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An interesting, highly detailed article disavowing the idea of an Aboriginal ‘Stolen Generation’. Even those who disagree with its thesis ought to read it. “Why There Were No Stolen Generations (Part One”, Quadrant, January 1, 2010: Most Australians would be taken aback to find that whenever academics in the field of genocide studies discuss history’s worst examples, their own country is soon mentioned. The March 2001 edition of the London-based Journal of Genocide Research indicated the company Australia now keeps. That edition carried six articles, in the following order: “The German Police and Genocide in Belorussia 1941–1944. Part 1: Police Deployment and Nazi Genocidal Directives”, by Eric Haberer “Comparative Policy and Differential Practice in the Treatment of Minorities in Wartime: The United States Archival Evidence on the Armenians and Greeks in the Ottoman Empire”, by Rouben Paul Adalian “Final Solutions, Crimes Against Mankind: On the Genesis and Criticism of the Concept of Genocide”, by Uwe Makino “The Holocaust, the Aborigines, and the Bureaucracy of Destruction: An Australian Dimension of Genocide”, by Paul R. Bartrop “Did Ben-Gurion Reverse his Position on Bombing Auschwitz?”, by Richard H. Levy “Kalmykia, Victim of Stalinist Genocide: From Oblivion to Reassertion”, by François Grin According to Paul Bartrop of Deakin University, Australia deserves this place in the academic literature because our past policies towards Aboriginal children were comparable to those of Nazi Germany. “It did not involve killing,” he admitted, “but its ultimate objective was the same as Hitler’s was for the Jews; namely, that at the end of the process the target group would have disappeared from the face of the earth.” Hence he declared with confidence: “It is impossible to conclude otherwise than that Australia in the 1930s was possessed of an administrative culture that in reality practised genocide.” In its first ten years from 1999 to 2009, the quarterly Journal of Genocide Research published twelve major articles of this kind about Australia. This was more than three times as many as the journal carried in the same period on the regime of Pol Pot in Cambodia. In Volume 10, Issue 4, 2008, no fewer than three of the seven articles were on Australia: one on the Stolen Generations and two on colonial history. Indicting Australia for genocide has become an academic obsession. Australia’s Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission made this charge notorious when in April 1997 it published Bringing Them Home, the report of its National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families. The report accused Australia of breaching the United Nations convention on genocide. For its historical analysis, the Commission relied heavily upon the work of a small number of university-based historians. Since then, the number of academics and academic programs in this field has grown exponentially to cash in on the demand created. Today, very few countries, and certainly no others of our size, devote the quantity of university resources that we now do to genocide studies. The field is concerned not only with the Stolen Generations but the so-called invasion of Australia and the genocide allegedly inherent in establishing British settlement here. The underlying agenda of this academic pursuit is not simply the study of genocide, let alone its analysis or prevention. Its aim is political, to argue that our own society and those like it, that is, Britain and the United States, are every bit as bad as Nazi Germany. In the 2001 edition of the academic journal Aboriginal History, editors Ann Curthoys and John Docker of the Australian National University wrote: Settler-colonies like ‘Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Argentina, the United States, and Canada’ led the way in setting out to achieve what the Nazis also set out to achieve, the displacement of indigenous populations and their replacement by incoming peoples held to be racially superior. International academic book publishers know there is a market for such material. For their anthology Genocide and the Modern Age, editors Isidor Wallimann and Michael Dobkowski commissioned a chapter exclusively on Australia. The only other countries singled out to this extent were Turkey, which got a chapter for its 1915–17 massacres of the Armenians, and, of course, Germany, which generated several chapters on the Holocaust. In the ten-volume series Studies on War and Genocide, edited by Omer Bartov of Brown University, seven of the books commissioned were on Nazi Germany, two were general volumes about genocide in various places, but Australia was the only other country given a volume of its own, Genocide and Settler Society, published in 2004 and edited by Dirk Moses of the University of Sydney. Observing this publishing trend, University of New England historian Alan Atkinson commented: It is disturbing for an Australian to discover that debates about genocide often do not move very far beyond the classic area of study—Europe under the Nazis—before someone mentions the antipodes. Genocide is a crime, in other words, for which Australia is listed among the usual suspects. More recently, the focus on Australia has only intensified. In Blood and Soil, a world history of genocide published in 2007, the Australian expatriate historian Ben Kiernan of Yale University devoted more attention to the alleged genocidal activities of Australia than to any other nation or region. His book had 61 pages about Australia, compared to the Armenian massacres (21 pages), the Nazi Holocaust (39 pages), the Japanese atrocities in East Asia (31 pages), the Soviet Terror (26 pages), China under Mao (27 pages), and the genocides of Cambodia and Rwanda (32 pages). Four of Kiernan’s maps depicted scenes in Australia, the same number as Nazi Germany, Stalinist Russia and Maoist China put together. In 2008, Paul Bartrop repeated his earlier accusation. As co-author of the two-volume work The Dictionary of Genocide, he wrote the entry “Australia, Genocide in”. He again applied the term genocide to the Stolen Generations, saying its use in that context “could be sustained relatively easily”. In March 2009, one of Australia’s best-known historians and essayists, Inga Clendinnen, reviewed the book Guilt About the Past, a collection of lectures by German novelist Bernhard Schlink. The lectures discussed how the modern German nation, now two generations distant from the Second World War, should approach the question of guilt for the Holocaust. Clendinnen was disappointed with the book, and wrote, almost as an aside: “I had hoped the lecture titled Forgiveness and Reconciliation would speak to our situation in this country.” In other words, literary reviews and intellectual discussion in this country now toss off the comparison between Australia and Nazi Germany as if it were so familiar one can now speak about it in shorthand—“our situation in this country”—as though any possible debate is over. The argument of The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume Three, The Stolen Generations 1881–2008 is that Australia does not deserve this reputation. While the case against genocide for the Stolen Generations has already produced several effective critics, most notably anthropologists Ron Brunton and Kenneth Maddock, journalists Paddy McGuinness, Paul Sheehan and Andrew Bolt, and two former Ministers for Aboriginal Affairs, John Herron and Peter Howson, a full defence of the charge has yet to be mounted. This book is longer, more detailed, and much less reader-friendly than it ought to be to gain a wide readership. But to address the full range of arguments made by the prosecution there was no alternative but to proceed comprehensively and forensically. That could only be accomplished properly by a complete re-examination of the foundation on which the case was originally made: its claim to be historically true. My conclusion is that not only is the charge of genocide unwarranted, but so is the term “Stolen Generations”. Aboriginal children were never removed from their families in order to put an end to Aboriginality or, indeed, to serve any improper government policy or program. The small numbers of Aboriginal child removals in the twentieth century were almost all based on traditional grounds of child welfare. Most children affected had been orphaned, abandoned, destitute, neglected or subject to various forms of domestic violence, