s trade circuit. In the 19 th entury, the Chincha Islands became a strategic place for the exploitation of guano as fertilizer, a key resource in the national economy of those days. Subsequently, thanks to the cotton crops, the economy of Ica recovered its dynamism. Currently, Ica maintains its farming tradition with vast areas of grapevines, cotton, lima beans, pecans and of many types, contrasting with beauty of the desert. 406 meters above sea level (1,332 feet) Population in Ica Distances from Ica 325 Km (202 miles) from Lima 75 Km (46.6 miles) from Paracas 135 Km (84 miles) from Nazca 701 Km (435.7 miles) from Arequipa Weather in Ica Ica is well known for its excellent climate, where the sun shines the whole year round. December to March the temperature rises noticeably during the day, with an average of 30º C at mid-day, cooling off slightly during the evening. In the month of July and August, temperature drops, especially at night, when it reaches a minimum of 8º C. Due to the desert type climate, rainfall is scarce and the sun is strong. For this reason, it is advisable to us some sort of sunscreen protection and hats. Acces to Ica With an altitude of 406 masl, Ica can be easily reached by road directly from Lima along the South Pan-american Highway, the trip takes 4 hr (the distance is 303 km). To get there by air one uses charter plane services operating from Lima. The trip lasts 1.5hr. Despite its nearness, its cuisine is very different from the one in Lima. The typical dishes include: Green Lima beans (type of long bean). Morusa (mashed lima beans with roast beef) Picante de pallares (spicy casserole based on lima beans, milk, eggs and soft unripened cheese). Carapulcra (sun-dried potato casserole style with pork and chicken, panca and mirasol chili, garlic and other species). Tejas (traditional dessert made of dried up lemon and raisings stuffed with “manjarblanco” (milk jam) and nuts and covered with caramel and a sugar dressing). Cachina (spirit made from fermented grape must). Pisco (brandy originated in Peru distilled from the fermented juice Chapanas (sweets made of cassave meal and brown sugar-loaf). Attractions in Ica Attractions in the City As in many cities in Perú, Ica’s Main Square continues to be an essential meeting place for residents and tourists alike. From the Main Square one can see the Prefect´c Office, the Municipality, the Cathedral and Casa Bolivar, as well as enjoy part of the community´s daily life. This is a good starting point to cruise through the city. Built in the 18 th century and remodeled in 1814, this church belonged to the monumental complex of the Society of Jesus. The sober neo-Classic façade is perfectly complemented with its interior, predominantly Baroque. Worth noting are the exquisite wood carvings of the pulpit and the altars, as well as the paintings of the evangelists in the arches. CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO The Church of San Francisco is an impressive sight in the City of Ica, not because of its age, as it was built in the 20 th century, but because of its size. Acces to the main building is through a portal, while two towers ending in double-arched belfries rise at the side entrances. Inside, there are tainted windows portraying scenes of the life of Saint Francis of Assisi, wich are predominant in the church. The most important work of art on display is a painting of Inmaculate Mary dating back to the 18 th century. In this modern temple, the tradicional side altars have been replaced by shelves bearing several sacred images. CASONA OF THE MARQUIS DE TORRE HERMOSA One of the few simples of Colonial architecture in Ica is the grand old house belonging to the Marquis and Marchioness of Torre Hermosa. This house is also known as Casa Bolivar, as the Libertador stayed there when he visited the city. The house has an exquisite Rococo style portal made of carved-stone. CASA DEL VALLE Pleasant Republican house unique due to the graceful carved-wood entrance and its two exterior windows with roofs and bars. Also known as the House of the Cornucopias, this Rococo style Colonial mansion is known for its works in gypsum, its hollow columns and impressive façade. In the inside there is a very appealing center garden and a gallery. ADOLFO BERMUDEZ JENKINS REGIONAL MUSEUM This Museum has very interesting pieces of the Paracas, Nazca, Ica, Chincha and Inca Cultures. One can appreciate fossil remains, petroglyphs, beautiful Paracas cloths, exquisite pieces of Nazca ceramics and Inca quipus, an ancient Peruvian device used for recording facts and events. In the Antropology Room there are pieces which include samples of brain surgery, trepanation and deformation, trophy heads and pre-Colombian mummies. The Museum also has an interesting collection of paintings, adornments and Colonial fumiture, as well as some objects from the Republican era. Surrounded by dunes, palm trees and huarangos, small tropical American trees (Caesalpina coriaria), the Lagoon of Huacachina appears as a sort of illusion in the desert, only 5 km west from the City of Ica. In olden times, the lagoon became famous among the residents due to the medicinal properties of its filtered waters. Today it is a peaceful resort which is ideal to take a rest and enjoy the landscape. It is possible to take boat rides in the lagoon. Those seeking some sort of adventure can practice sand boarding on the dunes. The equipment necessary for this sport can be rented from some of the local stores. TOWN OF CACHICHE Only 4 km southwest of Ica, or 8 min away, there is a town which has been famous since the 19 th century because of its whitches, who used to prepare amulets and cured all types of diseases. Today, it is said that certain persons still continue these old habits in hiding. In the forest one can even find a monument in honor of the good deeds of the witches of Cachiche. FRIARS OF PARCONA FOREST This is a stone forest located 5 km east of the city. It challenges the imagination of visitors, allowing them to visualize a turtle, the head of monkey, a toad or a fish, which are figures carved into the stones by the wind the passing of the centuries. ACHIRANA DEL INCA CANAL Only 15 min away by car, 18 km northeast of Ica, there is an old Inca irrigation canal. Legend tells that in the times of Inca. Pachacutec, Túpac Yupanqui, his successor, personally directed the conquest of these valleys, and that he felt deeply in love with Chumbillalla, the daughter of the local governor. The love they had for each other prevented an armed battle. The young girl then told the messenger about the plight of her people caused by the lack of water in the area. Upon learning this, the Inca immediately sent 40,000 men to built great canal, reportedly 30 km long, which irrigated approximately 11.000 ha of cultivated fields. That canal is presently known as Achirana del Inca. A TOUR THROUGH THE WINE CELLARS OF ICA It is not a coincidence that Ica is considered the capital of the Peruvian pisco and wine. A tour around its different areas entices one to taste the delicious pisco and the good wines from Ica. The tours include visits to the most famous wine cellars as well as to picturesque small tradicional cellars (or bodegas) which open their doors to the visitors and invite them to taste the different varieties of wines and piscos, such as the quebranta (pure pisco made of Quebranta grapes), lemon pisco, Torontel pisco (made from a variety of sweet white grape known as Toronte) acholado (blended pisco) mosto verde (green unfermented pisco) and añejo (aged pisco). PALPA AND SURROUNDING AREAS Geoglifos de Palpa The City of Palpa is located 92 km from Ica, opposite Km 395 of the South Panamerican Highway. There are a large number of geographical carvings of various shapes, which can be seen by climbing the slopes of the nearby hills. Worth nothing is the so-called Tejido de Sacramento. Continuing 11 km to the southeast, are the petroglyps of Chichictara, where one can evidence shapes of snakes ,felines and beings with anthropomorphic features. Acces to Chichictara is not easy, as climb up the slope is demanding but worth it, however, to appreciate the area’s landscape. FOTO Lineas de Nazca Nazca is located 142 km from the City of Ica. It is a city which has preserved the secrets of its ancestors great masters of ceramics and the authors of the huge and impressive system of lines and drawings dispersed over the pampas. The Pampas of San José, between km 419 and 465 of the South Panamerican Highway, are the site of the famous Nazca Lines, comprised of over 70 giant figures and some 10,000 lines imprinted on the land, which have been declared the Cultural Heritage of Markind by UNESCO. Figures like those of monkey, a humming bird, a guanay (phalacrocorax bougainvilli) and a spider amaze people who look at them from the air or from the viewpoint located opposite km 420 of the Highway. According to María Reiche-Grosse, who dedicated most of her life to studying these lines, this is meant to be a giant astronomic calendar which dates back to approximately 500 A.C. Lineas de Nazca Opposite km 417 one may find the María Reiche Grosse Newman Site Museum, where part of the study material of the German researched has been gathered, as well as photograps, maps, drawings and models. There are several companies offering their services to fly over the Lines, both out Nazca as well as out of Ica. THE CANTALLOC AQUEDUCT The inhabitants of the old Nazca Culture built a huge number of canals which allowed them to irrigate vast areas of land. Some of them are still in use in spite of their age. Of the more than 30 existing Nazca aqueducts, the most popular one is Cantalloc, located 4 km away from the City of Nazca towards the Puquio – Cusco road. The hole or breathers observed in these canals allowed their users to control and clean the water. The Nazca hydraulic engineering work is actually surprising. Underground galleries would capture the water filterning from the sub-soil, carrying along canals which were slightly titled towards the wells from where irrigation was controlled. The aqueducts were built with material from the area, such as quarry stones, flat rock and trunks of huarango, a typical tree in Ica. CAHUACHI AND ESTAQUERÍA After a 20 min trip from Nazca, 17 km to the northeast, one arrives at this old religious center of the Nazca Culture, comprised of large plazas, cementeries and two adobe pyramids which have been deeply affected by the passing of time. Very close to it, is Estaquería, another Nazca building which is also believed to have been a ceremonial center and which still features some carob trees marking the contour of what is supposed to have been a platform. On the slops of a not so high hill there are traces of an old Inca settlement, only 2 km away from the City of Nazca. These adobe and stone buildings preserve the trapezoidal niches typical of the Inca architecture. A viewpoint has been identified in the upper section from where one may distinguish the traces of the old Inca plazas that formed part of the complex. Founded as a villa in 1640, on the orders of the Viceroy, Marquis of Mancera, today Pisco is a small city of fisherman and farmers located 76 km from Ica. Due to its proximity to the Bay of Paracas, it has become a popular place for tourists. In its Main Square there is the Cathedral, dating back to the 17 th century, as well as the Moorish style building of the Municipality. A block away from the square is the Church of the Society, a Baroque temple housing paintings from the School of Cusci and gold leaf decorated altars. The name of the city is almost immediately associated with pisco the grape liquor produced on Peru’s South Coast, especially in the Region of Ica. During Colonial times the popularity of the liquor was quickly related to the Port of Ica calling it aguardiente de pisco (grape brandy). NATIONAL RESERVE OF PARACAS It is located at a distance of 42 km from the City of Ica along a paved road, although access is easier from the City of Pisco (76 km La Catedral Paracas from Ica). This is a shelter for sea lions, Humboldt penguins, otters, dolphins and a great variety of resident and migrating birds, including the gray seagull, the Inca tern (larostema inca), the rayador (rhynchops nigra), the cholo ático, the red legged cormorant, (phalacrorax bougainvillii). The Paracas Reserve, which comprises 335,000 ha, is not only a natural paradise, but also an important archaeological center with traces of the ancient Paracas Culture that dates back from 700 B.C. to 400 A.C., a town of great weavers who produced multicolored cloths, true pieces of art. Peñon del Fraile en Paracas Paracas is the center of important tourist attractions, such as the Cathedral, the Candelabrum and the Ballestas Islands, as well as the beautiful beaches of Atenas, La Mina, El Raspón, Mendieta and Barlovento. To enjoy the beauty of the Reserve, one may travel both by land and by sea, boarding a boat at the Chaco beach, before going into the reserved area, next to the seaside resort of Paracas. An impressive rocky formation, produced by erosion and the tide, crowned by a tower, is known as the Cathedral. Its cliffs are home to the Peruvian boobies (sula varegata) and other sea birds, while in foto Lobo Marino the lower section, known as the cave, one can observe the marine otter or chinguno (lutra feline) an animal which may hardly be found in other areas. North of the Paracas Península, looking out to sea, there is a figure engraved in the sand, called the Candelabrum or Three Crosses, the origin of which continues to be unknown. For some it is a symbol that guided seamen and fishermen during the first half of the 19 th century. Visiting the Ballestas Islands means coming into contact with the very rich wildlife of the Reserve, particulary with the sea lions, which can be observed at large. foto Lobos marinos South of the Reserve is Punta Arquillo, a cliff with an impressive view of the horizon, of the islands and of the sea lions gliding trough the waves. With a little luck one can see the majestic flight of the condor searching for food. Another interesting spot to visits is Independence Bay, two and half hours away from the Reserve, by car, over the sandy roads of the area, heading southwest. This is the bay where José de San Martín disembarked and which gave rise to his campaign to liberate Peru. The visits is worth it if one whishes to spend a peaceful day at the beach, or camping, In that case, Cruz de Carhuaz is one of the most advisable places to go to because of its large beaches and calm waters. foto Windsurf Paracas The different beaches offer visitors a chance to swim, fish, snorkel or winsurf. It is convenient to take good care upon entering the sea, as there are usually pastelillos or thing rays, which may injure bathers. It is recommended to wear dosed tennis shoes or to drag ones feet to scare them away. JULIO C. TELLO SITE MUSEUM This Museum is located at the entrance to the National Reserve of Paracas. It features various objects found during the excavations carried out at the archaelogical sites of the area, such as Cerro Colorado and Cabezas Largas. The exhibits include remains of the first inhabitants of the region, engaged in hunting and collection, as well as samples of the splendid textiles, ceramics and handcrafts in general, related to the Paracas Culture. CERRO COLORADO AND CABEZAS LARGAS The desert’s sand covered two huge cementeries: Cerro Colorado, at the foot of the Interpretation Center of the foot of the Interpretation Center of the National Reserve of Paracas; and Cabezas Largas, only 200m away from the Julio C. Tello Site Museum. Peruvian archaeologist Julio C. Tello fervently spent his time researching the peninsula, which in 1925 led him to discover traces of the Paracas Culture. For generations, this culture had buried its dead in two types of tombs: In Cerro Colorado, dating back to approximately 400 A.C., resembling the shape of an inverted cup with a deep funerary chamber, where mummies were found, carefull wrapped in several layers of cloths. Some skulls showed signs of trepanation, successfully in many cases, by the Paracas. At present, the remains are covered, and only part of some walls may be observed. The Cabezas Largas Cementery, dating back to 200 B.C. owes its name to the elongated shape of some of the skulls, that were intentionally deformed, perhaps as a symbol of authority. This also evidences changes in the funerary customs, since individuals were buried in groups at a very small depth, wrapped in carefully woven cloths. These cloths are considered to be the best example of the Peruvian textile art, both for the excellent choice of dyes and the cotton fabrics with which they were made, as well as for their fine embroidered designs. Many colors are used and a great variety of anthropomorphic beings with feline and bird-like features reflecting a complex cosmic vision, decorated these dazzling cloths. foto Tambo Colorado Heading north along the South Pan-american Highway opposite km 229, there is a detour towards the Los Libertadores Highway. Tambo Colorado, an important Inca administrative center may be found opposite km 5 on this highway. Its original name appears to have been Pucatampu. Built during the years of the administration of Inca Pachacútec, this constituded a connecting point with the Inca road joining Ayacucho with the Pacific coast. Its stucco walls still have the niches where one can observe traces of the red and yellow pigments used in their decoration. Distributed around a plaza, there are different building, some of which were used in ceremonies and others for more profane purposes, such as warehouses or living quarters. Following the South Pan-american Highway, northwards, 103 km foto: Plaza de Armas de Chincha from Ica, one arrives at Chincha, a warm city which combines the African heritage and certain traditions, Peruvian paso horses and cock fights. El Carmen, 6 km from the city, features Afro-Peruavian tradition. To the beat of a wooden rectangular drum called cajón, a quijada de burro, a typical Peruvian musical instrument made from a donkey’s jaw and a guitar, these African descendants brought during the Colonial times to work in the haciendas, preserve their dances and their exquisite culinary tradition. HACIENDA SAN JOSÉ foto Hacienda San Jose This Colonial estate is located 15 km southeast of Chincha, in the District of El Carmen. In the late 17 th century, Jesuits built one of the most beautiful haciendas on this property which remains until today. Its arches, its portals and its large patio give one the feeling of having gone back a few centuries in time. The chapel features a beautiful Baroque after, finely carved in wood. During a tour around the state one may carriage wheels used long ago. Also worth seeing is an underground to some versions, the slaves were taken. TAMBO DE MORA AND LA CENTINELA The Chincha Culture flourished in this Region between the 9 th and foto Tambo de Mora 15 th century A.C. Despite having been conquered by the Incas, this culture maintained its good name and authority thanks to heir commercial activities. The Chincha people skillfully sailed to Ecuador from where they brought mullets or spondyli, a very valuable seashell for the different Andean cultures. At a distance of 11 km from the City of Chincha, lies Tambo de Mora, one of the most important administrative centers of this culture in pre Hispanic times, that formed part of the complex known s Chinchaycámac and which is estimated to have comprised some 500ha. The Centinela Ruins, 8 km away from the South Pan-american Highway, also formed part of the complex. It features pyramid shaped structure, a large number of patios and walls decorated with geometrical embossed figures. The buildings underwent certain changes during the rule of the Incas. Ica Festivities Calendar FEBRUARY IN ICA Black Summer in Chincha (fourth week) foto Ritmos negros In the District of El Carmen, a festival is held for one full week in honor of the black people. Storytelling and poetry contests are held, as well as black dance festivals amusing, lively marches and other activities. MARCH IN ICA The Grape Harvest Festival (Vendimia) (first fortnight) The Festival of the Grape Harvest in the City of Ica, called La Vendimia, is one of the most famous in Peru. The festivities include exhibits of Peruvian paso horses, cock fights, dances and cultural and sporting events. The Vendimia Parade is organized on the main day, where a group of festival queens’ parade in cars throwing bunches of grapes as the pass. This is a good time to taste the different Ica wines and piscos, as well as the popular cachina, liquor prepared from fermented grape must. Easter (date subject to change) The Cities of Ica, Pisco and Chincha devotedly recall the passion and death of Christ. Religious prayers on nine days and processions are characteristic of this celebration. On Thursday night, the image of Our Lord of Luren tours the streets of Ica, while the procession of Our Lord of Agony is held in Pisco. MAY IN ICA 15th Tourism Week in Nazca A series of cultural activities are held in the city of Nazca in honor of Maria Reiche, who spent many years studying the Nazca Lines. JUNE IN ICA 17th Jubilee Week of Ica The Iqueños, people from Ica, celebrate the anniversary of the foundation of their city with a series of activities, such as dances, school parades and lively marches. 29th Fishermen’s Festival, St. Peter and St. Paul’s Religious Holiday The cove of San Andrés, in Pisco, holds festivities in honor of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, whose images are taken on a picturesque boat ride, accompanied by musical bands and fishermen. The celebrations include cuisine contests featuring shellfish and fish based dishes, challenging the imagination of the best of cooks. SEPTEMBER IN ICA Tourist Week in Pisco – 8th September This is to commemorate the disembarkation of José de San Martín and his liberation troops at the Bay of Independence. The celebrations include festivals, contests, pageants and tours along the main tourist attractions of the Province. Tourist Week in Ica – 27th September In order to promote the main tourist attractions of the city, Ica organizes Peruvian paso horseshows, wine contests, pisco tasting events, walks from wine cellar to wine cellar and the International Sand Boarding Contest. OCTOBER IN ICA Our Lord of Luren (second and third weeks) Foto Señor de Luren The festivities in honor of Our Lord of Luren take place on the third Sunday in October, when his image is carried in a procession along the main streets of the city. Hundreds of people travel to the City of Ica to join the procession, and to participate in the recitation of prayers on nine days to seek special favors and show their devotion. Ica’s streets are filled with beautiful arches and carpets of flowers, especially made for the occasion.

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1 The main functions of government are the provision of non-market services, the regulation of economic and social conditions, and the redistribution of income between sections of the community. These activities are primarily financed by taxation and are carried out by entities in the general government sector. In addition to this core activity, governments can also own or control enterprises that sell goods or services to the public and which operate largely on a commercial (or market) basis (public non-financial corporations) or engage in financial intermediation (public financial corporations). 2 The term 'government finance statistics' refers to statistics that measure the financial activities of governments and reflect the impact of those activities on other sectors of the economy. The Australian system of Government Finance Statistics (GFS), which is used to derive the statistics presented here, is designed to provide statistical information on public sector entities in Australia classified in a uniform and systematic way. 3 GFS enable policy makers and users to analyse the financial operations and financial position of the public sector at either the level of a specific government, institutional sector or set of transactions. The system is based on international standards set out in the System of National Accounts 1993 (SNA93) and the International Monetary Fund's Government Finance Statistics Manual 2001. 4 Detailed information on the concepts, sources and methods used in compiling GFS can be found in Australian System of Government Finance Statistics: Concepts, Sources and Methods (Cat. no. 5514.0.55.001), which is available on the ABS website via the Statistical Concept Library. 5 The system of GFS provides details of revenues, expenses, cash flows and assets and liabilities of the Australian public sector and comprises units which are owned and/or controlled by the Commonwealth, state governments and local governments. These units are grouped as follows: 6 The principal function of General Government entities is to provide non-market goods and services (e.g. roads, hospitals, libraries) primarily financed by taxes, to regulate and influence economic activity, to maintain law and order, and to redistribute income by means of transfer payments. - General Government - Public Non-financial Corporations - Non-financial Public Sector - Public Financial Corporations - Total Public Sector 7 This institutional sector covers the departments of the Commonwealth Government, state governments and local government municipalities. It also includes agencies and government authorities under departmental administration which are engaged in the provision of public administration, defence, law enforcement, welfare, public education, and health. Also included are non-departmental bodies which independently perform the government functions of regulation (e.g. Nurses Registration Boards and the Maritime Safety Authority), provision of non-market services (e.g. the Australian Broadcasting Corporation), and redistribution of income (e.g. the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission). Some of these bodies may be corporations, but they are still considered part of the general government sector if they perform general government functions. Universities are also considered part of the general government sector. 8 Unincorporated government enterprises which provide goods and services to their governments and to the public at prices that are not economically significant are also included in this sector. In addition, government quasi-corporations which sell their output exclusively to other government units, while not in open competition with other producers, are also classified as general government units. Public Non-financial Corporations 9 The main function of Public Non-financial Corporations (PNFCs) is to provide goods and services which are predominantly market, non-regulatory and non-financial in nature, and financed through sales to consumers of these goods and services. 10 Enterprises in the PNFCs sector differ from those in the general government sector in that all or most of their production costs are recovered from consumers, rather than being financed from the general taxation revenue of government. Some enterprises, however, do receive subsidies to make up for shortfalls incurred as a result of government policy, for example, in the provision of 'community service obligations' at concessional rates. 11 PNFCs vary in their degree of 'commercialism', from those which are quite heavily reliant on parent governments for subsidies, such as rail and bus transport undertakings, to those which are net contributors to government revenue. Governments may exercise control over PNFCs by either owning more than 50% of the voting stock or otherwise controlling more than half the shareholders' voting power, or through legislation, decree or regulation which empowers the government to determine corporate policy or to appoint the directors. Examples of PNFCs are Telstra, Australia Post, state rail authorities, and local bus and transport operations. Non-financial Public Sector 12 The Non-financial Public Sector is a subsector formed by the consolidation of the General Government and Public Non-financial Corporations sectors. Public Financial Corporations 13 Public Financial Corporations (PFCs) are government-owned or controlled enterprises which engage in financial intermediation (i.e. trade in financial assets and liabilities), such as the Reserve Bank of Australia, government-owned banks and insurance offices and home lending schemes. The inclusion of PFCs in GFS makes GFS consistent in scope with the Australian accounting standard for whole of government reporting Australian Accounting Standard AAS31, Financial Reporting by Governments. Total Public Sector 14 The Total Public Sector is the consolidated total of the General Government, Public Non-financial Corporations and Public Financial Corporations sectors. LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT 15 The public sector comprises all organisations owned or controlled by any of the four levels of government within the Australian political system; the Commonwealth, state, local and multi-jurisdictional. 16 The Commonwealth Government has exclusive responsibility under the Constitution for the administration of a wide range of functions including defence, foreign affairs and trade, and immigration. A distinctive feature of the Australian federal system is that the Commonwealth Government levies and collects all income tax, from individuals as well as from enterprises. It also collects a significant portion of other taxes, including taxes on the provision of goods and services. The Commonwealth distributes part of this revenue to other levels of government, principally the states. 17 State and territory governments (referred to here as 'state' governments) perform the full range of government functions, other than those the Constitution deems the exclusive domain of the Commonwealth Government. The functions mainly administered by state governments include public order, health, education, administration, transport and maintenance of infrastructure. The revenue base of state governments is narrower than that of the Commonwealth Government and consists of taxes on property, on employers' payrolls, and on the provision and use of goods and services. This revenue base is supplemented by grants from the Commonwealth Government, which now includes an allocation of Goods and Services Tax (GST) revenue. 18 Local government authorities govern areas typically described as cities, towns, shires, boroughs, municipalities and district councils. Although the range of functions undertaken by local governments varies between the different jurisdictions, their powers and responsibilities are generally similar and cover such matters as: 19 Local governments also provide transport facilities, hospitals, charitable institutions, recreation grounds, parks, swimming pools, libraries, museums and other business undertakings. Local governments' own-source revenue is derived mainly from property taxes. They also rely on grants from the Commonwealth and their parent state governments. The Australian Capital Territory has no separate local government. - the construction and maintenance of roads, streets and bridges; - water, sewerage and drainage systems; - health and sanitary services; - the regulation of building standards; and - the administration of regulations relating to items such as slaughtering, weights and measures, and registration of dogs. 20 The multi-jurisdictional sector contains units where jurisdiction is shared between two or more governments, or the classification of a unit to a jurisdiction is otherwise unclear. The main type of units currently falling into this category are the public universities. 21 The main GFS classifications are: Economic Type Framework 22 This is the main classification of stocks and flows. Stocks refer to the holdings of assets and liabilities at a point in time, ideally valued at current market prices. Flows are economic events and other occurrences, recorded in the period in which they occur, that cause changes in the value of stocks through the creation, transformation, exchange, transfer or extinction of value. Thus, the stock of assets and liabilities recorded at the beginning of a period changes as a result of flows during the period, moving to new levels at the end of the period. - Economic Type Framework - Type of Asset Classification - Government Purpose Classification - Taxes Classification - Source/Destination Classification 23 The Economic Type Framework resembles a set of financial statements, with sections for an operating statement, a cash flow statement and a balance sheet. In addition, there are sections to cater for the reconciliation of accounting net operating result measures with cash flows from operating activities and to capture items like assets acquired under finance leases, intra-unit transfers, and revaluations and other changes in the volume of assets. Type of Asset Classification 24 This classification is used to identify whether expenditure on non-financial assets (net) was on produced assets (e.g. dwellings and transport equipment) or non-produced assets (e.g. land). In accordance with SNA93 requirements, this classification distinguishes between produced (tangible and intangible) and non-produced (tangible and intangible) assets. Government Purpose Classification 25 This classification is used to group operating expenses and expenditure by purpose (education, health, etc.) with similar functions to facilitate the study of the broad function of public sector spending and the effectiveness of this spending in meeting government policy objectives. 26 This classification dissects this major form of government revenue according to type of tax collected. 27 This classification identifies the source or destination of selected flows and stocks between units within and outside the public sector. It is used in compiling consolidated statistics. SOURCES AND METHODS 28 The statistics shown in this publication are based on information provided in, or underlying, the published accounting statements and reports of governments and their authorities plus additional dissections of reported transactions and balances. The valuation of stocks and flows in source data are generally valued in accordance with requirements specified in accounting standards, which generally do not require universal or continual application of market values. However, for the most part, the divergences between the accounting values and market values are not materially significant. Exceptions occur for some interest flows and depreciation. 29 For the Commonwealth and state governments the primary data sources are: 30 For local government, the main data sources are annual statements of accounts and questionnaires completed by local authorities. - public accounts and budget management systems of State Treasuries and the Commonwealth Department of Finance and Administration; - annual reports of departments and authorities; - budget papers; and - reports of the Auditors-General. 31 The GFS framework requires that stocks and flows be valued at current market prices. However, in compiling GFS estimates the ABS is dependent on the valuation methods used in the source data. In the 2003-04 Commonwealth Government budget released on 13 May 2003, the Commonwealth Government announced a change in the valuation basis of debt from a historic cost basis to the conceptually prefered market value basis, made possible by the introduction of the new debt valuation systems by the Australian Office of Financial Management. This change was introduced in the 2001-02 GFS publication and taken back to 1999-2000. As such, there is a break between 1998-99 and 1999-2000 for the affected balance sheet series, including net debt. 32 To compile statistics about the financial activities of a particular level of government, or any other grouping of public sector units, transactions and debtor/creditor relationships between units within the chosen grouping (sector or subsector) have to be matched and eliminated to avoid double counting. The process of matching and eliminating these items within the chosen group is known as consolidation. 33 Consolidation is particularly important at the State government level where a significant proportion of total expenses/payments are financed by Commonwealth government grants. Similarly, an appreciable part of the expenditure undertaken by State public non-financial corporations is financed by grants from State governments. UNDERSTANDING THE STATEMENTS 34 The GFS conceptual framework is divided into a number of separate statements, each of which is designed to draw out analytical aggregates or balances of particular economic significance and which, taken together, provide for a thorough understanding of the financial positions of jurisdictions individually and collectively. These published statements are the Operating Statement, the Cash Flow Statement, and the Balance Sheet. 35 The Operating Statement presents details of transactions in GFS revenues, GFS expenses and the net acquisition of non-financial assets for an accounting period. GFS revenues are broadly defined as transactions that increase net worth and GFS expenses as transactions that decrease net worth. Net acquisition of non-financial assets equals gross fixed capital formation, less depreciation, plus changes in inventories plus other transactions in non-financial assets. Two key GFS analytical balances in the operating statement are GFS Net Operating Balance (NOB) and GFS Net Lending(+)/Borrowing(-). 36 GFS NOB is the difference between GFS revenues and GFS expenses. It reflects the sustainability of government operations. GFS Net Lending(+)/Borrowing(-) is equal to NOB minus the total net acquisition of non-financial assets. A positive result reflects a net lending position while a negative result reflects a net borrowing position. Cash Flow Statement 37 The Cash Flow Statement identifies how cash is generated and applied in a single accounting period. 'Cash' means cash on hand (notes and coins held and deposits held at call with a bank or other financial institution) and cash equivalents (highly liquid investments which are readily convertible to cash on hand at the investor's option and overdrafts considered integral to the cash management function). 38 The Cash Flow Statement reflects a cash basis of recording (the other statements are on an accrual accounting basis) where the information has been derived indirectly from underlying accrued transactions and movements in balances. This, in effect, means that transactions are captured when cash is received or when cash payments are made. Cash transactions are specially identified because they allow the compilation of the cash-based Surplus(+)/Deficit(-) measure and because the management of cash is often considered an integral function of accrual accounting. 39 The Surplus(+)/Deficit(-) is a broad indicator of a sector's cash flow requirements. When it is positive (i.e. in surplus), it reflects the extent to which cash is available to government to either increase its financial assets or decrease its liabilities (assuming that no revaluations and other changes occur). When it is negative (i.e. in deficit), it is a measure of the extent to which government requires cash, either by running down its financial assets or by drawing on the cash reserves of the domestic economy, or from overseas. 40 The Balance Sheet is the statement of an entity's financial position at a specific point in time. It shows the entity's stock of assets, liabilities and GFS Net Worth. GFS Net Worth is an economic measure of 'wealth' calculated as assets less liabilities for the general government sector and as assets less liabilities less shares and other contributed capital for the PNFCs and PFCs sectors. 41 The net debt measure, previously published in the now discontinued publication Public Sector Financial Assets and Liabilities, Australia (Cat. no. 5513.0), is included as a memorandum item in the balance sheet presentation together with net financial worth, which is the difference between total financial assets and total liabilities. In GFS balance sheets, shares and other contributed capital are treated as liabilities by convention. 42 The statistics in this publication have been compiled using standard definitions, classifications and treatment of government financial transactions to facilitate comparisons between levels of government and between states within a level of government. 43 However, the statistics also reflect real differences between the administrative and accounting arrangements of the various governments and these differences need to be taken into account when making interstate comparisons. For example, only a state level of government exists in the Australian Capital Territory and a number of functions performed by it are undertaken by local government authorities in other jurisdictions. 44 Interstate comparisons of data may also be significantly affected by differences in the mix of operations undertaken by state governments and local governments. For example: - water and sewerage undertakings in Victoria, Western Australia and South Australia are operated exclusively by State authorities, but are run by local governments in other jurisdictions; and - government transport undertakings are operated exclusively by state authorities in all states except Queensland where bus transport is operated by the local government sector. RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER INFORMATION Uniform Presentation Framework 45 Following the May 1991 Premiers' Conference, the Commonwealth Government and the state governments resolved to implement a uniform presentation framework in their budget documents. The purpose of the uniform presentation framework was to introduce uniformity into the presentation of GFS so that users of the information could make valid comparisons between jurisdictions. 46 The Commonwealth and each state government have, since budget year 1992-93, presented information in their budget documents on the ABS GFS basis. The information presented in the budget documents of each jurisdiction is compiled with the advice and assistance of ABS officers and generally conforms with the standards applied by the ABS. Jurisdictions may present the information based on their interpretation of the GFS classifications, but must provide a reconciliation of this information with information reflecting the ABS decision on these issues. In 1999, the uniform presentation framework was revised from a cash to an accruals basis and the accrual uniform presentation framework was to be implemented beginning with most jurisdictions' Budgets for 2000-2001. 47 Variations between ABS statistics and those presented by the jurisdictions can exist because the ABS may: 48 The first two differences are generally minor, but the last difference can be significant. - disagree with classification treatments applied by jurisdictions; - employ a different consolidation methodology to those used in jurisdiction Treasuries; - apply reconciliation adjustments when it consolidates data for all jurisdictions and compares annual data with quarterly data used in compiling ASNA; and - include data from time to time which were not available when a jurisdiction's GFS presentations were published (e.g. major asset sales). 49 AAS31 'Financial Reporting by Governments' has been adopted by most Australian governments in the preparation of their financial statements. Accounting reports prepared under AAS31 and statistical reports prepared on a GFS basis serve different purposes and are aimed at different sets of users. Thus, differences between GFS and AAS31 analytical measures (GFS net operating balance and AAS31 operating surplus/deficit for example) can be expected. Descriptions of GFS/AAS31 reconciliations are outlined in Section 6 of the ABS publication Information Paper: Accruals-based Government Finance Statistics (Cat. no. 5517.0). Australian System of National Accounts (ASNA) 50 While GFS and ASNA share the same conceptual framework (SNA93), there are methodological differences between GFS and ASNA analytical measures (GFS and ASNA net worth and net lending/borrowing for example). The main differences in the net/lending borrowing measures relate to adjustments for market rates of interest, consumption of fixed capital and ownership transfer costs between the GFS and ASNA. Descriptions of GFS/ASNA reconciliations are outlined in Section 6 of the ABS publication Information Paper: Accruals-based Government Finance Statistics (Cat. no. 5517.0). DATA AVAILABLE ON REQUEST 51 Accruals GFS estimates are available for the public non-financial corporation and public financial corporation sectors and can be accessed by subscribing to AusStats or on request. 52 Some GFS data are available back to 1961-62. Prior to 1998-99, however, GFS were compiled on a cash basis. Users should note that the move to an accrual basis of recording required a change in data sources and methodologies for some jurisdictions from 1998-99 onwards. Therefore, the surplus/deficit series from 1998-99 are not directly comparable to the 'deficit' series for earlier years previously published in historical GFS publications. 53 Generally, a charge is made for providing data available on request. Inquiries should be made to the officer whose name appears in the Inquiries section of the publication, or to the ABS National Information Service. 54 Users may refer to the following publications which contain related information: - Australian National Accounts: Financial Accounts (Cat. no. 5232.0) - issued quarterly - Australian National Accounts: National Income, Expenditure and Product (Cat. no. 5206.0) - issued quarterly - Australian System of Government Finance Statistics: Concepts, Sources and Methods (Cat. no. 5514.0.55.001) - available in electronic form on the ABS Website via the Statistical Concepts Library - Australian System of National Accounts (Cat. no. 5204.0) - issued annually - Government Finance Statistics: Australia, Quarterly (Cat. no. 5519.0.55.001) - issued quarterly - Government Financial Estimates (Cat. no. 5501.0.55.001) - issued annually - Information Paper: Accruals-based Government Finance Statistics (Cat. no. 5517.0) - issued March 2000 - Information Paper: Developments in Government Finance Statistics (Cat. no. 5516.0) - issued February 1997 - Taxation Revenue, Australia (Cat. no. 5506.0) - issued annually |ABS||Australian Bureau of Statistics| |ASNA||Australian System of National Accounts| |GDP||gross domestic product| |GFS||Government Finance Statistics| |n.e.c.||not elsewhere classified| |SNA93||System of National Accounts 1993|

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The one higher toned hoot is a little linger then the lower toned ones, but other then that, they are all the same length. A friend of mine just recently saw a great horned owl flying overhead with a white, collared cat in its claws. Typical Call - Prescott, Rusty-barred Owl Strix hylophila. A Barred Owl perched for 20 minutes on a garden gate one morning near the Connecticut-New York border. The sounds that they make often sound like a human saying " who cooks for you". Short-eared Owl in serious decline as breeder statewide, currently nearing extirpation in western Washington. About the Barred Owl This widespread woodland owl dozes by day on a well-hidden perch but seldom relies on its good camouflage to avoid harm. With brown and white stripped Barred Owl feathers and emotive eyes It flies silently and totally unobserved. The barred owl's "Who cooks for you?" call is one of the most familiar night-time bird sounds, especially in wooded areas. "That's one that's always cool to hear in the woods," he said. We conduct long-term research on owls, their prey species, and their relationship to the habitat in which they live. Barred owls are nocturnal, but may be seen just after sunset. *Barn, *Barred, *Burrowing, *Eastern Screech, *Great Horned, *Long Eared, *Northern Saw-Whet, *Short Eared and *Snowy. T1 - Does the presence of Barred Owls suppress the calling behavior of Spotted Owls? AU - Crozier, Michelle L. Genetic and morphological variation in Northern Saw-whet Owl populations in eastern North America. Some say its call also sounds like a barking dog. Although the two species often live in the same areas, a Barred Owl will move to another part of its territory when a Great Horned Owl is nearby. While a generalist in terms of food habits, the Barred Owl needs relatively large trees for nesting. Like most owls, barred owls cache prey in tree branches and nests. The owl’s ears have fl aps as a human’s do, but unlike us, they can move these fl aps to orient the ear toward sounds. A Barred Owl peeking out of its man made nesting box with one eye visible Portrait of angry frightened barred eagle-owl, also called the Malay eagle-owl, awaked and disturbed by strange sound. You'll find a bone identification chart, a sequencing activity, and a reading comprehension passage about owls. They are known to be very active at night only. The Barred Owl belongs to the family of Strix varia and is endemic to North America. You'll receive the typical vocalizations of Great Horned Owl, Eastern Screech-Owl, Western Screech-Owl, Long-eared Owl, Short-eared Owl, Snowy Owl, Barn Owl, and Barred Owl. The barred owl prefers deep woods around rivers and swamps. We offer an owl nest box for most species found in North America that will accept man-made housing. ALL NEW Barred Owl call is perfect for early morning locating, producing laughs, rolls, and of course Hooting sounds. com Please bookmark us Ctrl+D and come back soon for updates! All files are available in both Wav and MP3 formats. The Barred Owl’s hooting call, “Who cooks for you? Who cooks for you-all?” is a classic sound of old forests and treed swamps. Barred Owl ~ Strix varia Introduction. Barred Owls prefer to nest in lowland mature forest areas. Information about barred owl in the AudioEnglish. The Barred Owl is quite a vocal bird. Little Hoot(65k wav) Owls (6460k wav) Owlet. The barred owl is the slightly larger and more aggressive of the two species, plus it has some biological advantages over the spotted owl. Fantastic bird life through the seasons, having birds of the forests, fields and also the birds that frequent bodies of water. They have whitish underparts and buffy light-brown upperparts. Digital Media Specimen ML135413, Barred Owl (Northern), Strix varia [varia Group], Michael Andersen, Everglades National Park; Mahogany Hammock, Miami-Dade, Florida, United States, 6 Mar 2007. Recently the more aggressive Barred Owl has expanded westward into the range of the Northern Spotted Owl, further threatening that species. In his studies of the Saw-whet Owl in British Columbia, Richard J. their main food sources are rabbits, mice, and voles. A baby barred owl usually fledges at about 45 days old. Download and learn Owl Sounds to use for your hunting or wildlife watching. The screech owl was often a messenger of future events. Adults range from 16-25 inches long with wingspans between approximately 3 and 4 feet, weighing a hefty 1. You can enjoy the quiet and solitude of the cabin and forest, or seek out the farmers and meet the cows, chickens and horses. Barred Owls are found along rivers in low-lying woods. Students, members of the community, and users worldwide will find information to assist with many writing projects. Barred owls are named for the bars found on their chest. aww" note of the Barred Owl. Shop today!. Owls can make all kinds of noises, from the stereotypical hoot to hair-raising screams. Adults range from 16-25 inches long with wingspans between approximately 3 and 4 feet, weighing a hefty 1. Barred Owls and Great Horned Owls can frequent the same habitats, although usually not at the same time. The burrowing owl is active during the day and night, and so you might hear them calling at any hour. Owls Calls & Sounds Common Barn Owl Tyto alba. BobT one of our team members doesn’t even have to listen to audio anymore, he can recognize the Sasquatch vocal patterns on the spectrum analyzer and then stop and listen to the tape. by Quinn Russell Brown; Saturday, October 21, 2017 10:17pm. Barred owl The most vocal Arkansas owl is the barred, a common year-round resident of bottomland forests. Barn Owls make eerie screeching and hissing noises. ) While they have a good ear, a barn owl’s singing voice leaves a lot to be desired. But the sound the mother owl makes to alert little ones is. You can find lots of help on nest boxes for different kinds of owls at the Owl Nestbox Resource Page and Nestboxes for Owls. Motion Activated Owl Decoy with Sound and Flashing Eyes, Realistic Decor for Your Garden, Bird Repellant, 16 inches, New and Improved. In almost all ways, the barred owl is the spotted owl's worst enemy: They reproduce more often, have more babies per year and eat the same prey, like squirrels and wood rats. Real Sounds of the Eastern Screech Owl. Barred Owl A Reference for North and Central American Owls. Rusty-barred Owl Strix hylophila Check out the full taxonomy and distribution of Rusty-barred Owl on HBW Alive. My sleeping sounds and the sounds of a closer Blue Jay, can also be heard. It prefers swamps adjacent to wet, open meadows for foraging. And then just a few days later, The. Perched dreamily atop the post was a barred owl, hunkered down, its feathers puffed warmly around it. Noises caused as the rodents scurry across dried vegetation, sticks, and other debris also contain a great number of high-frequency sounds that give the owl a clue to the whereabouts of its prey. When they vocalize, they sound like they are shouting “Who cooks for you?” or “Who cooks for you all”. I recorded the. Because of its use, you can hear owl barks at any time of the day or night, as long as an owl is feeling scared or threatened, it will bark. The Barred Owl’s hooting call, “Who cooks for you? Who cooks for you-all?” is a classic sound of old forests and treed swamps. Barred Owl Sounds Wireless Car Horn. Barn owls are not big animals, but humans are. their main food sources are rabbits, mice, and voles. These birds vary greatly in size, ranging from very small Saw Whet Owl, to the large Great Horned Owl. They screech because, wellthe just do. When a change is detected, Internet Owl can inform you in a number of ways, like: Sending you an email, Popping up a window, or Playing a sound of your choice. Your going to want hang your Barred Owl box between 15 to 20 feet off the ground on a mature tree that is at least 12 inches in diameter. The barred owl's best known call is a series of eight hoots best characterized by the phrases "Who cooks for you, who cooks for you-all. Only human powered boats allowed on this bass type lake. field recording by tony phillips. Western Screech-Owl. T-Shirts and more. Owl hoots. However, they have quite a repertoire of sounds including a hair- raising scream. Nesting: Found in the cavities of trees. You can build fences and set out traps, but rabbits, mice, and squirrels may still be a problem in your garden. Barred owls and screech owls usually nest in tree cavities. They do not have tufts on their head like their larger cousin the Great Horned Owl. Barred Owl Sounds ringtone free mp3 download. Short Eared Owl. These printable worksheet can help students with their owl pellet dissection projects. Other owls produce less recognizable calls. Night Sounds, Pt 1 - Barred Owls Barred Owls (Strix varia) have a very wide-spread distribution throughout the Eastern United States, Eastern Canada and many areas in the West. You can find lots of help on nest boxes for different kinds of owls at the Owl Nestbox Resource Page and Nestboxes for Owls. 363+ African wildlife sound effects / recordings: African Wildlife is an utterly unique collection of pristine wildlife and nature sounds, recorded in the wilderness of Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia over a period of 4 months, 2015. each hoot was accompanied by a white. Impressed with the owl’s wisdom, and levels of seriousness, Athena chooses the owl to be her mascot instead. South Carolina is an important state for barn owls. As one of Indiana's larger owls, the Barred Owl sits near the top of the food chain (beneath the Great Horned Owl). Free Ring Tones. Barred Owls incubate their eggs for 28 to 33 days. Learning owl sounds is a great way to identify owls with your ears. Typical call - Minas Gerais, Brazil. So-called for the stripes on their breast, Barred Owls are among the largest owls in North America. This head-turning ability helps more than vision; it also aids in hearing, perhaps the owl’s most important predatory feature. Once prey is spotted, barred owls swoop down upon prey and grab it with sharp talons. He eyed the big female owl, her feathers streaked brown and white, perched on a branch at just the right distance. In his studies of the Saw-whet Owl in British Columbia, Richard J. Tags: animal animals barred owl barred owl call bird bird call bird calls bird of prey birds call creepy eight hooter feathered creature fowl free for commercial use halloween hoot hoot owl hooting horned owl nature night night sound nihjt sounds owl owl call owl sound owl sounds rain owl Scary scary noise scary noises wild wilderness. Many times it is heard, rather than seen. Barred Owl (Strix varia) 3 about Barred Owl nesting, it is known that if the eggs are destroyed, the pair will nest again about 3 to 4 weeks later. The one higher toned hoot is a little linger then the lower toned ones, but other then that, they are all the same length. In the world: The Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo) 28 inches long, wingspan of about 5. Barred Owl (Strix varia) By Andy Reago & Chrissy McClarren (Barred Owl) [ CC BY 2. com Please bookmark us Ctrl+D and come back soon for updates! All files are available in both Wav and MP3 formats. You may need to. " One of the things that struck me when seeing this bird was its size and how it was so quite as it flew away. The name barred owl comes from the beautiful brown and buff vertical color streaks or bars on their chest. The Barred Owl is quite a vocal bird. The sounds that they make often sound like a human saying " who cooks for you". The “hoo-hoo-hooooo" sound often associated with owls belongs to the great-horned owl. Impressed with the owl’s wisdom, and levels of seriousness, Athena chooses the owl to be her mascot instead. Tonight while having a late dinner, I heard a barred owl calling from right outside my back window. When an owl hears a noise, it is able to pinpoint its direction because the sound does not strike both ears at precisely the same time. Download and learn Owl Sounds to use for your hunting or wildlife watching. The chest is patterned with horizontal white bars and vertical bars on the belly. Asked in Owls Do owls live only live in forests or do they live in wide variety of habitats?. Owls of New Hampshire. As the owl flies, the trailing fringe and tattered feathers break sound waves over the wings as air flows over them. Search this site. No matter what accounts for the Barred Owl’s dramatic sweep across the continent, the bird – and its extraordinary voice – seem here to stay. It gray-brown in color and is medium in size. Owls can make all kinds of noises, from the stereotypical hoot to hair-raising screams. Studies have shown that the brains of some species of owls can process a right/left difference in the arrival of a sound of only 30 millionths of a second. You'll want to be able to access it in the future to remove any unwanted debris or animals out of it like squirrels. While a generalist in terms of food habits, the Barred Owl needs relatively large trees for nesting. We removed any territorial barred owl encountered, regardless of whether the individuals were near or in a historical spotted owl territory. Barred Owl in Harpswell (2007) One of about a dozen species of owls in Maine, the Barred Owl is relatively large at 20 inches. As the owl flies, the trailing fringe and tattered feathers break sound waves over the wings as air flows over them. The tawny owl is the familiar 'brown owl' of the UK's woodlands, parks and gardens. Some say its call also sounds like a barking dog. The Barred Owl, Balsam Lake, Wisconsin. Some have pink belly feathers, perhaps from a diet rich in crayfish. Report an OwlWatch Event Owl Sounds. See photos of the Barred Owl and learn about this bird's size, habitat, diet, and nesting. Fast forward to May. It has a very recognizable call that might be heard at night from across a lake, that might be situated in a forest, or while sitting out at night close to a wooded area. Birding: Weather Spring Rains Barred Owl Sounds NOT Always Right For You My IN THE PINK Photo Made Approvers Choice, YEAH! Well, today was a spring rain by the calendar but felt more like a winter. • Barred Owls are often pushed out of areas when Great Horned Owls appear since Great Horned Owls are a serious predatory threat. Two of them were trading calls in the middle of the night from each side of a wide field. Their hooting pattern sounds like, "Who cooks for you? Who cooks for you all?" Should you hear a barred owl, try calling back. owl sounds (37) Most recent Oldest Shortest duration Longest duration Any Length 2 sec 2 sec - 5 sec 5 sec - 20 sec 20 sec - 1 min > 1 min All libraries Dave Farrow Justine Angus Radio Mall David Fienup Tom Hutchings CA Sound SFX Source Richard Humphries SoundBits Sound FX Sound Ex Machina Carma Studio. In our area, gray birds outnumber red birds by about three-to-one. Listen to the calls of the Barn Owl, Eastern Screech-Owl, Western Screech-Owl, and Barred Owl while focusing on detailed photo portraits, then practice to see if you can identify each distinctive call. October 23, 2019 Female Summer Tanager Visits The Feeder. Barred Owl vs. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. Owls – Florida’s Remarkable Birds of Prey. Our objectives were to document unprovoked vocal behaviour of these species, evaluate owl habitat use, and compare the results from our. Toronto Wildlife, Owls. The Barn Owl (Tyto alba) is a year-round resident in many parts of San Diego County, California. The smallest is the Elf owl. Here’s a surprising owl fact for you: Many big owls do hoot in that typical “whooo” way, but the hoot of the large Barred Owl sounds like a dog barking. Occasionally they will use nest boxes 20 ft. This sound is given in sharp, sudden intervals to scare off threats. Young fledge in about 6 weeks. Eastern Screech-Owl. The dark brown "feathers" covering the head, back, wings, and tail are incredibly soft, and the barred "feathers" on the front are a little more coarse, but they seem very realistic. Barred owls are very common throughout Alabama but lack ear tufts and have an easily identifiable song. Barred owls have expanded their range to the west coast of North America, where they are considered invasive. The owl was killed earlier in the night as part of a controversial experiment by the U. The call of a species differs depending on distance and intent. Young Barred Owls begin exploring the world outside the nest at about four weeks of age. Hoo Hoo – Owls and Superstitions, That’s Who: by Rose Smith. Barred Owl vs. 2 hours ago · Suspicious sounds lead to owl rescue in Plaistow By Jason Schreiber Union Leader Correspondent. The Barred Owl is the most likely owl to be seen during daylight. Barred Owl Call Ringtone. Owl ringtones, free phone ringtone, mobile phone ringtones and downloadable sound effects for windows movie maker at AudioSparx. I have been having trouble finding any other bird or mammal sound like it on the internet - most others have some sort of raspy-ness to them, but this sound is exceptionally clear. government to test whether the northern spotted owl’s rapid decline in the Pacific Northwest can be stopped by killing its larger and more aggressive East Coast cousin, the barred owl, which now outnumber spotted owls in many areas of the native bird’s. Four kinds of owls—great horned, barred, barn and screech—are kept at Wildlife’s Forest Hall Education Center. The barred owl has only one known natural predator: the great horned owl. 00 compared to the single item price. the great horned owl is overall brown, but coloration varies based on subspecies and range. Definition of barred owl in the AudioEnglish. For Barn Owls, visit sites like Barn Owl, Common Nest Box Designs, Nest-box Scheme for Barn Owls, and Nest Boxes. The Peoria Zoo has a screech owl used for educational purposes such as school visits. Large owl, mottled brown and white. Others might call it a swamp owl, wood owl, eight-hooter, striped owl, or if living in Canada, the “hooting cat of the North. Owl Dream Interpretation. Perched dreamily atop the post was a barred owl, hunkered down, its feathers puffed warmly around it. A Barred Owl's eggs (like those of all North American owls) are white and rather spherical. This is due to the fact that the owl isn’t a bird that is out during the day. In Wilbur’s “A Barred Owl,” the title animal symbolizes the terrors of the night and the fears of the unknown. The title "A Barred Owl" both names a particular species of owl and hints that natural terrors such as the owl have been. This owl is predominantly nocturnal and lives in deep woods and swamps. The plumage of both sexes is alike. They tend to be hear quite often and even during the late afternoon on cloudy days. Check out our great posters, wall decals, photo prints, & wood wall art. They usually lay 2-3 eggs that are incubated for about 30 days. These nocturnal creatures often appear in horror mystery films, have been associated with dark, haunting night themes, and grace our Halloween décor each fall. Barred Owls incubate their eggs for 28 to 33 days. We removed any territorial barred owl encountered, regardless of whether the individuals were near or in a historical spotted owl territory. But most don't realize that there are several types of hoots, plus a variety of chitters, squawks, hisses, and bill clacking also in their repertoire. Once again you demonstrate your expertise with clear and concise directions to successfully construct a Screech Owl house. You save $10. Barred owls shot by the U. Call of the Barred Owl provided by The Macaulay Library of Natural Sounds at the Cornell Lab of Orni-thology, Ithaca, New York. The Great Horned Owl is the largest of the "tufted" owls in North America. It sits on a high perch looking and listening for prey, which they catch following a short flight. Barred owls have brown eyes and lack ear tufts. Profile by Will McDaniel: The Barred Owl is a large owl native to the eastern half of North America, ranging from eastern and coastal Texas in the south up to central Canada. Free Download ringtone Barred Owl Sounds to your mobile and tablet. People most closely associate the birds with their hooting, which is deep and soft and used to claim territory and call for mates. Owl sightings in winter are not rare, even in the metro area. recognizers to identify the calls of three owl species found throughout Canada and the United States: the Barred Owl (Strix varia), the Boreal Owl (Aegolius funereus), and the Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus). is a Sony PCM-M10 recorder, and a pair of Sony ECM-55b mics. A Barred Owl peeking out of its man made nesting box with one eye visible Portrait of angry frightened barred eagle-owl, also called the Malay eagle-owl, awaked and disturbed by strange sound. that add so much personality to an owl funnel sounds to the ears that are hidden beneath them. It's call sounds like "who cooks for you, who cooks for you. In barred owl, most of us might let the second word fall off almost imperceptibly, reducing the distance between what the two phrases sound like, and mean — bard and barred. Owls have highly variable sounds from species to species and from vocalization to vocalization. Many owls, including barred, saw-whet, and others that hunt in northern New England through the winter, have asymmetrically-placed ear openings pointing in slightly different directions. Barred Owls incubate their eggs for 28 to 33 days. This bird lacks ear tuffs on the top of its head, but does have asymmetrical ears (one higher. The undersides are barred, and these owls can vary in color from a reddish brown to a grey or black and white. The eyes are yellow, set in a dark grey/brown facial mask. You'll receive the typical vocalizations of Great Horned Owl, Eastern Screech-Owl, Western Screech-Owl, Long-eared Owl, Short-eared Owl, Snowy Owl, Barn Owl, and Barred Owl. You could also switch from a prey distress to mobbing crows or ravens fighting. Great Horned Owls are predators of Barred Owls. Its dark, liquid eyes give it a deceptively gentle look, but this owl is a top-of-the-line predator, taking everything from fish to rabbits. Male Owl flying towards the sound of foreign Barred Owls In the gray hour around sunset the owls come to life. Barred Owl Sounds ringtone free mp3 download. Barred Owl. Enjoy your new collection of owl sounds! Click the button below to download a zipped folder of owl calls in MP3 format. made a loud sound). The undersides are barred, and these owls can vary in color from a reddish brown to a grey or black and white. Although Barred Owls can detect the sound of a mouse scurrying through tunnels two feet beneath the snow, this winter has been more challenging for them than many. It will also prey on other small mammals (including squirrels and bats), birds (such as woodpeckers and pigeons), small fish, frogs, snakes, other reptiles and even some insects. From bats to woodpeckers, the animal species covered in this series were selected after surveying agencies and organizations that receive calls from the public about local wildlife. ” Commonly Confused Species: Great horned owls are larger. Nevertheless, in a night of owling that included playback of Fulvous, Barred, and Spotted Owls (on the assumption that Cinereous probably sounded enough like one of these to respond to a tape), we only managed to find Spotted Owl, Mottled Owl, and Whiskered Screech-Owl. Established in southern Kitsap County since close of atlas period. In his studies of the Saw-whet Owl in British Columbia, Richard J. Brown stripes radiate from the eyes encircling the facial disc. The Barred Owl can hoot to sound like a barking dog, and the Great Horned Owl is an aggressive predator that will attack any animal up to the size of a goose. Barred owls have expanded their range to the west coast of North America, where they are considered invasive. Owl Dream Interpretation. We believed the owls to be of the "Barred owl" family but the sounds were not even close there was no "who who who's cooking your dinner" ballad, just screeches. and caterwaul rather than hoot. The barred owl (Strix varia) is a larger owl, and that makes it easier to spot in the suburban habitats it calls home. High quality ringtones. One of the most foolproof ways to get rid of rodent thieves is to attract an owl onto your property. The long eared owl and barred owl are two species that may be confused with great horned owls. Schulenberg, Editor). The call of the barn owl is a hissing shriek, while the eastern screech-owl produces a shrill, haunting whinny. They are a major predator of the barred owl and will regularly eat skunks. Hunts small animals at night; however, is more active during the day than other owls. They usually respond to imitated calls and sometimes even approach the caller. These owls tend to occupy mostly thick deep forests, wooded swamps and deciduous trees. We know the Spotted, Barred, Great Horned owl calls (this owls hoot is in the same range as the Horned Owl), it's 2 tones, one higher toned hoot, followed by 3 lower toned hoots. " They are also capable of making a variety of clicks, clucks, barks, squeals, and whistles, as well as chuckling, grunting, and laughing sounds. This bird lacks ear tuffs on the top of its head, but does have asymmetrical ears (one higher. In almost all ways, the barred owl is the spotted owl’s worst enemy: They reproduce more often, have more babies per year and eat the same prey, like squirrels and wood rats. Sometime between 2230 and 2330h, I heard a loud crashing sound behind me, less than 20 sec onds after playing the Barred Owl calls. The second issue is not as easily remedied. The chest is patterned with horizontal white bars and vertical bars on the belly. The Barred has a distinctive grey and brown colour pattern and is commonly characterised by the barred pattern across the neck and lenghtwise streaks down the torso. Sometime between 2230 and 2330h, I heard a loud crashing sound behind me, less than 20 sec onds after playing the Barred Owl calls. Numerous web sites have the most common sounds barred owls make, especially the loud ones: "Who cooks for you?" and the "monkey call". Death in this sense may be a symbolic death, as in a significant transition in life or the end of a harmful habit. Female barn owl. HBW Alive contains information on Descriptive notes , Voice , Habitat , Food and Feeding , Breeding , Movements , Status and Conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account. They are of the typical owl family, exhibiting round facial discs that are white to brown in color with dark brown edging. Listen to the calls of the Barn Owl, Eastern Screech-Owl, Western Screech-Owl, and Barred Owl while focusing on detailed photo portraits, then practice to see if you can identify each distinctive call. Barred owl Owls are an impressive and unique group of birds that can be found throughout Iowa. Definition of barred owl in the AudioEnglish. The Barred Owl's hooting call, "Who cooks for you? Who cooks for you-all?" is a classic sound of old forests and treed swamps. An owl hoots three times into the eerie full moon night. Owl pellets are useful to researchers because they can find out quite a bit about an owl's lifestyle through careful examination of the pellet's contents. this barred owl call is a decent field recording of the barred or hoot owl. Listen to Dr. When a change is detected, Internet Owl can inform you in a number of ways, like: Sending you an email, Popping up a window, or Playing a sound of your choice. Barred Owl Sounds Car Horn. wls of Idaho 2 Mythology Biology Conservation Barn owl Barred owl Boreal owl Burrowing owl Flammulated owl Great gray owl Great horned owl Long-eared owl Northern hawk owl Northern pygmy owl Northern saw-whet owl Short-eared owl Snowy owl Western screech owl Idaho residents are fortunate to call fourteen species of owls their neighbors. The barred owl is the slightly larger and more aggressive of the two species, plus it has some biological advantages over the spotted owl. Post to Facebook 12 fun facts about barred owls The barred owl is slightly smaller than the great horned owl. [Two-phased hoot of a Barred Owl]. Join us for Classic Cocktails or a glass of wine. If you think our Birdorable birds are cute as adults, what about when they are babies? Below are some baby photos (shared via Flickr) of the Barred Owl. Since most of the prey's bones are not actually broken during the attack and the subsequent digestion process, they can be readily identified in the pellet. They can be heard calling in late winter and early spring. The Barred Owl is quite a vocal bird. Smith’s flowing locks are long gone and Barred Owl Butcher and Table’s location is a matter of public record. Navigation. This sound is given in sharp, sudden intervals to scare off threats. CORVALLIS, Ore. The name barred owl comes from the beautiful brown and buff vertical color streaks or bars on their chest. Members of a pair often use such hooting sounds to talk to each other. From bats to woodpeckers, the animal species covered in this series were selected after surveying agencies and organizations that receive calls from the public about local wildlife. The Webkinz Barred Owl is quite large compared to other comparable Webkinz animals and has nice details. Eastern Screech-Owl. It looks similar to a. Its typical call is a series of eight or nine notes in two groups: "Who cooks for you. The Powerful Owl is a large owl with a relatively small head and a rounded tail. This is due to the fact that the owl isn’t a bird that is out during the day. Yet Wilbur’s imagination, unlike the child’s, can comprehend “bravely” nature’s more frightening forms,. Its plumage is grey-brown with buff-white edges and subterminal bars. The neck and upper breast have transverse barring and the belly contains vertical brown streaks. If the call is from another barred owl, he might respond with a series of rapid hoots to inform the intruder of his presence. No matter what accounts for the Barred Owl's dramatic sweep across the continent, the bird - and its extraordinary voice - seem here to stay. com is a look at the North and Central American Owls with both biology and multimedia sections to help with the identification, enjoyment, and appreciation of these awesome winged predators. Any water source will do -- a lake, creek, pond, stream or water hole. This increased competition, in conjunction with habitat loss due to logging,. [Rhymes] Lyrics and poems Near rhymes Phrase rhymes Synonyms / Related Phrases Example sentences Descriptive words Definitions Homophones Similar sound Same consonants Advanced >> Words and phrases that rhyme with towel : (99 results). The owl finch a grass finch, also known as the Bicheno finch or the double-barred finch, is a lively addition to a community aviary and a good bird for the novice who may not have a lot of experience with birds. One of the most foolproof ways to get rid of rodent thieves is to attract an owl onto your property. Profile by Will McDaniel: The Barred Owl is a large owl native to the eastern half of North America, ranging from eastern and coastal Texas in the south up to central Canada. You can find lots of help on nest boxes for different kinds of owls at the Owl Nestbox Resource Page and Nestboxes for Owls. It gray-brown in color and is medium in size. Black eyes. They rarely make any sound when they are visiting south of their artic breeding grounds. Mom owl let me get the baby and replace it back in the nest with no Harm. In "A Barred Owl", the child is disturbed and frightened by something that sounds dangerous, but in "The History Teacher", the students are never disturbed at all. The Barred Owl's expansion into the Spotted Owl's range has created additional challenges for this already troubled species. Owls typically cast one pellet per day, often from the same roosting spot, so you may find large numbers of owl pellets on the ground in a single place. One owl species that you may encounter is the barred owl, which has been observed in Forest Park, Gabriel Park, Hoyt Arboretum, Oaks Bottom and River View Natural Area. Spotted Owl Observations Database Management Framework (PDF) Spotted Owl Database FAQ; Using the Spotted Owl Report Generator in BIOS 5 (PDF) For questions, comments, suggestions, or information about contributing data send an email to our Spotted Owl account. Owls are those secretive birds of prey that you usually only hear at night, in the early morning hours, or during the last light of the day. He added that barred owls will often be heard near water, due to the habitiat of the snakes and amphibians they tend to feed on.

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Origins of andalusian school of arabic music In 711-720 the berber tribes of North Africa, recently converted to Islam, subdued almost all of Iberia (Spain and Portugal), except for its extreme north (Asturias), and by the middle of the VIII century a large part of the peninsula forms a new and powerful muslim state – Al-Ándalus. This coincided with the movement of the center of the world of Islam from the syrian Damascus to iraqian Baghdad, competion with which for several centuries ahead determined the development of Al-Ándalus. VIII-IX centuries were the Golden Age of Islam. The muslim world covered a huge area, from Morocco in the west to the east of Persia. Arabic became the mandatory for muslims, was taught at mosques and became the primary means of communication between different countries. It promotes the exchange of knowledge, the movement of people and, as a consequence, social, scientific and cultural progress of Islamic countries. Wealth of Baghdad and other annexed islamic lands, as well as expanding ties with other countries, contributed to that the court of the Caliph of Baghdad became the center of civilization. After the schools at mosques, caliphs founded the Houses of Wisdom – the libraries, strongly encouraging the translation of books into Arabic and widespread dissemination of knowledge and science. For several centuries, the rulers of Al-Andalus – outcomers from Syria – were thriving to make their country as powerful and developed as it was Baghdad. And it was not surprising, as the territory of Iberia was quite similar to Middle East area in climate, but it was much richer in natural resources, especially water, needed for farming. With the advent of Islam in Al-Ándalus begins a new round of social development (after ancient Rome). Muslims brought to Iberia ancient and modern science and technology from around the world, highly developed culture and customs by the example of Baghdad. That has transformed the world of Al-Andalus and impacted almost all spheres of life of the indigenous peoples of Iberia. An important factor in this was a high religious tolerance of the new rulers to the representatives of other religions (i.e. christians and jews) during the first few centuries of the country history. With this in the territory of Al-Andalus it was formed a unique culture, a fusion of East and West, which strongly influenced the culture of Spain and Portugal being traced in them even nowadays. From the middle of VIII century the political and cultural center of Al-Andalus was Córdoba, which hosted the emir’s court and the main mosque of the country – the third largest one in the whole islamic world (after Mecca and Medina). Simultaneously, following the example of Cordoba and Baghdad the musicians from various islamic countries appeared in the courts of the andalusian nobility, who bring to the country a variety of musical instruments and music from all over the Middle East. Further development of the music in Al-Ándalus is associated with the name of Ziryab from Baghdad – the outstanding musician of IX century, with the advent of which the court of the emir of Cordoba was fully culturally revolutionized. Ziryab served as a “minister of culture” of the emir, and due to this fact the style of his life, the habits and the manners were widely copied by society down to the lower classes. In particular, this concerns the area of food, mainly the order of serving the table, appliances and tableware, dishes and new products, recipes, clothing, hairstyles, personal care, cosmetics (Ziryab even founded Europe’s first beauty salons), and entertainment (he brought Indian chess). Ziryab attracted many scientists and philosophers to the service of the emir, and he himself was a philosopher and astronomer. Ziryab was an extraordinarily talented musician, and according to the legend, he was forced to leave Baghdad after a brilliant performance to the Caliph himself because of jealousy of his teacher for his talent. His nickname “Ziryab” means in Arabic “black bird” (a thrush) because of the dark color of his skin and special low timbre of his voice. Ziryab developed vocal training methods which are still used today. He knew more than 10,000 songs by heart, which he performed accompanying himself on the ud. He was an excellent udist. He added a 5th string to the ud and invented an elongated plectrum from the eagle feather to play on it (instead of a short piece of wood). He was a master of Tarab and believed that his performance was inspired by jinns. In Cordoba Ziryab founded a music school, the first in Europe (after Pythagoras), where the representatives of different society classes (including concubines) could learn. That way he promoted the appearance of the gifted musicians at the court and laid a strong musical tradition for many centuries to come. The emergence of these schools contributed to the development of instrumental music and the music art, including performance in ensembles consisting of a large number of musicians, as well as development of musical knowledge (music theory) based on the andalusian nuba. 1. Andalusian nuba The word “nuba” – from the Arabic word “a queue” – meant a turn in which the musicians came out from the curtain to perform for the emir. The art of andalusian nuba reached its peak in the beginning of XII century, together with a wide development of instrumental, vocal, poetry and singing art, and even had a strong impact on the music of the Middle East. At this point nuba represented the composition of one-hour duration each. Each nuba (following the spirit of ancient Indian and Persian musical traditions) had their own mode (sequence of notes in the melody – i.e. 24 different modes in total), each of which was performed only at a certain time of the day. Music, singing and poetry were very popular art forms. According to the memoirs of the traveler Al-Yamani, who visited Málaga in 1015, at night around the city he could not find a quiet place: the music was heard everywhere. Today the art of andalusian nuba continues to exist in countries that have accepted migrants from Al-Andalus fleeing from Reconquista – Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, where it is now a classical music of these countries. Nuba usually begins with an instrumental improvisation (“taxim”), followed by a musical development in multiple rhythms (“tuvishya”), a singer’s solo in free improvised manner (“muwwál”), and then a sequence of songs (“saná”) – the structure now being the standard of music in the Middle East (and also sometimes in Spain – e.g. in flamenco music). Along with the music, in Al-Andalus in VIII-IX century the art of creating poems and songs came from the Middle East, including the culture of “romanticism” (poems about unrequited love). To compile the poetry was a usual activity of the nobility, musicians, scientists and philosophers. And playing music and singing love songs – the usual occupation for women. Al-Andalus has refined the art of transcribing the poetry to the rhythm so that they could be easierly sung, and developed the song structure rules, which became the basis for all future songs culture in Spain and even Europe. The songs in classical Arabic, set to music, were “muwashshah” (from the word “girdled”), and in colloquial Arabic (usually with the chorus) – “zadzhal”. By XII century the musical art of Al-Andalus was so prized that many musicians of the Middle East came to Al-Andalus to learn music and songs composition. Oh, you who know the nightingales of longing This love is pure and lovers strive for it I have savoured my wine with all its presence I do not forget love May he who critics suffer for it If I repent to God to whom shall I leave my love? You grow in charm and I grow in love I love and I aspire to this sweetness In your love I die May he who criticizes suffer for it I suffer and grow sad Ever weaker and ailing Tell me what to do Oh, star of the night?! Abu Al-Hassam Al-Shushtari, a poet, a sufi (Granada, beginning of XIII century) 2. Songs of mozarabs The peoples who came to Al-Andalus from other countries represented quite small part of population, and the immigrants from Arabia – even the minority. The majority of muslim immigrants were white africans – the “berbers”, and at later time – the black “moors” from Mauritania. The main part of the indigenous population were the root iberians. Religious tolerance of Al-Andalus has posed that before the middle of X century at least half of the population were still Christians, and another significant part of it – the spanish jews (“sephards”), who lived in Iberia since Roman times. Christians and jews were called “mozarabs”, from arabic “must-Arab” (“under the Arabs”). They were required to pay additional taxes and adhere to certain rules (for example, do not enter the mosques), but in general quite rarely experienced persecution. By X century the conversion to Islam became more common due to economic and social benefits being open to the newly-converted. All this time the assimilation and “cross-polination” of the cultures in all parts of society took place. Mozarabs were forced to master the Arabic language, and the muslims took over pronunciation specifics of christian Latin. The bilingual coins were produced, there were churches where three religions coexisted (with three entrances from different sides), the marriages between people of different religions were quite frequent. All this contributed to the deep interpenetration and assimilation of ibero-christian and muslim cultures, including music, songs and poetry. It is known that the early christian (mozarabic) liturgical chants enriched the modes of andalusian music, and the singing and instrumental music art of the muslims spread among the christians. Through the poetry of Al-Andalus times we know today mozarabic dialect of Latin – “Ladino” (“Latsino” with arabic accent). In particular, in IX-XII centuries there was a tradition when arabic muvashshahs ended in Latin in the last verse (in Arabic called “Khardzha”), often recorded by Arabic or Hebrew letters. Using those ancient alphabets allows to restore the exact pronunciation of the medieval Mozarabic dialect. At the same time, in Mozarabic language we note a large number of Arabic words, changed pronunciation of words, new words and sequences of words, which are characteristic for the Arabic language. |Baise meu coraýon de mib Ya Rab, si se me tornarad Tan mal me doled lil-habib Enfermo yed cuand sanarad |My heart’s gone from me. Dear Lord, will it perhaps return to me? My yearning for the beloved is so great! It is ill, when will it recover?.. (Toledo, beginning of XII century) 3. Troubadours of Occitania By the end of XI century in southern France (Occitania, or Aquitaine) “troubadours” appeared, who were the noble knights singing about (more often unrequited) love to women to own accompaniment on a musical instrument. Due to catolic church influence troubadours were considered a famous French phenomenon, however, there is another version of their appearance. The first troubadour is considered to have been Guillem IX, the Duke of Occitania (1071-1126) from Poitiers. Yet his father Guillaume VIII participated in the Reconquista crusades against Al-Andalus, and they both reconquered many of the muslim lands from Aragon to Toledo. Guillem VIII was said to have “brought from Spain the song with the singers and violas” – muslim prisoners-musicians. And that was not the only reason. In XI century the music in Al-Andalus was already a mass phenomenon, where all the noble courts were the centers of musical and poetic culture. Extensive political and trade links encouraged the christian courts to imitate the customs of the muslim nobility, including music and poetry, and even the religious tolerance. Al-Andalus was famous for its musical instruments and supplied them to other European countries, as evidenced by their names found in other languages (“lute” – from “el-aud”, “guitar” – from “kitar”, “rebec” – from “rebab”, “gaita” from the “raita”, “theorbo” from “tarab” – another name for the “ud”). Music schools of Al-Andalus attracted musicians from other countries, and in thta way musical knowledge spread across Europe through them and their students. Some courts of Al-Andalus competed with each other who had best musicians. That contributed to the emergence of “wandering” musicians, who might be often invited to perform by christian courts. The capture of Toledo (1085) and less tolerant andalusian rulers Almoravids, who came to power, resulted that many mozarabs (in Toledo and other northern spanish lands) moved under christian rule or were forced to leave Al-Andalus because of persecutions by muslims. However, the tolerance culture, science and technology of Al-Andalus, including music, poetry, literature came to the growing christian world together with the new mozarabic population. There is an opinion that even the word “troubadour” (trovadore) derived not from the Latin “tropare” (“to compose”), but from the Arabic “tarab” (which had one more meaning “to sing”). (Dia, Occitania (southern France)) |A chantar m’er de so qu’eu no volria, tant me rancur de lui cui sui amia, car eu l’am mais que nuilla ren que sia: vas lui no.m val merces ni cortezia ni ma beltatz ni mos pretz ni mos sens, c’atressi.m sui enganad’ e trahia Com degr’ esser, s’eu fos dezavinens. Meraveill me com vostre cors s’orgoilla, Valer mi deu mos pretz e mos paratges Mais aitan plus voill li digas, messatges, 4. Cantigas of Alfonso X Beginning of XIII century was the peak of the crusades against Al-Andalus. The major event happens in 1236, when Cordoba falls under the christian rule. By the century end the christians had conquered the whole south of Portugal and Spain down to Gibraltar, including Seville. The muslim elite was forced to leave the continent, and the main cultural centers of Al-Andalus moved to Granada and Africa. This is the time, when the last muslims rulers dynasty – the Nasrids – in order to strengthen the faith and the unity of muslims – started building Granada’s majestic castle “Alhambra” – “the eighth” wonder in the world. In 1252 Alfonso X became the сhristian king of Castile and Leon and put great efforts to centralize his power and to bring the christian lands to the same laws. The personality of Alfonso, the cultural richness of the newly conquered southern lands, as well as the presence of highly cultured Granada close to his lands, contributed to that the king himself was a highly educated man, for what he even received the nickname “the Wise”. He was fond of philosophy, astrology, history, music, poetry, chess, and sought to create around itself a highly cultured court. He forced to use Castilian as primary language of the court, encouraged the translation of literature from Arabic and other languages to it, and thus popularized Castilian as a primary language of the kingdom. He held at the court arab, jewish and christian doctors, philosophers, scientists, poets and musicians, including the number of “mudekhar”s – the muslims “who were allowed to stay”. Under personal editorship of Alfonso it was compiled a considerable collection of court songs – “cantigas”, of which the most famous are romantic “Cantigas de Amigo” and religious “Cantigas de Santa Maria” (over 420 songs). Those collections are monuments of not only the poetry and music of XIII century, but also depicts the king playing music, other court musicians and musical instruments of that era, most of which were inherited from Al-Andalus. The lyrics of the Cantigas were written in Galician-Portuguese Latin – the main language of the north of Spain and the main language of the Christian poetry of that time, quite similar to Occitan of the troubadours. We know that Alfonso was well-acquainted with troubadour art, and even considered himself as one of them. |Desto fez Santa María miragre fremoso ena sa igrej’ en Lugo, grand’ e pïadoso, por ũa mollér que avía tolleito o mais de séu córp’ e de mal encolleito. |A woman was almost entirely paralyzed.| Que amba-las súas mãos assí s’ encolleran, que ben per cabo dos ombros todas se meteran, e os calcannares ben en séu dereito se meteron todos no córpo maltreito. |Her limbs were shrivelled and twisted,| Pois viu que lle non prestava nulla meezinna, tornou-s’ a Santa María, a nóbre Reínna, rogando-lle que non catasse despeito se ll’ ela fezéra, mais a séu proveito |and no medicine could cure her. She was carried on a litter to the Church of the Virgin in Lugo Parasse mentes en guisa que a guarecesse, se non, que fezéss’ assí per que cedo morresse; e lógo se fezo levar en un leito ant’ a sa igreja, pequen’ e estreito. |and kept vigil there. E ela alí jazendo fez mui bõa vida trões que ll’ ouve mercee a Sennor comprida eno mes d’ agosto, no día ‘scolleito, na sa fésta grande, como vos retreito |On the Virgin’s feast in August, she straightened her limbs. Será agora per min. Ca en aquele día se fez meter na igreja de Santa María; mais a Santa Virgen non alongou preito, mas tornou-ll’ o córpo todo escorreito. Pero avẽo-ll’ atal que alí u sãava, cada un nembro per si mui de rij’ estalava, ben come madeira mui seca de teito, quando s’ estendía o nervio odeito. |…Each of her limbs made a loud cracking sound as the shrunken tendons stretched. O bispo e toda a gente deant’ estando, veend’ aquest’ e oínd’ e de rijo chorando, viron que miragre foi e non trasgeito; porende loaron a Virgen afeito. |The bishop and the people who witnessed her healing wept and gave thanks to the Virgin. Da que Déus mamou o leite do séu peito, non é maravilla de sãar contreito. 5. Popular songs, romances and villancicos By the middle of XIV century the territory of Al-Andalus had reduced to the province of Granada, Almeria and Murcia only. At that time the new dark times dropped on Europe: in half a century major part of the population died from the “black death” (the plague). However, that also brought relative peace to Al-Andalus for the next 150 years, as well as the new cultural flowering. It was the era when Alhambra construction completed. Its numerous legends (read Washington Irving’s book “Alhambra”!) tell that at that time the christian and moorish rulers often were friends, visited each other, played chess, debated on science and philosophy, and were keen on music and poetry. The same happened with the common people, when moors and christians lived together in peace, and, as it always happens, some of them fell in love with people of another religion, suffered from it, and composed the songs about that. Music and poetry at that time was already quite common folk art. In the noble courts professional musicians continued to improve musical knowledge, and at that time in Europe it appears the “Ars Nova”, a Renaissance in music, when the instrumental music adopts the advanced polyphony and harmony (the chords). Though in Spain even the harmony had a strong influence of Al-Andalus (the oriental-sounding “Andalusian cadence” is quite a typical feature of Spanish music until now). Villancico “Three moorish girls”, composed in zadzhal form (muvashshah with the refrain), is known to us thanks to the court songs collection known as “Cancionero del palacio” of XVI century. At that time, the lyrics was wrongly interpreted with religious meaning: as if three mauritanian girls were converted into christianity. In reality, the text of this popular villancico with its beautiful melody and the romantic words originated yet in XIII century. it says the story about a christian knight, who came to the moorish castle of Dzhayyen (currently Jaen in Spanish) and suddenyl saw there the three daughters of the moorish castle commandant. He fell in love with all three of them at a first sight, and after leavning the castle he sneaked back at night to see them. Having heard the girls’ conversation in the garden, he knew that they all three also fell in love with him and that made him open his presence. He was seized by the guards, but having understood what the situation was, the moorish ruler Alhamar (by whom the Alhambra took his name) by agreement with the christian king Ferdinand III arranged their wedding and the girl’s immediate baptizing… At the time of Ferdinand III, the father of Alfonso X, the fortress Abrehvi (Santa Catalina now) in Jaen was ruled by Suleiman, a confidant of Algamar, one who started to build the great Alhambra. Suleiman lost his wife after childbirth, leaving him to raise three daughters: Asha, Fatima and Marien (Mary). The time was passing by, and the girls became young ladies, whose beauty was rumored far beyond Jaen. So, the father kept them locked in the house far away from prying eyes. One day, the messenger from King Ferdinand arrived in Jaen to deliver a letter to the moorish king. While Algamar pondered the answer he gave the order to settle the Christian knight in the castle. To honor the envoy Suleiman, who was a relative of the king, invited him for a dinner. When the dessert was served three sisters suddenly entered the room, but when prompted, quickly disappeared in similar way as they had emerged. However, because of such accident Suleiman considered it his duty to introduce them to the guest. The knight admired the girls a lot, and since that moment he was only looking forward to seeing them again. Algamar was preparing a response to the castilian monarch for five days and the traveler had to return to Burgos. But he could not forget the three young berries, and hoped to meet them again in Dzhayen (Jaen). When he arrived to the gate of the town, he thought that the best way to get into the castle was through the garden walls. He set fire to the bushes on the one part of the wall to distract the guards, and made his way cross the wall on the other. Right at this moment three mauritanian girls were walking in the garden, but had to flee away because of much noise. The knight hid in the garden and hoped that when the fire extinguishs the three sisters would return to their game. And indeed they soon went out of the castle singing the song “Where are you now, a handsome gentleman? Сould I only see you once? How sad was my life, you got lost somewhere far away in a foreign land”. The knight went out of the bushes to them and asked if he was the gentleman whom they were singing about, and also that since he first saw them – he forgetfully fell in love with all three of them… With tears in her eyes Asha told that their love was impossible because their father had promised her to marry with a wealthy gentleman from Granada, a relative of king Algamar, and that she also suffered of love for him. Sighing, the sisters decided to go to the castle, and the gentleman wanted to follow them, but was discovered by the guard, captured and brought to Suleiman. Suleiman recognized the wanderer and asked him for what reason he was in the castle. The fellow did answer and that angered Suleiman, but remembering that the messenger was the relative of king Ferdinand, he decided to leave everything at the decision of Algamar. A few days later the ьoorish ruler came and met with the christian, who told him honestly everything as it was. The king decided to meet with the three sisters. After talking with them the moorish king gathered his relative, to whom the sisters were promised, the envoy and Suleiman and said to him ” Here we are all three men who love your daughters, that’s why let Asha belong to the christian knight, and Fatima and Marien will choose a husband from the remaining two. And Suleiman replied shyly: “Yes, if I had a hundred daughters, I would have given away a hundred, and if you want the only one, of course I can not deny, nor could I refuse to your brother, to whom I promised all three earlier and my heart would not grieve that I shall give her to a christian, nor because of religion, but because I know he’s a good knight, with strong courage and the good kind, but only because I grieve that she would leave my house and I would never see her anymore. But this trick allowed the gentleman to raise his voice, and he immediately promised that at least once a year they will visit him, and they decided to let Fatima and Marien choose their own husbands. On the same day Algamar sent another message to Fernando with a story that has happened, and the christian ruler, who was in Ubeda at that time, responded that he wanted to completely take over the expenses for a wedding. The young couple went to Ubeda where the moorish girl was shortly baptized and they subsequently engaged. (villancico from “Cancionero del Palacio”) |Tres morillas m’enamoran en Jaén Axa, Fátima y Marien Tres moricas tan loçanas Con su grande hermosura, Yo vos juro al Corán |Three moorish girls made me fall in love in Jaen Asha, Fatima and Marién… Three Moorish girls so lovely, You great beauty I swear to you by the Koran, (villancico from “Cancionero del Palacio”) |Niña, erguídeme los ojos Que a mi enamorado me án No los alçes desdeñosos Sino ledos y amorosos Que mis tormentos penosos En verlos descansarán |Girl, show me your eyes, Which I fell in love so much with Do not make them so contemptuous But only funny and loving Oh, let my grave pains subside, if I could only see them 6. Songs of sefards In 1492, Granada fell under the rule of Isabella and Ferdinand – the monarchs of Castile and Leon – and that ended the history of Al-Andalus as a state. The same year the new rulers issued a decree commanding that all Granada jews (sephardim) should either convert to christianity or leave the Spanish land. At all the times of Al-Andalus jews in Granada enjoyed a special status, fully equal to muslims. They occupied high positions in the region and country administration. Half of the country’s economy, namely agriculture, was governed by the muslim community and the other half – the craft, the trade and the town – by the jewish one. Ant the significance of the sephardic community caused such a cruel royal decree. In 1492 the Granada sephards decided to leave Spain. At this moment Granada counted for about 50,000 jews. They dispersed to the countries of Mediterranian Sea, settling sa far as Greece, Turkey and Syria. Sephards today still retain the late Granada Latin language – Ladino – wihch is a mixture of ancient Spanish with Arabic and Hebrew words, as well as their own ancient culture, music and songs. Since the times of Al-Andalus Sephards were also famous for their instrumental music. (sefardic song of anon. author, Granada, XV century) |La rosa enflorece Hoy en el mes de mai Mi neshama s´escurese Firiéndose el lunar Los bilbilicos cantan Los bilbilicos cantan Mas presto ven palomba |The rose blooms in the month of May, my soul darkens and wounds the moon The nightingales sing The nightingales are singing But quickly come, the dove, 7. Songs of moriscos Year 1492. Granada fell and Columbus discovered America. According to legend, the last moorish ruler of Granada – Boabdil (Abu Abdul) – who was leaving the town through the ancient Roman bridge over Genil river met Columbus on his way to Granada, where the latter wanted to his services to Ferdinand and Isabella, and right on this bridge he was overtaken by the runner from the King of Seville, who agreed to send the Columbus’s expedition to gain all the honors for this discovery instead of Ferdinand and Isabella. In 1492, many muslims, especially of moorish origin, left the country and moved to North Africa – toin Morocco, Algeria and Mauritania. And this migration continued for about 120 years after the fall of Al-Andalus. Those who remained were ordered to convert to christianity, and this part of the population received the name “moriscos”. A significant part of moriscos continued secretly to speak Arabic and, when noone sees them, secretly practice their religion and customs. Another part was forced to hide in the mountains. For over a hundred years after the fall of Granada moriscos raised numerous rebellions against the Christians, and the attitude towards them was toughening and faltering from time to time. After around 1567 the moriscos were finally banned to use Arabic and all their customs. Including the usage of their musical instruments (and from that moment Spain no longer used the “ud”, but only the guitar). Moriscos were ordered to learn Castilian, however, even the remaining Moriscos sometimes continued to use the Arabic alphabet for writing (a phenomenon known as “al-dzhamiya”). Ultimately in 1609-1614 more than 300 thousand moriscos were conmpulsorily expelled from Spain, and moved to North Africa. The spanish romance “The moorish king was strolling through the city of Granada” was written in music by XVI century court composer Luis Narvaez from Granada, but it is also believed that the song was originally composed by moriscos and translated from Arabic (or from al-dzhamia). The romance tells the story about the capture of Alhama – the border town of Granada – by the christians in 1482, being the event which meant the inevitable decline for the whole Granada and Al-Andalus. The romance in the pathetic tones tells the story of the last moorish ruler Boabdil listing all his mistakes, which made the fall of Al-Andalus happen. |Paseábase el rey moro por la ciudad de Granada Cartas le fueron venidas como Alhama era tomada Las cartas echó en el fuego Apeóse de una mula, Porque lo oyesen los moros Allí habló un moro viejo, -Habéis de saber, amigos, Allí habló un gran faquí Mataste los aBencerrajes, Por eso mereces, rey, -¡Ay de mi Alhama! |The Moorish king was strolling Through the city of Granada Saying that Alhama had been taken He cast the letters into the fire He alighted from a mule, Once heard them the moors Then talked one old moor, -Friends, you must know A wise man of law spoke You killed the Bencerrajes – For that, king, you deserve Oh, my pain, Alhama! The Moors were expelled from the christian Spain, however, they still live with the look and thoughts glancing back to their gloriousest past – the era of Al-Andalus and the golden age of Medina taz-Zahra – the “flower-town” Cordoba. Muslims left Spain, but Spain, despite all the attempts of medieval christian monarchs to belittle the contribution of the Muslim world – absorbed all their rich heritage, which is still manifested in their culture, music, literature and poetry, where the christian and moorish past and present have mixed eternally and inextricably… The program ends with the piece of the Spanish composer of XIX century Isaac Albeniz “Córdoba” interpreted by the modern Spanish composer Roque Baños in arrangement of Spanish group of medieval music “Cinco Siglos” (”Five centuries”).

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In the mountains we cannot rely on luck or providence to avoid or deal with possible accidents: we must rely on ourselves, our carefulness, our skills and on the equipment. Emergency first aid equipment must never be lacking. In the event of an accident we must carry out first aid while waiting for qualified people or while being taken to hospital. A clumsy or inexperienced assistant risks causing further damage. Generosity is not the key factor, neither can we refuse help shielding ourselves behind our incompetence. We must not venture into the mountains unless there is an expert in our group or unless we have a first aid kit in our bags. With trekking, in particular in foreign countries, an intestine infection can seriously compromise our journey. By following simple hygiene rules we can avoid annoying and sometimes serious diseases. Never drink from dubious sources without sterilising the water. Never drink anything too cold in particular if you are very hot. Eat fruit and vegetables to guarantee regular intestinal functioning. Eat easily digestible food stored in suitable containers for food. Check the expiry dates of the products. Avoid washing in stagnant water. Keep body clean to reduce the risk of infecting any wounds. Wash every time it ìs possible. Wash hands before eating and disinfect them before treating wounds. Make sure you sleep enough which is important for getting over tiredness, you can use bland, natural sleep inducers like valerian or chamomile. Carry enough medicines for the length of the hike and participants and which are suitable for the area. Have the advised vaccinations (anti tetanus is always important). Place a card with your name, address and family telephone number, blood group and valid vaccinations, any allergies, medicines and other substances in your document holder along with particular medicinal therapies undertaken. This information can be useful for rescuers in the event of an accident. The best cure is prevention. Having snake-bite serum iny our bags doesn’t mean you should fumble around recklessly in bushes. To reduce the possibility of accidents to a minimum always be careful. Another fundamental rule is to keep calm in the event of an accident and gather ideas, consulting a first aid manual if necessary, which should always be to hand. A matter of a few seconds can mean big mistakes are avoided and further damage caused. Do not crowd around the injured party. The main aim is to save the person’s life; secondly to avoid that his/her conditions get worse; finally to ease the wait or transport. Priority of interventions An injured party could have more than one injury; priority is given as follows. In the event of more than one injury we should give priority to the most urgent: Blocked airways Cardiac arrest Haemorrhage Loss of conscience Wounds Fractures. Always help to recover from shock. Priority of organs to examine If the victim is conscious he/she can help us identify the wounds. Not always is the biggest injury the most painful. If there is more than one injured person, not necessarily is it the one who is screaming the loudest that is in greatest danger. However, if the injured person is unconscious we need to check for damage using eyes, hands (touching as little as possible), nose and ears, following the order described below: HEAD listen if the heart beat is regular at the carotid pulse. (place the index and middle finger on the artery on the neck just under the ear). Check breathing (frequency, sound..) and that there are no foreign objects in the mouth. Check both pupils at the same time. They should be the same size otherwise they could indicate cerebral compression or a stroke. The whites of the eyes mustn’t be bloodshot. Talk into his/her ears to see if is conscious. Blood or light coloured liquid form the nose or ears can indicate a cerebral lesion. If the face is pallid or blue, breathing is difficult. Check if the forehead is hot or cold and if the skin is sweaty or dry. Smell the person’s breath. Check the colour of his/her lips (if they are burnt or discoloured something corrosive has been swallowed). If the internal mucous is a blue colour there is respiratory insufficiency. Check for swelling, dips (fractures) or haemorrhages by running our hands over the scalp. If you find a tag around their neck read for any possible illnesses or allergies and information about the blood group……SPINAL COLUMN After having unbuttoned clothes check (with great care and delicacy)with your fingers any possible irregularities in the spinal column, first behind the neck, then inserting the hands in the cavity of the kidneys, check if there are any irregularities or swelling of the vertebrae. TORSO Check if the ribs are regular and without pressure. Touch the sternum, shoulders, and pelvis to see if there are any fractures. Check if there are any signs of urinal or anal incontinence. Check there are no exhaling wounds on the torso (that expire air). LOWER AND UPPER LIMBS Examine thighs, knees, ankles and feet. Look for any identity tags. Check arms, wrists, hands and fingers. Response to stimuli of an unconscious person If a person who has lost consciousness responds to stimuli his/her condition is not worrying, if he/she responds with difficulty it is more serious; if he/she doesn’t respond at all it’s dangerous. Things to check: auditory response: talk into his/her ears. Reaction to touch: observe the reaction when we gently shake him/her and the reflexes of the eye lids when we touch the eyelashes. Response to pain: pinch a hand. If the injured person has lost consciousness put him/her into the safety position (see more) if, however, he/she is not breathing carry out artificial respiration. (see more) If his/her heart is not beating carry out cardiac massage (see more). If the person is unconscious, look in his/her wallet or pockets, better if with a witness, for anything that can indicate if he/she suffers from any disturbances and their possible therapies or any allergies. A diabetic patient has sugar cubes with him/her. Request for aid If there is more than one rescuer, after having ascertained the damage, at least one can stay with the injured person, better if two, and if there is no phone or it is impossible to get a signal in the area, help can be sought. The others need to communicate to 112 the exact location of the accident, the nature and seriousness of the injury, the type of wounds, special requests if poisoning is suspected, heart attack or anything else, the sex and age of the injured person, the telephone number from which they are calling and the name of the caller to help the rescuers find the place of the accident and any further useful information. Do not hang up until the speaker has confirmed that all is understood clearly. Wait for the rescuers and help them reach the injured person. If you are alone in assisting an injured person, after having carried out first aid and sheltering the victim, leave him/her water and food and go for help (if of course you have no mobile or radio or there is no signal. It is not always possible to get a signal in the mountains). Place your ear over the person’s mouth. If you hear breathing and you can see his/her chest and abdomen moving (place a hand on the sternum) then it is ok, otherwise carry out artificial respiration. First, however, the person needs to be prepared. Free the airways. With two fingers positioned as a hook and covered with a tissue, remove any foreign bodies from the mouth (vomit, prosthesis, food..). Tilt the head backwards. After having laid down the person, with one hand under the back of the neck and the other on the forehead, tilt the head back a little. Lift the chin up. These movements are necessary to bring the tongue forward. Mouth to mouth respiration consists in blowing air that we have inspired into the lungs of the injured person; this contains 16% oxygen when only 5% is necessary. Prepare the person as described above. Close his/her nose with one hand while the other is under the neck. Place your mouth, sealed over his/hers and blow. The first three respirations need to be quick. Then proceed with 16 respirations a minute. Raise your head after every breath to observe the chest. Also check the pulse to ensure the heart is still active. If it is not, carry out cardiac massage. If the chest does not expand, free the airways better and tilt the head back again. We can also carry out mouth to nose respiration (blow air into both the nose and mouth at the same time). This method should not be carried out in the event of poisoning, so as not to get intoxicated; when poison is in or around the mouth; when vomiting continues. (do not carry out if the patient’s heart is functioning, even if slowly, the cardiac massage would stop it). Normally it is necessary to carry out cardiac massage with artificial respiration. Place the patient on a rigid base. Kneel beside and place the palm of your hand on the lower part of the sternum, right above the appendix. Put the other palm on top of the first and, with extended arms, move your chest forward pressing on the patient’s chest until your arms are vertical. We need to lower the chest by 3cm (for an adult), with the rhythm of 50/60 times a minute. (be careful not to break any ribs). If you are alone, every 10 pushes tilt back the head and carry out two respirations. Every minute check the pulse. If there are two of you for every five pushes of the first helper, the second carries out one respiration (the second helper will kneel beside the patient on the opposite side to the first). Interrupt the cardiac massage as soon as the heart starts beating. Continue with artificial respiration until breathing is not autonomous. Once oxygenated blood starts to circulate the patient’s face will regain colour. WITH CHILDREN insufflations must be 20 a minute. Pushes should be carried out with one hand only, with a rhythm of 80 a minute, with a displacement of 2.5cm. WITH BABIES from 20 to 30 insufflations and 100 compressions carried out using two fingers, placed higher than normal, with a displacement of 1.5 – 2 cm. We can feel if the heart is beating by placing our fingers in some places of the injured person’s body, where arterial circulation is nearer the surface: the neck, the groin, the wrist on the thumb side, on the inside of the elbow. Use the index and middle finger to check for the heart beat (if you use your thumb, you hear your own beat and that will surely be active!!). Lateral safety position An unconscious person who is breathing and whose heart is beating regularly needs to be put into the safety position, if it is believed there is no damage to the vertebral column. Undo tight clothing (belts, shirt necks..). Tilt the head backwards and open the mouth. Remove any foreign bodies. Align the patient’s arm to the side of his body, on your side. Bend the other arm onto his/her chest. Bend the leg on your side. Grasp the patient’s hip and shoulder on the opposite side and turn him/her over towards us. Tilt the head back a little and position the limbs so that the body is stable. Shock is caused by the reduction of blood supply to the brain, by a haemorrhage or excessive vasodilation following a trauma, an injury or excessive loss of liquids. It intensifies with pain and exposure to the cold. If not treated it can lead to death. The person is pallid, yawns, is breathless, has cold skin, feels week, is thirsty, is cold, can be sick. You need to react immediately! Only haemorrhages and cardiac or respiratory arrest have precedence. Shelter the patient. Lay him/her on the ground with his/her legs raised. (We can always lay a chair down under the patient’s legs). If there are particular injuries place the patient in the most suitable and comfortable position. Loosen any tight clothing without letting him/her feel cold. Relieve the pain as much as possible and treat any injuries. Cover the patient without over heating him/her or making him/her sweat. If internal haemorrhages are not suspected give something to drink, little but often, water or tea and reassure him/her. Avoid noise and help him/her to overcome any states of panic. Check breathing and heartbeat, ready to intervene. Take to hospital. Loss of consciousness A person can lose consciousness for various reasons: heart attack, asphyxia, cerebral stroke, shock, cranial trauma, fainting, poisoning… it is important to discover the cause, react quickly and call for help. Check breathing and heart beat and free the airways. If the patient is breathing put him/her in the safety position and cover him/her with a cover. Examine the injured person to understand the cause. Every 10 minutes check he/she responds to stimuli. Do not give the patient anything (no liquids) if unconscious. Do not leave him/her alone. It is a momentary loss of consciousness due to a lack of blood supply to the brain following a strong emotion or to low blood sugar caused by fasting etc.: lay the patient down, free the airways, raise his/her legs a little. Calm the patient and do not give alcohol, do not slap the patient and do not throw water in his/her face. Injuries can cause danger of haemorrhages and infection. They can be simple which we can cure ourselves, or serious which require medical intervention. There are many types: CUTS: caused by a blade; they can bleed a lot. FROM A POINTED OBJECT: caused by nails, scissors etc. The deeper they are the greater the risk of infection; they can cause internal lesions. LACERATIONS: with the skin lacerated by claws or animal bites, metal wire; they bleed less but they are easily infected. LACERATIONS AND BRUISING: caused by a fall or a blunt object; can be associated with bruising and fractures. ABRASIONS: mainly caused by a fall, the skin is grazed; they can get infected due to the presence of sand or other foreign bodies. FROM WEAPONS: cause serious lesions and internal haemorrhages; the bullet creates an entrance hole and, if it comes out, a larger exit hole, from which there can be a haemorrhage. Wash and disinfect hands. Widen the edges of the wound to check for any detritus which needs to be removed using gauze or pincers disinfected over a flame and with a lot of water. Clean the wound moving from the inside out using a sterilised gauze. Disinfect with a non-alcoholic disinfectant without using creams or antibiotic powders. If the wound is deep or very open it needs to be stitched by a doctor. We can carry out emergency stitching joining the edges and fixing them with butterfly plasters. Cover the wound with a sterile gauze and cotton wool placed over the wound (never directly on it so as not to get fluff in it), then bandage it. If it is a small wound use a sterile medicated plaster. If the patient is not vaccinated he/she must be taken to the doctor’s to get an anti-tetanus. Sprains - Dislocations - Fractures Sprains are the so called “twists” which involve the joints and affect muscles and tendons. Pain makes it difficult to move the limb; bruising and swelling can occur (for blood spilling). There can be damage to the tissue (pulled muscle). Put ice or material soaked in cold water onto the area for about half an hour. Bandage it using an elastic bandage after having applied a cream. We can give the patient an anti-inflammatory and, if necessary, a pain killer. If we are unsure about the damage treat the lesion as a fracture. Dislocations occur when the bone comes out of its socket. There is an obvious deformation of the body. The area swells and there is bruising. The pain is intense and the limb cannot be moved. Immobilize the affected area without trying to put it back into position. Place a rolled jumper under the armpit (if the shoulder has dislocated).Take the injured party to the hospital. Fractures are breaks in the bone and can be caused by a trauma. They can be closed if the bone does not break the skin, and exposed when the bone sticks out or when a wound reaches the fractured bone. The latter are dangerous because they easily get infected and can infect the soft tissue inside the bone. Both types of fracture can be complicated when they damage a blood vessel, a nerve… The most dangerous fractures are in the vertebral column, the head and complicated ones in the chest. Symptoms: intense pain; swelling and bruising (can occur later); deformation of the limb; sound or crack heard by the patient due to the rubbing of the surface of the fractured bone; possible state of shock. Some of these symptoms are not always present. Intervention: we can intervene only if qualified help is late in arriving and in extreme cases. Observe the injured area without moving it and compare it to the healthy limb. Immobilize the fractured part with precaution so as not to provoke pain, without moving it and without stopping the blood from circulating. Between the stick and the limb there must be some padding. Treat shock and give something to drink. Take to hospital. We can give a pain killer (to a conscious patient). If there is the risk of death (fires…) we must move the patient before immobilizing the limb. In the event of exposed fractures, before immobilizing the limb, cover the bone and wound with a sterile gauze, protecting it with a ring shaped object (made with a clean rolled scarf placed on the bone) and bandage with care. If breathing stops or there are haemorrhages or unconsciousness first deal with these. Immobilization: if a foot is involved and we suspect it is not bleeding we can immobilize it with the shoe, after having loosened it, using the healthy foot. If however it is a hand or forearm or arm, after having positioned a stick, bandage with a scarf and block the limb to the chest. Vertebral column fracture: the spine is made up of a series of bone rings in which there is the spinal cord, made up of nerve fibres, which transmit nerve impulses to various parts of the body. A lesion to the vertebrae can damage the spinal cord causing paralysis of some or more of the surrounding areas. Considering paralysis is definitive, if we suspect this type of injury, we absolutely must not move the patient, to avoid further damage. Symptoms are: intense pain in the back; impossibility to move arms and legs (tell him/her to move fingers and ankles); insensibility (cannot feel when we touch his/her limbs). Gently touching we can feel some irregularities. Call for assistance immediately specifying that suitable equipment is required (stretcher, etc…). In the meantime cover and keep warm, placing clothes around the body to prevent movement and keep head still. Only expert people can move the patient. If we are forced to move him/her we must not let his/her back bend and there must be at least three of us. One can hold the head, placing one hand under the nape and the other can hold the shoulders. One can hold the legs: a forearm under the calves and the other under the thighs. The third, astride the patient can hold the body placing his/her hands under the waist. Lift the patient with care and, at the same time, with force. The two holding the head and legs should pull towards themselves to keep the patient’s back still. Place the body on a rigid surface (a plank, a door..). put a scarf under the neck and in the lumbar cavity. If we suspect a fracture of the cervical vertebrae loosen clothing and apply an emergency collar, without moving the neck, using a newspaper or scarf. Treat as a vertebral column fracture. We can be poisoned by a toxic substance we ingest , breathe or absorb through our skin or it can be transmitted to us through an animal bite. Some poisons block some vital organs (heart, lungs) working on the nervous system, others prevent oxygen form being transported. Symptoms depend on the type of poison and its diffusion through the body. There can be nausea, vomit, diarrhoea and abdominal pain, burns around the mouth, if a caustic substance has been ingested. Damage to the nervous system, headaches, asphyxiation symptoms. The most serious poisoning is when the effects are delayed and the symptoms appear after 12-36 hours. This is the case with some deadly mushrooms or botulin (a germ found in food preserved in tins, in oil or sausage meat). Intoxication from botulin, as well as the normal symptoms, manifests an interruption in salivation, paralysis, loss of voice. Poisoning from mushrooms also causes paleness, cold sweating, thirst, confusion, vertigo, delirium, tremors, collapse leading to coma. Prevention: throw away tinned food that has a raised lid, do not eat high meat, only gather mushrooms and berries that are known. Intervention: if breathing stops or there is cardiac arrest intervene with reanimation, being careful that any remains of poison around the mouth do not intoxicate us. If the patient is unconscious put him/her in the safety position. Try to find out what poison you are dealing with by gathering as much information as possible from witnesses and by observing the objects around the patient or from him/herself. Gather any samples of the poison and vomit. If can be taken to hospital in a short time do not provoke vomit. Contact a poison centre. Only if transport to a hospital or medical care is delayed should we follow the procedure described here. Ingested poison: do not make person vomit if caustic poison has been ingested (bleach, muriatic acid, caustic soda…) or derivatives of petrol (petrol, diesel, mixes…), as the regurgitated substance could cause further damage. Provoke vomit for other poisons (including mushrooms and poisonous plants) if there are symptoms a few hours after ingestion. Stimulate the pharynx with a finger or make the patient drink 200 cc of warm water with two spoons of salt. Antidote: for both caustic poisons and the others we can give the patient a drink of ½ a litre of water or milk mixed with 4 beaten egg whites, or ½ a litre of milk or even just water. Frostbite hits the parts of the body exposed to cold with temperatures below 0, in particular hands, feet and the face. Tissue appears pale and hard, the injured party feels pins and needles, burning and numbness. Subsequently the limb swells, becomes marbled and blisters appear. Finally some areas become dark and gangrene develops on the limb. We can proceed with first aid only when we are sure we are in a sheltered and safe place. The person, in fact, once assisted, must not continue walking and can only be transported if well protected. It is not necessary to expose the affected area to intense heat (fire, hot water…), we need to massage it. Once the area has been carefully exposed, put it in warm water until it has not regained its normal colour. We can also keep the limb in close contact with the person’s body or our own. Heat their face with your hands. Finally cover the area with hot dry cloths. Do not burst the blisters but treat them with alcohol free disinfectant. Give hot drinks to the person. Do not whatsoever give alcoholic drinks as they facilitate frostbite. Is an increase in body temperature caused by prolonged exposure to the sun in hot periods. It is dangerous as the cerebral cells cannot survive above a certain temperature. You should avoid prolonged exposure to the sun’s rays. The effects can be serious: nervous disorders, increased sweating, tiredness, light and frequent pulse, headache, vomiting, state of shock, increased body temperature, and if measures are not taken promptly, loss of consciousness and coma. Place the person in a half sitting position in a cool place in the shade and take off his/her clothes. If he/she loses consciousness put in the safety position. Fan his/her face. Wipe the whole body with a cool damp sponge or cloth. In these cases alcohol is ok. As soon as he/she comes round give him/her cool water to drink with a dash of salt and a spoon of sugar. He/she must drink as is suffering from dehydration. Check the temperature. Take to hospital. The lack of oxygen and the drop in pressure at a height are the main reasons for the general feeling of unease known as mountain sickness. Our bodies adapt by increasing the number of red blood cells which transport oxygen and by intensifying respiratory and cardiac activity. Until we are used to these new environmental conditions we should not undergo stress. We need a few days to get used to it. When we find ourselves unexpectedly above 2500 metres certain disturbances appear: lack of breath and palpitations, headache, vertigo, tiredness, nausea, paleness. With rest and getting used to it the situation improves. Give warm stimulating drinks like tea. Serious syndromes can appear with lack of breath even when resting, coughing, nervous disorders, mental confusion, blood in spit, cyanosis, fever and finally coma. In these cases the patient is put in a semi sitting position and transported down the mountain to hospital as quickly as possible. Inhaling oxygen helps. The bite of any animal can produce a wound which can easily be infected and some (from foxes, dogs…)can transmit rabies (a deathly disease). Wash the wound with soap and water and disinfect it with a non-alcoholic substance. Try to capture the animal and take it to a vet’s, or if it is a domestic animal, get in touch with the owner to find out what vaccinations it has had. If in doubt or we have no information about the animal we must take the patient to casualty to get anti rabies treatment. A viper bite can be recognised by the two small holes made by the snake’s teeth. The victim will manifest oedema around the bite and profound pain. After about 20 minutes the following symptoms gradually appear: headache, vertigo, general discomfort, fall in blood pressure, stress, vomiting, diarrhoea with blood, difficulty breathing and finally cold sweating and salivation. After two hours symptoms get worse. The victim is in a severe state of shock. For an adult one bite is not fatal, even if it can have effects on the nervous system. It can be deathly if it is a child, a heart patient, if the bite is on the neck or face, if the venom if injected into a blood vessel. The cure is to administer snake-bite serum under medical care, therefore take the patient immediately to the hospital trying to move the bitten area as little as possible. Our task is to slow down the diffusion of the venom till the patient arrives at the hospital. Temporarily place a tourniquet (a folded tissue), not too tightly, a few cms above the bite towards the heart; the tourniquet should be removed every 15 minutes and replaced further up. It must not stop the arterial blood from circulating (pulse); a finger must fit between it. Clean the bite with a lot of water, try to get some blood out of the bite to get the venom out. Disinfect the bite with a non-alcoholic solution (alcohol is dangerous as it can fix the venom). Neutralize the venom with potassium permanganate or bleach, if you have it. Having done this take the tourniquet off. Bandage the area and the whole limb as for a fracture. In this way you slow down the diffusion of the venom. Treat the state of shock. Place an ice bag on the area. Do not move the patient and calm him/her down, so as not to speed up the diffusion of the venom. Give strong tea of coffee to drink or administer a cardio tonic. Scorpion bites can cause profound pain, reddening and swelling. It Italy scorpion venom is not deathly, however the trauma is serious in particular for children. Bee, wasp, hornet stings all cause profound pain, swelling and reddening, but considering the amount of venom injected is minimal they are not dangerous, apart from some exceptions. Not serious cases: after having extracted the sting using tweezers, apply an anti-histamine cream or some ammonia diluted in water on cotton wool. Stings in the throat: give ice to suck and cold very salty water to gurgle to reduce swelling. Be ready to intervene with artificial respiration. Keep the airways free. Take the victim immediately to a doctor. Transporting the injured party. The decision to transport the injured party is very delicate and must be assessed carefully. The best thing to do with injured or seriously ill patients is to wait for qualified assistance, for the ambulance or helicopter. Sometimes, however, the patient needs to be moved. In these cases we must transport him/her with care and method, and, if necessary, place him/her on a stretcher (even an improvised one). Work quickly if the patient is in danger of death and it is not possible to wait for medical help (viper bites, haemorrhage..) and only if there are enough people to do so. If the victim has a fracture on the vertebral column we must only move him/her to save from immediate dangers, like a fire, taking care to lift him/her and place on a rigid stretcher without moving the vertebral column. Simple techniques: when the patient is able to walk we can help by supporting him/her. For short distances, in the event of an emergency, if the conditions of the patient allow, we can drag him/her by the forearms, the shoulders or give a “piggy back”. A fireman’s lift is the technique used for carrying light people and if we need a free hand. First aid kit The container must be strong and waterproof, such as plastic ones used to store food in the fridge, and of the right size so as to fit in your bag. It is better to divide the material according to the type of intervention: wounds, sprains, various pills. Register and check regularly the expiry dates of the products. Disinfect the equipment before use and before putting away. The amount of material and medicines depends on the length of the hike and number of people. In the first aid kit there should be: some disinfecting wipes for hands or some neutral soap, a thermometer, tweezers, scissors with rounded tip, 2 razor blades, safety pins, mono use gloves, 2 triangles of material (1m side), 1 tourniquet, absorbent cotton, 2/3 packets of sterile gauze (10x10), 1 plaster roll, 1 packet of plasters of different sizes, 1 metre of elasticated net for medication, 1 bottle of non-alcoholic disinfectant, 1 bottle of hydrogen peroxide, 1 elasticated bandage, 1 tube of cream for sprains, 1 synthetic ice spray, 1 tube of anti-histamine cream (for insect bites), 1 tube of cream for burns, aspirin, some small packets of sugar, cooking salt. Minimal indispensable material: bottle of disinfectant, absorbing cotton, a packet of sterilised gauze, 1 5cm bandage, medicated plasters, aspirin, 1 elastic bandage, pain killers, 1 tube of anti-histamine cream (for insect bites). eosta shop, accedi al nostro shop online e scegli il prodotto che fa per te. Buona navigazione e buoni acquisti!!! Se avete delle domande scriveteci pure a [email protected] , vi risponderemo molto volentieri!!! Siamo una "grande" libreria, ma non solo... un negozio di accessori, abbigliamento e calzature e molto di più... tantissime idee regalo...tutto per la scuola, stampe digitali... Siamo Marco e Rita, veniteci a trovare!!!

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I would not say anything to detract from how astounding the photograph of that black hole is. It’s just got me thinking of the progress of technology. Think of the challenge facing when 18th century astronomers. When they wanted to record the image of a black hole 55 million light-years away they had to station people around the world and get them to all paint watercolor pictures of the hole at the same time. And, like, half of them had to grind their own paints because just buying ‘red’ was seen as some kind of being a poser or something. It’s amazing. I should clarify I mean the bucket contains water, and is itself in the universe. If this is not understood then I will be confusing. Newton’s Bucket is one of the innumerable great physics problems involving buckets. By innumerable I mean two. The other one is the problem of how many buckets you can place over the head of a person sleeping in physics class before they startle awake. But this problem is of only historical interest anymore. Now that they have cell phones students don’t sleep in class, or anywhere else. This has helped them reach the level of maturity where we’re all tired and anxious. That surely helps. So this is the other great bucket-based physics problem. And the fun thing is that you can work on it without having a bucket of your own. You don’t even need your own Newton, which makes things easier on all of us. First, imagine if you had a bucket. If you really do have a bucket, your imagination is either quite vivid or it’s not good at all. I don’t have a preferred interpretation. You can fight it out with your friends. Make sure to bring up the time they volunteered at the improv night and froze up on stage. That will surely help. But take your bucket, imaginary or not, and put some water in. You can get water by imagining that you’ve burned some amines and filtered out the carbon dioxide and nitrous oxides. Or you can use the tap if you aren’t any fun. Imagine spinning the bucket, though. As you twirl it around, your arm gets very tired and, if you don’t stop, it falls off. So we maybe imagine hanging the bucket from a rope or a chain that can twirl around without being your arm. The question is: while you’re spinning the bucket, how do you know the bucket and water are spinning? How do you know they’re not actually staying still while the entire universe spins around them, like the way it works when you’re riding a carousel? For us this is easy to answer. As the bucket spins, it spills water onto your socks. This makes you growl and set the bucket down. You go to change into oh, it turns out those were your last clean socks. Great. Now the day is spilled. You mean spoiled, but it’s spoiled by being spilled, so maybe they’re the same word after all and just look different and mean different things. Anyway your setting the bucket down settles the matter. If the whole universe were spinning instead, it would have to be that your socks spilled into the water. And you know that didn’t happen, unless you stepped into the bucket. That’s the practical matter. Now imagine this, though. What if there were nothing in the universe except the bucket and the water and the chain it hung from? Then how would you know it was the bucket and water spinning instead? And this is the question that makes cosmologists say “whoooooah” to each other. Meanwhile the other people in the physics department? The ones working on, like, the dispersal of shock waves in rarefied fluids near a phase transition? They’ll say things like, “Yeah, they’re not with us” and “that person with the physics degree and the post as physics professor with an office in the physics department is … uh … we’re going to say in Evo Psych.” The evolutionary psychologists, happy to have someone talking about them in a non-derogatory way, agree. But this does nothing to answer the question, which we have to do for some reason. So if there was almost nothing in the universe. There’s no distant galaxies. No planets. No things that wiggle. No pillows with flower prints. No battery-powered plastic candles. No nothing except this bucket and this water, how would you know if it were spinning? And the answer is that you don’t know, because you don’t exist. Not unless you’re either the bucket or the water. And we can be sure you’re not the bucket, not with your sense of dignity. Can we be sure you’re not the water? This is a harder question to answer. To say for sure that you’re water would require pressing yourself into a sponge, pulling back out, and seeing if you can’t. But as the question set out, there are no sponges in the universe. So therefore there’s no way to do this experiment and thus tell. And so we see the importance of Newton’s Bucket. Thanks to it we understand how fortunate we are to live in a world with sponges, as we would otherwise have no knowledge of which things were spinning. This surely helps. So it transpires that sometime last year the whole eastern wing of the sixth floor transcended ordinary existence and turned into beings of pure energy. Which sounds cool, sure. But then you try bringing any springs in and they suddenly compress as far as possible, soaking up all that potential energy? Hardly convenient. Or if you bring in that steel-balls-on-pendulums things that they put on the boss’s table in 1980s sitcoms, and the balls all fly up to the top of pendulum and wait? Yeah, that’s just inconvenient. And that’s before you even consider what happens when you take a mechanical watch in and let that soak up the potential energy that used to be the Office of Rental Inspections. I really hate to give up on a handsome enough building but I have to admit it’s sounding like City Hall just needs more work than we can expect to get out of it, at least not without a major source of energy and I just don’t see where … saaaaaaay! I have to go make some calls. OK, I tried making calls. But you know that long spiral-cut rubber wire that connects the part of the phone you use to the part of the phone that falls off the table when you pick up the part of the phone you use? Yeah, that one. Well, it turned into this impossibly tight, energy-laden supercoil and that’s too hard for me to deal with. I’ll write them a letter, maybe. Meanwhile please everyone admire the correctness of my use of the word “transpire” to start this article. I’ll wait. With the days getting a bit warmer than they were two weeks ago it’s worth spending 819 words talking about air conditioning. Air conditioning is — please hold your questions until the essay has come to a full and complete stop — where some air is conditioned so that it’s less like air and more like conditioned air. It’s probably safe to toss in whatever your questions were now. Why Should We Condition Air? Many reasons. The air that you get all around you is free and as such, that’s great. But it’ll often be too hot, or too cold, or too clammy, or be filled with too many feathers from an exploded pillow, or some other problem, such as that it’s too dry. And it’s never any of these at the right time. For example, it would be great if just before your history midterm the air were filled with sparkly confetti and party favors. At the least it would distract from thinking how you have no opinions about the Reform Act of 1832 except that it’s probably good they got that done before 1833 started or it would have needed a snappier name. How Can One Condition Air? This depends what you want conditioned. If you want the air hotter, for example, all you need do is gather enough lumber. Trying to get it into the fireplace wil make you as warm as you want, as you determine by the sixth time you check every room that the house hasn’t got a fireplace and you’re now quite mad about that. Fuming mad, as they say. But cooling down has always been a different problem. In ancient days the Romans noticed that the same room might be perfectly chilly in the winter and too hot in the summer. Their ingenious engineering minds started a system in which each winter they’d seal one room up tight in the middle of winter and leave it that way until the middle of summer. Only then would they open it up to enjoy that stored winter air. This never worked, but after all the trouble they’d gone to sealing the room up and then opening it again, they weren’t going to stop. They kept at it year after year, insisting to themselves that they did feel a lot cooler and saying maybe next year they would try this with three or even eight rooms. Eventually the Roman Empire fell, but I wouldn’t say the air conditioning was the only reason. There was also their calendar. What Scientific Breakthrough Made Air Conditioning Possible, And What Important Spinoff Came From It? The most important breakthrough was the discovery of Charles’s Law by Boyle, unless it was Boyles’s Law by Charles. It was Towneley-Powers’s Law, and was discovered by Mariotte. However it turned out the discovery was simplicity itself: if you spray a can of antiperspirant the spray will be cold, and the can will be cold, and your hand will be cold. The implications were obvious. By the end of the century scientists all over Europe were trying to invent a spray can of antiperspirant. The antiperspirant part and the spray part would be challenges, sure. But the practice was an immediate success, a century later. And it had spinoff benefits. The cans proved to be great ways to can food, for example. This allowed people to take the peaches that they weren’t going to be able to eat before the end of summer and turn them into a fine aerosolized powder that they’d spray on their armpits or, if their aim was off, the bathroom door. This solved some problem. And considering that tells you a lot about what life was like back then. How Does This Affect The Movies? Well, by the 1920s all the major problems of air conditioning had been solved. Soon industrial-grade air conditioning was popping up all over, like it or not. Cities began building movie theaters around the air conditioning so that at least it would go to some purpose. The air conditioning would stay on full-blast all year, so that wintertime movie patrons had to dress in parkas and carry shovels to help the usher scoop out a trail through the snow. Often patrons would be lost in snowbanks and not be discovered for days or weeks until they emerged in the concessions stand. Over one in five ushers didn’t survive the first year of work, which is why we now regard it as tasteless to expect ushers to ush at the movies. We may ask them to ush in other non-movie contexts and then they can show us their ush stuff. Is Air Conditioning A Form Of Skinnerian Behaviorist Stimulus-Response Training? No. You are thinking of air hypnosis, which has been discredited as a scientific method but can be a lot of fun as a party trick. It’s a common mistake and you need feel no shame for making it. 818, 819. Is it possible to be too organized? Physics offers us an answer: it explains that the polhode rolls without slipping over the herpolhode. This sounds dirty. It really has something to do with the rotation of rigid bodies as they begin their nutation. This makes it sound unbelievably filthy. Physics reports now that it misheard the question and apologizes fiercely. Now that we ask physics again, where it knows its mother is listening, we have a better answer. It would be too organized if all the mass and energy of the universe were piled into a single spot of extraordinarily high, by which we mean low, entropy, causing the expansion of space to restart with a new Big Bang and the formation of a different universe with physics that might be substantially different from those we know. Even the person who’s so orderly as to have a ten-point checklist for connecting the garden hose would agree this is too organized, given how long it would take for a new universe to expand and cool enough to support stars, life, limited-edition holiday-flavor candy corn, and the part of town where they’re always having ukulele festivals. Most of us stop before that point anyway, because we are stymied by questions such as: does it count as a pair of socks if they are noticeably not alike, but they are each the only one of their kind, and you have two of them? This is the problem I posed to my advanced physics lab partner in college, when he said he was starting to organize his dorm room by dividing it into “pair of socks” and “not a pair of socks”. His answer was to look at me with sad despair. His dorm-room organization project ended in failure, and we were unable to show that the Inverse Zeeman Effect ever happened. The Inverse Zeeman Effect is a physics thing you look for in advanced physics labs and it has nothing to do with polhodes as far as I know. It’s named for the Dutch physicist Pieter Zeeman, who was such the life of the party he was known in every physics lab as Pieter “The Man” Zeeman, only in Dutch. Eventually he got a sinecure working for the water-reclamation agency. This allowed him to be Pieter “Zie Man” Zeeman of the Zeiderzeewerken. For putting up with this all his life they gave him a Nobel Prize and asked him to say “sinecure” with a Dutch accent. Even we who are not Nobel Prize-winning Dutch physicists find natural limits to organization. Most things enjoy a natural resting spot which doesn’t have to make sense. It just has to be consistent. Which is why, in a boring anecdote I am not making up, I kept my toothpaste in the refrigerator for about four years when I was living in Singapore. It was probably an accident at first. But then it kept happening, and before you knew it, if somehow there were toothpaste in a more traditionally sensible place in my apartment, such as the bathroom, I’d never know it. Clearly the natural habitat of Singaporean toothpaste was in the refrigerator. I should have left a note for whoever got my apartment after I moved out. But if I had left one, would they have believed me? What might they have said about it? “This person writes too small to be legible”, most likely. I’ve left notes for people before. The trouble is that organizing tries to put things where it makes sense for them to be, which is rarely were they want to be. The displaced things respond by going missing altogether. Who among us hasn’t tidied the office supplies on their desk and discovered the stapler can’t be found? Or organized the stuff in their medicine cabinet to find that not only is their toothpaste gone but there’s no evidence that they’ve ever had toothpaste? To tidy up the house so well that the guest room goes completely missing and there’s just a vacant spot on the wall is an unusual event. But it’s not unprecedented. If there is one important thing to consider, it’s this: the Dutch have a municipality named “Urk”. It’s a former island, as the Zuiderzee’s been reclaimed all around it. Now it’s geographically part of the Noordoostpolder, which sounds like they’re doing physics over there. Somebody look into that. After knocking. It was your typical sort of dream, by which I mean typical for me. One of those long, rambling, confusing dreams shuffling back and forth between offices as cramped and overstuffed as a used book store’s aisles are. I was doing the best I could to help a friend interview for a job he wasn’t actually qualified for but could probably get up to speed on fast enough that people wouldn’t catch on. The way all of us do. But dragging me down was one of the people with an actual job there, who kept demanding I explain how it was Ogden Nash wrote such a fantastic book explaining nuclear fusion. And to be fair it did look like a great book. Even in the ancient, falling-apart copy they had, all the illustrations were still animating very well. Had to agree the publisher had a lot of confidence to publish a book quite that lavish. She wanted to know when Ogden Nash was going to publish another science book and I had to say, I was pretty sure he had died. Even found in the preface that the book hadn’t been quite finished as Nash died just after turning in the first draft in December 1956. I felt like a bit of a heel dashing her hopes for a follow-up book on brane theory. In the non-dream worlds, Nash died in May 1971, so my powers to accurately pluck dates out of nowhere seem not to extend to writers of amusing verse. I have no evidence that Ogden Nash wrote any science popularizations of note. We’ve started looking at maybe buying a new TV. Our current TV is working fine, which has been part of the problem, since it’s your old-fashioned standard-definition tube-model TV screen hewn by Alan B DuMont himself from his shadowy hidden laboratory deep in the highlands of North Jersey. It was a fine TV in its time, and it’s clearly determined to outlast the entropic heat-death of the universe, but it’s starting to get annoying watching TV shows that assume screens are wider, like they are anymore. The Daily Show is pretty good about not putting stuff outside the bounds of the standard-definition screen, but it’s getting tiresome to guess what’s happening on the missing edges of Cona O’Brie. The obvious change in TV technology since our old set was made has been the size, of course. There’s now no way to buy a TV set smaller than a tennis court in area, which will demand we rearrange the living room so it fits. We might have to have a carpenter come in and take out the stairwell, and just get to our bedroom by way of a rope ladder, trampoline, or perhaps a very patient giraffe (possibly mechanized). On the bright side modern TVs are only half as thick as other units of the same model, so if we buy a flatscreen we’ll be able to slip it in-between the wall and the paint on the wall. The other thing is that shapes have changed. Picture-tube TVs all had that slight outward curve made. That curve was great as you could just place a large enough number of picture tubes near one another and automatically form a ball of television sets thirty feet across, allowing anyone to create an art installation about the disposability of modern pop culture whenever they wanted. But then they started making screens flat, so that every TV show you looked at seemed to be weirdly impacted in the middle, like someone had smooshed Bob Barker right in the belly. They’ve fixed that now, by finding a pre-smooshed host for The Pric Is Righ, and I suppose they’ve worked out what to do for other shows too. And now the stores have innovative new shapes, too. The big one at the store last week was screens curled inward, giving us the experience of watching a couple seconds of a waterfall then a roller coaster then fireworks then the Grand Canyon while staring at the inside of a bowl. I guess that’s got advantages in how it makes the picture look curled inwards, and how the eyes of the Best Buy sales associates follow you wherever you go until in a fit of shyness you curl up behind the bin of $4.99 games for the Wii. Besides these inverted-bowl shapes there’s exciting new concepts in solid geometry coming, such as the saddle-curve hyperboloid which wowed people at the Consumer Electronics Show. It expertly suggested the experience of horse-riding, what with how as you get closer to the screen it looms higher and higher over you, until you get right up close to it, at which point the it bites your hair, covers your head an inch deep in horse boogers, and stomps on your foot, which any horse-expert person like my sister will tell you is a show that the horse likes you and it’s all your fault anyway. I didn’t even know my sister watched that much TV, what with her horse-experting to do. Anyway, television boogers clean up easily, but cleaning them off leaves you open to charges you’re one of those people who announces “I never watch television” every four minutes, even to empty rooms. Personally, I think the most exciting new TV shape is one that projects the image onto the contact surface formed in the tangent space so that for any fiber bundle you can find a sympletic coordinate pair perfectly matching, say, the statistical entropy to the chemical potentials of the system. I think most of you agree with my assessment because you’re hoping if you nod vigorously enough I’ll stop talking what might be mathematics or physics or possibly some conspiracy theory linking Nikolai Tesla to the Knights Templar and go on to literally any other topic at all. (Hi, LFFL!) Anyway, this is all very thrilling stuff and it makes me figure that I should go back to watching narrower programs on the old TV set. I was reading a collection of the writings of Count Rumford, the late-18th/early-19th century scientist who pioneered the study of heat and was only a traitor to his country by certain definitions of the term, and ran across this in a paper he wrote about, among other things, whether it’s better to wear a fur coat with the fur pointing outward or inward (this was just, like, a little one-page digression, plus back then they didn’t know so much about which stuff needed to be scientifically proven): Experiment No. 14. — Procuring from a gold-beater a quantity of leaf gold and leaf silver about three times as thick as that which is commonly used by gilders, I covered the surfaces of the two large cylindrical vessels, No. 1 and No. 2, with a single coating of oil varnish; and, when it was sufficiently dry for my purpose, I gilt the instrument No. 1 with the gold leaf, and covered the other, No. 2, with silver leaf. When the varnish was perfectly dry and hard, I wiped the instruments with cotton, to remove the superfluous particles of the gold and silver, and then repeated the experiment, so often mentioned, of filling the instruments with boiling-hot water, and exposing them to the cool in the air of a large quiet room. OK, so, wait a second: there’s a profession called “gold-beater”? And not only are they responsible for beating gold, they’re adulterous gold-beaters because they also smack silver around? Or at least back two hundred years ago you could be a professional beater of gold. It leaves me wondering about other such professions which involve doing terrible things to elements; have we now progressed to the point that someone could have a job as: Of course not, because you can’t libel beryllium, since anything awful you say about it is true. But it’s got me wondering about the others. The world is suddenly bigger and more complicated than I thought and I need to blame someone for this, so I fault beryllium. And for this morning I’d like to offer a pointer/reblogging of “Quarks of Nature”, on a Labor Of Like’s WordPress blog. Labor of Like writes a good number of pieces using a comic mode that I’ve somehow avoided in these parts, that of the mock news article. Labor of Like also works heavily in the science-news stream, which is a tough kind of humor to write: there’s a terrific drive to write informationally if you start talking about subsurface oceans of gas-giant moons or superlatively weird constructions of quarks, if nothing else to make sure the average reader has a hope of knowing what’s being talked about. This bit, about the discovery of a bizarre kind of quark construct dubbed Z(4430), gives I think a fairly good sense of what the blog’s humor style is like and so, if you like science-news-based-humor (and done in the style of stuffing each sentence full of jokes, a style that I can find exhausting to write, but which if it works evokes the Zucker-Abrahams-Zucker films with jokes piled on top of jokes) then this could be something fresh that you’ll enjoy. In matter-that-doesn’t news, the recent discovery of a four-quark something or other has triggered a new round of physics gang warfare. The new particles go by the name Z(4430). Physicists give these particles names starting with the letter Z because all the good letters, like M and G, are already taken. The number is derived from the fact that the particle showed up sometime between 4:00 and 4:30, while scientists were out having afternoon tea. “I just came back, and there were these 4 quarks laying on the floor of the collider. They weren’t there when we left, but we’re not sure exactly when they showed up.” In 2008, the Belle Collaboration*, a street gang of Hot and/or BrightDisney heroines, announced it saw the world’s first evidence of Z(4430) in Japan. Then another group, led by the elephant king BaBar, ran its own experiments in California. BaBar said their… View original post 338 more words I’ve learned through sources that some of my best-liked posts are the ones where I just state my statistics for the month, with the countries listed and all of that stuff. So, well, who am I to argue with what’s successful? Here are some countries and some associated statistics. |United States (America)||139,608| |Free City of Krakow||1,164 (449)| |Silicon Dioxide||42 J mol-1 K-1 standard molar entropy| |The Long And Winding Road||3:38 (Lennon-McCartney)| |United States (Reprise)||139,608| I hope you’ve enjoyed this data. So now the space probe Juno’s gone and swung past the Earth, building up a little extra speed on its way to Jupiter and becoming the fastest man-made object that isn’t just trying to escape something embarrassing it said in an online forum, so I hope nobody’s left on it anything they wanted back anytime soon. These planetary flybys are really neat ways of getting a space probe to travel faster even though you can explain why it works to a bunch of freshman physics majors and they’ll still stare at you the way a Labrador retriever stares at the glass coffee table hoping that maybe this time the potato chip you tossed on it will fall through. If it isn’t going fast enough by this time, though, it’s possible it’s going to go even faster than that. Back in 1990 when Galileo (the space probe) went flying past Earth on its way to Jupiter it got a whole bucket full of extra speed, but it turns out it got about four millimeters per second more than it was supposed to. Maybe that doesn’t sound like too much, since it was already going at 13,740,000 millimeters per second, but when you get down into the grit of the numbers you realize: this isn’t even that much. But nobody was quite sure where it came from, as the satellite was launched before they had the E-ZPass lanes where you don’t even have to slow down at the toll booths. So in 1992 when Galileo went flying past the Earth again on its way to Jupiter (it was supposed to do that, so this wasn’t just Jupiter being fickle and pretending not to be there) NASA watched very closely and the probe didn’t do anything funny at all except for sticking out its tongue and making a sound which experts still dispute, as they can’t settle whether it was said “nyah-nyah” or “nanny-nanny-boo-boo” or “this is Andy Griffith for the Mutual Radio Theater” (a short-lived 1980 project to revive scripted network radio programming in the United States), but they’re pretty sure it wasn’t that last one. This is obviously an extremely tiny anomaly in a phenomenon very difficult to precisely measure, or as New Scientist probably billed it, a fundamental challenge to our understanding of physics and a potential revolution in interacting with the world, except for those of us who interact with it using only pointed sticks or sarcasm. But it all could’ve been a mistake, maybe someone failing to keep track of how many millimeters per second they had in petty cash or something, and this only got more interesting in its way when the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous, flying by Earth on the way to not flying by Jupiter, got an extra 13 millimeters per second. Obviously, space probes were getting greedy. When Rosetta, which flew past Earth three times over to try getting to a comet, it got a lousy 1.8 millimeters per second the first time around, nothing on the second, and on the third left two and a quarter millimeters per second on the moon just to spite us. What all this naturally reminds everyone of once they’re reminded about it is the Pioneer Anomaly, where Pioneer 10 and 11 were found to be travelling aster than they were … er … they were accelerating more slowly than … they were accelerating to outer space more than … I’m not sure what it was they were doing, but they were doing it for an awfully long time until someone went back and checked very carefully and, to the delight of popular science magazines the world over, discovered they hadn’t been doing anything funny at all and we should feel bad for suspecting them of it. That’s why in 2012 NASA launched an emergency expedition to send the Pioneer spacecraft some special apology editions of New Scientist, which are going to use these cracks in spacetime that might totally exist and prove the world’s actually a computer simulation of itself to get there sooner. So overall I’m interested knowing there’s these anomalous millimeters per second being thrown around, since knowing how space probes do it would probably help next time I need a teensy little bit of extra speed and am going to Jupiter. There’s an engaging little spoof over at the Scientific American that claims the Nobel Prize in Physics is going to the Higgs boson rather than to any of the many, many people who deserve some attention and reward for that. It’s a little science-y but I think makes all the context clear enough. From Ashutosh Jogalekar’s report, so you can judge if you want to read the whole thing: Since interviews with the particle could not be held for obvious reasons, the media was instead shown a graph displaying a bump supposed to indicate its existence. A member of CERN’s PR division also wore a large, squishy Higgs costume, doing his best to mimic the behavior of the fleeting particle as he whizzed from one end of the room to another, hid and emerged from behind a curtain and breathlessly answered questions about gauge symmetry and vacuum fluctuations. It’s all very well to say the universe is about 14 billion years old, but physics will pipe in to tell you that it isn’t that simple because apparently physics is worried people aren’t listening to it anymore. Yeah, they had some big successes with the atom bomb and with the moon landing but that’s all a long time ago. And they don’t just mean the obvious stuff, like if you wait around 22 billion years my declaration the universe is about 14 billion years old is going to look pretty hilariously wrong. Here’s the thing: because of relativity there’s particles out there moving so fast that from their perspective it’s only been sixteen years since the universe was created, and so they’ve never known a world without the Beloit College Mindset List. More, there are some particles, moving even faster, which know the universe only to be eight years old. Such particles, of course, find it very hard to swerve in time. I bet you didn’t realize this is an historic year, what with most of it still being in the future. But it doesn’t do to say this is “an futuric year”, as the particle just doesn’t fit there at all. It should be a long-lived neutral kaon instead. That’s the sort of kaon which lives for as much as fifty nanoseconds before it expires, at the hands of natural kaon predators such as the lesser Malagasy snarking W+ boson or to creeping deforestation. This reminds of us why it’s important for pop historians to keep informed on group theory and the value of gauge invariance. I didn’t think anything bad could come of learning something about Drew Carey. Who would? But a bit about the cameo he makes in The Sims: House Party lead me to thinking about people named “Goran”, and from about an hour after that I got haunted by the idea that at some point in my life I knew someone named “Goran Topalovic”. This threw off my whole evening ritual of brushing my teeth, flossing, and considering how I don’t know anyone named Goran. And thank you, Internet, for letting me know the number of people named “Goran Topalovic” is at least four, and not one of them makes any sense as anyone I could ever have met for any reason, ever. Even if I was introduced to him once, the name couldn’t possibly have stuck in my mind, as I’m a person who once failed to recognize his own mother’s name. I can’t have made up his name; I haven’t got the knack. I might imagine the Goran part, with help, but I’d finish it off with some word drawn from the depths of mathematics or physics, like, “Goran Eigendecomposition”, which doesn’t work at all. The lesson for me is to stop learning things about Drew Carey, although if he’s got any leads on Goran Topalovic I’d appreciate hearing from him.

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In music, variation is a formaw techniqwe where materiaw is repeated in an awtered form. The changes may invowve mewody, rhydm, harmony, counterpoint, timbre, orchestration or any combination of dese. - 1 Variation techniqwes - 2 Variation form - 3 History of variations - 4 Improvised variations - 5 See awso - 6 Notes - 7 References - 8 Furder reading - 9 Externaw winks Mozart's Twewve Variations on "Ah vous dirai-je, Maman" (1785), known in de Engwish-speaking worwd as "Twinkwe, Twinkwe, Littwe Star" exempwifies a number of common variation techniqwes. Here are de first eight bars of de deme: Mozart's first variation decorates and ewaborates de pwain mewodic wine: The fiff variation breaks up de steady puwse and creates syncopated off-beats: A compwete performance can be heard by fowwowing dis wink: Listen, uh-hah-hah-hah. Variation techniqwes are freqwentwy used widin pieces dat are not demsewves in de form of deme and variations. For exampwe, when de opening two-bar phrase of Chopin's Nocturne in F minor returns water in de piece, it is instantwy repeated as an ewegant mewodic re-working: Debussy's piano piece "Refwets dans w’Eau" (1905) opens wif a seqwence of chords: These chords open out into arpeggios when dey return water in de piece: Fowwow dis wink for a compwete performance of “Refwets dans w’Eau”. Sometimes mewodic variation occurs simuwtaneouswy wif de originaw. In Beedoven's "Wawdstein" piano sonata, de main second-subject deme of de opening movement, which is in sonata form, is heard in de pianist's weft hand, whiwe de right hand pways a decorated version, uh-hah-hah-hah. (See awso heterophony.) Whiwe most variations tend to ewaborate on de given deme or idea, dere are exceptions. In 1819, Anton Diabewwi commissioned Viennese composers to create variations on a wawtz dat he had composed: Variations on materiaw originawwy by oder composers Many composers have taken pieces composed by oders as a basis for ewaboration, uh-hah-hah-hah. John Dowwand's Lachrimae was freqwentwy used by oder composers as a basis for sets of variations during de 17f century. Composed in 1700, de finaw movement of Arcangewo Corewwi's Viowin Sonata Op. 5 No. 9 opens wif dis rader sparse mewodic wine: According to Nichowas Cook, in Geminiani's version "aww de notes of Corewwi's viowin wine ... are absorbed into a qwite new mewodic organization, uh-hah-hah-hah. Wif its characteristic rhydmic pattern, Geminiani's opening is a tune in a way dat Corewwi's is not... whereas in de originaw version de first four bars consist of an undifferentiated stream of qwarter-notes and make up a singwe phrase, Geminiani's version has dree seqwentiaw repetitions of a distinctive one—bar phrase and a contrasted cwosing phrase, producing a strongwy accented down-beat qwawity." Jazz arrangers freqwentwy devewop variations on demes by oder composers. For exampwe, Giw Evans’ 1959 arrangement of George Gershwin's song "Summertime" from de opera Porgy and Bess is an exampwe of variation drough changing orchestraw timbre. At de outset, Evans presents a singwe variation dat repeats five times in subtwy differing instrumentaw combinations. These create a compewwing background, a constantwy-changing sonic tapestry over which trumpeter Miwes Davis freewy improvises his own set of variations. Wiwfrid Mewwers (1964) wrote dat "[i]t cawwed for an improviser of Davis's kind and qwawity to expwore, drough Giw Evans' arrangement, de tender fraiwty inherent in de 'Summer-time' tune... Between dem, sowo wine and harmonic cowour create a music dat is at once innocent and tense wif apprehension". Variation forms incwude ground bass, passacagwia, chaconne, and deme and variations. Ground bass, passacagwia and chaconne are typicawwy based on brief ostinato motifs providing a repetitive harmonic basis and are awso typicawwy continuous evowving structures. Theme-and-variation forms are, however, based specificawwy on mewodic variation, in which de fundamentaw musicaw idea, or deme, is repeated in awtered form or accompanied in a different manner. Theme-and-variation structure generawwy begins wif a deme (which is itsewf sometimes preceded by an introduction), typicawwy between eight and dirty-two bars in wengf; each variation, particuwarwy in music of de eighteenf century and earwier, wiww be of de same wengf and structure as de deme. This form may in part have derived from de practicaw inventiveness of musicians; "Court dances were wong; de tunes which accompanied dem were short. Their repetition became intowerabwy wearisome, and inevitabwy wed de pwayer to induwge in extempore variation and ornament"; however, de format of de dance reqwired dese variations to maintain de same duration and shape of de tune. Variation forms can be written as free-standing pieces for sowo instruments or ensembwes, or can constitute a movement of a warger piece. Most jazz music is structured on a basic pattern of deme and variations. Exampwes incwude John Buww's Sawvator Mundi, Bach's Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmew hoch da komm' ich her, Passacagwia and Fugue in C minor, Viowin Chaconne, and (D minor sowo viowin suite), Corewwi's La Fowia Variations, Beedoven's Diabewwi Variations, de Finawe of Brahms's Fourf Symphony, Variations on a Theme of Haydn, Op. 56, Ewgar's Enigma Variations, Franck's Variations Symphoniqwes, and Richard Strauss's Don Quixote. Bof Schubert's Deaf and de Maiden Quartet and Trout Quintet take deir titwes from his songs used as variation movements. Chopin's Berceuse for piano, Op. 57, was first cawwed Variantes, and consists of 16 continuous variations on a ground bass. History of variations Awdough de first isowated exampwe emerged in de 14f century, works in deme-and-variation form first emerge in de earwy sixteenf century. Possibwy de earwiest pubwished exampwe is de diferencias for vihuewa by Luis de Narváez (1538). A favorite form of variations in Renaissance music was divisions, a type in which de basic rhydmic beat is successivewy divided into smawwer and smawwer vawues. The basic principwe of beginning wif simpwe variations and moving on to more ewaborate ones has awways been present in de history of de variation form, since it provides a way of giving an overaww shape to a variation set, rader dan wetting it just form an arbitrary seqwence. Keyboard works in variation form were written by a number of 16f-century Engwish composers, incwuding Wiwwiam Byrd, Hugh Aston and Giwes Farnaby. Outstanding exampwes of earwy Baroqwe variations are de "ciaccone" of Cwaudio Monteverdi and Heinrich Schütz. Two famous variation sets from de Baroqwe era, bof originawwy written for harpsichord, are George Frideric Handew's The Harmonious Bwacksmif set, and Johann Sebastian Bach's Gowdberg Variations, BWV 988. In de Cwassicaw era, Wowfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote a great number of variations, such as de first movement of his Piano Sonata in A, K. 331, or de finawe of his Cwarinet Quintet. Joseph Haydn speciawized in sets of doubwe variations, in which two rewated demes, usuawwy minor and major, are presented and den varied in awternation; outstanding exampwes are de swow movement of his Symphony No. 103, de Drumroww, and de Variations in F minor for piano, H XVII:6. Ludwig van Beedoven wrote many variation sets in his career. Some were independent sets, for instance de Diabewwi Variations, Op. 120, and de Eroica Variations in E♭ major, Op. 35. Oders form singwe movements or parts of movements in warger works, such as first movement of de Piano Sonata No. 12, Op. 26, or de variations in de finaw movement of de Third Symphony (Eroica). Variation sets awso occur in severaw of his wate works, such as de swow movement of his String Quartet No. 12, Op. 127, de second movement of his finaw Piano Sonata No. 32, Op. 111, and de swow dird movement of de Ninf Symphony, Op.125. Franz Schubert wrote five variation sets using his own wieder as demes. Amongst dem is de swow movement of his string qwartet Deaf and de Maiden D. 810, an intense set of variations on his somber wied (D. 531) of de same titwe. Schubert's Piano Quintet in A (The Trout, D. 667) wikewise incwudes variations on his song The Trout D. 550. The second movement of de Fantasie in C major comprises a set of variations on Der Wanderer; indeed de work as a whowe takes its popuwar name from de wied. In de Romantic era, de variation form was devewoped furder. In 1824, Carw Czerny premiered his Variations for piano and orchestra on de Austrian Nationaw Hymn Gott erhawte Franz der Kaiser, Op. 73. Frédéric Chopin wrote four sets for sowo piano, and awso de Variations on "La ci darem wa mano" from Mozart's opera Don Giovanni, Op. 2, for piano and orchestra (1827). A furder exampwe of de form is Fewix Mendewssohn's Variations sérieuses. Johannes Brahms wrote a number of sets of variations; some of dem rewy on demes by owder composers, for exampwe de Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handew (1861; piano), and de Variations on a Theme by Haydn (1873; orchestra). The watter work is bewieved to be de first set of variations for orchestra awone dat was a work in its own right, rader dan part of a symphony, suite or oder warger work. Karw Gowdmark's Rustic Wedding Symphony (1875) starts out wif a set of variations as its first movement. Antonín Dvořák's Symphonic Variations (1877) and Edward Ewgar's Enigma Variations (1899) are oder weww-known exampwes. Anton Arensky's Variations on a Theme by Tchaikovsky (1894) is among his most popuwar compositions. Variation sets have awso been composed by notabwe twentief-century composers, incwuding - Sergei Rachmaninoff (Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini for piano and orchestra, and his variations for sowo piano on demes by Chopin and Corewwi), - Charwes Ives (Variations on "America", 1891), - Ernő Dohnányi (Variations on a Nursery Tune for piano and orchestra, Op. 25, 1914), - Arnowd Schoenberg (Variations for Orchestra, Op. 31, and Theme and Variations, Opp. 43a and 43b), - Igor Stravinsky (Puwcinewwa: XV Gavotta con due variazioni, 1920; Octet: II Tema con variazioni, 1922; Ebony Concerto: III, 1945; and Variations: Awdous Huxwey in memoriam, 1963–64), - Awban Berg (Act 1, Scene 4 and de beginning of Act 3 scene 1 of Wozzeck), - Owivier Messiaen (Thème et variations for viowin and piano, 1932), - Mikwós Rózsa, Theme, Variations, and Finawe (1933), - George Gershwin (Variations on "I Got Rhydm" for piano and orchestra, 1934), - Anton Webern (Variations, Op. 27 for piano, and Variations, Op. 30 for orchestra), - Reinhowd Gwière (Harp Concerto in E♭: II, 1938), - Pauw Hindemif (Symphonic Metamorphosis of Themes by Carw Maria von Weber, 1943), - Benjamin Britten (incwuding de Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge, 1937, and The Young Person's Guide to de Orchestra [Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Purceww], 1946), - Wiwwiam Wawton (second movement of de Sonata for Viowin and Piano, 1947–49, and Variations on a Theme by Hindemif, 1963), - Leonard Bernstein (part 1 of his Symphony No. 2: The Age of Anxiety, 1949, is a Prowogue and 14 variations), - Luigi Nono (Variazioni canoniche suwwa serie deww'op. 41 di A. Schönberg, 1950), - John Cage, Variations I–VIII (1958–67), Hymns and Variations, for twewve ampwified voices (1979), - Ben Johnston, String Quartet No. 4 "Ascent" (Variations on "Amazing Grace", 1973), - Frederic Rzewski, The Peopwe United Wiww Never Be Defeated! (1975), - Frans Geysen, De grote variatie for organ (1975), - Cristóbaw Hawffter, Variaciones sobre wa resonancia de un grito, for 11 instruments, tape, and wive ewectronics (1976–77), - Andrew Lwoyd Webber, Variations for cewwo and rock band (1977), - Steve Reich (Variations for Winds, Strings and Keyboards, 1979), - John McGuire, Forty-eight Variations, for two pianos (1976–80), and - John Wiwwiams, Variations on "Happy Birdday" for orchestra (1995). An unusuaw option was taken in 1952 wif de Variations on an Ewizabedan Theme, a set of six variations on Sewwenger's Round for string orchestra, in which each variation was written by a different composer, Lennox Berkewey, Benjamin Britten, Ardur Owdham, Humphrey Searwe, Michaew Tippett, and Wiwwiam Wawton. A significant sub-set of de above consists of variations on a deme by anoder composer. Skiwwed musicians can often improvise variations on a deme. This was commonpwace in de Baroqwe era, when de da capo aria, particuwarwy when in swow tempo, reqwired de singer to be abwe to improvise a variation during de return of de main materiaw. During dis period, according to Nichowas Cook, it was often de case dat "responsibiwity for de most highwy ewaborated stage in de compositionaw process feww not upon de composer but upon de executant. In deir instrumentaw sonatas composers wike Corewwi, Geminiani, and Handew sometimes suppwied de performer wif onwy de skeweton of de music dat was to be pwayed; de ornamentation, which contributes cruciawwy to de music’s effect, had to be provided by de performer." Cook cites Geminiani's ewaboration of Corewwi (see above) as an exampwe of an instance "in which de composer, or a performer, wrote down a version of one of dese movements as it was meant to be pwayed." Musicians of de Cwassicaw era awso couwd improvise variations; bof Mozart (see Mozart's compositionaw medod) and Beedoven made powerfuw impressions on deir audiences when dey improvised. Modern wisteners can get a sense of what dese improvised variations sounded wike by wistening to pubwished works dat evidentwy are written transcriptions of improvised performances, in particuwar Beedoven's Fantasia in G Minor, Op. 77, and Mozart's Variations on an Aria by Gwuck, K. 455. Improvisation of ewaborate variations on a popuwar deme is one of de core genres of jazz. According to Wiwwiam Austin, de practice of jazz musicians "resembwes de variations on popuwar songs composed for de keyboard at de end of de 16f century by Byrd, Buww, Sweewinck and Frescobawdi, more dan de cumuwative variations of Beedoven and Brahms." Generawwy, de deme used is stated qwite expwicitwy at de outset. However, some jazz musicians empwoy a more obwiqwe approach. According to Gambwe (1984, p13) “Charwie Parker's performance of Embraceabwe You can be appreciated fuwwy onwy if we are famiwiar wif de tune, for unwike many jazz performances in which de deme is stated at de beginning, fowwowed by improvisations on de deme, Parker waunches awmost immediatewy into improvisation, stating onwy a fragment of de tune at de end of de piece.” Coweman Hawkins' famous interpretation of “Body and Souw” shows a simiwar approach. “On 11 October 1939, Coweman Hawkins went into New York's RCA studios wif an eight-piece band to record de 1930 composition Body and Souw. It was awready a favourite among jazz musicians, but nobody had ever pwayed it wike dis. Pianist Gene Rodgers pways a straight four-bar introduction before Hawkins swoops in, sowoing for dree minutes widout pwaying a singwe note of de tune, gwiding over de chord changes wif such harmonic wogic dat he ends up inventing bebop." Improvisation by means of spontaneous variations, ornaments, embewwishments and/or awterations to a mewody is de basis of most sub-Saharan African music (traditionaw and pop) extending from mewody and harmony to form and rhydmic embewwishments. - Composer tributes (cwassicaw music) - Devewoping variation - Matrix (music) - Strophic form - Traditionaw sub-Saharan African harmony - White (1976), p.63. - Mewwers, W. (1983, p. 386) Beedoven and de Voice of God. London, Faber. - Cook, N. (1990, p.189) Music, Imagination and Cuwture. Oxford, Cwarendon Press. - Cook, N. (1990, p.190) Music, Imagination and Cuwture. Oxford, Cwarendon Press. - Mewwers 1964, 356. - Copwand 2002, 115. - Sisman 2001. - Raymar 1931, 5. - Hodeir and Pautrot 2006, 8. - White 1976, 64–65. - Apew, Wiwwi (1962) Harvard dictionary of music, p. 784 - Gerawd Drebes: Schütz, Monteverdi und die "Vowwkommenheit der Musik" – "Es steh Gott auf" aus den "Symphoniae sacrae" II (1647). In: Schütz-Jahrbuch, Jg. 14, 1992, p. 25–55. onwine: Archived 2016-03-03 at de Wayback Machine - "American Symphony Orchestra: Diawogues and Extensions". Archived from de originaw on 2009-03-05. Retrieved 2008-12-21. - See Donawd M. McCorkwe, p. 5 in de Norton Scores edition of de Variations (ISBN 0-393-09206-2). - Cook, N. (1990, p.189) Music, Imagination and Cuwture. Oxford, Cwarendon Press. - Irmer 1985, 4. - Braunbehrens 1990, 198. - Austin 1966, 185. - Gambwe, T. (1984, p13) "Imagination and Understanding in de Music Curricuwum", British Journaw of Music Education, Vow. 1, No. 1. Cambridge University Press. - Lewis, J. (2011) “Coweman Hawkins records Body and Souw: Number 14 in our series of de 50 key events in de history of jazz music.” Guardian, 17 June. - Austin, Wiwwiam. 1966. Music in de 20f Century. London: Dent. - Braunbehrens, Vowkmar. 1990. Mozart in Vienna. New York: Grove Weidenfewd. ISBN 0-8021-1009-6. - Copwand, Aaron, uh-hah-hah-hah. 2002. What to Listen for in Music. Revised edition of an audorized reprint of a hardcover edition pubwished by McGraw-Hiww Book Company. New York: Signet Cwassic. ISBN 0-451-52867-0. - Hodeir, André. 2006. The André Hodeir Jazz Reader, edited by Jean-Louis Pautrot. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-09883-5. - Irmer, Otto von, uh-hah-hah-hah. 1986. Preface to Beedoven: Kwavierstücke. Munich: G. Henwe. - Mewwers, Wiwfred. 1964. Music in a New Found Land: Themes and Devewopments in de History of American Music. London: Barrie and Rockwiff. - Raymar, Aubyn, uh-hah-hah-hah. 1931. Preface to Mozart: Miscewwaneous Pieces for Pianforte, edited by York Bowen, uh-hah-hah-hah. London: Associated Board of de Royaw Schoows of Music. - Sisman, Ewaine. 2001. "Variations". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanwey Sadie and John Tyrreww. London: Macmiwwan Pubwishers. - White, John David. 1976. The Anawysis of Music. Engwewood Cwiffs, N.J.: Prentice-Haww. ISBN 0-13-033233-X. - Ehrhardt, Damien, uh-hah-hah-hah. 1998. La variation chez Robert Schumann, uh-hah-hah-hah. Forme et évowution (Diss. Sorbonne 1997). Liwwe: Presses Universitaires du Septentrion, uh-hah-hah-hah. ISBN 2-284-00573-X - Newson, Robert U. 1948. The Techniqwe of Variation; A Study of de Instrumentaw Variation from Antonio de Cabezón to Max Reger. University of Cawifornia Pubwications in Music 3. Berkewey: University of Cawifornia Press.

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ADA disabilities include both physical medical conditions. A condition does not need to be permanent to be a disability. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission regulations provide a list of conditions that should be concluded to be disabilities: deafness, blindness, an intellectual disability or missing limbs or mobility impairments requiring the use of a wheelchair, cancer, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, schizophrenia. Other mental or physical health conditions may be disabilities, depending on what the individual's symptoms would be in the absence of "mitigating measures", during an "active episode" of the condition. Certain specific conditions that are considered anti-social, or tend to result in illegal activity, such as kleptomania, exhibitionism, etc. are excluded under the definition of "disability" in order to prevent abuse of the statute's purpose. Additionally, other specific conditions, such as gender identity disorders, are excluded under the definition of "disability". See US labor law and 42 U. S. C. §§ 12111–12117. The ADA states that a "covered entity" shall not discriminate against "a qualified individual with a disability"; this applies to job application procedures, hiring and discharge of employees, job training, other terms and privileges of employment. "Covered entities" include employers with 15 or more employees, as well as employment agencies, labor organizations, joint labor-management committees. There are strict limitations on when a covered entity can ask job applicants or employees disability-related questions or require them to undergo medical examination, all medical information must be kept confidential. Prohibited discrimination may include, among other things, firing or refusing to hire someone based on a real or perceived disability and harassment based on a disability. Covered entities are required to provide reasonable accommodations to job applicants and employees with disabilities. A reasonable accommodation is a change in the way things are done that the person needs because of a disability, can include, among other things, special equipment that allows the person to perform the job, scheduling changes, changes to the way work assignments are chosen or communicated. An employer is not required to provide an accommodation that would involve undue hardship, the individual who receives the accommodation must still perform the essential functions of the job and meet the normal performance requirements. An employee or applicant who engages in the illegal use of drugs is not considered qualified when a covered entity takes adverse action based on such use. There are many ways to discriminate against people based on disabilities, including psychological ones. Anyone known to have a history of mental disorders can be considered disabled. Employers with more than 15 employees must take care to treat all employees and with any accommodations needed; when an employee is doing a job exceptionally well, she or he is not no longer disabled. Part of Title I was found unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court as it pertains to states in the case of Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett as violating the sovereign immunity rights of the several states as specified by the Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Court determined. State employees can, file complaints at the Department of Justice or the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, who can sue on their behalf. Title II prohibits disability discrimination by all public entities at the local level, e.g. school district, city, or county, at state level. Public entities must comply with Title II regulations by the U. S. Department of Justice; these regulations cover access to all services offered by the entity. Access includes physical access described in the ADA Standards for Accessible Design and programmatic access that might be obstructed by discriminatory policies or procedures of the entity. Title II applies to public transportation provided by public entities through regulations by the U. S. Department of Transportation, it includes the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, along with all other commuter au United States Department of Housing and Urban Development The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development is a Cabinet department in the Executive branch of the United States federal government. Although its beginnings were in the House and Home Financing Agency, it was founded as a Cabinet department in 1965, as part of the "Great Society" program of President Lyndon Johnson, to develop and execute policies on housing and metropolises; the department was established on September 9, 1965, when Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Department of Housing and Urban Development Act into law, it stipulated that the department was to be created no than November 8, sixty days following the date of enactment. The actual implementation was postponed until January 13, 1966, following the completion of a special study group report on the federal role in solving urban problems. HUD is administered by the United States Secretary of Urban Development, its headquarters is located in the Robert C. Weaver Federal Building; some important milestones for HUD's development include: June 27, 1934 – The National Housing Act creates the Federal Housing Administration, which helps provide mortgage insurance on loans made by FHA-approved lenders. September 1, 1937 – Housing Act of 1937 creates the United States Housing Authority, which helps enact slum-clearance projects and construction of low-rent housing. February 3, 1938 – The National Housing Act Amendments of 1938 is signed into law; the law creates the Federal National Mortgage Association, which provides a secondary market to the Federal Housing Administration. February 24, 1942 – Executive Order 9070, Establishing the National Housing Agency; the Federal Housing Administration, the Federal Home Loan Bank Board, The Home Owners' Loan Corporation, The United States Housing Authority, defense housing under the Federal Works Agency, the War Department, the Navy Department, the Farm Security Administration, the Defense Homes Corporation, the Federal Loan Administration, the Division of Defense Housing Coordination were consolidated. The National Housing Agency would be made up of three units, each with its own commissioner; the units were the Federal Housing Administration, the Federal Home Loan Bank Administration, the United States Housing Authority. July 27, 1947 – The Housing and Home Finance Agency is established through Reorganization Plan Number 3. July 15, 1949 – The Housing Act of 1949 is enacted to help eradicate slums and promote community development and redevelopment programs. August 2, 1954 – The Housing Act of 1954 establishes comprehensive planning assistance. September 23, 1959 – The Housing Act of 1959 allows funds for elderly housing. September 2, 1964 – The Housing Act of 1964 allows rehabilitation loans for homeowners. August 10, 1965 – The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965 instituted several major expansions in federal housing programs. September 1965 – HUD is created as a cabinet-level agency by the Department of Housing and Urban Development Act. April 1968 – The Fair Housing Act is passed to ban discrimination in housing. During 1968 – The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968 establishes the Government National Mortgage Association. August 1969 – The Brooke Amendment establishes that low income families only pay no more than 25 percent of their income for rent. August 1974 – Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 allows community development block grants and help for urban homesteading. October 1977 – The Housing and Community Act of 1977 sets up Urban Development Grants and continues elderly and handicapped assistance. July 1987 – The Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act gives help to communities to deal with homelessness, it includes the creation of the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness of which HUD is a member. February 1988 – The Housing and Community Development Act provides for the sale of public housing to resident management corporations. October 1992 – The HOPE VI program starts to revitalize public housing and how it works. October 1992 – The Housing and Community Development Act of 1992 codifies within its language the Federal Housing Enterprises Financial Safety and Soundness Act of 1992 that creates the Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight, mandates HUD to set goals for lower income and underserved housing areas for the GSEs Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. 1992 – Federal Housing Enterprises' Financial Safety and Soundness Act of 1992 creates HUD Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight to provide public oversight of FNMA and Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation. 1993 – Henry G. Cisneros is named Secretary of HUD by President William J. Clinton, January 22. Empowerment Zone and Enterprise Community program becomes law as part of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993. 1995 – "Blueprint for Reinvention of HUD" proposes sweeping changes in public housing reform and FHA, consolidation of other programs into three block grants. 1996 – Homeownership totals 66.3 million American households, the largest number ever. 1997 – Andrew M. Cuomo is named by President Clinton to be Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, the first appointment from within the Department. 1998 – HUD opens Enforcement Center to take action against HUD-assisted multifamily property owners and other HUD fund recipients who violate laws and regulations. Congress approves Public Housing reforms to reduce segregation by race and income and reward work, bring more working families into public housing, increase the availability of subsidized housing for poor families. 2000 – America's homeownership rate reaches a new record-high of 67.7 percent in the third quarter of 2000. A total of 71.6 million American families own their homes - more than at any time in American history. 2001 – Mel Martinez, named by President George W. Bush to be Secretary o The Jacobethan or Jacobean Revival architectural style is the mixed national Renaissance revival style, made popular in England from the late 1820s, which derived most of its inspiration and its repertory from the English Renaissance, with elements of Elizabethan and Jacobean. John Betjeman coined the term "Jacobethan" in 1933, described it as follows: The style in which the Gothic predominates may be called, inaccurately enough and the style in which the classical predominates over the Gothic inaccurately, may be called Jacobean. To save the time of those who do not wish to distinguish between these periods of architectural uncertainty, I will henceforward use the term "Jacobethan"; the term caught on with art historians. Timothy Mowl asserts in The Elizabethan and Jacobean Style that the Jacobethan style represents the last outpouring of an authentically native genius, stifled by slavish adherence to European baroque taste. In architecture the style's main characteristics are flattened, cusped "Tudor" arches, lighter stone trims around windows and doors, carved brick detailing, steep roof gables terra-cotta brickwork and parapets, pillars supporting porches and high chimneys as in the Elizabethan style. Examples of this style are Harlaxton Manor in Lincolnshire, Mentmore Towers in Buckinghamshire and Sandringham House in Norfolk, England. In June 1835, when the competition was announced for designs for new Houses of Parliament, the terms asked for designs either in the Gothic or the Elizabethan style; the seal was set on the Gothic Revival as a national style for the grandest projects on the largest scale. Of the ninety-seven designs submitted, six were in a self-described "Elizabethan" style. In 1838, with the Gothic revival was well under way in Britain, Joseph Nash, trained in A. W. N. Pugin's office designing Gothic details, struck out on his own with a lithographed album Architecture of the Middle Ages: Drawn from Nature and on Stone in 1838. Casting about for a follow-up, Nash extended the range of antiquarian interests forward in time with his next series of lithographs The Mansions of England in the Olden Time 1839–1849, which illustrated Tudor and Jacobean great houses, interiors as well as exteriors, made lively with furnishings and peopled by inhabitants in ruffs and farthingales, the quintessence of "Merrie Olde England". A volume of text accompanied the fourth and last volume of plates in 1849, but it was Nash's picturesque illustrations that popularised the style and created a demand for the variations on the English Renaissance styles, the essence of the newly revived "Jacobethan" vocabulary. Two young architects providing Jacobethan buildings were James Pennethorne and Anthony Salvin, both knighted. Salvin's Jacobethan Harlaxton Manor, near Grantham, its first sections completed in 1837, is the great example that defines the style; the Jacobethan Revival survived the late 19th century and became a part of the commercial builder's repertory through the first 20 years of the 20th century. Apart from its origins in the UK, the style became popular both in Canada and throughout the United States during those periods, for sturdy "baronial" dwellings in a free Renaissance style. A key exponent of the style in Britain was T. G. Jackson; some examples can be found in buildings in the former British Empire, such as Rashtrapati Niwas, the Viceregal Lodge at Shimla. The term has proved useful to literary studies that are emphasizing the continuity of English literature in the half century 1575–1625. For example, the 1603 death of Elizabeth I falls in the middle of Shakespeare's career as dramatist: he is both an Elizabethan and a Jacobean writer. Tudor Revival architecture Jacobean era Mowl, Tim. Elizabethan And Jacobean Style. London: Phaidon Press. ISBN 0-7148-2882-3. Newman, John. Dorset; the Buildings of England. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. P. 55. ISBN 0-14-071044-2. Pevsner, Nikolaus. London; the Buildings of England. I. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. P. 477 Collegiate Gothic is an architectural style subgenre of Gothic Revival architecture, popular in the late-19th and early-20th centuries for college and high school buildings in the United States and Canada, to a certain extent Europe. A form of historicist architecture, it took its inspiration from Gothic buildings, it has returned in the 21st century in the form of prominent new buildings at schools and universities including Princeton and Yale. Ralph Adams Cram, arguably the leading Gothic Revival architect and theoretician in the early 20th century, wrote about the appeal of the Gothic for educational facilities in his book Gothic Quest: "Through architecture and its allied arts we have the power to bend men and sway them as few have who depended on the spoken word, it is for us, as part of our duty as our highest privilege to act...for spreading what is true." Gothic Revival architecture was used for American college buildings as early as 1829, when "Old Kenyon" was completed on the campus of Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio. Another early example was Alexander Jackson Davis's University Hall, on New York University's Washington Square campus. Richard Bond's church-like library for Harvard College, Gore Hall, became the model for other library buildings. James Renwick, Jr.'s Free Academy Building, for what is today City College of New York, continued in the style. Inspired by London's Hampton Court Palace, Swedish-born Charles Ulricson designed Old Main at Knox College in Galesburg, Illinois. Following the Civil War, idiosyncratic High Victorian Gothic buildings were added to the campuses of American colleges, including Yale College. In 1871, English architect William Burges designed a row of vigorous French Gothic-inspired buildings for Trinity College – Seabury Hall, Northam Tower, Jarvis Hall – in Hartford, Connecticut. Tastes became more conservative in the 1880s, "collegiate architecture soon after came to prefer a more scholarly and less restless Gothic." Beginning in the late-1880s, Philadelphia architects Walter Cope and John Stewardson expanded the campus of Bryn Mawr College in an understated English Gothic style, sensitive to site and materials. Inspired by the architecture of Oxford and Cambridge universities, historicists but not literal copyists, Cope & Stewardson were influential in establishing the Collegiate Gothic style. Commissions followed for collections of buildings at the University of Pennsylvania, Princeton University, Washington University in St. Louis, marking the nascent beginnings of a movement that transformed many college campuses across the country. In 1901, the firm of Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge created a master plan for a Collegiate Gothic campus for the fledgling University of Chicago spent the next 15 years completing it; some of their works, such as the Mitchell Tower, were near-literal copies of historic buildings. George Browne Post designed the City College of New York's new campus at Hamilton Heights, Manhattan, in the style; the style was experienced up-close by a wide audience at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, Missouri; the World's Fair and 1904 Olympic Games were held on the newly completed campus of Washington University, which delayed occupying its buildings until 1905. The movement gained further momentum when Charles Donagh Maginnis designed Gasson Hall at Boston College in 1908. Maginnis & Walsh went on to design Collegiate Gothic buildings at some twenty-five other campuses, including the main buildings at Emmanuel College, the law school at the University of Notre Dame. Ralph Adams Cram designed one of the most poetic collections of Collegiate Gothic buildings for the Princeton University Graduate College. James Gamble Rogers did extensive work at Yale University, beginning in 1917; some critics claim he took historicist fantasy to an extreme, while others choose to focus on what is considered to be the resulting beautiful and sophisticated Yale campus. Rogers was criticized by the growing Modernist movement, his cathedral-like Sterling Memorial Library, with its ecclesiastical imagery and lavish use of ornament, came under vocal attack from one of Yale's own undergraduates: A modern building constructed for purely modern needs has no excuse for going off in an orgy of meretricious medievalism and stale iconography. Other architects, notably John Russell Pope and Bertram Goodhue, advocated for and contributed to Yale's particular version of Collegiate Gothic. When McMaster University moved to Hamilton, Canadian architect William Lyon Somerville designed its new campus in the style. American architect Alexander Jackson Davis is "generally credited with coining the term" documented in a handwritten description of his own "English Collegiate Gothic Mansion" of 1853 for the Harrals of Bridgeport, Connecticut. By the 1890s, the movement was known as "Collegiate Gothic". In his praise for Cope & Stewardson's Quadrangle Dormitories at the University of Pennsylvania, architect Ralph Adams Cram revealed some of the racial and cultural implications underlying the Collegiate Gothic: It was, of course, in the great group of dormitories for the University of Pennsylvania that Cope and Stewardson first came before the entire country as the Alvin Christian "Al" Kraenzlein, known as "the father of the modern hurdling technique", was an American track-and-field athlete, the first sportsman in the history of Olympic games to win four individual gold medals in a single discipline at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris. Before, Carl Schuhmann, a German athlete, won four Olympic titles in gymnastics and wrestling at the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens; as of 2016, Alvin Kraenzlein is the only track-and-field athlete who has won four individual titles at one Olympics. Kraenzlein is known for developing a pioneering technique of straight-leg hurdling, which allowed him to set two world hurdle records, he is an Olympic Hall of USA Track & Field inductee. Kraenzlein was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, a son of Johann Georg Kränzlein, a brewer, Maria Augusta Schmidt, both of a German origin. After his family moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, he attended the Milwaukee's East Side High School, where he became involved in sports. In 1895, during the Wisconsin Interscholastic Championships, he won first places in the 100-yard dash, 120-yard high hurdles, 220-yard low hurdles, high jump, shot put. He attended the University of Wisconsin. In 1896, he won the 220-yard low hurdles, the high jump and placed second in the 100-yard dash and shot put at the freshman-sophomore track-and-field meet. During the 1897 Intercollegiate Athletic Conference Championship, Kraenzlein won the 220-yard low hurdles and the high jump, he led the Wisconsin team to the team title. He won the 1897 Amateur Athletic Union title in the 220-yard low hurdles. In 1897 Alvin Kraenzlein set an indoor world record of 36.6 seconds in the 300-yard low hurdles. In 1898, after being recruited by Mike Murphy, the University of Pennsylvania track-and-field coach, he moved to Philadelphia, where he studied at the Dental School and graduated in 1900. After winning his first athletics title in 1897 - the 220 yards hurdles race at the AAU championship, Kraenzlein achieved more notability by winning five AAU titles in both hurdling and long jump events, eight Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletes of America titles in dash and the long jump. Being a student at the University of Philadelphia, he established world records for the 120 metres high hurdles and the 220 metres low hurdles, the last standing for quarter of a century. In 1899, Kraenzlein established the long jump world record of 24' 3 1/2", he was a leader of the Penn's track-and-field team. Kraenzlein was noted for his hurdling technique, as he was among the first to practice the modern method of straight-lead-leg hurdle clearing. Arthur C. M. Croome from Great Britain first attempted the straight-lead-leg style in 1886, Alvin Kraenzlein perfected it and turned into a mainstream technique; this was significant development, as it enabled athletes to over-come the hurdles without reducing speed. In 1900, Kraenzlein was training for the Summer Olympics in England, he won the British Amateur Athletic Association Championships in London in the 120 yards hurdles and the long jump before entering the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris. He established a world record in the 120 yards hurdles for grass tracks. Alvin Kraenzlein became the most successful athlete of the 1900 Olympics. There, during three days of competitions he won four titles establishing new Olympic record every time: 60-metres sprint 110-metres high hurdles 200-metres low hurdles Long jump In the 60 metres, he ran both the preliminary and final in 7.0 seconds, defeating Walter Tewksbury by bare inches in the finals. His victory in the long jump was remarkable, as Kraenzlein defeated silver medallist Meyer Prinstein, his great rival from Syracuse University, only by a single centimetre. Prinstein's mark had been set in the qualification, he did not attend the final, because it was held on a Sunday; as it was said, the two had an informal agreement not to compete on Sunday, when Prinstein learned that Kraenzlein did show up he became violent punching Kraenzlein according to some accounts. Altogether, thirteen student athletes from the University of Pennsylvania competed in the track events in Paris, they distinguished themselves with twenty medals including eleven gold awards. After the 1900 Olympic Games, Kraenzlein retired from athletic competition in late 1900, as the owner of six world and four Olympic records. He started a dental practice. Kraenzlein became a manager of the Milwaukee Athletic Association. In 1902, having returned to Philadelphia, he married Claudine Gilman, whom he knew from the student days, he practiced dentistry in Philadelphia till 1906 when he became the track-and-field coach at Mercersburg Academy, a selective prep school in Pennsylvania. Amongst his students was Ralph Craig, a future Olympic titleholder in both the 100 and 200 metres in 1912 Olympic Games. In 1910 -- 1913 he was the head football coach at the University of Michigan. In 1913 he signed a five-year $50,000 contract with the German government to train the 1916 German Olympic track team. With World War I coming, Kraenzlein served in the U. S. Army as a physical training specialist; when the war ended, he became an assistant coach for the University of Pennsylvania track team. He coached at summer camps and at the Havana Golf and Tennis Club in Cuba in the winter. In late 1927, he became afflicted with bouts of pleurisy. Alvin Van Ryn & DeGelleke Van Ryn & DeGelleke was an architectural firm in Wisconsin. It was a partnership of Henry J. Van Ryn and Gerrit Jacob DeGelleke, both of whom grew up in Milwaukee. A number of its works are listed on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places. Works include: Agriculture and Manual Arts Building/Platteville State Normal School, Univ. of Wisconsin, Platteville, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Boscobel High School, 207 Buchanan St. Boscobel, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Casa Rio, built 1945, at 2424 McGregor Blvd. Fort Myers, Florida, NRHP-listed One or more works in Central Park Historic District bounded by 19th St. Adams St. 16th St. and Jefferson St. Two Rivers, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Central School, 218 West Cayuga St, Iron River, Michigan, NRHP-listed F. A. Chadbourn House, 314 S. Charles St. Columbus, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Hudson Public Library, 304 Locust St. Hudson, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Janesville High School, 408 S. Main St. Janesville, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Lincoln County Courthouse, 1110 E. Main St. Merrill, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Main Hall/La Crosse State Normal School, 1724 State St. Univ. of Wisconsin, La Crosse, La Crosse, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed One or more works in Maple Park Historic District bounded by North, Cook and Maxwell Sts. Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed One or more works in Marshfield Central Avenue Historic District Central Ave. from Depot St. to Third St. Marshfield, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Milwaukee County Dispensary and Emergency Hospital, 2430 W. Wisconsin Ave. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Nelson Hall, 1209 Fremont St. Stevens Point, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed One or more works in Oshkosh State Normal School Historic District, buildings at 800, 842, 912 Algoma Blvd. and 845 Elmwood Ave. Oshkosh, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Schofield Hall, 105 Garfield Ave. Eau Claire, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Charles W. Stribley House, 705 W. Wisconsin Ave. Kaukauna, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Cyrus C. Yawkey House, 403 McIndoe St. Wausau, Wisconsin, NRHP-listed Anthony Joseph Knap was an American football coach. He was the head coach at Utah State University, Boise State University, the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, he compiled a career college football record of 143–53–4. Knap worked as a high school teacher and coach, served in the U. S. Navy during World War II; the oldest son of Polish immigrants, Knap was born and raised in Milwaukee and graduated from Riverside High School, where he was an All-City selection in football in 1934. Along with three other Milwaukee freshman, he accepted a football scholarship to the University of Idaho in Moscow and played on the Vandals freshman team in the fall of 1935 lettered for three seasons on the varsity under head coach Ted Bank. Among his UI teammates were future head coaches and administrators Lyle Smith and Steve Belko. Other teammates included future Idaho athletic director Leon Green, NFL pros George "Iron Man" Thiessen, Stonko Pavkov, Dean Green, Richard "Truck" Trzuskowski, Hal Roise; as a senior in 1938, Knap was a second-team All-Coast selection at end, the only Vandal to make any of the three teams. The Vandals broke to an early 3–0–1 start in 1938 and there was early talk of the Rose Bowl in the national press. Three conference losses the Vandals finished the season at 6–3–1, Idaho's last winning season for a quarter century. Knap was a pitcher and utility player for three seasons on the varsity baseball team, a member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity. After earning a bachelor's degree in education in 1939, Knap became a high school teacher and coach for three years in Bonners Ferry, just south of Canada. While waiting for his military commission following the outbreak of World War II, he spent a fall at Lewiston High School in 1942 as an assistant under former Vandal teammate Steve Belko. Knap served in the U. S. Navy returned to coaching after the war back in Idaho at Potlatch, near Moscow, stayed with the Loggers until the summer of 1949, he attended a summer coaching clinic in 1949 in the Bay Area and was offered a head coaching position at Pittsburg High School in Pittsburg, California. Knap moved his family south to northern California. He stayed at the East Bay school through the 1958 season, his overall record as a high school coach was 109–22–6. Knap left Pittsburg to become an assistant coach at Utah State in 1959 under new coach John Ralston, he was credited with developing the big, agile lines which contributed to the Aggies' rise to national prominence. One of those lineman was Merlin Olsen, a future hall of famer in the NFL. After posting a 26–3–1 regular season record in his final three years at USU, Ralston left Logan for Stanford after the 1962 season and Knap was promoted to head coach, where he compiled a 25–14–1 record in four seasons, from 1963 to 1966, his 1965 team was 8–2, but the Aggies slipped to 4–6 in 1966. With mixed support from his administrators, Knap resigned in January 1967 to accept a position with the BC Lions in the Canadian Football League. In rivalry games, his Utah State teams were 3–1 against BYU for The Old Wagon Wheel and 2–2 against Utah in the Battle of the Brothers. The Lions had a woeful year in 1967, going 3–12–1 and finishing in last in the CFL's Western Division. Knap did not return for another season. Instead, he succeeded Lyle Smith as head coach at Boise College in 1968, soon to become "Boise State College". Smith had just stepped down as head coach and as the athletic director, hired his former Vandal teammate, it was Boise's first year as an NAIA independent. Two years in 1970 the Broncos began play in the NCAA in Division II and the Big Sky Conference. Knap led the Broncos to a 71–19–1 record in eight years, including three ten-win seasons and three consecutive Big Sky titles, his salary was $16,800 in 1971 and $18,800 in 1972. Knap led the Broncos to a 3–1–1 record against his alma mater in the first five games of the Boise State–Idaho rivalry, his success in Boise led him south to Las Vegas in 1976, where he coached UNLV for six seasons and compiled a 47–20–2 record, stepping down at age 67 after the 1981 season. UNLV made the Division II playoffs in his first season and moved up to Division I-A in 1978, his third season at the school. While Knap was head coach, the Rebels played as an independent. He was inducted into UNLV's hall of fame in 1989, he led the Rebels to a 3–1 record over Nevada in the rivalry game for the Fremont Cannon. The game was not played in 1980, 1981, or 1982. Knap married Doris Adella "Mickey" McFarland, a former UI student born in St. Maries, during his first year as a teacher, they were wed in April 1941 in Bonners Ferry and had three daughters: Jacqueline and Caroline. In addition to his bachelor's degree, he earned a master's degree from Idaho, completing it in 1953 while in California. Following his retirement from coaching and his wife moved to Walla Walla, Washington in 1982, they were married over 70 years when he died in September 2011 at Bishop Place Retirement Center in Pullman. She died two years at age 93 in Pullman. Assistants under Tony Knap who became NCAA head coaches: Pat Hill: Fresno State Boise State University - news - former coach Tony Knap dies at age 96 Spokane Daily Chronicle - photo

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Unemployment is a standout amongst the most troublesome social issues of market economics. The joblessness moves over the business cycles as comprehended as changes in total request in respect to total supply. This paper deals with the data and the reasons for joblessness and its effect on the Pakistan economy. The part of government is likewise dealt with to recognize the reasons for unemployment. The research is led about the effect of joblessness on Pakistan economy. Study distinguishes the reasons of joblessness in Pakistan, to look at the effects of socio economic effect on youth of Pakistan. The exploration shows that unemployment is one of the major problems faced by Pakistan. Rise in the ratio of unemployment results in wastage of resources, increase in crime rate. Pakistan is blessed with countless natural and human resources like IT professionals, doctors, engineers, and researchers but they can’t find sufficient job opportunities due to inefficient employment system. The term in unemployment means, “A person is unemployed if he or she did not worked during the preceding week but made some effort to find working the past four weeks” Unemployment is one of the major problems of Pakistan. The level of unemployment is moving up. The socio economic system of the country and institutions has failed to provide employment to the increasing labor force. The rate of expansion in industrial sector is very slow. The increasing labor force has not been absorbed. Increasing output of general education institutions is the major cause of educated young men’s unemployment. Technical, professional and vocational institutions are limited in number. The private investor shifted their capital to other countries. Employment in the private sector absolutely stopped for many years. The higher growth rate of population is the major causes of unemployment. The population has exceeded the optimum level. The Resources of the country are limited. Employment cannot be provided to the increasing labor force. The cottage industries in rural areas had been faded out by the machine made goods. Pakistan at the moment houses the largest number of youth in its history. According to census 1998, youth under the age of 29 constitute 70% of the total population. As much as 64. 87% young population recites in rural areas and 35. 13% in urban area. When the unemployment at height, people’s income are depressed. In the current situation the ratio of unemployed persons in Pakistan is more than 12 percent which consists of 113 million peoples. (Nizami.S; 2010) According to latest labor survey for 2008-09, the unemployment rate has increased to 55% from 52% unemployment rate as 15 percent. (Khalil; 1999) Rural youth in Pakistan play very significant character in the political, economic, rural development and social change. The research work shows socio-psychological effects in aspect of unemployment on the personality of jobless youth in Tehsil Jaranwala, District Faisalabad-Pakistan. Descriptive and inferential statistics concludes that unemployment leads to poor mental health, drug addiction, corruption, rural development, crime, dishonesty, depression and anxiety. A highly significant association was found between family income of the respondents and psychological impact of unemployment.( Imran Khurram;2013) Among major and burning issues in Pakistan is the problem of unemployment. This study finds the determinants of unemployment by using the time series data from 1973 to 2010 indicate that unemployment has statistically significant positive relationships with output gap, Productivity and Economic Uncertainty while it has statistically significant negative relationships with Gross Fixed Investment and Openness of Trade. (Ambreen Atta; 2014) Youth unemployment in Pakistan is prevalent because there is improper counselling of future dimensions, there are no institutions which could guide the young students which field to adopt congenial to the requirements of the country. This feature is seriously lacking in Pakistan. This structural unemployment is also the reason of high urban unemployment in Pakistan. There is a seriously lack of those institutions which could provide compatible training skills and this is perhaps the most neglected sector of economy. Unemployment is an ordeal for our youth. Okun’s law suggested that a 2 percent decrease in GDP is responsible for a 1 percent increase in unemployment. If our economy is tested under his criterion, certainly Pakistan’s GDP remained subject to sporadic fluctuation all throughout the history, which reasons that resources in our country are not utilized properly and economy has never been in state of full employment.( Waqqas Qayyum;2007) This study for the long term effects of economic growth on the unemployment level in Pakistan confirmed the existence of stable, long run negative effect, whereas, in short run no relationship is observed The sluggish economic performance of Pakistan is responsible for high level of poverty and unemployment. Domestic production sectors are facing various macroeconomic challenges which distort its economic performance and it failed to create employment opportunities for increasing work force. Attempts should be taken to make domestic environment, trade and investment friendly to increase domestic production level. The achievement of higher economic growth will address the cause of unemployment level in the long run. (Shujaat Abba; 2014) Educated youth is facing so many problems in finding jobs and in starting their job careers. It is also observed that majority of the fresh graduates are not accepted in job market because the demand of experienced segments is high as compare to the fresh ones On the other hand job opportunities are too low due to the overpopulation and lake of resources. The study concluded that gender biasness or market segmentation is also exist in the matter of employment and jobs are allocated regarding to the sex. As the Pakistan is facing sever energy crisis in this era in this context majority of the respondents highlighted that energy crisis is also a prominent reason of unemployment in Pakistan. (Shahid Qayyum Khaleek ; 2013 ) This paper focus on major causes of unemployment and unveil socio-economic impacts of district Peshawar. Result of the study shows that the most important reasons for high rate of unemployment in Peshawar are high rate of population growth, Low level education, poverty, lack of skills, lack of capital and favoritism in selection process. (Zaheer Ahmad Ahmad and Jangraiz Khan ; 2016) There are so many reasons of unemployment in Pakistan. The biggest reason is the insufficient methods of production potential targets in almost all activities and branches of agriculture. Agriculture contributes almost directly or indirectly (Farooq 2009-10) Unemployment in agriculture sector is due to two main factors. Firstly, adaptation of latest technology has decreased the demand for farm labour. Secondly the labour displaced cannot be re-employed by other economic sectors due to low level of education, unskilled to be used in industries and due to vicious circle of poverty. Because they do not have enough resources to initiate small business venture on their own and be able to break his vicious circle. Causes of Unemployment In Pakistan labor force incorporate all people who are of ten years or more, at present accessible for work and looking for work. Based on the current populace of 142.87 millions with Labor constrain investment rate of 27.46 percent, the aggregate work drive comes to 39.24 million. As indicated by this around 2.4 million people of work constrain were evaluated as jobless in 1999, as development and transport areas have consumed 11.2 percent, 6.8 percent and 5.7 percent, contrasted with 10.5 percent, 7.2 percent and 5.0 percent individually in 1994- 95. As indicated by Labor Force Survey 1996-97, the rate of open unemployment was 6.1 percent and 5.4 percent according to Labor Force Survey of 1994-95. This shows rate of unemployment has expanded between these two reviews by 0.7 percent authoritatively yet informally joblessness is substantially bigger than this rate. This part manages the reasons for joblessness and its effect on the economy of Pakistan. A portion of the significant reasons for joblessness in Pakistan are following; Agriculture part connects straightforwardly or in a roundabout way 45% of the work power and it additionally contributes 23% to the GDP. The fundamental driver of joblessness in Pakistan are: The primary reason is unpalatable and inadmissible state of peace and due to this major circumstance remote direct speculation is sliding down, In review of Pakistan monetarily, in a year ago ebb and flow decade FDI was least, According to the universal establishment of Finance Direct Investment, FDI which fell 32% at 2009 in Pakistan. In 2009 the FDI was $3.2 billion but in 2009-10, July to April FDI was totally $1.8 billion which represent declines of 45 percent. Poor Education System: The training framework in Pakistan has been extremely poor since the production of Pakistan. Shockingly any legislature since autonomy didn’t find a way to influence the instruction framework to player. Instruction framework in Pakistan is lopsided. It has been seen even skilled understudies left investigation because of unfairness of framework. You will watch numerous specialized instructive schools and private specialized organizations are being discovered which are just offering degrees since specialized training which is being given in these foundations has no esteem, in this manner individuals are pondering about for occupations because of absence of experience and aptitudes. Growth of Population: One of the significant issues with respect to joblessness in Pakistan is uncontrolled development of populace. The number of inhabitants in Pakistan is expanding at high rate this time. As indicated by the measurable, the number of inhabitants in Pakistan is expanding at the rate of 2.2%. There are a lot of components in charge of over populace, for example, early relational unions, absence of education, wants for children, absence of mindfulness and so on. As we as a whole realize that the training arrangement of Pakistan isn’t up to the stamp along these lines expanding in populace implies carry more uneducated individual into the field of work. Government or some other organization can’t give employments or work spots to this immense measure of uneducated individuals. It has been seen that development of populace is moderately regular ruler regions. A large portion of individuals living in towns are uneducated in this manner they are missing from issues due to over populace. There are numerous wellsprings of delivering of vitality in Pakistan however because of absence of legitimate arranging and endeavors Pakistan is having issue of vitality emergency. The administration of Pakistan can’t give energy to local locations in Pakistan than in what capacity would energy be able to or power can be given to plants and ventures. Consequently processing plants and ventures that are required vitality are moving their business in other Asian. As of this outcome countless are turning into the casualties of unemployment. Another main cause of unemployment in Pakistan is the economic depression of the world combined with the terror of America, has reduced trade and industrial activity in Pakistan which is not attracting new investment plus these factors have put international investment at risk. It has not just mutilated Pakistan’s picture in the global field yet in addition multiplied our uses on armed powers. Pakistan isn’t drawing in new speculation in addition to these components have put universal venture in danger. In 2007 American states burned through $368 billion in innovative work field. Just 2 percent of the GDP has been spent by Pakistan on instruction as indicated by 2010 spending which calm a little sums as is found in the area context. Other reason for joblessness in Pakistan is the fast development of populace. Toward the finish of June 2009, evaluated populace is 1699 million, in 2050, it is normal that Pakistan will turn into the fourth biggest country of the world in populace with development rate of 2.06 percent. At display Pakistan is 6th in universes from populace perspective. The economy of Pakistan has been confronting financial, social and political changes in the ongoing past bringing about monster fiscal and material misfortunes. To pinpoint a couple, the vitality emergency is on the best. Not just the profitability and productivity of the mechanical part has endured a great deal, yet it has likewise added to the agony of human life human life. In such a powerless circumstance it is no big surprise that joblessness may crawl up to an unmanageable level. Types of Unemployment This part manages the different sorts of joblessness and terminologies utilized by scientists and researchers. Changes in singular market in the cost of Frictional or Temporary joblessness, for instance, new specialists to look changed employments potential outcomes. Indeed, even experienced laborers invest a time of jobless energy for looking alluring employments advertising. The idea of frictional joblessness is distinctive idea from recurrent joblessness which is a consequence of low level to aggregatw deman When there are territorial occupation opening yet they don’t coordinate the example and aptitudes of laborers, are the example of the employments is not the same as specialists abilities. The aspect of unemployment is related to cyclical trend, carried out with business cycle in both production and growth. When there is boom in the economy then cyclical unemployment is very low whereas output production is at its height. Similarly, when there is low production in an economy, calculated through GDP, we will see that business cycle is going to bottom and this cyclical unemployment will increase. According to Friedman even if the labour market is in equilibrium, frictional and structural unemployment always exist. He called it “natural” rate of unemployment. The NAIRU is very helpful in carrying out the economic analysis and policies, as if unemployment decline far beneath the NAIRU then inflation goes up until unemployment comes back to NAIRU. Same situation has scrutinized equally at local and national level, but could not be found the result in Pakistan. Studies being estimated are constant. It is also known as underemployment and it principally happens in which a person doesn’t get the type of work he is proficient of doing; he may poses skill and proficiency. When more people are occupied in some actions than the number of person requisite for that, this is called disguised unemployment. For example: in an industry, on a machine, 8 laborers are required to work on but are employed 10 laborers then this unemployment for 2 labors is called disguised unemployment. Discussion on Pakistan’s unemployment rate In December 2009, the unemployment rate announced in Pakistan was 5.05% from 1990 until 2009, joblessness rate in Pakistan was organized 5.88 percent coming to at the enormous stature of 8.27% in December 2002, and recorded low at 3.13 percent in December 1990. The work is characterized as the individuals utilized in addition to the general population are not utilized but rather searching for employments. Joblessness Rate is the Unemployed Population which is characterized as a level of the present working populace while show working populace comprises of people whose age is ten years or more and who satisfy the necessities for utilized or jobless people amid the reference time frame i.e, multi week going before the date of meeting. There has been a diminishing in the joblessness rate amid the most recent couple of years. The level of jobless when contrasted with the present working populace has declined aside from in 2001-02 where it expanded. Regularly it is watched that jobless work constrain has diminished amid the most recent decade except for the couple of years. A little change was seen in 2008-09 when jobless work constrain expanded. In 2005-06 1.2 million of the youth (15-25 years) was unemployed, which is 0.4 million less than the number of unemployed youth in 2001-02. In case the present percentage of unemployment continuous for the next 20 years, the number of unemployed youth will be nearly 6 million in 2030 In the above given table in labor force participation section, it can be seen that in the rural areas majority of the labour force is employed, unemployment figures are to be seen as a fraction of the whole. The difference is quite large. In urban areas, the unemployment rate is higher than in the rural area. Pakistan’s Status of Unemployment The economy of Pakistan has produced a considerable measure of points of interest from the outside exiles, particularly the gulf countries. This was traditionally unskilled labour engaged in the construction boom of the post -1973 oil price hike shock. Nonetheless, because of the economic changes in the Arab nations the open doors for untalented work has been diminished. As a result of decline in occupations abroad, the economy does not permit work openings, which can be made sense of from the low development rates. With the high rate of populace development, the figure for jobless Pakistanis is probably going to go up further. In Pakistan the interest for abilities couldn’t coordinate the supply for aptitudes. Studies show that Pakistan’s education rate is one of the most reduced on the planet and is more terrible than whatever is left of nations in the locale. In Pakistan no unidirectional development of Head Count Ratio has been watched with respect to destitution status. The HCR proportion of 30.6 percent in 1998-99, expanded to 3.5 percent in 2000 preceding declining to 23.9 percent amid 2004-05 and 2005-06 (Aslam, 2009-10) In Pakistan Less than seventy five percent of the school-age populace goes to elementary school. Consumption on instruction as a level of GNP has been under 3% in the most recent decade. Unemployment in Pakistan’s youth The issue of joblessness has from the start been existed in Pakistan since its initiation. It remained a critical issue focus in the nation along these lines, Pakistan’s new age experiences this issue a ton. Causes behind the unemployment of youth are the accompanying; • There are no opportunities for youth in the market as it is now soaked. • Training framework isn’t completely prepared to set up the young to take care of the market demand. In budget the fiscal deficit has reduced the proportion of the business. • There is absence of industrialization. • Bias in legislative issues. • Due to the populace explosion there is joblessness in Pakistan youth • Preference in political issues is likewise one the reasons for joblessness in Pakistan. • Intrusion of the political gatherings in instructive organization has additionally caused joblessness in Pakistan youth. • Feeble, deficient and wasteful economic plans and administration is likewise one reason for caused joblessness in Pakistani youth Effect OF UNEMPLOYMENT ON SOCIETY: Joblessness undermines the financial and social strength of any society. Social orders which neglect to give productive and secure work to their people welcome political shakiness, social agitation and economic uncertainty. The connection amongst joblessness and wrongdoing has additionally been established. Business is likewise straightforwardly identified with all mechanical and exchange exercises. These exercises back off when there is an abnormal state of unemployment yet increments when it is low. In an inter-dependent world the unemployment issue has taken a global perspective. This is obvious from the accompanying illustration: The normal yearly rate of development in worldwide fares was 6. 6 for every penny amid 1965-80. It declined to 4. 1 for every penny between 1980-91. While the developed world enjoyed the biggest share of the global exports, the slow-down not only affected it but also the developing countries, as declining industrial activities in the former decreased the prices of primary commodities in the latter. The youth are slanted to different social wrongs and sicknesses and even submit suicide. Pressure groups are active in the country. Proportion of adolescent wrongdoing is on the expansion. Road slaughtering, kidnapping, ransacking are assuming control over the community. Youth indulge into unfortunate exercises like pirating, offer of heroin and so on. Social unrest in the society is developing quickly. Because of impacts of joblessness on youth of Pakistan there is lost national ability on which any expectation of family and eventual fate of Pakistan for the most part depend. Increment IN CRIME: The socio-economic drop out of the high joblessness rate in Pakistan is apparent from the radical increment in the wrongdoing wave. Today burglaries, dacoits and capturing for deliver have turned into a fearsome apparatus of life in the nation. The resultant absence of common peace of the law undermine the specific premise of all modern, monetary and exchange exercises in the nation. As per “UN” report: Economic approach assumes a fundamental part to help hold the joblessness rate under check. As indicated by an UN report, the East Asian economies in the 1980s maintained a strategic distance from stagnation and joblessness did as such in light of the fact that they got their local approaches ideal by judicious getting, imaginative utilization of outside trade rates, advancement of fares, and insurance of sustenance producers and restriction of ostensible wages. UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME: The over accentuation on the expansion of the GDP has additionally prompted uneven dispersion of pay in Pakistan. The information on salary conveyance, in view of Household Income and Expenditure Surveys led by the Federal Bureau of Statistics amid 1963 to 1994, appears no less than four particular periods of imbalance at the proportions of the most elevated 20 for each penny and the least 20 for every penny wage gatherings. The main stage between 1963-71 demonstrates that imbalance in pay appropriation limited the proportion of most elevated to least 20 for each penny salary assemble diminished from 7. 1 for every penny in 1963-64 to 4. 9 for every penny in 1970-71. The second stage, from 1971-79 broadened the pay imbalance from 5. 4 for every penny to 6. 1 for each penny. By and by, the proportion declined in the third stage, 1984-87 from 6. 2 for every penny to 5. 5 for every penny. In the fourth stage, 1987-93, the disparity in salary appropriation compounded as the proportion pointedly ascended by 2. 3 for each penny to 7. 8 for each penny. The disparity between the family unit wage offers of the most reduced 20 for each penny and most elevated twenty for each penny is clear from the information gathered by the Federal Bureau of Statistics from 1979 to 1993. In 1979, the most minimal 20 for every penny delighted in an offer of 8. per penny of the aggregate wage while that of the most elevated 20 for each penny was 41. 3 for every penny. The present situation of joblessness demonstrates a melancholy photo without bounds. Since joblessness has diverse reasons as examined in this paper, hence the arrangement isn’t basic. Before unemployment could be controlled, the entire of economy should be put on firm balance free of corruption through and through among every one of the individuals from the society. Following recommendations and suggestions in order to reduce the unemployment in society, As the worldwide exchange benefit have developed considerably quicker it is basic that legislature should devise approaches which empower and advance relative instruction in the specific field. For the recovery of mechanical segment government ought to report financial restoration bundle to fortify creation and venture. For the improvement of horticulture part government ought to report different bundles. The financial and fiscal measures ought to pull in industrialists, and remote speculation. Government ought to give specialized preparing offices. To break the endless loop of destitution, letting free the bugged occupants, landless individuals from the iron grasps of the primitive rulers, the mafias and the distinguished jagirdars. Building up the standards of law for reasonable equity. By detailing short and long plans coordinated towards just and reasonable play of the monetary exercises in the economy. Birth rate of nation must be kept within as far as possible. Instruction must be helpful and valuable, with the goal that the legislature should open distinctive establishments for specialized and proficient instructive. Working condition must be charming for empowering females. Occupations level and pay must accord to the capability. Reward must be given on great execution keeping in mind the end goal to energize the specialists. Government ought to give openings for work to ability – people al little level. Govt. should attempt endeavors to push financial development process. For this reason Economic Revival Package ought to declare for the recovery of enterprises segment, to empower creation and venture. Govt. ought to report a bundle for the advancement of agribusiness division. Next to this various financial and money related measures should take to pull in industrialists and especially remote venture. More Technical and Vocational preparing offices ought to be given. Along these lines jobless individuals will find the opportunity to improve their abilities and wind up ready to gain sensible salary. With a view to decrease instruct joblessness; independent work plan ought to be energized in obvious behavior.

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Semiconductor device and method of fabricating same A highly reliable thin-film transistor (TFT) having excellent characteristics. A silicon film is grown laterally by adding a metal element such as nickel to promote crystallization. A crystal grain boundary is formed parallel to a gate electrode and around the center of the gate electrode. Thus, the grain boundary does not exist around the interface between the drain and the channel formation region. At this interface, a large stress is induced by a large electric field. The concentration of the metal element is low around the interface between the drain and the channel formation region. Therefore, the leakage voltage is small. Also, when a reverse voltage is applied to the gate electrode, the leakage current is small. Latest Semiconductor Energy Laboratory Co., Ltd. Patents: The present invention relates to an insulated gate field effect transistor, especially, to a thin film type IGFET, having a silicon film formed on an insulating substrate made of glass or on an insulating coating formed on various substrates. TFTs according to the invention are used in an active-matrix liquid crystal display and in other electronic circuits.BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In recent years, semiconductor devices having TFTs on an insulating substrate made of glass or the like, such as active-matrix liquid crystal displays using TFTs for driving pixels and image sensors, have been developed. Generally, TFTs used in these devices are made of a silicon semiconductor in the form of a thin film. Silicon semiconductors in the form of a thin film are roughly classified into amorphous silicon semiconductors (a-Si) and crystalline silicon semiconductors. Amorphous silicon semiconductors are fabricated at relatively low temperatures. In addition, they are relatively easy to manufacture by chemical vapor deposition. Furthermore, they can be easily mass-produced. Therefore, amorphous silicon semiconductors have enjoyed the widest acceptance. However, their physical properties such as conductivity are inferior to those of crystalline silicon semiconductors. In order to obtain higher-speed characteristics from amorphous silicon semiconductors, a method of fabricating TFTs having a crystalline silicon semiconductor must be established and has been keenly sought for. A known method of obtaining a crystalline silicon semiconductor in the form of a thin film comprises forming an amorphous silicon film and thermally annealing it for a long time so as to crystallize the film. However, this method requires a high annealing temperature exceeding 600.degree. C. Therefore, it is difficult to use a cheap glass substrate. Furthermore, the throughput is low because the annealing time is as long as tens of hours. A phenomenon capable of solving these problems has been found and disclosed in U.S. application Ser. No. 08/160,908 filed Dec. 3, 1993. In particular, if some kind of metal element is added to a silicon film, the metal element acts as a catalyst, so that crystallization progresses at a lower temperature and more quickly. Such metal elements, or catalytic elements, for promoting crystallization include elements belonging to group VIII of the periodic table, i.e., Fe, Co, Ni, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, and Pt, transition elements, i.e., Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Cu, and Zn. Also, Au and Ag can be used as catalytic elements. Among others, Ni produces especially conspicuous effects. An example of method of fabricating a TFT, using such a metal element is described now by referring to FIGS. 3(A)-3(D). Corning 7059 glass or other non-alkaline borosilicate glass is used as a substrate 301. Usually, a silicon oxide film having a thickness of 500 to 5000 .ANG., e.g. 2000 .ANG., is formed as an underlying film 302 on the substrate. An amorphous silicon film 303 having a thickness of 200 to 5000 .ANG., e.g., 800 .ANG., is deposited on the underlying film by plasma-assisted CVD (PCVD), low-pressure CVD (LPCVD), or other method. Then, a very thin film 304 having a catalytic element is uniformly formed by sputtering or other method. Since the thickness of the film containing this catalytic element determines the concentration of the catalytic element contained in the silicon film, the thickness is usually as thin as 5 to 100 .ANG.. Where the film is extremely thin, it does not take the form of a film (FIG. 3(A)). Then, a protective film 306 is formed of silicon oxide or the like, and an annealing step is carried out. The thickness of the protective film is 100 to 1000 .ANG., e.g., 300 .ANG.. The annealing temperature is 450.degree. to 600.degree. C., e.g., 550.degree. C. The annealing time is 1 to 10 hours, e.g., 4 hours. The amorphous silicon film is crystallized by this annealing step. The crystallized silicon film is patterned to form a silicon film region 305 in the form of an island. This island is used as an active layer of a TFT (FIG. 3(B)). Thereafter, a gate-insulating film 307 and a gate electrode 308 are formed. Using them as a mask, an impurity is implanted by a known self-aligning process to form a source 309 and a drain 310. To activate the impurity, laser irradiation or thermal annealing is utilized as shown in FIG. 3(C). Then, an interlayer insulator 311 is formed and contact holes are formed therethrough. Electrodes 312 and 313 are formed for the source and drain. Thus, a TFT is completed (FIG. 3(D)). In the TFT formed in this way, a catalytic element is uniformly dispersed in the active layer to form energy levels in the semiconductor. Therefore, a leakage current tends to occur at the interface between the drain (source) and channel formation region where an especially high electric field is generated at this interface. That is, where a reverse voltage (i.e., a negative voltage for an N-channel TFT and a positive voltage for a P-channel TFT) is applied to the gate electrode, as the absolute value of the applied voltage is increased, the leakage current between the source and drain increases. Additionally, the threshold voltage of the TFT is increased.SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide means for solving the foregoing problems. The above object is achieved in accordance with the teachings of the invention by selectively lowering the concentration of a catalytic element at the interface between the drain and channel formation region at which an especially high electric field is produced. In one feature of the invention, a catalytic element is selectively introduced in a silicon film, rather than adding a catalytic element uniformly. Therefore, crystallization starts from the initially introduced portions and proceeds to the surroundings. The inventor has found that the concentration of the catalytic element at the front ends of the growing crystals is higher than the concentration in finished crystal portions by about one order of magnitude. A crystal grain boundary is produced at a portion at which two growing crystals starting from different portions meet. The crystals stop growing there. Thus, a concentration of the catalytic element in the grain boundary is highest. Since the concentration of the catalytic element in the grain boundary formed in this way is high, an arrangement where the grain boundary is located at the interface between the drain and the channel formation region should be avoided. In contrast, if the grain boundary is kept in the center of the channel formation region, then the grain boundary does not exist at the interface between the drain and the channel formation region. Consequently, the concentration of the catalytic element at this portion is extremely low. As a result, the leakage current occurring when a reverse voltage is applied to the gate electrode is reduced, and the threshold voltage is decreased. Accordingly, in the present invention, a catalytic element is selectively introduced into a silicon film from at least two locations to induce crystallization. At the same time, a grain boundary is intentionally created. A gate electrode is formed over this grain boundary. If the grain boundary is linear, the gate electrode can be appropriately formed. If source and drain are formed by a self-aligning process, using the gate electrode as a mask, then the grain boundary is located substantially in the center of the channel formation region. The method of introducing the catalytic element comprises coating an amorphous silicon film with a masking material and selectively forming introduction locations in this masking material as in Example 1 of the invention. Also, another method comprises forming a silicon region in the form of an island, exposing only the side surfaces, and forming a coating containing the catalytic element over the exposed surfaces, as in Example 2. In the present invention, the grain boundary at which the concentration of the catalytic element is high is located around the center of the channel formation region. The concentration of the catalytic element at the interface between the drain and the channel formation region is inevitably made low. Therefore, if a reverse voltage is applied to the gate electrode, the leakage current is small, and the threshold voltage is low. This enhances the ON/OFF ratio of the TFT. Where TFTs of this structure are used in an active-matrix liquid crystal display, electric charge can be held well. The low threshold voltage means that the TFTs can be effectively driven by an electric current if the gate voltage is low, which, in turn, means that the ON/OFF ratio is high. Other objects and features of the invention will appear in the course of the description thereof, which follows.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1(A)-i(E) are a cross-sectional view of a TFT, illustrating successive steps for fabricating the TFT according to Example 1 of the invention; FIGS. 2(A)-2(D) are a cross-sectional view of a TFT, illustrating successive steps for fabricating the TFT according to Example 2 of the invention; FIGS. 3(A)-3(D) are a cross-sectional view of a TFT, illustrating successive steps for fabricating the TFT by the prior art techniques; and FIG. 4 is a graph showing the I.sub.D -V.sub.G characteristics of a TFT fabricated in Example 1, as well as the I.sub.D --V.sub.G characteristics of a TFT fabricated by the prior art method.DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIGS. 1(A)-i(D) are a cross-sectional view of a TFT, illustrating the process sequence of the present example. First, silicon oxide was sputtered as an underlying film 102 having a thickness of 2000 .ANG. on a substrate 101 smade of Corning 7059 glass. The substrate was annealed above its strain point either before or after formation of the underlying film. If the laminate is then slowly cooled below the strain point at a rate of 0.1.degree. to 1.0.degree. C./min, the substrate would shrink to a lesser extent in later steps involving temperature elevation. This makes it easy to perform a mask alignment. Where the substrate was made of Corning 7059 glass, it was annealed at 620.degree.-660.degree. C. for 1 to 4 hours. Subsequently, the substrate was slowly cooled at a rate of 0.1.degree. to 1.0.degree. C./min, preferably 0.1.degree. to 0.3.degree. C./min. When the temperature dropped to 450-590.degree. C., the substrate was taken out. After the formation of the underlying film, a mask 103 was formed of silicon nitride or other material. This mask 103 was provided with holes or slits 100 so that the underlying film 102 was exposed through the slits. More specifically, when the state shown in FIG. 1(A) is viewed from above, the underlying film 102 was exposed through the slits; the other portions were masked. After forming the mask 103, a metallic nickel film having a thickness of 5 to 200 .ANG., e.g., 20 .ANG., was formed over the whole surface by sputtering. Instead of the metallic nickel film, a nickel silicide film given by a chemical formula NiSi.sub.x, where 0.ltoreq..times..ltoreq.4 (e.g., .times.=2.0), may be used. Under this condition, nickel was selectively introduced into the regions 100 (FIG. 1 (A)). Then, only the mask 103 was removed. An intrinsic (I-type) amorphous silicon film having a thickness of 300 to 1500 .ANG., e.g., 500 .ANG., was formed by plasma-assisted CVD (PCVD). The amorphous film was annealed at 550.degree. C. for 4 to 8 hours in an inactive atmosphere (consisting of nitrogen or argon) at 1 atm to crystallize the amorphous film. The nickel film was selectively left on the regions 105 overlying the regions 100. These regions 105 were quite heavily doped with nickel. Crystallization progressed laterally from these regions 105. The crystalline regions 104 were comparatively lightly doped with nickel. Crystals grown from two regions met each other, thus forming a crystal grain boundary 105' at which the nickel concentration was high. This grain boundary was perpendicular to the plane of the sheet of the drawing. Accordingly, the grain boundary was linear like the gate electrode (FIG. 1(B)). After this step, the silicon film was patterned to form the active layer 104' of a TFT in the form of an island. The size of the active layer 104' is determined, taking account of the channel length and the channel width of the TFT. A smaller active layer measured 50 .mu.m.times.20 .mu.m. A larger active layer measured 100 .mu.m.times.1000 .mu.m (FIG. I(C)). Then, a silicon oxide film 106 having a thickness of 1000 .ANG.was formed using TEOS (tetraethoxysilane (Si(OC.sub.2 H.sub.5).sub.4)) and oxygen by PCVD as a gate-insulating film. During the formation of this film, the substrate temperature was 300.degree. to 550.degree. C., e.g., 400.degree. C. Subsequently, an aluminum film having a thickness of 6000 to 8000 .ANG., e.g., 6000 .ANG., and containing 0.01 to 0.2% scandium was formed by sputtering. The aluminum film was then patterned to form a gate electrode 107. The patterning step was so carried out that the gate electrode was located just above the grain boundary 105'. The surface of the aluminum electrode was anodized to form an oxide layer 108 on the surface. This anodization was effected in an ethylene glycol solution containing 1 to 5% tartaric acid. The thickness of the obtained oxide layer 108 was 2000 .ANG.. Since the thickness of this oxide 108 determines an offset gate region in a later ion doping step, the length of the offset gate region can be determined in the anodization step described above. Then, using the gate electrode portion comprising the gate electrode 107 and the surrounding oxide layer 108 as a mask, an impurity for imparting conductivity type P or N by a self-aligning process was implanted into the active layer 104' by ion doping (also called as plasma doping). Phosphine (PH.sub.3) or diborane (B.sub.2 H.sub.6) were used as dopant gases. Where the phosphine was used, the accelerating voltage was 60 to 90 kV, e.g., 80 kV. Where diborane was used, the accelerating voltage was 40 to 80 kV, e.g., 65 kV. The dose was 1.times.10.sup.15 to 8.times.10.sup.15 /cm.sup.2. For example, phosphorus was implanted at a dose of 2.times.10.sup.15 /cm.sup.2. As a result, N-type doped regions 109 and 111 were formed. A channel formation region 110 was left between these two doped regions. A grain boundary 105' existed around the center of the channel formation region 110. Thereafter, the implanted impurity was activated by irradiation of laser light. The laser light was emitted by a KrF excimer laser (having a wavelength of 248 nm and a pulse width of 20 nsec). Other laser may also be used. The laser light was emitted at an energy density of 200 to 400 mJ/cm.sup.2, e.g., 250 mJ/cm.sup.2. Two to 10 shots, e.g., 2 shots, were emitted per location. The effect may be enhanced by heating the substrate to about 200.degree. to 450.degree. C. during the laser irradiation (FIG. 1(D)). This step may also be carried out, using lamp annealing making use of visible or near-infrared radiation. Visible and near-infrared radiation can be readily absorbed by crystallized silicon and amorphous silicon doped with phosphorus or boron at a concentration of 10.sup.19 to 10.sup.21 cm.sup.-3 and permits an effective anneal comparable to thermal annealing conducted above 1000.degree. C. If phosphorus or boron is added, the impurity scatters light and so even near-infrared radiation is sufficiently absorbed. On the other hand, near-infrared radiation is not readily absorbed by a glass substrate and, therefore, the glass substrate is prevented from being overheated. Also, the processing can be completed in a short time. Hence, it can be said that this processing is the best method for a step in which shrinkage of the glass substrate is a problem. Subsequently, a silicon oxide film 112 having a thickness of 6000 .ANG. was formed as an interlayer insulator by PCVD. This interlayer insulator may also be made of either polyimide or a multilayer of silicon oxide and polyimide. Then, contact holes were formed. Electrodes and interconnects, 113 and 114, of a TFT were formed of a metal material such as a multilayer of titanium nitride and aluminum. Finally, the laminate was annealed at 350.degree. C. for 30 minutes in a hydrogen ambient at 1 atm to complete a TFT (FIG. I(E)). The circuit described above comprises only one TFT (an N-channel TFT). A CMOS structure consisting of a combination of dissimilar TFTs, e.g., comprising complementary PTFT and NTFT, may also be formed. In the present example, the method of introducing nickel comprises forming a thin nickel film selectively on the underlying film 102 under the amorphous silicon film and growing crystals from these portions. Alternatively, the nickel film may be formed selectively after formation of the amorphous silicon film. That is, the crystals may be grown either from the top surface or from the underlying surface of the amorphous silicon film. In a further method, an amorphous silicon film is previously formed, and nickel ions are selectively implanted into the amorphous silicon film 104 by ion doping. In this case, the concentration of the nickel can be controlled accurately. Plasma processing and CVD may also be employed. FIG. 4 shows the V.sub.G -I.sub.D characteristic (curve a) of the TFT obtained in the present example and the V.sub.G -I.sub.D characteristic (curve b) of a TFT fabricated by a prior art method. During the measurement, the source-drain voltage was 1 V. It can be seen from curve a that when a negative voltage is applied to the gate, the leakage current I.sub.offa is small, and when a positive voltage is impressed, the rising portion (S.sub.a) is steep. The ON/OFF ratio is 9orders of magnitude. Hence, the TFT acts as an ideal field-effect transistor. It can be seen from curve b that the TFT acts also as a field-effect transistor. However, the leakage current I.sub.OFFb is larger than the former leakage current. When a positive voltage is applied, the rising portion (S.sub.b) is mild. The ON/OFF ratio is about 6 orders of magnitude. The threshold voltage of the former TFT is smaller than the threshold voltage of the latter TFT. In this way, the invention can improve the characteristics of TFTs.EXAMPLE 2 The process sequence of the present example is schematically shown in FIGS. 2(A)-2(D). In the present example, a Corning 7059 substrate having a thickness of 1.1 mm and measuring 300 mm by 400 mm was used as a substrate 201. The substrate was annealed at 640.degree. C. for 4 hours in the same way as in Example 1. Then, the substrate was slowly cooled down to 550.degree. C. at a rate of 0.2.degree. C./min. An underlying film 202 of silicon oxide was formed to a thickness of 2000 .ANG. by PCVD using TEOS and oxygen as a starting material. After the formation of the underlying film, the laminate was again annealed at 550.degree. C. for 1 hour. Then, an amorphous silicon film was deposited to a thickness of 500 .ANG. by LPCVD or PCVD. Also, a silicon oxide film having a thickness of 200 .ANG. was formed by LPCVD. A photoresist or photosensitive polyimide was applied to the top surface of the silicon oxide film. This photoresist or polyimide was exposed by a well-known photolithographic method. Using the left photoresist or other masking material 205, the silicon oxide film and the amorphous silicon film were etched by wet etching or dry etching to form a silicon film 203 in the form of an island and a silicon oxide film 204 which was in intimate contact with the top surface of the silicon oxide film 203. Then, a nickel film 206 having a thickness of 100 to 1000 .ANG., e.g., 500 .ANG., was formed by sputtering (FIG. 2(A)). Then, a dehydrogenation step was carried out at 450.degree. C. for 1 hour, and the laminate was thermally annealed to crystallize the amorphous film. The annealing step was carried out at 550.degree. C. for 8 hours. During this annealing step, the side surfaces of the amorphous silicon film 203 were in contact with the nickel film, the concentration of nickel in these portions 207 was quite high. Crystallization started from these portions 207 as indicated by the arrows 207. Since the crystallization progressed from the side surfaces of the silicon film in the form of an island, crystals met each other around the center, thus forming a crystal grain boundary 208. This grain boundary was perpendicular to the plane of the sheet. When viewed from above, the grain boundary was linear in the same way as the gate electrode (FIG. 2(B)). After the crystallization step, the silicon oxide film 204 was removed. A gate-insulating film 209 having a thickness of 70 to 120 nm, typically 120 nm, was again formed by PCVD over the whole surface using TEOS and oxygen. The substrate temperature was 350.degree. C. Then, a film made of polysilicon was formed by CVD and patterned to form a gate electrode 210. This patterning step was so effected that the gate electrode existed just over the grain boundary 208. In order to improve the conductivity, 0.1 to 5% phosphorus was added to the polysilicon of the gate electrode. Subsequently, phosphorus was implanted as an N-type impurity by ion doping. A source region 211 and a drain region 212 were formed by a self-aligning process. The laminate was then irradiated with laser light emitted by a KrF laser to improve the crystallinity of the silicon film whose crystallinity was deteriorated by the ion implantation. At this time, the energy density of the laser light was 250 to 300 mJ/cm.sup.2. As a result of this laser irradiation, the source/drain regions of the TFT had a sheet resistance of 300 to 800 .OMEGA./cm.sup.2. This step may also be carried out by lamp annealing using a lamp emitting visible light or near-infrared light. In this way, an active layer in which the grain boundary was located around the center of the channel formation region was obtained (FIG. 2(C)). Thereafter, an interlayer insulator 213 made of silicon oxide or polyimide was formed. Then, contact holes were formed. Electrodes 214 and 215 comprising a multilayer film of chromium and aluminum were formed in the source/drain regions of the TFT. Finally, the laminate was annealed at 200.degree.-400.degree. C. for 2 hours within hydrogen to conduct hydrogenation. In this manner, the TFT was completed. In order to improve the moisture resistance, a passivation film may be formed out of silicon nitride over the whole surface (FIG. 2(D)). It has been found experimentally that a concentration of the crystallization promoting metal element such as nickel is preferably not higher than 4.times.10.sup.18 atoms/cm.sup.3 (more preferably 5.times.10.sup.18 atoms/cm.sup.3) in the region near the source/channel and the drain/channel boundaries. In the present invention, as can be seen from the above examples, a crystal grain boundary at which the concentration of a metal element, or a catalytic element, for promoting crystallization of an amorphous silicon is high is located around the center of the channel formation region and, therefore, the concentration of the catalytic element at the interface between the drain and the channel formation region is kept low. At this interface, the strength of electric field is greatest. Therefore, when a reverse voltage is applied to the gate electrode, the leakage current between the source and the drain is small. Also, the threshold voltage is low. In addition, after the TFT is used over a long term, the characteristics are deteriorated only a little. The novel TFT has an especially large ON/OFF ratio and so it is adapted to hold electric charge as in an active-matrix display. In the above examples, nickel is used as a catalytic element. Obviously, other metal elements listed above can be used instead. 1. A thin-film transistor comprising: - a crystalline silicon film shaped like an island having a top surface and a bottom surface, said silicon film containing a metal element for promoting crystallization, said silicon film having a channel formation region, a source region, and a drain region wherein boundaries are defined between said source region and said channel region, and between said drain region and said channel region; - a gate-insulating film for covering at least a part of said crystalline silicon film; - a crystal grain boundary formed in said channel formation region and extending perpendicularly to flow of carriers, said grain boundary containing said metal element for promoting said crystallization at a high concentration, said grain boundary extending from said top surface to said bottom surface in said channel forming region and located apart from the boundary between said source region and said channel region, and the boundary between said drain region and said channel region; and - a gate electrode formed on said gate-insulating film which is substantially coincident in shape with said channel formation region. 2. A thin-film transistor of claim 1, wherein said crystal grain boundary is located around a center of said channel formation region. 3. The thin film transistor of claim 1 wherein the crystals constituting said channel region substantially perpendicularly extend toward said crystal grain boundary from opposite sides thereof whereby said crystal grain boundary defines the boundary between the crystals on the opposite sides thereof. 4. The thin film transistor of claim 1 wherein said channel region is located on both sides of said grain boundary. 5. An insulated gate field effect transistor comprising: - a semiconductor layer formed on an insulating surface, said semiconductor layer including source, drain and channel regions formed therein; and - a gate electrode provided adjacent to said channel region with a gate insulating interposed therebetween, - wherein said semiconductor layer contains a crystallization promoting metal element, and a concentration of said metal element at a source and channel boundary and a drain and channel boundary is lower than a concentration of said metal element in a middle portion of said channel region. 6. The insulated gate field effect transistor of claim 5 wherein said semiconductor layer comprises silicon. 7. The insulated gate field effect transistor of claim 5 wherein said concentration at the source and channel boundary and a drain and channel boundary is not higher than 4.times.10.sup.18 atoms/cm.sup.3. 8. The transistor of claim 5 wherein said metal element is selected from the group consisting of Fe, Co, Ni, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, Au and Ag. 9. The transistor of claim 5 wherein said semiconductor layer comprises a crystalline silicon. 10. A thin film transistor which has a crystalline semiconductor layer, said semiconductor layer comprising: - source and drain regions; and - a channel region extending in a first direction between said source and drain regions and having a top surface and a bottom surface and boundaries defined between said source region and said channel region, and between said drain region and said channel region, - wherein said channel region has a grain boundary extending from said top surface to said bottom surface in said channel region and located apart from both said boundaries between said channel region and said source and drain regions, said grain boundary extending across said channel region in a second direction substantially perpendicular to said first direction. 11. The thin film transistor of claim 10 wherein at least said channel region contains a metal element selected from the group consisting of Fe, Co, Ni, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, Au and Ag. 12. The thin film transistor of claim 11 wherein a concentration of said metal in the vicinity of said boundaries between said channel region and said source and drain regions is not higher than 4.times.10.sup.18 atoms/cm.sup.3. 13. The thin film transistor of claim 10 wherein said source and drain regions have one of p-type or n-type conductivity. |4746628||May 24, 1988||Takafuji et al.| |5147826||September 15, 1992||Liu et al.| |5231297||July 27, 1993||Nakayama et al.| |5275851||January 4, 1994||Fonash et al.| - C. Hayzelden et al., "In Situ Transmissiion Electron Microscopy Studies of Silicide-Mediated Crystallization of Amorphous Silicon" (3 pages). A. V. Dvurechenskii et al., "Transport Phenomena in Amorphous Silicon Doped by Ion Implantation of 3d Metals", Akademikian Lavrentev Prospekt 13, 630090 Novosibirsk 90, USSR, pp. 635-640. T. Hempel et al., "Needle-Like Crystallization of Ni Doped Amorphous Silicon Thin Films", Solid State Communications, vol. 85, No. 11, pp. 921-924, 1993. Cuomo et al., "Method of Making Unstrained Thin Films", IBM Tech, vol. 15 No. 9, pp. 2698-2699, Feb. 1973. Stoemenos et al, "Crystallization . . . Utilizing Gold", App Phys Lttr, 18 Mar. 1991. Filed: Aug 5, 1994 Date of Patent: Apr 16, 1996 Assignee: Semiconductor Energy Laboratory Co., Ltd. (Kanagawa) Inventor: Yasuhiko Takemura (Kanagawa) Primary Examiner: Stephen D. Meier Attorneys: Sixbey, Friedman, Leedom & Ferguson, Sixbey, Friedman, Leedom & Ferguson Application Number: 8/286,455 International Classification: H01L 2904; H01L 31036; H01L 2912; H01L 2976;

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Scope and Viewpoint of the Present Article 1. Marriage among the Hebrews 2. Betrothal the First Formal Part 3. Wedding Ceremonies 4. Jesus' Sanction of the Institution 5. His Teaching concerning Divorce It would be interesting to study marriage biologically and sociologically, to get the far and near historical and social background of it as an institution, especially as it existed among the ancient Jews, and as it figures in the teaching of Jesus as recorded in the New Testament. For, like all social institutions, marriage, and the family which is the outcome of marriage, must be judged, not by its status at any particular time, but in the light of its history. Such a study of it would raise a host of related historic questions, e.g. What was its origin? What part has it played in the evolution and civilization of the race? What social functions has it performed? And then, as a sequel, Can the services it has rendered to civilization and progress be performed or secured in any other way? This, indeed, would call for us to go back even farther--to try to discover the psychology of the institution and its history, the beliefs from which it has sprung and by which it has survived so long. This were a task well worth while and amply justified by much of the thinking of our time; for, as one of the three social institutions that support the much challenged form and fabric of modern civilization, marriage, private property and the state, its continued existence, in present form at least, is a matter of serious discussion and its abolition, along with the other two, is confidently prophesied. "Marriage, as at present understood, is an arrangement most closely associated with the existing social status and stands or falls with it" (Bebel, Socialism and Sex, 199, Reeves, London; The Cooperative Commonwealth in Its Outline, Gronlund, 224). But such a task is entirely outside of and beyond the purpose of this article. Neither the Bible in general, nor Jesus in particular, treats of the family from the point of view of the historian or the sociologist, but solely from that of the teacher of religion and morals. In short, their point of view is theological, rather than sociological. Moses and the prophets, no less than Jesus and His apostles, accepted marriage as an existing institution which gave rise to certain practical, ethical questions, and they dealt with it accordingly. There is nothing in the record of the teachings of Jesus and of His apostles to indicate that they gave to marriage any new social content, custom or sanction. They simply accepted it as it existed in the conventionalized civilization of the Jews of their day and used it and the customs connected with it for ethical or illustrative purposes. One exception is to be made to this general statement, namely, that Jesus granted that because of the exigencies of the social development Moses had modified it to the extent of permitting and regulating divorce, clearly indicating, however, at the same time, that He regarded such modification as out of harmony with the institution as at first given to mankind. According to the original Divine purpose it was monogamous, and any form of polygamy, and apparently of divorce, was excluded by the Divine idea and purpose. The treatment of the subject here, therefore, will be limited as follows: Marriage among the Ancient Hebrews and Other Semites; Betrothal as the First Formal Part of the Transaction; Wedding Ceremonies Connected with Marriage, especially as Reflected in the New Testament; and Jesus' Sanction and Use of the Institution, Teaching concerning Divorce, etc. 1. Marriage among the Hebrews: With the Hebrews married life was the normal life. Any exception called for apology and explanation. "Any Jew who has not a wife is no man" (Talmud). It was regarded as awaiting everyone on reaching maturity; and sexual maturity comes much earlier indeed in the East than with us in the West--in what we call childhood. The ancient Hebrews, in common with all Orientals, regarded the family as the social unit. In this their view of it coincides with that, of modern sociologists. Of the three great events in the family life, birth, marriage and death, marriage was regarded as the most important. It was a step that led to the gravest tribal and family consequences. In case of a daughter, if she should prove unsatisfactory to her husband, she would likely be returned to the ancestral home, discarded and discredited, and there would be almost inevitably a feeling of injustice engendered on one side, and a sense of mutual irritation between the families (Jdg 14:20; 1 Sam 18:19). If she failed to pass muster with her mother-in-law she would just as certainly have to go, and the results would be much the same (compare customs in China). It was a matter affecting the whole circle of relatives, and possibly tribal amity as well. It was natural and deemed necessary, therefore, that the selection of the wife and the arrangement of all contractual and financial matters connected with it should be decided upon by the parents or guardians of the couple involved. Though the consent of the parties was sometimes sought (Gen 24:8) and romantic attachments were not unknown (Gen 29:20; 34:3; Jdg 14:1; 1 Sam 18:20), the gift or woman in the case was not currently thought of as having a personal existence at her own disposal. She was simply a passive unit in the family under the protection and supreme control of father or brothers. In marriage, she was practically the chattel, the purchased possession and personal property of her husband, who was her ba`al or master (Hos 2:16), she herself being be`ulah (Isa 62:4). The control, however, was not always absolute (Gen 26:34; Ex 2:21). The bargaining instinct, so dominant among Orientals then as now, played a large part in the transaction. In idea the family was a little kingdom of which the father was the king, or absolute ruler. There are many indications, not only that the family was the unit from which national coherence was derived, but that this unit was perpetuated through the supremacy of the oldest male. Thus society became patriarchal, and this is the key of the ancient history of the family and the nation. Through the expansion of the family group was evolved in turn the clan, the tribe, the nation, and the authority of the father became in turn that of the chief, the ruler, and the king. The Oriental cannot conceive, indeed, of any band, or clan, or company without a "father," even though there be no kith or kinship involved in the matter. The "father" in their thought, too, was God's representative, and as such he was simply carrying out God's purpose, for instance, in selecting a bride for his son, or giving the bride to be married to the son of another. This is as true of the far East as of the near East today. Accordingly, as a rule, the young people simply acquiesced, without question or complaint, in what was thus done for them, accepting it as though God had done it directly. Accordingly, too, the family and tribal loyalty overshadowed love-making and patriotism, in the larger sense. Out of this idea of the solidarity and selectness of the tribe and family springs the overmastering desire of the Oriental for progeny, and for the conservation of the family or the tribe at any cost. Hence, the feuds, bloody and bitter, that persist between this family or tribe and another that has in any way violated this sacred law. Traces of what is known as beena marriage are found in the Old Testament, e.g. that of Jacob, where Laban claims Jacob's wives and children as his own (Gen 31:31,43), and that of Moses (Ex 2:21; 4:18). This is that form of marriage in which the husband is incorporated into the wife's tribe, the children belonging to her tribe and descent being reckoned on her side (compare W. Robertson Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, 94). In Samson's case we seem to have an instance of what is known among Arabs as tsadqat marriage (from tsadaq, "gift"), the kid here being the customary tsadaq (Jdg 14; 15:1; 16:4). There is no hint that he meant to take his wife home. It is differentiated from prostitution in that no disgrace is attached to it and the children are recognized as legitimate by the tribe. Such marriages make it easier to understand the existence of the matriarchate, or the custom of reckoning the descent of children and property through the mothers. The influence of polygamy would work in the same direction, subdividing the family into smaller groups connected with the several wives. There is, however, no clear evidence in the Old Testament of polyandry (a plurality of husbands), though the Levirate marriage is regarded by some as a survival of it. In other words, polygamy among the Hebrews seems to have been confined to polygyny (a plurality of wives). It is easy to trace its chief causes: (1) desire for a numerous offspring ("May his tribe increase!"); (2) barrenness of first wife (as in Abraham's case); (3) advantages offered by marital alliances (e.g. Solomon); (4) the custom of making wives of captives taken in war (compare Ps 45:3,9); (5) slavery, which as it existed in the Orient almost implied it. 2. Betrothal the First Formal Part: Betrothal with the ancient Hebrews was of a more formal and far more binding nature than the "engagement" is with us. Indeed, it was esteemed a part of the transaction of marriage, and that the most binding part. Among the Arabs today it is the only legal ceremony connected with marriage. Gen 24:58,60 seems to preserve for us an example of an ancient formula and blessing for such an occasion. Its central feature was the dowry (mohar), which was paid to the parents, not to the bride. It may take the form of service (Gen 29; 1 Sam 18:25). It is customary in Syria today, when the projected marriage is approved by both families, and all the financial preliminaries have been settled, to have this ceremony of betrothal. It consists in the acceptance before witnesses of the terms of the marriage as contracted for. Then God's blessing is solemnly asked on the union thus provided for, but to take place probably only after some months, or perhaps some years. The betrothal effected, all danger from any further financial fencing and bluffing now being at an end, happiness and harmony may preside over all the arrangements for the marriage day. Among the Jews the betrothal was so far regarded as binding that, if marriage should not take place, owing to the absconding of the bridegroom or the breach of contract on his part, the young woman could not be married to another man until she was liberated by a due process and a paper of divorce. A similar custom prevails in China and Japan, and in cases becomes very oppressive. The marriage may have been intended by the parents from the infancy of the parties, but this formality of betrothal is not entered on till the marriage is considered reasonably certain and measurably near. A prolonged interval between betrothal and marriage was deemed undesirable on many accounts, though often an interval was needed that the groom might render the stipulated service or pay the price--say a year or two, or, as in the case of Jacob, it might be seven years. The betrothed parties were legally in the position of a married couple, and unfaithfulness was "adultery" (Dt 22:23; Mt 1:19). Polygamy is likely to become prevalent only where conditions are abnormal, as where there is a disproportionate number of females, as in tribal life in a state of war. In settled conditions it is possible only to those able to provide "dowry" and support for each and all of the wives. The fact of polygamy in Old Testament times is abundantly witnessed in the cases of Abraham, Jacob, the judges, David, Solomon, etc. It was prevalent in Issachar (1 Ch 7:4); among the middle class (1 Sam 1:1 f). But it is treated, even in the Old Testament, as incompatible with the Divine ideal (Gen 2:24), and its original is traced to deliberate departure from that ideal by Lamech, the Cainite (Gen 4:19). Kings are warned against it (Dt 17:17; compare Gen 29:31; 30). Noah, Isaac and Joseph had each only one wife, and Bible pictures of domestic happiness are always connected with monogamy (2 Ki 4; Ps 128; Prov 31; compare Sirach 25:1; 26:1,13). Marriage is applied figuratively, too, to the union between God and Israel, implying monogamy as the ideal state. Nevertheless, having the advantage of precedent, it was long before polygamy fell into disuse in Hebrew society. Herod had nine wives at one time (Josephus, Ant, XVII, i, 2). Justin Martyr (Dial., 134, 141) reproaches Jews of his day with having "four or even five wives," and for "marrying as many as they wish" (compare Talm). It was not definitely and formally forbidden among Jews until circa 1000 AD. It exists still among Jews in Moslem lands. Side by side with this practice all along has been the ideal principle (Gen 2:18) rebuking and modifying it. The legal theory that made the man "lord" of the wife (Gen 3:16; Tenth Commandment) was likewise modified in practice by the affection of the husband and the personality of the wife. The difference between a concubine and a wife was largely due to the wife's birth and higher position and the fact that she was usually backed by relatives ready to defend her. A slave could not be made a concubine without the wife's consent (Gen 16:2). 3. Wedding Ceremonies: There is a disappointing uncertainty as to the exact ceremonies or proceedings connected with marriage in Bible times. We have to paint our picture from passing allusions or descriptions, and from what we know of Jewish and Arabic customs. In cases it would seem that there was nothing beyond betrothal, or the festivities following it (see Gen 24:3 ff). Later, in the case of a virgin, an interval of not exceeding a year came to be observed. The first ceremony, the wedding procession, apparently a relic of marriage by capture (compare Jdg 5:30; Ps 45:15), was the first part of the proceedings. The bridegroom's "friends" (Jn 3:29) went, usually by night, to fetch the bride and her attendants to the home of the groom (Mt 9:15; Jn 3:29). The joyousness of it all is witnessed by the proverbial "voice of the bridegroom" and the cry, "Behold the bridegroom cometh!" (Jer 7:34; Rev 18:23). The procession was preferably by night, chiefly, we may infer, that those busy in the day might attend, and that, in accordance with the oriental love of scenic effects, the weird panorama of lights and torches might play an engaging and kindling part. The marriage supper then followed, generally in the home of the groom. Today in Syria, as Dr. Mackie, of Beirut, says, when both parties live in the same town, the reception may take place in either home; but the older tradition points to the house of the groom's parents as the proper place. It is the bringing home of an already accredited bride to her covenanted husband. She is escorted by a company of attendants of her own sex and by male relatives and friends conveying on mules or by porters articles of furniture and decoration for the new home. As the marriage usually takes place in the evening, the house is given up for the day to the women who are busy robing the bride and making ready for the coming hospitality. The bridegroom is absent at the house of a relative or friend, where men congregate in the evening for the purpose of escorting him home. When he indicates that it is time to go, all rise up, and candles and torches are supplied to those who are to form the procession, and they move off. It is a very picturesque sight to see such a procession moving along the unlighted way in the stillness of the starry night, while, if it be in town or city, on each side of the narrow street, from the flat housetop or balcony, crowds look down, and the women take up the peculiar cry of wedding joy that tells those farther along that the pageant has started. This cry is taken up all along the route, and gives warning to those who are waiting with the bride that it is time to arise and light up the approach, and welcome the bridegroom with honor. As at the house where the bridegroom receives his friends before starting some come late, and speeches of congratulation have to be made, and poems have to be recited or sung in praise of the groom, and to the honor of his family, it is often near midnight when the procession begins. Meanwhile, as the night wears on, and the duties of robing the bride and adorning the house are all done, a period of relaxing and drowsy waiting sets in, as when, in the New Testament parable, both the wise and the foolish virgins were overcome with sleep. In their case the distant cry on the street brought the warning to prepare for the reception, and then came the discovery of the exhausted oil. Of the bridegroom's retinue only a limited number would enter, their chief duty being that of escort. They might call next day to offer congratulations. An Arabic wedding rhyme says: "To the bridegroom's door went the torch-lit array, And then like goats they scattered away." With their dispersion, according to custom, the doors would be closed, leaving within the relatives and invited guests; and so, when the belated virgins of the parable hastened back, they too found themselves inexorably shut out by the etiquette of the occasion. The opportunity of service was past, and they were no longer needed. At the home all things would be "made ready," if possible on a liberal scale. Jn 2 gives a picture of a wedding feast where the resources were strained to the breaking point. Hospitality was here especially a sacred duty, and, of course, greatly ministered to the joy of the occasion. An oriental proverb is significant of the store set by it: "He who does not invite me to his marriage Will not have me to his funeral." To decline the invitation to a marriage was a gross insult (Mt 22). It was unusual in Galilee to have a "ruler of the feast" as in Judea (Jn 2). There was no formal religious ceremony connected with the Hebrew marriage as with us--there is not a hint of such a thing in the Bible. The marriage was consummated by entrance into the "chamber," i.e. the nuptial chamber (Hebrew chedher), in which stood the bridal bed with a canopy (chuppah), being originally the wife's tent (Gen 24:67; Jdg 4:17). In all lands of the dispersion the name is still applied to the embroidered canopy under which the contracting parties stand or sit during the festivities. In Arabic, Syriac, and Hebrew the bridegroom is said to "go in" to the bride. A general survey of ancient marriage laws and customs shows that those of the Hebrews are not a peculiar creation apart from those of other peoples. A remarkable affinity to those of other branches of the Semitic races especially, may be noted, and striking parallels are found in the Code of Hammurabi, with regard, e.g., to betrothal, dowry, adultery and divorce. But modern researches have emphasized the relative purity of Old Testament sexual morality. In this, as in other respects, the Jews had a message for the world. Yet we should not expect to find among them the Christian standard. Under the new dispensation the keynote is struck by our Lord's action. The significance of His attending the marriage feast at Cana and performing His first miracle there can hardly be exaggerated. The act corresponds, too, with His teaching on the subject. He, no less than Paul, emphasizes both the honorableness of the estate and the heinousness of all sins against it. 4. Jesus' Sanction of the Institution: The most characteristic use of marriage and the family by our Lord is that in which He describes the kingdom of God as a social order in which the relationship of men to God is like that of sons to a father, and their relation to each other like that between brothers. This social ideal, which presents itself vividly and continuously to His mind, is summed up in this phrase, "Kingdom of God," which occurs more than a hundred times in the Synoptic Gospels. The passages in which it occurs form the interior climax of His message to men. It is no new and noble Judaism, taking the form of a political restoration, that He proclaims, and no "far-off Divine event" to be realized only in some glorious apocalyptic consummation; but a kingdom of God "within you," the chief element of it communion with God, the loving relation of "children" to a "Father," a present possession. Future in a sense it may be, as a result to be fully realized, and yet present; invisible, and yet becoming more and more visible as a new social order, a conscious brotherhood with one common, heavenly Father, proclaimed in every stage of His teaching in spite of opposition and varying fortunes with unwavering certainty of its completion--this is the "kingdom" that Jesus has made the inalienable possession of the Christian consciousness. His entire theology may be described as a transfiguration of the family (see Peabody, Jesus Christ, and the Social Question, 149 ff; Holtzmann, New Testament Theology, I, 200; Harnack, History of Dogma, I, 62; B. Weiss, Biblical Theol. of the New Testament, I, 72, English translation, 1882). Beyond this Jesus frequently used figures drawn from marriage to illustrate His teaching concerning the coming of the kingdom, as Paul did concerning Christ and the church. There is no suggestion of reflection upon the Old Testament teaching about marriage in His teaching except at one point, the modification of it so as to allow polygamy and divorce. Everywhere He accepts and deals with it as sacred and of Divine origin (Mt 19:9, etc.), but He treats it as transient, that is of the "flesh" and for this life only. 5. His Teaching concerning Divorce: A question of profound interest remains to be treated: Did Jesus allow under any circumstances the remarriage of a divorced person during the lifetime of the partner to the marriage? Or did He allow absolute divorce for any cause whatsoever? Upon the answer to that question in every age depend momentous issues, social and civic, as well as religious. The facts bearing on the question are confessedly enshrined in the New Testament, and so the inquiry may be limited to its records. Accepting with the best scholarship the documents of the New Testament as emanating from the disciples of Jesus in the second half of the 1st century AD, the question is, what did these writers understand Jesus to teach on this subject? If we had only the Gospels of Mark and Luke and the Epistles of Paul, there could be but one answer given: Christ did not allow absolute divorce for any cause (see Mk 10:2 ff; Lk 16:18; Gal 1:12; 1 Cor 7:10). The Old Testament permission was a concession, He teaches, to a low moral state and standard, and opposed to the ideal of marriage given in Gen (2:23). "The position of women in that day was far from enviable. They could be divorced on the slightest pretext, and had no recourse at law. Almost all the rights and privileges of men were withheld from them. What Jesus said in relation to divorce was more in defense of the rights of the women of His time than as a guide for the freer, fuller life of our day. Jesus certainly did not mean to recommend a hard and enslaving life for women. His whole life was one long expression of full understanding of them and sympathy for them" (Patterson, The Measure of a Man, 181 f). Two sayings attributed to Christ and recorded by the writer or editor of the First Gospel (Mt 5:32; 19:9) seem directly to contravene His teaching as recorded in Mk and Luke. Here he seems to allow divorce for "fornication" (ei me epi porneia, save for fornication"), an exception which finds no place in the parallels (compare 1 Cor 7:15, which allows remarriage where a Christian partner is deserted by a heathen). The sense here demands that "fornication" be taken in its wider sense (Hos 2:5; Am 7:17; 1 Cor 5:1). Divorce to a Jew carried with it the right of remarriage, and the words `causeth her to commit adultery' (Mt 5:32) show that Jesus assumed that the divorced woman would marry again. Hence, if He allowed divorce, He also allowed remarriage. A critical examination of the whole passage in Mt has led many scholars to conclude that the exceptive clause is an interpolation due to the Jewish-Christian compiler or editor through whose hands the materials passed. Others think it betrays traces of having been rewritten from Mark or from a source common to both Matthew and Mark, and combined with a semi-Jewish tradition, in short, that it is due to literary revision and compilation. The writer or compiler attempted to combine the original sayings of Jesus and His own interpretation. Believing that our Lord had not come to set aside the authority of Moses, but only certain Pharisaic exegesis, and supported, as doubtless he was, by a Jewish-Christian tradition of Palestine, he simply interpreted Mark's narrative by inserting what he regarded as the integral part of an eternal enactment of Yahweh. In doing this he was unconsciously inconsistent, not only with Mark and Luke, but also with the context of the First Gospel itself, owing to his sincere but mistaken belief that the Law of Moses must not be broken. The view implied by the exception, of course, is that adultery ipso facto dissolves the union, and so opens the way to remarriage. But remarriage closes the door to reconciliation, which on Christian principles ought always to be possible (compare Hosea; Jer 3; Hermas, Mand iv.1). Certainly much is to be said for the view which is steadily gaining ground, that the exception in Matthew is an editorial addition made under the pressure of local conditions and practical necessity, the absolute rule being found too hard (see Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible (five volumes), extra vol, 27b, and The Teaching of our Lord as to the Indissolubility of Marriage, by Stuart Lawrence Tyson, M.A. Oxon., University of the South, 1912). The general principle expanded in the New Testament and the ideal held up before the Christians is high and clear. How far that ideal can be embodied in legislation and applied to the community as a whole all are agreed must depend upon social conditions and the general moral development and environment. See further DIVORCE. Material from Mishna in Selden, Uxor Heb, London, 1546; Hamberger, Real. Encyclopedia f. Bibel und Talmud, Breslau, 1870; Benzinger, Hebraische Archaologie; Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebraischen Archaologie; McLennan, Primitive Marriage; Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, London, 1891; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, Cambridge, 1895; Tristram, Eastern Customs, London, 1894; Mackie, Bible Manners and Customs, London, 1898; Peabody, Jesus Christ and the Social Question, III, concerning the family. George B. Eager

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- Air ambulance Air ambulance A Eurocopter EC 145 of Switzerland's Rega air rescue service. An air ambulance is an aircraft used for emergency medical assistance in situations where either a traditional ambulance cannot reach the scene easily or quickly enough, or the patient needs to be transported over a distance or terrain that makes air transportation the most practical transport. These and related operations are referred to as Aeromedical. Air ambulance crews are supplied with equipment that enables them to provide medical treatment to a critically injured or ill patient. Common equipment for air ambulances includes ventilators, medication, an ECG and monitoring unit, CPR equipment, and stretchers. An important distinction should be made between a medically staffed and equipped air ambulance which can provide medical care in flight, and the use of a non-medicalized aircraft simply for patient transportation, without care in flight. The military and NATO refer to the former as "Medical Evacuation (MEDEVAC)" and to the latter as "Casualty Evacuation (CASEVAC)" respectively. - 1 History - 2 Organization - 3 Standards - 4 See also - 5 References - 6 External links As with many innovations in Emergency Medical Service (EMS), the concept of transporting the injured by aircraft has its origins in the military, and the concept of using aircraft as ambulances is almost as old as powered flight itself. It is often stated that air medical transport likely first occurred in 1870 during the Siege of Paris when 160 wounded French soldiers were transported by hot-air balloon to France, but this canard has been definitively disproven. During the First World War air ambulances were tested by various military organizations, and were used regularly for crash rescue by the American Army and Navy within the United States, though none were actually used in combat. Aircraft were still primitive at the time, with limited capabilities, and the effort received mixed reviews. In post-World War I, several Dehavilland DH-4 were converted to air ambulances for the US Army and Navy. The exploration of the idea continued, however, and fully organized air ambulance services were used by France and the United Kingdom during the African and Middle Eastern Colonial Wars of the 1920s; over 7,000 casualties were evacuated by the French during this period. In 1920 during their suppression of the "Mad Mullah" in Somalialand used a Airco DH.9A fitted out as an air ambulance. It could carry a single stretcher under a fairing behind the pilot.By 1936, an organized military air ambulance service was evacuating wounded from the Spanish Civil War for medical treatment in Nazi Germany. The first use of helicopters to evacuate combat casualties was by the United States Army in Burma during WW2, and the first dedicated use of helicopters by U.S. forces occurred during the Korean War, during the period from 1950–1953. The French notably used light helicopters during their Indochina war of the post-war era. While popularly depicted as simply removing casualties from the battlefield (which they did), helicopters in the Korean War also expanded their services to moving critical patients to more advanced hospital ships once initial emergency treatment in field hospitals had occurred. Knowledge and expertise of use of aircraft as ambulances continued to evolve along with the aircraft themselves, and by 1969, in Vietnam, the use of specially trained medical corpsmen and helicopters as ambulances led U.S. researchers to conclude that servicemen wounded in battle had better rates of survival than motorists injured on California freeways. This conclusion inspired the first experiments with the use of civilian paramedics in the world. The US military has recently employed UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters to provide air ambulance service during the Iraq War to both civilians and military personnel. The use of military aircraft as battlefield ambulances continues to grow and develop today in a variety of countries, as does the use of fixed-wing aircraft for long-distance travel, including repatriation of the wounded. The next step in this development may be shown by a current NATO working group which is investigating the possible future use of Unpiloted Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) for casualty evacuation. Light helicopters like this Bell 47 Sioux removed the wounded from the battlefield (Korea) The first civilian uses of aircraft as ambulances were probably incidental. In northern Canada, Australia, and in the Scandinavian countries, remote, sparsely populated settlements were often inaccessible by road for months at a time, or even year round. In some cases in Scandinavia, particularly in Norway, the primary means of transportation between communities was by boat. Early on in aviation history, many of these communities began to receive service from civilian "bush" pilots, flying small aircraft and transporting supplies, mail, and visiting doctors or nurses to the isolated communities. Bush pilots probably performed the first civilian air ambulance trips, albeit on an ad hoc basis, but clearly, a need for such services existed.In the early 1920s, Sweden established a standing air ambulance system, as did Siam (Thailand). In 1928 the first formal, full time air ambulance service was established in the Australian outback. This organization became the Royal Flying Doctor Service and continues operating to the present. In 1934, the first civil air ambulance service in Africa was established in Morocco by Marie Marvingt. In 1936 Air ambulance services were established as part of the Highlands and Islands Medical Service to serve the more remote areas of Highland Scotland. Air ambulances were useful in remote areas, but their usefulness in the developed world was still uncertain. Following the end of the World War II, the first civilian air ambulance in North America was established by the Saskatchewan government in Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, which had both remote communities and great distances to consider in the provision of health care to its citizens. The Saskatchewan Air Ambulance service continues to be active as of 2011. In the USA, the country's first air ambulance service, the Schaefer Air Service, was founded by J. Walter Schaefer in 1947 in Los Angeles, California, and operated by Schaefer Ambulance Service. Schaefer Air Service was also the first FAA-certified air ambulance service in the United States. At the time of the creation of the Schaefer and Saskatchewan services, paramedicine was still decades away, and unless the patient was accompanied by a physician or nurse, they operated primarily as medical transportation services. A great deal of the early use of aircraft as ambulances in civilian life, particularly helicopters, involved the improvised use of aircraft belonging to branches of the military. Eventually this would become more organized. This mode of usage occurred not only in the United States, but also in other countries, and persists to this day. Today, there are approximately a half million rotor-wing (helicopter) and fixed-wing (airplane) transports each year in the U.S. Two programs were implemented in the U.S. to assess the impact of medical helicopters on mortality and morbidity in the civilian arena. Project CARESOM was established in Mississippi in 1969. Three helicopters were purchased through a federal grant and located strategically in the north, central, and southern areas of the state. Upon termination of the grant, the program was considered a success and each of the three communities was given the opportunity to continue the helicopter operation. Only the one located in Hattiesburg, Mississippi did so, and it was therefore established as the first civilian air medical program in the United States. The second program, the Military Assistance to Safety and Traffic (MAST) system, was established in Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio in 1969. This was an experiment by the Department of Transportation to study the feasibility of using military helicopters to augment existing civilian emergency medical services. These programs were highly successful at establishing the need for such services. The remaining challenge was in how such services could be operated most cost-effectively. In many cases, as agencies, branches, and departments of the civilian governments began to operate aircraft for other purposes, these aircraft were frequently pressed into service to provide cost-effective air support to the evolving Emergency Medical Services. German 'Christoph' Air Ambulance of the Federal Ministry of the Interior Italian Dauphin of the Autonomous Province of Trento also used in mountain rescue missions As the concept was proven, dedicated civilian air ambulances began to appear. On November 1, 1970, the first permanent civil air ambulance helicopter, Christoph 1, entered service at the Hospital of Harlaching, Munich, Germany. The apparent success of Christoph 1 led to a quick expansion of the concept across Germany, with Christoph 10 entering service in 1975, Christoph 20 in 1981, and Christoph 51 in 1989. As of 2007, there are about 80 helicopters named after Saint Christopher, like Christoph Europa 5 (also serving Denmark), Christoph Brandenburg or Christoph Murnau am Staffelsee. Austria adopted the German system in 1983 when Christophorus 1 entered service at Innsbruck. The first civilian, hospital-based medical helicopter program in the United States began operation in 1972. Flight For Life Colorado began with a single Alouette III helicopter, based at St. Anthony Central Hospital in Denver, Colorado. In Ontario, Canada, the air ambulance program began in 1977, and featured a paramedic-based system of care, with the presence of physicians or nurses being relatively unusual. The system, operated by the Ontario Ministry of Health, began with a single rotor-wing aircraft based in Toronto. An important difference in the Ontario program involved the emphasis of service. "On scene" calls were taken, although less commonly, and a great deal of the initial emphasis of the program was on the interfacility transfer of critical care patients. Operating today through a private contractor (ORNGE), the system operates 33 aircraft stationed at 26 bases across the province, performing both interfacility transfers and on-scene responses in support of ground-based EMS. Ornge operates the largest and most sophisticated program of aeromedical transport in North America. Over 17,000 admissions are dispatched annually, making Ornge North America's largest operator in the field of transport medicine. Today, across the world, the presence of civilian air ambulances has become commonplace, and is seen as a much-needed support for ground-based EMS systems. London Air Ambulance - England Fixed-wing v. rotor-wing air medical transport Rotor-wing and fixed-wing aircraft typically play very different roles. Helicopters can be seen as substitutes for ground ambulances, because they can land almost anywhere. But fuel capacity gives them a relatively short range. They typically serve patients in true emergency situations, where quick access to a trauma center is literally a matter of life and death. Because airplanes are less flexible about where they can land and take off they are typically not used to transport patients from the scene of the emergency to the hospital. They also have a much longer range than helicopters do, so they can travel farther distances without refueling. Yet they can still offer life-supporting care for patients who are critically ill or injured. So fixed-wing air ambulances are more often used to transport patients from one hospital to another. Air ambulance service, sometimes called Aeromedical Evacuation or simply Medevac, is provided by a variety of different sources in different places in the world. There are a number of reasonable methods of differentiating types of air ambulance services. These include military/civilian models and services that are government-funded, fee-for-service, donated by a business enterprise, or funded by public donations. It may also be reasonable to differentiate between dedicated aircraft and those with multiple purposes and roles. Finally, it is reasonable to differentiate by the type of aircraft used, including rotary-wing, fixed-wing, or very large aircraft. The military role in civilian air ambulance operations is described in the History section. Each of the remaining models will be explored separately. It should also be noted that this information applies to air ambulance systems performing emergency service. In almost all jurisdictions, private aircraft charter companies provide non-emergency air ambulance service on a fee-for-service basis. In some cases, air ambulance services will be provided by government, either directly or by means of a negotiated contract with a commercial service provider, such as an aircraft charter company. Such services may focus on the transfer of critical care patients, may support ground-based EMS on scenes, or may perform a combination of these roles. In almost all cases, the government will provide guidelines for use to both hospitals and EMS systems, in order to keep operating costs under control, and may specify operating procedures in some level of detail in order to limit potential liability, but almost always takes a 'hands-off' approach to the actual running of the system, relying instead on local managers with subject matter (physicians and aviation executives) expertise. Ontario's ORNGE program and the Polish LPR are examples of this type of operating system. The Polish LPR is a national system covering the entire country and funded by the government through the Ministry of Health but run independently, there is no independent HEMS operator in Poland. In North East Ohio, including Cleveland, the Cuyahoga County-owned MetroHealth Medical Center uses its Metro Life Flight to transport patients to Metro's level I trauma and burn unit. There are 5 helicopters for North East Ohio and, in addition, Metro Life Flight has one fixed-wing aircraft. In the United Kingdom, the Scottish Ambulance Service operates two helicopters and two fixed-wing aircraft twenty-four hours per day. These represent the UK's only government-funded air ambulance service. In some jurisdictions, cost is a major consideration, and the presence of dedicated air ambulances is simply not practical. In these cases, the aircraft may be operated by another government or quasi-government agency and made available to EMS for air ambulance service when required. In southern Queensland, Australia, the helicopter that responds as an air ambulance is actually operated by the local hydroelectric utility, with the Queensland Ambulance Service or New South Wales Ambulance Service providing paramedics, as required. In some cases, the flight paramedic will be provided to the aircraft operator by local EMS on an as-needed basis. In other cases, the paramedic will staff the aircraft full time, but will have a dual function. In the case of the Maryland State Police, for example, the flight paramedic is a serving State Trooper whose job is to act as the Observer Officer on a police helicopter when not required for medical emergencies. In many cases, local jurisdictions do not charge for air ambulance service, particularly for emergency calls. This is not, however, universally true. The cost of providing air ambulance services is considerable, and many such services, including government-run ones, charge for service. There are certain groups which, in particular, charge for service. These tend to be privately owned companies, such as aircraft charter companies, hospitals, and some private-for-profit EMS systems. Within the European Union, almost all air ambulance service is on a fee-for-service basis, except for those systems which operate by private subscription. Many jurisdictions have a mix of operation types. Fee-for-service operators are generally responsible for their own organization, but may have to meet government licensing requirements. Rega of Switzerland is an example of such a service. Donated by business In some cases, a local business or even a multi-national company may choose to fund local air ambulance service as a goodwill or public relations gesture. Examples of this are common in the European Union, where in London the Virgin Corporation funds the Helicopter Emergency Medical Service, and in Germany and the Netherlands a large number of the 'Christoph' air ambulance operations are actually funded by ADAC, Germany's largest automobile club. In Australia and New Zealand, many air ambulance helicopter operations are sponsored by the Westpac Bank. In these cases, the operation may vary, but is the result of a carefully negotiated agreement between government, EMS, hospitals, and the donor. In most cases, while the sponsor receives advertising exposure in exchange for funding, they take a 'hands off' approach to daily operations, relying instead on subject matter specialists. In some cases, air ambulance services may be provided by means of voluntary charitable fundraising, as opposed to government funding, or they may receive limited government subsidy to supplement local donations. Some countries, such as the U.K., use a mix of such systems. In Scotland, the parliament has voted to fund air ambulance service directly, through the Scottish Ambulance Service In England and Wales, however, the service is funded on a charitable basis via a number of local charities for each region covered, although the service to London receives most of its funding through the National Health Service. Great strides were made in the UK between 2005 - 2008 when the independent charities formed themselves into the national association of air ambulance charities (AAAC) This organization is widely credited for having created the political climate which resulted in the helicopter industry and National Health Service recognising the enormous contribution that charities made to trauma care in the United Kingdom. In 2008, NHS partners joined the association and it was re-named the Association of Air Ambulances. In recent years, the service has moved towards the physician-paramedic model of care. This has necessitated some charities buying expensive clinical governance services from independent "for profit" companies. The industry is currently divided over whether it is ethically acceptable that income derived through philanthropy and altruism should be spent on buying this essential governance from profit-driven entrepreneurs. Research has been commissioned (March 2010) and it is expected that in future, clinical governance will be provided either free or on a not-for-profit basis. A final area of distinction which requires mention is the operation of truly large aircraft, generally fixed-wing in nature, as air ambulances. In the past the infrequency of demand for such a service in the civilian sphere meant that the majority of such operations are confined to the military, which requires them in support of overseas combat operations. Military organizations with a capability of this type of specialized operation include the United States Air Force, the German Luftwaffe, and the British Royal Air Force. Each operates aircraft staffed by physicians, nurses, and corpsmen/technicians, and each has the capability of providing long distance transport, along with all required medical support, to dozens of injured persons simultaneously. However, in recent years exceptions to the "military-only" rule have grown with the need to quickly transport injured persons to facilities providing higher levels of care or to repatriate individuals. ADAC, the German automobile club, and Mercy Jets, use both large and small fixed wing aircraft configured to provide levels of care that can be found in Trauma centers for individuals who subscribe to their own health insurance or affiliated travel insurance and protection plans. Aircraft and flight crews In most jurisdictions, air ambulance pilots must have a great deal of experience in piloting their aircraft because the conditions of air ambulance flights are often more challenging than regular non-emergency flight services. After a spike in air ambulance crashes in the United States in the 1990s, the U.S. government and the Commission on Air Medical Transportation Systems (CAMTS) stepped up the accreditation and air ambulance flight requirements, ensuring that all pilots, personnel, and aircraft meet much higher standards than previously required. The resulting CAMTS accreditation, which applies only in the United States, includes the requirement for an air ambulance company to own and operate its own aircraft. Some air ambulance companies, realizing it is virtually impossible to have the correct medicalized aircraft for every mission, instead charter aircraft based on the mission-specific requirements. While in principle CAMTS accreditation is voluntary, a number of government jurisdictions require companies providing medical transportation services to have CAMTS accreditation in order to be licensed to operate. This is an increasing trend as state health services agencies address the issues surrounding the safety of emergency medical services flights. Some examples are the states of Colorado, New Jersey, New Mexico, Utah, and Washington. According to the rationale used to justify the state of Washington's adoption of the accreditation requirements, requiring accreditation of air ambulance services provides assurance that the service meets national public safety standards. The accreditation is done by professionals who are qualified to determine air ambulance safety. In addition, compliance with accreditation standards is checked on a continual basis by the accrediting organization. Accreditation standards are periodically revised to reflect the dynamic, changing environment of medical transport, with considerable input from all disciplines of the medical profession. Other U.S. states require either CAMTS accreditation or a demonstrated equivalent, such as Rhode Island, and Texas, which has adopted CAMTS' Accreditation Standards (Sixth Edition, October 2004) as its own. In Texas, an operator not wishing to become CAMTS accredited must submit to an equivalent survey by state auditors who are CAMTS-trained. Virginia and Oklahoma have also adopted CAMTS accreditation standards as their state licensing standards. While the original intent of CAMTS was to provide an American standard, air ambulance services in a number of other countries, including three in Canada and one in South Africa, have voluntarily submitted themselves to CAMTS accreditation. The makeup of the medical crew staffing an air ambulance varies depending on country, area, service provider, and type of air ambulance. In services operating under the Anglo-American model of service delivery, the helicopter is most likely to be used to transport patients, and the crew may consist of Emergency Medical Technicians, Paramedics, flight nurses, a Respiratory Therapist, or in some cases, a physician. Services with a primary focus on critical care transport are more likely to be staffed by physicians and nurses. In the Franco-German model, the aircraft is much more likely to be used as a method of delivering high level support to ground-based EMS. In these cases, the crew generally consists of a physician, often a surgeon, anesthetist, trauma specialist or similar specialty, accompanied by a specially trained advance care paramedic or nurse. In these cases, the object is the rapid delivery of definitive care, occasionally even performing emergency surgical procedures in the field, with the eventual transport of the patient being accomplished by ground ambulance, not the helicopter. The nature of the air operation will frequently determine the type of medical control required. In most cases, the available skill set for an air ambulance staffer is considerably greater than that of a typical paramedic. As a result, those operating in this environment will often be permitted by medical control to exercise more latitude in medical decision-making. Assessment skills tend to be considerably higher, and, particularly on interfacility transfers, permit the inclusion of such factors as the reading of x-rays and the interpretation of lab results. This allows for planning, consultation with supervising physicians, and the issuing of contingency orders in case they are required during the flight. Some systems operate almost entirely off-line, using protocols for almost all procedures and only resorting to on-line medical control when protocols have been exhausted. Some air ambulance operations have full time, on site medical directors with pertinent backgrounds (e.g., emergency medicine); others have medical directors who are only available by pager. For those systems operating on the Franco-German model, the physician is almost always physically present, and medical control is not an issue. Equipment and interiors Most aircraft used as air ambulances, with the exception of charter aircraft and some military aircraft, are equipped for advanced life support and have interiors that reflect this. The challenges in most air ambulance operations, particularly those involving helicopters, are the high ambient noise levels and limited amounts of working space, both of which create significant issues for the provision of ongoing care. While equipment tends to be high-level and very conveniently grouped, it may not be possible perform some assessment procedures, such as chest auscultation, while in flight. In some types of aircraft, the aircraft's design means that the entire patient will not be physically accessible in flight. Additional issues occur with respect to pressurization of the aircraft. Not all aircraft used as air ambulances in all jurisdictions have pressurized cabins, and those which do typically tend to be pressurized to only 10,000 feet above sea level. These pressure changes require advanced knowledge by flight staff with respect to the specifics of aviation medicine, including changes in physiology and the behaviour of gases. There are a large variety of helicopter makes that are used for the civilian HEMS models. The commonly used types are the Bell 207, 407, and 429, Eurocopter AS-350, BK-117, EC130, EC135, EC145, and the Agusta Westland 109 & 149. Due to the configuration of the medical crew and patient compartments, these aircraft are normally configured to only transport one patient but some can be configured to transport two patients if so needed. Additionally, helicopters have stricter weather minimums that they can operate in and commonly do not fly at altitudes over 10,000 feet above sea level. Beginning in the 1990s, the number of air ambulance crashes in the United States, mostly involving helicopters, began to climb. By 2005, this number had reached a record high. Crash rates from 2000–2005 more than doubled the previous five year's rates. To some extent, these numbers had been deemed acceptable, as it was understood that the very nature of air ambulance operations meant that, because a life was at stake, air ambulances would often operate on the very edge of their safety envelopes, going on missions in conditions where no other civilian pilot would fly. As a result, nearly fifty percent of all EMS personnel deaths in the United States occur in air ambulance crashes. In 2006, the United States National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) concluded that many air ambulances crashes were avoidable, eventually leading to the improvement of government standards and CAMTS accreditation. Whilst some air ambulances do have effective methods of funding, in the UK, they remain almost entirely charity funded, as improved cost-benefit ratios are generally achieved with land based attendance and transfers. Health outcomes, for example from London's Helicopter Emergency Medical Service, remain largely the same for both air and ground based services. - Medical escort - Golden hour (medicine) - Emergency medical service - Emergency Medical Retrieval Service - Air Ambulances in the United Kingdom - Air Ambulances in the United States - Norwegian Air Ambulance Foundation - Safety of emergency medical services flights - Commission on Accreditation of Medical Transport Systems - ^ Lam DM. "To Pop A Balloon: Air Evacuation During The Siege of Paris, 1870." Aviation, Space, & Environmental Medicine, 59(10): 988-991, October 1988. - ^ "Help From The Skies." Popular Mechanics, November 1929. - ^ "Lam, DM. Wings of Life and Hope: A History of Aeromedical Evacuation." Problems in Critical Care, 4(4): 477-494, December 1990. - ^ Flight, 13 April 1956 p424. - ^ "Accidental Death and Disability: The Neglected Disease of Modern Society." National Academy of Sciences (White Paper), 1966. - ^ Bearl, Spc. Daniel. "MEDEVAC Unit Stays on Alert to Save Injured Comrades." US Military News via army.mil/-news, February 9, 2007. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "Royal Flying Doctor Service." flyingdoctor.net. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ Naughton, Russell. "Marie Marvingt "La Fiancée du Danger" (1875-1963)." monash.edu.au, 2010. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "Saskatchewan Air Ambulance." Government of Saskatchewan. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "Schaefer Ambulance Service." schaeferamb.com. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "The History of the Air Ambulance" Retrieved: November 15, 2011. - ^ "Our History: Forest General Hospital." forrestgeneral.com. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "Cristoph1" (in German). christoph-1.de. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "First in the Nation - Celebrating 37 Years of Air Medical Transport!" Flight for Life, 2006. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ a b "History." ornge.ca. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "Air Ambulances: Fixed-Wing v. Rotor-Wing" MedFlight911.com Retrieved: November 15, 2011. - ^ "Metro Life Flight." The MetroHealth System. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "Governor O'Malley Announces New Additions to Maryland's World-Class Emergency Response." Maryland State Police Aviation Command via mspaviation.org, October 20, 2010. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "Rega Switzerland." rega.ch/en. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "ADAC." adac.de. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "USAF 357: Medical Airlift Group." public.scott.amc.af.mil. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "Air Ambulance." mercyjets.com. Retrieved August 26, 2011. - ^ a b c Davis, Robert. "Reconsidering air ambulance usage" USA Today, July 18, 2005. Retrieved: November 12, 2007. - ^ "Colorado House Bill 07-1259." State of Colorado. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "State of New Jersey Assembly Act No. 3786." State of New Jersey. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "Emergency Air Ambulance Services." New Mexico Register, Volume XVI, Number 24, December 30, 2005. - ^ "Utah Rule R426-2." State of Utah. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ Washington State rule WAC 246-976-320." Washington: DC. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "Rules and Regulations Relating to Emergency Medical Services." Rhode Island Department of Health. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "Draft of proposed changes to Texas Department of State Health Services rule 157.12." dshs.state.tx.us. January 25, 2006."] State of Texas. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ "Texas DSHS committee minutes - ^ "Department of Community Health Policies and Procedures." EMS. Retrieved: December 4, 2010. - ^ Levin, Alan and Robert Davis. "Surge in crashes scars air ambulance industry." USA Today, July 17, 2005. Retrieved: November 12, 2007. - ^ "Official NTSB report on an air ambulance Learjet crash in San Diego, California which killed everyone on board, amounting to five deaths." NTSB Publication, October 24, 2004. Retrieved: November 12, 2007. - ^ Levin, Alan. "NTSB: Air ambulance crashes avoidable." USA Today, January 25, 2006. Retrieved: November 12, 2007. - ^ Brazier, J. "The cost and effectiveness of the London Helicopter Emergency Medical Service." J Health Serv Res Policy, 01-OCT-1996; 1(4): 232-7. - Association of Air Medical Services - UK Air Ambulance Information & Operational Info + Gallery - U.S. State Department information on U.S. based air ambulance and medevac companies - "Lifeguard" flight tracker - HEMS Pictures by State Emergency medical services People Vehicles Casualty lifting Other Related fields Wikimedia Foundation. 2010. Look at other dictionaries: air ambulance — noun An aircraft used to take patients from remote places to hospital • • • Main Entry: ↑air * * * ˌair ˈambulance [air ambulance] ; noun (especially BrE … Useful english dictionary air ambulance — air ambulances N COUNT: also by N An air ambulance is a helicopter or plane that is used for taking people to hospital … English dictionary air ambulance — air .ambulance n a special aircraft used for taking people to hospital … Dictionary of contemporary English air ambulance — noun An aircraft (especially a form of helicopter) equipped as an ambulance … Wiktionary air ambulance — /ɛər ˈæmbjələns/ (say airr ambyuhluhns) noun a light aircraft equipped like an ambulance, used to fly patients especially from outback and country centres to a hospital … Australian English dictionary air ambulance — A specially equipped aircraft that can attend patients; take them from remote places to hospitals; transfer them between hospitals; and in some cases, attend accident scenes that are not easily accessible … Aviation dictionary Air Ambulance Show — is the international fair of integrated emergency systems for professionals and general public. The fair takes place every year in May in Hradec Králové in the Czech Republic.ee also* Air ambulanceExternal links* [http://www.airambulance.cz/?set… … Wikipedia Air Ambulance Show — Localización Hradec Králové País República Checa Tipo … Wikipedia Español Ornge (Ontario Air Ambulance) — Ornge (formerly Ontario Air Ambulance) is the air ambulance service for the province of Ontario and for the Ministry of Health and Long Term Care (Ontario). The provision of ambulance services in Ontario is governed by the Ambulance Act . Under… … Wikipedia Cornwall Air Ambulance — Cornwall s air ambulance G KRNW Eurocopter EC 135 The Cornwall Air Ambulance is a dedicated helicopter emergency service for the English county of Cornwall. The helicopter flies approximately 1000 missions per annum, having flown over 20,000… … Wikipedia

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Created: 7/27/2013 Updated: 9/1/2015 The Academy’s museum collection and archives includes 1,371 motion films that were created between the early 1920s and the 1970s. These original films document local ecosystems and plants and animals in their natural habitats. Motion film is highly susceptible to deterioration caused by temperature and humidity. With help from the Chicago Film Archives, these films are being described and catalogued, having simple repairs made, and rehoused with archival storage containers for long-term preservation. Thank you to the Gaylord and Dorothy Donnelley Foundation, the Chicago Sun-Times Charity Trust, and to individual donors for their support of this stage of the project! After the films are catalogued and stabilized, we will embark on the next phase: to increase the accessibility of the collection. Utilizing the original films would damage or even destroy them. Creating a digital copy of the films will allow the footage to be used and the original film to be protected. Here are some shots of the transformation of our film collection: Many of the films were stored in metal canisters. Original metal reels caused breakage to the films and were susceptible to rust, resulting in chemical deterioration of the films. Some films had adhesive labels stuck to the sides, and the adhesive residue transferred to the films causing them to stick together. Stacks of small cardboard boxes with original 100’ rolls of film. Materials like this cause damage to films through acid migration. agfa 35mm films Leather bound film container used for storage and mailing. Some of the films suffer from vinegar syndrome, deterioration caused by humidity. The film exhibits warping and gives off a “vinegary” smell. Each film is wound onto an archival core, outfitted with a new leader, and then given an archival canister. Here are films that have been completely catalogued and rehoused. The new archival containers provide an inert micro-environment that helps stabilize the films and protect them from further deterioration. Dawn RobertsSubscribe to our RSS feed and never miss a blog posting! View Comments Created: 7/27/2013 Updated: 8/9/2016 Bird watching is a popular activity and one where there are few barriers to participation. Both young and old can participate and from any geographic location; you can watch birds in your backyard through kitchen windows or venture out to more wild areas. With this ready access to living birds, what role do bird collections play? One of the greatest advantages is that specimens allow for up close inspection, for as long as desired. This can be particularly helpful when you want to study a species that is difficult to find in its habitat, when you’re just learning how to identify a species, or when you want to compare features from different individuals. An Eastern bluebird study skin, Sialia sialis, collected from Diamond Lake, Illinois in 1904. Bird collections are used for all sorts of research. For instance, museum oology collections were used to identify the effects of DDT on bird egg shells, which lead to banning the use of this hazardous substance. Specimens are used to track changes in a species’ range – check out the range maps the next time you open an identification book; data from museum collections are often used in the creation of these maps. Here is a nest and egg set of a Northern Shoveller, Anas clypeata. Specimens that are taxidermied in a behavioral posture are utilized frequently for exhibits. These specimens help illustrate behavior and bring them to visitors who may not have the opportunity to see them first hand in the wild. In order to successfully convey the true nature of an animal, taxidermists need an understanding of how musculature works, but also have an understanding of the animal. Extensive observation of living animals aides in the understanding of a particular species’ behavior, how an animal moves and balances as its walks, and how it interacts with other animals. Gambel’s quail, Callipepla gambelii, mounted specimen. The next time you visit the Nature Museum, take a little extra time to study the specimens on display. Note their particular features – the shape of their beaks, the differences in the shape of their feet, the coloration of their feathers. What can you impart from these features about their diet or their activities? Through this observation, you may gain a more thorough understanding of the animals living in this urban nature environment and even spot them more easily in their natural habitat. Dawn RobertsView Comments Created: 7/26/2013 Updated: 9/2/2015 Although he was a lawyer by training and practice, Tappan Gregory was also a nature photographer and supporter of the Chicago Academy of Sciences. He served as the Honorary Curator of Mammals from 1930 to 1944 and contributed articles to Academy publications as well. We are fortunate to have the negatives of some of his photography, particularly those highlighting his use of wildlife “self-portrait” photography. While to us this kind of imaging seems a normal part of scientific exploration, while Gregory was working this kind of photography was very new and standardized equipment had not been developed yet. Below is a small sampling of the images housed in the Museum’s collection. Juvenile Porcupine walking along ridge of boat, ca. 1907, Huron Mountain Club, Marquette, MI Diagram of camera set-up for wildlife “self-portrait” photographs. Skunk responding to bait. October 18, 1928, Huron Mountain Club, Marquette, MI Franklin’s Ground Squirrel, Waucaunda, Ill July 27, 1941 Two Red Fox kits or pups caught on film. May 13, 1941, Huron Mountain Club, Marquette, MI Amber KingView Comments Assistant Collections Manager Created: 7/26/2013 Updated: 8/9/2016 Amanda Parelius is not a household name, she is not a recognized scientific pioneer, but her scrapbook is a snapshot into the passion that drives the amateur scientist. Amelia was born around 1888 in Chicago and lived most of her life in Elmwood Park, one of Chicago’s northwest suburban communities. When she was only 18 months old, Amelia contracted polio, known then also as “infantile paralysis.” At 16, she underwent surgery intended to help her walk without the use of crutches, but complications afterwards instead led to the amputation of one her legs. Her personal experiences with polio are important to note because it would influence directions she took later in her life. Although she started her career as a milliner and dress maker, ultimately she opened a pet store, “The Scarlet Pet Store and Bird Hospital”, which was originally located in her home and later at various locations. It was at her bird hospital that she began to experiment with treatments recommended for those experiencing paralysis from polio or other debilitating diseases, on domesticated pet birds. She received attention from papers in the Chicago area for creating artificial legs for canaries and for applying the “Sister Kenny” method used to treat polio patients on birds experiencing paralysis. She applied hot packs, hot baths, and massage to afflicted birds experiencing some success, even curing a parrot that was found suddenly motionless at the bottom of its cage, to the delight of its owner. All of the procedures she performed were completed with the permission and encouragement of the owners of the birds. In fact, much of her business was obtained through word-of-mouth references that brought birds from as far away as California to her hospital for treatment. Her scrapbook contains letters and newspaper clippings detailing her successes as well as numerous heart-felt thank you letters from bird owners whose pets lives were extended through her care. Her story is just one of many detailing the work of the amateur scientist in the Museum's archive. Amber KingView Comments Assistant Collections Manager Created: 7/22/2013 Updated: 8/9/2016 It’s Time to Get Your Bug On! Summer has finally arrived in Chicago with it the endless array of festivals. Not to be outdone, the Nature Museum will once again be celebrating all things invertebrate with its fifth annual Bugapalooza event. So if boiling your brains out with music in Grant Park with several thousand others is not your idea of a fun time (or even if it is, you can do both) why not head over to the museum on August 2nd and delve into the delights of entomology? We will have a great selection of bugs on display in our highly popular Bug Zoo with experts on hand to give you all the fascinating facts about these often overlooked creatures. You'll get the chance to learn about bug diets when we do our Bug Feeding Program and we'll also be doing Bug Walks on the museum grounds to show you the vast array of species that call our prairie landscape home. Along with Bug Crafts, Bug Coloring and Bug Tattoos we will also be throwing down the gauntlet to see how adventurous you are feeling by offering you some tasty dishes to try where the key ingredient is, you guessed it, BUGS!! Our collections staff will be on hand demonstrating the delicate art of insect pinning and we will have our neighborhood apiarist here to explain the skills of bee keeping whilst our younger visitors can learn how bees dance. You will even get the chance to see our Leaf-cutter Ant Colony up close too. Of course no celebration of the invertebrate world would be complete without a special ‘after hours’ opportunity to visit our iconic Butterfly Haven and to cap off the evening we will be doing a First Flight Butterfly Release. To register for this great event, simply click on this link. Created: 7/15/2013 Updated: 8/9/2016 Gardening has, for many years, been America’s most popular hobby, so it should come as no surprise that numerous people have attempted to make a buck or two dispensing horticultural information to the masses. Gardeners clamor endlessly for the advice of experts, and so your average bookstore is absolutely lousy with flower books, to say nothing of the countless gardening websites available for the perusal of the plant-addled. Most of these resources focus on what to grow and why. As I considered topics for a blog post today, it occurred to me that I should avoid contributing to this information overload. There is an eminently more useful service I can offer to the horticulturally inclined. And so, calling upon my years of training and experience, I've come up a with a list of plants that should never ever be planted by anyone, ever. Witness the first installment of the soon-to-be-indispensable Harper’s Horticultural Bottom Ten!* Norway Maple – Acer platanoides. This plant should need no introduction. Wherever you are in the city of Chicago, statistically speaking, a well-swung dead cat will either hit the side of a Dunkin Donuts or the trunk of a Norway Maple. This tree looks like it was lifted straight from your first grade art project - you know, back when you stupidly drew trees like green lollipops on brown sticks. Puerile geometry is pretty much all Norway Maples have to offer; yet people inexplicably keep planting them. Yes, the fall color is decent, but the brilliant oranges and crimsons of our native Red and Sugar Maples make the Norway’s pale yellow look sickly by comparison. If that’s not enough to dissuade you from planting a Norway, please, for the sake of all that’s good in the world, read on. This tree’s shade is so dense that it’s tough to grow much of anything beneath it, especially since its shallow roots crowd out other plants. Its seeds sprout everywhere, requiring you to pull multitudes of saplings lest you end up with more of these affronts to botanical decency darkening your property. Oh, did I mention it’s an invasive species? And that YOU CAN’T EVEN MAKE MAPLE SYRUP WITH IT!? Sheesh! Rose of Sharon – Hibiscus syriacus. Your grandma had one of these. She also had Pat Boone records and a crocheted cover over the Kleenex box. Just sayin.’ The Rose of Sharon looks good on paper – a tough shrub with reliable mid to late summer color. But you see, that’s what makes it so insidious. You want to like this shrub. You think you should. It’s got huge pink or blue flowers after all. What’s not to like? That’s what I’m here for, gentle reader, to tell you what’s not to like. Those flowers you were so excited about have limp, fleshy petals, insipid colors, and discordant, reddish centers. They smell…weird. After they die, they continue to hang around, all floppy and messy (see photo), for several days. And the rest of the plant has nothing at all to recommend it. Its form is sort of like an upside-down Christmas tree, until it gets older and full of heavy flowers and starts looking like an upside-down Christmas tree trodden by elephants. The seed pods are unattractive and their contents sprout readily into hard-to-pull seedlings. Oh, and the curled up flower buds are a favorite home for slugs, as well as every homeowner’s favorite, Japanese Beetles. Siberian Elm - Ulmus pumila. Unscrupulous plant peddlers sometimes sell this tree as a Dutch Elm Disease resistant alternative to the majestic American Elm. Unfortunately, it lacks the impeccable vase-like form of its American cousin, leaving it with - let me do the math here - ah yes, precisely zero ornamental characteristics. With weak wood that leaves the lawn littered with broken twigs, and massive horizontal roots to impede your mower, expect to spend more time than ever on yard work after you plant one of these embarrassments of the arboreal world. Here’s how I would describe the form: Take a bunch of parsley in your fist. Smash it into the wall a few times. Tie the stems together to form the “trunk” and poke it in the dirt. Congratulations, you now have a perfect bonsai replica of a Siberian Elm. Let me leave you with a few comments from the renowned plantsman Michael Dirr: “A poor ornamental tree that does not deserve to be planted anywhere!…One of, if not the, world’s worst trees…Native to eastern Siberia, northern China, Manchuria, Korea and, unfortunately, was not left there.” I think there’s a lesson there for us all. To be continued - watch this blog for the next installment!*Someone out there is about to fire off an indignant comment pointing out that there are examples of some of these plants on the museum grounds. Rest assured, I sure as heck didn’t put ‘em there.View Comments Created: 7/12/2013 Updated: 8/9/2016 Food: The Nature of Eating focuses on how human eating habits impact us and the planet. While this exhibit focuses on the human relationship with food, the Public Programs department teaches visitors about the importance of a balanced diet for animals through our daily animal feedings. Two of our most popular feedings are the water snake and rats. The water snake feeding takes place every Thursday at 1 p.m. During this time our water snake feasts on a large bucket of live fish! Our attendees are glued to the glass as they observe the water snake slowly slither to the container of unsuspecting fish. Sorry, fish, but your new home is in the belly of a water snake, not in a bowl at the dentist’s office. This container full of fish keeps the water snake satiated for an enitre week! On Saturdays at 1 p.m. we feed our two beloved rats, Smudge and Sooty. Their meal consists of almost anything. Seriously. They feast on Greek yogurt, local and exotic fruits, veggies, seaweed, dog food, wax worms and, of course, a sweet treat for dessert. We do not intend to gross-out the public when we feed them dog food or worms. We want visitors to realize that rats are scavengers and will eat anything we eat or set out for other animals and more! Rats will thrive anywhere that supplies them with food, water and shelter- that’s why we find them in our neighborhoods. So, next time you are visiting the Nature Museum, make sure to check the guide to find out which animal will be fed and when. The experience will surely be a treat! Glenda GonzalezView Comments Public Programs Coordinator Created: 7/1/2013 Updated: 8/9/2016 Lots of things in the natural world emit light. Bioluminescence is a chemical process through which living organisms produce “cold” light. The mechanism can be different for different species but basically, living things make light the same way a glow stick does. The oceans especially are full of bioluminescent creatures: cephalopods like the vampire squid, bacteria (including those that live under the eyes of some fish) and crustaceans like ostracods (also known as seed shrimp). One of the most numerous vertebrates on earth, the lantern fish, is (as their name implies) glow-in-the dark. Here in Chicagoland, we also have bioluminescent organisms. The most popular are the fireflies or lightning bugs in the family Lampyridae. There are more than two dozen species that occur in our region; my kids identified at least two species in our yard last night. Species can be differentiated by size and anatomy as well as by how they flash. That said, when girls flash their message, the boys respond with a different pattern of flashes. In addition, females of some species can flash messages that attract the males of other firefly species. Since they are different species, the female is not trying to attract a mate, rather she’s ordering dinner. By eating the male that she lured in, she not only gets more protein to make strong eggs, she helps ensure that there will be less competition for her babies once they hatch. Lightning Bug / firefly / glowbug Maybe I should point out that whether you call them fireflies or lightning bugs, they are not flies (order diptera), nor are they bugs (order hemiptera), they are order coleptera—the beetles. This means they lay eggs that hatch into caterpillars that look a lot like little mealworms. (We have such a limited vocabulary for insect common names; these are, of course, also coleopteran--not worms, which are not even arthropods). You might not know it but you appreciate these little “worms” because they are voracious predators and eat a lot of garden and flower pests. However, because they have to live in your yard for a year before reproducing, a heavy application of pesticide will kill off most of your predatory “good” insects, including lightning bugs, for the rest of the year (or more) but will only kill of the herbivorous “pest” insects for a short time. Pests reproduce more quickly and disperse more widely and will re-colonize your yard long before the predator populations recover. One of the neat things about fireflies is that in many species both their eggs and their larvae glow. And (given our limited vocabulary for common names) what do we call the glowing larvae of a beetle? Glowworms, of course! I have never been lucky enough to find glowing beetle eggs but I have regularly seen glowworms. Unlike the adult form, glowworms are relatively dim. In fact, lightning bugs may be the brightest bioluminescent organisms in the Midwest. It might seem that glowing at all life stages would just attract predators but, there are actually relatively few things that can tolerate the toxins of a lightning bug--don't feed them to your pets. Despite their biological brilliance, light pollution can make even adults hard to see well and their terrestrial larvae are even more obscure. So, to find glowworms and most other luminescent life, you must acclimate yourself to the dark. Seeing in the dark is not a ninja mystery but we are so reliant on bright-as-day electric lights we have forgotten how our ancestors functioned for half their lives. First, unless you’re doing something technical like fixing a car’s fuel line on a deserted road at one in the morning, I don’t think you need a flashlight. General hiking certainly does not require a flashlight, even on a moonless night. That said, when you first step from the light of a campfire (or recall my advice and put your flashlight back in your pocket) you will not be able to see. There are many neurological reasons for this involving rods and cones but they don’t matter practically; all you need to know is: be patient. Get away from artificial light sources, pause, even close your eyes, and count to 30 or more. Don’t squeeze your eyes shut, just rest them for a moment. When you open them, you’ll be able to see. Don’t expect to be able to see in color (read about those rods and cones if you you'd like) and don’t expect to see lots of detail. Do expect to see a new world of shapes, impressions, movement and sound. Once you have learned to see in the dark, start walking around in the forest. Look to the ground and you’ll likely see glowworms and maybe more. In the Midwest, especially in forests that are old and moist, you might see foxfire. This is a fungus that grows on decaying wood. To modern eyes it is a very dim blue green glow. Apparently though, it was bright enough to American colonist’s eyes for Ben Franklin to suggest its use to illuminate boats and scientific instruments. Once you can appreciate the brilliance of foxfire you’ll be well on your way to appreciating the fireworks that nature puts on for us every evening through a variety of amazing biological reactions (and maybe you’ll have a second thought about spending money on outdoor lighting around your home.) Keep looking for neat nature near your home and you'll discover a whole new world.View Comments

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“To be motivated means to be moved to do something.” (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 54) This post provides 18+ examples of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in the classroom. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation Theory: - Extrinsic Motivation: A person with extrinsic motivation wants to do a task in order to receive a reward or avoid a punishment. - Intrinsic Motivation: A person with intrinsic motivation wants to do a task for the pleasure involved in doing the task itself. Extrinsic Motivation Examples in the Classroom 1. Token Reward Systems In Harry Potter, students have house points. There are four houses: Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw and Slytherin. Each student is sorted into a house on their first day at Hogwarts. For the rest of the series, Harry and his friends want to win points for Gryffindor: their house! These points are an extrinsic motivator. The house point system is designed to give a student an incentive to do something well. Do a good job, and you will earn points which may – if you collect more of them than your opponents – win the prize at the end of the year! In classrooms in the earlier years of schooling, reward systems are often used based on table groups. Let’s say a class is split up into tables like in the below image: Each table might get given a name. Then, the teacher can give and take points from the table to encourage the students on each table to compete against each other to become the best. 2. Classroom Sticker / Star Charts Another good external motivator is a star chart. Star charts are really common in early years classrooms as motivators. Young kids love stickers! Buy a sticker chart from Teachers Pay Teachers or make one yourself! Here’s two common ways they’re done: - If you’ve got one personal chart per student, list the weekly or daily tasks down the left-hand side. Once the child has completed the task, they can put a sticker alongside the task name. - If you’ve got one chart for the whole class, list all the students’ names down the left-hand side and let the students race to have the most stickers in the class. Heck, why not? Food is a great motivator for students. In fact, I recommend to my college students that they use food to motivate themselves while studying. If you’re an educator, you’ll need to be careful not to use unhealthy foods or foods that children are allergic to. I used to offer small treats in my classrooms before I got more conscious of healthy diets for children. I also realized that some parents might not have been very happy if they knew I was handing out candies in class! But, for you or for your children, feel free to have a go at using food as a motivator – just please do it in moderation! If you want to know about other motivators for studying as a college student, you might want to check out this post I have on how to make studying fun. 4. Guilt Trips Heck, being guilted into doing things was my modus operandi as a kid! Guilt trips are a form of ‘negative reinforcement’ (a reminder that if you fail, you’ll lose something you like). I wasn’t going to get anything tangible out of being good as a kid. No one was going to give me a candy or a toy. I was just really scared of having my parents change their opinions of me. I see this guilt trip reinforcement in ‘good kids’ at school all the time. Children see themselves as ‘good kids’ and don’t want to lose that. So, they do things they don’t want to do in order to keep up a reputation they have with their teacher. This isn’t an intrinsic motivator because students aren’t necessarily doing things out of the pleasure of the task. They’re doing something they don’t want in order to get something out of it – in this case, a reputation of being ‘good’. 5. Game-Based Learning Rewards Educational computer games are well-known for being based upon extrinsic motivators. When students finish a level they win tokens, points or ‘level ups’ for completing their tasks. Examples of this are in educational games like DuoLingo (a language learning app) and Kahn Academy (mostly for mathematics learning). In DuoLingo, you can level up towards a ‘Fluency Level’ in your language. In Kahn Academy, virtual stickers are used to reward your avatar. Another way educational computer games reward students is through sound and graphics: - Loud sounds when a student wins an activity stimulate the learner and make them want to try again to get the same stimulation once again. This is a lot like how a gambling machine in a casino gets you coming back for more! - Bright flashing lights that attract learners’ attention can also be used to get learners addicted to the thrill of winning. These are still extrinsic motivators because students are playing the games to achieve the extraneous stimulation of gameplay, not for the fun of the activities themselves. 6. The Premack Principle The Premack Principle argues that people will do an activity they don’t want to do if they are bribed with a more desirable activity that follows. The Premack Principle is often known as grandma’s rule: “Eat your vegetables and then you can have your dessert.” In the classroom, teachers often bribe students with a fun activity as the last activity at the end of the day or week. If students do all of their work well throughout the day (without misbehaving!) they might get to play a game of their choice. Praise is simple, but it works. Really well. Students often crave your praise and will work on a task they aren’t necessarily all that interested in if they think they will get some praise from it. However, teachers should also think about what is actually praiseworthy. Here are some forms of praise that could be demotivating: - Praising too much. If you praise too much, then the praise will lose all its meaning and students will stop seeing your praise as all that motivating. - Disproportionate Praise. If you praise one child more than others, the other children will stop seeing your praise as genuine. Often we have children who misbehave regularly and we end up lowering our standards for them. We find ourselves praising them for tasks that should be expected! Instead, go with a simple ‘thank you’ for tasks that are expected. Here are some forms of praise to consider: - A smile and nod. Sometimes simple is best. Your student will be made to feel like you’ve given them a special little bit of recognition without being insincere or over-the-top about it. - Proportionate praise. Make sure your students know that high praise is hard to come by, but use it when something is genuinely praiseworthy. If a student amazes you, consider calling a student’s parents and let them know how well they did. 8. Threats of Physical Punishment No, I’m not advocating physical punishment. In fact, in most western countries physical or ‘corporal’ punishment is very much illegal in schools. But nonetheless, it’s an example of an extrinsic motivator. If a child knows or believes they will receive physical punishment for doing something wrong (or getting a low mark on an exam) they might work extra hard to succeed! Harsh punishments may cause emotional, physical and psychological harm. So, I don’t advocate it! 9. Threats to Remove Privileges Here are some common sorts of privileges teachers give to students at schools: - Being allowed to do tasks only assigned to trustworthy students, such as handing out worksheets or being sent to another classroom to send a message; - Being allowed to go on an end of year excursion; - Getting to use certain toys, play equipment or access to play areas. Students who feel that they will have privileges removed if they do not complete a task, they may feel increased motivation to complete the task. 10. Whole Group Accountability This is another one that works really well – but again, it needs to be done appropriately. Here’s some times I feel this strategy works well: - When students need to work as a team in order to complete a task; - When interdependence and groupwork are clear aspects of the learning scenario; - When the reward is not of significant consequence. Here’s some times the strategy causes resentment between students: - When one misbehaving student holds the whole class back, even though the rest of the students did nothing wrong; - When students genuinely tried their hardest but feel they’ve been punished for no reason. Nonetheless, this can be a good way of getting the students to self-regulate as a group and apply peer pressure on each other to do well. Use this strategy with care! Intrinsic Motivation Examples in the Classroom 1. Student-Led Inquiry Learning Inquiry learning based on students’ personal interests can really liven up a classroom. This is because students get the opportunity to explore topics that they’re genuinely interested in and excited about. If you’ve got to stick to a curriculum, you might still be able to embrace student-led aspects by finding ways to link curriculum outcomes to students’ interests. This approach requires teachers to know their students well and reflect on how they can cater their curriculum to the interests of students. Start by asking your students what they want to learn about or what their passions are, then brainstorm ways to weave this into your curriculum. 2. Sparking Inspiration Being inspired is one of the greatest motivators out there. And, the best thing is, it comes from within. You don’t need any rewards or punishments to inspire students. In fact, you need to take a completely different approach. To inspire students about the content, you need to find ways to show how what the students are learning about is amazing, revolutionary or life-changing. Inspired students see potential in educational topics. Don’t underestimate how much young people are inspired by altruistic endeavors. Issues that inspire many young people around the world include climate change and environmental stewardship. 3. Promoting Task Satisfaction One of the three types of extrinsic motivation that I outline later in this piece is motivation towards accomplishment. By this, we mean that people can have positive sensations when they feel like they completed a difficult task well. To make a task satisfying, make sure that it’s not too easy and not too hard. A great way to hit that sweet spot of making a task satisfying is to use Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development. According to Vygotsky, teachers should assess a student’s prior knowledge and develop a lesson that builds on the prior knowledge. If the lesson teaches things the student already knows, they will be bored and unmotivated. But if the content is too hard, they’ll also be bored and unmotivated! To solve this problem, Vygotsky proposes you should teach content that is too hard for a student to do alone, but easy enough for them to do with assistance: 4. Sparking Curiosity We can’t always teach something that’s a student’s favorite subject. Sometimes content is a little bland or boring. So, how do we instil intrinsic motivation in students when teaching this sort of content? I recommend trying to spark a sense of curiosity in the students. Sometimes all you need is an engaging ‘hook’ to get students paying attention and genuinely interested in doing the task. One way you could do this is to turn a lesson into a detective scenario. Provide clues and ask the students to seek their own answers. Another way is to find some really interesting or catchy information about a topic. For example, if you’re teaching about spiders, you could find a really interesting fact about spiders’ legs or how many eyes they have. This might spark some curiosity in students. A lot of these curiosity-sparking strategies are the sorts of strategies you might also use in the introduction to an essay to get a reader interested and wanting to read more. 5. Feeling Good after Practicing a Skill Sometimes, it just feels good to practice. I notice this most in my students who love mathematics. They’ll sit down and do some quizzes just because it feels great to flex those mathematical muscles! Sometimes learning is like going to the gym. If you haven’t done it in a while, you’re not going to have fun. It will hurt, you’ll feel bad about yourself, and you might not go back for a while. But once you’re on a role and doing it on a regular basic it starts feeling great. Consider getting your students to do some mathematical exercises early every morning to get their minds running and get them in the process of practicing learning. Hopefully after time when they get on a roll, they’ll start feeling good about it! 6. Enjoying the Process of Learning Some students just love learning – it’s that simple! It doesn’t matter what you give them to do, they’ll tackle the task with enthusiasm! I think one of the most obvious examples of this is people who love to read self-help books (or listen to self-help podcasts!). These sorts of people just can’t get enough of information that will make them a little smarter or help them learn a few more tricks. Trying to instil a love of learning in students is difficulty. Try to act as a role model, explain how learning has great benefits for you as a person, and show how your knowledge makes you a more interesting person to be around! Hopefully that will rub off on students and they’ll give learning a chance. Another way to try to instil a love of learning is to help students get a few wins under their belt. Work with them to overcome intellectual challenges and celebrate with them when they achieve their learning goals. These wins will give students first-hand knowledge of the sense of accomplishment that comes from learning something new. 7. Enjoying working in Groups Some of us hate group work. Some of us love it. But working in groups can be a really intrinsically fulfilling way to learn. Social interaction is something most humans crave. It gives us benefits like: - An overall more positive outlook on life; - A sharper mind from being challenged by peers; and - A sense of belonging and community. So, working in groups can be a great way to turn a difficult or bland task into one that is enjoyable to complete. The sense of community while completing the task can buoy us. As Nick Morgan says on his Forbes article says: “We want to achieve this state of human communion (…) We are most comfortable when we’re connected (and) sharing strong emotions and stories” 8. Wanting to beat your Personal Best A desire for self-betterment comes from within. Sometimes it hasn’t got to do with wanting to be smart for when you talk to someone you have a crush on, or so you can get a job in the future. Some of us just want to be our very best. In the humanist theory of learning, Maslow calls this the desire for self-actualization. Students who want to better themselves have an intrinsic desire to learn. This is another example of ‘intrinsic motivation towards accomplishment’, which is one of the three types of intrinsic motivation I discuss later in this article. Definition of Extrinsic Motivation An external motivator is a carrot or stick that entices us to do something that we otherwise would not. Here are some scholarly definitions you can quote in an essay: - The biggest names in motivation theories of the past few decades are Ryan and Deci (2000). They define extrinsic motivation as “doing something because it leads to a separable outcome” (p. 55). - “Extrinsic motivation (EM) refers to performance of behavior that is fundamentally contingent upon the attainment of an outcome that is separable from the action itself … It is performed in order to attain some other outcome. For instance, a teenager might wash dishes at home in order to receive an allowance.” (Legault, 2016, p. 1) - “Extrinsic motivation comes from external sources and is mostly driven or forced by environmental contingencies such as money, good grades, or the approval of others.” (Sogunro, 2015, p. 23) ‘Extrinsic’ has the same origins as the word ‘external’. Extrinsic motivators are therefore things that are external to ourselves that motivate us. Our extrinsic motivation doesn’t come from inside of us. Rather, the motivation is based on an outsider providing an external stimulus. An external stimulus could be one of the following: - Positive Reinforcement: We do a task in order to get a reward. An example might be getting a chocolate for completing a task. - Punishment: We do a task in order to avoid being given a punishment. A punishment might be being forced to do extra homework if we don’t complete the task. - Negative Reinforcement: We do a task in order to avoid losing something we already have. This is a form of punishment, but instead of being given a punishment such as additional homework, a privilege is taken from us. An example is losing play time during lunch break. Pros and Cons Some of the benefits of extrinsic motivation are: - Students find encouragement to complete tasks that are uninteresting yet necessary; - Tasks can be split into regular, manageable intervals with rewards provided intermittently throughout the process; - Can be very effective, especially for students with autism via the Applied Behaviour Management strategy of teaching; - It is a transactional way to motivate people, where there is no pretence about trying to make an uninteresting task appear interesting. Some of the limitations of extrinsic motivation are: - Rewards lose their effect over time, leading to decreased return on a teacher’s effort; - Rewards vary depending upon student. Teachers need to know their students well to cater rewards effectively; - Many forms of punishment are considered unethical these days. Be very careful with using punishments in classroom environments; - Students are unlikely to remember school fondly when they are not encouraged to love learning for its own sake. Extrinsic motivations are embraced in behaviorist theory. Behaviorist theorists like B. F. Skinner believe that you can teach a child anything if you give them strong enough incentives and disincentives (Buckley & Doyle, 2016). Behaviorist theorists don’t take into account the depth of our emotions, cultural origins, cognitive factors or social factors that might motivate us. They simply think that learning occurs through reward and punishment. Definition of Intrinsic Motivation An intrinsic motivator is something you do because you enjoy doing it. Here are some scholarly definitions you can quote in an essay: - I told you earlier that Ryan and Deci (2000) are the biggest names in motivation theory. They define intrinsic motivation as “doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable” (p. 55). “Intrinsic motivation (IM) refers to engagement in behavior that is inherently satisfying or enjoyable … the means and end are one and the same. For example, a child may play outdoors – running, skipping, jumping – for no other reason than because it is fun and innately satisfying.” (Legault, 2016, p. 1) - “Intrinsic motivation involves learners being interested in what they learn and in the learning process itself” (Buckley & Doyle, 2016, p. 1165) Intrinsic’ has the same origins as the word ‘internal’. When we have intrinsic motivation, our motivation comes from inside of us. We don’t need someone providing the promise of reward or punishment for us to want to do something. There are three main forms of intrinsic motivation: - Intrinsic motivation to know: The idea that people experience positive sensations (enjoyment, pleasure, etc.) in learning new things. - Intrinsic motivation towards accomplishment: The idea that people experience positive sensations (enjoyment, pleasure, etc.) when they have achieved something. - Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation: The idea that people experience positive sensations (enjoyment, pleasure, etc.) when they do tasks that are cognitively, physically, socially or emotionally stimulating. Pros and Cons of Intrinsic Motivation Some of the benefits of intrinsic motivation are: - Students will come into the classroom excited for the day of learning; - School will appear exciting and engaging for students; - Students will do the task without fuss and without misbehaving; Some of the limitations of intrinsic motivation are: - Some activities are just plainly boring but need to be learned. You’ll need to find alternative ways to motivate students to learn this content; - Things we are interested in are not necessarily the most valuable things to learn about; - Most schools have a standardized curriculum which limits our freedom to learn what we are intrinsically motivated about. Intrinsic motivation is explained within cognitive psychology as a desire to find balance in your mind. When you don’t understand something you feel like something isn’t right. We humans seem driven to eliminate this incongruity so everything makes clearer sense in your mind (Buckley & Doyle, 2016). Academic Sources to Cite in your Essay (APA Style) These are some good scholarly sources to cite in an essay on motivation: Buckley, P. & Doyle, E. (2016). Gamification and student motivation. Interactive Learning Environments, 24(6), 1162-1175. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2014.964263 Deckers, L. (2005). Motivation: Biological, psychological, and environmental (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson. Legault, L. (2016). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In Zeigler-Hill, V. & Shackelford, T. K. (Eds.) Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences (pp. 1–4). Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_1139-1 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 Sogunro, O. A. (2015). Motivating factors for adult learners in higher education. International Journal of Higher Education, 4(1), 22-37. http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v4n1p22 Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., Blais, M. R., Briere, N. M., Senecal, C., & Vallieres, E. F. (1992). The academic motivation scale: A measure of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52(4), 1003–1017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013164492052004025

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Brainstorming is a group creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a specific problem by a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its members. The term was popularized by Alex Faickney Osborn in the 1953 book Applied Imagination . Alex F. Osborn, executive director, creative methods for creative problem-solving in 1939. He was frustrated by employees’ inability to develop creative ideas. In response, he began hosting group-thinking sessions and discovered a significant improvement in the quality and quantity of ideas produced by employees. Osborn outlined his method in the 1948 book Your Creative Power in chapter 33, “How to Organize a Squad to Create Ideas”. Osborn asked that these principles contribute to “ideative efficacy,” these being: - Defer judgment, - Reach for quantity. Following these two principles are his general rules of brainstorming, established with intention to: - social inhibitions among group members. - stimulate idea generation. - increase overall creativity of the group. - Go for quantity : This rule is a moyen de Enhancing divergent production aiming to Facilitate problem solving through the maxim quantity breeds quality . The assumption is that the greater the number of the general ideas of the chance of producing a radical and effective solution. - Withhold criticism : In brainstorming, criticism of ideas generated should be put ‘on hold’. Instead, participants should focus on extending or adding to ideas, reserving criticism for a later critical stage of the process. By suspending judgment, participants will feel free to generate unusual ideas. - Welcome wild ideas : To get a good list of suggestions, wild ideas are encouraged. They can be generated by new perspectives and suspending assumptions. These new ways of thinking might give you better solutions. - Combine and improve ideas : As suggested by the slogan “1 + 1 = 3”. It is believed to stimulate the building of ideas by a process of association . Osborn notes that brainstorming should address a specific question; he held that multiple sessions addressing issues were inefficient. Further, the problem must require the generation of ideas rather than judgment; he uses these examples as if they are possible for a brainstorming material. Osborn envisioned groups of around 12 participants, including both experts and novices. Participants are encouraged to provide wild and unexpected answers. Ideas receive no criticism or discussion. The group simply provides ideas that can lead to a solution. The judgments are reserved for a later date. Nominal technical group Participants are asked to write their ideas anonymously. Then the facilitator collects the ideas and the group votes on each idea. The vote can be as simple as a show of hands in favor of a given idea. This process is called distillation. After distillation, the top ranked ideas may be sent back to the group or to subgroups for further brainstorming. For example, one group may work on the color required in a product. Another group may work on the size, and so forth. Each group will come back to the whole group for the listed ideas. Sometimes the ideas have been brought back to the table. It is important that the facilitator be trained in this process before attempting this technique. The group should be primed and encouraged to embrace the process. Like all team efforts, it can take a few practice sessions to train the team before tackling the important ideas. Group passing technique Each person in a group group writes down one idea, and then passes the piece of paper to the next person, who adds some thoughts. This continues to be his last piece of paper back. By this time, it is likely that the group will have extensively elaborated on each idea. The group may also create an “idea book” and post a distribution list or route to the front of the book. On the first page is a description of the problem. The first person to receive the book lists his or her ideas and then routes the book to the next person on the distribution list. The second person can log new ideas or add to the ideas of the previous person. This continues until the distribution list is exhausted. A follow-up “read out” meeting is then held to discuss the ideas logged in the book. This technique takes longer, but it allows you to think deeply about the problem. Team idea mapping method This method of brainstorming works by the method of association . It is possible to collaborate and increase the quantity of ideas The process begins with a well-defined topic. Each participant brainstorms individually, then all the ideas are merged onto one large idea map. During this consolidation phase, participants may discover a common understanding of the issues as they share the meanings behind their ideas. During this sharing, new ideas can be found by the association, and they are added to the map. Once all the ideas are captured, the group can prioritize and / or take action. Directed brainstorming is a variation of electronic brainstorming (described below). It can be done manually or with computers. Directed brainstorming works when the solution space is known prior to the session. If known, these criteria may be used to constrain the Ideation process intentionally. In directed brainstorming, each participant is given a sheet of paper (or electronic form) and told the brainstorming question. They are asked to produce a response and then all of the papers (or forms) are randomly swapped among the participants. The participants are asked to look at the idea that they have a new idea. The forms are then swapped again and again and again, In the laboratory, the brainstorming has been found to almost triple the productivity of groups over electronic brainstorming. Guided brainstorming A guided brainstorming session is set aside to brainstorm either individually or as a collective group on a particular subject under the constraints of perspective and time. This type of brainstorming removes all causes of conflict and constrains conversations while stimulating critical and creative thinking in an engaging, balanced environment. Participants are asked to adopt different mindsets for their pre-defined period of time while contributing their ideas to a central mind map drawn up by a pre-appointed scribe. Having examined a multi-perspective point of view, participants seemingly see the simple solutions that collectively create greater growth. Action is assigned individually. Following a guided brainstorming session participants in the field of brainstorming, research and questions remaining unanswered and a prioritized, actionable list that leaves everyone with a clear understanding of what needs to happen next and the ability to visualize the future combined focus greater goals of the group. “Individual brainstorming” is the use of brainstorming in solitary situations. Typically it includes technical Such as free writing , free speaking, word association, and drawing a mind map , qui est a visual technical Taking notes in qui people diagram Their thoughts. Individual brainstorming is a Useful Method in creative writing and has-been shown to be superior to traditional group brainstorming. This process involves brainstorming the questions , rather than trying to come up with immediate answers and short term solutions. Theoretically, this technique should not inhibit participation as there is no need to provide solutions. The answers to the questions form the framework for constructing future action plans. Once the list of questions is set, it is necessary to prioritize them to reach the best solution in an orderly way. “Questorming” is another term for this mode of inquiry. Electronic brainstorming (EBS) Although the brainstorming can take place online through widely available technologies such as email or interactive web sites, there are also many efforts to develop computer software that can replace or enhance one or more elements of the brainstorming process. Early efforts, such as GroupSystems at the University of Arizona or Software Aided Meeting Management (SAMM) system at the University of Minnesota, took advantage of new computer networking technology. rallies. When using these electronic meeting systems(EMS, as they came to be called), group members simultaneously and independently entered the computer terminal. The software collected (or “pools”) the ideas into a list, which could be displayed on a central projection screen (anonymized if desired). Other elements of these EMSs could support additional activities such as categorization of ideas, elimination of duplicates, and assessment of controversial ideas. Later EMSs capitalized on advances in computer networking and internet protocols to support asynchronous brainstorming sessions over extended periods of time and multiple locations Introduced along with the EMS by Nunamaker and colleagues at the University of Arizona was electronic brainstorming (EBS). By Utilizing customized computer software for groups ( group decision supporting systems or groupware ), EBS can replace face-to-face brainstorming. An example of groupware is the GroupSystems, a software developed by University of Arizona. After an idea discussion posted on GroupSystems , it is displayed on each group member’s computer. As group members of the same group, their comments are anonymous, and they are anonymously pooled and made available to all members for evaluation and further elaboration. Compared to face-to-face brainstorming, not only does EBS improve efficiency by eliminating tracking and turn-taking during group discussions, it also includes several face-to-face meetings. Identified by Gallupe and colleagues, both production blocking and evaluation apprehension. them) are reduced in EBS. These positive psychological effects increase with group size. A perceived advantage of EBS is that they can be archived electronically in their original form, and then retrieved later for further thought and discussion. EBS also would be much more important to brainstorming than it would normally be productive in a traditional brainstorming session. Computer supported brainstorming can overcome some of the challenges faced by traditional brainstorming methods. For example, ideas might be “pooled” automatically, so that individuals do not need to wait to take a turn, as in verbal brainstorming. Some software programs are generated (via chat room or e-mail). The display of ideas may be cognitively stimulating brainstormers, as their attention is kept on the subject of being able to communicate with others. Technical EBS have been shown to produce more ideas and help individuals focus their attention on the ideas of others better than a technical brainwriting (participants write individual written notes in silence and then prefer to communicate with the group). The production of more ideas has been linked to the fact that it is paying attention to the others’ ideas leads to non-redundancy. Conversely, the production gain associated with EBS has been found in many countries. The production gain associated with GroupSystemDugosh and colleagues. EBS group members who were instructed to wait for ideas generated by others who were not in terms of creativity. According to a meta-analysis comparing EBS to face-to-face brainstorming conducted by DeRosa and colleagues , EBS has been found to enhance both the production of non-redundant ideas and the quality of ideas produced. Despite the advantages demonstrated by EBS groups, EBS group members reported less satisfaction with the brainstorming process compared to face-to-face brainstorming group members. Some web-based brainstorming techniques allow contributors to post their comments anonymously through the use of avatars. This technique also permits users to log on to an extended period of time, usually allowing one or two weeks to allow participants some “soak time” before posting their ideas and feedback. This technique has been used extensively in the field of new product development, but can be applied in any number of areas. [ quote needed ] Some limitations of EBS include the fact that it can be used by many people in their social and economic life. [ quote needed ] Some research indicates that incentives can increase creative processes. Participants were divided into three conditions. In Condition I, a flat fee was paid to all participants. In Condition II, participants were awarded points for each unique idea of their own, and they were paid for the points they earned. In Condition III, subjects were paid based on the impact that their idea had on the group; This was measured by the number of group ideas derived from the specific subject’s ideas. Condition III outperformed Condition II, and Condition II outperformed Condition I is a statistically significant level for most measures. The results demonstrated that participants were willing to work in the expectation of compensation. Challenges to effective group brainstorming A good deal of researches Osborn’s claim that group brainstorming could generate more than working alone. For example, in a review of 22 studies of brainstorming group, Michael Diehl and Wolfgang Stroebe found that, overwhelmingly, groups brainstorming together produce fewer ideas than individuals working separately. However, this conclusion is brought into question by Scott G. Isaksen, who has made misunderstanding of the tool, and weak application of the methods, and the artificiality of the problems. and groups undermined most such studies, and the validity of their conclusions. Several factors can contribute to a loss of effectiveness in brainstorming group. Because only one participant can give an idea to any one time, other participants may have missed the idea. Further, if we view brainstorming a cognitive process in which “a participant general ideas ideas (generation process) and stores them in short-term memory (memorization process) and then eventually extracts some of them from its short-term memory to express them (output process) “, then blocking is an even more important challenge because it can also inhibit a person’s train of thought in generating their own ideas and remembering them. Collaborative fixation : Exchanging ideas in a group. Members may also conform to their ideas to those of other members, even if the overall number of ideas might not decrease. Rating apprehension: Evaluation apprehension was determined to occur only in instances of personal evaluation. If the assumption of collective assessment is in place, real-time judgment of ideas, ostensibly an induction of apprehension, failed to induce significant variance. Free-writing : Individuals may feel that their ideas are valuable when combined with the ideas of the group at large. Indeed, Diehl and Stroebe demonstrated that even when they worked alone, they produced fewer ideas than they would have in their output. However, experimentation reveals a marginal contributor to productivity loss, and type of session (ie, real vs. nominal group) contributed much more. Personality characteristics : Extroverts have been shown to outperform introvert in computer mediated groups. The invention of the invention is also more complicated and more introverted than when they are used in the field of brainstorming. Social matching : One phenomenon of group brainstorming is that participants will tend to alter their rate of productivity to match others in the group. This can lead to participants if they perceive themselves to be more productive than the average group. The same phenomenon can also increase an individual’s rate of production to meet the average group. - 6-3-5 Brainwriting - Affinity diagram - Group concept mapping - Eureka effect - Lateral thinking - Mass collaboration - Nominal technical group - Speed thinking - Thinking outside the box - What? Where? When? - Jump up^ Lehrer, Jonah. “GROUPTHINK” . New Yorker . Retrieved 23 October2013 . - ^ Jump up to:a b c d Osborn, AF (1963) Applied imagination: Principles and procedures of creative problem solving (Third Revised Edition). New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sounds. - Jump up^ “What is Mind Mapping?” (And How to Get Started Immediately) ” . Litemind.com. 2007-08-07 . Retrieved 2012-11-24 . - Jump up^ Santanen, E., Briggs, RO, & Vreede, GJ. (2004). Causal Relationships in Creative Solving Problem: Comparing Facilitation Interventions for Ideation. Journal of Management Information Systems. 20 (4), 167-198. - Jump up^ Furnham, A., & Yazdanpanahi, T. (1995). Personality differences and group versus individual brainstorming. Personality and Individual Differences,19, 73-80. - ^ Jump up to:a b c d Michael Diehl; Wolfgang Stroebe (1991). “Productivity Loss in Idea-Generating Groups: Tracking Down the Blocking Effect”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . 61 (3): 392-403. doi : 10.1037 / 0022-35184.108.40.2062 . - Jump up^ Ludy, J. Perry Profit Building: Cutting Costs Without Cutting People. San Francisco: Berret-Koehler, Inc., 2000. Print. - Jump up^ Questorming: An Outline of the Method, Jon Roland, 1985 - Jump up^ Nunamaker, Jay; Dennis, Alan; Valacich, Joseph; Vogel, Doug; George Joey (1991). “Electronic Meeting Systems to Support Group Work”. Communications of the ACM . 34 (7): 40-61. doi : 10.1145 / 105783.105793 . - Jump up^ DeSanctis, Gerardine ; Poole, MS; Zigurs, I .; et al. (2008). “The Minnesota GDSS research project: Group support systems, group processes, and outcomes”. Journal of the Association for Information Systems . 9 (10): 551-608. - Jump up^ Toubia, Olivier. “Idea Generation, Creativity, and Incentives” (PDF) . Marketing Science . Retrieved 28 April 2011 . - ^ Jump up to:a b Michael Diehl; Wolfgang Stroebe (1987). “Productivity Loss in Brainstorming Groups: Toward the Solution of a Riddle”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . 53 (3): 497-509. doi : 10.1037 / 0022-35220.127.116.117 . - Jump up^ Scott, Isaksen (June 1988). “A Review of Brainstorming Research: Six Critical Issues for Inquiry” (PDF) . Creative Problem Solving Group Buffalo . Creative Problem Solving Group Buffalo . Retrieved 22 June 2016. - Jump up^ Lamm, Helmut; Trommsdorff, Gisela (1973). “Group versus individual performance on tasks requiring ideational proficiency (brainstorming): A review”. European Journal of Social Psychology . 3 (4): 361-388. doi :10.1002 / ejsp.2420030402 . - Jump up^ Haddou, HA; G. Camilleri; P. Zarate (2014). “Prediction of ideas number during a brainstorming session”. Group Decision and Negotiation . 23 (2): 285. doi : 10.1007 / s10726-012-9312-8 . - Jump up^ Kohn, Nicholas; Smith, Steven M. (2011). “Collaborative fixation: Effects of others’ ideas on brainstorming”. Applied Cognitive Psychology . 25 (3): 359-371. doi : 10.1002 / acp.1699 . - Jump up^ “23 Creativity Killers That Will Drown Any Brainstorming Session” . BoostCompanies . 2016-05-31 . Retrieved 2016-10-24 . - Jump up^ Henningsen, David Dryden; Henningsen, Mary Lynn Miller (2013). “Generating Ideas About the Uses of Brainstorming: Reconsidering the Losses and Gains of Brainstorming Groups Relative to Nominal Groups”. Southern Communication Journal . 78 (1): 42-55. doi : 10.1080 / 1041794X.2012.717684 . - Jump up^ Brown, V .; Paulus, PB (1996). “A simple dynamic model of social factors in brainstorming group”. Small Group Research . 27 : 91-114. doi :10.1177 / 1046496496271005 .

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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's oceanic divisions, following the Pacific Ocean. With a total area of about 106,400,000 square kilometres (41,100,000 sq mi), it covers approximately 20 percent of the Earth's surface and about 29 percent of its water surface area. The first part of its name refers to Atlas of Greek mythology, making the Atlantic the "Sea of Atlas". The oldest known mention of "Atlantic" is in The Histories of Herodotus around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202.4): Atlantis thalassa (Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα; English: Sea of Atlas). The term Ethiopic Ocean, derived from Ethiopia, was applied to the southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century. Before Europeans discovered other oceans, their term "ocean" was synonymous with the waters beyond the Strait of Gibraltar that are now known as the Atlantic. The early Greeks believed this ocean to be a gigantic river encircling the world. The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. As one component of the interconnected global ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean, to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south (other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica). The equator subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean. - 1 Geography - 2 Cultural significance - 3 Ocean floor - 4 Water characteristics - 5 Climate - 6 History - 7 Economy - 8 Terrain - 9 Current environmental issues - 10 Bordering countries and territories - 11 Major ports and harbours - 12 See also - 13 References - 14 Bibliography - 15 External links The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea and Barents Sea. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe: the Strait of Gibraltar (where it connects with the Mediterranean Sea–one of its marginal seas–and, in turn, the Black Sea, both of which also touch upon Asia) and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean. The 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. Some authorities show it extending south to Antarctica, while others show it bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean. In the southwest, the Drake Passage connects it to the Pacific Ocean. The man-made Panama Canal links the Atlantic and Pacific. Besides those mentioned, other large bodies of water that form part of the Atlantic are the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, the Mediterranean Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, and the Celtic Sea. Covering approximately 22% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic is second in size to the Pacific. With its adjacent seas, it occupies an area of about 106,400,000 square kilometres (41,100,000 sq mi); without them, it has an area of 82,400,000 square kilometres (31,800,000 sq mi). The land that drains into the Atlantic covers four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic with its adjacent seas is 354,700,000 cubic kilometers (85,100,000 cu mi) and without them 323,600,000 cubic kilometres (77,640,000 cu mi). The average depth of the Atlantic with its adjacent seas, is 3,339 metres (1,826 fathoms; 10,955 ft); without them it is 3,926 metres (2,147 fathoms; 12,881 ft). The greatest depth, Milwaukee Deep with 8,380 metres (4,580 fathoms; 27,490 ft), is in the Puerto Rico Trench. The shortest point between the mainland of 2 continents through the Atlantic is from Kabrousse,Senegal to approximately Touros,Brazil measuring just 2,839 Kilometers(1,764 Miles). The Atlantic Ocean was named by the ancient Greeks after either Atlas the Titan or the Atlas Mountains named for him; both involve the concept of holding up the sky. Transatlantic travel played a major role in the expansion of Western civilization into the Americas. It is the Atlantic that separates the "Old World" from the "New World". In modern times, some idioms refer to the ocean in a humorously diminutive way as the Pond, describing both the geographical and cultural divide between North America and Europe, in particular between the English-speaking nations of both continents. Many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as "across the pond", and vice versa. The "Black Atlantic" refers to the role of this ocean in shaping black people's history, especially through the Atlantic slave trade. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term "The Green Atlantic" is used. The term "Red Atlantic" has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. The principal feature of the bathymetry (bottom topography) is a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It extends from Iceland in the north to approximately 58° South latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 860 nautical miles (1,590 km; 990 mi). A great rift valley also extends along the ridge over most of its length. The depth of water at the apex of the ridge is less than 2,700 metres (1,500 fathoms; 8,900 ft) in most places, while the bottom of the ridge is three times as deep. Several peaks rise above the water and form islands. The South Atlantic Ocean has an additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large troughs with depths from 3,700–5,500 metres (2,000–3,000 fathoms; 12,100–18,000 ft). Transverse ridges running between the continents and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins. Some of the larger basins are the Blake, Guiana, North American, Cape Verde, and Canaries basins in the North Atlantic. The largest South Atlantic basins are the Angola, Cape, Argentina, and Brazil basins. The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat with occasional deeps, abyssal plains, trenches, seamounts, basins, plateaus, canyons, and some guyots. Various shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography with few deep channels cut across the continental rise. Ocean floor trenches and seamounts: - Puerto Rico Trench, in the North Atlantic, is the deepest trench at 8,605 metres (4,705 fathoms; 28,232 ft) - Laurentian Abyss is found off the eastern coast of Canada - South Sandwich Trench reaches a depth of 8,428 metres (4,608 fathoms; 27,651 ft) - Romanche Trench is located near the equator and reaches a depth of about 7,454 metres (4,076 fathoms; 24,455 ft). Ocean sediments are composed of: - Terrigenous deposits with land origins, consisting of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by erosion, weathering, and volcanic activity on land washed to sea. These materials are found mostly on the continental shelves and are thickest near large river mouths or off desert coasts. - Pelagic deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, include red clays and Globigerina, pteropod, and siliceous oozes. Covering most of the ocean floor and ranging in thickness from 60–3,300 metres (33–1,804 fathoms; 200–10,830 ft) they are thickest in the convergence belts, notably at the Hamilton Ridge and in upwelling zones. - Authigenic deposits consist of such materials as manganese nodules. They occur where sedimentation proceeds slowly or where currents sort the deposits, such as in the Hewett Curve. On average, the Atlantic is the saltiest major ocean; surface water salinity in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand (3.3 – 3.7%) by mass and varies with latitude and season. Evaporation, precipitation, river inflow and sea ice melting influence surface salinity values. Although the lowest salinity values are just north of the equator (because of heavy tropical rainfall), in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers enter. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north and south, in subtropical regions with low rainfall and high evaporation. Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below −2 °C (28 °F) to over 30 °C (86 °F). Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by 7–8 °C (13–14 °F). The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major water masses. The North and South Atlantic central waters make up the surface. The sub-Antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of 1,000 metres (550 fathoms; 3,300 ft). The North Atlantic Deep Water reaches depths of as much as 4,000 metres (2,200 fathoms; 13,000 ft). The Antarctic Bottom Water occupies ocean basins at depths greater than 4,000 meters. Within the North Atlantic, ocean currents isolate the Sargasso Sea, a large elongated body of water, with above average salinity. The Sargasso Sea contains large amounts of seaweed and is also the spawning ground for both the European eel and the American eel. The Coriolis effect circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction, whereas South Atlantic water circulates counter-clockwise. The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. In latitudes above 40° North some east-west oscillation occurs. Climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as winds. Because of the ocean's great capacity to store and release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. Precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas. The Gulf Stream and its northern extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic Drift, for example, warms the atmosphere of the British Isles and north-western Europe and influences weather and climate as far south as the northern Mediterranean. The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the Grand Banks of Newfoundland area) and Africa's north-western coast. In general, winds transport moisture and air over land areas. Hurricanes develop in the southern part of the North Atlantic Ocean. More local particular weather examples could be found in examples such as the Azores High, Benguela Current, and Nor'easter. The Atlantic Ocean appears to be the second youngest of the five oceans. It did not exist prior to 130 million years ago, when the continents that formed from the breakup of the ancestral super continent Pangaea were drifting apart. The Atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements along its shores. The Norsemen, the Portuguese and the Spanish were the first to explore and to cross it systematically, from Europe to the Americas, as well as to its islands and archipelagos, and from the North Atlantic to the South Atlantic. It was after the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492, at the service of Castile (later Spain), that the Americas became well known in Europe and European exploration rapidly accelerated, leading to many new trade routes and the colonization of the Americas. As a result, the Atlantic became and remains the major artery between Europe and the Americas (known as transatlantic trade). Scientific explorations include the Challenger expedition, the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office. - Around 600 - 400 BC, Hanno the Navigator explored West Africa and possibly reached and crossed the Gulf of Guinea and the Equator. - Around 980 – 982, Erik the Red discovered Greenland, geographically and geologically a part of the Americas. - In the year 1000, the Icelander Leif Ericson was the first European to set foot on North American soil, corresponding to today's Eastern coast of Canada, i.e., the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, including the area of land named "Vinland" by Ericson. The Norse discovery was documented in the 13th century Icelandic Sagas and was corroborated by recent L'Anse aux Meadows archeological evidence. - Around 1010, Thorfinnr Karlsefni led an attempted Norsemen settlement in North America with 160 settlers, but was later driven off by the natives. His son Snorri Thorfinnsson was the first American born (somewhere between 1010 and 1013) to European (Icelandic) immigrant parents. - In 1419 and 1427, Portuguese navigators reached Madeira and Azores, respectively. - From 1415 to 1488, Portuguese navigators explored the Western African coast, crossed the Equator, and reached the South Atlantic, the Southern Hemisphere, and the Cape of Good Hope in the southern tip of Africa, entering the Indian Ocean. - In 1492, Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic Ocean and landed on an island in the Bahamas. He made three additional voyages over the next few years, during which he explored the Caribbean coast from Honduras to Venezuela as well as numerous Caribbean islands. These explorations, along with Columbus's attempts to establish a permanent settlement on Hispaniola, led to the European colonization of the Americas and a period of Columbian Exchange that permanently altered human cultures and the environment on both sides of the Atlantic. The establishment of the first transatlantic trade route provided a significant source of revenue to the Crown of Castile, leading to the development of the Spanish Empire. Communicable diseases, unintentionally brought from the Old World to the New World by Europeans, devastated the Amerindian populations, causing the deaths of an estimated 80-95% of the native population of the Americas within 150 years of Columbus's arrival. Columbus also hoped to enslave the native residents of Hispaniola and transport them to Europe; although unsuccessful in this endeavor, his efforts marked the beginning of the transatlantic slave trade that displaced an estimated 11-20 million people from Africa to the Americas over the next several centuries. - From 1496 to 1498 John Cabot made three voyages to North America from Bristol, landing in Newfoundland and/or possibly the Canadian Maritimes. - In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil. - In 1519 Ferdinand Magellan sailed from Spain to the South Atlantic, navigating the straits named after him and entering the Pacific Ocean. - In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano, in the service of the King Francis I of France, discovered the United States of America's east coast. - In 1534, Jacques Cartier entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and reached the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. - In April 1563, Nicolas Barre and 20 other stranded Huguenots were the first to build a (crude) boat in the Americas and sail across the Atlantic. They sailed from Charlesfort, South Carolina to just off the coast of England where they were rescued by an English ship. Though they resorted to cannibalism, seven men survived the voyage, including Barre. - In 1764, William Harrison (the son of John Harrison) sailed aboard HMS Tartar, with the H-4 time piece. The voyage became the basis for the invention of the global system of Longitude. - In 1858, Cyrus West Field laid the first transatlantic telegraph cable (it quickly failed). - In 1865, Brunel's ship the SS Great Eastern laid the first successful transatlantic telegraph cable. - In 1870, the small City of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) became the first small lifeboat to cross the Atlantic from Cork to Boston with two crew, John Charles Buckley and Nikola Primorac (di Costa). - In 1896, Frank Samuelsen and George Harbo from Norway became the first people to ever row across the Atlantic Ocean. - On 15 April 1912 the RMS Titanic sank after hitting an iceberg with a loss of more than 1,500 lives. - On 7 May 1915 the RMS Lusitania was torpedoed en route to Queenstown, Ireland, at the loss of 1,198 passengers. - 1914–1918, during the Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I, more than 2,100 ships were sunk and 153 U-boats destroyed. - In 1919, the American NC-4 became the first seaplane to cross the Atlantic (though it made a couple of landings on islands and the sea along the way, and taxied several hundred miles). - Later in 1919, a British aeroplane piloted by Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight, from Newfoundland to Ireland. - In 1921, the British were the first to cross the North Atlantic in an airship. - In 1922, Portuguese aviators Sacadura Cabral and Gago Coutinho were the First aerial crossing of the South Atlantic on a seaplane connecting Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro. - In May 1927, Charles Nungesser and François Coli in their aircraft L'Oiseau Blanc (The White Bird) mysteriously disappeared in an attempt to make the first non-stop transatlantic flight from Paris to New York. - In 1927, Charles Lindbergh made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an aircraft (between New York City and Paris). - In 1931, Bert Hinkler made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight across the South Atlantic in an aircraft. - In 1932, Amelia Earhart became the first female to make a solo flight across the Atlantic from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland to Derry, Northern Ireland. - 1939–1945, during World War II, the Battle of the Atlantic resulted in nearly 3,700 ships sunk and 783 U-boats destroyed. - In 1952, Ann Davison was the first woman to single-handedly sail the Atlantic Ocean. - In 1965, Robert Manry crossed the Atlantic from the U.S. to England non-stop in a 13.5-foot (4.1-meter) sailboat named "Tinkerbell". Several others also crossed the Atlantic in very small sailboats in the 1960s, none of them non-stop, though. - In 1969 and 1970 Thor Heyerdahl launched expeditions to cross the Atlantic in boats built from papyrus. He succeeded in crossing the Atlantic from Morocco to Barbados after a two-month voyage of 6,100 km with Ra II in 1970, thus conclusively proving that boats such as the Ra could have sailed with the Canary Current across the Atlantic in prehistoric times. - In 1980, Gérard d'Aboville was the first man to cross the Atlantic Ocean rowing solo. - In 1984, Amyr Klink crossed the south atlantic rowing solo from Namibia to Brazil in 100 days. - In 1984, five Argentines sail in a 10-meter-long raft made from tree trunks named Atlantis from Canary Islands and after 52 days 3,000 miles (4,800 km) journey arrived to Venezuela in an attempt to prove travelers from Africa may have crossed the Atlantic before Christopher Columbus. - In 1994, Guy Delage was the first man to allegedly swim across the Atlantic Ocean (with the help of a kick board, from Cape Verde to Barbados). - In 1998, Benoît Lecomte was the first man to swim across the northern Atlantic Ocean without a kick board, stopping for only one week in the Azores. - In 1999, after rowing for 81 days and 4,767 kilometres (2,962 miles), Tori Murden became the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by rowboat alone when she reached Guadeloupe from the Canary Islands. - In 2003 Alan Priddy and three crew members made a record crossing of the North Atlantic in a RIB from Newfoundland to Scotland, via Greenland and Iceland, in 103 hours. The Atlantic has contributed significantly to the development and economy of surrounding countries. Besides major transatlantic transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the sedimentary rocks of the continental shelves. The Atlantic hosts the world's richest fishing resources, especially in the waters covering the shelves. The major fish are cod, haddock, hake, herring, and mackerel. The most productive areas include the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, the Nova Scotia shelf, Georges Bank off Cape Cod, the Bahama Banks, the waters around Iceland, the Irish Sea, the Dogger Bank of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks. Eel, lobster, and whales appear in great quantities. Various international treaties attempt to reduce pollution caused by environmental threats such as oil spills, marine debris, and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea. From October to June the surface is usually covered with sea ice in the Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea. A clockwise warm-water gyre occupies the northern Atlantic, and a counter-clockwise warm-water gyre appears in the southern Atlantic. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin, first discovered by the Challenger Expedition dominates the ocean floor. This was formed by the vulcanism that also formed the ocean floor and the islands rising from it. The Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. These include the Norwegian Sea, Baltic Sea, North Sea, Labrador Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of Saint Lawrence, Bay of Fundy, Gulf of Maine, Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea. Islands include Newfoundland (including hundreds of surrounding islands), Greenland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, British Isles (including Great Britain and Ireland), Rockall, Sable Island, Azores, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Madeira, Bermuda, Canary Islands, Caribbean Islands (including Greater Antilles, Leeward Islands, Windward Islands, Leeward Antilles), Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Annobón Province, Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Trindade and Martim Vaz, Tristan da Cunha, Gough Island (Also known as Diego Alvarez), Falkland Islands, Tierra del Fuego, South Georgia Island, South Sandwich Islands, and Bouvet Island. Icebergs are common from February to August in the Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and Madeira. Ships are subject to superstructure icing in the extreme north from October to May. Persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September, as can hurricanes north of the equator (May to December). The United States' southeast coast has a long history of shipwrecks due to its many shoals and reefs. The Virginia and North Carolina coasts were particularly dangerous. The Bermuda Triangle is popularly believed to be the site of numerous aviation and shipping incidents because of unexplained and supposedly mysterious causes, but Coast Guard records do not support this belief. Hurricanes are also a natural hazard in the Atlantic, but mainly in the northern part of the ocean, rarely tropical cyclones form in the southern parts. Hurricanes usually form between 1 June and 30 November of every year. Current environmental issues Endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales. Drift net fishing can kill dolphins, albatrosses and other seabirds (petrels, auks), hastening the fish stock decline and contributing to international disputes. Municipal pollution comes from the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. In 2005, there was some concern that warm northern European currents were slowing down. On 7 June 2006, Florida's wildlife commission voted to take the manatee off the state's endangered species list. Some environmentalists worry that this could erode safeguards for the popular sea creature. Marine pollution is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture fertilizer chemicals as well as livestock and human waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone. Marine debris, which is also known as marine litter, describes human-created waste floating in a body of water. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter. Bordering countries and territories The states (territories in italics) with a coastline on the Atlantic Ocean (excluding the Black, Baltic and Mediterranean Seas) are: - Bouvet Island (NOR) - Canary Islands (ESP) - Cape Verde - Democratic Republic of the Congo - Equatorial Guinea - Ivory Coast - Madeira (PRT) - Republic of the Congo - Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (UK) - São Tomé and Príncipe - Sierra Leone - South Africa - Western Sahara (claimed by Morocco) (MAR) North and Central America - Anguilla (UK) - Antigua and Barbuda - Aruba (NED) - Bonaire (NED) - British Virgin Islands (UK) - Cayman Islands (UK) - Curaçao (NED) - Dominican Republic - Guadeloupe (FRA) - Martinique (FRA) - Montserrat (UK) - Saba (NED) - Puerto Rico (USA) - Saint Barthélemy (FRA) - Saint Kitts and Nevis - Saint Lucia - Sint Maarten (NED) - Saint Martin (FRA) - Saint Vincent and the Grenadines - Sint Eustatius (NED) - Trinidad and Tobago - Turks and Caicos Islands (UK) - United States Virgin Islands (USA) Major ports and harbours - Ocean Highway - Seven Seas - Borders of the oceans#Atlantic Ocean - Gulf Stream shutdown - History of the Atlantic Ocean articles - Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean - Atlantic hurricanes - Territories of the United States on stamps#Explorers - "The New Encyclopædia Britannica", Volume 2, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1974. p. 294 - George Ripley; Charles Anderson Dana (1873). The American cyclopaedia: a popular dictionary of general knowledge. Appleton. pp. 69–. Retrieved 15 April 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Limits of Oceans and Seas. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953. - Amanda Briney, "Geography of the World's Oceans". About Education. Retrieved 2015-05-22.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster Unabridged, Merriam-Webster.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.), Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Example: BBC Click – Episode 4 April 2009 - David, Armitage. "The Red Atlantic". Project MUSE. Retrieved 28 October 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Kenneth J. Hsü (1992). The Challenger at Sea: A Ship That Revolutionized Earth Science. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-691-08735-1.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Kenneth J. Hsü (1987). The Mediterranean Was a Desert: A Voyage of the Glomar Challenger. ISBN 978-0-691-02406-6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - National Geographic Atlas of the World: Revised Sixth Edition, National Geographic Society, 1992 - Milwaukee Deep. sea-seek.com - Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers at line 47: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value). - Zinn, Howard (2011). The Zinn Reader: Writings on Disobedience and Democracy. New York: Seven Stories Press. p. 516. ISBN 9781583229460.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - M’bokolo, Elikia. "The impact of the slave trade on Africa". Le Monde diplomatique.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - William H. Longyard (2003). A speck on the sea: epic voyages in the most improbable vessels. International Marine/Ragged Mountain Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-07-141306-0.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Jill, Lawless (16 October 2008). "Last Titanic survivor sells mementos". Associated Press. Retrieved 2015-08-06.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - "Introduction" U-Boat Operations of the Second World War—Vol 1 by Wynn, Kenneth, 1998 p. 1 - Tinkerbelle (1967; Harper & Row, New York City, N.Y.) - Ryne, Linn. Voyages into History. Retrieved 13 January 2008. - 5 cross Atlantic in tiny raft. News.google.com. 12 July 1984 Retrieved on 27 October 2011. - Expedicion Atlantis (Spanish) - Problems and Prospects for the Pelagic Driftnet. animallaw.info. Retrieved on 27 October 2011. - Atlantic Ocean's 'Heat Engine' Chills Down by Christopher Joyce. All Things Considered, National Public Radio, 30 November 2005. - Sebastian A. Gerlach "Marine Pollution", Springer, Berlin (1975) - Winchester, Simon (2010). Atlantic: A Vast Ocean of a Million Stories. HarperCollins UK. ISBN 978-0-00-734137-5.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Much of this article originated from the public domain site http://oceanographer.navy.mil/atlantic.html Find more about at Wikipedia's sister projects |Definitions from Wiktionary| |Media from Commons| |Source texts from Wikisource| |Travel guide from Wikivoyage| - Oceans at DMOZ - "Map of Atlantic Coast of North America from the Chesapeake Bay to Florida" from 1639 via the World Digital Library Lua error in Module:Coordinates at line 668: callParserFunction: function "#coordinates" was not found.

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The hydrogen ions and casein proteins attract each other and form the white, plastic-y lumps. Health and dietary applicationsEdit. A commonly used homemade substitute for buttermilk is made by mixing an acid with milk (usually a tablespoon of vinegar for every cup of milk). drizzled in red wine vinegar and nestled on a bed of cracked ice, comes with a story about the family, and their three children, who’ve plucked this bounty from the sea. As the cake is baked, the water evaporates. Many reactions can be created using common household items such as vinegar, food coloring, dish soap and salt. Both milk and vinegar have lots of health benefits. Therefore, skim milk also retains its white color. The first and foremost disadvantage of using this method is that the proportion of vinegar and urine you would be mixing is not known. chemical composition. Possible answer: A chemical change occurred, because a new substance was produced. The same reaction produces buttermilk, cheese, and yogurt. The baking soda is a base, while the lemon juice is an acid, when the two combine they create carbon dioxide (CO2). The reason why this works is because oil and water don’t mix. As a morning ritual, practice mixing 1 tablespoon of coconut vinegar with a tablespoon of water and drinking it on an empty stomach. Your family will vacation in Dakar, Senegal. sour mix, such as what is used to make margaritas, or other artifically "sour" items such as some candies. com and affiliated. A common example of this is curdling milk. At home, substances like orange juice and vinegar which taste sharp, tend to be. Place a piece of steel wool into the cup, so the wool is completely covered by the vinegar. Multiple Choice. Good only in the US. Measure the temperature of the vinegar and baking soda before and after they are mixed. always mix the vinegar with water. Some fairly safe other acidic chemicals are soda pop, cheddar and similar cheeses, some homes have citric acid, boric acid, and oxalic acid. The proteins in an egg white are globular proteins, which means that the long protein molecule is twisted and folded and curled up into a more or less spherical shape. It's pink when acidic, green when not acidic (basic or alkaline), and blue to purple when neutral. Adding vinegar to baking soda is a classic example of a chemical change where sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is reacted with acetic acid and water (vinegar) releasing carbon dioxide and making sodium acetate. Notice that the same molecule (water) is present on both sides of the equation. whole poultry fresh from the store *may* be infused with lactose to keep it fresher. In the previous experiment, the vinegar was the acid and the laundry detergent was the base. This was pre-9/11, pre. Some general signs of a chemical change include a change of color or odor, the formation of a precipitate (solid), the formation of a gas, and a change in heat or light. Before the invention of synthetic plastic, acid casein was used to manufacture buttons because dried casein is hard, strong and insoluble in water. pdf), Text File (. ¼ cup vinegar 1 ¾ cups milk ¼ cup butter (softened) Combine the dry ingredients in a large bowl. Milk processing plants, in turn, are compelled to get milk from more dairies, from farther away. There is no change with water or iodine solution. Adding lemon juice or vinegar to fresh milk is an easy way to make homemade buttermilk. Vinegar added to salt 4. Change the order you add substances. Some acids are very corrosive like sulfuric acid, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. Baking the dish in a muffin tin makes serving easier. Have the kids stash the refunded change in a jar, and set it aside for a summer-vacation fund or a special toy. You can use 2 percent, whole milk, half and half, or cream for this. They have problems relating what they know about potential and kinetic energy in physics to the same concepts with regard to chemical reactions. Phosphoric Acid molecules attach to the milk giving them more density, this separes these molecules from the rest, while the remaining liquid that makes up milk and Coke becomes lighter and floats on top. Mostly physical changes, but some chemical changes as well. A chemical reaction results in a new product. A chemical change is when bonds are broken and new bonds are being formed between different atoms. **However, medical science shows there is little truth to this idea. Mix into a paste and apply on the face. Figure: Violent Reaction (Fireworks) with heat as a product As an example of a exothermic reaction, if \(Fe_2O_3\) is mixed with Al and ignighted (often with burning Mg), then the thermite reaciton is initiated. Crandon Chicago Il 60617 (312) 535-6425 Objectives: Grade 2 1. Water can be saturated with juice powder to create a beverage. Add 1 cup of vinegar. As mentioned earlier, patina is the surface of copper metals oxidising. what signs might indicate that a chemical change is occurring? Get the answers you need, now!. 8 cm) balloon. All trademarks and Intellectual Property on this site are owned by Société des Produits Nestlé S. Each enzyme is very specific for a particular chemical reaction. If you mix a large amount of baking soda and vinegar in a small container with a narrow opening, expect an impressive eruption! Many science teachers use this simple chemical reaction to teach students about chemistry. The pigment in red cabbage that causes the red color change is called flavin (an anthocyanin). Milk and vinegar: Pour one of the cups of vinegar into the cup of milk. The name for the former compount is Sodium Acetate (the "salt"), and H2C03 is Carbonic Acid. We observe a physical change when wax melts, when sugar dissolves in coffee, and when steam condenses into liquid water (Figure 1). Science to the Rescue!. The menu starts with small bites, such as the delectable salt, vinegar and nori potato chips, wagyu tartare and a slightly heartier bowl of raw kingfish, edamame and black rice, then moves into. Apple Cider Vinegar also breaks down fat and is widely used to lose weight. They have problems relating what they know about potential and kinetic energy in physics to the same concepts with regard to chemical reactions. Chemical Change. A chemical reaction would have to occur. Water (H 2 O) and table sugar (C 12 H 22 O 11) are examples of chemical compounds. When you mix vinegar and baking soda, they experience a chemical change. During which of the following chemical changes does a precipitate form? A. Using Preservatives to Extend the Shelf Life of Your Products. This product is formulated with vinegar and doesn't leave behind the smell of ammonia. They say an alkaline pH is better and promotes health and balance, whereas acidity leads to metabolic imbalance and illness. Question 7: Explain why burning of wood and cutting it into small pieces are considered as two different types of changes. what signs might indicate that a chemical change is occurring? Get the answers you need, now!. Acids and alkalis. Good only in the US. Changes that take place in cooking, some heating, mixing some materials, such as vinegar and bicarbonate of soda, and burning are all chemical reactions. Store the hot milk in a thermos until it is needed. Measure 1 scant cup of milk. However, when only five grams of baking soda was mixed with vinegar, the reaction was much more visible and effective. ) Mixture examples. Then, students use those methods to identify common foods that are acidic. Conclusion: The purpose of the magnesium and vinegar lab was to observe what occurs when we mix magnesium and vinegar together. Step 2: Use this mixture to coat the brass piece. Brown asked her students to combine some regular cow's milk with white vinegar. A solid is crushed to a powder. Vinegar is usually around five percent acetic acid dissolved in water, and will react with bases but not. Vinegar also appears to be helpful in getting rid of harmful bacteria on fruits and vegetables. Upon completion, the learner will be able to differentiate between physical and chemical changes. These are then removed by dermaplaning to reveal fresh new skin beneath. •Assessment of a chemical or physical change e. We made a natural plastic as the caisson molecules are associated together in long chains. Food-grade phosphoric acid is a mass-produced chemical, available cheaply and in large quantities. A copy of the The Facts About Ammonia (Technical Information) is available in Adobe Portable Document Format (PDF, 63 KB, 3pg. If you want a safe volume of vinegar and baking soda to start, my recommendation is 1/2 cup of vinegar to 1 tablespoon baking soda. The actual experiment itself used twelve different pipits and three chemicals I selected from my house. Mixed w/ Water Mixed w/ Vinegar Mixed w/ Iodine Substance Change Property Change Property Change Property Baking Soda Cornstarch Salt 2. You can use coconut vinegar the exact same way you would use apple cider vinegar – the uses are aplenty! Try adding coconut vinegar to your favorite salad dressings, marinades, and sauces for an extra bite. A) It is a physical change because it is a mixture of two liquids. Chemistry for kids is a lot of fun. As they are combining milk and vinegar, I note their astonished looks. The breaking down of kappa casein leads to coagulation, or "curdling" of the milk, which becomes the basis for cheese. Carefully pour some milk in a dish so it just covers the bottom. what signs might indicate that a chemical change is occurring? Get the answers you need, now!. An awesome and safe chemical reaction science experiment for kids to try! CHECK IT OUT: Citrus Chemical Eruptions Science Activity. Apple cider vinegar has anti-bacterial, anti-fungal and anti-viral properties. Since this indicator did not change color, it must be the carbon dioxide gas produced by the chemical reaction, and not just the vinegar that caused the color change. There are a multitude of chemical changes that occur as milk sours. Atoms composing reactants are rearranged into different combinations in products. For information on preparedness and response (e. The density is 1. Any kind will do, but to be frugal you will probably want to use an inexpensive white vinegar rather than a fancy basalmic vinegar. Simply rinse the face with it or dab it on the face with cotton and wipe the vinegar off the face. ice melting 2. Salt is composed of sodium and chlorine, is ionic in character and is stable. While the egg that is cooked will not change its state, it does change its uncooked chemical composition into the cooked, chemical composition. Mix 1 teaspoon of the solute (baking soda) into the mixing glass and stir. It takes a few minutes but the water will go back to clear. When it comes to heat and baking, there are two types of chemical reactions to consider; one is “exothermic,” a reaction that produces heat, and the other is “endothermic,” a reaction that takes heat in. Flashcards. However, frequency will vary depending upon cow cleanliness, type of disinfectant or chemical concentration used, size of the footbath, and weather conditions. This differs from a physical change, which is a substance changing physical forms but still retains its original properties. For example, a new material (concrete) is made by mixing cement with water. Also, the density of vinegar is 1. Salad is a. The actual experiment itself used twelve different pipits and three chemicals I selected from my house. These changes can be divided into 2 classes: physical changes and chemical changes. Change Physical? Chemical? Cabbage Juice with Vinegar Cabbage Juice with Baking Soda Plaster of Paris and Water Modeling Clay Cut Apples Alka Seltzer with Water Salt and water Separating Rocks Sodium Polyacrylate Crystals with water ’ Figure6. Rusting (or oxidation) is a chemical reaction between iron and oxygen, this chemical reaction creates heat energy which increases the temperature inside the beaker. The reaction mixture bubbled, so one of the products must have been a gas. Some reactions are very messy and should be done outside if possible. Physical changes: These involve only a change in physical state (solid, liquid, gas) but no change in the composition of the individual atoms or molecules present. Mixing hydrochloric acid and magnesium ribbon to form magnesium chloride (). Five pieces of evidence that a chemical change has occurred are: a change in odor, a change in color, a solid precipitate is formed, a gas is formed, there is either absorption or release of heat. 184, milk and rice soup: vitamin A led to significant loss. When the timer goes off, take the temperature of your solution and record the data. chemical change: 1 n (chemistry) any process determined by the atomic and molecular composition and structure of the substances involved Synonyms: chemical action , chemical process Types: show 74 types hide 74 types acylation the process of introducing an acyl group into a compound agglutinating activity , agglutination the coalescing. Vistro is attempting to change that. A physical change is a change of matter that does not alter the chemical properties of that matter. Any kind will do, but to be frugal you will probably want to use an inexpensive white vinegar rather than a fancy basalmic vinegar. Each demo or group should have one cup with vinegar. Oil is less dense than vinegar. vinegar is a homogeneous mixture of ethanoic acid and water. A chemical reaction results in a new product. This is a chemical change. Some very unusual interactions take place when you mix a little milk, food coloring, and a drop of liquid soap. To celebrate World Bread Day on October 16, take a tasty trip from injera in Ethiopia to crumpets in the United Kingdom. A chemical reaction is the combination of two reactants to form an entirely new product. Since milk is a base and vinegar is an acid, will mixing the two form some kind of chemical change and cause the benefits to become useless? In Japan, there is a milk and vinegar drink so there are actually show more Both milk and vinegar have lots of health benefits. Examine a wood splint and note its physical properties in the table below. Hence when u mixed these two together the hydrogen ion and the casein protein attract each other and form white plastic. Similarly, when fresh milk is mixed with vinegar, milk proteins called “casein” coagulate into curds. Chemical reactions are useful in cooking and help to improve the taste of food. Physical And Chemical Changes Carolus Love Hoyne School 8905 S. Change in color b. But after a while the little drops of vinegar combined to form bigger drops. Mostly physical changes, but some chemical changes as well. A) It is a physical change because it is a mixture of two liquids. Chappel Street Chicago IL 60617 (312) 535-6640 Objectives: The second grade students will investigate some chemical changes and reactions and should be able to identify at least four characteristics that indicate a chemical change. Chemical Content of Shampoo Following are just a small sample of the toxins found in most shampoos and their detrimental side effects. changes and colors when mixing two or three chemicals together. We've just completed a three-week series on Chemistry, starting with States of Matter, then Mixtures and Solutions, and then Reactions. Salt is composed of sodium and chlorine, is ionic in character and is stable. A chemical reaction is not always caused by mixing two substances together. Milk curdles when mixed with vinegar because the acid from the vinegar causes the protein molecules in milk to come together to form visible solids. physical change can be changed but in chemical change chemicals are mixed together for example if we are sick that is. Next, pour milk into the same measuring cup until it reaches the 1 cup mark. In a chemical change, the bonds. Heat the oven to 425 degrees. When you mix vinegar and baking soda, they experience a chemical change. — After lounging around for a bit, I get changed for the gym. Sugar dissolved into vinegar until it will no longer do so creates a saturate solution. Most of the outcomes were physical change but some were chemical change, and one physical and chemical change together. Remove after 20 minutes with water. The ratio of the elements in a compound is always the same. Take advantage before prices change!. Although you can alternate the color changes repeatedly, the reaction is still chemical and irreversible. Some general signs of a chemical change include a change of color or odor, the formation of a precipitate (solid), the formation of a gas, and a change in heat or light. We took a thin strip of. These are then removed by dermaplaning to reveal fresh new skin beneath. Fortunately, there are a number of ways to make a buttermilk substitution that works and tastes the same as the real thing. What happens to those benefits when you mix the two? Since milk is a base and vinegar is an acid, will mixing the two form some kind of chemical change and cause the benefits to become useless? In Japan, there is a milk and vinegar drink so there are actually people drinking this mix. Step 3: Allow the piece to dry with this mixture and then wash off with water as above. Phosphoric acid also goes by E338, orthophosphoric acid, and phosphoric(V) acid. Be sure the balloon is securely around the neck of the bottle!. A chemical reaction is a process that occurs when one or more substances are changed into one or more new substances. Actually, if you are baking and need Buttermilk, but don't have any, the substitute is mixing specific portions of milk with vinegar. (For more information, see Chemical Solutions and Polar and Non-Polar Molecules. Place 2 tablespoons of vinegar in a glass beaker or cup, and put the end of a thermometer in the vinegar. Heat the splint until it takes fire and allow it to burn itself out on the ceramic tile. A chemical reaction is not always caused by mixing two substances together. the solution changes size C. You will stimulate a reaction which will completely change the vinegar and alcohol. The Apple Cider Vinegar (ACV) Toner is something you can make at home to help clear your skin or simply improve your overall complexion. A chemical change results from a chemical reaction, while a physical change is when matter changes forms but not chemical identity. 5 minutes (you want it hot, but not boiling) Next, stir in 4 tablespoons of vinegar. When the reactants are mixed, the temperature change caused by the reaction is an indicator of a chemical change. The word ‘mixture’ is not always used correctly in its scientific sense. The breaking down of kappa casein leads to coagulation, or "curdling" of the milk, which becomes the basis for cheese. Neem and apple cider vinegar for dandruff. Good only in the US. 2 days ago · Large enough that it can fit any standard box mix without any spending money on expensive chemical drain cleaners or UV lamp with 30 LED bulbs you'll never need to change out, plus each. Salt will dissolve in vinegar, but no chemical reaction will occur. Chemical Changes Stella L. The precipitate that is formed when the two are mixed is denatured casein protein. Usually recipes will call for apple cider vineger because of special enzymes this vinegar has, but I think any vinegar will do to add the acidity needed for the extra lift. Changes that take place in cooking, some heating, mixing some materials, such as vinegar and bicarbonate of soda, and burning are all chemical reactions. In another case, when vinegar was applied on the skin of a newborn who had fever, it caused chemical burns. mixing baking soda and water is a chemical change. We also put it in the microwave because the heat causes the change to happen more quickly. Apple cider vinegar also tones your skin to the proper pH. Now mix equal parts white vinegar and water in a bucket. A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction. Acetone is highly volatile, and at sufficient concentrations, its vapor can be ignited by heat or spark and start combustion (which is, after all, a chemical reaction). Baking soda and baking powder have different reactions to vinegar. State Standards and Benchmarks. The mix of vegetables and meaty mushrooms makes this pasta dish quite satisfying. The most effective way to log results for this experiment is first by cup, then by time. Chemical reactions happen when two substances are combined and a change occurs in the resulting mixture. If you want a safe volume of vinegar and baking soda to start, my recommendation is 1/2 cup of vinegar to 1 tablespoon baking soda. Chemical Change. To keep the reaction going continue adding baking soda and vinegar when the foam starts to slow. Some reactions are very messy and should be done outside if possible. Simply rinse the face with it or dab it on the face with cotton and wipe the vinegar off the face. 2) gas being released. Last week we tested these two chemicals with red cabbage indicator, and found that a solution of bicarbonate of soda was alkaline, but vinegar was acidic. This change (reaction) can be written symbolically in the following way:. To celebrate World Bread Day on October 16, take a tasty trip from injera in Ethiopia to crumpets in the United Kingdom. Crandon Chicago Il 60617 (312) 535-6425 Objectives: Grade 2 1. A chemical reaction is the combination of two reactants to form an entirely new product. Take chopping carrots, for example. Change the order you add substances. Putting chalk in vinegar Adding vinegar to salt Adding lemon juice to sugar We completed all these mini investigations as a class and came up with the following conclusions: An irreversible change is a chemical change because the substances permanently mix. Pre-Lab Discussion: Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. What evidence below would lead you to think that the change is a chemical change? A. Use a spoon to mix the baking soda slurry until it is all a liquid. Chemical Changes Bonnie J. It is possible that vinegar by itself causes the indicator to change color. Vinegar is a mild ascetic acid solution that works great not just as a rust remover but also as a pretty good degreaser. Carbon is the chemical essence of your lover’s eyes, hands, lips and brain. How To Kill A Tree Without Anyone Knowing - How To Kill A Tree - Journey To Sustainability - Duration: 3:49. Bronner’s (castile soap) and white vinegar. Brown asked her students to combine some regular cow's milk with white vinegar. A chemical reaction is the combination of two reactants to form an entirely new product. Most of the outcomes were physical change but some were chemical change, and one physical and chemical change together. If vinegar is a great natural cleaner (it’s not) and castile soap is a great natural cleaner (yes, it still is) we can mix them together for even greater cleaning power, right? Then I read this post , and did a little experiment of my own, and found that vinegar and castile soap really don’t mix together at all. A vinegar foot soak can help with odor, athlete’s foot, blisters, warts, and even dry feet. A change from one state (solid or liquid or gas) to another without a change in chemical composition which can be made by freezing, melting or boiling a substance. Therefore, skim milk also retains its white color. #6) Milk of Magnesia + Vinegar • Milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2 is a strong base. the milk can be changed back from a solid to a liquid by adding heat to it. Over time, all of the pennies will become tarnished with copper oxide once again, as the copper reacts with oxygen in the air. Baking soda bubbles with vinegar. A chemical change involves formation of a new substance, and the chemical properties of the new substance are different from that of the reacting substances. An ice cube is placed in the sun. Eruption time! … Pour the baking soda slurry into the soda bottle quickly and step back! How it Works: A chemical reaction between vinegar and baking soda creates a gas called carbon dioxide. Chemical Change. CHEMISTRY OF FLAVOR ADDITIVES Adding sugar or artificial sweeteners does not appear to change the chemistry of tea, however lemon and milk can. You can totally sub 1 cup almond milk and 1tsp apple cider or white vinegar for 1 cup buttermilk in a baking recipe. Milk of Magnesia - almost any brand will work. Examine some of the extra kernels. One of the products of the vinegar and baking soda reaction is sodium acetate (NaC 2 H 3 O 2). A chemical reaction is the combination of two reactants to form an entirely new product. In this article, I shall cite some common examples of chemical changes in everyday life. chemical change: 1 n (chemistry) any process determined by the atomic and molecular composition and structure of the substances involved Synonyms: chemical action , chemical process Types: show 74 types hide 74 types acylation the process of introducing an acyl group into a compound agglutinating activity , agglutination the coalescing. Chemical change A change that occurs when one or more substances change into entirely new substances with different properties. mixing baking soda with water is a physical change b/c you don't change the chemical structure mixing baking soda with vinegar is a chemical change b/c you change the chemical structure ===== It. I am confused. 19 hours ago · To get rid of that, you can apply apple cider vinegar in the area. These are two of my very favorite cleaning tools but you can’t mix them! This is where some science comes in, vinegar is an acid and castile soap is a base. In the case of this experiment, the smell of vinegar is reduced or disappears completely because the vinegar is replaced by water in this reaction. State Standards and Benchmarks. Examples of physical changes are boiling, melting, freezing, and shredding. The gas rises up and escapes through the soft drink bottle, it doesn't however escape the balloon, pushing it outwards and blowing it up. the solution changes size C. Baking Powder Reaction With Vinegar. Noodle kugel is updated with golden milk spice mix, an Indian-influenced blend of turmeric and warming spices. a campfire 6. A simple experiment where we mix milk and vinegar together. The picture above shows the results of mixing warm milk with vinegar. Adding a little vinegar to the water when boiling eggs is an old cook’s trick that makes them easier to peel. Eventually you should be able to look at the formula of a compound and state some. Deep Dive How 5 food and beverage brands created lasting magic for a modern market They have long legacies — and bright futures — as they keep their eyes on both the past and the trends that. After stirring the mixture, the students poured the liquids through a strainer into another beaker. The term for this is halochromism. But don’t stir! Dip the toothpick into the dish soap, then into the milk. The lower the pH, the more acid the vinegar is. By asking these questions scientists can classify matter into: •Mixtures – two or more substances that are not chemically combined with each other and can be. Equipment List To use vinegar to remove, you’ll need a few items. Each group mixed 1 cup of warm milk with 4 tablespoons of vinegar in a glass measuring cup. A chemical reaction is not always caused by mixing two substances together. Mercola and his community. Chemical changes are frequently harder to reverse than physical changes. Perhaps one of the best parts of enjoying a delicious meal at home is knowing that you don’t have to stand there. Vinegar’s main chemical component is acetic acid. However, changing the order may change how fast and high the reaction is. Dissolving salt in water. Later there is a puddle of water. When it is ready, the milk will be slightly thickened and you will see small curdled bits. when milk and vinegar are mixed it causes a chemical change that can be seen by the curdling milk. Have students mix the mug of hot milk and vinegar slowly with a spoon for a few seconds. A Milk-Curdling Activity. 2 days ago · The bad news first: There is too much plastic in the world. Chemical changes involve chemical reactions and the creation of new products. Set aside and marinate at room temperature for 15 to 20 minutes. However, mixing sugar and water simply produces sugar in water!. If milk and vinegar is mixed is it a physical color changes etc. If the substance has been changed into another substance, a chemical change (C) has occurred. In a physical change, there is no change in chemical composition. The PN solutions must be mixed in a specific order. the solution changes shape B. In the presence of nucleation sites - like a powder - this would speed up the decomposition. Add the macaroni or cavatelli, stir well. Answer: Baking soda is the chemical called sodium bicarbonate. Best E-Cigarettes and Starter Kits. Add 25 mL of vinegar, which is an acidic solution. That's why I love vinegar experiments. Messages written with this ink are absorbed through the shell. Prevent soapy film on glassware by placing a cup of vinegar on the bottom rack of your dishwasher,. You can take a shot of it diluted in water or use it as a seasoning on uncooked or lightly cooked foods. process that produces chemical change is a chemical reaction. balls of wax form when melted wax is poured into ice water D. Decide whether you observed a physical change or a chemical. Students may see a slight color change with the indicator solution. Flavin is a water-soluble pigment also found in apple skins, plums and grapes. In some cases,. It is possible that vinegar by itself causes the indicator to change color. 2) New properties appear. The milk in the carton became frozen after the carton was accidentally placed in the freezing compartment. Introduction: Our natural world is composed of chemical substances. Salt does kill weeds, as well as all other plants. Eye care: Your healthcare provider will continue to rinse your eye. That is, they don’t have a chemical reaction. Vinegar added to salt 4. They are effective, versatile, biodegradable, and non-toxic. iron changes color when heated s Iron changes color when heated is a clue of a chemical change. Aluminum, Al, for example, chemically undergoes a change (chemical reaction) when put in the. Some general signs of a chemical change include a change of color or odor, the formation of a precipitate (solid), the formation of a gas, and a change in heat or light. Every chemical reaction is accompanied by a change in temperature. Distilled white vinegar usually measures around pH 2. It's also a vital component for all known forms of life on Earth and has the most commonly recognized chemical formula, H2O. But don’t stir! Dip the toothpick into the dish soap, then into the milk. always mix the vinegar with water.

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Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass NARRATIVE OF THE LIFE OF FREDERICK DOUGLASS The author of the most influential African American autobiography of his era rebelled against his enslavement in the South and rose through the ranks of the American antislavery movement in the North to become the most electrifying speaker and compelling writer produced by black America in the nineteenth century. With the publication of the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself in June 1845, Frederick Douglass (1818–1895) became an international sensation at the age of twenty-seven. Within five years of its publication, Douglass's Narrative had become a best-seller, with an estimated thirty thousand copies in print by 1850. The Narrative's sales dwarfed the combined sales of such mid-nineteenth-century American literary classics as Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), Henry David Thoreau's Walden (1854), and Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass (1855) during the first five years of their publication. The success of the Narrative spurred its author's enlistment into the antislavery literary wars, where he became black America's most effective exponent. For a half century after the appearance of his Narrative, Douglass enjoyed fame and endured controversy as a newspaper editor, the author of three more autobiographies, a professional orator, a U.S. government official and diplomat, and a tireless civil rights agitator, all predicated on the inspiring self-image that he fashioned in the pages of his first and best-known book, the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. In the late twentieth century, Douglass's Narrative joined the canon of American literature, having been recognized as one of the most artful and influential autobiographies of the nineteenth century. DOUGLASS'S ORIGINS IN SLAVERY Frederick Douglass was born a slave on Maryland's Eastern Shore sometime in February 1818, according to his master's property book. Frederick's mother was Harriet Bailey, about whom he knew little other than that she enjoyed the rare distinction of being able to read. Douglass was never able to trace his paternity, though he speculated in his Narrative that Aaron Anthony, his master, had been his father. Growing up under the care of his grandmother, Betsy Bailey, Frederick had little chance to learn more about the world beyond the obscure backwater where he was born. But in 1826 he was selected by his master's son-inlaw, Thomas Auld, to go to Baltimore, where Frederick spent five years as a servant in the home of Auld's brother, Hugh. Hugh Auld's wife Sophia treated the bright and engaging slave boy with unusual kindness, giving reading lessons to Frederick until her husband forbade them. Ignoring Hugh Auld's dictates, Frederick took his first steps toward freedom and an eventual literary career by teaching himself to read and write. In 1833 a quarrel between the Auld brothers brought Frederick, now a self-willed teenager, back to his home in St. Michaels, Maryland, where Thomas Auld, who had inherited Frederick, took charge of him. Provoked by the youth's lack of respect, Thomas Auld hired him out to Edward Covey, a local farmer and well-known slave breaker, in January 1834. After eight months of unstinting labor and repeated whippings, the desperate sixteen-year-old fought back. His forcible resistance unnerved Covey, compelling him to back down. In his Narrative, Douglass portrayed his struggle with Covey as "the turning-point in my career as a slave. It rekindled the few expiring embers of freedom, and revived within me a sense of my own manhood. It recalled the departed self-confidence, and inspired me again with a determination to be free" (p. 69). Douglass's portrayal of his triumph over Covey has become one of the most celebrated scenes in all of African American literature. In the spring of 1836, after Frederick tried and failed to escape from slavery, Thomas Auld sent him back to Baltimore to learn the caulking trade on the city's docks. Restless and resentful of Hugh Auld's supervision, Frederick enlisted the aid of his future spouse, Anna Murray, in a scheme by which he would masquerade as a free black merchant sailor and board a northbound train from Baltimore to Wilmington, Delaware. On 3 September 1838 the young man made his escape. Within a month of his arrival in the North, Frederick and Anna were married and living in New Bedford, Massachusetts, as Mr. and Mrs. Frederick Douglass, the newly adopted last name having been recommended by a friend in New Bedford's thriving African American community. The friend who recommended Douglass to the runaway slave had been reading Sir Walter Scott's The Lady of the Lake. Less than three years later, officials of the American Anti-Slavery Society, impressed by Douglass's preaching to a black congregation in New Bedford, invited the eloquent young man to speak at an antislavery rally in Nantucket, Connecticut. There Douglass recalled his experience as a slave so powerfully and persuasively that William Lloyd Garrison (1805–1879), the leading antislavery activist in America, declared (as he stated in his preface to Douglass's Narrative) that "Patrick Henry, of revolutionary fame, never made a speech more eloquent in the cause of liberty, than the one [Garrison heard] from the lips of that hunted fugitive" (p. 24), Frederick Douglass. Immediately the New Bedford wharf worker found himself recruited into the ranks of the American Anti-Slavery's Society's corps of full-time lecturers. DOUGLASS AND THE SLAVE NARRATIVE The next three years on the antislavery platform gave Douglass, who never had a day of formal schooling in his life, the practical lessons in rhetoric and self-representation before an audience that were crucial to his decision in 1844 to undertake the writing of his own life story. The genre Douglass chose for his literary debut, the fugitive slave narrative, was well established in England and the United States, though not entirely reputable because of frequent allegations that such narratives were ghostwritten and exaggerated by white abolitionists. A half century earlier the life stories of African-born slaves such as James Gronniosaw and Olaudah Equiano had begun to appear in Great Britain. In addition to attracting substantial attention and sales abroad, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African (1789) went through multiple reprint editions in the early United States, indicating a receptive audience for such writing in colonial North America and the early Republic. Not until the 1830s, however, did the antislavery movement in the United States seek purposefully to enlist the talents and energies of black American writers in a national movement to extirpate slavery from the so-called land of the free. Increasingly aggressive in its attacks on slavery in the late 1830s, the American antislavery press decided to seek out narratives by fugitive slaves who could document convincingly what they had experienced or witnessed in the South. As Theodore Dwight (1796–1866), secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, observed in an 1837 letter, "The north is so blinded it will not believe what we [abolitionists] say about slavery," but "facts and testimony as to the actual condition of the Slaves," Dwight asserted, "would thrill the land with Horror" (Andrews, To Tell a Free Story, p. 62). One of the founding texts of the fugitive slave narrative, A Narrative of the Adventures and Escape of Moses Roper, from American Slavery (1837), shocked its readers with graphic depictions of slavery's atrocities as Roper had experienced them. Roper's suspenseful accounts of his numerous attempts to escape followed by his ultimately successful flight to England guaranteed wide sales in English and American editions. A year after Roper's story came out, the Narrative of James Williams, an American Slave, Who Was for Several Years a Driver on a Cotton Plantation in Alabama appeared in Boston and New York, transcribed by the renowned antislavery poet John Greenleaf Whittier (1807–1892) and published by the American Anti-Slavery Society. Williams's Narrative, however, came under fire from proslavery critics who claimed the text was riddled with errors and untraceable references. Apprehensive that such challenges could discredit the growing effort to mobilize the firsthand testimony of fugitive slaves against slavery, the American Anti-Slavery Society withdrew the Narrative of James Williams from circulation. Aware of the potential of the slave narrative to combat proslavery propaganda, Douglass had several motives in contributing to this relatively new form of American autobiography. Having heard doubts expressed about whether someone as articulate and knowledgeable as he could have ever been held in bondage, Douglass decided that issuing his own autobiography, in which he documented as many of the facts of his life as he could, would help to silence his critics. Unlike many of his predecessors in the slave narrative, including James Williams (b. 1805), Douglass was determined to write his own story instead of asking a white person, even someone as respected as Whittier, to transcribe it from his dictation. Douglass knew that a subtitle, "Written by Himself," featured on the title page of his Narrative would testify convincingly to the intellectual capacity of black people, even those who had been enslaved, to compose and represent themselves in language on a par with any white American writer. Even the presence of his autograph under the likeness of himself on the frontispiece of his Narrative bore political significance. By demonstrating that a former slave could read, write, and represent himself through authorship, Douglass's Narrative shattered the contention of many who tried to justify slavery by claiming that African-descended people lacked the intellectual ability to function proficiently in the world of letters. Although many African Americans published narratives of their enslavement and freedom after Douglass, the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass is generally considered the epitome of the pre–Civil War fugitive slave narrative. Priced at fifty cents a copy (about $8.50 in the early twenty-first century), the Narrative's first printing of five thousand sold out in four months. To satisfy demand, four additional reprintings of two thousand copies each were brought out within a year. Editions appeared in England and Ireland. In 1846 a Dutch translation and in 1848 a French translation of the Narrative helped spread Douglass's fame on the European Continent. Positive reviews comparing Douglass's style to that of classic British writers John Bunyan and Daniel Defoe spurred sales. So did complimentary notices in prominent newspapers by such noted American writers as the transcendentalist and feminist reformer Margaret Fuller (1810–1850), who stated in the New York Tribune (1845) that she had never read a narrative "more simple, true, coherent, and warm with genuine feeling." The London Spectator called the Narrative a "singular book," striking because its denunciation of slavery rested not on the institution's physical cruelties but on "the brutish degradation to which the mind of the slave is reduced" (29 November 1945). The self-consciousness of the writing in the Narrative attests to Douglass's determination to make his story not merely an exposé of the evils of slavery but also an exploration of the mind of a slave aspiring to freedom. The key to the originality and import of Douglass's rendition of his life, in contrast to that of most other fugitive slave narrators, is his emphasis on the psychological and intellectual struggle that he waged against slavery from his early childhood on Maryland's Eastern Shore. The Narrative recounts Douglass's boyhood as a series of challenges to white authorities intent on preventing him from achieving knowledge of himself and his relationship to the outside world. Resistance to slavery takes the form of an early clandestine pursuit of literacy. Armed with the power to read and write, the young slave graduates to a culminating physical rebellion against the slave breaker, Edward Covey, who symbolizes the ultimate physical tyranny of slavery. Douglass's reputation as a fighter gives him a leadership role in his local slave community, which he uses to teach other slaves to read and then to engineer a runaway plot. The first attempt for freedom fails, but a second try proves successful, thereby reinforcing the image Douglass gives himself in the Narrative as a man of indomitable determination to be free. In the last chapter of the Narrative, Douglass recounts his marriage, his integration into a new life of economic independence and self-sufficiency in the North, and his discovery of an intellectually and spiritually self-validating vocation as a speaker for the American Anti-Slavery Society. Although the Narrative ends modestly, with Douglass inviting others to assess the achievements of his relatively short career as an antislavery lecturer, the cumulative effect of reading Douglass's entire life is to see the Narrative as a great American success story. This, no doubt, was one reason for the favorable reception the Narrative enjoyed. While it indicted slavery in the South, it presented the escaped slave in the North as a productive, respectable, and progressive member of American society. MAJOR THEMES OF THE NARRATIVE Like most slave narrators, Douglass knew that the majority of his potential audience was whites in the North, most of them ignorant of slavery and few committed to its abolition. To convince his readers of the injustice of slavery, Douglass had to revise their notions of what slavery was actually like. To change white assumptions about slavery as an institution, Douglass attacked stereotypical white attitudes toward black people as subhuman, a race fit only for slavery. Although he included sympathetic and complimentary portraits of several fellow-slaves in the Narrative, Douglass's brief in favor of the full humanity and dignity of black people rested primarily on the way he represented himself. The Narrative says little about Douglass's family, friends, or mentors in slavery. The focus is predominantly on Douglass's radical individuality and the process by which he became the man who could no longer be enslaved. The key, therefore, to Douglass's protest against slavery in the Narrative is the manner in which the author portrays himself as an exemplary black individual, the antithesis of everything considered slavish. By fashioning his Narrative into the story of the evolution of his own sense of indomitable self-hood, Douglass aimed to do two things: denounce the principle and practice of human bondage while proving simultaneously the capacity of black people, personified by himself, for freedom and citizenship. Knowing that the main reason his story would be read was because it revealed slavery in the South to white readers in the North, Douglass focused a good deal of his Narrative's attention on the nature of slavery itself, the major theme of the early chapters of the book. Douglass's purpose was to debunk myths of slavery that claimed it was both an economic necessity and a morally defensible institution. Instead of myths espoused by slaveholders and their defenders, Douglass offers facts based on his own personal experience. With as much specificity about names and dates as he could muster, Douglass details the daily lives of slaves on the plantations where he lived, noting memorable instances of physical cruelty, such as the murder of William Demby by the overseer Mr. Gore and the terrible whipping of Douglass's aunt, Hester Bailey, by Aaron Anthony, Douglass's master. Although such atrocities were widely publicized in slave narratives, Douglass's story is distinctive for downplaying cruelties suffered by the author himself. Instead of beatings, Douglass recalls various forms of deprivation, some physical, such as shortages of food and clothing, but more often emotional and psychological, including denial of access to his mother and the withholding of information about when he was born. The Narrative begins tellingly with the author's admission that, unlike most autobiographers, he cannot give the reader his birthday because his master "deemed all such inquiries on the part of a slave improper and impertinent, and evidence of a restless spirit" (p. 31). Thus from the first paragraph of his story, Douglass puts his reader on notice that slavery failed in its attempt to deny him the individuality that a birthday commonly gives every man and woman. Ironically the effort to deny him a sense of self elicited from him a "restless spirit" (p. 31) that demanded to know what he, as a slave, had been denied. This restless, searching spirit of inquiry characterizes Douglass throughout his story, driving him to become the individual who ultimately would triumph over slavery and tell the story of that triumph to the nation. THE OPENING SENTENCES OF THE 1845 NARRATIVE In these opening lines of his Narrative, Douglass introduces himself as a seeker of liberating knowledge about himself from his early childhood. I was born in Tuckahoe, near Hillsborough, and about twelve miles from Easton, in Talbot county, Maryland. I have no accurate knowledge of my age, never having seen any authentic record containing it. By far the larger part of the slaves know as little of their ages as horses know of theirs, and it is the wish of most masters within my knowledge to keep their slaves thus ignorant. I do not remember to have ever met a slave who could tell of his birthday. They seldom come nearer to it than planting-time, harvest-time, cherry-time, spring-time, or fall-time. A want of information concerning my own was a source of unhappiness to me even during childhood. The white children could tell their ages. I could not tell why I ought to be deprived of the same privilege. I was not allowed to make any inquiries of my master concerning it. He deemed all such inquiries on the part of a slave improper and impertinent, and evidence of a restless spirit. Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, p. 31. The story of Douglass's youth is predicated on an intellectual quest—for knowledge and the means of gaining it, literacy—that anticipates his eventual physical quest from enslavement to freedom. As a boy Douglass learns the importance of knowledge to a slave when he overhears Hugh Auld chastise his wife Sophia for teaching a slave to read. Once his Baltimore master acknowledges the effect of reading on a slave—"It would forever unfit him to be a slave" (p. 49)—the slave boy undergoes a kind of epiphany, realizing that ignorance was the source of "the white man's power to enslave the black man. . . . From that moment, I understood the pathway from slavery to freedom" (p. 48). Literacy becomes the pathway from slavery to freedom. By teaching himself to read, the slave boy not yet ten years old makes his first conscious act of rebellion against his master. In the process he begins to think for himself, the first stage in becoming an independent self. Once the slave boy makes his commitment to literacy, a second major theme moves to the center of the Narrative, the process by which the slave realizes and exercises his sense of individual selfhood. Although laying claim to selfhood would seem the most natural of acts for any autobiographer, whose writing is expected to chronicle the growth of an individual self, an African American in Douglass's time, particularly one who had been born a slave, made an inevitably political statement when he or she undertook to write a personal narrative. Mid-nineteenth-century America still heard much debate over whether African Americans deserved even to be called people. The Constitution of the United States did not consider the millions of slaves living in the South to be people. U.S. law ruled that slaves were chattel, that is, that they were property, having no more right to their own persons than a horse or a table. Property, since it could not be human, could not lay claim to human rights or human dignity, for the fundamental basis of such dignity, the belief in the unique selfhood of every human being, had no application to slaves. The aim of the Narrative was to demonstrate the unique selfhood of the author so as to lay the groundwork for his eventual claim to full manhood. The Narrative is structured by moments of intense revelation that dramatize Douglass's evolving sense of self-hood. Through the first half of his Narrative, Douglass stresses the interconnectedness of selfhood and literacy. Reading breeds thinking, which leads to brooding about the differences between the life he lives as a slave and the world of freedom he discovers by peering into newspapers and books. Reading teaches him what abolitionism is, spurring in the teenage slave not only his latent desire to be free but fantasies about how he might actually attain his liberty. But the more pronounced Douglass's consciousness of himself as unjustly enslaved grew, the more the authorities who claimed him as their property—Thomas Auld, especially—distrusted him and sought to quash his recalcitrance and incipient rebellion. In the famous tenth chapter of the Narrative, Douglass's developing sense of selfhood expresses itself in open, violent defiance of white power when he successfully throttles Edward Covey. This victory over the slave breaker is the "turning-point" in Douglass's life as a slave because it restored to him a liberating "sense of my own manhood" (p. 69). The last chapters of Douglass's Narrative bring out the third major theme of the story, the kind of "manhood" Douglass sought and earned both in slavery and freedom. Knowing that plenty of white readers would be disturbed by the association of violence and black masculinity that emerges in the battle with Covey, Douglass is careful in the Narrative to point out that his sense of manhood depended not on beating his oppressor but on preventing that oppressor from beating him. Douglass recounts the events leading up to the fight with Covey so as to argue that he turned to violence only as a last resort, when every other means of defending himself against the tyrannical slave breaker had failed. For Douglass, reclaiming his manhood entails, almost literally in the fight with Covey, standing up for himself and demanding his human rights not to be abused physically and humiliated psychologically. After the battle with Covey, Douglass shows that his revived sense of manhood found expression in community building, namely, the establishment of a clandestine Sabbath school in which the seventeen-year-old taught other slaves to read. His commitment to his fellow slaves impels him to include several in his first attempt to escape. After the plan is betrayed and he is separated from his friends, Douglass recalls suffering greatly from his isolation. This reinforces the impression he gives his reader that the kind of fulfillment he sought as a black man was communal, not merely personal. Virtually everything Douglass writes about his final years in slavery and his early years of freedom testifies to his dedication to an ideal of black manhood that is firmly aligned with traditional middle-class American standards. Hiring his time in the shipbuilding trades of Baltimore, Douglass espouses the Protestant work ethic: "I bent myself to the work of making money" (p. 85), saving as much as he could for his eventual flight to freedom. The economic freedom and independence he demands of Hugh Auld are utterly consistent with what any white male workingman would have expected as his employment rights in mid-nineteenth-century America. After he escapes, Douglass's actions—marriage, employment, continued self-improvement, and community activism—underline his bid for respectability as a productive, contributing member of a free society. The climactic scene of the Narrative places Douglass on a platform, for the first time speaking out in a public setting against slavery. This scene effectively melds the central themes of the Narrative into a final positive statement that prefigures Douglass's future greatness. The occasion is an antislavery rally in Nantucket, Connecticut, in August 1841; it is the first time Douglass speaks to whites about slavery in general and his personal enslavement in particular. As he approaches the podium, Douglass acknowledges a lingering shackle on his sense of self: "The truth was, I felt myself a slave, and the idea of speaking to white people weighed me down" (p. 92). The act of speaking proves liberating, however. Marshaling the power of language to attack slavery and to identify himself as a self-liberated free man, Douglass at the end of his autobiography lays claim to the intellectual and moral authority necessary to become a public man of words, the eventual author of the Narrative itself. LEGACY OF THE NARRATIVE In the history of African American literature, Douglass's importance and influence are virtually immeasurable. Many memorable slave narratives, including William Wells Brown's Narrative of William W. Brown, an American Slave (1847) and Harriet Jacobs's Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (1861), were inspired by Douglass's example. His Narrative gave the world the most compelling and sophisticated rendition of African American selfhood and manhood seen in literature up to that time. Douglass's artistry invested his model of selfhood with a moral and political significance that subsequent aspirants to the role of African American culture hero—from the conservative Booker T. Washington (1856–1915) to the radical W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963)—would seek to appropriate for their own autobiographical self-portraits. In twentieth-century African American literature, from Paul Laurence Dunbar's brooding poetic tribute "Douglass" (1903) to the idealistic characterization of Ned Douglass in Ernest J. Gaines's novel, The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman (1971), the criterion for African American heroism and mastery of words as a weapon in the struggle for self- and communal liberation remains the Frederick Douglass pictured in his Narrative. Douglass, Frederick. The Oxford Frederick Douglass Reader. Edited and with an introduction by William L. Andrews. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Andrews, William L. To Tell a Free Story: The First Century of Afro-American Autobiography, 1760–1865. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986. Andrews, William L., ed. Critical Essays on Frederick Douglass. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1991. Huggins, Nathan Irvin. Slave and Citizen: The Life ofFrederick Douglass. Edited by Oscar Handlin. Boston: Little, Brown, 1980. Martin, Waldo E., Jr. The Mind of Frederick Douglass. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984. McFeely, William S. Frederick Douglass. New York: Norton, 1991. Preston, Dickson J. Young Frederick Douglass: TheMaryland Years. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980. Sundquist, Eric J., ed. Frederick Douglass: New Literary andHistorical Essays. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1990. William L. Andrews

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Table of Contents - Ancient References to the Field that Connects all Things - Ancient Source Texts and References - Modern References to the Field that Connects All Things - Science of Mind/Body Connection - Discoveries of Evolution / Human Evolution - Tipping Points of Civilization - Archaeological References - Consciousness and Science - Climate Change - Social Change Ancient References to the Field that Connects all Things - The ancient Hsin Hsin Ming (Verses on the Faith Mind) is attributed to Chien Chih Sengstan, third Zen patriarch, in the fifth century. This particular quote is from the English translation by Robert B. Clarke and illustrated by Gyoskusei Jikihara, Hsin-Hsin Ming: Seng-Ts’an Third Zen Patriarch (Buffalo, NY: White Pine Press, 2001). - The Jewel Net of Indra (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1977): p. 2. Ancient Source Texts and References - Michael Wise, Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation (San Francisco, CA: Harper SanFrancisco, 1996): p. 365. - The Rig Veda as cited in “Hinduism: On the Metaphysics and Philosophy of Hinduism Beliefs and Hindu Gods: All Is One (Brahman).” Website: www.spaceandmotion.com/Philosophy-Hinduism-Hindu.htm. - “The Gospel of Thomas,” translated and introduced by members of the Coptic Gnostic Library Project of the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity (Claremont, CA.). From The Nag Hammadi Library, James M. Robinson, ed. (San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990): p. 137 - “John 16:23-24,” from Holy Bible: Authorized King James Version (Grand Rapids, MI: World Publishing, 1989): p. 80. - The Other Bible: Gnostic Gospels, Dead Sea Scrolls, Visionary Wisdom Texts, Christian Apocrypha, Jewish Pseudepigrapha, Kabbala, edited by Willis Barnstone, HarperSanFrancisco, 1984, ISBN: 0-06-250030-9 - Prayers of the Cosmos: Meditations on the Aramaic Words of Jesus, Neil Douglas-Klotz, trans. (San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco, 1994): pp. 86-87. - There is a general belief that the Old Testament of the Peshitta was translated into Syriac from the Hebrew version in approximately the 2nd century AD. The New Testament of the Peshitta was translated from the Greek. I recommend the work of George Lamasa for the physical version of the Peshitta, (1933). The Holy Bible from Ancient Eastern Manuscripts. ISBN 0-06-064923-2. A number of additional versions may be found on line including an on line version at http://www.peshitta.org/ Modern References to the Field that Connects All Things - Website: www.spaceandmotion.com/Physics-Space-Aether-Ether.htm. - A. A. Michelson, “The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether,” American Journal of Science, vol. 22, (1881): p. 120-129. - A. A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley “On The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether,” American Journal of Science, vol. 34, (1887): p. 333-345. - E. W. Silvertooth, “Special Relativity.” Nature, vol. 322 (August 1986): p. 590. - Konrad Finagle, What’s the Void? (Barney Noble, 1898) [Excerpts reprinted in D.E. Simanek and J. C. Holden, Science Askew (Boca Raton, FL: Institute of Physics Publishing, 2002)]. Website: www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/cutting/grav.htm. - Max Planck, from a speech that he gave in Florence, Italy in 1944, entitled “Das Wesen der Materie” (The Essence/Nature/Character of Matter) Quelle: Archiv zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Abt. Va, Rep. 11 Planck, Nr. 1797.Below I have included a portion of that speech in the original German, with the English translation following. - Original German: “Als Physiker, der sein ganzes Leben der nüchternen Wissenschaft, der Erforschung der Materie widmete, bin ich sicher von dem Verdacht frei, für einen Schwarmgeist gehalten zu werden. Und so sage ich nach meinen Erforschungen des Atoms dieses: Es gibt keine Materie an sich. Alle Materie entsteht und besteht nur durch eine Kraft, welche die Atomteilchen in Schwingung bringt und sie zum winzigsten Sonnensystem des Alls zusammenhält. Da es im ganzen Weltall aber weder eine intelligente Kraft noch eine ewige Kraft gibt – es ist der Menschheit nicht gelungen, das heißersehnte Perpetuum mobile zu erfinden – so müssen wir hinter dieser Kraft einen bewußten intelligenten Geist annehmen. Dieser Geist ist der Urgrund aller Materie. - English Translation: “As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear-headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a result of my research about the atoms this much: There is no matter as such! All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particles of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the atom together . . . We must assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent Mind. This Mind is the matrix of all matter.” - Zhi Zhao, Yu-Ao Chen, An-Ning Zhang, Tao Yang, Hans J. Briegel, and Jian-Wei Pan, “Experimental Demonstration of Five-photon entanglement and Open-destination Teleportation,” Nature, vol. 430 (2004): p. 54. - Eric Smalley, “Five Photons Linked,” Technology Research News (August/September 2004). Website: www.trnmag.com/Stories/2004/082504/Five_photons_linked_082504.html. - Malcolm W. Browne, “Signal Travels Farther and Faster Than Light,” Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Newport News, VA.) online newsletter (July 22, 1997). Website: www.jlab.org - Joel R. Primack, a cosmologist at the University of Santa Cruz, from the “Ask the Experts” section of Scientific American online, “If Space Is Expanding, into What Is it Expanding?” ScientificAmerican.com Posted on October 21,1999. “According to modern cosmological theory, based on Einstein’s General Relativity (our modern theory of gravity), the big bang did not occur somewhere in space; it occupied the whole of space. Indeed, it created space.” www.sciam.com - P.P.Gariaev, K.V. Grigor’ev, A.A. Vasil’ev, V.P. Poponin, and V.A. Shcheglov, “Investigation of the Fluctuation Dynamics of DNA Solutions by Laser Correlation Spectroscopy,” Bulletin of the Lebedev Physics Institute (1992), no. 11-12, p. 23-30, as cited by Vladimir Poponin in an online article “The DNA Phantom Effect: Direct Measurement of a New Field in the Vacuum Substructure” (Update on DNA Phantom Effect: March 19, 2002). The Weather Master website. www.twm.co.nz/DNAPhantom.htm - 10. Vladimir Poponin, “The DNA Phantom Effect: Direct Measurement of a New Field in the Vacuum Substructure,” performed the Russian study again in 1995 under the auspices of the Institute of HeartMath, Research Division, Boulder Creek, CA. Science of Mind/Body Connection - Glen Rein, Ph.D., Mike Atkinson, Rollin McCraty, M.A., “The Physiological and Psychological Effects of Compassion and Anger,” Journal of Advancement in Medicine, vol. 8, no. 2 (1995): p. 87-103. - Julie Motz, “Everyone an Energy Healer: The Treat V Conference” Santa Fe, N.M., Advances: The Journal of Mind-Body Health, vol. 9 (1993). - Glen Rein. Ph.D., “Effect of Conscious Intention on Human DNA,” Proceeds of the International Forum on New Science (Denver, CO: 1986). - Glen Rein, Ph.D., and Rollin McCraty, Ph.D., “Structural Changes in Water and DNA Associated with New Physiologically Measurable States,” Journal of Scientific Exploration vol. 8, no. 3 (1994): 19. One of the clearest sources for the mind-body connection was documented in a landmark study by James Blumenthal at Duke University. “Chill Out: It Does the Heart Good,” Duke University news release citing the technical study of the relationship between emotional response and heart health, originally published in the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. http://Dukemednews.org/news/article.php?id-353. - A beautiful example of applying what we know about inner peace to a wartime situation is found in the pioneering study done by David W. Orme-Johnson, Charles N. Alexander, John L. Davies, Howard M. Chandler, and Wallace E. Larimore, “International Peace Project in the Middle East,” The Journal of Conflict Resolution, vol. 32, no. 4, (December 1988): p. 778. - Spoken by James A. Blumenthal, a professor of medical psychology at Duke University Medical Center in Durham, NC, in an article by Rebecca Clay, “Research to the Heart of the Matter: Psychologists are producing clear evidence that psychosocial factors contribute to cardiovascular disease and are coming up with interventions that may help patients live healthier lives,” American Psychological Association, vol. 32, no. 1 (January 2001). Website: http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan01/coverheart.aspx. Discoveries of Evolution / Human Evolution - University of Glasgow, “Rare Tests on Neanderthal Infant Sheds Light on Early Human Development,” ScienceDaily (April 4, 2000). Website: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/03/000331091126.htm. - Hillary Mayell, “Neandertals Not Our Ancestors, DNA Study Suggests,” National Geographic News (May 14, 2003). Website: http://news.nationalgeographic.com. - Yuxin Fan, Tera Newman, Elena Linardopoulou, and Barbara J. Trask, “Gene Content and Function of the Ancestral Chromosome Fusion Site in Human Chromosome 2q13-2q14.1 and Paralogous Regions,” Genome Research, vol. 12 (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2002): pp. 1663–72. Website: http://genome.cshlp.org/content/12/11/1663.full. - J. W. IJdo, A. Baldini, D.C. Ward, S.T. Reeders, and R.A. Wells, “Origin of Human Chromosome 2: An Ancestral Telomere-telomere Fusion,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 88, no. 20 (October 15, 1991): pp. 9051–5. - Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence Reveals a Universe Without Design (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1986): p. 5. Website: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/nave-html/faithpathh/dawkins.html. - Compilation of hominid characteristics, including cranial capacity. Website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Homo. - Stephen Jay Gould, Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989): p. 24. - Steven M. Stanley, Macroevolution: Pattern and Process (San Francisco, California: W.M. Freeman and Co., 1979): p. 39. - Complete works of Darwin online: http://darwin-online.org.uk/contents.html. - Francis Crick, Life Itself: Its Origin and Nature (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1981). Tipping Points of Civilization - Emma Woollacott, “Loss of Biodiversity Could Damage World Economy, Says UN,” TG Daily (May 11, 2010): Website: http://www.tgdaily.com/sustainability-features/49704-loss-of-biodiversity-could-damage-world-economy-says-un. - Niles Eldredge, “The Sixth Extinction,” Actionbioscience.Org, American Institute of Biological Sciences (June 2001): Website: http://www.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/eldredge2.html. - Richard C. Cook, “It’s Official: The Crash of the U.S. Economy Has Begun,” Center for Research on Globalization (June 14, 2007). Website: http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=5964. - Lester R. Brown, “Is Our Civilization at a Tipping Point?” Hunger Notes, World Hunger Education Service. Website: http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/09/editorials/brown_tipping.htm. - George Musser, “The Climax of Humanity,” Scientific American, special edition “Crossroads for Planet Earth” (September 2005): pp. 44–47. - Abstract and link to full report by World Economic Forum, Global Risks 2013, Lee Howell, editor in chief. Website: http://www.weforum.org/reports/global-risks-2013-eighth-edition. - A description of the excavation with images of the site and an interview with lead archaeologist Klaus Schmidt. Sean Thomas, “Gobekli Tepe: Paradise Regained?” Fortean Times UK. Website: http://www.forteantimes.com/features/articles/449/gobekli_tepe_paradise_regained.html - K. Pustovoytov, K. Schmidt, and H. Parzinger, “Radiocarbon Dating of Thin Pedogenic Carbonate Laminae from Holocene Archaeological Sites,” Holocene, vol. 19 (December 1, 2009): pp. 1153–1160. - Michael D. Coe, Breaking the Maya Code (New York: Thames & Hudson, 1999): p. 61. - Richard L. Thompson, Mysteries of the Sacred Universe: The Cosmology of the Bhāgavata Purāna (Alachua, FL: Govardhan Hill Publishing, 2000): p. 225. Consciousness and Science - Bruce Lipton, The Biology of Belief: Unleashing the Power of Consciousness, Matter, & Miracles (Santa Rose, CA: Mountain of Love/Elite Books, 2005): pp. 67–9. - Nadine L. Vastenhouw, Yong Zhang, Ian G. Woods, Farhad Imam, Aviv Regev, X. Shirley Liu, John Rinn, and Alexander F. Schier, “Chromatin Signature of Embryonic Pluripotency Is Established During Genome Activation,” Nature, vol. 464 (April 8, 2010): pp. 922–6. - Elise Kleeman, “When Does a Fetus Feel Pain?” Discover (December 2005): Website: http://discovermagazine.com/2005/dec/fetus-feel-pain. - Christof Koch, “When Does Consciousness Arise in Human Babies?” Scientific American (September 2, 2009). 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Huston McCulloch, “Correction to: A 2000-Year Global Temperature Reconstruction Based on Non-Tree Ring Proxies,” Energy & Environment, vol. 19, no. 1 (2008): pp. 93–100. Retrieved from: http://www.econ.ohio-state.edu/jhm/AGW/Loehle/Loehle_McC_E&E_2008.pdf - Alfred J. Cavallo, “Hubbert’s Petroleum Production Model: An Evaluation and Implications for World Oil Production Forecasts,” Natural Resources Research, vol. 13, no. 4 (December 2004): pp. 211–221. - Lonnie Thompson, as quoted in an article by Earle Holland, “Major Climate Change Occurred 5,200 Years Ago: Evidence Suggests That History Could Repeat Itself,” Ohio State University Research News (December 15, 2004). Website: http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/5200event.htm - “2013 World Hunger and Poverty Facts and Statistics,” Hunger Notes. World Hunger Education Service Website: http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/Learn/world%20hunger%20facts%202002.htm. - Advances in renewable energy sources will make them more viable as local alternatives that supplement regional energy systems. Green Progress, “Alternative Energy.” Website: http://www.greenprogress.com/alternative_energy.php. - The UN Millennium Development Goals 2015 goal for poverty reduction was achieved ahead of schedule. United Nations Website: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals///poverty.shtml. - Lester R. Brown, “Is Our Civilization at a Tipping Point?” Hunger Notes. World Hunger Education Service Website: http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/09/editorials/brown_tipping.htm - David Gershon, “Social Change 2.0: A Blueprint for Reinventing Our World,” Sustainable City Network (November 12, 2010). Website: http://www.sustainablecitynetwork.com/blogs/david_gershon/article_5b8f63d2-eea0-11df-8077-0017a4a78c22.html - The Paolo Soleri community of Arcosanti Website: http://www.arcosanti.org. - Edmund J. Bourne, Global Shift: How a New Worldview Is Transforming Humanity (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 2008): p. 322. - Lawrence H. Keeley, as quoted by R. Brian Ferguson in “The Birth of War,” Natural History, vol. 112, no. 6 (July/August 2003) Website: http://iweb.tntech.edu/kosburn/history-444/birth_of_war.htm. - A definition of resilience from the American Psychological Association. Website: http://psychcentral.com/lib/2007/what-is-resilience. - An expanded definition of resilience that may be applied to nature as well as society, from the Stockholm Resilience Centre Website: http://www.stockholmresilience.org/21/research/what-is-resilience.html. - Janice Harris Lord and Kevin O’Brien, “Core Elements and Strategies for Victim Service Providers to Develop Resilience,” an excerpt from “Chapter 10: Developing Resilience,” in National Victim Assistance Academy Track 1: Foundation-Level Training (March 2011): pp. 9–18. Website: https://www.ovcttac.gov/downloads/views/TrainingMaterials/NVAA/Documents_NVAA2011/ParticipantText/10_NVAA_MAR_2011_Developing_Resilience_PText_final.doc. - Scott Barry Kaufman, “The Will and Ways of Hope,” Psychology Today (December 26, 2011). Website: http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/beautiful-minds/201112/the-will-and-ways-hope. - Rollin McCraty, Bob Barrios-Choplin, Deborah Rozman, Mike Atkinson, and Alan D. Watkins, “The Impact of a New Emotional Self-Management Program on Stress, Emotions, Heart Rate Variability, DHEA and Cortisol,” Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science, vol. 33, no. 2 (1998): pp.151–170. Website: http://www.heartmath.org/research/research-publications/impact-of-a-new-emotional-self-management-program-on-stress-emotions-heart-rate-variability.html. - Margaret J. Wheatley describes the scope of her work at the Berkana Institute. Website: http://www.berkana.org/about. - A series of conferences designed to create greater resilience for the city of Philadelphia. Website: http://www.phil.frb.org/community-development/events/2012/reinventing-older-communities. - A description of San Francisco’s efforts to “retrofit the buildings and infrastructure that sustain city life. Our goal is to ensure San Francisco’s resiliency and our capacity to not only survive but thrive when a disaster strikes.” Website: http://www.spur.org/initiative/resilient-city. - An innovative initiative in New York that emphasizes the need for a holistic resilience agenda and answers the question: “How resilient is New York City? Can we absorb sudden shocks to our economy, to our natural environment, to our way of life?” Websites: http://mas.org/mass-resilience-agenda and http://mas.org/video/building-resilient-cities-future-model-sustainability-community. - My World: The United Nations Global Survey for a Better World. Website: http://www.myworld2015.org/index.html. - Megan Quinn, “The Power of Community: How Cuba Survived Peak Oil,” Energy Bulletin (February 25, 2006). Website: http://www2.energybulletin.net/node/13171

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Stripped of its helmet, Leonidas’ head is framed by his long hair. The lean skin of the warrior’s face, its color gone, stands out all the more against a short and pointed beard. The dirt of battle is probably still upon Leonidas, and there is a dark purple bruise on his chin from the pooling of what little blood is left. Ragged bits of tissue and bone hang from his severed neck, and flies and beetles have landed on his skin. If the dead Spartan king’s eyes could see, they might look 140 miles to the south — all the way to Athens, the road to which now lies open for Persia. The time is August 480 b.c.; the place, Thermopylae, Greece; the occasion, the aftermath of a great battle. A vast army of Persians was on the march to conquer Greece. A small force of Greeks had been all that stood in their way. And yet, in a pass that narrows to a space smaller than a baseball diamond, the impossible almost happened. For three days, just over seventy-one hundred Greeks, spearheaded by an elite unit of three hundred Spartans, gave a savage beating to a Persian army that outnumbered them by perhaps 20-to-1. About 150,000 men willing to die for the glory of Xerxes, the Persian Great King, came up against the most efficient killing machine in history. Leonidas son of Anaxandrides, commander in chief of the Greek resistance to Persia at Thermopylae, died in a heroic last stand. After the battle, as Xerxes son of Darius toured the battlefield, he came upon Leonidas’ body and ordered the beheading of the corpse and the impalement of the severed head on a pole. One of those who no doubt saw Leonidas’ severed head was the former king of Sparta, Demaratus son of Ariston, a refugee who was now allied with the Persians. In the slaughtering pen at Thermopylae — as the narrow killing fields might be called — a king died and a legend was born. Led by Leonidas, the three hundred Spartans stood and fell and took the pride of the Persian Empire down with them. Sparta the steadfast and self-sacrificing, Greece unflagging in its fight for freedom, Xerxes the flummoxed, Demaratus the traitorous: These are the images left in the summer heat. Thermopylae is the prototype of many a last stand, from Roncesvalles to the Alamo to Isandlhwana to Bastogne. The gantlet at Thermopylae had punished the Persians. Xerxes had learned how high the price of victory would be, if he could pay it at all. How hard to think that so few men could devastate so many. Yet Thermopylae is no ordinary place — or rather, was no ordinary place. The silting-up of the land over the millennia leaves the ancient scenery hard to recognize today. Yet what a landscape it was. It was a gateway region, a pass — actually, three passes — containing the main road between northern and central Greece. Its name, ‘Thermopylae,’ means ‘hot gates’: ‘hot’ because of the sulfur springs there and ‘gates’ rather than ‘gate’ because of the three separate places where the land narrows. Thermopylae consists of a tapered plain that stretches for about 3 1/2 miles, from east to west. Mountains lie to the south, and to the north is the sea, here known as the Gulf of Malis. Thermopylae is narrowest at its two ends, the so-called East and West Gates, while the mountains are sharpest in the center of the pass, at the so-called Middle Gate (all modern appellations). It was here, at the Middle Gate, that the Greeks defended the pass. Taking advantage of a dilapidated old wall, which they rebuilt, they took their stand between the sheer cliffs and the sea. The land was less than twenty yards wide here in 480 b.c. As far as the Greek defenders knew, the mountains were impassable. Glory and revenge brought Xerxes to Thermopylae. Greeks and Persians had been at war for more than a generation. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, had crushed a Greek revolt in western Anatolia, but his armies had been bruised by Greeks at Sardis in 498 and suffered a demeaning defeat in 490 at Marathon, where a seaborne Persian army was stopped after landing less than twenty-five miles from the city of Athens. Now the Persians sought to settle the score. Xerxes was bent on adding Greece by force to what was, without exaggeration, the greatest empire in the history of the world to that date. His domain extended from present-day Pakistan in the east, westward through central and western Asia to Macedonia in the north, and across the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in the south. It took roughly four thousand miles of roads to travel from one end of the empire to the other. The realm covered nearly three million square miles, which makes it about as big as the continental United States of America, and contained perhaps as many as twenty million people. Yet with an estimated total world population in 500 b.c. of only about one hundred million, Xerxes’ empire held perhaps one-fifth of the people on the planet. In comparison, Greece was tiny, covering an area of less than fifty thousand square miles, much of it already in Xerxes’ hands before Thermopylae. In June 480 the Persians had begun their march on Greece from the Hellespont. Xerxes commanded a huge army of about 150,000 combat soldiers and a massive fleet of about twelve hundred warships. After passing through northern and central Greece, the army would head southward, capture and burn Athens, and drive into the Peloponnese and destroy the enemy’s resistance. Greece would become a Persian province. That the Great King led the invasion of Greece in person should not have been a surprise. Xerxes advertised heroism in his very name: Xerxes is Greek for the Persian Khsha-yar-shan, the king’s throne name, which means ‘Ruler of Heroes.’ Tall and handsome, Xerxes looked the part. And he followed in the footsteps of Cyrus the Great, founder in 550 b.c. of the Achaemenid Empire (named for Achaemenes, the semilegendary founder of Cyrus’ clan). Every king since Cyrus had led an invasion, and every king had conquered new territory. Xerxes had marched his army through the northern regions of Greece in Thrace and Macedonia and past Mount Olympus into Thessaly. He then led them into Central Greece, through Phthia, the legendary homeland of Achilles, and into Malis, where myth had it that Heracles spent his last years. Meanwhile, the Persian fleet sailed nearby, along the coast. The army halted at the pass of Thermopylae, which it found blocked by the Greeks. The navy stopped about fifty miles to the north, at Aphetae, opposite the Greek fleet at Artemisium. The Great King hoped to win the war in central Greece. He planned for his army and navy to overwhelm the Greeks there through Persian numbers and Greek defections. But in late August, when the Persian army reached Thermopylae, the Greeks were ready for him. Only about three dozen Greek city-states rallied to the cause of defense against Persia. Most of Greece either supported the invaders or sat on the sidelines. Yet Greece had several things in its favor, among them superb infantrymen, a competitive navy, brilliant strategists (especially the Athenian commander, Themistocles), and — in southern Greece — knowledge of the terrain. Farther north, as at Thermopylae, the allies’ local intelligence was limited. But did the Greeks have the iron will needed to stand up to Persia? That was the question that Thermopylae would test. Formal defensive preparations began in spring 480, when members of the Greek alliance against Persia — the Hellenic League — met at the Isthmus of Corinth to chart strategy. Their plan had three basic elements. First, since Persia would attack both by land and sea, the Greeks would respond with an army and a navy. The Peloponnese would provide most of the infantrymen, since Athens would devote all its manpower to its big navy. Second, since Persia was attacking Athens via northern Greece rather than by island-hopping across the Aegean, the allies would mount a forward defense in the north. It was better to try to stop Persia there than at the gates of Athens. Third, time was on the Greeks’ side. For political reasons, the Persian king wanted a quick victory, and for practical reasons, the Persian quartermasters could not supply their huge invasion force for very long. Therefore the Greeks had an incentive to drag out the war until the Persians gave up. In June or July, the Greeks sent an army of ten thousand men to hold the mountain pass known as the Vale of Tempe, which runs between Macedonia and Thessaly. But their leaders discovered two other passes nearby. Since it would be impossible to close all three passes to Persia, they withdrew southward. Tempe had been a failure of intelligence, a sign of how little the Greeks knew about their own country and how much darkness ancient strategists often worked in. But Thermopylae was a better choice. Leonidas reasoned that in its confines a small number of men could hold off the Persians. Besides, Thermopylae was close enough to the harbor at Artemisium to allow a coordinated land-sea strategy. The Greek fleet at Artemisium would keep Persian reinforcements from arriving by sea and cutting off the Greek army holding the pass at Thermopylae. Recognizing the Greeks’ strategy, the Persians coordinated their attack on Artemisium and on Thermopylae. Although they had not planned matters quite so precisely, the land and sea battles there turned out to be fought on precisely the same three days in late August 480 b.c. But having established that, modern historians run up against a series of mysteries. Numbers, first. The Greeks sent only a small force to Thermopylae, fewer in fact than at Tempe a month or two before. Why? A closer look only compounds the puzzle. The approximately seventy-one hundred Greeks at Thermopylae were made up of about four thousand Peloponnesians from nearly a dozen different states as well as about thirty-one hundred soldiers from central Greece. Some of the more noteworthy contributions, besides the three hundred Spartans, were four hundred men each from the great states of Thebes and Corinth. Yet they were each easily outstripped by the seven hundred men from the tiny city-state of Thespiae. Sparta promised to send more men soon, yet, even so, the discrepancy in numbers is striking. Corinth and Sparta both lie in the Peloponnese, a peninsula located several hundred miles south of Thermopylae, and which is protected by the natural barrier of the narrow and mountainous Isthmus of Corinth. No Peloponnesian state wanted to risk sending a large force off to central Greece without first dispatching a smaller force to test the waters. They were particularly concerned about Thebes, the largest and strongest central Greek state, and an uncertain ally, since strong rumors circulated of its impending defection to Persia. Thespiae, a neighbor and rival of Thebes, was determined to stop Persia. The city-state’s central Greek location, however, put it directly in harm’s way. Hence, Thespiae made an all-out effort at Thermopylae. The second question is just what were Sparta’s intentions at Thermopylae. If Thermopylae was so far away and exposed to the enemy, why bother to risk even a small number of men — much less one of Sparta’s two kings? (The dual monarchy was an unusual but established part of Spartan government.) There were good reasons, both positive and negative. On the plus side, Thermopylae was too strong a position to give up and a successful forward defense might have kept war away from the Peloponnesian homeland. Sparta, moreover, had a reputation to maintain as Greece’s leading land power. The dispatch of a king symbolized Spartan resolve, even if he had only few men with him. By his presence, Leonidas might stiffen the spines of wavering Greek states. Besides, the three hundred Spartans were all full citizens, that is, elite soldiers, and therefore a scarce resource. In fact they made up about 4 percent of Sparta’s elite military manpower, no small amount. So they too represented Sparta’s grit and determination. And they could leverage success simply by bloodying Persia and slowing it down. A fight that caused casualties and delay would shake Persia’s resolve while giving the Greeks a taste of Persian tactics — invaluable knowledge for use in the next battle. On the minus side, Sparta and other Greek cities faced a big religious prohibition. Two major festivals — Sparta’s Carnea (dedicated to Apollo) and the all-Greek Olympic Games (in ancient times, a celebration of the gods) — took place the same time as the mustering of the Greek army. The cities therefore imposed strict limits on the dispatch of men to war. And that, said the Greeks, is why they could send only an advance force to Thermopylae. They promised that the main army would follow, after the festivals. It is tempting to consider this a mere excuse, but it might just be true. The fact is that war tends to make people more, not less, religious. But what of the idea, first attested in ancient times, that Thermopylae was planned as a suicide mission? This is probably a legend. Suicide missions were downright un-Spartan. Pragmatism and realism were the national character traits; every Spartan soldier was an elite warrior; no Spartan would voluntarily sacrifice three hundred such soldiers. A different picture emerges from the historian Herodotus, our best source on Thermopylae, who wrote approximately two generations after the battle. He reported that Leonidas handpicked his Spartans for the Thermopylae mission; they were ‘the 300 men assigned him by law and whose lot it was to have sons.’ Three hundred was the standard number of Spartans used for hazardous assignments, but just what ‘whose lot it was to have sons’ means is, frankly, unclear. In Sparta, men generally married around the age of thirty, so soldiers with sons were probably in their thirties or forties. Because the Olympic Games, and perhaps the Carnea too, especially involved youth, men with sons might possibly have been exempted from attending religious observances — which makes them the logical option for the mission. But the choice of men with sons for the Thermopylae operation might also reflect military psychology, a matter on which the Spartans set great store. Leonidas in particular made a point of using a shrewd eye to select soldiers. He insisted on choosing each of the four hundred men in Thebes’ contingent at Thermopylae, and he picked men of suspect loyalty, in order to test them. His selection of an all-fathers unit of Spartans might similarly have served a psychological purpose, in this case, unit motivation. The Greeks believed that men with sons were especially mature and reliable, hence they would make highly motivated soldiers. There is no reason to think, as some scholars do, that Leonidas chose an all-fathers unit because he wanted to make sure that each soldier had an heir at home — or that he did so knowing that Thermopylae would be a suicide mission. In fact, Leonidas wanted to avoid unnecessary risk. Herodotus reported that when the Greeks reached Thermopylae and realized the huge size of the enemy army, they had second thoughts about the operation. Indeed it was only the anger of the Phocians and Locrians that kept Leonidas from supporting a proposed withdrawal to the Isthmus of Corinth. He agreed to stay at Thermopylae, but he sent messengers southward to hurry the reinforcements. And so a Greek army sat at Thermopylae and a Greek navy sat at Artemisium, and they each waited for the barbarians. But the barbarians — as the Greeks sometimes called the Persians — were waiting in turn. For four days, Xerxes made no move against the enemy. No doubt he was hoping that the Greeks would retreat in fear. He had also discovered reasons to think twice before sending his men in to fight Spartans. A few months earlier, Demaratus, the exiled king of Sparta, had warned Xerxes about his former countrymen. They must have made an odd pair, the king of kings in his purple robes and gold jewelry and the austere Spartan, raised in a country whose citizens slept on straw pallets and allowed their sons only one cloak a year. Demaratus said that no matter how greatly they were outnumbered, the Spartans would fight. And the Spartans, he pointed out, were great warriors. They would obey the command of their law and fight to the death. Now, on the eve of battle at Thermopylae, Demaratus deciphered a strange report brought back from the Greek camp by a Persian spy on horseback. The spy had caught the Spartans outdoors drawn up in lines, outside the rebuilt wall at the Middle Gate, but they practiced maneuvers that left him baffled. While some of the Spartans exercised naked, others combed their hair. Xerxes too found this behavior odd, but Demaratus explained that the Spartans were in the habit of grooming their hair before risking their lives. What the scout had seen, therefore, was a deadly sign of Spartan ferocity. No wonder Xerxes held his men back for four days. Why fight a battle when the enemy might be scared into retreating? On the fifth day, however, Xerxes’ patience wore out. He sent his soldiers against the Greeks. On one side stood a Greek army spearheaded by Spartan soldiers. With his bronze helmet, breastplate, and greaves, each Spartan seemed to be sheathed in metal. There was bronze too in the plating of his shield, which was large, circular, and convex in shape. A crimson-colored, sleeveless wool tunic extended from his waist to mid-thigh. The braids of his long hair ran out from under his helmet, while a horsehair plume swayed above it. The long hair, a Spartan trademark, was meant to look fearsome. Each Spartan was barefoot, itself a symbol of toughness. He carried a short iron sword and a long pike. The latter, which was his main weapon, was an ash-wood spear, about nine feet long, with an iron head and a bronze butt spike. Arranged in close order in a phalanx, shields interlocking, the Spartans thrust at the enemy with their pikes. On the other side stood the Persian and Median infantrymen of Iran. By comparison with the Spartans, they looked as if they were dressed for the parade ground rather than the battlefield. Each Iranian wore a brightly colored, sleeved, knee-length tunic, under which an iron-scaled breastplate protected the torso, but he had neither helmet nor greaves. He wore a felt hat or a turban on his head, while his lower body was covered either by a long draped robe or by a pair of trousers. He wore gold jewelry, even into battle. His feet were protected by shoes. His shield was smaller than a Greek’s and made of wicker rather than of wood and bronze plating. The Persian spear was much shorter than the Greek pike, which put the Iranians at a disadvantage. Nor could the dagger carried by an Iranian outreach the Spartan sword. Unlike the Greek infantryman, the typical Iranian soldier carried a quiver full of cane arrows with bronze or iron points and a bow with its ends shaped like animal heads. Yet Persian arrows could do little damage against a wall of Greek shields or a rapid charge by bronze-covered infantrymen. No wonder that a Spartan at Thermopylae named Dieneces is said to have quipped that he did not mind if the Persians’ barrage of arrows was so thick that it blocked out the sun, since he preferred to fight in the shade. But equipment was only part of the story. Thermopylae was a triumph of Greek military science over Persian blundering. Leonidas chose his terrain wisely and his tactics logically. The battle opened with wave after wave of Persians attacking, but each broke on the long spears and the rugged training of the Greek infantrymen. The Persians’ best troops, the so-called Immortals, did no better than their less elite comrades when they were committed to the fight late in the first day. Spartan casualties were light, but Persian losses were huge. Xerxes had to concede that when it came to soldiers he had ‘many people but few men,’ or so Herodotus said. But kings do not give up illusions easily. Every Greek contingent took its turn in the line except the Phocians, who were posted on guard duty. But the Spartans stood out for their prowess. They had the only full-time army in Greece, and their training outpaced anything that the Great King’s men — or the other Greeks — had undergone. With the exception of the kings, every Spartan citizen was schooled in a rigid, military education called simply ‘the Upbringing.’ Only trained and hardened Spartans could have carried out the following maneuver at Thermopylae: turning and retreating in an orderly way and then, once they had tricked the Persians into charging them with a roar, changing course in an instantaneous wheel and crushing the enemy. For two days the slaughter continued. Then, on the third day, the Persians outflanked the Greeks by taking a trail over the mountains and around Thermopylae. The path led the Persians down to the sea to the east of the Greeks at the Middle Gate. As in past battles, Greek treason saved the Persians. At Thermopylae, the Greek traitor in question was a native of the region, Ephialtes son of Eurydemus of Trachis. In exchange for money, he guided Xerxes’ Immortals over a steep, narrow, and hard-to-follow mountain track. They set out in the evening, ‘around the lighting of the lamps,’ and traveled by night. Meanwhile, Xerxes and most of the Persian army remained at sea level, at the west end of the Thermopylae pass.As the Immortals approached the Greeks, a unit of one thousand Phocian infantrymen stationed on the ridge above Thermopylae heard them coming. By dawn’s first light it was calm and windless, and the sound carried of soldiers’ feet tramping on fallen leaves. As soon as the Persians realized that Greeks blocked their way, they worried over having stumbled into the much-feared Spartans. When the Persians learned that they were in luck, they drove the frightened Phocians off with a hail of arrows and continued downward toward Thermopylae. Meanwhile, the news came to the Greeks below, at the Middle Gate. The intelligence arrived in stages. First, in a pre-dawn sacrifice, the Greek seer Megistias of Acarnania made out impending death in the victim’s entrails. Then deserters, followed by lookouts, reached the Greek camp with solid news of the Persians’ movement. The Greek commanders met, debated, disagreed, and most of the men started to leave. Whether they were deserters or just soldiers doing their job is unclear. After the battle, some reports claimed that Leonidas himself dismissed most of the allied troops before the enemy could close off the far end of the pass; Herodotus was inclined to agree. In the end, about a thousand other Greeks remained with the Spartans, including the loyal Thespians and the untrustworthy Thebans (the latter virtually hostages). Leonidas’ strategy is unclear. Perhaps he planned to have his men guard the rear and then escape at the last moment. If so, the maneuver went wrong. Or perhaps the king had now decided to die — the interpretation that Herodotus strongly preferred, although he admitted that this was controversial. The historian said that Leonidas had three reasons to have the Spartans stay: a sense of propriety, a desire to fulfill a prophecy that only the death of a king could save Sparta, and a thirst for glory — a primitive wish out of the pages of Homer. Leonidas gave Megistias permission to leave, but the soothsayer stayed and instead sent away his son, who was his only child. At sunrise, back at the western end of the Thermopylae pass, Xerxes carried out libations. Yet he waited until mid-morning to order the advance, to ensure that the Immortals had enough time to come down from the mountains and into the eastern end of Thermopylae pass. At that point, any Greeks left at the Middle Gate would have been surrounded. And then the Persian attack came. Instead of fighting from behind the rebuilt defensive wall, this time the Greeks at the Middle Gate came out to close with the enemy. Battling fiercely, they inflicted heavy casualties on the Persians. It was a fight to the finish. The Greeks first battled with their spears, and when their spears were all broken they used their swords. When their swords were gone, they went after the Persians with hands and teeth. When Leonidas finally fell, the Greeks drove the enemy off four times before recovering his body. Nevertheless, prior to being at last overwhelmed by Persian spears and arrows, the Greeks killed two of Xerxes’ half-brothers, Abrocomes and Hyperanthes. Of the three hundred Spartans at Thermopylae, only two survived the battle: Pantites, who had been sent with a message to Thessaly, and Aristodamus, who was also a messenger or — in a different version — was one of two men excused for severe eye infections. The other man, Eurytus, is said to have gone into battle anyhow, led by his servant. Back in Sparta, Pantites is said to have hanged himself in disgrace, while Aristodamus overcame the nickname ‘Aristodamus the Coward’ by fighting to the death in a later battle. The seven hundred Thespians at Thermopylae died fighting with the Spartans. Dieneces was honored as the bravest Spartan, and Dithyrambus as the bravest Thespian. The Thebans suffered only shame. As soon as the tide turned against the Greeks, they headed for the Persians. The Thebans stretched their hands out in a gesture of submission, and they called out their friendship to the Persians. A few Thebans were killed before the Persians realized that they truly meant to surrender. Xerxes accepted the Thebans as allies, but he nevertheless had them branded on the forehead with the royal mark, beginning with their commander, Leontiades. It was a sign that they were now slaves. Xerxes’ men cleared the pass in the end, but the image of Leonidas’ head loomed over it. In the pitiless Greek light of high summer it was a reminder of Persian weakness. Since the Persians normally took pride in treating their enemies with respect, they would not have insulted the body of a fallen foe like Leonidas unless he had enraged them by the force of his resistance. Leonidas’ head was a reminder that the butcher’s bill for the three days of killing four thousand Greeks (the others escaped) was twenty thousand Persians. Any more such victories and the Persians were ruined. The naval battles at Artemisium, which took place around the same time as the land battles at Thermopylae, proved even costlier for Persia. A combination of Greek boldness and disastrous weather (the gods of the winds, it was said, favored Greece) reduced the Persian fleet by nearly half. The rump Persian navy of about 650 triremes still outnumbered the Greeks, who could not muster more than about 350 triremes. But the Greeks had the advantages of home water, short supply lines, and maritime expertise. At Thermopylae, Xerxes had stayed close enough to the fighting to inspire the men but far enough away to limit his danger. Surrounded by royal guards, he sat on a high-backed throne, where he is said to have jumped to his feet three times in horror at the mauling inflicted on his troops. Not that Xerxes’ position was risk free. The Greeks claimed afterward to have sent raiders into the Persian camp at night who penetrated even the royal tent before they were repelled. The story is so improbable that it might be true. In any case, it highlights the risks that real leaders take. After the Battle of Thermopylae, a chastened Xerxes summoned Demaratus again. The Spartan had correctly predicted Sparta’s tough stand, so Xerxes asked Demaratus for information and advice. How many more Spartans were there? And how might Persia defeat them? Demaratus might have been thrilled at these questions because they opened the door for revenge on the Spartan homeland that had exiled him. He told Xerxes that Sparta had eight thousand soldiers, all as good as the men who had fought at Thermopylae. In order to beat them, he advised the Great King to change his strategy. Xerxes should force the Greeks to divide their armies by sending a seaborne force to attack Sparta’s home territory and thereby compel the Spartan army to return home. This force would be carried by half the Persian fleet; the rest of the fleet would stay with the bulk of the Persian army in central Greece. These main Persian forces could defeat the rest of the Greeks. It was a bold plan, but a bad one because it would have allowed the outnumbered Greeks to even the odds and attack a divided Persian fleet at will and in two stages. After furious debate, the plan was rejected. This was a key moment in the war. Like most military decisions, the choice was made not on military grounds alone but in the heat and dust of the political arena. One Spartan king had died trying to stop Persia’s march southward and another had put his life on the line in an endeavor to deflect it. Leonidas would be remembered as a Greek hero, Demaratus as a traitor, but neither won any more success in keeping Xerxes from his determined course. Whether it was the will of the gods or the stubbornness of the Great King, the Persians would not be denied their appointment in Athens. One day after his men had finally broken through at Thermopylae and Artemisium, Xerxes gave the order. The mighty force began to march, sail, and row its way south. All eyes now turned toward Athens. But they never quite lost their focus on Thermopylae. In the coming months of drudgery and blood, the sacrifices of the Greeks at the Middle Gate no doubt buoyed up the national spirit. Within less than a year, in great victories at sea at Salamis and on land at Plataea, the Greeks smashed the forces of the invader and drove out the surviving Persians. Afterward, memorials were set up at Thermopylae for the dead, none with an epigram more memorable than this, in John Dryden’s translation: Go tell the Spartans, thou who passeth by, That here, obedient to her laws, we lie. Barry Strauss is an MHQ contributing editor and the author or editor of numerous books on classical history. This article is adapted from his latest book, The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece — and Western Civilization (Simon & Schuster, 2004), © 2004 by Barry S. Strauss. This article was originally published in the Fall 2004 edition of MHQ. For more great articles, subscribe to MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History today!

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Autonomous Administrative Territory |Anthem: ᡩᡡᠯ᠊ᡷᡠ ᡠᠯ᠊ᡧᡳ᠊ᠨ ᡨ᠋᠊ᡠᡡ᠊ᠨ ᡠᠯᡠᠠᠠ᠊ᠯ| Dūlju Ulšin turuun Uluaal |■ – Duljun ■ – Xiaodong| ■ – Duljun ■ – Xiaodong |Status||Autonomous Administrative Territory| |Annexation into Heavenly Xiaodongese Empire||1875-1880| |Devolution||24 August 2002| and largest city |Prefectures||Wuxintai, Tongguan, Qingbei, Shihebao| |• Type||Devolved government in a parliamentary republic| |• Body||Regional Presidium of Duljun| |• Secretary of State||Heseri Borsut| |• Governor of Duljun||Longkodo Ukudenggi| |• Total||$8,375 million| |• Per capita||$578| |• Total||$14,715 million| |• Per capita||$1,016| |Official languages||Duljunese, Xiaodongese| Duljun (Duljunese: ᡩᡡᠯ᠊ᡷᡠ, Dūlju; Xiaodongese: 山国, Shānguó) officially the Autonomous Administrative Territory of Duljun (Duljunese: Dūlju Tuoigu K'igaani būi nujguu; Xiaodongese: 专项自治区域山国, Zhuānxiàng zìzhì qūyù Shānguó) is a devolved autonomous administrative territory in Xiaodong. Consisting of the four prefecture of Wuxintai, Tongguan, Qingbei and Shihebao, Duljun has historically been home to the Duljunese people, a distinct Tungusic people distinct from ethnic Xiaodongese. The regional capital of Duljun and its largest city is Henjintao. Tungusic people first settled in Duljun during the Great Monic Migration. Over time the Tungusic people were displaced from most parts of the modern territory of Xiaodong by proto-Xiaodongese people, being driven westward into the Huashan mountain range, in the territory that today makes up Duljun. These Tungusic people would unlike the people of Xiaodong remained primarily nomadic, divided between clans and forming at best loose tribal confederations. The expansion of the Xiang dynasty absorbed many of these peoples into the Xiang Emperor's sphere of influence, although authority over the area always remained shaky at best. The collapse of the Xiang dynasty meant control over the region passed once again to tribal confederations, remaining as such until the 1600's. During that time numerous wars were fought between Xiaodongese dynasties and Duljunese clans. During the 1600's the Orochu clan conquered several other clans and created the Kingdom of Duljun, the first unified Duljunese state although in practice it remained a confederation of clans. The Duljunese Kingdom nevertheless saw the creation of the Duljunese alphabet and a more uniform culture. Between 1875-1880 the Heavenly Xiaodongese Empire annexed Duljun into its territory in the Xiaodongese invasion of Duljun, defining the modern day borders of Xiaodong. Under Xiaodongese rule, especially during the reign of the Shanrong Emperor Duljunese culture was attacked and its people persecuted. The military failures of Xiaodong in the Senrian-Xiaodongese War between 1927-1934 led to the Mountain War between 1933-1936 that saw Duljun become independent from Xiaodong becoming the Duljunese Socialist Republic. However during the Great Borean War it was partitioned between Xiaodong and Tinza where its people suppressed by Xiaodong. Following democratisation in the 1980's Duljunese nationalism became a more prominent force, with devolution being carried out in 1988. However the Xiaodongese government cancelled the results of an election pro-separatist forces won, leading to the start of the Duljunese War which ended in 1997 when an agreement was reached to give Duljun devolved status which happened in 2002. Since than Duljun has been ruled as an autonomous region within Xiaodong. Duljun is the poorest region in Duljun, with poverty and inequality being the highest in Xiaodong. Its economy is driven by coal mining, cotton and livestock farming. Home to 95% of Xiaodong's Duljunese population, with 54% of the province being ethnically Duljunese and 44% ethnic Xiaodongese. Around 20% of its population is still nomadic. It is ruled by a devolved government that has powers over environment, public services, transport, agriculture, housing, aspects of law and order and economic development. - 1 Etymology - 2 History - 3 Government and Politics - 4 Geography - 5 Economy - 6 Demographics - 7 Culture Duljun has been inhabited for over a million years, with homo erectus remains found around the Dunguuyi river. The first human inhabitants are thought to have settled in the region around the 5th millennium BCE, although not much is known about these people. The descendants of the Duljunese people came to the region during the Great Monic Migration where the first Tungusic languages started to developed. These early tribes were nomadic and populated much of modern day Xiaodong. These tribes developed a society based on clans, whilst horses played a vital role in hunting and later warfare amongst clans. Over the next millennium Tungusic tribes were displaced from most of the coastal regions by Xiaodongese speaking people's, driven into the mostly inhospitable Huashan mountain range. It was during this time that the Tungusic tribes began to adopt a more uniform culture with clans becoming much larger. Much of modern day Duljun was annexed by the Xiang dynasty around 0 CE by the Tianjiao Emperor. The Xiang dynasty referred to the newly conquered territory as "Xinbianjing" (新边境; Xīnbiānjìng) or "New Frontier", although control of the region was patchy at best. Tax collection especially was inadequate, and the frontier regions became notorious for their banditry and general lawlessness. Around 440CE the Jiangqing Emperor declared the territory would be rooted out of banditry, with protracted fighting fought in the region up until the demise of the Xiang dynasty. Following the collapse of the Xiang dynasty in 500CE Duljun became once again dominated by nomadic tribes. These tribes coalesced into large clans that often struck alliances with each other to fight another clan, and vice-versa. These clan confederations would often break up or devolved into infighting relatively quickly. During this period, conflict with various Xiaodongese dynasties was common, with Xiaodong periodically expanding into Duljun. According to Xiaodongese sources, Duljun was crucial in Borean trade routes with traders often passing through the city of Henjintao, but ran the risk of encountering bandits. During the Tao dynasty there was extensive trade between Duljunese clans and the dynasty, especially in the silk and cotton trade. The region was also known for being a source for Xiaodongese slaves and mercenary fighters, with Duljunese horseback warriors being revered Xiaodong as naturally more powerful. During this time the region started to become known as "Duljun" amongst its peoples, and "Shanguo" in Xiaodongese. Around the 1640's the Orochu clan through inter-marriages with other tribes, control of trade routes and military prowess had become the largest clan within Duljun. As such, under its patriarch Noborit Orochu the Orochu launched a series of conquests and alliances that gradually saw the unification of Duljun under the Orochu. Noborit crowned himself as King of Duljun, creating the first unified Duljunese state. The new kingdom was more of a tribal confederation than a true centralised state like its Xiaodongese counterpart, with the King being chosen by a clan council and clans retaining autonomy over their territory. During the 1600's a unified Duljunese culture gave rise to the Duljunese scrip and a form of Buddhism became dominant amongst elites, although the majority of the population pracited forms of shamanism. In the 1700's, the neighbouring Jiao dynasty attempted to conquer Duljun and annex it into Xiaodong. A short war ensured which saw Duljun successfully beat back Xiaodongese forces, thus preserving the independence of Duljun. However, in 1863 the death of the King Gulbajin sparked a crisis as two rival clans back different princes to succeed him. Although the war was short it saw unprecedented violence on both sides, being only resolved in 1868 when Sukabyt was crowned King. The same year Sukabyt consolidated his power as King the Baiqiao Revolution broke out in neighbouring Xiaodong, creating the Heavenly Xiaodongese Empire which claimed sovereignty over the land ruled by the Xiang dynasty, including Duljun. As a result Sukabyt begun belated modernisation efforts, abolishing the clan holdings and creating a centralised state and a unified army. However Sukabyt's modernisation policy faced heavy resistance from clans, leading to domestic instability and peasant revolts. In 1875 the Heavenly Xiaodongese Empire began to invade Duljun, allying with local clans opposed to Sukabyt's rule starting the Xiaodongese invasion of Duljun. The archaic and disorganised irregular Duljunese forces were quickly defeated by the more modern, disciplined Heavenly Xiaodongese Army which took the capital of Duljun Henjintao in 1878. King Sukabyt however would continue to lead Duljunese irregular forces loyal to him until 1880 when he was captured by Xiaodongese authorities, thus completing the annexation of Duljun into Xiaodong. Under the Xiaodongese Heavenly Empire Duljun was fully incorporated into Xiaodong proper, unlike other areas in the Xiaodongese sphere of influence such as Tinzhan. The Duljunese language was abolished for official purposes whilst Xiaodongese aristocrats ran the new civil service in Duljun. Government and Politics Duljun is a devolved autonomous administrative territory within the Auspicious Republic of Xiaodong. Xiaodong is an unitary state, with its main administrative divisions, prefectures, having limited authority - however since 2002 Duljun has been given a large amount of autonomy within Xiaodong. The Duljun AAT is technically four prefectures (Wuxintai, Tongguan, Qingbei and Shihebao) that are under the control of the Executive Council of Duljun, a body that reports directly to the Minister of State for Duljun, who is a member of the Council of Ministers. The Executive Council is the government of the Duljun AAT, and functions as a parliamentary republic with a governor leading the Executive Council and being responsible to the Regional Presidium. Like in the rest of Xiaodong, public officials must be approved by the Examination Secretariat to either hold public office or serve in the civil service. Since 2002 Duljunese politics have been dominated by the Motherland Party, a Xiaodongese nationalist party that officially is affiliated with the Xiaodong Regeneration Society. The current Governor of Duljun is Longkodo Ukudenggi who has served as Governor since the creation of the AAT in 2002. Duljun is governed as a parliamentary republic with the executive government of Duljun known as the Executive Council. The Executive Council is chaired by the Governor of Duljun. The Executive Council is both responsible to the central Xiaodongese government via the Secretary of State yet must also command the confidence of the Regional Presidium of Duljun - however, the Minister of State has the sole right to appoint the Governor. If the Regional Presidium rejects the Minister of State's choice for the Governor of Duljun the Secretary of State has the right to dissolve the Regional Presidium and impose direct rule over the region, effectively suspending the regional government - this happened between 1988-2002 after the Xiaodongese government refused to accept the pro-independence Duljunese People's Liberation Front forming a government in Duljun. The Minister of State is a member of the Xiaodongese Council of Ministers. The Governor of Duljun officially appoints the members of the Executive Council and acts as the leader of Duljun, and has the ability to override the Regional Presidium if he has the consent of the Xiaodongese government. The Executive Council has devolved powers over environmental policies, local public services and transport provisions, agricultural policy, housing, aspects of law and order, local government taxation, local infrastructure and economic development. Motherland Party: 45 seats Independents: 2 seats Duljun has a unicameral legislature known as the Regional Presidium of Duljun. The Regional Presidium has 70 members elected either in four five-member electoral districts corresponding with prefectual boundaries in a single-non transferable vote or 50 single-member electoral districts that use a first-past-the-post voting system every four years, although either the Duljunese Executive Council or the Xiaodongese Council of Ministers can choose to dissolve it at any time. Unlike in the rest of Xiaodong, where an election is declared invalid if it fails to produce a 50% turnout, Duljunese elections have no such restrictions - as such the average turnout in Duljun is closer to 40%. The Duljunese Regional Presidium officially nominates and appoints a Governor as well as propose, draft, amend, pass and repeal legalisation that fulls within the authority of the Duljunese government. A majority of votes (36) is needed to pass legalisation, whilst a supermajority (47) is needed to petition to the Xiaodongese government to amend the constitutional status of Duljun, subject to a vote in the State Presidium of Xiaodong. The Regional Presidium is chaired by a Speaker and contains an official opposition, made up of the largest opposition party or coalition. Currently the national conservative Motherland Party holds 45 seats in the Regional Presidium, with the Duljunese nationalist Duljunese Democratic Party holding 17 seats, People's Party 5 seats and 2 held by indepedents. The last seat was held by a member of the New Frontier Party before the organisation was banned as part of the Normalisation process. Elections are scheduled to be held in June 20018. |#||Prefecture (省)||Xiaodongese name||Duljunese name||Administrative centre||Xiaodongese name||Duljunese name||Population| Ethnically Duljun is dominated by the native Duljunese people with 4,598,711 people (or 54.28% of the Duljunese population) identifying as such at the last census. As such Duljun is home to 95.3% of the total Duljunese population in Xiaodong. The Duljunese people are a Tungusic people who are often seen to live as semi-nomadic herders. However there are regional differences with most southern Duljunese tribes having traditionally been sedentary agricultural people although it is accepted that northern tribes are primarily nomadic. In 1957, a study done by the College of Henjintao found around 46% of the Duljunese people lived nomadic lifestyles and a more recent study done in 2003 found this number had declined to around 19-23%. Around 31.3% of people in Duljun (3,729,493) identify as ethnic Xiaodongese. Xiaodongese people since the days of the Xiang dynasty have inhabited Duljun and have always led sedentary agricultural lifestyles. However it was under the Heavenly Xiaodongese Empire that the "Xiaodongeseisation" of Duljun began as the government encouraged large scale immigration to Duljun by Xiaodongese farmers' and workers', primarily during periods of economic depression in the 1890's and the 1910's. It was only during the 1960's up until the 1980's that the Xiaodongese government however began to encourage much larger scale emigration of Xiaodongese to Duljun. There has been controversy over ethnic issues in Duljun. During the 1920's the Xiaodongese government supported a policy of genocide in Duljun deporting and murdering Duljunese people, and since the 1960's have pushed through several policies that some Duljunese people accuse of constituting an ethnic cleansing. The Xiaodongese government has consistently denied pursuing a policy of ethnic cleansing although they refuse to institute policies such as positive discrimination that are demanded by many Duljunese civil rights activists. Healthcare is a devolved matter in Duljun. Healthcare was a state monopoly in Duljun until 2007 when to reduce spending the healthcare system was privatised to resemble the rest of Xiaodong, where private hospitals are the norm. The Duljunese government subsequently have created a voluntary insurance system where people sign up to government insurance that subsidises a portion of healthcare costs depending on income. The Duljunese government spends some the highest healthcare costs per capita in Xiaodong due to the average income in Duljun being a lot smaller than the rest of Xiaodong. However Duljun is also the region with the largest amount of people uninsured in Xiaodong with over 30% not possessing any form of health insurance. Most people uninsured are nomads. Duljun is the only region in Xiaodong to have two official languages - Duljunese and Xiaodongese. Prior to 2002 Xiaodongese was the only official language and prior to 1993 Duljunese was banned in schools and from being publicly broadcasted. Plans for a policy of official bilingualism in public administration was announced in 2005 but as of 2017 has not yet been implemented. The native language of over 65% of people is Duljunese, a Tungusic language that is agglutinative. It uses a unique script that is vertically from top to bottom, with columns proceeding from left to right. During the 1960's the Duljunese script was banned alongside the language with the ban only being repealed in the 1990's. Nevertheless the language has always sustained itself and has since the late 1990's undergone a revival. The other major language in Duljun is Xiaodongese, being the sole legal language in the region from 1968-1992. Since then its use has declined although it is still widely spoken in the region with over 70% of people in Duljun being bilingual in Duljunese and Xiaodongese. Duljunese society, especially that in rural areas, it still very much defined by Hiro's, large clans that contain several families. The largest clans include the Akjanul, Tsanggiya, Urhugeci and Ikulha with there being many smaller clans. Hiro's are strong kin groups - in rural areas especially. Clans often have unique rituals and distinct lifestyles - the Tsanggiya clan for example still puts great emphasis on equestrianism whilst males in the Akjanul clan traditionally wear the queue haircut. Traditionally intermarriages between the clans was rare. The growth of urbanisation and the development of an industrial society alongside active attacks on clan lifestyles has led to a decline in the traditionally insular clan lifestyles, especially in urban areas. Duljunese nationalism has also served for many Duljunese to abandon clan ties and instead promote a unified Duljunese identity. However, in more isolated and rural areas clan life is still prominent in Duljun especially amongst those who still follow nomadic lifestyles.

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Most people don't have to travel too far to find some kind of dinosaur exhibit. In addition to touring shows like "Walking with the Dinosaurs," there are museums with dinosaur displays all over the world. But if you want to get a really good look at a dinosaur, you may not have to travel at all. Simply look at any bird you can see outside your home. The prevailing scientific view is that whether you're seeing a hummingbird, a robin, a flamingo or an ostrich, you're seeing a descendant of dinosaurs. In fact, some scientists go so far as to call birds avian dinosaurs and to call all other dinosaurs non-avian dinosaurs. The thought that a giant carnivore like Tyrannosaurus rex has something in common with an ordinary wren might seem foreign or even far-fetched. This is especially true since people often describe dinosaurs as reptiles. But the idea that dinosaurs became birds has been around for more than 100 years. In 1868, Thomas Henry Huxley described evidence that birds evolved from dinosaurs. This is currently the most widely-held scientific theory about the origin of birds, and it's helped shape today's view of dinosaurs as swift and agile instead of plodding and clumsy. All of these ideas come from the same source as everything we know -- and don't know -- about dinosaurs. To learn about dinosaurs, researchers have to study physical clues and put these clues into the context of current scientific knowledge. This can be a tricky process. There were no humans on Earth when dinosaurs lived, so there are no written records or illustrations of exactly how they behaved or what they looked like. All we have are bone and egg fossils, collections of footprints called trackways, and our knowledge of living animals. This evidence has given scientists lots of material to study, but there are still plenty of unanswered questions about dinosaurs. One of the biggest is whether dinosaurs were more like reptiles or birds. In this article, we'll use this question as our framework for understanding dinosaurs. We'll examine common beliefs about how dinosaurs lived, moved and reproduced. We'll start with the basics -- what makes a dinosaur a dinosaur and why many of the most well-known prehistoric reptiles aren't dinosaurs at all. Dinosaurs were a group of land animals that lived from about 230 million years ago until about 60 million years ago. This spans the era of the Earth's history known as the Mesozoic era, which includes, from most ancient to most recent, the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Dinosaurs grew in population and diversity during their time on Earth before becoming extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period. No one knows exactly how many types of dinosaurs inhabited the planet. There are currently about 700 named species, but this probably represents a fraction of the dinosaurs that ever existed. Dinosaurs ranged in size from immense to tiny, and they came in a range of shapes. Today's dinosaur classifications come from these differences in shape and size. Carnivorous dinosaurs were all theropods, bipedal animals with three-toed feet. Carnosaurs were a small, agile type of theropod. One of the most widely-known carnosaurs was Velociraptor, which is considerably smaller than depicted in the "Jurassic Park" films. Sauropods, on the other hand, were enormous, four-legged herbivores like Brachiosaurus, Apatosaurus and Diplodocus. Dinosaurs with armored bodies and spiny tails were ankylosaurs. Ceratopians -- like Triceratops -- had frills and horns on their heads. But not every reptile that lived during the Mesozoic era was a dinosaur. In fact, a lot of extinct animals that people think of as dinosaurs aren't classified as dinosaurs. This is because they don't share one or more of dinosaurs' basic traits: - Dinosaurs were animals with four limbs, although not all walked on all four legs. - Although they may have ventured into the water, they were terrestrial, or land-dwelling, animals. - Their muscles and bones had several specific features. For example, all dinosaurs had cheek muscles that extended from their jaws to the tops of their skulls. - Their hip girdles comprised three bones -- the ilium, ischium and pubis. These bones fit together in one of two configurations: ornithischian (bird-hipped) or saurischian (lizard-hipped). - They had an upright gait. Dinosaurs held their bodies over their legs like rhinoceroses do rather than using the sprawling gait that crocodiles do. These traits keep some well-known prehistoric animals from being considered dinosaurs: - Plesiosaurs were aquatic creatures with long bodies and flipper-like fins. - Another aquatic reptile group, ichthyosaurs, had a more dolphin-like body structure. - Pterosaurs, like Pteranodon and the Pterodactyl subgroup, were flying reptiles. - Synapsids had an opening behind their eye socket that also occurs in mammals. One of the most well-known synapsids is Dimetrodon, a lizard-like animal with a large sail on its back. So because of their bone structure, habitat or other traits, these animals weren't technically dinosaurs. But they did leave behind same evidence that dinosaurs did -- fossils. Next, we'll look at what fossils can and can't tell us about dinosaurs' physical appearance. Skin and Bones: Dinosaur Appearance When sediment covers an animal's body shortly after death, its bones can fossilize. Soft tissues, like skin, muscles and other organs, decompose. Minerals from the soil make their way into the bone, turning it to stone. This doesn't happen very often, so there are gaps in the fossil record -- periods of time when conditions weren't right for fossilization. Researchers remove fossils from sedimentary rock using a range of tools, from picks to paintbrushes, and lots of patience. It's easy to damage fossils during excavation, and the presence of lots of fossils in the same bed can make it hard to decide which bone belonged to which animal. After excavating a fossil, researchers typically encase it in plaster and ship it to a research facility. There, scientists can make casts, or reproductions, of the bones and try to recreate the complete skeleton. Scientists can learn a lot from this process: - The way the bones fit together gives a basic idea of the dinosaur's shape and posture. - Flat, leaf-shaped teeth mean that the dinosaur ate plants. Sharp, pointed teeth suggest that it ate meat. - The proportions of the leg bones relate to how fast the dinosaur could run. - Cavities in the skull suggest how well it could see and hear. - Bumps called quill barbs on the bones mean the dinosaur had feathers -- some Velociraptor specimens have these barbs. Technology plays a part, too. Computer simulations help determine how fast a dinosaur could move and how it used its limbs. Researchers can also use computer models to reconstruct the dinosaur digitally, adding virtual layers of muscles, tissue and skin to a 3-D image of the skeleton. With computerized axial tomography (CAT) or CT scans, scientists can also get a detailed view of inaccessible parts of skulls and other bones. The surrounding rock can offer its own clues. There can be impressions from leaves or feathers, fossil eggs or the remains of nests. Impressions from the dinosaur's skin can give paleontologists an idea of its texture. But none of this can answer a basic question about dinosaurs' appearance -- what color were they? In everything from movies to play sets, dinosaurs appear in shades of gray, brown and green. But it's just as likely that dinosaurs had the bright coloring of some frogs, snakes and birds. It can also be challenging to figure out whether a dinosaur had scales or feathers. The absence of quill barbs doesn't prove that an animal was featherless, and feathers themselves decompose long before bone turns to fossil. However, newly-discovered fossils in China have feather impressions in the surrounding rocks. All this evidence suggests that, in terms of appearance, dinosaurs had some avian traits and some reptilian traits. Next, we'll explore how dinosaurs regulated their body temperature and whether this makes them more like birds or reptiles. In Cold (or Warm) Blood: Dinosaur Physiology While teeth and bones can offer clues about what dinosaurs ate and how they moved, there are a lot of details we don't know about their physiology. One large question, which encompasses several smaller questions, is whether dinosaurs were warm-blooded, like birds and mammals, or cold-blooded, like reptiles. These aren't scientific terms, and they don't have anything to do with the actual temperature of an animal's blood. Instead, they're descriptions of how an animal uses energy and regulates its body temperature. A warm-blooded animal controls its own body temperature with techniques like sweating and burning stored nutrients. They're endotherms -- their heat comes from within. These animals burn energy quickly, or have a relatively high metabolism. They also maintain a relatively consistent temperature, or are homeothermic. Cold-blooded animals, on the other hand, are ectothermic, meaning they use their environment to regulate their temperature. Many reptiles, for example, raise their temperature by resting in the sun or on warm surfaces. Cold-blooded animals tend to have a relatively low metabolism. They're also poikilothermic -- their internal temperatures vary depending on their environment and activity. So, are dinosaurs homeothermic endotherms, or are they poikilothermic ectotherms? Scientific opinion has shifted through the years. In the late 1800s, when scientists began theorizing that dinosaurs evolved into birds, people thought dinosaurs must be warm-blooded like their avian relatives. But beginning in the 1920s, people began to view dinosaurs as reptiles -- and obsolete reptiles at that. The reasons behind this change are murky, and they may have been influenced by public opinion. But the idea that dinosaurs were cold-blooded, slow and not very smart began to overshadow the idea that they were intelligent, swift and agile like birds. Today, the idea that dinosaurs evolved into birds is back in the scientific forefront -- but there's still ongoing debate about their metabolism. Here's a run-down of some common arguments: Dinosaurs are endothermic: - Birds evolved from dinosaurs, so they must have inherited their warm-blooded nature from dinosaurs. - Relative to their bodies, dinosaurs' limbs are arranged like mammals' limbs, and mammals are warm-blooded. Computer models suggest that dinosaurs could move very quickly, and, in general, the faster an animal moves, the faster its metabolism tends to be. A CT scan on preserved tissue from a dinosaur skeleton found in South Dakota appeared to reveal that the dinosaur's heart had four chambers, like a bird or mammal, rather than three chambers, like a reptile [source: Fisher]. Dinosaurs are ectothermic: - Extremely large dinosaurs could maintain a constant body temperature through inertia, so they wouldn't need internal body processes to regulate temperature. - The climate during most of the time that dinosaurs existed was warmer than it is today, making endothermic ability unnecessary. - Dinosaurs don't seem have structures called respiratory turbinates, which are common in endothermic mammals. Since no one can study dinosaurs in the wild, it's unlikely that scientists will find conclusive proof any time soon. Next, we'll look into how the bird-versus-mammal question also applies to dinosaurs' reproduction and parenting. Like Birds on Nests: Dinosaur Reproduction When scientists study dinosaurs, they make inferences, or draw logical conclusions, based on physical evidence and the way other life forms behave. One inference is that dinosaurs reproduced sexually and laid eggs. This is logical for several reasons: - Birds and reptiles, dinosaurs' nearest relatives, reproduce sexually. - Birds and reptiles also lay eggs. - N.C. State University researcher Mary Schweitzer discovered medullary bone in the leg of a Tyrannosaurus rex. This is a type of bone that birds use to store extra calcium for egg production [source: Fields]. - Researchers have found fossilized eggs in locations around the world, and some have dinosaur embryos inside. These eggs seem to be a little different from both reptile and bird eggs, and they have surface patterns that don't appear on any modern eggs. Matching an egg with its parent is difficult. Researchers have to open lots of eggs to find just one embryo. On top of that, large dinosaurs changed dramatically between hatching from eggs and becoming full grown, so even a perfect embryo doesn't guarantee a match. Also, paleontologists have discovered far fewer distinct eggs than species of dinosaurs, so it's possible, though relatively unlikely, that some dinosaurs gave birth to live young. But even if an egg's species is unknown, it can still provide insight into how dinosaurs lived. First, like both birds and reptiles, dinosaurs built nests. While some fossil nests are haphazard piles of eggs surrounded by soil and debris, others hold intricately arranged patterns of eggs. Some excavations have revealed sites with multiple layers of eggs and nests. In some species, dinosaur parents tended their nests carefully and returned to a common nesting ground year after year. The nests themselves give researchers an idea of how the eggs developed and matured. Some nests are shaped much like birds' nests and are higher than the surrounding soil. This suggests that some dinosaurs warmed their eggs just like birds do, by placing their abdomens over the eggs. While this may sound absurd, researchers have found dinosaur skeletons positioned over their eggs. But not every species did this -- others buried and abandoned their nests or, like reptiles, kept eggs warm by covering them with their throat or thorax. So far, it has been difficult for scientists to determine whether dinosaurs emerged from their eggs ready to fend for themselves, like reptiles, or required extensive parental care, like birds. A six-year study of 80-million-year-old egg fossils at the University of Leicester determined that at least some species were self-sufficient when they hatched [source: Science]. But fully-developed embryos from other species were too small or awkward to survive without help. Researchers have even found adult dinosaur skeletons surrounded by the skeletons of their offspring [source: Trinity-Stevens]. There's also a lot to be learned about dinosaur reproduction. No one is sure whether dinosaurs exhibited mating rituals or competed for mates. However, some species appear to be sexually dimorphic -- they have different qualities between the sexes. For example, in a ceratopsian species, males might have a bony neck frill that's shaped differently than females' frills. Dinosaurs clearly had little trouble reproducing, though -- they dominated the landscape for more than 100 million years. Humans, on the other hand, have existed for far less than one million years. But in spite of their prevalence, dinosaurs became extinct about 60 million years ago. Next, we'll look at the theories behind why this happened. Waiting for Impact: Dinosaur Extinction Dinosaurs became extinct at the K-T boundary -- the dividing line between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. The end of the Cretaceous marks the end of the dinosaurs, while the beginning of the Tertiary marks the rise of mammal life on Earth. Dinosaurs aren't the only things that died out at the K-T boundary. About 50 percent of the species on Earth became extinct. This included many other large reptiles, like pterosaurs and plesiosarus, as well as lots of plant species and marine animals. Other life forms, such as ferns, flourished by taking advantage of the sudden abundance of natural resources. Scientists have proposed a number of theories about exactly what happened at the K-T boundary. There's not much physical evidence for some of them. For example, one theory is that dinosaurs were allergic to flower pollen -- flowering plants and bees evolved together during the late Cretaceous period. However, flowering plants existed for millions of years before the dinosaurs died out. Another theory is that mammals, which began to proliferate at the end of the Cretaceous period, ate dinosaurs' eggs. But considering the number of whole fossil egg specimens, this seems somewhat unlikely. Then there's the Alvarez hypothesis. In 1980, Luis and Walter Alvarez proposed that comets or asteroids had hit the Earth, causing massive shock waves, debris clouds and other devastation. There's a lot of evidence to support this hypothesis. One is a layer of a mineral called iridium, which exists in many locations on the planet at depths equated with the end of the Cretaceous period. Iridium is more common in space debris than on Earth, so the huge impact of an object from space could have caused this effect. Perhaps the biggest support for this hypothesis is the Chicxulub crater. This is a massive asteroid crater off the coast of the Yucatan peninsula. Based on measurements of sediments and analysis of the surrounding rock, scientists estimate that the asteroid that caused the crater was between 145 and 180 kilometers in diameter. This would have caused exactly the kind of devastation described in the Alvarez hypothesis. A team of three researchers even believes to have discovered the identity of the asteroid itself. Using mathematical models, the group narrowed the field to the Baptistina cluster, a group of asteroids created by a large impact beyond the orbit of Mars [source: Sky & Telescope]. According to the Alvarez theory, the extinction of the dinosaurs was extrinsic -- it came from outside of the Earth -- and catastrophic. However, other theories suggest that the mass extinction was intrinsic and gradual. One idea is that volcanoes in what is now India experienced massive eruptions just before the end of the Cretaceous. These eruptions filled the air with carbon dioxide and sulfur, changing the climate and damaging plant and animal life. The changing face of the planet may have also played a role. As the continents moved, ocean currents would have changed the weather patterns in different parts of the world. Various forms of life may have been unable to survive these changes. The best explanation for what happened to the dinosaurs may be a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic theories -- an asteroid impact combined with geological changes and volcanic eruptions. There are also indications that dinosaurs were becoming less diverse before the end of the Cretaceous period. But regardless of the cause, not everything on Earth died at the K-T boundary. Frogs, mollusks and crocodilians survived, and so did birds. Now, we'll take a look at the links between dinosaurs and birds. Taking Wing: Birds and Living Dinosaurs If you have a stubborn, obsolete printer in your home or office, you might refer to it as a dinosaur. You might say the same thing about a politician whose views you consider out-of-date. Or, if you think the latest innovation is doomed to failure, you might say it's going to go the way of the dinosaur. These figures of speech come from the idea that dinosaurs are a species that died out because they couldn't keep up. They were too big, too slow, too heavy and too old to make it to modern times. But many scientists don't see it that way at all. Instead of becoming obsolete, dinosaurs evolved into birds, which are extremely sophisticated. Not only did they become a type of animal that still exists today, they also developed a skill that very few life forms on Earth have. Only pterosaurs, insects, bats and birds can fly. Physical evidence supports the theory that dinosaurs evolved into birds. The first thing to keep in mind is that the theory doesn't apply to every species of dinosaur, or even every subgroup of dinosaur. The dinosaurs that evolved into birds are theropods -- the three-toed dinosaurs that include Tyrannosaurus rex and Velociraptor. Ironically, these are members of the saurischian, or lizard-hipped, subgroup, rather than the ornithischian, or bird-hipped group. Several theropod species have physical features in common with birds. These shared traits are called synapomorphies, and they include: - Wishbones, which are fused collarbones - Hollow bones - Similar hip structures Today's birds also have fused finger bones at the tips of their wings, which corresponds to the claws at the end of dinosaurs' front limbs. We've discussed other similarities already, including feathers and the act of incubating eggs by sitting on a nest. Scientists have even discovered a fossilized skeleton in which the dinosaur's head is tucked under its wing, the same way a duck sleeps [source: Roach]. Of course, this isn't the only explanation for what happened to dinosaurs or for where birds came from. Opponents of the theory of evolution argue that there's no physical evidence for the transition from dinosaur to bird. Dissenting scientists contend that dinosaurs have far more in common with reptiles and are represented instead in today's reptile species, including crocodiles. Supporters of the dinosaur-to-bird theory reply that Archaeopteryx lithographica, generally regarded as the oldest known bird, partially fills the role of the missing link. Although Archaeopteryx was a bird, it also had lizard-like features, like teeth and a bony tail. Additionally, recent discoveries of feathered fossils in China may yield more evidence that birds and dinosaurs are related. In terms of this theory, more than 10,000 dinosaur species live today. But just as fascinating as the idea that some dinosaurs survived past the K-T boundary is the thought that scientists could create new dinosaurs. Let's take a look at how this idea, and the idea that people might interact with dinosaurs, has appeared in the media. Cretaceous Park: Dinosaur Movies and Myths Stories about dinosaurs have existed for as long as people have been aware of the existence of trackways and fossils. Some researchers suggest that legends of behemoths and dragons come from the discovery of dinosaur bones and footprints [source: Sanz]. There are also cave paintings that appear to depict bipedal dinosaurs. One team of anthropologists believes that the !Kung, or San, of North Africa created these images based on both a fossilized skeleton and a set of footprints [source: Ellenberger]. The first dinosaur movies made their appearance shortly after the development of motion pictures. The earliest dinosaur films came out between 1910 and 1930. One was "The Lost World," which was based on a book by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Dinosaur cartoons made their debut around the same period. In 1940, Disney released its movie "Fantasia," which used Igor Stravinsky's "The Rite of Spring" as the score for the life and extinction of the dinosaurs. With the exception of "Fantasia," most of these films depicted humans' encounters with dinosaurs. Characters used time travel to reach the age of the dinosaurs, or they discovered previously unknown locations in which dinosaurs survived. In today's dinosaur stories, such as "Jurassic Park," DNA plays the primary role in the face-to-face introduction between people and dinosaurs. There are several problems with this idea: - When a dinosaur becomes fossilized, most of its soft tissue decays. The only remaining reservoir for DNA is its bones -- and those are physically altered during the fossilization process. - DNA breaks down very quickly. Finding a specimen with its entire DNA sequence intact after millions of years is unlikely. - Although a few researchers have reported finding insect DNA in amber, other scientists haven't been able to replicate the findings. - Retrieving DNA from blood an insect has ingested would be even harder. Even if a mosquito's stomach did hold the blood of a dinosaur, retrieving that blood without contaminating it with the mosquito's own DNA would be next to impossible. However compelling the argument for preserved DNA might seem, cloning dinosaurs is highly unlikely. You'll find lots of references on dinosaurs, paleontology and related topics on the next page. Dinosaurs are land-based animals which lived from 230 million to 60 million years ago. Scientists study dinosaurs by looking at bone and egg fossils, footprint track ways, and by using our knowledge of dinosaurs' living relatives. Some dinosaurs were as small as modern birds, while others weighed many tons. Scientists have been able to put together entire dinosaur skeletons, but they still don't know what color their skin was or whether or not they had feathers. Another question surrounding dinosaurs is whether or not they were warm-blooded, like birds, or cold-blooded, like reptiles. The discovery of some new fossils and more research could help shed light on this question. Like birds and reptiles, dinosaurs laid eggs. Matching a fossilized egg to a species is a difficult task, but scientists can learn about a dinosaur's behavior by examining an intact nest. A popular theory for the extinction of dinosaurs, the Alvarez theory, states that an asteroid may have hit the Earth, causing the mass extinctions. Modern-day birds are the closest living relatives to dinosaurs, and scientists have recently discovered some "missing link" fossils that bolster this theory. Far from dying out, it seems the dinosaurs have simply evolved. Top 5 Dinosaur Facts - Many dinosaur bones have quill barbs - bumps showing that the dinosaurs, such as the Velociraptor, had feathers. Learn more about dinosaur fossils. - A dinosaur fossil was found in South Dakota that included all of the dinosaur's soft tissue and skin - just like a mummy! Learn more about dinosaur fossils. - Some dinosaurs lived at a time when the continents were connected in one great mass called Pangea. Learn more dinosaur facts. - The giant carnivore T-Rex was probably a scavenger rather than a hunter. Learn more about dinosaur physiology. - Many of the most well-known prehistoric reptiles, like the Pterodactyl, aren't dinosaurs since a dinosaur must technically be a four-legged land animal. Learn more dinosaur facts. Related HowStuffWorks Articles More Great Links - Current Science. "Who Knew?" Current Science Vol. 93. 11/2/2007. - Deeming, D.C. "Ultrastructrual and Functional Morphology of Eggshells Supports the Idea that Dinosaur Eggs Were Buried in a Substrate." Palaentology. Vol. 49, 2006. - Economist. "A Hop, a Skip and a Jump." Economist vol. 385. 11/10/2007. - Ellenberger, Paul et al. "Bushmen Cave Paintings of Ornithopod Dinosaurs: Paleolithic Trackers Interpret Early Jurassic Footprints." Ichnos. Vol. 12. 2005. - Fields, Helen. "Dinosaur Shocker." Smithsonian Magazine. May 2006. (12/2/2007) http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/10021606.html - Fisher, Paul et al. "Cardiovascular Evidence for an Intermediate or Higher Metabolic Rate in and Ornithischian Dinosaur. Science. Vol. 288. 4/21/2000. - Henderson, Donald M. "Simulated Weathering of Dinosaur Tracks and the Implications for their Characterization." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. Vol. 43. 2006. - Horner, John R. "Dinosaur Reproduction and Parenting." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. Vol. 28. 2000. - Hu, Yaoming. "Large Mesozoic Mammals Fed on Young Dinosaurs." Nature. Vol. 433. January 2005. - Lemonick, Michael D. "Dino Conspiracy Theory." Time. Vol. 170. 11/19/2007. - Litwin, Ronald J. et al. "Dinosaurs: Facts and Fiction." USGS. (12/2/2007) http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dinosaurs/ - Montana State University. "Sept. 9 Paper with MSU Coauthor Underscores Dinosaur Parenting." (12/2/2007) http://www.montana.edu/cpa/news/nwview.php?article=1886 - Montana State University. "Sept. 9 paper with MSU coauthor underscores dinosaur parenting" Montana State University. 9/8/2004. - National History Museum, London. "The Search for DNA in Amber." (12/2/2007) http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/earth/fossils/fathom-dnainamber/assets/12feat_dna_in_amber.pdf - Natural History. "Rethinking Velociraptor." Natural History. Vol. 116. December 2007/January 2008. - New Scientist. "Baby Dinosaur that Crawled Like Us." Vol. 187. 8/6/2005. - Norell, Mark A. and Xing Xu. "Feathered Dinosaurs." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. Vol. 33. 2005. - Owen, James. "One Size Didn't Fit All for Early Dinosaur, Study Says." National Geographic. 12/15/2007 (12/2/2007) http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1215_051215_dino_growth.html - Perkins, Sid. "Deinonychus' claws were hookers, not rippers." Science News. Vol. 172. 11/3/2007. - Perkins, Sid. "Dinosaurs matured sexually while still growing." Science News. Vol. 172. 11/3/2007. - Rees, P. McAllister et al. "Late Jurassic Climes, Vegetation and Dinosaur Distributions." Journal of Geology. Vol. 112. 2004. - Roach, John. "'Sleeping Dragon' Fossil May Link Dinosaurs, Birds." National Geographic. 10/13/2004. (12/2/2007) http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1013_041013_sleepy_dino.html - Ruben, John A. et al. "Respiratory and Reproductive Paleophysiology of Dinosaurs and Early Birds." Invited Perspectives in Physiological and Biochemical Zoology. Vol. 76, no. 2. 2003. - Sanz, Jose Luis. "Starring T. Rex!" Indiana University Press. 2002. - Science. "Newly Hatched Dinosaur Babies Hit the Ground Running." Science Vol. 305. 9/3/2004. - Sereno, Paul C. "The Origin and Evolution of Dinosaurs." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. Vol. 25. 1997. - Sky & Telescope. "The Source of the Dinosaurs' Asteroid." December 2007. - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. "Anatomy & Evolution." (12/2/2007) http://paleobiology.si.edu/dinosaurs/info/everything/gen_anatomy.html - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. "General Behavior." (12/2/2007) http://paleobiology.si.edu/dinosaurs/info/everything/behavior.html - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. "What Is a Dinosaur?" (12/2/2007) http://paleobiology.si.edu/dinosaurs/info/everything/what.html - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. "Where Did They Live?" (12/2/2007) http://paleobiology.si.edu/dinosaurs/info/everything/where.html - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. "Why Did They Go Extinct?" (12/2/2007) http://paleobiology.si.edu/dinosaurs/info/everything/why.html - University of California Museum of Paleontology: Berkley. "Are Birds Really Dinosaurs?" (12/2/2007) http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/avians.html - University of California Museum of Paleontology: Berkley. "Hot-Blooded or Cold-Blooded"? (12/2/2007) http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/metabolism.html - University of California Museum of Paleontology: Berkley. "Othniel Charles Marsh." (12/2/2007) http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/marsh.html - University of California Museum of Paleontology: Berkley. "The Dinosauria." (12/2/2007) http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/dinosaur.html - University of California Museum of Paleontology: Berkley. "What Killed the Dinosaurs?" (12/2/2007) http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/extinction.html - University of Manchester. "Academic Uncovers Holy Grail of Paleontology." University of Manchester press release. 12/3/2007 (12/3/2007). http://www.manchester.ac.uk/aboutus/news/display/?id=128651 - Yeoman, Barry. "Schweitzer's Dangerous Discovery." Discover. 4/27/2006. (12/2/2007) http://discovermagazine.com/2006/apr/dinosaur-dna

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The Tet Offensive of 1968 was the turning point of the Vietnam War. On the night of Jan. 30-31, the North Vietnamese Army and the Viet Cong attacked cities, towns, and military bases all over South Vietnam, striking in more than 100 locations from the Demilitarized Zone to the Mekong Delta. The synchronized attacks came at the beginning of the Lunar New Year holiday, traditionally a time for mutual cease-fire, when security was relaxed. The offensive was defeated at every point. The North Vietnamese regulars and Viet Cong suffered enormous casualties, and the Viet Cong were destroyed as a cohesive fighting force. It was a clear-cut military victory for the United States and South Vietnam. In US public and political opinion, though, Tet was transformed into a defeat. Within months, the United States had tacitly conceded the war to be lost, curtailed operations, and started planning for a pullout. The political damage was so great that President Lyndon Johnson announced that he would not run for re-election. The press and television are often blamed for this astounding misjudgment of the Tet Offensive, but that is too simplistic. The public was indeed misled by sensational and erroneous news reports, but the White House, Pentagon, and Military Assistance Command Vietnam (MACV) were equally at fault for what happened. By their inept words and actions, they gave credibility to the distorted output of the news media. Viet Cong irregulars lead an attack during the 1968 attacks. In a larger sense, Tet accelerated a chain of circumstances that was already under way. Public support for the Vietnam War was slipping and Tet greased the skids. The events of 1968 flowed from strategic decisions made earlier by the United States and North Vietnam. The long-running war in Indochina entered a new phase in 1960 when the North Vietnamese Communist Party declared the liberation of South Vietnam to be a “strategic task.” There was a division of opinion about how liberation of the south was to be accomplished. One faction of the party leadership—which included Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap, hero of the defeat of the French at Dien Bien Phu in 1954—favored a strategy of insurgency and guerilla warfare. Another faction—led by Le Duan, first secretary of the party, and Gen. Nguyen Chi Thanh, commander of operations in southern South Vietnam—advocated direct, main force action. Giap’s view prevailed until January 1967, when the party plenum called for “decisive victory in the shortest time possible,” shifting official support to Le Duan and Thanh and their main force position. However, B-52s bombed Thanh’s headquarters in South Vietnam, wounding him critically. He was carried across the border to Cambodia and flown to Hanoi, where he died July 6. Giap was left to plan the main force attack, even though it went against his own strategic principles. He laid out an operation with three objectives: a general uprising in the south, disintegration of the South Vietnamese armed forces, and convincing the Americans that the war was unwinnable. The US attrition strategy in South Vietnam was in its third year. In April 1965, fearful of drawing Russia and China into the war, President Johnson and Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara had downgraded the air campaign against North Vietnam to secondary status after only a month of halfhearted effort. They insisted that the war be decided in the south, even though it was directed and sustained from the north. In the summer of 1965, the MACV commander, Gen. William C. Westmoreland, implemented an attrition strategy with “search and destroy” tactics. Focused as it was on ground operations in the south, the strategy could do no more than react to North Vietnam’s initiative. US forces won firefights and local battles, but made no strategic progress. MACV used “body counts” and “kill ratios” to show how the enemy was being whittled down by attrition, but the numbers were implausible and MACV lost credibility. (For more about the attrition strategy and its consequences, see “The In-Country War,” Air Force Magazine, April 2007.) Peter Arnett of the Associated Press (with cameras) produced controversial reports on two major events. (AP photo) The US presence in South Vietnam increased steadily and by December 1967, there were almost 500,000 American military members in country. Of these, 397,534 were Army and Marine Corps ground forces. In September 1967, a public opinion poll found—for the first time—that more Americans opposed war than supported it. The President reacted by stiffening his determination. He spoke with disdain of those who wanted to “cut and run.” The White House stepped up efforts to put the best possible face on the war with a “Success Campaign” in the fall of 1967. Walt W. Rostow, Presidential advisor on national security affairs, was put in charge of an interdepartmental Psychological Strategy Committee to promote a positive image. Westmoreland was called back from Vietnam to help. The most notable of his appearances was a speech at the National Press Club on Nov. 21. “The enemy has not won a major battle in more than a year,” Westmoreland said. “In general, he can fight his large forces only at the edges of his sanctuaries.” He said the enemy was “certainly losing” and that his hopes were “bankrupt.” The Press Club speech went down in history because of 14 words. “We have reached an important point when the end begins to come into view,” Westmoreland said. (Contrary to an often-told tale, Westmoreland did not say he saw “light at the end of the tunnel.” It was Gen. Henri Navarre, the commander of French forces in Vietnam in 1953, who said that.) Other Administration spokesmen carried the “success” message far and wide. Downgraded NumbersIn circumstances that are still disputed, MACV, in November and December 1967, reduced its official estimates of enemy strength. Whatever the intent, the effect was to shore up the erroneous belief that the attrition strategy was working. The downgraded numbers were not known to the public but they helped Administration decision-makers convince themselves. In late 1967, the North Vietnamese launched exploratory attacks around the Demilitarized Zone and along the Laotian and Cambodian borders to draw Americans away from the urban areas of South Vietnam and to screen infiltration. US intelligence, watching the increased enemy troop movements, expected offensive action of some kind, possibly around Tet. The first major attack fell on Khe Sanh, a combat base 16 miles below the DMZ and 10 miles due east of Laotian border, occupied by 6,000 US marines and South Vietnamese rangers. Westmoreland decided, against some advice to the contrary, to make a strong stand there. Khe Sanh was in a strategic corner of South Vietnam, close to infiltration routes from the Ho Chi Minh Trail, but that was not its real importance. If the North Vietnamese Army attacked Khe Sanh in mass, Westmoreland would get the set-piece battle he had wanted ever since he adopted the attrition strategy. It would be a costly fight, but superior US firepower would finally have a chance to destroy the enemy. The North Vietnamese moved against Khe Sanh on Jan. 21 with two regular Army divisions supported by another two divisions nearby, a force of 20,000 to 30,000 troops. Khe Sanh was soon encircled and under siege. With land access cut off, the combat base depended on air support for its existence. Bombers and fighters pounded the enemy positions, and artillery from US fire bases at the Rock Pile and Camp Carroll provided further support. Walter Cronkite told his TV audience that the US was "mired in stalemate." (AP photo) News media in the United States followed the fight at Khe Sanh intently, and it took on great symbolic importance. According to Westmoreland, President Johnson developed a “fixation” about Khe Sanh. He had a large aerial photo and a terrain model set up in a White House situation room and he studied them for hours at a time during the 77-day siege. In the middle of the unfolding action at Khe Sanh, the North Koreans captured the US intelligence ship Pueblo Jan. 23 and imprisoned the crew, adding to US difficulties in Asia. Mutual cease-fires for Tet had been observed since 1963, and these had come to be regarded as a holiday truce. In November 1967, the National Liberation Front —the Viet Cong—proclaimed a seven-day cease-fire for the upcoming Tet holiday. On Jan. 25, the Viet Cong put out a public appeal for observance of the Tet cease-fire. The Americans anticipated that the enemy would violate the truce. South Vietnam had taken over security for the cities in December and some US forces had been moved into rural areas. Fortunately, Westmoreland—at the urging of Lt. Gen. Frederick C. Weyand, US commander in the III Corps area which included Saigon—recalled 15 combat battalions from border assignments and repositioned them closer to Saigon. This gave Weyand 27 battalions near the capital. The United States persuaded South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu to reduce the cease-fire to 36 hours, but half of the ARVN (Army of the Republic of Vietnam) was on leave. The enemy made the first of many military blunders on Jan. 30, when local commanders, who apparently misunderstood their instructions, instigated attacks on seven cities in the northern part of South Vietnam. These premature attacks gave MACV still more warning of the offensive about to unfold. The main offensive began in the small hours of Jan. 31. Some 80,000 enemy troops struck all over South Vietnam, including assaults on 64 district capitals and many smaller towns as well as military bases. The forces in the southern part of the country were mostly Viet Cong, and the North Vietnamese Army carried the effort in the northern part. US bombers drop ordnance close to South Vietnamese troops defending Khe Sanh. News reports compared Tet to the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu. (AP photo) The Viet Cong committed 35 battalions to the Saigon area, targeting the Presidential Palace, Tan Son Nhut Air Base (where the MACV compound was located), the ARVN armor and artillery command headquarters, and the US Embassy. At Tan Son Nhut, about 1,000 defenders, mainly security police, held an attacking force of 3,000 to a minor penetration until US Army reinforcements arrived at dawn. On the outskirts of Saigon, two VC infantry battalions and a reinforced rifle company achieved a minor penetration at Bien Hoa Air Base, but Air Force security police beat back the attack. The Viet Cong captured the government radio station in Saigon around 3 a.m. They came with radio technicians and tapes proclaiming a general uprising and the liberation of Saigon, but the government, following the emergency plan, shut down the transmitter 14 miles away. The VC could not broadcast their tape. The attacks caused great destruction and disruption throughout South Vietnam, with numerous civilian casualties and throngs of refugees. On Feb. 1, President Thieu declared nationwide martial law. The Embassy FightNeither side understood at first how important the attack on the US Embassy would be in the legend of Tet. The Viet Cong sent only 19 inexperienced men to do the job. One US officer called it “a piddling platoon action.” MACV, focused on larger battles elsewhere, regarded the fight at the embassy as a relatively minor affair until the telephone calls started coming from Washington. The embassy complex consisted of a six-story concrete-reinforced chancery building and several other structures, surrounded by an eight-foot wall. At 2:45 a.m., a Viet Cong sapper team attacked the compound, blew a hole in the wall, and gained access to the grounds. They blasted the building with rockets and a fragmentation grenade, but they did not get inside. The Viet Cong leaders were killed and the others took cover, returning the fire directed at them from nearby rooftops. Peter Arnett of the Associated Press was one of the first reporters on the scene. In the street, he encountered two soldiers who did not know any more than he did but who guessed the enemy was inside the chancery. At 7:25 a.m. (6:25 p.m. in New York), Arnett filed his first report: “US military police on the scene said it was believed about 20 Viet Cong suicide commandos were in the embassy compound and held part of the first floor of the embassy building.” Five minutes later, at 6:30 p.m., the Huntley-Brinkley Report on NBC-TV went on the air, with Chet Huntley souping up the AP dispatch. “Twenty suicide bombers are reported to be holding the first floor of the embassy,” Huntley said. He added that “snipers are in the buildings and on rooftops near the embassy and are firing on American personnel inside the compound,” which was the exact opposite of what was actually happening. After Tet, President Johnson (left) pulled out of the Presidential race. Gen. Earl Wheeler (right), Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, encouraged sending 200,000 more troops to Vietnam. Westmoreland arrived at the embassy just after 9 a.m., toured the complex, and told reporters that all of the sappers had been killed or captured and that none of them had gotten inside the building. Nevertheless, UPI reported from Saigon at 10 a.m. that a VC suicide squad had stormed the embassy “and occupied the first five floors.” Arnett and AP reported Westmoreland’s statement and added that according to “some sources,” the embassy had been penetrated. Not until 7 p.m. Saigon time did AP say flatly that the attackers had failed to get into the embassy building. By then, the morning newspapers were out in the United States. An eight-column banner headline on the front page of the Washington Post said, “Vietcong Invade US Embassy.” The New York Times headline said, “Foe Invades US Saigon Embassy.” The facts of the attack never quite overtook the emotional jolt of the first reports. Arnett later called the invasion story a minor error. On Feb. 1, the day after the attack on the embassy, Westmoreland appeared at the late afternoon press briefing, the “Five O’Clock Follies,” at the Joint US Public Affairs Office in Saigon. He said there was evidence the enemy was “about to run out of steam” and that 5,800 enemy troops had been killed in the first two days. It was the familiar MACV “body count” exercise, complete with numbers the reporters didn’t believe, and it led them to discount Westmoreland’s other assurances as well. What credibility Westmoreland had left was blown away when his request for an additional 206,000 troops was leaked to the New York Times. The story behind the story was amazing in itself. Wheeler’s AgendaIn early February, Gen. Earle G. Wheeler, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, asked Westmoreland if he needed reinforcements. Wheeler said it might be possible to raise the limits previously imposed. Wheeler did not disclose his actual agenda. By 1968, about half of the US armed forces were tied down fighting or supporting the Vietnam War. Other forces were covering obligations and requirements elsewhere and the strategic reserve was at a low level. Wheeler and the Joint Chiefs had been unable to convince the President to mobilize the National Guard and Reserve to rebuild the strategic reserve. A big troop increase in Vietnam would put pressure on him to agree. Encouraged by Wheeler, Westmoreland asked for an increase of 206,756 troops and 17 additional fighter squadrons. In Westmoreland’s mind, the number was based on a change in strategy that would permit ground operations across the DMZ and against the Ho Chi Minh Trail and border sanctuaries in Laos and Cambodia. There was no chance that such a strategy would be adopted and it played no part in the furor that followed. North Vietnamese Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap (left) planned the offensive. US Army Gen. William Westmoreland was MACV commander at the time. Daniel Ellsberg of the RAND Corp. obtained a copy of the top secret paper proposing the increase, and in a preview of his leaking the Pentagon Papers to the news media in 1971, he gave it to the New York Times, where it was the lead story on the front page on Sunday, March 10. Wheeler’s gambit had backfired. If the enemy was about to run out of steam and the Tet Offensive was nothing to worry about, why should Westmoreland need 206,000 more troops? “Except at Hue and Khe Sanh,” Westmoreland said, “most of the combat that could be considered part of the Tet Offensive was over by Feb. 11.” In the locations where the attacks continued, the action was hot and heavy. There was hard fighting, house to house, in the old imperial capital at Hue. The enemy captured the city and the US marines and the ARVN were not able to oust them until March 2. Fighting continued elsewhere. By the end of March, Tan Son Nhut had been attacked half a dozen times, including a rocket bombardment on Feb. 18. The US Air Force flew more than 16,000 sorties in support of US and allied ground forces during Tet. The biggest single battle was Khe Sanh, and there is disagreement about its significance in the North Vietnamese strategy. Westmoreland thought it was the main effort. Writing in Vietnam Magazine in 1993, he said, “I believed then, and I continue to believe, that the ‘General Uprising’ was in reality a feint, a secondary attack.” Giap said otherwise. “Khe Sanh was not important to us,” he said. “It was only a diversion.” In February, Wheeler asked Westmoreland whether “tactical nuclear weapons should be used if the situation in Khe Sanh should become that desperate.” Westmoreland said he did not need nuclear weapons at that point. “Although I established a small secret group to study the subject, Washington so feared that some word of it might reach the press that I was told to desist,” Westmoreland said. Lyndon Johnson later denied that use of nuclear weapons had ever been considered. Air support for the combat base at Khe Sanh was massive. On an average day, it consisted of 350 tactical fighter sorties, 60 B-52 bombers, a dozen C-123 and C-130 airlifters, plus forward air controllers, reconnaissance missions, and gunships. The B-52s were especially effective. A formation of three B-52s could lay waste to an area more than a mile long and half a mile wide. The bombers struck enemy positions as close as a half-mile from the base, and the fighter and attack aircraft worked the area between. “The thing that broke their backs was basically the fire of the B-52s,” Westmoreland said. The base was sustained by C-130s, C-123s, and C-7s running a gauntlet of machine gun fire from the hills and ridges to deliver or air-drop supplies to the garrison. Aircraft and helicopters also landed to evacuate the wounded. Khe Sanh was compared constantly with Dien Bien Phu, the remote mountain base in far northwestern North Vietnam where the French were besieged for 56 days in 1954. “Almost to the end, it was a story heavily flavored with the suggestion of impending disaster—a disaster comparable to that suffered by the French garrison of Dien Bien Phu at the hands of General Giap in 1954,” said Peter Braestrup, who in 1968 was chief of the Washington Post bureau in Saigon. “Invisible to the Press”Such reports overlooked key differences. At Dien Bien Phu, the airstrip was destroyed by artillery early in the battle. The only way in was by parachute, and there was no way out. The Dien Bien Phu defenders were supported by only a handful of air support sorties, none of them by heavy bombers. The B-52 strikes were “largely invisible to the press,” Braestrup said. Television couldn’t see them, so it didn’t show them. The emphasis was on the enemy attack. News reports and photos tended to depict the Marine Corps at Khe Sanh as hunkered down under fire. During the battle, Newsweek ran 29 photos from Khe Sanh. “About half—13—showed American or ARVN troops dead or wounded,” Braestrup said. “None showed US troops firing back.” CBS correspondent Murray Fromson’s report from Khe Sanh on Feb. 14 was indicative of the prevailing tone. “Here, the North Vietnamese decide who lives and who dies,” Fromson said, “and sooner or later, they will make the decision that will seal the fate of Khe Sanh.” When the siege ended on April 8, the North Vietnamese had been soundly defeated. Some 10,000 North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops had been killed by airpower and another 5,000 were dead from artillery and small-arms fire. There was no more talk of Dien Bien Phu. Braestrup later compiled the definitive study of the news media and Tet in Big Story, published in two large volumes in 1977. He examined 2,100 articles, telecasts, and commentaries from the three television networks, the news magazines, the New York Times, and the Washington Post. He found that 90 percent of the reports from Vietnam were from three locations: Saigon, Khe Sanh, and Hue. “The net result, in terms of media treatment, was that the fighting in Saigon, Hue, and Khe Sanh became the whole war, a war in which, seemingly, no or few ARVN forces fought and US forces were particularly hard pressed,” he said. “The overall—and inaccurate—impression given, especially on film, was that, well into March, the outcome on the Vietnam battlefield was very much in doubt.” Braestrup also found that there were more than twice as many negative reports and commentaries as positive ones. Arnett, the Associated Press correspondent who reported the embassy invasion, scored again on Feb. 7. He was one of several newsmen visiting Ben Tre, a town of 35,000 in the Mekong Delta where the battle had lasted two days. The Viet Cong force of 2,000 outnumbered the local defenders by six to one and except for US air strikes, would have wiped them out. A substantial part of the town was destroyed in the fighting. Arnett’s report quoted an anonymous Air Force major, who said, “It became necessary to destroy the town to save it.” Nobody else heard it and Arnett would not reveal who the major was, but his statement became one of the most famous lines of the war.Dan Southerland of UPI, at Ben Tre on the same trip, quoted an Air Force sergeant who said, “The Viet Cong were holed up in a lot of buildings and there was no way to get them out but to shell and bomb them out.” Nobody much repeated what Southerland and the sergeant had to say. On March 24, William Tuohy of the Los Angeles Times went to Ben Tre on follow-up and reported that “only 25 percent of the city—rather than the reported 80 percent—was actually destroyed by the Viet Cong attack and the Vietnamese artillery and US air strikes that followed. And the US advisory group doubts that the statement [reported by Arnett] was actually said in that form.” Just before the attacks, US Army Maj. Gen. Frederick Weyand repositioned 15 combat battalions closer to Saigon, blunting an objective of the offensive. The coup de grace was delivered by Walter Cronkite, anchor of the CBS Evening News. As first reports of Tet streamed into the newsroom in New York, Cronkite exclaimed aloud, “What the hell is going on? I thought we were winning the war.” He went to Vietnam in February, saw the fighting still under way in Hue, talked to both officials in Saigon and troops in the field, and gave his opinion in a CBS news special Feb. 27. “To say that we are closer to victory today is to believe, in the face of the evidence, the optimists who have been wrong in the past,” Cronkite said. “To suggest we are on the edge of defeat is to yield to unreasonable pessimism. To say that we are mired in stalemate seems the only realistic, yet unsatisfactory, conclusion.” Lyndon Johnson responded to the attacks with a continuation of his “Success Campaign.” He sought to minimize importance of the Tet Offensive and made no effort to rally the nation. Talking with reporters at the White House on Feb. 1, he said the offensive had been expected, that there would be no change in US strategy, and that he had seen nothing in the Tet Offensive to change his evaluation of the situation in Vietnam. Verdict of the PublicIn a Gallup poll the last week in February, 61 percent—compared with 41 percent in November—said the United States was losing the war or standing still. In the New Hampshire primary in March, anti-war Sen. Eugene J. McCarthy got 42 percent of the vote versus 49 percent for Johnson. Also in March, the Johnson campaign adopted a “Peace With Honor” theme, which represented a softening of the President’s position. On March 25-26, Johnson convened a meeting of two dozen of his senior officials and advisors to get their counsel on the war. All but five of them favored disengagement or de-escalation. On March 31, Johnson quit the Presidential race and ended the bombing over most of North Vietnam as a “first step to de-escalate the conflict.” On June 26, Khe Sanh—where the use of tactical nuclear weapons had been considered four months previously—was abandoned. On July 1, Westmoreland was succeeded as MACV commander by Gen. Creighton W. Abrams Jr., who promptly moved away from the attrition strategy, but the heart had gone out of the US commitment. Bombing of North Vietnam was completely stopped Nov. 1. The incoming Nixon Administration adopted a policy of “Vietnamization” of the war. By the summer of 1969, “we were clearly on the way out of Vietnam by negotiation if possible, by unilateral withdrawal if necessary,” said Henry A. Kissinger, the new national security advisor. Giap’s offensive failed. The “general uprising” did not occur. The South Vietnamese armed forces did not collapse or switch sides. Giap was counting on a strong operation to impress the Americans, but that did not happen either. The public reaction in the United States was a lucky windfall for the North Vietnamese. It was not because of anything Giap accomplished in the offensive. As Giap knew all along, his forces could not defeat the United States and ARVN in open battle. A bad strategy was weakened further when Giap chose to strike simultaneously in so many locations, spreading his force too thin for effective concentration. In “Tet II” or “mini Tet” in May, Hanoi sent 80,000 to 90,000 replacement troops south for a final effort. They attacked at 119 locations but gave it up when losses reached 4,000 a week. In the final tally for Tet, between 40,000 and 70,000 North Vietnamese and Viet Cong were killed and many more wounded. The Viet Cong were thereafter reduced to a marginal role in the conflict. Le Duan’s “main force” faction lost credibility and North Vietnam returned to its previous emphasis on insurgency. It is impossible to say what the effect of the slanted news reporting might have been if the US government had not bungled its response to the Tet Offensive. Harry G. Summers Jr., noted author of On Strategy and longtime editor of Vietnam Magazine, said that “the real reason for the debacle was the void created by President Lyndon Johnson’s ‘psychological defeat.’ His two months of inaction after Tet allowed critics to define the terms of this perceived disaster.” The Administration’s credibility, already low when Tet began, got steadily worse. Most of what the government did and said added to the impression that a defeat was in progress. It was as if the White House and the Pentagon had set out to undermine their own case. Tet was the catalyst that prompted Lyndon Johnson’s own politicos and advisors to bail out on him. Despite the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong losses, Tet did not change the military prospective that much. The best the US could do was to resume marching in place. Any chance of victory had been cut off years before with the decision to fight the war in the south. Tet altered the timetable but not the outcome. Copyright Air Force Association. All rights reserved. Daily Report: Read the day's top news on the US Air Force, airpower, and national security issues. Tweets by @AirForceMag

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Baby Loves the Five Senses: Hearing! The science behind sound and vision is presented in accessible illustration and straightforward text. The language used includes sophisticated terms (e.g., cochlea, vibration) which will likely familiarize younger children and their adults with the science vocabulary. You may also enjoy Baby Loves the Five Senses: Sight. Cerca / Close Simple concepts are presented in straightforward language in both Spanish and English. On each sturdy double page is a crisp illustration that uses simple line and flat form. The result is a precise, highly accessible look at the basic concepts of near and far. You may also want to share Lejos / Far. Explore colors in crisp photographs and brief language. Blocks of different hues show color variations and accompany a picture and a brief descriptor (e.g., a photo of a frog combines with “Green hops.”). Turn the page and other images complement the lyrical text for a very satisfying introduction to colors in the real world. Dias y dias / Days and Days A snowy landscape: “Brrr… Invierno. Winter.” But winter turns to spring, then summer, followed by autumn, and finally a new year. Single words in both English and Spanish combine with gentle illustrations to present children and families throughout the seasons. From 1 to 10 Playful illustrations in brilliant colors depict charming, expressive, almost childlike but recognizable animals. Numerals accompanied by one word on each sturdy, double-page spread encourage counting from 1 belly (on a teddy bear) to an alligator’s 10 teeth. An endnote offers concrete ideas for adults to encourage counting beyond the pages of this engaging book. Hide-and-Sleep: A Flip Flap Book Split pages encourage young readers to look carefully at the cheerful illustrations with bold lines and simple forms. As night approaches, a page turns to reveal no one is hiding and soon, almost everyone sleeps! Frog, kitten, dog, grasshopper, and other critters (well, maybe not the snail) jump with each upward turn of durable pages. "BOING” configures differently for everyone airborne until a girl exclaims “I jump” accompanied by an extended “B-oi-oi-oi-oing!” This playful book is sure to delight young readers. One Shoe Two Shoes A dog holds its human’s one shoe in preparation for a walk. Many types of shoes are seen from the dog’s perspective — including shoes that provide a house for a mouse. Mice multiply, and once dog and person go for another walk, the mice play on roller skates. Mixed-media illustrations and staccato language make this ripe for a lively read aloud. The Thank You Book From a lap to sit on to “this earth we ride on…” people and animals are grateful for the everyday things they see and experience. Idealized illustrations complement the text to focus on simple, commonplace pleasures. Welcome Home: Where Nature’s Most Creative Creatures Dwell The places where animals live are specifically named and presented in illustration. Turn the page and the animal is placed in a very human setting (e.g., otters’ resting place is a “couch”) to allow children to glimpse the dual meaning of (generally) familiar words. Whose Footprint Is That? A pictorial clue accompanies the question, “Whose footprint is that?” The footprint appears on the opposing page. A turn of the page reveals the answer with a picture of the mystery animal. What animal can change footprints? Only one! When humans change footwear so does their footprint, and different footwear may lead to further exploration. A Different Story Textured, verdant illustrations use different perspectives to contrast big and small, differences, and commonalities. A rhinoceros and rhinoceros beetle are pictured alone and together punctuating the straightforward text in this quiet visual feast which may generate both questions and discussion. A Walk Through Nature Explore nature from tiny seeds to ocean life, from worlds hidden underground to a frosted earth. Brief, lyrical text is illustrated on the opposite side of the open book which then folds out to provide additional illustrations and information about the scene. Colorful, stylized illustrations and die cuts add interest to each informative double-page spread. Around the Table That Grandad Built Several generations of a family prepare for a meal together. Told in the cadence of a familiar rhyme, each member — from the youngest to the oldest — contributes to the celebratory occasion. Bright, childlike illustrations capture the fun and food for a festive meal shared “around the table that Grandad built.” Astrid tells her father that she wants to be an astronaut, and is not deterred when her father asks her if she can eat food from a package and go round and round the earth in a spaceship. When her mother gets home, Astrid, embraced by both parents, proclaims,“I want to be an astronaut just like you [her mother].” Uncluttered illustrations simply but effectively depict Astrid’s loving family. Catch Me: A Seek-And Find Book It takes a keen eye to help Little Woof find the color-changing cat! After a clearly shown dog and cat set up the search, with a turn of the page they are hidden in a predominately green outdoor scene followed by more brightly hued places. Once the end is reached, readers will start all over again as Little Woof will change colors for the cat to chase. Dog Breath: The Horrible Trouble with Hally Tosis Hally, the Tosis family dog, suffers from a very big problem: she has terrible breath. This, of course, is a major issue for the family and the Tosis’ entire community, until Hally saves the day! She thwarts serial burglars with her daunting exhalation. The silly and (sort of) gross humor first published in 1994 is available again. The story begins before a family with two parents, one child in a stroller, and a lively older boy reach the steps of the museum. The boy acquires a flying toy that leads first to misunderstanding but ultimately friendship. Few words are needed as the detailed, expressive line and wash illustrations convey action and emotion to bring the tale full circle to its satisfying conclusion. Fry Bread: A Native American Family Story What is fry bread? It’s food, shape, sound, art, history, and more — so much more. It is an American Indian tradition shared by a member of the Mekusukey Seminoles. A varied group of children and elders are depicted contributing to the recipe as the text describes its complex role in American history. Additional information is appended to create a book that can be used in both simple and complex ways. Hats Are Not for Cats Are hats for cats? Not according to a large dog that goes on to declare that no hats, big or small are simply “… not for cats at all.” The lively descriptions of all kinds of hats (pirate or party, silly or frilly) are accompanied by equally jaunty illustrations that convey not only action but cat and dog emotions finally affirming that “Hats are for everyone!” I Love My Colorful Nails Ben got the best birthday present of all when he walked into his classroom that day. Until then, after being teased at school, Ben hid his love for colorful fingernails, only painting them on weekends. His friend Margarita and Ben’s parents had always been supportive, but now everyone would share Ben’s joy. Line and wash illustrations complement this unique way of accepting differences. I Need a Hug Poor porcupine! No one will give the prickly (but needy) critter a hug. Not Lou the rabbit, not Ken the deer, not even big bear, Joe. They are all afraid of the green kiss-seeking snake. But porcupine isn’t! Animated, comical illustrations combine with conversation bubbles to tell a very funny, understated, and satisfying story. In Every House on Every Street Join the narrator’s rhyming examination of his house, including things one doesn’t always see. For instance, in the room where the family bakes, “we sing into spoons and get covered in cake!” Each room holds special pleasure. A double gatefold opens up an entire block of houses, concluding “… our house is something like yours!” A father warmly and creatively answers his child’s endless questions: “Why is the ocean blue?” ("Because every night fish play sad songs and cry blue tears.") The final question, “Why do we have to sleep?” is answered, “Because there are some things we can only see with our eyes closed.” Stylized illustrations suggest a timeless quality to a child’s curiosity and a parent’s patience. Just in Case You Want to Fly A child looks out from an apartment window assured that the wind and sky will be there if she wants to fly. The lyrical reassurances continue as children continue on different adventures, imaginatively portrayed in the artist’s signature bold, childlike style. Altogether, this is a comforting, cozy book to share again and again. Little Bro, Big Sis When the younger brother describes his sister, she’s pictured as a rhinoceros, a boring, bossy bully. Flip the book over, and it’s the sister who sees her brother as a noisy, annoying monkey. They come together to realize that maybe two kids in “the family isn’t so bad.” But then with a “Waaaa," a third sibling arrives! This humorous look at sibling dynamics is sure to resonate. Poodle Polly belongs to Molly. Eric, a dachshund, belongs to Derek. But for the poor, large, older mutt named Mr. Scruff, there’s no one. That is until small Jim meets him — and even though their names don’t rhyme, they become fast friends. Whimsical illustrations add charm to this affable, rhyming story. One Fox: A Counting Book Thriller One “famished fox “with 2 “sly eyes” and 10 “sharp teeth” gradually creeps up to an unsuspecting hen house. Suddenly, with feathers flying, “100 angry hems” scare off one “frightened fox.” Brief text and dramatic illustrations combine to present a tense, humorous, and very satisfying story combined with counting from 1 to 10. The Bear and the Star “Early one December morning, Bear woke …” and saw a “new star, barely visible …” Bear began his search for an evergreen tree that would stand tall and strong. Then people gathered from around the world as the “tree [grew] stronger and taller … because it was time for peace.” Rich, snow-filled illustrations complement the lyrical, semi-abstract narration. Though not obviously a holiday story, it may be perceived as one. The Quiet Boat Ride and Other Stories Though they’re quite different, calm and patient Fox remains friends with Chick. Unlike Fox, Chick tends to worry and fret in each of three short tales told through illustration and conversation bubbles. Newly independent readers will appreciate the accessible comic book format and relatable emotions expressed in text and image. A scarecrow guards his fields throughout the seasons; no animal or bird comes. But then something small drops down to forever change the lonely figure in the field. It is a baby crow who stays with the scarecrow, leaves, and then returns with its family. Glowing illustrations change with each season to enhance the touching, rhyming tale. The Spacesuit: How a Seamstress Helped Put a Man on the Moon Many years ago, Eleanor Foraker, better known as Ellie, “helped change the world with a needle and thread.” She and her team worked for a company that made clothing for women and babies. They entered a spacesuit design competition and won. Ellie and team’s A7L spacesuit was worn by Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin to walk on the moon. Actual events inspired this unique look at space exploration. The Word Pirates A sterling storyteller and wonderful writer with a word-spinning pen turn Captain Rottingbones and his word-pilfering pirates into fantabulous farmers. Lush language and humorous illustrations capture the zany story which demands to be shared aloud. This is a fitting homage to this creative team’s friend (author and storyteller Margaret Mahy) and may lead readers to find additional tales. Why is the question a small rabbit asks a gentle but imposing bear. Why can’t the bear go into rabbit’s hole? Why did rabbit fall from the tree? Bear patiently answers most of the questions, but for some there are no answers. Expressive art and child-friendly text fuse seamlessly in this moving and evocative book. A Stone Sat Still How can one thing be smooth and rough, a feel and a smell, and red, green, and purple, too? Does the stone that “sat still…as it was where it was in the world” change or is it how different animals see it? Poetic language and softly lined and colored illustration combine to present a book about change and constancy, sure to generate discussion. Anna and Samia: The True Story of Saving a Black Rhino Anna Mertz helps an orphaned black rhinoceros named Samia prepare for life in a sanctuary. How Anna and Samia became best friends forever is told with verve and humor, complemented by engaging, stylized illustrations. An afterword with information about Anna, Samia, and rhinos as well as additional resources is included. Ants Don’t Wear Pants When you can’t stop moving, we say you have "ants in your pants." That’s because ants always are moving! Fascinating facts are presented in a generously illustrated, humorous but factual format — including what ants eat and what eats ants. This is a worthy addition to the author’s fascinating and accessible series. In Search of Dinosaurs: Find the Fossils: Identify the Dinosaurs Dinosaurs lived during three eras: Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. Find out what’s in a paleontologist’s toolkit then join a dig site for each period. Double-page gatefolds open to reveal which dinosaurs once lived at the dig site. Additional information and a quiz complete this realistically illustrated introduction for budding scientists. King of the Tightrope: When the Great Blondin Ruled Niagra Jean-Francois Gravele first performed as a child. Walking on ropes required skill, confidence, and daring, which Jean-Francois had in abundance. As an adult, he traveled from France to America and decided he would walk across Niagara Falls — on a rope! This fascinating character comes to life in lively language and dramatic illustrations. Additional information about The Great Blondin (as Jean-Francois became known) and photographs are included. Look Again: Secrets of Animal Camouflage From rocks to coral reefs, animals and insects can be difficult to see. Why? Because camouflage provides protection. Camouflaged animals are described in specific environments; turn the page and the same animal is shown without camouflage with recognizable size comparisons. Additional information concludes the handsomely illustrated and informative volume. Mario and the Hole in the Sky: How a Chemist Saved our Planet For his 8th birthday, young Mario Molina got a microscope, which launched a career in science. His interest in chemistry led to a doctorate and work on the atmosphere. In an epilogue by Mario, the Mexican-born chemist declares he has now taken on global warming. Additional back matter adds even greater interest in this accessible and appealing biography. The book is also available in Spanish: Mario y el agujero en el cielo: Cómo un químico salvó nuestro planeta. Monsters: A Magic Lens Hunt for Creatures of Myth, Legend, Fairy Tale, and Fiction Monsters are found around the world, in book and in folktales. They are scary or silly, well-known or unfamiliar. With a red cellophane lens, find hidden critters on the large pages. Meet monsters that come from caves and mountains, to those that come in the night. There are even monster parts and pieces presented that can be used to inspire new creations. Mr. Penguin and the Fortress of Secrets Mr. Penguin and Colin, his Kung Fu kicking spider sidekick share another slapstick adventure. Will they and their new friends be able to thwart the nefarious Rodent Gang? Can they solve the mystery of the peculiar noises coming from the fortress? Lots of illustrations help move their adventure quickly to its satisfying conclusion in this followup adventure to Mr. Penguin and the Lost Treasure. Noodleheads: Fortress of Doom Mac and Mac, empty-headed noodle brothers, want to fill their heads with knowledge. But how? Start at the library, of course! Traditional “noodlehead” tales are reimagined here quite literally and presented in comic book format. Filled with jokes and slapstick, humor abounds throughout each of three chapters. A note for adults about traditional story sources ends this latest addition to the Noodleheads. Peter & Ernesto: The Lost Sloths Peter and Ernesto and other sloths lose their tree homes — destroyed by a hurricane. Their search for a new home is fraught with danger — alligators, jaguars, and more (oh my!). Finally they find a new home with a surprising roommate. Limited text and cartoons tell a raucous, silly adventure, the second story in this series. (See also: Peter & Ernesto: A Tale of Two Sloths) In this traditional, sophisticated retelling of the Grimm tale, Rapunzel was taken from her parents because her father gathered food from a witch’s garden. Rapunzel grew up in a tower only accessible by way of her long golden hair. Hyman’s luminous, highly detailed illustrations were honored when first published in 1982 and are again available. Bethan Woollvin’s recasting of Rapunzel provides an interesting contrast both in the contemporary telling and simple but effective illustration. Small in the City A child travels alone on a bus through a bustling city. Who is the narrator addressing? Is the reader or someone else? The child offers advice, like “Alleys can be good shortcuts…” but there are dangers, too. Arriving home to a red door and a warm embrace, the child confidently says “You will be all right.” Only close examination of the stunning illustrations provides clues as to who (or what) is really small and alone in the city. The Book Rescuer Aaron Lansky always remembered his grandmother’s immigration story when she was forced to give up her candlesticks and her Yiddish book. Aaron also loved books. An informal narration and darkly hued illustrations (which the illustrator notes pay homage to Marc Chagall) introduce a fascinating man whose work continues in the Yiddish Book Center. Additional information concludes this attractive and informative biography. The Dog Who Lost His Bark In spite of his canine mother’s assurances, a puppy is mistreated by people and winds up at a shelter. A boy named Patrick and his mother spend the summer — and beyond — at his grandfather’s home. How the dog who lost his bark and a boy with no friends and parents who are separating help each other heal is tenderly told and gently illustrated in this short, moving novel. Three high-energy children and their dog begin a hike in the woods by running. They stop along the way to enjoy thimbleberries, observe a deer, and more. One of the girls keeps a journal of things she’s observed. Wren’s journal is shown after the three children return home as the sun sets. Simple illustrations convey they joy of an outdoor hike and what the kids have seen along the way. The Important Thing About Margaret Wise Brown Like the life of Margaret Wise Brown, this is not a typical biography of an author. “Margaret Wise Brown lived for 42 years. This book is 42 pages long.” And while nobody’s entire life can fit in 42 pages, the important things can. In a conversational narration, key elements of Brown’s life and contributions are highlighted, illustrated in gently line and soft colors. Altogether, this is a fitting tribute to a singular author. The Nature Craft Book A bit of information about familiar birds, butterflies, and other things found in the natural world is presented followed by different activities. From finger puppets to mobiles, from cookies to prints each craft includes easy-to-follow instructions and helpful illustrations. An equally effective format is used in The Ocean Craft Book. The Quicksand Book Although not likely, if one ever finds themselves stuck in quicksand, this is the book you need! Two children, one stuck in the muck, receives information about quicksand and how to respond if caught. Tomie dePaola’s signature illustrations are as witty and appealing as when the book first appeared in 1977. Thukpa for All When the gong rings at the gompa, Tsering takes off for home knowing that hot, hearty, spicy thukpa awaits him. He invites others as he meets along the mountainous path. When the power goes out, Abi worries she won’t be able to see to complete the thukpa. But Tsering is accustomed to the dark as he’s blind. Alliterative, onomatopoeic language complements the childlike illustrations. Information about thukpa and a recipe are included. We Are Grateful: Otsaliheliga Join the Cherokee people as they celebrate each season of the year and special occasions, as well as the daily activities for which gratitude is expressed. Bold hues and flat forms distinguish the naïve illustrations. Cherokee words, based on Sequoyah’s syllabary (written symbols for syllables), are sprinkled throughout. Additional information concludes this handsome and unique glimpse of contemporary Native life written by a Cherokee author. A Place to Land: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Speech That Inspired a Nation Luminous illustrations and free verse combine to tell the story of Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech. When King arrived for the March on Washington in 1963, his speech was not yet completed. Nonetheless, he found a “place to land” to complete his historical speech then give it on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. Focusing on this singular moment in history is powerful and stunningly presented in word and image. A Ray of Light Matter can be liquid, sold, or gas that can have a role in its [light’s] creation. In large, luminous, light-filled photographs and understandable text, explore various aspects of light from incandescence to the color spectrum, iridescence, and more. Additional information about topics concludes this inspiring and informative overview to light. AstroNuts Mission One: The Plant Planet Who said that there isn’t fact in fun? They haven’t met the heroes in this highly, hysterically illustrated space adventure. AlphaWolf, SmartHawk, LaserShark, and StinkBug explore the universe in their Thomas Jefferson Nose Rocket looking for a Goldilocks planet but find danger instead. Earth, the narrator, also provides information about climate change in this wild and witty adventure. Born to Draw Comics: The Story of Charles Schulz and the Creation of Peanuts Charles Schulz’s childhood seemed to portend his future work. Sparky (his nickname) enjoyed the newspaper comics, drew whenever he got the chance, was athletic, and had a dog with personality. Laid out as a comic strip, this brief, engaging, and revealing biography continues through Schulz’s military service during World War II and the creation of his classic strip, “Peanuts.” Additional information finishes the fascinating glimpse of a remarkable artist. Crossing on Time : Steam Engines, Fast Ships, and a Journey to the New World The story of steamships and transatlantic travel is intertwined with Macaulay’s personal story of leaving the United Kingdom for America in 1957. Sophisticated readers will appreciate the detailed narrative describing the evolution of ocean voyages though the richly detailed illustrations are likely to have broader appeal. Photographs (including a young David) and an afterword are included. Even More Lesser Spotted Animals Never heard of the black and rufous sengi? How about Brainville’s beaked whale? Lions, and tigers and giraffes are all familiar, but in this humorously illustrated and informative volume you’ll find out about even more less-well-known animals. As in the first book in the series, Lesser Spotted Animals, readers meet unfamiliar animals, where they are found, what they eat, and if they are thriving. After all, “how can we help something survive if we don’t even know it exists?” Humanimal: Incredible Ways Animals Are Just Like Us From farming to feelings, from teamwork to community, “…it turns out that the respect for animals that is so important in indigenous traditions makes very good sense.” In other words, humans and animals share a great deal, making all creatures “humanimals” — a case presented in clear illustration and straightforward text. The scientists who study animals and their behavior are included, as are additional resources. Lalani of the Distant Sea Lalani and her mother live on Sanlagita, an island under constant threat from the mountain Isa. Lalani’s quest begins when her mother falls gravely ill. Steeped in Filipino lore, this is a riveting fantasy, enhanced by evocative illustrations in a handsome format. Lalani confronts and overcomes all odds for a satisfying conclusion. Mac B.: Kid Spy: Kid Undercover Could the Mac B growing up in the 1980s really have been a spy before he became an author? Who gets called to England to help the Queen? Not likely, but it sure makes a good adventure. Amusing line drawings use limited color to add to the humor in the start of a new series. Fun and adventure with Mac B continue in Mac B. Kid Spy: The Impossible Crime. Nose Knows: Wild Ways Animals Smell the World How do we know something that is invisible is really all around? With our noses! Human “noses can detect more than 400,000 different smells.” Animals use their noses for different reasons; dogs smell marked territory, great white sharks detect prey. Sometimes humorous illustrations and flaps that lift reveal a bundle of information sure to inspire further inquiry. Pages and Co.: The Bookwanderers Her mother disappeared when Matilda “Tilly” Pages was just a baby. Since then she has lived with her grandparents in their London bookstore, Pages & Co. At the start of the midterm break, Tilly discovers a special talent: she is a bookwanderer which allows her to meet characters from her favorite books like Anne (of Green Gables) and Alice (in Wonderland). In this riveting, well-told tale, other characters from classics come alive. The conclusion is satisfying while pointing to forthcoming stories. Pie in the Sky Jingwen feels more like he’s on Mars than in Australia when he, his younger brother Yanghao, and their mother relocate from China. English is a breeze for Yanghao but a struggle for Jingwen who hears it as just gibberish. Line and wash illustrations cleverly depict the language confusion as well as the brothers’ plausible relationship. Even with serious issues present (the boys’ father has died; their mother works long hours) this remarkable book is witty, engaging, and entirely credible. Rise! From Caged Bird to Poetry of the People, Maya Angelou The life of Marguerite Johnson, better known as Maya Angelou, vividly comes to life in free verse and swirling images. Young Maya found solace in language, the rhythm of words during her difficult childhood in “the seesaw of the South,” and fast-paced St. Louis. She became a performer, a poet, and a highly respected novelist. A forward by her grandson encourages discussion as the book is shared. Photographs accompany a timeline of Maya’s life which concludes this sophisticated book. Science Comics: Wild Weather: Storms, Meteorology, and Climate A meteorologist tries to enlighten the handsome but clueless anchorman about weather, weather forecasting, and climate. The comic book format presents complex information about climate change, balancing it with just the right amount of humor. Advice to prepare for emergency preparedness and a glossary are included. Transportation and car enthusiasts will enjoy Science Comics: Cars Engines that Move You by Dan Zettwoch. Sonny’s Bridge: Jazz Legend Sonny Rollins Finds His Groove He was born in the jazz age so it’s not surprising that Walter Theodore "Sonny" Rollins loved jazz. He loved the saxophone and was a talented musician who became widely recognized. Free verse effectively explores Sonny’s life — including the hiatus he took from public performances, instead playing for himself on the Williamsburg Bridge. Jazzy illustrations enliven the handsome presentation. Can very different girls become best friends? Though both are Chinese-American, Moon and Christine are very different. Christine is cautious, serious, attends Chinese school, and follows rules. In spite of this, Christine and Moon become best friends. Christine wonders if she was a good enough friend when it is discovered that Moon’s celestial visions are caused by an all-too-real problem. Simple cartoon illustrations in full color are expressive and move this notable story to its gratifying conclusion. A note from the author/illustrator reveals the story’s genesis. Sweeping up the Heart Amelia wonders about what would have happened on spring break if her emotionally distant father had taken her to Florida or if she’d been able to go to France with Natalie. She never would have met Casey, or begun to know her father. With the love and support of an older neighbor, Mrs. O’Brien, Amelia decides her break was just right. Insights into growing up, emotions, and relationships are effectively presented in this quiet, short, and moving novel. The Dictionary of Difficult Words An affable start concludes with zest and zeal in this oversized volume which welcomes wordsmiths. Dip in or go through the alphabetic presentation of words that are likely unfamiliar to young readers. The part of speech (explained in the beginning) and pronunciation is included before the understandable definition. Illustrations enliven and enhance the entire presentation in this playful look at language. The Incredible Cabinet of Wonders Tailors, scientists, toy makers, miniaturists, doctors, and more have collections that relate to their interests. Twelve collections are presented on double-page spreads illustrated by different artists. Lift the flaps to discover what is contained therein. The Musician’s Cabinet contains Edison’s phonograph and a sea dragon wind instrument, for example. On the final spread, the museums in which these wonders are housed is provided. The Line Tender Twelve-year-old Lucy lives with her father in Rockport, Massachusetts. Her mother, a marine biologist, died several years earlier. Lucy and her best friend and neighbor with a passion for science are making a field guide about marine animals: Fred writes; Lucy draws. Loss, grief, and healing are deftly handled in this memorable, striking novel in which community, art, science, and love intersect. The Magnificent Migration: On Safari with Africa’s Last Great Herds There is great drama to be found on the Serengeti witnessed by scientists. Meet some of those who study the migration of wildebeest in Tanzania. Observe the animals that share the land with the wildebeest. The author’s insightful, illuminating, and highly readable narration in a handsome format with stunning photographs is also a plea for humankind to respect other mammals. Proceeds from the sale of books purchased at Amazon.com help support the Reading Rockets project. Thank you!

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The Philippines is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to the potential impacts of climate change. To fully understand these potential impacts, especially on future hydrological regimes and water resources (2010-2050), 24 river basins located in the major agricultural provinces throughout the Philippines were assessed. Calibrated using existing historical interpolated climate data, the STREAM model was used to assess future river flows derived from three global climate models (BCM2, CNCM3 and MPEH5) under two plausible scenarios (A1B and A2) and then compared with baseline scenarios (20th century). Results predict a general increase in water availability for most parts of the country. For the A1B scenario, CNCM3 and MPEH5 models predict an overall increase in river flows and river flow variability for most basins, with higher flow magnitudes and flow variability, while an increase in peak flow return periods is predicted for the middle and southern parts of the country during the wet season. However, in the north, the prognosis is for an increase in peak flow return periods for both wet and dry seasons. These findings suggest a general increase in water availability for agriculture, however, there is also the increased threat of flooding and enhanced soil erosion throughout the country. Citation: Tolentino PLM, Poortinga A, Kanamaru H, Keesstra S, Maroulis J, David CPC, et al. (2016) Projected Impact of Climate Change on Hydrological Regimes in the Philippines. PLoS ONE 11(10): e0163941. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163941 Editor: Maite deCastro, University of Vigo, SPAIN Received: January 21, 2016; Accepted: September 16, 2016; Published: October 17, 2016 Copyright: © 2016 Tolentino et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Funding: The work was part of the Assessments of Climate Change Impacts and Mapping of Vulnerability to Food Insecurity under Climate Change (AMICAF) under the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). The overall project was funded by the Japanese Government (project symbol at FAO is GCP/INT/126/JPN). AP received support in the form of salary from Water Insights. The funders did not have any additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: AP is affiliated to the private company Water Insight. Water Insight were involved in the development and training sessions for the toolbox, they had no involvement in the study. All data and models in the toolbox are open-source / open-access. No patents, products in development or marketed products were involved. The affiliation with Water Insight does not alter the authors’ adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials. Due to its geographical setting, the Philippines is naturally vulnerable to hydrometeorological hazards such as tropical cyclones, flooding, droughts, and rain-induced landslides. These environmental hazards are aggravated by human activities such as deforestation and improper land use planning. Moreover, the Philippines is one of the most vulnerable countries to the impacts of climatic change due to its high level of risk exposure and limited resources for adaptation . Furthermore, climate change represents a serious threat to the Philippines which is heavily reliant on agriculture for food security and economic growth. The livelihood of millions is threatened by the potential effects of climate change as current agricultural practices are adapted primarily to the prevailing climate. Under predicted climate change, current agricultural practices may become unsustainable due to changing rainfall patterns or temperature rises that reduce the viability of certain crop types. Therefore, an understanding of future seasonal variability in rainfall patterns and thus hydrological regimes under the impacts of climate change, is critically important in deciphering the ability of catchments to reliably supply irrigation water. In order to forecast the impact of climate change, the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC) has produced various future scenarios from which greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) are estimated and global climate models (GCMs) developed. Some studies have used the data to assess the effects of a warmer climate on flood risk at a global or continental scale [3, 4]. Despite the plethora of GCMs running numerous scenarios, these GCMs are however too coarse to assess the impact of climate change at a country scale let alone for examining specific hydrological basins within a country. Consequently, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) developed an integrated suite of climate models for assessing the impact of climate change on agriculture at the national level. The MOdelling System for Agricultural Impacts of Climate Change (MOSAICC) is a generic methodology designed to assess the impact of climate change on agriculture, by incorporating crop yields, water resources, macro-economic and downscaled climate data. The MOSAICC framework was deployed in this study to assess the potential impact of climate change on river flows under various climate scenarios up to 2050 for the Philippines. A time-series of historical interpolated downscaled climate data of hydrological simulations for model calibration was also used. Data from three GCMs (BCM2, CNCM3, MPEH5) with two likely scenarios each (A2 and A1B), were then input into the hydrological model. Materials and Methods The Philippines (Fig 1) is an archipelago made up of >7,000 islands with a total area of 300,000 km2. There are three main island groupings: Luzon in the north (141,000 km2), Visayas in the middle (57,000 km2) and Mindanao in the south (102,000 km2). The Philippines contains 421 principal river basins, 18 of which are considered major river basins, each with a minimum watershed area of 1,400 km2. These river basins are important sources of freshwater resources for meeting agricultural, commercial and domestic demands. The darker shaded areas on the map highlight the locations of the 24 basins that were included in this study, while the named points represent the basin outlets. The bar plot in the upper left corner represents the ranked total area of each of the 24 basins, while the graph in the lower left corner shows the period of available measured hydrological data used for model calibration for each basin. The climate of the Philippines can be divided into four distinct categories using the modified Coronas classification [5–7], as shown in Fig 1. Climate Type I is characterized by a distinct dry period from November to April and a wet season from May to October. Type II results in rainfall being evenly distributed throughout year, but with a very pronounced rainy season from November to January. In Type III, the seasons are not very pronounced, but a relatively dry period prevails from November to April. Finally, in Type IV, precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year. In this analysis, we used the modified Coronas classification as the basis of making the distinction between dry and wet months. To assess the impact of climate change on the hydrological regime at the country scale, various river basins were selected. This was done on the basis of catchment size, climate type, the availability of historical streamflow data and their importance to agricultural production. A total of 24 basins were selected, which represent sub-basins of the 18 major river basins in the Philippines and which are located within in major agricultural provinces. These basins and their outlets are shown in Fig 1. The basins selected include: 12 in Luzon, 3 in Visayas and 9 in Mindanao, with catchment sizes ranging from the San Juan River at 37.82 km2 to Pared River at 26,825 km2 (refer to barplot in Fig 1). To obtain reliable estimates of the likely impacts of climate change on the hydrological regime in the Philippines, determination of the most appropriate GCMs was needed. A further consideration is that GCMs vary both in their sensitivity to different levels of the atmosphere (from surface to 200hPA) and in their parameterization schemes. Downscaling was performed using the results from the sensitivity analysis provided by Manzanas (2015). The MOSAICC framework, was designed to host a variety of GCMs. In this study, three GCMs appear to be the most effective at simulating climate for the Philippines: ECHAM5/MPI-OM (MPEH5) developed at the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology; BCCR-BCM2.0 (BCM2) from the Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, and CNRM-CM3 (CNCM3) developed by the Météo-France (Centre National de Recherches Météorologiques). Furthermore, these GCMs are well documented by the Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison (PCMDI) and IPCC . Based on the four Special Reports on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) from the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), two likely scenarios were selected to simulate future climate change in the Philippines. The first SRES scenario (A1B) assumes very rapid economic growth, a global population that peaks in mid-century and the rapid introduction of new and more efficient technologies. The second scenario (A2) represents the negative extremes of high population growth, slow economic development and slow technological change. The two scenarios for the period 2010-2050 were compared with simulations of the 20th century (20C3M; referred to as baseline hereafter) which included the period 1971-2000. Calibration of the hydrological model was done using ERA-Interim (1979-2010), the latest global atmospheric reanalysis by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts . Climate data used in this study include precipitation (P) and potential evapotranspiration (PET), where the latter was derived from maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) temperatures . Basconcillo et al. (2015) statistically downscaled three GCMs under the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 3 (CMIP3) via the FAO-MOSAICC Portal (http://mosaicc.da.gov.ph). ERA-Interim (1979-2010) is the reanalysis dataset used to generate climate data in the absence of actual climate observations. The quasi-observations were used as predictors for calibrating statistical downscaling models, which Manzanas et al., (2015) attested to its better performance compared to the JRA-25 (1.125° x 1.125°) when compared with actual observations in the Philippines. ERA-Interim data was also used as quasi-observational inputs into the hydrological model because of its spatial and temporal homogeneity compared to the Philippines weather station observations that contained many missing values. The atmospheric elements used as predictors are meridional/zonal wind (U/V), specific humidity (Q) and temperature (T). The identified set of predictors used for downscaling are—U850, Q850, T1000—for Tmin and Tmax and—U850, U300, Q850, and T1000—for precipitation. The study downscaled these three variables at the weather station level using the three selected GCMs. There are 47/33/36 Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) stations for precipitation/Tmin/Tmax, respectively. The study also spatially interpolated the station-level downscaled climate data using the Analyse Utilisant le RELief pour l'HYdromt́éorologie (AURELHY) technique to obtain 10 km-gridded data for the whole country. The hydrological model STREAM (Spatial Tools for River basins and Environment and Analysis of Management options) was used in this study. STREAM is a spatially distributed GIS-based rainfall-runoff model, specifically suited to assess river flows in data scarce environments, as it relies on a water balance for stream flow estimations. The model, developed by Aerts et al., (1999) is optimized for the analysis of the hydrological impact of land use and climate change in river basins. The model has proven to give reliable results in numerous other studies in various locations and climatic regimes [15–20]. STREAM solves the water balance using a gridded landscape in order to estimate stream flows. For each basin, derived from a digital elevation map (DEM), the accumulated runoff and groundwater storage was calculated on a monthly basis. To maintain important topological features in the digital terrain model while keeping calculation times acceptable, the downscaled climate data was resized to the same spatial resolution of the DEM at approximately 1 km. No additional interpolation was applied in this step. In situ streamflow measurement data were used for model calibration. Data were digitized from physical records that contained daily runoff, while temporal coverage of the data series varied for each of the basins. Consecutive years with no missing data were selected for model calibration, to highlight the difference in temporal coverage. For instance, Fig 1 shows a temporal resolution of 3 years for the Agus basin, while for the Tukuran basin it is 14 years. As discharges were manually measured, quantifying the accuracy of the data with sufficient precision was an issue. As such, the degree of accuracy of records were categorized as “excellent”, “good”, “fair”, or “poor” using the following convention: “Excellent” means about 95% of daily discharges are within ±5% difference of the actual gauge height vs height computed from the rating curve; “Good” is within ±10%; and “Fair” is within ±15%; while “Poor” means daily discharges are below the 15% “Fair” accuracy. The median, mean and distributions of monthly discharge estimates were used for model calibration to account for missing data and variability in data quality. Hydrological model calibration was done to ensure measured monthly distributions are in agreement with the simulated ones. In situ streamflow measurements were used as a reference to validate the performance of the model. These calibrated model results were then used as a reference. Two parameters were manually adjusted to define the groundwater fraction and flow velocity using the precipitation and PET data from the ERA-interim dataset. Due to limited measured river flow data and the relatively coarse resolution of input data, modelled discharge distributions were compared with monthly distributions of measured data, rather than comparing exact periods. The model performance was evaluated by determining the coefficient of determination in comparing the monthly medians of the measured and modelled data and the volumetric efficiency . The volumetric efficiency was calculated using Eq 1, where VE denotes the volumetric efficiency, and Qm and Qo the modelled and observed discharge, respectively, where 1 indicates a perfect score. (1) Data analysis method Climate change induced differences were investigated by comparing the A1B and A2 modeled discharge series with the baseline. Baseline scenarios were generated by GCMs using historical atmospheric conditions. Comparison between the baseline and scenarios was performed by fitting a Gumbel distribution through the modelled runoff (Q) series and then extracting the Gumbel parameters . Fig 2 shows the probability density function (pdf) and cumulative distribution function (cdf) of three hypothetical Gumbel distribution functions. These were calculated using Eq 2 (cdf) and Eq 3 (pdf), where μ represents the mode, β a scale parameter and the median (μ1/2) is given by μ − β ln(ln(2)). The three curves in Fig 2, show that increases in μ results in higher discharge (Q), while an increase in β results in a larger range. Thus, a change in μ1/2 or β indicates a change in river flow magnitude or river flow variability, respectively. (2) (3) The black and red curves show the effect of an increasing mu, whereas the black and green curves show the effect of an increasing β. An increase in μ is associated with an increase in magnitude, while an increase in β is linked to an increase in the range. The probability of a specific extreme event can be calculated using the cumulative probability (F(Q): Eq 3) can be expressed by its return period y (Eq 4). As such, the maximum flood (Q) expected within a given number of years (y) can be expressed by Eq 5. (4) (5) The results of the STREAM calibrations and seasonal water availability are shown in Fig 3, where the downscaled average (1979-2010) seasonal water balances (precipitation-evaporation) are shown for four different periods (Dec-Feb, Mar-May, Jun-Aug and Sep-Nov) across the Philippines, with values mostly positive, and ranging up to 3000 mm. For climate Types I and III, values are mostly negative during the dry season, which means water from soil storage is mostly evaporated. The different climate types (see Fig 1) are well represented, with relatively dry periods for Types I and III in the months Dec-May (two left figures in Fig 3), whereas Type II is relatively wet during these periods. For climate Type IV, the water balance is relatively even throughout the year, while water availability is higher in mountainous regions compared to lower elevation areas. The four figures show the water balance for Dec-Feb (top-left), Mar-May (top-right), Jun-Aug (bottom-left) and Sep-Nov (bottom-right). Surrounding this are the plotted model calibration results that compares the measured data series (blue shading) with modelled ones (box-plots). The blue lines represent the median of the measured data series, whereas the blue shaded areas represent the inter-quartile range. R2 and volumetric efficiency (VE) are also presented in each of the plots. Calibration results of the hydrological simulations for the 24 basins are shown on the border of Fig 3. The blue line represents the monthly median of measured runoff values, the shaded areas are the inter-quartile ranges, while the box-plots show the distribution of modelled runoff. For all basins, there is close agreement between simulated and measured runoff values in terms of magnitude, but also seasonal streamflow patterns which are well represented. Correlations between the monthly median measured and simulated runoff, range between R2 = 0.60 for Gumain to R2 = 0.98 for Agus and Panay. There is a large variation in VE (Eq 1), which ranges from 0.47 for Tukuran, to a maximum of 0.87 for Panay. Distribution deviations often result from limited measured river flow data, as these small datasets do not include the wider distribution of river flows. Given the strength of the predicted vs. observed data for water quantity and seasonality in Fig 3, there is sufficient confidence for using the same set of parameters to simulate the different GCM scenarios. Fig 4 compares the yearly averaged water balance (PREC-PET) of the six scenarios (maps) with the baseline (as a percentage), which reveals an increase in water for most parts of the country for both scenarios. However, the A1B displays a larger increase compared to the A2 scenario. The GCMs also highlight a difference in water quantity. The largest increase was found using MPEH5, followed by CNCM3 and BCM2 (Fig 4). Spatial differences are also evident and are consistent for all GCMs and all scenarios. In the northern part of the country, the highest increase in water availability was expected. When moving south, water excess decreases, including an expected decrease in water for parts of Mindanao. Patterns of increase or decrease do not seem related to specific climate types, except for climate Type II, which shows consistently lower values compared to the rest of the country (refer to Figs 1 and 4). A positive number (%) indicates an increase of available water, a negative number indicates a decrease. The (μ1/2) and β of the Gumbel distribution were determined for all basins using Eq 3. An increase or decrease in median streamflow compared to the baseline is displayed with a percentage in the box-plot, while an increase (+) or decrease (-) in variability (β) is also shown in the box-plot. To evaluate changes in the amount and variability of river flow, the calibrated model was used to determine μ1/2 and β (Eq 2), which represents stream flow magnitude and stream flow variability, respectively. For all basins, we found a relationship of R2 > 0.98 when using non-linear regression. Next, the values of μ1/2 and β were compared with the baseline scenario. The box-plots of Fig 4 show the results for each scenario. The BCM2 model predicts stream flow volumes and variability comparable with the current situation, but with a decrease in water availability for some basins. The CNCM3 and MPEH5 models reveal an increase in river discharge volumes and variability, which are both larger for the A1B scenario compared to A2. At the yearly timescale, an increase in both volume and variability would be expected for most basins. Given that a redistribution of water between the dry and wet season might adversely affect agricultural practices, the seasonal variability of river runoff was studied in more detail. For the six different GCM-scenario combinations, the minimum, median, maximum and inter-quartiles of river discharge were calculated for the dry and wet season. Fig 5 reveals if these values increased (green bar) or decreased (red bar) compared to the baseline scenario for the dry (left) and wet (right) season. The size of the bar indicates the number of scenarios that experience an increase or decrease, respectively, whereas no bar indicates an equal number of scenarios that increased and decreased. For climate Type IV, the year round results were compared, as this zone has no distinct wet season. The wet season includes maximum rain periods for Type I (May-Oct) and Type II (Nov-Jan). For climate Type III we used the relatively dry period from Nov to Apr to distinguish between wet and dry. A very consistent overall increase in streamflow is predicted by all GCMs and all scenarios for the whole country in both the dry and wet season. The scenarios show that the most consistent increase was for Luzon in the wet and dry season, whereas results for Visayas and Mindanao in the dry season are less consistent. No clear trend was found when comparing the different climatic types. In general, there was an overall increase in water availability for the wet and dry season in the Philippines. The smallest increase, and potentially a projected decrease in current rainfall, was observed in the easternmost regions of Visayas and Mindanao for all model runs. An increase in streamflow was indicated with a green bar and a decrease with a red bar. The different lengths of the horizontal bars indicate the number of scenarios with an increase or decrease for the dry (left) and wet (right) season. A general increase in water availability might be beneficial for the agricultural sector but there are other potential problems in the form of flooding during intense rainfall and higher peak flows. Therefore, the return periods (2, 10, 100 years; Eq 5) of peak flows were investigated and compared with baseline scenarios. Fig 6 reveals the percentage increase or decrease of return flows for each basin in the dry and wet season. For the dry season, an increase in peak flows were found for the CNCM3 and MPEH5 models in Luzon, whereas the magnitude of return flows would remain unchanged according to the BCM2 model. It was also expected that Luzon will experience the most dramatic increase in peak flows for all scenarios. Luzon and Viscayas can expect an increase in return flow compared to the baseline in the dry and wet season (see Fig 6). For Visayas and Mindanao, return periods are predicted to increase in the dry season, but remain similar to the current wet season. An increase or decrease in return flow is expressed as a percentage compared to the baseline scenario. Return flows for the dry period are shown in the white box and return periods of the wet season in the gray box (note the difference in scale). The dots on the right of each plot indicate the GCM and scenario used (refer to the legend). The water balance calculations show an overall increase in water quantity for both the wet and dry seasons with river flow distributions revealing an overall increase in water availability. The data reveals a clear north-south trend rather than a trend associated with different climatic types. The northern part of the country (Luzon) is expected to experience a dramatic increase in peak river runoff, while Visayas and Mindanao are predicted to experience an increase in river discharge that is not associated with higher peak flows. Areas with climate Type IV will experience the least impact from climate change, apart from a small increase in water quantity and return periods of high water levels. However, due to data scarcity, hydrological simulations were only performed for three basins in Visayas and nine in Mindanao. Moreover, no representative basin from climate Type II was included. The projected increase in water availability would benefit the agricultural sector, especially in the dry season when water is scarce. Furthermore, these near-future projections show a reduction in vulnerability to drought of rainfed cropping systems, which may facilitate the expansion of the current irrigated cropping systems in the wet season. However, the large increase in return floods in Luzon might jeopardize this advantage. An increase in extreme rainfall events will aggravate water induced soil erosion in highland areas , especially at the onset of the growing season when fields are bare. Low-lying areas on the other hand will be exposed to increased flood risk. The order of magnitude of this flood risk is especially concerning. Given these projections, it is evident that adaptation measures for flood control such as sustainable land management, ecosystem services and infrastructural works are necessary to reduce climate change impacts. This study provides a general assessment of plausible climate change impacts on hydrology and water resources in the Philippines. However, for the available data, the relatively coarse scale of the climate data and the nationwide approach, specific aspects such as land cover changes or hydraulic infrastructure that might significantly impact local hydrology were not explicitly accounted for in this study. The hydrology model is a simple water balance model without sophisticated water routing. The estimations presented of river flows are at the basin outlet but does not include spatio-temporal dynamics within the basin. Important climatological features such as tropical cyclones and El Ni o and La Ni a events were also not specifically considered in this study. The effects associated with these events are embedded in the GCMs and cannot be accounted for seperately. A more direct link between the climate models, downscaling techniques and hydrological model would facilitate the investigation of a wider range of options. Future studies might utilize a similar methodology to study the impacts of climate change on water resources for a wider array of climate scenarios and downscaling techniques using the next generation of climate models. Results for specific basins should be interpreted as a trend rather than absolute changes, as GCMs have some inherent uncertainties. While the downscaled climate projections include many of the local climatological features, they can still be considered as rather coarse from a hydrological perspective. However, it is reassuring that closely located basins show similar trends in terms of changes in magnitude and variability. Three GCMs with two different scenarios each show a clear increase in river flows for the wet and dry season in the Philippines. While the minimum river flow levels were found to increase, so did flow variability, due largely to higher magnitude maximum flows. Climate change effects for Visayas and Mindanao are expected to be relatively mild compared to Luzon, where a dramatic increase in return intervals for maximum river flow rates is predicted. Benefits of an increase in availability of water resources could be jeopardized by pronounced water-induced soil erosion and enhanced risks of future floods. We thank the FAO and The Assessments of Climate Change Impacts and Mapping of Vulnerability to Food Insecurity under Climate Change (AMICAF), funded by the Japanese Government, for their generous support. Two reviewers are thanked for their valuable comments. - Conceptualization: PLMT AP HK. - Data curation: PLMT AP SK JM. - Formal analysis: PLMT AP SK. - Funding acquisition: HK. - Investigation: PLMT AP HK SK JM. - Methodology: PLMT AP HK. - Project administration: PLMT AP HK. - Resources: HK. - Software: AP HK. - Supervision: HK CPCD CJR. - Validation: PLMT AP. - Visualization: AP. - Writing – original draft: PLMT AP HK SK. - Writing – review & editing: HK JM CPCD CJR. - 1. Harmeling S. Global Climate Risk Index: Who Suffers Most from Extreme Weather Events? Weather-related Loss Events in 2009 and 1990 to 2009. 2011. Germanwatch; 2010. - 2. UNFCCC. Climate change: impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptation in developing countries. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; 2007. - 3. Hirabayashi Y, Mahendran R, Koirala S, Konoshima L, Yamazaki D, Watanabe S, et al. Global flood risk under climate change. Nat Clim Chang. 2013;3(9):816–821. - 4. Arnell NW. The effect of climate change on hydrological regimes in Europe: a continental perspective. Glob Environ Chang. 1999;9(1):5–23. - 5. Coronas J. The climate and weather of the Philippines, 1903-1918. vol. 25. Bureau of printing; 1920. - 6. Jose AM, Cruz NA. Climate change impacts and responses in the Philippines: water resources. Clim Res. 1999;12(2-3):77–84. - 7. Kintanar RL. Climate of the Philippines. PASAGA; 1984. - 8. PCMDI. CMIP3 Climate Model Documentation, References, and Links; 2007. http://www-pcmdi.llnl.gov/ipcc/model_documentation/ipcc_model_documentation.php. - 9. IPCC. Available SRES Scenarion Runs for AR4; 2014. http://www.ipcc-data.org/sim/gcm_monthly/SRES_AR4/index.html. - 10. Dee D, Uppala S, Simmons A, Berrisford P, Poli P, Kobayashi S, et al. The ERA-Interim reanalysis: Configuration and performance of the data assimilation system. Q J Roy Meteor Soc. 2011;137(656):553–597. - 11. Hargreaves GL, Hargreaves GH, Riley JP. Irrigation water requirements for Senegal River basin. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering. 1985;111(3):265–275. - 12. Basconcillo J, Lucero A, Solis A, Bautista E, Sandoval R, Kanamaru H, et al. Downscaled Projected Changes in Seasonal Mean Temperature and Rainfall in the Cagayan Valley, Philippines. Journal of Meteorological Society of Japan. 2015;. - 13. Manzanas R, Brands S, San-Martín D, Lucero A, Limbo C, Gutiérrez J. Statistical Downscaling in the Tropics Can Be Sensitive to Reanalysis Choice: A Case Study for Precipitation in the Philippines. J Clim. 2015;28(10):4171–4184. - 14. Aerts J, Kriek M, Schepel M. STREAM (Spatial Tools for River Basins and Environment and Analysis of Management Options):‘set up and requirements’. Phys Chem Earth Pt B. 1999;24(6):591–595. - 15. Kummu M, Ward PJ, de Moel H, Varis O. Is physical water scarcity a new phenomenon? Global assessment of water shortage over the last two millennia. Environ Res Lett. 2010;5(3):034006. - 16. Winsemius H, Savenije H, Gerrits A, Zapreeva E, Klees R. Comparison of two model approaches in the Zambezi river basin with regard to model reliability and identifiability. Hydrol Earth Syst Sc. 2006;10(3):339–352. - 17. Ward PJ, Renssen H, Aerts J, Van Balen R, Vandenberghe J. Strong increases in flood frequency and discharge of the River Meuse over the late Holocene: impacts of long-term anthropogenic land use change and climate variability. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions. 2008;12(1):159–175. - 18. Bouwer L, Aerts J, Droogers P, Dolman A. Detecting the long-term impacts from climate variability and increasing water consumption on runoff in the Krishna river basin (India). Hydrol Earth Syst Sci Discuss. 2006;3(4):1249–1280. - 19. Hurkmans RTWL, de Moel H, Aerts JCJH, Troch PA. Water balance versus land surface model in the simulation of Rhine river discharges. Water Resour Res. 2008;44(1). - 20. Stürck J, Poortinga A, Verburg PH. Mapping ecosystem services: The supply and demand of flood regulation services in Europe. Ecol Indic. 2014;38:198–211. - 21. Criss RE, Winston WE. Do Nash values have value? Discussion and alternate proposals. Hydrol Process. 2008;22(14):2723. - 22. Gumbel EJ. The return period of flood flows. Ann Math Stat. 1941;12(2):163–190. - 23. Bui YT, Orange D, Visser S, Hoanh CT, Laissus M, Poortinga A, et al. Lumped surface and sub-surface runoff for erosion modeling within a small hilly watershed in northern Vietnam. Hydrological Processes. 2014;28(6):2961–2974.

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Module 21 - Test Methods and Practices Pages i - ix, 1-1 to 1-10, 1-11 to 1-20, 1-21 to 1-26, 2-1 to 2-10, 2-11 to 2-20, 2-21 to 2-30, 2-31 to 2-40, 2-41 to 2-48, 3-1 to 3-10, 3-11 to 3-20, 3-21 to 3-30, 3-31 to 3-39, 4-1 to 4-10, 4-11 to 4-14, 5-1 to 5-10, 5-11 to 5-20, 5-21 to 5-30, 5-31 to 5-35, AI-1 to AI-3, Index Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 1. Explain the importance of testing individual electronic components. 2. Identify the various methods of testing electron tubes. 3. Identify the various methods of testing semiconductors. 4. Identify the various methods of testing integrated circuits. 5. Identify the various types of testing batteries and their characteristics. 6. Identify the various methods of testing rf attenuators and resistive loads. 7. Identify the various methods of testing fiber-optic devices. INTRODUCTION TO COMPONENT TESTING It is imperative that you be able to troubleshoot an equipment failure to the component level. In the majority of cases, Navy technicians are expected to troubleshoot and identify faulty components. This chapter, "Component Testing," will acquaint you with alternative methods of testing various components and their parameters. A quick glance at the Navy's mission and concept of operation explains why we, in most cases, must be able to troubleshoot to the faulty component level. A ship must be a self-sustaining unit when deployed. Storage space is a primary consideration on most ships and a limiting factor for storage of bulky items or electronic modules as ready spares. Therefore, it is practical to store only individual components common to a great number of equipment types. This of course, limits the larger replacement modules available to you during troubleshooting. Q-1. Why are most ships limited in their ability to stock replacement modules for repair of electronic equipment? TESTING ELECTRON TUBES In equipment that uses vacuum tubes, faulty tubes are responsible for more than 50% of all electronic equipment failures. As a result, testing of electronic tubes is important to you. You can determine the condition of a tube by substituting an identical tube known to be good for the questionable one. However, indiscriminate substitution of tubes is to be avoided for at least the following two reasons: (1) detuning of circuits may result and (2) a tube may not operate properly in a high-frequency circuit even though it performs well in a low-frequency circuit. Therefore, your knowledge of tube-testing devices and their limitations, as well as correct interpretation of the test results obtained, is indispensable for accurate and rapid maintenance. Because the operating capabilities and design features of a tube are demonstrated by its electrical characteristics, a tube is tested by measuring those characteristics and comparing them with representative values established for that type of tube. Tubes that read abnormally high or low with respect to the standard are suspect. Practical considerations, which take into account the limitations of the tube test in predicting actual tube performance in a particular circuit, make it unnecessary to use complex and costly test equipment with laboratory accuracy. For most applications, testing of a single tube characteristic is good enough to determine tube performance. Some of the more important factors affecting the life expectancy of an electron tube are listed below: · The circuit function of the tube · Deterioration of the cathode coating · A decrease in emission of impregnated emitters in aging filament-type tubes · Defective seals that permit air to leak into the envelope and oxidize the emitting surface · Internal short circuits and open circuits caused by vibration or excessive voltage If the average receiving tube is not overdriven or operated continuously at maximum rating, it can have a life of at least 2,000 hours before the filament opens. Because of the expansion and contraction of tube elements during the process of heating and cooling, electrodes may lean or sag, which causes excessive noise or microphonics to develop. Other electron-tube defects are cathode-to-heater leakage and nonuniform electron emission of the cathode. These common tube defects contribute to about 50% of all electronic equipment failures. For this reason you should immediately eliminate any tube known to be faulty. However, avoid blind or random replacement of good tubes with fresh spares. The most common cause of tube failure is open filaments. Evidence of a tube defect is often obvious when the filament is open in glass-envelope tubes. You will also notice the brighter-than-normal cherry-red glow of the plate when the plate current is excessive. Also, when the tube becomes gassy or when arcing occurs between electrodes, you will probably have visual indication. Metal-encased tubes can be felt for warmth to determine if the heater is operating. You can tap a tube while it is operating in a circuit to reveal an aural indication of loose elements within the tube or microphonics, which are produced by loose elements. Most tubes are extremely fragile and subject to damage during shipment. When you replace a tube, never make the assumption that the new tube is good because it's new. You should always test tubes before installing them. Q-2. What is the most common cause of electron tube failure? Substituting with a tube known to be in good condition is a simple method of testing a questionable tube. However, in high-frequency circuits tube substitution should be carried out in a logical sequence. Replace tubes one at a time so that you can observe the effect of differences in interelectrode capacitance in the substituted tubes on tuned circuits. The tube substitution test method cannot be used to advantage in locating more than one faulty tube in a single circuit for two reasons: (1) If both an rf amplifier tube and IF amplifier tube are defective in a receiver, replacing either one will not correct the trouble; and (2) if all the tubes are replaced, there is no way for you to know what tubes were defective. Under these conditions, using test equipment designed for testing the quality of a tube saves you valuable time. Q-3. What is the most accurate method of determining the condition of an electron tube? NOTE ON SYMBOLS USED IN THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS: IEEE and ANSI standards (see inside front cover) are used to define various terms, such as anode (plate) current, anode voltage, and anode resistance. This book uses Ea for anode voltage, Ia for anode current, and Ra for anode resistance. These are the same as E, Ip, and Rp that you will see elsewhere. This module uses the terms anode and plate interchangeably. ELECTRON TUBE TESTERS A representative field type of electron tube tester designed to test all common low-power tubes is shown in figure 2-1. The tube test conditions are as close as possible to actual tube operating conditions and are programmed on a pre-punched card. The card switch (S101, fig. 2-1) automatically programs the tube test conditions when it is actuated by a card. A card compartment on the front panel of the tester provides storage for the most frequently used cards. The cover of the tester (not shown) contains the operating instructions, the brackets for storing the technical manual, the power cord, the calibration cell for checking the meter and short tests, the calibration cards, the blank cards, and a steel hand punch. Figure 2-1. - Electron tube tester. When a pre-punched card is fully inserted into the card switch (S101), a microswitch is actuated that energizes a solenoid, causing the card switch contacts to complete the circuit. The card switch has 187 single-pole, single-throw switches arranged in 17 rows with 11 switches in each row. The card is used to push the switches closed; thus, the absence of a hole in the card is required to actuate a switch. The meter (M301) contains four scales. The upper scale is graduated from 0 to 100 for direct numerical readings. The three lower scales, numbered 1, 2, and 3, are read for LEAKAGE, QUALITY, and GAS, respectively. Each numbered scale includes green and red areas marked GOOD and REPLACE. Inside a shield directly in front of the meter are five neon lamps (DS301 through DS305), which indicate shorts between tube elements. The number 2 pushbutton (MP6) is used for transconductance, emission, and other quality tests (described later). The number 3 pushbutton (MP7) is used to test for the presence of gas in the tube envelope. The number 4 pushbutton (MP8) is used for tests on dual tubes. A neon lamp (DS203) lights when pushbutton number 4 is to be used. Eleven tube test sockets are located on the panel, plus tube pin straighteners for the 7- and 9-pin miniature tubes. The power ON-OFF spring-return toggle switch (S105) turns the tester on by energizing a line relay. The pilot light (DS107) lights when this relay closes. Above the power ON-OFF switch are five fuses. Fuses F101, F201, and F202 protect circuits in the tester not protected by other means and have neon lamps to indicate when they have blown. Fuses F102 and F103 protect both sides of the power line. A group of auxiliary controls covered by a hinged panel is used for special tests and for calibration of the tester. Two of these controls, labeled SIGNAL CAL (R152 and R155, fig. 2-2), are used with special test cards for adjusting the regulation and amplitude of the signal voltage. A pushbutton labeled CATH ACT (S302D) is used for making cathode activity tests. When this button is pressed, DS106 on the front panel (fig. 2-1) lights, and the filament voltage of the tube under test is reduced by 10%. Results of the test are read as a change in reading on the numerical meter scale. Figure 2-2. - Auxiliary compartment. Pushbutton S302E and potentiometers R401 and R405 (fig. 2-2) are used for balancing the transconductance (Gm) bridge circuit under actual tube operating current. Pressing S302E removes the grid signal and allows a zero balance to be made with one potentiometer or the other, depending upon whether the tube under test is passing high or low plate current. Lamp DS108 on the front panel lights when S302E is pressed. Pushbutton S302C is used for checking grid-to-cathode shorts at a sensitivity much higher than the normal tests. Results of this test are indicated by the short test lamps on the front panel. Certain special tests require the use of a continuously adjustable auxiliary power supply. By pressing pushbutton S302B, you may use meter M301 to read the voltage of the auxiliary power supply on meter M301. This voltage may be adjusted by the use of the potentiometer R142. The rest of the potentiometer controls are calibration controls and are adjusted by the use of special calibration cards and a calibration test cell. All circuits in the tester, except the filament supply, are electronically regulated to compensate for line voltage fluctuations. The filament supply voltage is adjusted by pressing pushbutton S302A and rotating the filament standardization adjustment switch S106 until meter M301 reads midscale. The circuits to be used in testing are selected by a pre-punched card. These cards are made of tough vinyl plastic material. The tube numbers are printed in color on the tabs of the cards and also at the edge of the card for convenience in filing. A special card is provided to use as a marker when a card is removed for use. Blank cards are provided so that additional test cards may be punched for new tubes that are developed or to replace cards that have become unserviceable. Before operating the tester for the first time, and periodically thereafter, you should calibrate it using the calibration test cards as described in the equipment technical manual. NORMAL TESTS. - The tester is equipped with a three-conductor power cord, one wire of which is chassis ground. It should be plugged into a grounded 105- to 125-volt, 50- to 400-hertz outlet. Before operating the tester, open the auxiliary compartment (fig. 2-2) and ensure that the FILAMENT STD ADJ and the Gm BAL knobs are in the NOM position. The GRID SIG and CATH ACT buttons (S302E and S302D) should be up and lamps DS108 and DS106 on the front panel should be out. Turn on the tester and allow it to warm up for 5 to 10 minutes, then press the CARD REJECT KNOB (fig. 2-1) down until it locks. If a non-test card is installed in the card switch, remove it. This card is used to keep the switch pins in place during shipment and should be inserted before transporting the tester. Plug the tube to be tested into its proper socket. (Use the pin straighteners before plugging in 7- and 9-pin miniature tubes.) Select the proper card or cards for the tube to be tested. Insert the card selected into the slot in the card switch until the CARD REJECT KNOB pops up. The card will operate the tester only if it is fully inserted and the printing is up and toward the operator. Do not put paper or objects other than program cards into the card switch, because they will jam the switch contacts. If the overload shuts off the tester when the card is inserted in the switch, check to see that the proper card is being used for the tube under test and that the tube under test has a direct interelement short. As soon as the card switch is actuated, the tube under test is automatically subjected to an interelement short test and a heater-to-cathode leakage test. A blinking or steady glow of any of the short test lamps is an indication of an interelement short. If the short test lamps remain dark, no interelement shorts exist within the tube. If a short exists between two or more elements, the short test lamp or lamps connected between these elements remain dark, and the remaining lamps light. The abbreviations for the tube elements are located on the front panel just below the short test shield so that the neon lamps are between them. This enables the operator to tell which elements are shorted. Heater-to-cathode shorts are indicated as leakage currents on the #1 meter scale. If the meter reads above the green area, the tube should be replaced. A direct heater-to-cathode short causes the meter to read full scale. To make the QUALITY test, push the number 2 button (fig. 2-1) and read the number 2 scale on meter M301 to determine if the tube is good. (This test may be one of various types, such as transconductance, emission, plate current, or voltage drop, depending upon the type of tube under test.) To test the tube for GAS, press the number 3 button and read the number 3 meter scale. The number 2 button also goes down when number 3 is pressed. If a dual tube having two identical sections is being tested, the neon lamp (DS203) will light, indicating that both sections of the tube may be tested with one card. To do this, check the tube for shorts, leakage, quality, and gas as described previously; then hold down button number 4 and repeat these tests to test the second section of the tube. Dual tubes with sections that are not identical require two cards for testing. A second card is also provided to make special tests on certain tubes. AUXILIARY TEST. - As mentioned previously, two special tests (cathode activity and sensitive grid shorts) may be made by use of controls located in the auxiliary compartment (fig. 2-2). The cathode activity test (CATH ACT) is used to indicate the amount of useful life remaining in the tube. By reducing the filament voltage by 10 percent and allowing the cathode to cool off slightly, the ability of the cathode as an emitter of electrons can be estimated. This test is made in conjunction with the normal quality test. To make the CATH ACT test, allow the tube under test to warm up, press button number 2 (fig. 2-1), and note the reading of scale number 2 on meter M301. Note also the numerical scale reading on M301. Next, lock down the CATH ACT button (fig. 2-2), wait for about 1.5 minutes, then press button number 2 (fig. 2-1) again and note the numerical and number 2 scale readings on meter M301. The tube should be replaced if the numerical reading on M301 differs from the first reading by more than 10 percent or if the reading is in the red area on the number 2 scale. It is sometimes desirable to check certain tubes for shorts at a sensitivity greater than normal. To make the SENSITIVE GRID SHORTS test, push S302C (fig. 2-2) and note if any short test lamps (fig. 2-1) light. HIGH-POWER HF AMPLIFIER TUBE TESTS You normally test high-power amplifier tubes, which operate in the low-to-high frequency range, in the transmitter in which they are to be used. When you operate the tube in a transmitter, its condition can be determined by using built-in meters to measure the grid current, plate current, and power output and comparing those values with those obtained when using tubes known to be good. Q-4. Normally, how are high-power RF tubes tested? Klystron Tube Tests You can check low-power klystron tubes for gas, frequency of the output signal, and output power by placing them in the equipment where they are to be used. You measure the beam current, output frequency, and output power with the transmitter's built-in test equipment. You can check the output of klystrons used as receiver local oscillators by measuring the current in the crystal mixer unit. Klystron tubes that remain inoperative for more than 6 months may become gassy. This condition occurs in klystrons installed in stored or spare equipment as well as in klystrons stored as stock supplies. Operation of a gassy klystron at its rated voltages will ionize the gas molecules and may cause excessive beam current to flow. This excessive beam current may shorten the life of the klystron or produce immediate failure. You can detect gas in a klystron tube by setting the applied reflector voltage to zero and slowly increasing the beam voltage while observing a meter that indicates the beam current - excessive beam current for a specific value of voltage indicates that the tube is gassy. A gassy klystron tube can usually be restored to serviceable condition if you temporarily operate it at reduced beam voltage. Eight hours or more of reduced voltage operation may be required for klystrons that have been inoperative for periods in excess of 6 months. The beam current is also an indication of the power output of the klystron. As klystrons age they normally draw less beam current; when this current decreases to a minimum value for a specific beam voltage, the tube must be replaced. You can usually determine the power output of transmitter klystrons by measuring the transmitter power output during equipment performance checks. Q-5. What should you do if a klystron becomes gassy? You can usually test a traveling-wave tube (TWT) in the equipment in which it is used. When the TWT is installed, you can usually measure the collector current and voltage and check the power output for various inputs. Any deviation greater than 10% from normal specifications may be considered to be an indication of a defective tube. Most amplifiers are supplied with built-in panel meters and selector switches so that the cathode, anode, helix, focus, and collector currents may be measured. Thus, continuous monitoring of amplifier operation and tube evaluation is possible. Adjustments usually are provided for you to set the helix, grid bias, and collector voltages for optimum operation. If variation of these controls will not produce normal currents and if all voltages are normal, you should consider the tube to be defective and replace it with a new tube or one known to be in good operating condition. To avoid needless replacement of tubes, however, you should make an additional check by measuring the input power and output power and determining the tube gain. If, with normal operating conditions, the gain level drops below the minimum indicated value in the equipment technical manual, the tube is defective. Q-6. When used as an amplifier, what is the best indication that a TWT is operating properly? In the absence of special field-test sets, you may construct a laboratory test mock-up similar to that shown in figure 2-3. Because of the variations in power and gain between tubes and the large frequency ranges offered, we can illustrate only a general type of equipment. The equipment you select must have the proper range, impedance, and attenuation to make the test for a specific type of TWT. To make gain measurements, you turn the switch shown in figure 2-3 to position 1 and set the precision attenuator to provide a convenient level of detector output. Then turn the switch to position 2 and insert attenuation until the detector output level is identical to that obtained without the TWT in the circuit. The gain of the traveling-wave tube is equal to the amount of added attenuation. Figure 2-3. - Traveling-wave tube test arrangement. When you use the TWT as an oscillator, failure of the tube to break into oscillations when all other conditions are normal usually indicates a defective tube. In the case of a tube used as a receiving amplifier, an increase of noise with a normal or reduced output can indicate that the tube is failing but is still usable. All the general rules applying to klystron tubes mentioned previously are also applicable to the TWT. Magnetron Tube Tests You test a magnetron tube while it is in the transmitter equipment in which it is to be used. When you install the magnetron in the transmitter, the condition of the tube can be determined by the normal plate-current measurement and the power, frequency spectrum, and standing-wave-ratio tests of the output signal. An unusual value for any of these measurements may indicate a defective tube. You usually test a crossed-field amplifier (CFA) tube while it is in the equipment in which it is used. Like the klystron, if you do not operate the CFA for more than a few months, the tube may become gassy. If a CFA tube is suspected of being gassy, we recommend that you consult the technical manual for the particular piece of equipment in which the crossed-field amplifier is used. Unlike vacuum tubes, transistors are very rugged in that they can tolerate vibration and a rather large degree of shock. Under normal operating conditions, they will provide dependable operation for a long period of time. However, transistors are subject to failure when they are subjected to relatively minor overloads. Crystal detectors are also subject to failure or deterioration when subjected to electrical overloads and will deteriorate from a long period of normal use. To determine the condition of semiconductors, you can use various test methods. In many cases you may substitute a transistor of known good quality for a questionable one to determine the condition of a suspected transistor. This method is highly accurate and sometimes efficient. However, you should avoid indiscriminate substitution of semiconductors in critical circuits. When transistors are soldered into equipment, substitution becomes impractical - generally, you should test these transistors while they are in their circuits. Q-7. What is the major advantage of a transistor over a tube? Since certain fundamental characteristics indicate the condition of semiconductors, test equipment is available that allows you to test these characteristics with the semiconductors in or out of their circuits. Crystal-rectifier testers normally allow you to test only the forward-to-reverse current ratio of the crystal. Transistor testers, however, allow you to measure several characteristics, such as the collector leakage current (Ic), collector to base current gain (b), and the four-terminal network parameters. The most useful test characteristic is determined by the type of circuit in which the transistor will be used. Thus, the alternating-current beta measurement is preferred for ac amplifier or oscillator applications; and for switching-circuit applications, a direct-current beta measurement may prove more useful. Many common transistors are extremely heat sensitive. Excess heat will cause the semiconductor to either fail or give intermittent operation. You have probably experienced intermittent equipment problems and know them to be both time consuming and frustrating. You know, for example, that if a problem is in fact caused by heat, simply opening the equipment during the course of troubleshooting may cause the problem to disappear. You can generally isolate the problem to the faulty printed-circuit board (PCB) by observing the fault indications. However, to further isolate the problem to a faulty component, sometimes you must apply a minimal amount of heat to the suspect PCB by carefully using a low wattage, heat shrink gun; an incandescent drop light; or a similar heating device. Be careful not to overheat the PCB. Once the fault indication reappears, you can isolate the faulty component by spraying those components suspected as being bad with a nonconductive circuit coolant, such as Freon. If the alternate heating and cooling of a component causes it to operate intermittently, you should replace it. Q-8. Name two major disadvantages of transistors. When trouble occurs in solid-state equipment, you should first check power supplies and perform voltage measurements, waveform checks, signal substitution, or signal tracing. If you isolate a faulty stage by one of these test methods, then voltage, resistance, and current measurements can be made to locate defective parts. When you make these measurements, the voltmeter impedance must be high enough that it exerts no appreciable effect upon the voltage being measured. Also, current from the ohmmeter you use must not damage the transistors. If the transistors are not soldered into the equipment, you should remove the transistors from the sockets during a resistance test. Transistors should be removed from or reinserted into the sockets only after power has been removed from the stage; otherwise damage by surge currents may result. Transistor circuits, other than pulse and power amplifier stages, are usually biased so that the emitter current is from 0.5 milliampere to 3 milliamperes and the collector voltage is from 3 to 15 volts. You can measure the emitter current by opening the emitter connector and inserting a milliammeter in series. When you make this measurement, you should expect some change in bias because of the meter resistance. You can often determine the collector current by measuring the voltage drop across a resistor in the collector circuit and calculating the current. If the transistor itself is suspected, it can be tested by one or more of the methods described below. You can use an ohmmeter to test transistors by measuring the emitter-collector, base-emitter, and base-collector forward and reverse resistances. A back-to-forward resistance ratio on the order of 100 to 1 or greater should be obtained for the collector-to-base and emitter-to-base measurements. The forward and reverse resistances between the emitter and collector should be nearly equal. You should make all three measurements for each transistor you test, because experience has shown that transistors can develop shorts between the collector and emitter and still have good forward and reverse resistances for the other two measurements. Because of shunting resistances in transistor circuits, you will normally have to disconnect at least two transistor leads from the associated circuit for this test. Exercise caution during this test to make certain that current during the forward resistance tests does not exceed the rating of the transistor - ohmmeter ranges requiring a current of more than 1 milliampere should not be used for testing transistors. Many ohmmeters are designed such that on the R x 1 range, 100 milliamperes or more can flow through the electronic part under test. For this reason, you should use a digital multimeter. Be sure you select a digital multimeter that produces enough voltage to properly bias the transistor junctions. Q-9. When you are using an ohmmeter to test a transistor, what range settings should be avoided? Laboratory transistor test sets are used in experimental work to test all characteristics of transistors. For maintenance and repair, however, it is not necessary to check all of the transistor parameters. A check of two or three performance characteristics is usually sufficient to determine whether a transistor needs to be replaced. Two of the most important parameters used for transistor testing are the transistor current gain (beta) and the collector leakage or reverse current (Ic). The semiconductor test set (fig. 2-4) is a rugged, field type of tester designed to test transistors and semiconductor diodes. The set measures the beta of a transistor, resistance appearing at the electrodes, reverse current of a transistor or semiconductor diode, shorted or open conditions of a diode, forward transconductance of a field-effect transistor, and condition of its own batteries. Figure 2-4. - Semiconductor test set. In order to assure that accurate and useful information is gained from the transistor tester, the following preliminary checks of the tester should be made prior to testing any transistors. With the POLARITY switch (fig. 2-4) in the OFF position, the meter pointer should indicate exactly zero. (When required, rotate the meter adjust screw on the front of the meter to fulfill this requirement.) When measurements are not actually being made, the POLARITY switch must always be left in the OFF position to prevent battery drain. NEETS Table of Contents - Introduction to Matter, Energy, and Direct Current - Introduction to Alternating Current and Transformers - Introduction to Circuit Protection, Control, and Measurement - Introduction to Electrical Conductors, Wiring Techniques, and Schematic Reading - Introduction to Generators and Motors - Introduction to Electronic Emission, Tubes, and Power Supplies - Introduction to Solid-State Devices and - Introduction to Amplifiers - Introduction to Wave-Generation and Wave-Shaping - Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas - Microwave Principles - Modulation Principles - Introduction to Number Systems and Logic Circuits - Introduction to Microelectronics - Principles of Synchros, Servos, and Gyros - Introduction to Test Equipment - Radio-Frequency Communications Principles - Radar Principles - The Technician's Handbook, Master Glossary - Test Methods and Practices - Introduction to Digital Computers - Magnetic Recording - Introduction to Fiber Optics

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Disturbances to the forest ecosystem structure can be caused by phenomena such as fire, extreme weather (drought, wind, and ice storms),deer overpopulation, and invasive non-native pest species (fungal diseases, insects, and weedy plants), as well as by anthropogenic factors such as global climate change, logging, development, and arson. These can damage or destroy trees and understory plants and change the species distribution and health of plants and animal populations in the forest. Disturbances can have negative or positive effects on the sustainability of various ecosystems, according to the long-term management goals of the land. A new international standard for treating wood packaging material, now in use in international trade for items such as pallets and crating, was first adopted by the world community in 2002. This standard, known as International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures No. 15 (ISPM 15), stipulates how wood packaging material should be treated prior to use in packing goods for export. The United States started requiring foreign countries to comply with ISPM 15 when shipping goods to the United States in 2005. A Forest Service research entomologist and his colleagues found as much as a 52 percent drop in the infestation rate of wood packaging material associated with international imports entering the United States following implementation of ISPM 15. This is encouraging news given that many of our invasive bark- and wood-infesting insects, such as the Asian longhorned beetle and the emerald ash borer, likely entered the U.S. as stowaways in untreated wood packaging from foreign ports. The study – “Effectiveness of the International Phytosanitary Standard ISPM No. 15 on Reducing Wood Borer Infestation Rates in Wood Packaging Material Entering the United States” – was published online in the journal PLOS ONE. Black ash, a dominant tree species of forested wetlands in Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan, provides multiple ecosystem services. It is also a valuable resource for Native American crafters, especially basket-makers. The tree’s existence is threated by the emerald ash borer (EAB), which is killing virtually all ash throughout the Midwest. EAB is now threatening the vast black ash swamps of the Northwoods, and although efforts to slow its spread have been somewhat successful, EAB has not yet been stopped. In addition, climate change impacts models indicate that habitats for black ash will diminish in future decades. Forest Service researchers identified tree species that may be able to replace black ash, including species that could be planted now to ensure that forests remain after EAB damage and after substantial changes in climate have occurred. The models showed that many species currently dominating the Northwoods – quaking aspen, balsam fir, balsam poplar and paper birch – may lose substantial habitat due to warming and varied hydrological conditions, and thus are less suitable as long-term replacement species. Species including American elm, American basswood, red maple, bur oak, and boxelder may be able to colonize areas vacated by the loss of black ash. A new analysis of emerald ash borer (EAB) spread in urban forests shows that a regional management and funding strategy would control the infestation more effectively than city-by-city responses or no response. A Forest Service scientist and partners analyzed EAB management plans and budgets for Minneapolis, St. Paul, and 15 Minnesota cities with recent EAB infestations. They projected tree mortality and the costs of tree removals, replacement trees, and pesticide treatments and calculated how trees increase property values. The first scenario assumed none of the cities committed funds and the EAB population spread unmitigated. The second scenario assumed the 17 cities managed the infestation independently with their own city budgets. The third scenario assumed the 17 cities pooled resources to manage the infestation on a regional scale. In the first scenario, removal and replacement costs far exceeded the amount the remaining trees improved property values. The second scenario returned a similar result. When the cities pooled resources in the third scenario, increased property value benefits of the surviving trees far exceeded the costs of treatments, removals, and replacement trees. Comparing the second and third strategies show definitively that regional cooperation and implementation of EAB management greatly improves urban forest benefits. Numerous factors contribute to whether or not an individual will take action to reduce his or her wildfire risk. When an individual opts to not implement risk mitigation measures, community leaders can use a variety of policy tools to encourage that person to adopt an action or change behavior. These tools included passing rules or regulations, building capacity to act, providing incentives, and establishing community norms. A Forest Service scientist and partners reviewed approaches used by six communities in Idaho, Oregon, and Utah that have been effective at encouraging homeowners to adopt and maintain mitigation activities. Each community’s approach was different. Each was tailored to meet specific community needs, and ranged from collective efforts organized locally to efforts developed externally to provide incentives or potential punishments for not adopting treatments. The most consistent policy tool across communities was capacity building, primarily raising awareness of the fire hazard and potential mitigation behaviors and leveraging external resources, generally obtaining grant funding to assist with vegetation reduction efforts. Another commonality was the involvement of a central group or individual that provided leadership by initiating and championing the mitigation effort and serving as a link to external resources. Many forests throughout the United States have a long history of commercial timber extraction. Although forestry research provides a basis for sustainable management, a focus on short-term financial gain often leads to exploitative harvesting in which valuable trees are removed without attention to residual stand condition, often leading to degraded forests with poor composition and vigor. As a consequence, landowners are faced with the difficult task of trying to restore desired attributes to stands with limited production potential. Forest Service scientists are working with researchers and managers in the northeastern U.S. and adjacent parts of Canada to study management alternatives for rehabilitation of degraded stands. Working with university and government partners in the U.S. and Canada, they developed a coordinated program of research and application that informs the restoration of functionality and productivity to forests throughout the region. In addition to workshops, field tours, and webinars in Maine, New York, and Quebec, the group’s work recently served as the basis for a special section on Restoration Silviculture in the Journal of Forestry. More than 80% of the U.S. population lives in urban and suburban areas. The urban forests---street and park trees as well as landscape plantings on private lands---provide important ecosystem services to urban residents and workers. A healthy urban forest can help reduce air pollution and urban core temperatures and thus make cities more livable. Mitigation of past declines of urban forests and open space; maintenance of the health of street trees and open spaces; revitalization of neighborhoods and righting of past environmental injustices are important issues for urban forest managers. Exposure to air pollution and its sources is increasingly viewed as a psychosocial stress, but its nature is not well understood. A Forest Service scientist, with partners from Drexel University, University of Pennsylvania and organizations in South Philadelphia, explored the role of the concept of “place” on risk perception and community stress within data collected from eight focus groups in Philadelphia, Penn. Discussions focused on air pollution, a nearby oil refinery, health, and a proposal for air monitoring. The framework of place-based elements of risk perception includes place identity, stigma, and social control. The findings indicate that air pollution contributes to physical and psychosocial conditions that act as community-level social stressors. Findings also suggest that programs that seek to change behaviors and gather or spread information on issues such as pollution and other environmental concerns will be challenged unless they directly address: (1) the public's identification with a place or industry; (2) immediate environmental stressors such as abandonment, waste, and odors; and (3) public perceptions of lack of social control and fear of displacement. Air pollution is a serious health concern. Trees remove air pollution by intercepting particulate matter on plant surfaces and absorbing gaseous pollutants through the leaf stomata. Forest Service and Davey Institute scientists developed and ran computer simulations with local environmental data showing that trees and forests in the conterminous United States removed 17.4 million metric tons of air pollution in 2010 with human health effects valued at 6.8 billion dollars. This pollution removal equated to an average air-quality improvement of less than 1 percent. Most of the pollution removal occurred in rural areas, while most of the health impacts and values were within urban areas. Health impacts included the avoidance of more than 850 incidences of human mortality and 670,000 incidences of acute respiratory symptoms. New York City’s socially and ecologically diverse Jamaica Bay region, population approximately 900,000, became a focus of resiliency planning and adaptive management efforts following Hurricane Sandy in October 2012. Working in partnership with the Natural Areas Conservancy (NAC) and NYC Department of Parks and Recreation (NYC Parks), Forest Service scientists developed a rapid assessment methodology to understand the public use, social meaning, and stewardship potential of parks in the region. This study assessed the 2,140 acres of public parkland adjacent to the Bay that are managed by NYC Parks. The assessment is spatially explicit, scalable, and replicable so that natural resource managers can use it in adaptive management. The focus on speed and replicability enables managers to examine change in socio-cultural ecosystem services over time in the wake of both acute, large-scale disasters and other chronic forms of disturbance. This study will lead to park profiles, white papers, presentations, and datasets for managers. The pilot has been scaled up to a citywide study exploring the use and meaning of ‘natural areas’ in parks. In the future, social data will be combined with citywide ecological assessment data to inform the conservation and management priorities of the NAC and NYC Parks. Emerald ash borer has devastated urban and natural forests in most states where it occurs, causing 100 percent mortality of susceptible ash species. Although emerald ash borer has been in Minnesota since 2009, little mortality has been observed and spread has been slower than in other states. Forest Service researchers have been evaluating the role cold temperatures might play in regulating populations of this insect. In general, the insect survives exposure to temperatures from 0 to -20°F by producing cryoprotectants, so in many places, cold temperatures may not have an impact on this insect. However, as within-tree temperatures fall below -20°F, mortality rates begin to increase. With the Polar Vortex in January 2014, air temperature in the Twin Cities fell to -23°F, a temperature that could cause up to 80 percent mortality. Samples taken from cut logs and standing trees that had been outdoors during the winter showed that 60 to 70 percent of larvae had been killed in most locations. Winter mortality of emerald ash borer is unlikely to eliminate this insect but may give natural resource managers more time to respond to this insect in areas where extremely cold winter temperatures (less than -30°F) are common. The Northeastern and Midwestern forests are the defining elements of much of the natural environment in their region. This region is the most heavily forested region of the United States, and 76 percent of the forested lands are privately owned, mostly by non-industrial, family landowners. Sustaining this mix of privately owned and public forests involves understanding their ecology (at scales ranging from individual organisms to broad landscapes); their relationships to people and communities; and developing appropriate management strategies in the face of changing environmental conditions (climate) and of changing social conditions (economics and demographics). USDA Forest Service scientists are working with a diverse network of partners to develop and deliver key information about climate change impacts to forest ecosystems. Forest managers working on public, private, and tribal lands are most interested in specific, local information, that helps them understand the effects of climate change on the places where they work. Until recently, this information was not easily accessible to managers because it was dispersed across many complex scientific papers and studies. Forest Service scientists and their partners hosted a series of workshops that interpreted the latest information on climate change impacts and assessed the vulnerability of different ecosystems to climate change. The result is a series of vulnerability assessment reports summarizing current scientific knowledge about climate change in different forested regions of the Midwest and Northeast. Each assessment provides information on past and projected climate change, as well as expected changes in forests based on modeling studies and other research. Most important, information is provided for individual forest communities, increasing relevance and usefulness for forest managers. This assessment series will also form a core product for the newly created USDA Regional Climate Hubs, which are designed to aid forest managers in making climate-informed decisions. In much of the United States, summer droughts are expected to become more frequent and intense, and longer in duration due to climate change. Soil moisture deficits will cause declines in tree vigor and loss of forest growth, resulting in degraded wildlife habitat, reduced carbon uptake, and loss of forest productivity. Researchers with the Forest Service, the USGS, and the Universities of Minnesota and Maine have implemented an experiment on USFS experimental forests to examine forest growth response to past droughts as influenced by different levels of tree stocking (basal area) and regeneration methods. The study capitalizes on Forest Service R&D’s unique research infrastructure on Experimental Forests, which maintains long-term silvicultural experiments with different stand structures that are 50 years old or older, across several past drought events in a wide range of forest types. Results show that stocking levels can minimize growth losses during and after drought in a range of forests, including red pine, ponderosa pine, and northern hardwoods. This project is unique in scope and scale and is helping managers understand how to adapt forests to a changing climate so the effects of drought are minimized and ecosystem goods and services continue. If forest carbon management activities are to have a meaningful role in national carbon sequestration efforts, private forest landowners will likely need to play a significant role. Forest Service scientists and university partners conducted focus groups with private forest landowners in Minnesota, Michigan and Wisconsin to gain greater understanding into landowner attitudes toward carbon management and carbon market participation. Results suggest that landowners prefer higher carbon credit payments and shorter contract lengths than those currently offered in carbon market platforms. Landowners with the greatest interest in participating in carbon markets see carbon management as way to make changes that would improve the quality of their forestland. Conversely, landowners who are satisfied with the quality of their forestland or the way in which it is currently managed are less interested in participating in forest carbon markets. Overall, scientists found greater interest in the personal benefits that landowners might attain from carbon management, rather than the public good of reducing carbon levels. Research suggests that carbon market participation may not be the most effective means of encouraging forest landowners to sequester carbon, and that opportunities may exist to promote carbon management through existing forest landowner assistance programs. In North America, interest in uneven-aged management grew in the second-half of the twentieth century after most of the old-growth forests had been harvested. In the uneven-aged management style, trees from all size classes are periodically removed to mimic the patterns of older, unmanaged forests. To investigate this management style, Forest Service scientists set up long-term experiments on the Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia. In the ensuing half-century, almost all of foresters’ original beliefs about forest management were partially or wholly invalidated. Findings from the Fernow EF illustrate that the original value-laden assumptions were faulty and there is a need to test commonly held beliefs. Long-term forest research data also have many useful benefits; what were originally experiments in silviculture for sustained yield of forest products now yields information about carbon storage, forest restoration, wildlife habitat, rare species, water quality, and forest response to climate change. Northeastern and Midwestern forests are vital for providing abundant clean water and air for the regions' many rural and urban inhabitants. For example, water that has passed through forests is cleaner than water than that has drained from roads or disturbed lands. By taking up carbon dioxide for use in photosynthesis, trees help reduce greenhouse gases and improve the local and global environment. Forests also receive harmful atmospheric pollutants such as acid precipitation and mercury, which alter the soil and harm tree health and alter lake ecosystems. The effects low-intensity prescribed fires used for fuels management have on air quality are a particular concern for fire and air-quality management communities throughout the United States. Smoke from prescribed fires, which are often used in wildland-urban-interface (WUI) areas and in areas where forest vegetation has a significant impact on the local meteorology, can linger for relatively long periods of time and adversely affect human health and safety. The planning and tactical management of low-intensity prescribed fires can be enhanced with models and decision-support tools that are able to predict the ambient and fire-induced meteorological environment at forested burn sites and the effect of that environment on local smoke transport. Forest Service researchers collaborated with colleagues at Michigan State University to develop and evaluate a coupled meteorological/particle-dispersion model suitable for predicting local meteorological and air-quality impacts of low-intensity wildland fires in forested environments. The modeling system was tested using meteorological and air-quality data collected during prescribed fires conducted by the New Jersey Forest Fire Service in the New Jersey Pine Barrens and is now being evaluated as a potential real-time operational tool for fire and smoke management. Farms and forests are sources and sinks of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and land management practices can reduce GHG emissions and increase carbon storage. The 2008 Farm Bill directed USDA to develop technical guidelines to help forest, farm, and ranch managers quantify the changes in their GHG footprint that could result from a change in management practices. Forest Service scientists played key roles in developing the methods recommended for measuring changes in GHG emissions and carbon storage in managed forests. The team’s goal was to produce transparent and scientifically sound guidelines, and these methods were reviewed by federal GHG specialists, academic experts, and the public. The report, “Quantifying Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Agriculture and Forestry: Methods for Entity-Scale Inventory,” was published in July 2014 and will serve as the blueprint for the development of user-friendly web-based GHG inventory tools. These tools will enable landowners to estimate changes in GHG emissions and carbon stocks that result from changes in forest management practices, allowing them to participate in emerging markets for carbon and other ecosystem services. The Great Lakes Restoration Initiative is investing hundreds of millions of dollars to improve the quality of the Great Lakes. One of the projects promotes nearshore health and prevention of harmful algal blooms. But might these problems be minimized through wise management and stewardship of the lakes’ watersheds? Forest Service scientists demonstrated that sediment and phosphorus delivery to the lakes is influenced by land use and land cover and their change over time. For example, phosphorus levels in Lake Superior increased with the proportion of persisting forest, forest disturbed during 2000-2009, and agricultural land; sediments (turbidity) increased with the proportion of persisting forest, forest disturbed during 2000–2009, agricultural land, and urban land. In both cases, agriculture and forest disturbance were the most important predictors of water quality impairment. However, water quality is not measured everywhere. Forest Service scientists developed models to predict likely water quality problems in streams that are not monitored. This will allow land managers to prioritize restoration investments and management activities across the entire basin, monitored and not monitored. The supporting inventory and forest canopy cover change data were published for the public’s use in their own assessments. Forest Service scientists quantified changes in forest structure and measured water use and net carbon dioxide (CO2) exchange from towers in forest stands that were burned in prescribed fires or defoliated by invasive insects. Prescribed burns resulted in little change to nitrogen in foliage during the following growing season, while insect defoliation and subsequent tree mortality reduced canopy nitrogen pools. Ecosystem Water Use Efficiency (WUEe) was reduced to 60 percent and 46 percent of pre-disturbance values in oak-dominated and mixed stands during defoliation; prescribed fire had little effect. Over a decade, carbon sequestration by an intensively studied defoliated stand totaled about 5.4 tons C per hectare, while a burned stand sequestered 10.6 ton carbon per hectare. These results indicate that forest carbon dynamics, and especially rates of net CO2 exchange, are more sensitive to disturbance than hydrologic fluxes, and disturbances that result in large nitrogen transfers within stands may have long-term effects on rates of carbon sequestration. This work improves scientists’ ability to predict interactions between carbon and water cycles under climate change scenarios that result in a greater probability of insect invasions, wildfire, or other disturbances. Best management practices (BMPs) include planning and field techniques to control pollutants attributable to diverse types of land uses. For the Forest Service, the largest land management agency in the United States, BMPs are fundamental to protecting water quality and aquatic health. The National BMP Monitoring Protocols were developed to monitor BMP use and effectiveness for all of the major types of land-disturbing activities and features managed by the Forest Service. As the result of several directives, including the new planning rule, all agency units are now required to conduct monitoring annually. National Forest System field personnel identified training as a priority need to implement BMP monitoring. Forest Service scientists who played a lead role in the development of the monitoring protocols, are also leading the training efforts. A Forest Service scientist worked with a soil scientist from the Kaibab National Forest to conduct 2-day training sessions during summer 2014 at more than a dozen locations, from Georgia to California and from Alaska to Louisiana. Each training session was followed by field site monitoring at locations chosen by the host unit. Overall, more than 150 Forest Service employees participated in the training, and some of those individuals will help train others in future sessions. Ensuring the health and sustainability of the nation's forests requires scientifically credible and timely information about the extent, location, health, and ownership of these forests and the possible effects of global climate change. Forest managers and policy makers need detailed data to assess sustainability, to make important business decisions, to evaluate wildlife habitat, and for many other things. The Northern Research Station's Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) team is an important part of the national FIA network, which provides information on northeastern, Midwestern, and Great Plains forests. Downed and dead woody material (DWM) is created when trees fall or shed branches, and DWM is a substantial pool of carbon. The removal of DWM during harvests has raised questions regarding how long it would normally reside in forests. If DWM is determined to be a long-term store of carbon, then its conservation during harvests might be considered “carbon friendly.” Forest Service scientists developed a technique for matching measured DWM pieces over short periods of time. Instead of waiting for DWM to decay (possibly a 100-year wait), a model was created to predict the probability of DWM moving from one stage of decay to the next. The decay model was applied to a DWM inventory across the eastern United States to estimate the residence time of DWM. For hardwood species, especially small DWM in warm/humid climates, over half of the DWM biomass is lost to the atmosphere or other carbon pools within 10 years. For coniferous DWM in cold/dry climates, it may take over 100 years for carbon to be emitted or transferred to other pools. If a tree falls in a forest, how long does it lie there? In eastern U.S. forests, the answer is between 30-100 years. Nearly two-thirds of the forests of the conterminous U.S. are privately owned, not publicly owned, as many assume. To help clear up this understanding, Forest Service scientists have created a map and a spatial data product to help illustrate the distribution of forest ownership across the nation. The data product contains raster data depicting the spatial distribution of forest ownership types in the conterminous United States circa 2009. The data are a modeled representation of forest land by ownership type, and include three types of public ownership: federal, state, and local, as well as three types of private: family (includes individuals and families), corporate, and other private (includes conservation and natural resource organizations, unincorporated partnerships and associations, and Native American tribal lands). Forest composition, as characterized by tree distribution and abundance, provides essential information for understanding and studying forest processes and services. Datasets depicting the distribution and basal area of 323 individual tree species have been developed by Forest Service scientists for the lower 48 United States by integrating the Forest Service’s extensive forest inventory database with vegetation phenology from satellite imagery and relevant environmental parameters, such as topography and climate. Each of these datasets was examined for accuracy using a suite of assessment procedures developed to characterize errors by their location, type, and magnitude across a range of scales. Assessment revealed that these 250-m resolution datasets can provide information on individual tree species that are at a sufficient level of spatial detail and accuracy to be useful for many purposes, particularly for common species. The documented datasets and assessment results have been archived and are available on the web for download. Finally, state-level posters are available that are attractive and technically informative for both adults and students. These posters provide visual maps and numeric information for comparing and contrasting multiple tree species within each state, and inspire awareness of and increased access to the geospatial datasets and the science behind them. Systematic annual and habitat-specific surveys of breeding birds were conducted by Forest Service scientists and their university partners in the Chequamegon-Nicolet, Chippewa, and Superior National Forests over the last two decades. They studied population trends from 1995 to 2011 for 97 species of forest birds. Their results suggest that, overall, breeding bird populations of many species were stable or increasing over the past 17 years, which is a positive reflection of forest condition within these national forests. Only a few species showed a declining trend over this recent time period. Results illustrate the relative importance of habitat, climate, geography, and human development as drivers of bird species distributions in the study area. Their data on trends from the past two decades suggest that populations of forest breeding bird populations within these four national forests of the region have stabilized – a result with important implications about the regional health of forest communities in this hotspot of avian diversity. The Northern Research Station is committed to advancing environmental literacy in learners of all ages. Station scientists have worked with students and educators in the classroom, support development of science-based investigations and lesson plans, and participate through science fairs and career days across the Northeast and Midwest. With researchers in Ohio, middle school students are even hatching and rearing parasitic wasps that may help control emerald ash borer in the future. We've co-published The Investigator, a new science education journal for upper elementary school students, and contributed to the development of i-Tree Learning Lab, a lesson plan for high school students to learn the benefits of urban forests. With the publication of “Missouri Forest Management Guidelines,” for the first time Missouri landowners have comprehensive guidelines and best management practices to improve and sustain high-quality forests. Northern Research Station scientists were key contributors to the production of these guidelines, which were published by the Missouri Department of Conservation. Over the past 18 months, these scientists drew upon their more than 80 years of forest research expertise to contribute to the guidelines. Most forest lands in Missouri (84 percent) are privately owned, and currently less than 10 percent of Missouri’s 15.5 million acres of forestlands are managed according to any type of forest plan. “Missouri Forest Management Guidelines” provides (1) an awareness of forest resources and their importance to the quality of life in Missouri, (2) an understanding of forest sustainability and the foundation of good forest management through planning and silviculture, and (3) a synthesis of current science that is embodied in standards, guidelines and best management practices. The ultimate value of forest research is fully realized when it is adopted by owners and managers of forestlands. Urban forests and the Forest Service are featured in two live-action videos on PBS Kids’ newest multi-media environmental science learning program, “PLUM LANDING.” The program brings a space traveler, PLUM, from the planet Blorb to investigate the incredible ecosystems on Earth. Children, families, and educators can learn about nature around the world and in their backyards through animated and live-action videos, online games and outdoor explorations, and a full curriculum linked to the Next Generation Science Standards for nonformal educators. An associated app, “PLUM’s Photo Hunt,” sends kids on missions to find weird things in nature, signs of animal life, cool trees or flowers, and more. In its first 3 months, the PLUM LANDING website received more than 11 million page views through more than 2 million separate website visits; and more than 110,000 photos and drawings were submitted online. Future outreach efforts will include community service learning opportunities in partner cities across the country to engage families where they live. To understand how woodpeckers respond to emerald ash borer (EAB) and whether there is potential for woodpeckers to control EAB, Forest Service scientists and partners conducted surveys and dissected infested ash trees at Dempsey Middle School’s forest in Delaware, OH. They observed external signs of woodpecker feeding on ash and non-ash species. The seventh- and eighth-grade advanced science classes worked with scientists to mark holes and dissect infested ash trees to determine how many EAB larvae lived in the ash trees and how many were eaten by woodpeckers. Scientists found that woodpeckers specifically targeted ash trees, creating 14 times more feeding holes in ash trees than in other tree species. When feeding on ash trees, woodpeckers specifically targeted trees more highly infested by EAB. Woodpeckers consume a significant proportion of EAB larvae: of the 7,098 EAB larvae that were evident in these dissected trees, 2,624 (37 percent) had been eaten by woodpeckers. In some highly infested trees, up to 85 percent of the EAB larvae were consumed. Wave Hill, a public garden and cultural center in the Bronx, New York, selects academically-achieving teens from low-income households to participate in a 15-month Woodland Ecology Research Mentorship (WERM) program. Funded by the Pinkerton Foundation, this innovative internship provides a stipend to students as they take college-level environmental science coursework, learn urban forestry survey techniques, and develop an individual research project with the help of a local scientist mentor. This past year, a Forest Service scientist became a mentor, teaching workshops about urban tree health, park-user rapid assessment techniques, and statistical analysis. The scientist also helped lead a field trip to a nearby rural forest to discuss long-term ecosystem change and compare urban and rural forest dynamics. It is the privilege of the Northern Research Station, and all of Forest Service Research and Development, to produce science that is improving people’s lives and the health and resilience of the natural resources on which they depend. This year, we made incredible gains in redeeming our mission. The Northern Research Station led the way in reaching out to urban America so we could better “…care for the land and serve people, where they live.” Our urban field stations in Evanston, Illinois; New York City; Philadelphia and Baltimore are illustrating how the Forest Service has a vital role in land stewardship across a complex gradient of forests, from deep wilderness to urban parks. With over 83 percent of Americans living in urban areas, our contributions to science, management, and technology transfer enable us to meet the contemporary conservation challenges that people strive to achieve. Our scientists and support staff continued addressing the national emphasis on forest disturbances. From establishing the USDA Climate Change Hubs in Durham, New Hampshire and Houghton, Michigan to combating the emerald ash borer to striving to save bats from the White-nose Syndrome, our scientists are finding answers to pressing questions of today and the decades ahead. These featured highlights offer you a glimpse of the full array of research underway at the Northern Research Station. I hope what you find here inspires your curiosity and enthusiasm to learn more. Our website, www.nrs.fs.fed.us, offers publications, data, maps and many other resources to explore your interests. Or you can follow our latest findings via Twitter; @usfs_nrs. For me, it is an honor and privilege to be associated with this great organization. The US Forest Service continues to make important differences for today’s American citizens and future generations. Michael T. Rains

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In the last episode, we examined the three Carthaginian founding myths that the Greco-Roman literature describes. We looked at the legend of Elissa and examined her misfortunes and contrivances in detail. We saw how she escaped the clutches of her brother and, after a short stay in Cyprus, landed at Utica and founded the city of Carthage nearby. She extracted more land from Hiarbas than she bargained for, and on this land, she established her town. Hiarbas threatened war until she married him, and her advisors deceitfully coaxed her into accepting. In the end, though, she committed suicide, to escape her fate. In this tale, we already see the remnants of a political system. Elissa is the Queen of Carthage. But though she is Queen, it is apparent that her advisors have some say, too. Also, Elissa’s self-sacrifice indicates that she may have held some sort of a priestly role. In today’s episode, we will elaborate further on this theme. Specifically, we will examine this topic by looking at the lives of four early kings of Carthage: Malchus, Mago, Hasdrubal, and Hamilcar. Typically, when you read about a king or an emperor, you are treated to pages upon pages of his exploits, and his justice and his courage and what have you. The problem with Carthaginian history, though, is that there is such little information, that a full discussion on the lives of any of these guys is going to be damn near impossible. So, in this episode, I will take a look at the few scattered references to these early kings of Carthage. I will dissect their stories and analyze each element as thoroughly as I can to provide as complete a look as possible on them. In the end, we’ll tie the stories of these kings together to develop as full a picture as possible of the early Carthaginian political system. Ready to get dirty? So am I. Let’s begin with the story of Malchus. Malchus is the first Carthaginian monarch that the literature mentions after Elissa. Just like in the last episode, I will first relate to you his complete story, and then we’ll delve into its analysis. Sometime in the early sixth century, Malchus “achieved great exploits in Africa.” After his African adventures, he made war in Sicily, “subduing all of it.” With success in Sicily, he then arrived in Sardinia. Here, Malchus ran out of luck, and he lost the war against the Nuragic people. Learning of his defeat in Sardinia, the Carthaginian government tried Malchus in absentia and sentenced him to exile on the island. After receiving word that his Senate didn’t want him to return to Carthage, Malchus did what any general angry at his people would do. He sent a messenger back to Carthage who conveyed the message that if Malchus weren’t officially pardoned, he would return and lay siege to the city. After the Carthaginians obstinately refused, he did precisely that. At the end of the Sicilian expedition, the Carthaginians had sent a tenth of their booty back to Tyre, as a votive offering to Melqart at his temple. A priest named Carthalon headed the convoy that carried the goods to Tyre. Carthalon was on his way back to Carthage when Malchus had laid siege to the city. Carthalon also happened to be Malchus’ son. So when Carthalon reached Carthage’s walls, he found his father in less than dignified circumstances. Malchus implored his son to stay with him and join the siege. Carthalon replied, however, that at the moment he was acting as the city’s priest. He said that he would go back to Carthage, discharge his priestly duties and would then return as a son to his father. But something must have happened while he was in the city because when he came back, he still wore his purple priestly robes. Not only that, he was accompanied by the full pomp and ceremony that was owed to the member of the clergy. In other words, Carthalon didn’t return as his father’s son. Malchus was quite indignant at his son’s behavior, so he did what any father would do to punish his disobedient child. He nailed him to a cross in full priestly regalia and raised it for the Carthaginians to behold from behind the city’s walls. Fun. Malchus and his men then stormed Carthage and took it. After the battle, he assembled the leading men of the town and explained his actions to them. He pardoned everyone except the nobles who he deemed to be the most vociferous in their hostility towards him. A short while later, however, they reconvened their assembly to try him again. This time they condemned him to death. Let’s go back and analyze each element of the story step by step. Malchus achieved “great exploits” in Africa. What these “great exploits” were, the literature does not tell us. From other accounts, we know that Carthage was paying “rent” to the natives for the use of their land. Some historians suggest that Malchus’ “great exploits” is a reference to a successful attempt to evade this tribute. Carthage may have opted to stop paying the tribute. In response, the natives might have sought to force the Carthaginians to pay by waging war upon them. Malchus was then called in to fight them and defeating them was his great exploit. The Carthaginians weren’t entirely successful in evading the tribute, though. Something must have happened after Malchus’ success because the literature mentions that the rent wasn’t completely thrown off until about the year 480 BC. We will get to this in a future episode. Then Malchus “subdued all of Sicily.” Again, the literature is scant on details. Previously, I’ve mentioned that there is no archaeological evidence that the Phoenicians had taken over Sicily at any point. The primary evidence for Phoenician settlement on Sicily is in the West of the island. There is some evidence of direct contact with the Greeks in the East, but that, by no means implies that the entire island came under Carthaginian control. If historians date the events associated with Malchus correctly (that is, to somewhere in the vicinity of 580 BC), then it’s possible that it was Malchus that fought Pentathlos upon his intervention in the war between Selinus and Segesta, an event I mentioned back in episode 1.3. Was Malchus involved in that conflict? It’s possible. As I said then, Carthage was afraid that losing Motya and Panormus, cities under her care, would amount to losing the profits from her trade with the Etruscans. Add to that the fact that after this war, Selinus patched up their differences with Segesta, and allied themselves with Carthage. It’s not hard to imagine Selinus patching up her differences with Segesta after Pentathlos’ defeat. But did her alliance with Carthage also materialize because of that? Also, archaeologically, we know that sometime before 575 BC, the Phoenicians built a strong defensive wall around Motya. They also added a causeway to connect Motya to mainland Sicily, most likely for the movement of troops. The four facts, the timing of Malchus’ Sicilian expedition, the strong reasons for Carthaginian intervention, Selinus’ alliance with Carthage and the militarization of Motya, make a solid, though speculative, case that it was Malchus who intervened against Pentathlos. But, as I had mentioned back in Episode 1.3, even with such strong indications, the possibility of Carthaginian intervention against Pentathlos is, at best, speculative. After Sicily, Malchus lost a war in Sardinia. There is archaeological evidence for this. Remains of the Phoenician fort at Monte Sirai show that she sustained some damage at around this time. But the setback was temporary. This fort shows further signs of having being repaired and strengthened. And, as we’ll see a little later in this episode, the Carthaginians will eventually be victorious in subduing Sardinia. After his defeat in Sardinia, the Carthaginian Senate exiled him. This exile does not make sense. If Malchus was successful in subduing two of his enemies, and failed with one, in what world is that cause for trial and conviction? On what charge? As the story of Carthage proceeds, we’ll see more of this. Every time Carthage lost a war, the Carthaginian government took harsh punitive measures against their losing generals. One may think that the chroniclers are just making this up. But this “trope” has been reported in so many different chronicles and at so many different times, that there may be some truth to it. Malchus’ resentment at having been exiled is understandable. So is his desire to be pardoned and so is the siege. Carthalon’s actions, however, are a little difficult to explain. Some historians believe that the Carthaginian government had convinced him to act as their ambassador, hoping that, as a son, Carthalon would be able to persuade Malchus to lay down his arms. But if it was just a matter of laying down his arms, then all the Carthaginians needed to do was to pardon him and the siege would end. I further speculate that not only did they want Malchus to lay down his arms, but they also wanted him dead. Carthalon would convince him to lay down his arms and enter the city. Malchus would then be arrested and executed. When Carthalon returned, he was probably unaware of his father’s anger. Because of this lack of awareness, he made the mistake of not joining his father in the siege. Further, he became an ambassador for the very council that condemned his father to exile. When Malchus crucified Carthalon, he did so with Carthalon’s priestly garb still on him and in full view of the city. He was sending the message that he didn’t care about filial ties or religion. He only wanted to be pardoned. If this account is accurate, then it gives us a glimpse into the inner workings of the early Carthaginian government. The fact of Malchus’ trial in absentia points to the possibility that he was an “appointed king.” He had been appointed to fight in Africa by a council. His success there enabled him to acquire the generalship for Sicily and Sardinia. His son, being a priest of the cult of Melqart, represented the consolidation of power over Carthage into the hands of Malchus’ family. At least, this is how his enemies on the council perceived it. As a consequence, they were on the lookout for a chance to oust Malchus from power. His defeat in Sardinia gave them just that. Had Carthalon been at Carthage at the time, he might have been able to prevent this. But he was not. He had left Tyre to accompany the tribute, and his absence allowed his father’s enemies to act. They tried him in absentia and sentenced him to exile. So Malchus’ laid his siege. Some historians consider the story of Malchus to be a myth. There are several reasons for this. Let’s examine each in turn. As we go along, I will also provide counter-points, because I do not think that this story is a myth. The first is the context in which Justin, the summarizer of the historian Pompeius Trogus, relates this story, which is that of child sacrifice. The argument is that if Justin mentions Malchus’ story as part of his discussion on child sacrifice, then he must be sourcing a text on Carthaginian funerary practices. Since funerary texts can only talk about myths, Malchus’ story in Justin is a myth. One doesn’t need to be a logician to see the flaws in this argument. Just because the story may come from a “book of the dead” doesn’t mean that it is merely a myth. And just because the context is child sacrifice doesn’t imply he’s quoting a book on funerary practices. Also, Carthaginian child sacrifice included pyres and burning, not crosses and crucifixion. The Elissa story has more right to be an explanatory myth than this tale. The second reason that some scholars consider Malchus’s story to be a myth is that it is reminiscent of the age-old conflict between secular power and religious authority. That is to say, between the palace and the temple. This schism is something that I’ve touched upon briefly in Episode 1.2, in the context of Hiram’s religious reforms at Tyre. These scholars see the conflict between Malchus and his son as a symbol representing this conflict. What they don’t mention, though, is why the chroniclers chose to represent the relationship between palace and temple through the motif of a father and his disobedient son. A priest discharging his religious duties before showing deference to royalty is not historically anomalous. And neither is a king killing his son. The third reason that some scholars consider Malchus’s story to be a myth is that they understand Malchus’ name as being derived from the Semitic root, M-L-K. M-L-K has a variety of different meanings in Semitic languages, one of which is “king.” The reasoning is that if this guy’s name in the story is “king” then he must be an archetype of some sort that represents Carthaginian kingship in general, and therefore, not real. This line of reasoning, however, is based on a faulty premise. And that assumption is that his name is Malchus. In none of the extant manuscripts that relate this story is this guy’s name “Malchus.” He is variously referred to as Mazeus, Maceus or Maleus. In the 17th century, an editor of these texts, Vossius, thought that all three of these names were bastardized forms of the Semitic root, M-L-K. So, Vossius Latinized this Semitic root and renamed him to Malchus. Needless to say, since the actual name of this king isn’t Malchus, the theory that he is an archetype that represents Carthaginian kingship falls flat on its face. Though Malchus’ tale may be unreliable, it is not a myth. It is definitely a historical tale. After Malchus’ death, a man named Mago took over the reins of leadership at Carthage. Justin relates that Mago reformed the Carthaginian army, and he also mentions that Mago “extended the Carthaginian domains.” And that’s all there is to know about Mago. At least, that’s all that Justin says anyway. But this small snippet does raise some interesting questions to ponder over. So let’s ponder over them now. First, how did Mago come to power? Though the literature does not tell us, it is unlikely that he did so through a military coup. Malchus had just been executed for laying siege to Carthage and storming her. With these events having just passed, it is inconceivable that Mago would dare to acquire power in the same manner that got Malchus executed. So, he is likely to have acquired power through legal means. In other words, he somehow got the Carthaginian council to elect him. Second, was Mago a Malchus supporter, or was he one of his enemies? It is possible that Mago belonged to the opposing camp. After all, would the Carthaginian council allow a Malchus supporter to take power after just having him executed? But in that case, why didn’t Malchus have Mago killed when he seized control of Carthage? The answer is that he may not have earned Malchus’ ire. Remember that Malchus’ only had the most vocal of his opponents executed. He forgave everyone else. Alternatively, Mago may have been entirely neutral, and it was his neutrality that lent him enough credibility with both camps to be able to take the reins himself. Third, what are these military reforms that Mago instituted? Some historians suspect that this means that he introduced the use of mercenaries. On the surface, this makes some sense. Carthage didn’t have enough people to provide for a citizen levy. Who would man the workshops while the citizenry was away fighting? The empire abroad, which we will get to in future episodes, had to be defended, though, making the use of mercenaries necessary. But, if they didn’t use mercenaries before this, then Malchus fought his wars with a citizen army. If that’s the case, then where were these citizens when the council tried Malchus for the second time? Why didn’t they rally to his support? The fact that none of the soldiers rallied to Malchus’s support indicates that his army was a mercenary one, which was paid and disbanded after the success of his coup. So, whatever Mago did, he didn’t introduce the use of mercenaries. Other historians suggest that while Carthage used mercenaries before this, Mago made use of them exclusively. In other words, he permanently disbanded any existent citizen regiments. At least one scholar has also suggested that Mago’s key reform was to bring the conduct of the armies and generals under tighter civilian control. Malchus’ successful coup certainly gave Mago reason to do this. What form this stricter control might have taken is anybody’s guess. And finally, what does Justin mean when he says that Mago “extended the Carthaginian domains.” Again, he gives us no details. Did that mean a further expansion in Africa? Did that mean campaigns on any of the Mediterranean islands? Did that mean Spain? Without any reference to Mago, other sources like to point out that in addition to Africa, Sicily and Sardinia, the Carthaginians had also brought Spain and the kingdom of Tartessos under their control. Perhaps this is what Justin meant? We cannot be sure. After Mago died, his son Hasdrubal came to power. Hasdrubal and his brother, Hamilcar, fought, unsuccessfully, in Libya to “shake off the tribute owed to the Libyans.” They, then, went to Sardinia. Here, Hasdrubal died of wounds he sustained in battle. His mantle passed on to Hamilcar, who successfully concluded the war. As before, let’s analyze each element of this story. Hasdrubal and Hamilcar first fought in Africa. If Malchus had been successful previously, then the native Libyans had reimposed their tribute by the time Hasdrubal assumed the reigns of power. Consequently, the first order of business for Hasdrubal was to get rid of its yoke again. This time, however, the Carthaginians were unsuccessful. Then, the brothers made it to Sardinia. Though Hasdrubal died trying, the brothers succeeded in their endeavors here. Their success does not mean that they subdued the whole island. Neither the Phoenicians nor the Carthaginians made it beyond the coasts. Most of the native Nuraghes escaped to the more mountainous interior of the island, where the Carthaginians couldn’t reach them. After Hasdrubal’s death, Hamilcar was in charge. There is some confusion in the sources about who Hamilcar is. Justin claims that Hamilcar was Mago’s son. Herodotus, however, insists that Hamilcar was the son of someone named Hanno, while at the same time seems to know nothing of Mago or Hasdrubal. The historian Gilbert-Charles Picard surmises that Hanno may have been Hasdrubal’s brother and the chroniclers got Hanno and Hamilcar mixed up. Dexter Hoyos, however, suggests that Herodotus just made an error. Regardless, we cannot know for sure. With the consolidation of power into the hands of Mago’s descendants, the Magnoid Dynasty had officially begun. There is a consensus among historians that from this period, in the middle of the 6th century, right down to the beginning of the 4th, the descendants of Mago held the reins of the Carthaginian government. And I think that this is as good a point as any, to begin a discussion on Carthaginian kingship and Carthage’s early politics. To do so, let’s go back to Tyre for a minute. Kings ruled Tyre. And an advisory council, comprising of the patriarchs of leading merchant families in the city, supported the kings. Despite the existence of an advisory committee, ultimate authority resided with the king. By the time we get to Carthage, however, the situation has changed significantly. During Elissa’s reign, her council seems to have some sway over the queen. But by Malchus’s day, the council seems to have held ultimate authority. This power was considerable enough that the council could try a general in absentia and sentence him to exile. At some point between Hiram and Malchus, somehow, this advisory council went from merely providing advice, to sentencing a general to exile and death. That’s quite an upward shift in power. What was Malchus’, Mago’s, Hasdrubal’s or Hamilcar’s actual role? Were they elected kings? Or were they merely elected generals? Justin refers to Malchus as a dux, Mago as an Imperator and Hasdrubal as a dictator. Herodotus calls Hamilcar as a basileus. Herodotus curiously adds that Hamilcar became a basileus “by virtue of his valor.” Diodorus claims that the Magonid kings became kings “by virtue of the laws,” implying that there was some legal procedure that allowed someone to climb to the top. Hasdrubal was said to have been elected to the dictatorship eleven times, again implying a legal procedure but also implying that the position, regardless of its constitution, was temporary. The use of the term “Imperator” which, if taken in its full Roman context, implies the same thing. To summarize: At this early stage in Carthaginian history, the center of Carthaginian politics was the council. This council possessed extensive powers. The executive authority, the king, the Imperator, the dux, the diktator, the basileus; the Senate elected him for a short period, and his primary concern was the field of battle. In this context, then, what does it mean for Mago and his descendants to have consolidated their hold on Carthaginian politics? A curious statement from Justin claims that Mago’s sons and their sons “together ran the affairs of Carthage.” This sentence seems to indicate that the Magonids were in complete control of the government, despite the division of authority between the legislative body and the executive. How was this possible? We know that there was no shortage of actual descendants. Mago had his sons, who in turn had their sons, who in turn had theirs. These are the direct descendants who acquired the top job. There may have been other relatives, relatives of their wives, husbands of their daughters and their kin and, off course, general supporters of their faction. The kings may have shared power among all these elements by parceling out generalships, judgeships, priesthoods, and other principal offices. They did this for decades upon decades while being able to placate the other factions. And this full hold on power allowed them to influence the legal procedures that allowed them to acquire the top job. Some historians have suggested that the reason the Carthaginians chose their kings from the Magnoid family was that they perceived them to be possessors of supernatural qualities. There is some evidence to suggest that this may be the case. There are many battles in subsequent Carthaginian history in which the kings, instead of directing their troops, are seen to be leading ritual sacrifices to curry favor with the gods. Some even ritually sacrificed themselves. Even Elissa seems to serve this role when performing her sacrificial self-immolation. These incidents indicate a religious/priestly role for the kings. On its own, however, this doesn’t prove that the Magonid family itself was considered sacred. The rituals performed on the battlefield could have been part of the role itself as opposed to any indication of a supposed supernatural status of the family. Also, if this family was meant to be the go-to family from which to elect Carthage’s kings, then Malchus ought to have been from this family. The literature does not even hint at a filial relationship between Malchus and Mago. Moreover, if Malchus and Mago were relatives, would Mago have been elected as king so soon after Malchus’ execution? I highly doubt it. One final question: During the Punic wars, the record for which is far less muddy than it is for this period, ultimate authority at Carthage lay in the hands of two men, referred to as the suffets. This role is similar to that of the Roman consuls. The question is: Were the kings of 6th and 5th century Carthage the same as the suffets of the later 3rd and 2nd centuries? Though the answer to this question is by no means settled, I’m inclined to think that they are not the same. Though, we’ll delve into this issue in detail later, here’s my preliminary answer as to why the roles are not the same. (1) The early kings were primarily military leaders established in authority via a legal procedure. The suffets, on the other hand, were mostly civilian leaders, also invested with power via legal process, but had no sway in the field of battle whatsoever. (2) In the fourth century, there was a significant revolution in Carthaginian politics which brought about some noticeable changes. We’ll discuss this revolution in detail when we get to it. The only thing I can say at the moment, however, is that it does not seem appropriate to me to back-project post-revolutionary Carthaginian politics on to her pre-revolutionary days, just so that we can fill the gaps. (3) The kings always appear one at a time, while the suffets are always two. Malchus and the early Magonids were war leaders. Collectively, over a period of about sixty-six years, that is, between 580 and 514 BC, they fought wars in Africa, Sicily, and Sardinia. It is here that we see the beginning of a Carthaginian Empire. It won’t be long, however, before they feel the first big shock to their existence. Before we get there, though, we still need to see how Carthage interacted with the wider Mediterranean world. In the next episode, in much the same way as we did for the Phoenicians, we will examine Carthage’s relationship with other folks around the Mediterranean. In particular, we will take a look at Carthage’s dealings with the Etruscan world and how that opened the door for her dealings with the city of Rome. We’ll also examine one curious episode in which an upstart from Sparta decides to take on the Carthaginians. If you have any comments, questions or concerns, please email me at [email protected]. You can visit the Historyteller blog at historytellerpodcast.com and can listen to the podcast on iTunes and Google Play. You can also find me on the usual social media site. I am on Twitter, Facebook, Pinterest, Linked In and Google Plus. You can find these links on the right-hand side of the historytellerpodcast.com website. If you liked this episode, please leave me a five-star review on iTunes. If you loved it, please help spread the word about it on your social media. Alright, folks, that’s it for now! - Warmington, B. H. Carthage. London: Roberta Hale & Company, 1969 (Buy from Amazon, also here & here) - Picard, Gilbert-Charles and Collette Picard. The Life and Death of Carthage. Translated by Dominique Collon. New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1968 (Buy from Amazon, also here) - Lancel, Serge. Carthage: A History. Translated by Antonia Nevill. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Limited, 1995 (Buy from Amazon) - Hoyos, Dexter. The Carthaginians. Oxford: Routledge, 2010 (Buy from Amazon)

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- Research article - Open Access - Open Peer Review Care of vision and ocular health in diabetic members of a national diabetes organization: A cross-sectional study BMC Health Services Research volume 8, Article number: 159 (2008) Regular examination and early treatment of diabetic retinopathy can prevent visual loss. The aim of the study was to describe the care of vision and ocular health in people with diabetes in Norway. A cross-sectional questionnaire survey of a random sample (n = 1,887) of the Norwegian Diabetic Associations' (NDA) members was carried out in 2005. Questions were asked about care of vision and ocular health, history of ocular disease and visual symptoms, general medical history and diabetes management. The study was approved by the Regional Committee for Medical Research Ethics. The response rate was 74%. Forty-four questionnaires with incomplete data regarding gender, age or type of diabetes were excluded, leaving 1352 cases (52% females) for analysis. 451 (33%) had type 1 and 901 (67%) had type 2 diabetes, the mean duration of diabetes was respectively, 22 (sd ± 14) and 10 (sd ± 9) years. In all 1,052 (78%) had their eyes examined according to guidelines and 1,169 (87%) confirmed to have received information about regular eye examinations. One in two recalled to have received such information from their general practitioner. To have received information about the importance of eye examinations (PR 3.1, 95% CI 2.4 to 4.0), and diabetes duration > 10 years (PR 1.2, 95% CI 1.2 to 1.3), were independently associated with reporting regular eye examinations. A history of diabetic retinopathy was reported by 178 (13%) responders, of which 101 (57%) reported a history of laser treatment. Responders who had regular eye examinations reported more frequently a history of diabetic retinopathy (19% vs. 5%, p < 0.001). The frequency of retinopathy was significantly higher in responders with reported HbA1c values above treatment target (23% vs. 13%, p = 0.001). However, in responders who were not regularly examined, there was no difference in reported frequency of retinopathy with regard to HbA1c level. Eight out of ten diabetic members of the NDA had their eyes examined according to current guidelines and the majority was well informed about the risk of vision loss due to diabetes. The results indicate that the reported history of diabetic retinopathy likely underestimates the prevalence of retinopathy. In Western societies, diabetic retinopathy is one of the leading causes of visual impairment and blindness in the working age group [1–3]. The prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in Norway is sparsely described in the literature [4, 5]. It is estimated that 90–120,000 Norwegians have known diabetes and that probably just as many have undiagnosed diabetes . Most diabetic patients will develop some degree of retinopathy. Studies indicate that between 6% and 30% will develop sight threatening retinopathy during the course of their illness [7–14]. In Western Europe, diabetic retinopathy accounts for 4.7–13.3% of the blind and partial sight registrations [3, 15–17]. Regular examination of ocular health and early treatment of diabetic retinopathy can prevent most cases of visual loss [18–22], and ophthalmologic screening of patients with diabetes is more cost-effective than many other health interventions for detecting and treating disease [21, 23]. The Norwegian College of General Practitioners has published guidelines for examination of ocular health in patients with diabetes, first issued in 1988 . Table 1 shows the Norwegian practice guidelines compared to practice guidelines in the United Kingdom, USA and Australia. In 1996 only 53% of diabetic patients seen in general practice were managed according to these guidelines [25, 26]. The aim of this study was to describe and analyse the care of vision and ocular health among people with diabetes in Norway. Secondly, we wanted to explore their sources of information regarding ocular care. Finally we liked to assess the reported care in relation to established practice guidelines and to identify features associated with good practice. The study had a cross-sectional design. A random sample of persons with diabetes, drawn from the member list of the Norwegian Diabetes Association (NDA), was invited to participate in a questionnaire survey. At the time of the study, NDA was the only national registry of adults with diabetes. NDA is a voluntary, independent organization with the objective of serving people with diabetes and others who have an interest in diabetes. In 2005 NDA had 35,058 members, including mainly people with diabetes, some of their relatives (about 900), and around 3,000 health care professionals. The type of diabetes was not recorded in the NDA membership registry. A random sample comprising about 6% of NDA members 18 years and older was drawn by computer from the NDA membership registry. They were subsequently sent a postal questionnaire in October-December 2005. Non-diabetics, deceased members and members with unknown address or living abroad were excluded, leaving an eligible sample of 1,887. Information about the study, the voluntary nature of participation, confidentiality and study approval were given on the front page of the questionnaire and the return of a completed questionnaire was regarded as written consent. Reminders were sent once to all participants. The questionnaire had been assessed in a pilot survey. This pilot survey led to the inclusion of a question regarding source of information about the importance of regular eye examinations. The questionnaire included questions about care of vision and ocular health, history of ocular disease and visual symptoms, as well as details about type of diabetes, year of diagnosis, treatment, blood glucose stability, most recently recorded HbA1c and blood pressure, antihypertensive and cholesterol lowering medication, and current and previous smoking. In the questionnaire, regular examination was defined as examination at regular intervals, e.g. yearly, every six months or monthly. Furthermore, eye examination and vision examination was defined as examination of the back of the eye/retina and examination of sight, respectively. The specific questions on eye examination were: "Do you have your eyes regularly examined due to your diabetes?" and "In general, how long time is it between the eye examinations?". In 2001 a list system was implemented in Norwegian general medical practice, implying that all citizens were listed with one particular general practitioner (GP). In this system the GP has the primary responsibility for the management and follow-up of patients with diabetes. Referral to a specialist (ophthalmologist) must be made by a GP. The Norwegian College of General Practitioners guidelines were used as standard of patient care for comparison with reported care (Table 1). Data analysis was performed with the statistical package SPSS version 13.0. Questionnaires with missing data for gender, age or type of diabetes, or diabetes other than type 1 and type 2 (3%) were excluded from analysis. The data were analysed in frequency and summation tables; group differences were analysed using student-t, chi-square and Fisher's exact tests. A p-value < 0.01 was considered statistically significant. Features associated with known history of diabetic retinopathy, visual symptoms, regular follow up and lack of eye examination were analysed by univariate and multiple logistic regression. Variables with p ≤ 0.25 from the univariate analyses were entered into the logistic regression models. Additionally, the prevalence rate ratios (PR) were calculated for features associated with regular eye examination and history of diabetic retinopathy to provide a natural intelligible effect measure and to allow for comparison to the prevalence odds ratios (POR). Data were collected anonymously and the study was approved by the Regional Committee for Medical Research Ethics. The total number of responders was 1,396 (74%). Forty-four questionnaires had missing information regarding either age, gender, type of diabetes or diabetes other than type 1 and type 2. The study is based on the remaining 1,352 cases, 699 (52%) were females. In all, 451 (33%) responders had type 1 diabetes and 901 (67%) had type 2 diabetes. Table 2 shows basic demographic and medical data of the responders. In all, 1,141 (85%) of the responders had their eyes regularly examined. Of these 1,052 (92%) were examined according to recommended follow up schedule. Only 6% reported never to have had their eyes examined. In persons with type 1 diabetes, 88% (358/407) were examined annually or more frequently: respectively 2%, 15%, 3% and 69% were examined every 1–3 months, 4–6 months, 7–9 months and 10–12 months. In persons with type 2 diabetes, 98% (694/711) were examined biannually or more frequently: respectively 2%, 13%, 1%, 63% and 18% were examined every 1–3 months, 4–6 months, 7–9 months, 10–12 months and 12–24 months. The time of the first examination was in accordance to guidelines in 31% of responders with type 1 diabetes and in 47% of responders with type 2 diabetes (Table 3). For all responders, the median interval between eye examinations was 12 months (65%). Eight-teen percent were regularly examined more frequently. In total, 1,169 (87%) responders confirmed to have received some information about the importance of having their eyes regularly examined due to their diabetes. Responders who had their eyes examined according to guidelines were more than twice as likely to have received such information than responders who did not undergo regular eye examinations (95% vs. 42%, p < 0.001). Having received information about the importance of eye examinations, and diabetes duration of more than 10 years, were both independently associated with regular eye examinations (Table 4). Spectacles and/or contact lenses were used by 1,188 (88%) of the responders. The vision was regularly examined in 1,045 of the responders who used optical correction. This was significantly more frequent than among responders who did not use optical correction (88% vs. 71%, p < 0.001). However, there was no significant difference in the frequency of eye examinations between the groups. During the previous year, 611 (45%) of the responders had experienced some kind of visual problems. Nearly two in five reported to be helped by optical correction. Visual problems due to diabetes were reported by 156 (12%) responders. A history of laser treatment of ocular disease related to diabetes was reported by 81% of the responders with visual problems related to diabetes and known history of diabetic retinopathy. In all, 178 (13%) reported a history of diabetic retinopathy, of these 101 (57%) also reported a history of laser treatment. Diabetic retinopathy was associated with type 2 diabetes, diabetes duration >10 years, use of oral anti-diabetic agents, use of insulin, HbA1c above 7%, unstable blood glucose levels and the use of anti-hypertensive medication. In a multivariate logistic regression analysis diabetes duration was the only reported factor independently associated with a history of diabetic retinopathy. The prevalence of diabetic retinopathy was higher in patients with diabetes duration longer than 10 years, than in patients with shorter disease duration prevalence ratio (95% CI) of 3.5 (2.5 to 5). Moreover, a history of diabetic retinopathy was more frequently reported by responders who had their eyes regularly examined (Table 5). The vast majority of persons with diabetes responding to this survey had their eyes examined according to guidelines advised by the Norwegian College of General Practitioners , Table 1. Diabetes duration and having received information about potential eye complications were independently associated with eye care management according to the guidelines. Compared to cross-sectional surveys of the general diabetic population in UK, Australia and the United States [27–30] the number of persons with diabetes who had their eyes examined according to guidelines was equal or higher in our study. Furthermore, the proportion who had been examined according to guidelines (78%) were noticeably higher than (53%) reported in a previous Norwegian survey from 1996 . Our study may reflect an actual improvement in the management of ocular care in people with diabetes in Norway. Improved eye care in people with diabetes has also been reported in the United States (1988–2002) and Australia (2003–2005) [28, 31]. Unpublished data from a study undertaken in Norwegian general practice in 1999/2000 revealed that three out of four patients with diabetes were managed according to current guidelines (Tor Claudi 2007, personal communication), indicating an improvement of care compared to 1996 . The improved care could be explained by increased focus on diabetes as a modern epidemic, increased professional knowledge about clinical guidelines, increased patient knowledge, and the coverage of diabetes in mass media. However, the observation may also to some extent reflect selection; the responders in our study were members of the NDA and their rate of regular eye examination is probably higher than in the general diabetic population due to a higher interest in own health and more exposure to patient education materials. Moreover, the overrepresentation of persons with type 1 diabetes and persons with long term illness are probably other important explanations for the high compliance with the screening programme. Additionally, self-reports may overestimate the frequency of eye examinations due to recall bias, telescoping and social acceptance . Utilization of eye care services is associated with the uses of health services in general, and with health promotion campaigns [27, 29, 31]. The fact that half of the patients had not received information about the importance of regular eye examinations by their GP and that not all patients had their eyes examined according to practice guidelines, suggest that there are still potentials for improving the quality of care. Almost 90% of the responders in our study used some form of optical correction and diabetic patients are frequently seen in Norwegian optometric practice . This suggests a role for optometrists in promoting regular eye examinations in diabetes patients. Moreover, the quality of ocular care can probably be improved by strengthening the optometrist-GP communication ensuring that optometrists regularly inform the GP about significant ocular findings (e.g. retinopathy in patients with diabetes) and also about patients who are not regularly examined. This could be achieved through continuing education of Norwegian optometrists and professional awareness campaigns. The prevalence of known history of diabetic retinopathy among the responders corresponds with the total prevalence of diabetic retinopathy reported in a small Norwegian community, the Eigersund study . However, it is lower than the reported prevalence in recent Danish studies [34, 35]. On the other hand, the rate of responders with a history of laser treatment of ocular complications due to diabetes (three out of five) corresponds well with the figures in the Danish studies. The Danish studies are based on clinical examination rather than on self-reports. If we assume corresponding criteria for laser treatment in Norway and Denmark, this suggests an underestimation of the prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in our sample, maybe due to lack of knowledge about the presence of non-sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy among responders. Tight control of blood glucose and blood pressure reduces the risk of progression towards sight threatening disease and visual outcome in patients with diabetes is related to regular eye examination . In our study, the rate of established diabetic retinopathy was four times higher in responders who had their eyes regularly examined as compared to those who did not attend regular eye examinations. Among responders who had their eyes regularly examined, the frequency of retinopathy was nearly twice as high among those who reported HbA1c values above treatment target. In responders who did not have their eyes regularly examined, however, the reported frequency of retinopathy was the same for both patients with HbA1c above and within treatment target. This further adds to the assumption of a probable underestimation of diabetic retinopathy in our population, not only due to lack of patient knowledge, but also due to lack of regular eye examinations. The relatively high response rate implies that our findings are representative for diabetes members of the NDA. An important limitation is that the findings from this NDA membership survey cannot be directly extrapolated to the general diabetes population in Norway. The probable underestimation of diabetic retinopathy prevalence even in this patient group, may suggest that the underrecognition may be even larger in the general diabetes population. However, we did not verify whether the reported eye examination and medical history corresponded with medical records. The majority of diabetic members of NDA has their eyes examined according to existing guidelines and are well aware of the risk of vision loss due to diabetes. The reported prevalence of diabetic retinopathy is probably underestimated due to lack of knowledge about established retinopathy and undiagnosed diabetic retinopathy among the responders indicating a potential for improvement in care. 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Backlund LB, Algvere PV, Rosenqvist U: New blindness in diabetes reduced by more than one-third in Stockholm County. Diabet Med. 1997, 14 (9): 732-740. 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9136(199709)14:9<732::AID-DIA474>3.0.CO;2-J. Kristinsson JK, Hauksdottir H, Stefansson E, Jonasson F, Gislason I: Active prevention in diabetic eye disease. A 4-year follow-up. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1997, 75 (3): 249-254. Stefansson E, Bek T, Porta M, Larsen N, Kristinsson JK, Agardh E: Screening and prevention of diabetic blindness. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2000, 78 (4): 374-385. 10.1034/j.1600-0420.2000.078004374.x. Zoega GM, Gunnarsdottir T, Bjornsdottir S, Hreietharsson AB, Viggosson G, Stefansson E: Screening compliance and visual outcome in diabetes. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2005, 83 (6): 687-690. 10.1111/j.1600-0420.2005.00541.x. Javitt JC, Aiello LP: Cost-effectiveness of detecting and treating diabetic retinopathy. Ann Intern Med. 1996, 124 (1 Pt 2): 164-169. Claudi T, Cooper JG, Midthjell K, Daae C, Furuseth K, Hanssen KF: [NSAMs guidelines for diabetes in general practice 2005. Short version]. 2005, Norsk selskap for allmennmedisin, Den norske Lægeforening, Norges Diabetesforbund Claudi T, Cooper J, Skogoy K, Hausken MF, Melbye H: [Diabetic care in Norwegian general practice. A report of current status from Salten and some regions in Rogaland]. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. 1997, 117 (25): 3661-3664. Claudi T, Cooper JG, Midthjell K, Daae C, Furuseth K, Hanssen KF: [NSAMs guidelines for diabetes in general practice. Short version]. 2000, Norsk selskap for allmennmedisin, Den norske Lægeforening, Norges Diabetesforbund Tapp RJ, Zimmet PZ, Harper CA, de Courten MP, Balkau B, McCarty DJ, Taylor HR, Welborn TA, Shaw JE: Diabetes care in an Australian population: frequency of screening examinations for eye and foot complications of diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004, 27 (3): 688-693. 10.2337/diacare.27.3.688. Saaddine JB, Cadwell B, Gregg EW, Engelgau MM, Vinicor F, Imperatore G, Narayan KM: Improvements in diabetes processes of care and intermediate outcomes: United States, 1988-2002. Ann Intern Med. 2006, 144 (7): 465-474. Muller A, Lamoureux E, Bullen C, Keeffe JE: Factors associated with regular eye examinations in people with diabetes: results from the Victorian Population Health Survey. Optom Vis Sci. 2006, 83 (2): 96-101. 10.1097/01.opx.0000200678.77515.2e. Wilson A, Baker R, Thompson J, Grimshaw G: Coverage in screening for diabetic retinopathy according to screening provision: results from a national survey in England and Wales. Diabet Med. 2004, 21 (3): 271-278. 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2004.01131.x. Muller A, Keeffe JE, Taylor HR: Changes in eye care utilization following an eye health promotion campaign. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2007, 35 (4): 305-309. 10.1111/j.1442-9071.2007.01450.x. Fowles JB, Rosheim K, Fowler EJ, Craft C, Arrichiello L: The validity of self-reported diabetes quality of care measures. Int J Qual Health Care. 1999, 11 (5): 407-412. 10.1093/intqhc/11.5.407. Sundling V, Gulbrandsen P, Bragadottir R, Bakketeig LS, Jervell J, Straand J: Optometric practice in Norway: a cross-sectional nationwide study. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2007, 85 (6): 671-676. 10.1111/j.1600-0420.2007.00929.x. Knudsen LL, Lervang HH, Lundbye-Christensen S, Gorst-Rasmussen A: The North Jutland County Diabetic Retinopathy Study: population characteristics. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006, 90 (11): 1404-1409. 10.1136/bjo.2006.093393. Hove MN, Kristensen JK, Lauritzen T, Bek T: The prevalence of retinopathy in an unselected population of type 2 diabetes patients from Arhus County, Denmark. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2004, 82 (4): 443-448. 10.1111/j.1600-0420.2004.00270.x. Marshall SM, Flyvbjerg A: Prevention and early detection of vascular complications of diabetes. BMJ. 2006, 333 (7566): 475-480. 10.1136/bmj.38922.650521.80. The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:http://0-www.biomedcentral.com.brum.beds.ac.uk/1472-6963/8/159/prepub We thank the responders in the study and the Norwegian Diabetes Association. The authors declare that they have no financial competing interests. VS is a board member of the Norwegian Optometric Association and member of Norwegian Optometric Associations' board of continuing education. VS conceived of the study and participated in its design, acquired and statistically analysed the data and drafted the manuscript. PG helped designing the study, supervised the statistical and epidemiological analyses and scrutinized the manuscript for important intellectual content. JJ and JS participated in the design of the study and critically revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. About this article Cite this article Sundling, V., Gulbrandsen, P., Jervell, J. et al. Care of vision and ocular health in diabetic members of a national diabetes organization: A cross-sectional study. BMC Health Serv Res 8, 159 (2008) doi:10.1186/1472-6963-8-159 - Diabetic Retinopathy - Diabetes Duration - Optical Correction - Prevalence Rate Ratio - Ocular Health

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We all know that there are many differences among the nations of the earth. They all have their own geography, distinguishing ethnic groups and unique traditions. But at least one thing is common among most countries: we all have stories about how our nations began. So many of us love to hear about the sacrifices and accomplishments of the people who founded our countries. We sing the praises of their heroism. Why do we cherish and share these stories of origin so much? Why is this such an important part of nearly every human culture? Well, there are at least two reasons. On the one side, we talk about the origins of our nations to pass on memories of the past. We want our children to remember their roots, where they came from. But on the other side, we also want to remember the ideals that guided our nations in the past so that we can find direction for the future. Well, something like this was true for the people of God in the Old Testament as well. The ancient Israelites cherished stories about their beginnings and passed them from generation to generation for the same two reasons. They told about the days of their ancestors to remember events long ago so that the great accomplishments of the past would not be forgotten. But they also passed these stories from generation to generation to remind themselves of the direction they should go in the future. This is the first lesson in our series entitled, Father Abraham. In this series we will explore the stories that ancient Israelites told about Abraham, their great patriarch. And we will see that Moses wrote these stories in the book of Genesis so that the Israelites in his day would remember the past, and so that they would also understand more clearly the future God had in store for them. This is the first of three lessons in this series, and we have entitled it, "The Life of Abraham: Structure and Content." In this lesson we will begin our overview of Abraham's life by concentrating on the structure and content of the chapters in Genesis that speak about him. How did Moses structure his account of Abraham's life? What were the main concerns of these chapters? We will explore the structure and content of Abraham's life in two parts: first, we will look at the literary design of this material. And second, we will examine the major themes of these chapters. Let's look first at the literary design of Abraham's life. Whenever we approach portions of Scripture like the life of Abraham that consist primarily of narratives or stories, we must remember that biblical writers did more than simply tell us the truth about what happened long ago. Because the Holy Spirit inspired them to be God's spokesmen, the history that they wrote was entirely true. But the Holy Spirit inspired them to address the needs of the people for whom they wrote, so biblical authors also wrote about history with their readers in mind. They intentionally designed their stories so that these stories would be relevant to the lives of the people who received them. As we approach the record of Abraham's life in Genesis, we can be confident that these stories do not misrepresent what actually happened in Abraham's life. But in order to understand how these stories applied to the lives of Moses' original readers, we must also be aware of how Genesis portrays Abraham's life. And one of the chief ways we can begin to understand how Abraham is portrayed is to explore the literary design of Abraham's life in Genesis. We'll explore the literary design of Abraham's life in two steps. In the first place, we will present an overview of the book of Genesis as a whole, and we will see how Abraham's story fits within the larger picture of Genesis. And in the second place, we will look at the structure of the stories that focus on Abraham's life. Let's begin with an overview of the entire book of Genesis. Throughout the centuries, different interpreters have understood the overarching structure of Genesis in different ways. One approach has been to divide Genesis into ten segments based on the repetition of the so-called "generations" or "Toledot" passages scattered throughout the book of Genesis. And we should admit that there is some value in this large-scale outlook. But we have suggested in other series' that it is much more helpful to think of Genesis in three large sections: the primeval history in Genesis chapter 1 verse 1 through chapter 11 verse 9; the early patriarchal history in chapter 11 verse 10 through chapter 37 verse 1; and the later patriarchal history in chapter 37 verse 2 through chapter 50 verse 26. The primeval history of Genesis chapter 1 verse 1 through chapter 11 verse 9 presents God's revealed truth about the origins of the world. It speaks of the creation, the corruption of creation, and the reshaping of creation through a worldwide flood. And it holds together as a literary unit in the ways it resembles the patterns of many ancient near eastern primeval histories. The later patriarchal history in chapter 37 verse 2 through chapter 50 verse 26 tells the story of Joseph. It begins with the story of conflict between Joseph and his brothers, then moves to Joseph's rise to power in Egypt and Joseph's reconciliation with his brothers in the end. Many interpreters have described this large, unified storyline as a novella about Joseph. Between these first and last sections is Genesis chapter 11 verse 10 through chapter 37 verse 1. These chapters contain the early patriarchal history, collections of stories about the first fathers of the nation of Israel. In this series, we are concerned with one portion of this middle segment of Genesis. In general terms, the early patriarchal history divides into two parts: the life of Abraham in chapter 11 verse 10 through chapter 25 verse 18 and the life of Jacob in chapter 25 verse 19 through chapter 37 verse 1. Now this twofold division may be surprising at first because in Scripture we frequently hear mention of three early patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. So, we might have reasonably expected the literary structure of these chapters to be threefold as well, first telling us about Abraham, then about Isaac and then about Jacob. But in actuality, no portion of the early patriarchal history is devoted to Isaac as the main figure. Instead, he serves only as a transitional figure. His life is told first as a part of Abraham's life and then as a part of Jacob's life. And as a result, the early patriarchal history actually divides into only two main parts: the life of Abraham and then the life of Jacob. Our concern in this series is with the first half of the patriarchal period, Moses' record of Father Abraham. So let's take a closer look at the structure of Abraham's life as it is presented in Genesis chapter 11 verse 10 through chapter 25 verse 18. Now that we have seen where the life of Abraham fits within the overarching structure of Genesis, we should turn to our next concern: the structure of Abraham's life in Genesis chapter 11 verse 10 through chapter 25 verse 18. To explore the structure of Abraham's life, we will look at these chapters on two levels: on the one hand, we will simply identify the basic units or episodes of Abraham's life, and on the other hand, we will examine how these various episodes have been arranged into the portrait of Abraham we have in Genesis. Let's first identify the basic units or episodes of Abraham's life. Moses wrote about Abraham's life in seventeen basic segments or episodes: - First, Abraham's favored lineage (in chapter 11 verses 10 through 26), a genealogy that describes Abraham's family heritage. - This passage is followed by an account of Abraham's failing father (in chapter 11 verses 27 through 32), a second genealogy that describes Abraham's travels with his father Terah. - Abraham's migration to Canaan (in chapter 12 verses 1 through 9), the story of Abraham's initial call and travel to the Promised Land. - Abraham's deliverance from Egypt (in chapter 12 verses 10 through 20), the time when Abraham sojourned in Egypt and God delivered him. - Abraham's conflict with Lot (in chapter 13 verses 1 through 18), the story of struggle between Abraham's men and Lot's men. - Abraham's rescue of Lot (in chapter 14 verses 1 through 24), the time when Abraham went to war to rescue Lot from kings who had captured him. - Abraham's covenant promises (in chapter 15 verses 1 through 21), the account of God's covenant assuring Abraham that he would have many descendants and a permanent homeland. - Abraham's failure with Hagar (in chapter 16 verses 1 through 16), the time when Abraham had a child, Ishmael, with Sarah's handmaiden, Hagar. - Abraham's covenant requirements (in chapter 17 verses 1 through 27), the account of God's covenant that reminded Abraham of the necessity of loyalty to the commands of God. - Sodom and Gomorrah (in chapter 18 verse 1 through Chapter 19 verse 38), the story of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah and Lot's rescue from that destruction. - Abraham's intercession for Abimelech (in chapter 20 verses 1 through 18), the time when Abraham prayed for Abimelech the Philistine. - Abraham's sons Isaac and Ishmael (in chapter 21 verses 1 through 21), the story of Isaac's birth and the expulsion of Ishmael from Abraham's family. - Abraham's treaty with Abimelech (in chapter 21 verses 22 through 34), the time when Abraham entered into an agreement with Abimelech over land and water rights. - Abraham's test (in chapter 22 verses 1 through 24), the well-known episode in which God called Abraham to sacrifice his son, Isaac. - Abraham's burial property (in chapter 23 verses 1 through 20), the story of Sarah's death and the purchase of a burial site. - A wife for Abraham's son Isaac (in chapter 24 verses 1 through 67), the time when Rebecca became Isaac's wife. - And finally, Abraham's death and heir (in chapter 25 verses 1 through 18), the closing story of Abraham's passing and the record of his descendants. As we can see, the story of Abraham's life follows the basic order of events as they occurred in his life. The stories begin with him relatively young and under the authority of his father, and they end up with Abraham growing old and dying. On occasion, there are allusions and implicit connections among the various episodes of Abraham's life. But by comparison with other portions of the Old Testament, Abraham's life story consists of a series of seventeen relatively independent episodes. Each of these episodes was designed to report events in Abraham's life and to teach specific lessons to Moses' original Israelite audience. As Moses led them from Egypt toward the Promised Land, each of these episodes was to have much to offer them as they lived their lives just as it has much to offer us as we live our lives today. Having introduced the basic episodes of Abraham's life, we are now in a position to explore how these units hold together. How is the story of Abraham unified? What logic organizes them? Simply put, the episodes of Abraham's life cluster around specific themes and these clusters form five symmetrical or balancing steps. First, as we might expect at the beginning of the patriarch's life, Moses' record begins with Abraham's background and early experiences with God. This section includes: Abraham's favored lineage, his failing father, and his migration to Canaan. These chapters explain how Abraham entered into his special relationship with God by focusing on his family's background and his initial migration to the Promised Land. The second cluster of episodes in Abraham's life concentrates on Abraham's earlier contacts with other peoples in chapter 12 verse 10 though chapter 14 verse 24. It includes his deliverance from Egypt, his conflict with Lot, and his rescue of Lot. These three episodes hold together because they concentrate primarily on Abraham's encounters and interactions with representatives of several groups of people. In these chapters the patriarch dealt primarily with the Pharaoh of Egypt, his nephew Lot, invading kings, the king of Sodom and Melchizedek the king of Salem. The third and central section of Abraham's life focuses on Abraham's covenant relationship with God in chapter 15 verse 1 through chapter 17 verse 27. This portion of the patriarch's life consists of three episodes: Abraham's covenant promises, Abraham's failure with Hagar, and Abraham's covenant requirements. The fourth section, which appears in chapter 18 verse 1 through chapter 21 verse 34, turns to Abraham's later contacts with other peoples. These chapters hold together primarily because they concentrate on Abraham's interactions with other groups of people. These chapters describe Abraham in relation to Sodom and Gomorrah. We find Abraham's intercession for Abimelech, Abraham in relationship with Isaac and Ishmael, and Abraham's treaty with Abimelech. These four episodes further illustrate how the patriarch interacted with Lot and his family, as well as how he related to the people of Sodom and Gomorrah, and to the Philistine Abimelech. As we might expect, the fifth and final section of the patriarch's life in chapter 22 verse 1 through chapter 25 verse 18, deals with matters toward the end of Abraham's life, especially with his progeny and death. It records how God tested Abraham. It records Abraham's purchase of burial property. It records how Abraham found a wife for his son Isaac. And it also records Abraham's death. These chapters focus on Abraham's wife Sarah and her son Isaac (the true heir of Abraham), giving them honor over Abraham's other wives and their sons. Because the episodes of Abraham's life are relatively independent of each other, when people first read about Abraham, they often have a sense of wandering aimlessly from one event to another. They read the stories of Abraham as if Moses mentioned this event and that event with little forethought or planning. But despite this first impression, the stories of Abraham's life are actually organized into batches or groups of episodes that share central themes. Our simple five-step outline reveals that Moses actually planned what he was going to say about Abraham. On a large scale the record of Abraham's life takes the shape of a symmetrical drama. Each part balances with a corresponding part in the drama. In chapter 11 verse 10 through chapter 12 verse 9, we find attention focused on Abraham's family background and on his initial experiences with God. In contrasting balance with these initial concerns, the closing material in chapter 22 verse 1 through chapter 25 verse 18 gives attention to Abraham's final years and to his progeny. Beyond this, the second section of Abraham's life consists of episodes that primarily delineate Abraham's interactions with people from other tribes and nations. And by circular symmetry, returning to similar themes handled in the second part, the fourth section of Abraham's life returns to a focus on more examples of Abraham's encounters with others. Finally, in the middle of Abraham's life, are three pivotal chapters that focus especially on Abraham's covenant with God. These chapters form the pivotal center of Abraham's life and explain the fundamental dynamics of the covenant relationship that Abraham and his descendants had with God. The shape of these chapters reveals that Moses carefully crafted his account. He constructed a literary portrait of Israel's first patriarch to draw attention to certain aspects of his life: Abraham's selection to blessing and his rightful heir, Abraham's earlier and later interactions, and Abraham's covenant relationship with God. And as we are going to see, this literary focus was designed to address the needs of the Israelites to whom Moses first wrote these stories. The life of Abraham taught the Israelites how they were to follow in the footsteps of Abraham as Moses led them toward the Promised Land. And as we approach this portion of Genesis, we are going to see the importance of this intentional design time and time again. Having seen the overarching literary design of the life of Abraham, we should turn to the second topic of our lesson on the structure and content of Abraham's life: the main themes of Genesis chapter 11 verse 10 through chapter 25 verse 18. Although there are many ways to describe the content of these chapters, we will see that the outline we have suggested roughly corresponds to the prominent themes of these chapters. Needless to say, it is difficult to describe the main themes of any portion of Scripture that is as long and complex as Abraham's life. It is just not possible to mention every motif or theme that appears in these chapters. But it is possible to isolate several motifs that are more prominent than others. And as we will see, these major themes in these chapters unify the stories of Abraham's life, and they help us understand the main ideas Moses wanted his original Israelite readers to draw from the life of Abraham. And more than this, we can also see, in these main themes, what God intends for us to learn from this part of Scripture. We will look into the main themes of Abraham's life in two ways: First, we will examine a key passage that introduces the four main themes of Abraham's life. And second, we will explore the ways these themes are unfolded throughout the chapters of Abraham's life. Let's turn first to a key passage that introduces the themes of the story of Abraham. I'm sure you will recall that near the opening of the story of Abraham's life, we find God's call to Abraham in Genesis chapter 12 verses 1 through 3. While Abraham still lived in Ur of Mesopotamia God called Abraham to go to the Promised Land. For many years now, interpreters have recognized that these verses introduce some of the most crucial motifs found in the larger story of Abraham's life. Listen to what Moses wrote in these verses: The Lord had said to Abram, "Leave your country, your people and your father's household and go to the land I will show you. I will make you into a great nation and I will bless you; I will make your name great, and you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and whoever curses you I will curse; and all peoples on earth will be blessed through you." (Genesis 12:1-3) These three verses are packed with significance and can be summarized in many different ways. On a grammatical level, they begin with an introduction in the first portion of verse 1. Then they continue with God's words to Abraham, which divide into two parts. Part one, in the second half of verse 1 through most of verse 2 consists of an imperative followed by three independent verbal expressions. Part two of what God said to Abraham appears in the last portion of verse 2 and in verse 3. This second half follows the same grammatical pattern as the first half. It is introduced by an imperative that is followed by three independent verbal expressions. By looking at these three divisions of Genesis chapter 12 verses 1 through 3 we can gain some important insights into the significance of this passage. Listen first to the simple way Moses introduced God's words to Abraham in verse 1: The Lord had said to Abram. (Genesis 12:1) A number of modern translations correctly observe that the verb in this line should be translated "the Lord had said" instead of "the Lord said." This translation is important because according to Stephen's speech in Acts chapter 7 verses 2 through 4, Abraham received his call in Ur before his father, Terah, died in Haran. But in the literary presentation of Genesis, we learn first that Terah died in chapter 11 verse 32 and then we learn in Genesis chapter 12 verse 1 that God called Abraham. For this reason, Genesis 12 verse 1 represents a flashback, a regression in time, and should be translated "the Lord had said." This verse recalls an earlier moment before Abraham had begun to do anything in response to God, long before he had begun to move toward the Promised Land. Following this introduction, we come upon the first half of God's words to Abraham. This first half begins with an imperative verb indicating a command. In Genesis chapter 12 verse 1 we read these words: "Leave your country, your people and your father's household and go to the land I will show you." (Genesis 12:1) As we can see, this section opens with the imperative, "leave" (or as the NIV paraphrases it "leave and go"). God commanded Abraham to do something: to go to the land of Canaan. This is the first and primary command God gave to the Patriarch. After the command to leave for the Promised Land, the first part of God's words to Abraham divides into three sections indicated by three independent verbal expressions in the first part of verse 2. Look again at Genesis chapter 12 verse 2: "I will make you into a great nation and I will bless you; and I will make your name great." (Genesis 12:2) These words focus on blessings that God presented to Abraham as he called him. First, God said he would make Abraham into a great nation. Second, he offered to bless Abraham with prosperity. And third, he said he would give Abraham and his descendants a great name, or reputation. Now we come to the second half of God's words to Abraham. Although most modern translations do not enable us to see it, the second part of God's words to Abraham parallels the grammatical structure of the first half. It begins with an imperative followed by three independent verbal expressions. In Genesis chapter 12 verses 2 through 3 we read these words: " and you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and whoever curses you I will curse; and all peoples on earth will be blessed through you." (Genesis 12:2-3) The Hebrew verb, translated here, "You will be a blessing," is imperative in form, and probably designed to parallel the form of the command "leave" in verse 1. But this imperative does not function as a command. It may be translated in a number of ways such as: "and you will be a blessing," or "and may you be a blessing," or even, "and you will certainly be a blessing." In all events, this imperative marks an important transition in thought. It shifts attention away from Abraham receiving blessings (as we have seen in the first part of verse 2) to Abraham becoming a conduit of blessings to others. This second imperative form is also followed by three independent verbal expressions. These three verbs indicate the process by which Abraham would become a blessing to others. First, God said, "I will bless those who bless you " That is, God would give good things to those who dealt positively with Abraham. When people treated Abraham well, God would treat them well. Second, God promised, "whoever curses you, I will curse " That is, God would curse those who disdained Abraham. God promised to protect Abraham from harm by responding harshly to those who made themselves Abraham's enemies. But in the third place, God said, "all peoples will be blessed through you." At first glance, this third focus may seem to contradict the theme of cursing for Abraham's enemies, but God promised Abraham that by means of a twofold process of blessing Abraham's friends and cursing his enemies, God would extend his blessings ultimately to all the families of the earth. So we see that the grammar of the opening of Genesis chapter 12 divides into three main parts: an introduction, a focus on blessings God would give to Abraham and a focus on the blessings that God would bring to the whole world through Abraham. Understanding the structure of these verses in Genesis 12 is important because in many respects the stories of Abraham in Genesis illustrate how these promises God made to Abraham were fulfilled in his life. As Moses wrote about the patriarch, he shaped his stories in ways that drew attention to the words that God spoke to Abraham as he called him to the Promised Land. With this grammatical structure in mind, we are ready to see how the main themes of Abraham's life unfold from Genesis chapter 12 verses 1 through 3. We will note that there are four major themes that appear in these verses. We will begin with divine grace toward Abraham, then we will continue with the requirement of Abraham's loyalty to God, then God's blessings to Abraham, and finally God's blessings through Abraham. The first motif, which occurs many times in the life of Abraham, is that God's relationship with Abraham was based on his grace. Divine grace appears in a subtle way in the introductory words of Genesis chapter 12 verse 1. As we have seen, there we read these words: The Lord had said to Abram. (Genesis 12:1) These simple words reminded Moses' original audience that Abraham's relationship with God came about because God had entered into Abraham's life long before Abraham had done anything in service to God. Abraham's call came very early in his adult life. He had not left for Canaan; he had not conquered enemies; he had not committed to covenant faithfulness; he had not prayed for the righteous in Sodom and Gomorrah; he had not passed any test of faith. On the contrary, God called Abraham as his special servant simply because it pleased God to be gracious to Abraham. Now of course, God's grace was not only shown in the initial stage of Abraham's walk with God. The grace of God is a theme that appears throughout the stories of Abraham because God also showed mercy to the patriarch at every moment of his life. Because Abraham was a sinner, Abraham was in need of God's mercy all the time. For example, in the well-known verse Genesis chapter 15 verse 6 we learn that even Abraham's saving righteousness was a gift of mercy. There we read these words: Abraham believed the Lord, and he credited it to him as righteousness. (Genesis 15:6) As the apostle Paul pointed out in Romans chapter 4 verse 3 and Galatians chapter 3 verse 6 the fact that God credited Abraham with righteousness indicated that this was an act of mercy, not a reward for good works. And it was through divine grace and mercy that Abraham received this and many other blessings from God. As Christians we all know the importance of God's grace in our lives. We know that God initiates our relationship with him by his grace and we know that he sustains us in our relationship with him by his grace. Where would we be without the mercy of God? Well, the same thing was true for Abraham. And more than this, God's grace was also essential for the lives of the Israelites for whom Moses wrote about Abraham. They too needed God's mercy in their lives in their day, day after day. And for this reason, as Moses composed his stories of Abraham's life, he drew their attention over and over to God's grace. In addition to the theme of God's grace, we should also notice that Genesis chapter 12 verses 1 through verse 3 stresses Abraham's loyalty. God did not merely choose Abraham to receive his mercy; he showed mercy to the patriarch so that Abraham would respond with faithful obedience. As we have seen, the first imperative of Genesis chapter 12 verse 1 stresses Abraham's responsibility to be faithful to the Lord in a particular way. God commanded him there: "Leave your country, your people and your father's household and go to the land I will show you." (Genesis 12:1) It doesn't take much imagination to see that this divine call required enormous loyalty from Abraham. He was to leave his homeland and his father's estate behind and to go to a place yet to be shown him. Yes, God had shown mercy to Abraham, but Abraham was also expected to show deep-seated, loyal service to God. Unfortunately, many Christians tend to think of Abraham merely as an example of faith and trust in God. This is an important theme in Abraham's life and it is highlighted in several New Testament passages. But we must never overlook the fact that God commanded Abraham to be obedient, to give him his loyal service. God required loyalty from the patriarch many times. He was to be faithful to God in every circumstance. Perhaps the most dramatic example of a time when Abraham was required to show his loyalty to God is found in Genesis chapter 22, a time when God commanded the patriarch to sacrifice his son Isaac to prove that he loved God more than he loved his son. It would be hard to imagine a higher requirement from God. Although Abraham was required to show faithfulness in this and many other ways, Genesis chapter 12 verse 1 makes clear one of the most important responsibilities Abraham had. There God said: "Go to the land I will show you." (Genesis 12:1) As this passage demonstrates, Abraham was required to go to the land that God would show him. Abraham was to inhabit the land of promise, and this theme appears many times in the stories about the Patriarch. It was very important to the larger plan of God both for Abraham and his faithful descendants that the Patriarch go to the Promised Land. And when we recall that Moses wrote these stories about Abraham for Israelites whom he was himself leading toward the Promised Land, it is not surprising at all to see this emphasis. As followers of Christ, we understand that although salvation is a free gift of God's grace, God expects us to show our gratitude to him by doing our best to obey his commands. Moses understood this principle as well. He knew that God's grace to Abraham led Abraham to be loyal to God. And for this reason, we are going to see that the requirement of loyalty appears many times as we study the life of Abraham. Moses knew something about his original Israelite audience. They were prone to forget the importance of faithful living before God. Although God had shown them much mercy as he delivered them from Egypt and sustained them in the wilderness, they turned from God's commandments. And for this reason, one of the main themes in the stories of Abraham was Abraham's loyalty to God. This theme appears so frequently because Moses' original audience, and we today as well, need to be motivated to serve God in faithful obedience. Blessings to Abraham As we have seen so far, God showed much grace to Abraham, and required faithful devotion from him. The third theme we should notice in Genesis chapter 12 verses 1 through 3 is the blessings offered to Abraham. You'll recall that God said this to the Patriarch in Genesis chapter 12 verse 2: "I will make you into a great nation and I will bless you; I will make your name great." (Genesis 12:2) God offered the patriarch three blessings. In the first place, God said that Abraham would become a great nation. His progeny would grow beyond number. And his descendants would actually become an empire, a grand nation. At that time Abraham and those who were with him were relatively few in number. And Abraham had no children of his own. Yet, God promised that the number of Abraham's descendants would one day be more than the stars in the sky. In the second place, God told Abraham that he would bless him. In all likelihood, this expression means that Abraham and his descendants would receive the blessing of tremendous prosperity. Abraham and his descendants would live in abundance and wealth. They would not be wanderers on the earth, nor would they be mere settlers. As Abraham and his children proved faithful, they would enjoy great prosperity. In the third place, God's offer of blessing entailed the bestowal of a great name on Abraham. In other words, if Abraham would go to the Promised Land and serve God faithfully, the massive numbers and prosperity of his descendants would make him and them honored throughout the world. Great glory would come to the patriarch and his faithful descendants. In fact, throughout the stories of Abraham, Moses pointed out over and over that these kinds of blessings were poured out on Abraham. Abraham had sons; he gained wealth as he went from one experience to another. He became a well-known figure in the region. For the Israelites who heard these stories, Abraham's blessings brought great hope for their future blessings as well. The gifts of descendants, prosperity and fame given to the patriarch were mere foreshadows of even greater gifts God would give to Abraham's faithful descendants. As Christians, we have received so many blessings from God that we can hardly name them all. And of course, the Israelites who followed Moses toward the Promised Land had also received countless blessings from God. They had been delivered from slavery; they had increased in number; they had been protected and sustained throughout their entire journey and they were on their way to the land of promise, a land of great blessing in the future. But the Israelites were like us, prone to forget all that God had done for them and what was in store for them. So Moses wrote about God's blessings to Abraham to remind his Israelite audience of the blessings that God had given them in their lives so that their hearts would be filled with gratitude. Blessings through Abraham In addition to God's mercy, Abraham's loyalty, and God's blessings to Abraham, Genesis chapter 12 verses 1 through 3 also draws attention to the fact that blessings would come through Abraham to other peoples. Remember what God said in Genesis chapter 12 verses 2 and 3: " and you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and whoever curses you I will curse; and all peoples on earth will be blessed through you." (Genesis 12:2-3) These words explained that Abraham would not only receive blessings but that all peoples on earth will be blessed through him. God did not call Abraham to the Promised Land simply to enrich his life and the lives of his descendants. God called Abraham to be a conduit of divine blessings to all the families of the earth. Now it is important to remember that this passage teaches that Abraham's worldwide blessing would come about in two ways. In Genesis chapter 12 verse 3 God said: "I will bless those who bless you, and whoever curses you I will curse." (Genesis 12:3) According to this passage, Abraham would serve as a double-edged sword among human beings. Because Abraham was favored by God, when people from other nations blessed Abraham, that is, when they honored him and thus honored the God whom he served, then God would bless them. But when people of other nations cursed or attacked Abraham and thus disdained Abraham's God, God would punish them. The fates of other peoples depended on how they treated Abraham. In his lifetime, Abraham came into contact with many people representing other nations such as the Philistines, the Canaanites, the Egyptians, and his nephew Lot, who was the father of the Moabites and the Ammonites. These interactions were significant because they showed specific ways in which God kept his word to bless and curse other peoples depending on how they treated Abraham. They also indicated that even in his own lifetime Abraham had begun to become a blessing to the world. All too often it is easy for God's people to forget this important teaching. The Israelites in Moses' day were like many Christians living today. We enjoy the blessing of salvation from God and life from God, but we forget why these blessings have been given to each of us. Each and every blessing God gave to Israel under Moses' leadership and each and every blessing he gives to his church today is designed for a greater purpose. We have been blessed so that we will spread the blessings of God throughout the world. God called Abraham to himself so that Abraham would lead the nations of the world into God's blessings. God called Israel to himself in Moses' day so that they would lead the nations of the world into God's blessings. And God has called the church to himself today so that we may lead the nations of the world into the blessings of God. This theme was so important for the Israelites who first received the stories of Abraham. And it is important for us too as we follow Christ in our day. In this lesson we have taken our first look at an overview of the life of Abraham. And we have focused our attention on the structure, or design, of this portion of Genesis. And we have also examined the main themes, or content, that Moses presented in Abraham's life in the context of this literary structure. As we move forward in these lessons, we will return to the topics of this lesson time and again. We have seen that the story of Abraham's life has a five-step symmetry. And we have also seen that there are four main themes in Abraham's life: God's benevolence to Abraham, Abraham's loyalty, the blessings of God to Abraham, and the blessings of God through Abraham. These themes not only give us insights into what the story of Abraham's life meant long ago when it was first written for Israel, but they also make it possible for us to apply this portion of Scripture to our lives today.

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Malbim points out from the next verse (Esther 8:16) that specifies that the Jews were happy, that this verse seems to imply that the non-Jews were happy. In reference to this, he quotes the verse (Mishlei 29:2) that the elevation of the righteous brings gladness to the people. The Ben Ish Chai and the Ksav Sofer point out that the verse uses two expressions, tzahala (shouting) and simcha (joy), in describing Shushan’s happiness. One is for the happiness the general population felt about the death of Haman, and the other was for the happiness they felt over Mordechai’s honors. Megillas Sesarim explains these two expressions as describing “the brightening of the face and the joy of the heart.” In other words, there were two different feelings: one was a physical show of joy and the other was an internal feeling of joy. The Ibn Ezra writes that tzahala is a cognate of the Hebrew word for brightness. He explains that the verse uses it here in the sense of the hopefulness of a person sitting in darkness when the light begins to shine. Maamar Mordechai writes that people are usually unsure of new, untested officials. Here, nobody was nervous because Mordechai was a known and trusted entity. Class Participant YML suggests that maybe other ethnic minorities in the kingdom felt encouraged when they saw that even a Jew could be elevated in Achashverosh’s kingdom. R’ Dovid Feinstein explains that the entire city of Shushan was happy that a Jew was elevated because Jews are often instrumental in commerce, and their security would thus presage a country’s financial security. Many countries in history that exiled its Jewish population had to deal with major financial crises immediately afterward. Dina Pishra writes that the verse is using hyperbole to describe the salvation of the Jews being so complete that even the stones of the city were rejoicing. On a deeper level, the Ginzei HaMelech writes that this does not have to be seen as hyperbole. Rather, as the R’ Moshe Chaim Luzzzato in Mesillas Yesharim (Chapter 1) explains, the entire world was given to man for its proper usage, and is thus physically affected by mankind’s spiritual behavior. This is the reason for the world to have been destroyed by the Flood when the people sinned. Here, too, the world, and Shushan specifically, rejoiced as a byproduct of man’s spiritual elevation. Yosef Lekach writes that Shushan’s joy is described as a contrast to Mordechai’s worries. His concern was the Midrashic (Bireishis Rabba 84:3) statement that “there is no rest for the righteous.” He anticipated that this time of peace and contentment meant to him that he had to find more positive actions to perform and new evils to combat. - The Vilna Gaon points out that Mordechai provided these animals to the couriers because he wanted them to hurry. This, despite the fact that they were exhausted from having just traversed the largest nation in the world to deliver Haman’s original decree. Seeing that they were tired, he gave them the fastest possible horses. - The Malbim writes that Mordechai sent the messengers on horses in contrast with Haman. In explanation, R’ Chaim Kanievsky writes that Haman had plenty of time – he had eleven months. Mordechai is in a hurry to save lives. - Interestingly, the Talmud (Megillah 18a) writes that the sages were unsure as to the translation of the couriers’ transportation. - Rashi translates achashtirans as swift camels. - The Ibn Ezra writes that these are a species of mule. After all, the verse says they are bred from ramachs, and the Mishnah (Kilayim 8:5) considers a ramach a mare, mother of a mule. Also, the Arabic word, ramach means mare. - R’ Yosef Kimchi concurs and he adds that achash in Median means large and tiran (misrain) means two. Therefore, the combination of the two words means the mating of two large animals: the horse and the donkey. - R’ Samson Raphael Hirsch (Collected Writings, Volume IV, 286) translates rachash as a draft horse. Parenthetically, he adds that the symbolic meaning of these in TaNaCh indicates a reluctance to listening to one’s master. - R’ Yehoshua Leib Diskin writes that these untranslatable words answer another question from the Talmud (Megillah 3b), which says one must interrupt Torah learning to hear the public reading of Megillas Esther on Purim. This is also brought down as the Halacha (Shulchan Aruch Orach Chaim 687:2). The Halacha (Mishnah Berurah Orach Chaim 690:26) further states from this verse that one fulfills one’s obligation in Hebrew despite not knowing the meaning. But is not Megillas Esther also Torah?! Rav Diskin explains that it is not considered Torah study if one does not understand it. Understanding is an essential component of Torah study. Hearing the reading is still an obligation because persumei nisa (publicizing a miracle) is even greater than Torah study. - In his commentary, R’ Meir Zlotowitz explains that Achashverosh gave permission to override, but not annul the previous decree. This was a dilemma for Mordechai and Esther to make Haman’s decree powerless without challenging its authority. - The Vilna Gaon and the Malbim wrote that Mordechai’s decree could only affect the vague, public copy of the original decree. It could not change the explicit, private memo that each governor received. - The Malbim adds that Achashverosh’s plan was for the second document to only clarify the first, vague decree. - The Ibn Ezra notes that Achashverosh could have come up with excuses for first document, like saying that the first document was the result of language confusion because Haman changed the wording of the original draft of the decree from “Jews can kill” to “Jews can be killed.” - Similarly, the Alshich writes that Achashverosh was saying that Haman left out a comma when he said (Esther 3:13) “l’abeid es kol HaYehudim” (“to kill all of the Yehudim”). A comma placed after kol could make the phrase appear as “to kill all, (by whom?) the Yehudim!” - Rashi explains that Achashverosh was using his recent hanging of Haman to demonstrate his fealty to Esther’s position, giving implicit permission for her to write a new decree. The Persian people will, after all, realize that Esther has the kingdom’s full support. - According to the Ibn Ezra, Achashverosh felt that his people would think Haman’s hanging implied that the earlier decree (written less than a week earlier) was a fraud. - However, the Alshich notes that only the residents of Shushan know Haman was hanged; those living in the remaining cities and villages of the kingdom’s 127 provinces did not know Achashverosh’s feelings on the matter. Therefore, new decrees needed to be written to keep them abreast of the changing political climate. - The Darchei Dovid explains Achashverosh’s reference to Haman’s hanging by quoting the Talmud (Taanis 29a) that a rule in Rome – and presumably in other ancient civilizations – was that when an officer of the court died, all decrees were annulled. This was due to the fact that people considered the death to be a punishment for a seemingly unfavorable decree. Therefore, Achashverosh argues, Haman’s death should have annulled the decree against the Jews. - R’ Elisha Gallico writes that Achashverosh felt people needed to know that Haman’s property was given to Esther (Esther 8:1) because Haman bought the rights to the Jews from Achashverosh (Esther 3:9). His hanging, and the transfer of his property to Esther, effectively bestowing upon Esther control of her people’s fate. - The Dena Pishra explains that Achashverosh was telling Esther to not worry about his people harming the Jews because Haman was not only hanged, but even remained hanging. - Concerned with the potential negative result of telling the king of their true relationship, the commentators wonder how much Esther could have told Achashverosh about Mordechai. According to Rashi, Esther told the king how dear or close Mordechai was to her. - More specifically, the Ibn Ezra writes that Esther was saying that Mordechai was her uncle. - However, the M’nos HaLevi writes that Esther explicitly said Mordechai was a brother to her father, and a descendant of royalty. This last may have encouraged Achashverosh to call for Mordechai. - According to the Ibn Ezra, Achashverosh was angry from the time he woke up from his drunken stupor after following Haman’s decree to rid himself of Vashti (Esther 2:1) until Haman was ultimately hanged. - The Me’am Loez explains the subsiding of the king’s fury as calm that returned to the universe. - This is because, as the Sfas Emes writes, when Amalek is in power, H-Shem is more noticeable through His characteristic of din, judgment. This is similar to what Rashi writes in his commentary on Torah (Shemos 17:16). - Haman’s end brought with it a sense of peace. The Talmud in several places (Rosh HaShanah 12a, Sanhedrin 108b, Zevachim 113b) points out that regarding the Flood, the verse (Bireishis 8:1) says “vayishku mayim” (“and the water subsided”) when the waters cooled down, whereas the phrase in this verse is “v’chamas hamelech shichacha” (“and the fury of the king subsided”). The contrast in phrasing implies that the flood waters were hot to match the burning passions of the licentious people of that time, mida kineged mida. - Parenthetically, perhaps another connection between the flood and Haman’s downfall is the Midrashic opinion (Yalkut Shimoni 6:1056) that Haman built the gallows from the beams of Noach’s ark. - Interestingly, shachacha (“subsided”) is a unique word in TaNaCh. R’ Samson Raphael Hirsch (Collected Writings, Volume IV, 319) comments that the word, shachach is phonetically related to shagag, (“not by choice”). In other words, the king’s anger was not something Achashverosh put effort into controlling. It came and subsided without any input from him. - The Talmud (Megillah 16a) considers that the unique spelling of shacha with an extra letter chuf to read shachacha is due to the fact that two angers were cooled; one belonged to the King of the Universe and the other belonged to Achashverosh. Also, Achashverosh calmed down about the situation of Esther, and the situation of Vashti. - As Rashi explains, Achashverosh was doubly angry because Haman was seemingly responsible for the death of Vashti, and was now a threat to Esther. - The Maharsha emphasizes that Achashverosh was still angry from that point (Esther 2:1), chronologically almost a decade earlier. - R’ Dovid Feinstein explains that Achashverosh had held himself responsible for Vashti’s fate all of this time, but now realizes that he was deceived and manipulated. - The Vilna Gaon says that the king whose fury subsided was H-Shem, King of the World. This may refer to the Zohar (III 133a), which translates the verse (Tehillim 144:15) that describes the Jewish people as “ha’am shekacha Lo,” or as “the nation that calms Him,” implying that the Jewish people have a tremendous power, if only we were to utilize it. - The Zer Zahav writes that Esther’s not forgiving Haman finally caused Shaul to be forgiven for taking unwarranted pity on Agag, Haman’s ancestor. - The Ginzei HaMelech writes that the Shir Ma’on quotes the Sha’aris Yisroel that quotes the great scholars who lived through the Chmielnicki Massacres of 5408-5409 (1648-1649 CE), which was one of the worst attempts at the genocide of the Jewish people in our history. They note that the large letter ches (Esther 1:6) and the large letter suf (Esther 9:29). Together, the letters spell out tach, a Hebrew way to reference the year 5408. This means that the massacre was a manifestation of Haman’s evil decree. - The Ginzei HaMelech heard from others the contention that the Chmielnicki Massacre was not the end of the effects of Haman’s decree. Rather, the Holocaust of tasha, 5705 (1945 CE), was the final manifestation of Haman’s decree. He proves this from the unique spelling of shachacha; since H-Shem was “calmed” about the Jewish people twice – once in tach, and once in tasha. There is proof of this in the mispar katan of the word shachacha (300+20+20+5=345= 12= 3) being the same as the mispar katan of tasha (400+300+5=705 = 12= 3). H-Shem is no longer anger. - The Ginzei HaMelech also quotes from Rav Michel Weissmandel that there is a hint to this in the traditional sizes of the letters in the list of Haman’s sons (Esther 9:7-9) as found in the Megillas Esther. The letters suf (400), shin (300), and zayin (7) there are smaller than the surrounding text, which refer to the year tashaz (1946 CE), the year in which ten Nazi officers were hanged at the Nuremberg Trials. There is also a large letter vuv (6), alluding to the sixth officer, Julius Streicher, who shouted “Purim Fest 1946” as he was being led to the gallows, despite the hanging taking place on Hoshana Rabba, the holiday on which the Zohar (III 31b-32a) says H-Shem judges the gentile nations. There was another Nazi who was supposed to be executed that day, Herman Goring, who committed suicide in his cell. He is likened to Haman’s daughter, who also killed herself. The comparison is extenuated by the fact that Goring famously enjoyed wearing women’s clothing. - Furthermore, the gematria of shachacha is the same as Moshe (40+300+5=345) because even good leaders are taken when H-Shem chooses to punish a generation. As the Talmud (Brachos 62b) teaches, a plague takes away the greatest of the generation together with the masses. Indeed, a storm sweeps away the good grain together with the chaff. - According to the Nachal Eshkol, another reason this gematria corresponds to Moshe is because the Midrash (Esther Rabba 6:2) says that yet another reason the Jews were saved from genocide was in the merit of Moshe. His merit should continue to be with us, and rescue us finally from this exile, bimheira biyameinu. ט וַיֹּאמֶר חַרְבוֹנָה אֶחָד מִן–הַסָּרִיסִים לִפְנֵי הַמֶּלֶךְ גַּם הִנֵּה–הָעֵץ אֲשֶׁר–עָשָׂה הָמָן לְמָרְדֳּכַי אֲשֶׁר דִּבֶּר–טוֹב עַל–הַמֶּלֶךְ עֹמֵד בְּבֵית הָמָן גָּבֹהַּ חֲמִשִּׁים אַמָּה וַיֹּאמֶר הַמֶּלֶךְ תְּלֻהוּ עָלָיו 9. And Charvona, one of the eunuchs before the king, said, “Also, behold! Here is the tree that Haman made for Mordechai who said good regarding on the king. It is standing in Haman’s house fifty-cubit tall.” And the king said, “Hang him on it.” - The Malbim, Vilna Gaon, and Yosef Lekach propose that Charvona was simply one of the chamberlains sent to fetch Haman to feast (Esther 6:14). - According to the Talmud (Megillah 16a), Charvona was an evil ally of Haman’s, intent on killing Mordechai. Once he saw that the plan would not succeed, he surrendered. This fits with the verse (Iyov 27:22) that allies of the wicked “will surely flee.” - The Dubno Maggid explains this with the following allegory: A blind beggar works with a young boy. One day, the boy stole the blind beggar’s wallet with 30 coins. When he saw the beggar crying pitiably, the boy returned the wallet saying, “I found the wallet with the 30 coins.” Instead of thanking the boy, the beggar began to beat the boy mercilessly for the theft. How did he know that the boy stole it? How else could the boy have known that there were 30 coins in the bag? Likewise, the Talmud knows that Charvona is evil because how else could he have known that the gallows were 50 amos tall if he were not in on the plot. - The Ben Ish Chai points out that Charvona noticed that Haman lost the ability to defend himself, and this emboldened him to speak up. - The Midrash (Esther Rabba 10:9) lists what many of the angels and other Heavenly Beings were doing during the climax of the Purim story. It says that Eliyahu appeared like Charvona, and said the words attributed to him in this verse. - Another Midrash (Yalkut 1059) and the Ibn Ezra concur that Charvona is Eliyahu. - The Alshich adds that another proof that Charvona is Eliyahu is that the verse describes him as “before the king,” and Eliyahu is certainly a minister of the King of kings. - Interestingly, the song, “Shoshanas Yaakov,” sung on Purim after the public reading of Megillas Esther ends with the words, “v’gam Charvona zachur latov” (“and also Charvona should be remembered for good”). Charvona is the only person who shares the epithet, “zachur latov” with Eliyahu. - When Charvona is mentioned earlier (Esther 1:10), he is the third in a list of the king’s chamberlains/eunichs. The M’nos HaLevi notes that the name is spelled with a letter aleph at the end there, and with a letter hey at the end here. He explains that when Charvona was on the side of evil, his name is spelled with an aleph. When he repents, and is Eliyahu, it is spelled with a hey. - In an explanation, R’ Dovid Feinstein writes that this name ending with an aleph means destruction in Aramaic. With a hey, it is a composite of “charav boneh” (“destroy, build”). In the process of true repentance, he was rebuilding that which he had earlier wanted to destroy – namely, Mordechai. - Rabbeinu Bachya, in his commentary on the Torah writes that he was called Charvona because he helped destroy Haman. - The Chasam Sofer and R’ Dovid Feinstein both say that with an aleph, it is the gentile Aramaic; with a hey, it is Hebrew, so it is Jewish.

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Spleen – Structure and Function The spleen is located in the left hypochondriac region of the abdomen between the fundus of the stomach and diaphragm. In adults, it is approximately 12 cm long, 7 cm wide, and 3 cm in thickness, and weighs around 150-250 g. The splenic artery, splenic vein, efferent lymphatic vessels and splenic nerve plexus pass through the hilus, which is a depressed area in the capsule.1, 2, 3 The spleen is the largest organ of the lymphatic system and contributes to a fully operational immune system as it combines the innate and adaptive immune system in a uniquely organized way. The structure of the spleen enables it to remove older red blood cells from circulation and leads to the efficient removal of blood-borne microorganisms and cellular debris. This function, in combination with a highly organized lymphoid compartment, makes the spleen the most important organ for antibacterial and antifungal immune reactivity. The spleen is an organ which not only effectively uses its own immune cells but also mobilizes the body’s immune cells for immune surveillance and for the protection of other vital organs including the heart, kidney and brain.4, 5, 6, 7 The spleen is prone to physical injury, infections, and various immunological conditions including cancers. Enlargement of the spleen or splenomegaly may occur due to anemia, infections, inflammation, cancer, metabolic disorders, and liver diseases. The spleen has four important structures: and marginal zone. Each area shows unique morphological structure and is involved in performing specific physiological functions. The capsule contains dense connective tissues, elastic and smooth muscle fibers, and sympathetic nerve fibers from the splenic nerve plexus. The cells which play an important role in spleen functions are macrophages, monocytes, natural killer (NK) cells, and B- and T-cells. Red pulp constitutes about 70% of the total splenic volume in adults and contains numerous sinuses which are filled with blood, rich in platelets. Between the sinuses are spongy cellular cords (cords of Billroth), made up of reticular fibers and reticular cells intermingled with several immune cells, such as macrophages, monocytes, granulocytes, B-cells, T-cells and plasma cells. In the red pulp, pathogens and cellular debris, as well as aging erythrocytes, are efficiently removed from the blood by macrophages, which are abundant in this compartment. These macrophages are then well equipped to recycle iron from the erythrocytes. Several red pulp specific functions occur in the spleen including blood filtration, antigenic stimulation and proliferation of B- and T-cells and production of antibodies of different specifications. The Marginal Zone The marginal zone forms a bridge between the innate and adaptive immune response, because the macrophages in this region, which express specific pattern-recognition receptors, can efficiently take up blood-borne pathogens. The specific subset of B-cells in this region, the marginal-zone B-cells, can be activated by these macrophages or can directly respond to blood-borne pathogens, after which they become antigen-presenting cells or IgM-producing plasma cells. Entry of activated dendritic cells or marginal-zone B-cells to the white pulp can initiate an adaptive immune response through activation of T-cells, which then migrate to the edge of the B-cell follicles and provide help to B-cells. Immunological activation of B-cells occurs in the marginal zone as a result of antigenic encounter.8 Many lymphocytes in the marginal zone migrate into respective T- and B areas. The marginal zone contains the highest concentration of blood antigens of any other area in the spleen because splenic arterial blood empties into the marginal zone. Marginal zone B-cells show somatic hypermutation, clonal expansion and B-cell positive selection.9, 10 B-cell clonal expansion also occurs in the germinal center of the B-cell follicle following antigenic stimulation. The white pulp is a lymphocyte rich area which contains periarterial lymphatic sheath (PALS) around the arterial vessels - particularly around the central artery and central arterioles, follicles and loose lymphatic tissues. The PALS is a sheath of lymphocytes mostly CD4+ T-cells that envelope the central arterial vessels. The follicles not only contain B-cells, but also T-cells, which are found adjacent to the PALS. Significant immunological activities and cell trafficking and cross-talk between various immune cells occur. Bordering the PALS and the follicles is the marginal zone, which has few lymphocytes but numerous macrophages and antigen presenting cells (APCs). The white pulp is a highly organized lymphoid region where adaptive immune responses can be initiated. It is composed of separate areas for B-cells and T-cells, which are surrounded by the marginal zone - a region that contains discrete subsets of macrophages and B-cells. Whereas blood flows freely through the marginal zone, the white pulp is excluded from the bloodstream, and specific signals are required for entry. Entry of leukocytes to the white pulp requires activation of G-protein-coupled receptors, a process which is reminiscent of the multistep extravasation process that has been described for leukocytes leaving the bloodstream and entering the lymph nodes or sites of inflammation. The organization of the white pulp into distinct areas, which promotes efficient interaction of immune system cells, is coordinated by the expression of chemokines, which attract the specific lymphoid subsets to the appropriate microdomains. In addition, the organization of both the white pulp and the marginal zone is under strict control of lipid mediators and adhesion molecules, as well as chemokines, all of which help the specific cellular subsets be retained within their compartments. Expression of these factors is, in turn, controlled by activation of the lymphotoxin-β receptor and tumor-necrosis-factor receptor-1, but it might also involve additional signaling receptors. Through this unique organization of its compartments, the spleen can mount complex adaptive immune responses, as well as effectively clear pathogens from the blood. For more than 50 years, splenic peptides have been used as an immunological supportive tumor therapy aimed at improving patients’ poor general state of health. Splenic peptides are obtained from porcine spleen. The main constituents of the active ingredients in splenic peptides are oligopeptides and polypeptides. However, depending on the method of manufacture, splenic peptide preparations may vary widely in their individual composition. Spleen peptide preparations are primarily used in cancer therapy and immunotherapy in Europe and have a multitude of effects on the body. They can improve the supply of oxygen to the cells, for example, by up to 200%. As a result, an increase in the strength of the defenses can be expected and the lymphatic system also receives considerable stimulation. This, in turn, is important for detoxification of the body, e.g. particularly when fighting cancer cells. Spleen peptides also activate and stabilize numerous psycho-neuroendocrine regulatory mechanisms. They show molecular similarities to neuropeptides and, like them, act on a wide variety of metabolic areas via hormones and cell messengers. This harmonizes and regulates the psycho-neuroendocrine and defense-regulating functions. Spleen peptides can be used in a variety of conditions but are most notable for improving both immunity and cellular detoxification. They are indicated in defective or decreasing function of psycho-neuroendocrine immunological regulation, but particularly in degenerative diseases, menopausal symptoms, and allergy. Research, as well as practical therapeutic experience, also shows that the regular use of spleen peptides improves the regulatory action on body functions in numerous disorders. Another concomitant effect of spleen peptide therapy is that it is often possible to eliminate or considerably reduce dosages of other pharmaceuticals that cause side effects. Certain splenic peptides have been shown to bind to specific receptors on the surface of white cells such as macrophages and polymorphonuclear leukocytes. This, in turn, stimulates their migration, phagocytic, bactericidal, and tumoricidal (antitumor) activity.11 Splenic peptides can restore immune functions damaged by radiation and chemotherapy. They stabilize the lymphocytic status and improve the patient’s general health.12 Commercial Spleen Peptide Preparations Peptides are short chains of amino acid monomers linked by peptide (amide) bonds. Peptides are chemical messengers that are universal regulators and stabilizers of cell functions throughout the body. Peptides control cell growth, stabilize critical cell functions, and provide essential means for cells to communicate with each other. Peptides possess the unique action of serving to convey information from one cell to another. Without proper communication and coordination among all cells, molecules and organs of the immune system “network”, it cannot function properly. Spleen peptides serve to regulate and stabilize the cells of the immune system. Several splenic peptide preparations are available in Europe for enhancing immune function, particularly after surgery, radiation therapy, and cytotoxic chemotherapy. Most conventional U.S. oncologists will know little - if anything - about this type of peptide therapy. With no knowledge, most physicians will not recommend trying it, even though side effects are almost non-existent. Additionally, medical websites such as pharmaceutically oriented WebMD discourage patients from using spleen peptides and falsely claim that there is insufficient evidence for their use. In truth, research of injectable spleen peptide efficacy for numerous conditions has been both positive and extensive.13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 One of the most researched spleen peptide preparations is Polyerga®. German drug regulatory authorities have approved this product for use in that country. Polyerga® is available in both oral form, as well as injectable, and is manufactured by HorFerVit Pharma GmbH. The oral form of Polyerga® is available as polypeptide tablets or oligopeptide capsules. 1 Dragee contains: oligo- and polypeptides from porcine spleen 100 mg. Recommended dosage according to the manufacturer is one tablet to be taken before meals, three times daily. An additional capsule may be taken every other day before a meal. The injectable form of Polyerga® comes in 1 ml “Ampullen” (vial) and contains: oligopeptides from porcine spleen 30 μg.; phenol 0.05% as stabilizer, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, and water. Dosage is according to the individual and condition being treated. According to the manufacturer, a typical dosage is as follows: for one week from Monday - Friday administer 1 vial daily. Then for two weeks, three times a week, administer 1 vial. After that, administer 1 vial twice a week for three weeks. Treatment recommendations by the German Society for Thymus Therapy The German Society for Thymus Therapy has a slightly different schedule for injectable spleen peptides (see below).34 They recommend that spleen peptides should be administered as long-term therapy. Only in this way can the desired effects be achieved and maintained over a long period. M = injection of 5 ml spleen peptides, total of 20 spleen peptide injections in 6 weeks, followed by transition to 1 injection per week every 14 days or once a month, depending on the status of the illness. After an intensive initial course of 20 injections over 6 weeks, booster intervals are fixed depending on the patient’s condition. Booster injections every 2 weeks have proved successful in chronic and geriatric conditions. The basic regime can be intensified in severe illness or extended for general preventive purposes. Further administration of spleen peptides is determined on an individual case basis by the physician and depends on the patient's condition and tolerance of therapy. Repeated treatment is recommended after 6 weeks or 3 months. In severe cases, long-term therapy where 1 vial of Polyerga® is administered 1-2 times a week may be considered. The combination of thymic peptides and splenic peptides is useful in general immune deficiencies and reduced resistance during cancer treatment. While thymic peptides regulate T-lymphocytes and recruit new T-cells from the bone marrow, splenic peptides have a greater influence on the B-lymphocytic defenses. Hence, patients whose immune systems are suppressed due to radiation and cytotoxic chemotherapy are good candidates for spleen peptide therapy. These treatments can be used together or separately and, like all treatment plans, should be individualized to the patient’s condition. Combination with other forms of treatment The combination of thymic peptides (thymosin) and spleen peptides is useful in general immune deficiencies and reduced resistance. While thymic peptides regulate T-lymphocytes and recruit new T-cells from the bone marrow, spleen peptides have a greater influence on the B-lymphocytic defenses. These limit the overproduction of immunoglobulins. The German Society for Thymus Therapy recommends the following 10-week schedule for combined thymic peptides and spleen peptides. M = injection of 5 ml spleen peptides; T = Thymus peptides There are no restrictions regarding other treatment methods. Additional measures may include: dietary changes, supplementation with antioxidants - A, C, E, proteolytic enzymes, minerals - magnesium, potassium, zinc, selenium, neural therapy, etc. Gynecological and androgenic tumors should not be treated with injectable spleen peptides until further research is performed. In pregnant women, caution is appropriate, as spleen peptides act on the hormonal system. In some diseases, the dosage of other drugs can be reduced during the course of spleen therapy. In diabetics, blood sugar levels should be monitored to recognize possible reductions of insulin etc. in good time. The same applies to patients with a tendency to overactive thyroid or goiter. Doses of thyroid hormones may possibly need to be reduced. Patients receiving cortisone or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs can often be placed on lower doses. For patients being treated for gout, uric acid values should be monitored. As with all medicines, hypersensitivity reactions can occur in predisposed individuals. They are almost never seen in patients receiving intramuscular injection of spleen peptides. However, to rule out the possibility of such a situation, a preliminary test should be performed with 0.1 ml spleen peptides before starting the course of injections. Gray’s Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice. Editor- in - Chief S. Standring, 2008. Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier, pp.1192-5. Fawcett, D.W. & Jensh R.P. (2002). Bloom & Fawcett’s Concise Histology, 2nd edition, Arnold, New York. pp. 159- 61. Guyton A.C. and Hall J.E. (2006). Text book of Medical Physiology. Elsevier Saunders. pp. 180, 440. R.E.Mebius and G.Kraal. Structure and function of the spleen. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 5(8),(2005), 606-16. J.M. den Haan and G. Kraal. Innate immune functions of macrophage subpopulations in the spleen. J. of Innate Immunity 4(5-6), (2012), 437- 445. X. Zhao, N. Wu, and L. Huang. Endothelial progenitor cells and spleen: New insights in regeneration medicine. Cytotherapy, 12(1), (2010), 7-16. S.M. Hamza, and S. Kaufman. Role of spleen in integrated control of splanchnic vascular tone: physiology and pathophysiology. Can J Physiol. and Pharmacol. 87(1), (2009), 1-7. A. Cerutti. M.Cols, and I. Puga. Marginal zone B cells: virtues of innate like antibodyproducing lymphocytes. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 13 (2), (2013), 118-132. A. Tierens, J. Delabie, L. Michiels et al. Marginal zone B cells in the human lymph node and spleen show somatic hypermutations and display clonal expansion. Blood 93(1), (1999), 226- 234. L. Wen, J. Brill-Dashoff, S.A. Shinton, M. Asano, R.R. Hardy, K. Hayakawa. Evidence of marginal zone B cells-positive selection in spleen. Immunity 23, (2005), 297-3008. Najjar V, Nishioka K (1970). Tuftsin: a natural phagocytosis stimulating peptide (abstract page). Nature 228 (5272): 672–3. Jurin M, Zarković N, Ilić Z, Borović S, Hartleb M. Clin Porcine splenic peptides (Polyerga) decrease the number of experimental lung metastases in mice. Exp Metastasis. 1996 Jan; 14(1):55-60. Zarkovic N, Hartleb M, Zarkovic K, Borovic S, Golubic J, Kalisnik T, Frech S, Klingmüller M, Loncaric I, Bosnjak B, Jurin M, Kuhlmey J. Spleen peptides (Polyerga) inhibit development of artificial lung metastases of murine mammary carcinoma and increase efficiency of chemotherapy in mice. Cancer Biotherapy and Radiopharmaceuticals 03/1998; 13(1):25-32. Gulubova MV, Ganeva MG, Zaneva MA. Rat liver pit cells following administration of the glycopeptide preparation (Polyerga). Hepatogastroenterology. 1995 Sep-Oct;42(5):698-704. Borghardt, Jürgen, Bernd Rosien, Roman Görtelmeyer, Svenja Lindemann, Martin Hartleb, and Martin Klingmüller. Effects of a spleen peptide preparation as supportive therapy in inoperable head and neck cancer patients. Arzneimittelforschung 50, no. 02 (2000): 178-184. Aina, Olulanu H., Thomas C. Sroka, Man‐Ling Chen, and Kit S. Lam. Therapeutic cancer targeting peptides. Peptide Science: Original Research on Biomolecules 66, no. 3 (2002): 184-199. van’t Veen, A., H. De Ruyter, J. W. Mouton, M. Hartleb, and B. Lachmann. Pretreatment with spleen peptides can enhance survival in influenza A infected mice. Complementary Medicine Research 3, no. 5 (1996): 218-221. Jayatilake, R. S., J. Balawardena, G. Skiba, and M. Hartleb. Spleen peptides enhance body weight, subjective well-being and appetite in cancer patients. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 118 (1992): R36. Hartleb, M., and J. Leuschner. Toxicological profile of a low molecular weight spleen peptide formulation used in supportive cancer therapy. Arzneimittel-Forschung 47, no. 9 (1997): 1047-1051. De Ojeda, G., R. Diez-Orejas, P. Portoles, M. Ronda, M. L. Del Pozo, M. J. Feito, M. Hartleb, and J. M. Rojo. Polyerga, a biological response modifier enhancing T-lymphocyte-dependent responses. Research in Experimental Medicine 194, no. 1 (1994): 261-267. Vassilev, M., E. Zacharieva, K. Antonov, and T. Krastev. Treatment of chronic hepatitis B patients with Polyerga™. Journal of Hepatology 23, no. supplement 1 (1995): 197. Chiarotto, J., M. Tthirlwell, M. Trudeau, J. Skelton, G. Boos, and J. Viallet. Phase-I-II Trial of an Unconventional Agent, Polyerga, in Patients with Advanced Cancer. In Clinical Research, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. A104-A104. 6900 Grove Rd, Thorofare, NJ 08086: Slack Inc, 1994. Dittrich, W., H. Rothe, P. P. Jaros, and A. Willig. Biological properties and partial purification of a growth factor from porcine spleen. Experimental cell research 188, no. 1 (1990): 172-174. Dold, Ulrich, and Bundesarbeitsgemeinschaft für Rehabilitation. Krebszusatztherapie beim fortgeschrittenen nicht-kleinzelligen Bronchialkarzinom: multizentrische kontrollierte Studie zur Prüfung der Wirksamkeit von Iscador und Polyerga. Thieme, 1991. Klose, G., and J. Mertens. Long term results of postoperative treatment of carcioma of the stomach with Polyerga. Therapiewoche 27 (1977): 5359-5361. Baier, J. E., H. A. Neumann, T. Taufighi-Chirazi, and H. Gallati. Thymopentin, Factor AF2, and Polyerga Improve Impaired Mitogen Induced Interferon-gamma Release of Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Derived from Tumor Patients. Tumordiagnostik und Therapie 15, no. 1 (1994): 21-21. Berressem, P., S. Frech, and M. Hartleb. Additional Therapy with Polyerga [R] Improve Immune Reactivity and Quality of Life in Breast Cancer Patients during Rehabilitation. Tumordiagnostik und TherapieTUMORDIAGNOSTIK UND THERAPIE 16, no. 2 (1995): 45-45. Yong, Chen, and Zhang En-Pi. Therapeutic Effect of Radiation Combined with Polyerga in the Treatment of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma [J]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Oncology 5 (1997): 017. Dehai, T., and Z. Xianchun. Clinical study on combined treatment of esophageal carcinoma with radiotherapy and polyerga. Chin J Clin Oncol 25 (1998): 468-70. Liqin, Shen. Immunologic Functional Effect of Polyera in Cancer Patients [J]. Suzhou University Journal of Medical Science 1 (1997): 030. Mingqian, Xu Xinhua Hu Shan Lu. The Effect of Polyerga in Combined with Repeated Chemotherapy of Recurrent Non Hodgkin’s Lymphoma. Chinese Journal of Clinical OncologyCHINESE JOURNAL OF CLINICAL ONCOLOGY (1998): 06. ZHAO, Xiao-wu, Xiao-jing PENG, and Yue-wen FU. Laboratory Study and Clinical Application of Polyerga in Purging auto Transplantation [J]. Henan Journal of Oncology 6 (2000): 003. Guibo, Gao, Li Zhengping, and Li Jianhua. Abstraction of Spleen Peptide and Its Therapeutic Effect in the Treatment of Malignant Tumor [J]. Chinese Journal of Rehabilitation 3 (1999): 014. German Society for Thymus Therapy Harvestehuder Weg 65 20149 Hamburg Germany Tel.: +49-(0) 1805 - THYMUS ( 849 687 ) E-mail: [email protected] Homepage: www.thymus-therapie.org.

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In 2000 and 2001 the Peruvian government created and approved several laws to regulate the use of the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu. Most of these rules were given to preserve and protect the park and the environment surrounding the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu. Before these laws were given, the entrance to the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu was not regulated and only an entrance ticket was necessary to be able to hike the Inca Trail. This lack of regulation resulted in many travelers’ choosing a multitude of areas in which to camp, in their failure to clean up after themselves when camping, and in their building fires with no regard for the surrounding environment. This behavior thus ended free hiking on the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu. We hope that trekkers using other trails, such us the Salkantay Trek or the Choquequirao Trek, respect the environment and pick up their trash so that these treks remain free of severe regulations. After the Peruvian government approved the laws that regulate the use of the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu, whoever wants to hike this trail has to hire the services of an Inca Trail Tour Operator. This means that nobody is able to hike the Inca Trail by himself/herself. The law established that only 500 people are allowed to enter the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu per day. This number includes tourists, tour guides, and porters, meaning that only about 200 to 220 tourists are able to hike the Inca Trail per day. Permits are sold by the National Institute of Culture located in Cusco, and they are sold on a first come, first served basis to registered tour operators only. At the time that a tour operator purchases a permit for a tourist, the tour operator needs to provide information such as first name, last name, date of birth, gender, nationality, passport number, and ISIC Student ID Card in cases where the student discount is offered. The tour operator also needs to purchase the permits of porters. (The information of porters does not need to be provided at that time.) The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu is open from March 1 to January 31 of the following year. During the month of February the Inca Trail is closed for maintenance and because this is the most rainy month of the year. Every year during the months of November and December all Inca Trail Tour Operators are required to apply for an authorization to operate hikes along the Inca Trail. In order to be authorized to operate, companies need to observe a few minimum requirements: In addition, every year tour guides and porters need to be authorized by the INRENA (National Institute of Natural Resources) in order to work as an Inca Trail crew. Tour guides need to obtain their authorization to enter the Inca Trail during the same period while porters need to obtain their authorization during the month of January. In 2005, the Peruvian government discovered that several tour operators were underpaying and abusing their porters. As a consequence, the Porter Law was approved, requiring companies to provide a fair pay, life insurance, proper equipment, and social security benefits. This law also established that a porter carries 20 kilograms (12.5 pounds). Unfortunately, the majority of companies operating the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu are not complying with these rules and are still abusing their hard-working porters. This site provides relevant tips and FAQs regarding the Classic Inca Trail. Is hiking the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu worth it? It’s definitely a privilege to trek this trail, which was in use more than 500 years ago. If you enjoy nature and human history, the Inca Trail, with its ruins, beautiful landscapes, and Machu Picchu, will be one of the greatest adventures you will ever take. In order to fully enjoy the Inca Trail it is important to be in good physical shape, healthy, acclimatized to high altitudes, and prepared with the correct gear. You do not need to be a super athlete, but it is important to be an active person who exercises or hikes regularly. A flu or bad cough can easily end in a more serious illness or even death in extreme situations. Usually two days are good enough for most bodies to acclimatize to the altitude, but some bodies need longer than that. (Read more at our Altitude Sickness site.) For a list of gear, check out our What to Bring Site. How difficult is the Classic Inca Trail to Machu Picchu? This 4-Day version of the Inca Trail is considered a moderate to difficult trek with the second day the most difficult one because the majority of elevation is gained this day. Travelers need to be accustomed to hiking or trekking and acclimatized to high elevations in order to fully enjoy this trek. When is the best time to hike the Classic Inca Trail? The dry season is generally the best time to do the trek. The dry season runs from April to November, while the wet season runs from December to March. Even during rainy season it doesn’t usually rain all day long. June to September are the most popular months for treks. May and October offer the nicest weather. The Inca Trail is closed in February. Could I hike the Classic Inca Trail at any time? Yes, as long as there is availability on the day you will start the trek. You don’t need to check for availability for all the days you will be on the trek, just the starting day. However, during the month of February the trail is closed for maintenance. How far in advance should I book my Classic Inca Trail? Due to limited availability, we recommend that you book your Inca Trail trek at least 3 months in advance for the low season. If you plan to hike the Inca Trail during busy season (May through September), you should book it 5 or 6 months in advance. Why do I need to check availability? Availability is restricted by the Peruvian government. Only 500 people per day are allowed to hike the Inca Trail. Of this number, only 200 to 230 are tourists. The remaining number includes porters, guides, and cooks. We are in November or December and I want to book a permit for the month of May of next year. All companies show 0 or 500 permits available. Why is that? The National Institute of Culture starts selling permits for the March to January season during the month of January. For instance, permits for March 2019 will be available for sale in November 2018. Can I buy the Classic Inca Trail permit on my own and hike the trail on my own? No, you are not allowed to buy the permit or hike the trail by yourself. The National Institute of Culture sells permits only to authorized tour operators. Can I change my starting date for the Classic Inca Trail? Once the Inca Trail permit has been purchased, you cannot change the starting date without incurring an additional cost. The permits are issued by the Peruvian government and are non-refundable and non-transferable. If the permit has been issued and you need to change your starting date, you will lose your deposit and a new security deposit will be required. What should I do if there is no availability for the days that I will be in Cusco? There are alternative treks, such as Salkantay, Lares, Huchuy Qosqo, Inca Jungle or Choquequirao. You can also take the train from Cusco or Ollantaytambo to Aguas Calientes and visit Machu Picchu. If you are planning on visiting Machu Picchu, we recommend spending the night in Aguas Calientes; that way you will have enough time to really enjoy the magic and mysticism of Machu Picchu. How do I reserve a spot for the Classic Inca Trail? Booking the Classic Inca Trail through a Peruvian Tour Operator or a Foreign Travel Agency Some Inca Trail informative websites are opposed to travelers’ booking the Inca Trail through a Travel Agency; however using the services of a Travel Agency can be a smart thing to do when a traveler is looking for a small group and good service. Using the services of well-known Peruvian Tour Operators guarantees a good service and a group of 16 people. When travelers are looking for small groups with reputable companies that are not going to dump you on another operator because just one person signed up, the task can be complicated. In these cases, a smart thing to do is to book with a reputable Foreign Travel Agency which is going to offer you a good service. The use of a reliable Foreign Travel Agency usually means a higher price, but it will also usually mean complete satisfaction. It is most likely that a Foreign Travel Agency is going to give you a refund when services are not as advertised. Refunds are unfamiliar to most Peruvian Tour Operators. Do all the tour operators provide the same service? No. Make sure that you are hiring a professionally run tour operator that will take proper care of you and the environment. If you see prices that are too low, be careful. Some companies have hidden extra charges or fees. Also some companies won’t provide all the services they claim they are offering. Do not expect refunds if you are working with an Inca Trail Tour Operator based only in Peru. Service provided during the Inca Trail Since there are several Inca Trail Tour Operators, the service from one to another can be different, affecting the price that is charged. Some differences can be observed in the following areas: What do I need to carry during the Classic Inca Trail? Most companies will ask you to carry your personal belongings, sleeping bags, and mattress foam. If you are not willing to carry anything other than a small backpack, you should hire the services of an extra porter through your Inca Trail Tour Operator. We include in our price the service of a porter to carry up to 15 pounds (7 kilograms) and 30 pounds (14 kilograms) of your personal belongings. The Inca Trail Porters and Cooks These amazing guys are usually from local Cusco communities. Our staff of porters and cooks have been trained to avoid injuries while carrying the equipment needed for the trek, and also to prepare high quality meals. Tipping Inca Trail Porters and Cooks Travelers are not obligated to tip porters and cooks, but it is a custom that at the end of Day 3 guides ask the entire group of travelers for a tip for the hard work of these guys. (If you do not want to be ashamed, you might consider tipping.) If you decide to tip them, you should handle the money to the porters and cook as a group. Most travelers who decide to contribute usually give around USD 20.00 to USD 30.00 for the entire crew. Restrooms in the Classic Inca Trail The Classic Inca Trail offers basic restrooms with no toilet seats or showers from Day 1 to 3. Some tour operators bring portable toilets. Also, the majority of restrooms have no potable running water. (Use filters or purification pills.) Once at Machu Picchu toilet seats can be found. Is water provided during the trek? We will provide boiled water every morning. What should I bring on the trek? Can I hike the Inca Trail the same day that I arrive at Cusco? The main effects of altitude sickness show the first or second day. For that reason, we highly recommend that you hike the Inca Trail at least a couple of days after arriving in Cusco. What should I do to avoid altitude sickness? To avoid altitude sickness, give yourself time to acclimatize to the change in altitude (2 to 3 days). For instance, if you are trekking the Inca Trail, you should rest the day before. Try to avoid alcohol, and make sure you eat lightly and drink plenty of water. Make sure to stay hydrated, walk slowly, and take frequent breaks. Drinking coca leaf tea always helps. It is widely available, and your hotel in Cusco will probably offer it as well. For further details, please click here. What should I do if I get altitude sickness in Cusco City or in the middle of the trek? Drink plenty of liquids, (coca leaf tea will definitely help), take a nap, and try to rest. If you are in the middle of the trek and start feeling dizzy, extremely tired, nauseated, and headachy, ask for advice from your guide. You will probably need to go back in search of a lower altitude. Usually symptoms go away once you are in a lower elevation. If not, you should contact a doctor. Below is a suggested check list for the Classic Inca Trail Trek: This is a list of reasons to book the Classic Inca Trail with GoTrekPeru.com: Walking from one Incan ruin to the next one through a magical path full of beautiful landscapes is an unforgettable experience. Our 4 Day Inca Trail package provides the experience of trained cooks, the knowledge of professional and bilingual guides, the detail-oriented organization of a US Tour Operator, and the first class equipment necessary to make of this trek a memorable experience. Entrance tickets to the Inca Trail are limited. Extension Available! Day 1: CUSCO - OLLANTAYTAMBO - PISCACUCHO - HUAYLLABAMBA (About 4:30hrs. - 12 Km/7.5 ml) (B), (L), (D) Day 2: WAYLLABAMBA - WARMIWAÑUSKA - PACAYMAYU (About 7:00hrs. - 12 Km/7.5 ml) (B), (L), (D) Day 3: PACAYMAYU - CHAQUIQOCHA - WIÑAYWAYNA (About 8:30hrs - 16 Km/10 ml) (B), (L), (D) Day 4: WIÑAYWAYNA - INTIPUNKU - MACHU PICCHU - OLLANTAYTAMBO - CUSCO (About 2:15hrs - 6 Km/4ml) (B), (L) Around 6:15a.m. your guide will pick you up from your hotel. At this time you will meet your co-trekkers and will begin your journey in a bus to Ollantaytambo which will take approximately an hour and a half. Once in Ollantaytambo, you will enjoy breakfast at a local restaurant and you will be able to make your last-minute purchases for your trek (walking sticks, water bottles, snacks, etc.) After leaving Ollantaytambo, the ride to Piscacucho will take approximately 30 more minutes. This point is also called Kilometer 82. Here a snack will be provided by your tour guide and you will give your personal belongings to our porters. At 9,000 feet above sea level, you will start your trek by going up short hills and walking on flat land for about two hours. At your arrival at Meskay, you will enjoy your lunch and a short rest. After another two and a half hours of hiking, you will arrive at your first campsite, called Huayllabamba, at 9,840 feet above sea level. Here dinner will be served at about 7:00p.m. Today you will be able to observe the ruins of Q’anabamba and Willkarakay and visit the ruins of Patallacta during your trek. Also, you will enjoy an unforgettable astronomical view at night. The cook’s assistant will awaken you about 6:00a.m., offering you hot tea. Breakfast will be served at about 6:30a.m. and after that you will officially meet your crew. Today will be the most difficult day of hiking with mostly uphill walking for the entire morning. Once again, you will receive an energizing snack for the day. The first hour and a half will take you to the first resting point, called Yuncachimpa – Ayabacha, at 10,820 feet above sea level. After another hour of hiking, you will arrive at the second resting point, called Lulluchapampa. Sport drinks, candies, and other groceries will be sold here. The hardest part of the trek will take you to the “Dead Woman Pass” or “Abra Warmiwañusca” at 13,776 feet above sea level. This portion of the trek will take you about two hours. Here you will have an amazing view of both sides of the valley. A descent on native stairs will take you to the next campsite, called Pacaymayu, at about 11,800 feet above sea level. Here, lunch and dinner will be served. Today you will enjoy different views of the trail, including a small waterfall, a view of the morning’s campsite from far above, and various vegetation. If you are lucky, you may even see a condor. At the end of the day, you will experience a feeling of great accomplishment for a hard day’s work! Once again your cook’s assistant will wake you up around 6:00a.m. with a cup of hot tea. After breakfast at about 6:30a.m., you will start the most beautiful day of the trek. Your hike will start with a snack and a short ascending hike until get to the ruins of Runkuraqay or “Egg Hut.” After a presentation from your guide, you will continue your hike until you reach the second pass, called “Abra Runkuraqay,” at 12,400 feet above sea level. Your next stop will be the ruins of Sayacmarca at 11,472 feet above sea level, where your guide will talk to you about the ruins. Your last lunch with your group will be served at Chaquiqocha at about 11:30a.m. After lunch, a stony road will take you to your next campsite, called Wiñaywayna, at 8,692 feet above sea level. On the way you will enjoy the amazing views of the green mountains, rivers, and snowy peaks, as well as the ruins of the Phuyupatamarca, where again your guide will make a presentation. This portion may take you about four and a half hours. Once at the campsite, you might visit the ruins of Wiñaywayna, take a shower, or just rest. After your last dinner, there will be a small ceremony to say thanks to the hard work done by your crew. You will also have the opportunity to tip your crew at this time. Today you will need to wake up at 4:30a.m. and eat an early breakfast because the police control office opens at 5:30a.m. A hike of an hour and a half will take you to the Gate of the Sun, also called Intipunku, at 8,920 feet above sea level. If it is not cloudy, you will be able to get an amazing view of Machu Picchu, which is located at 7,875 feet above sea level. At about 9:00a.m., your guide will start your tour of the “Lost City of the Incas.” Around 12:00pm, you will take the bus down to Aguas Calientes, where you will enjoy lunch at a local restaurant (buffet style). At 16:22 hours, you will be taking the expedition train to Ollantaytambo. Upon arrival in Ollantaytambo, transportation to your hotel in Cusco will be provided (approximate time of arrival is 19:45 hours). |Travelers - Shared Service||1| |Price per person - USD||695.00| Travelers Private Service |2||3||4||5 - 6||7 - 9||10+| |Price per person USD||1175.00||1050.00||950.00||890.00||850.00||800.00| We offer daily departures for the Classic Inca Trail (Before booking make sure there are available permits.)

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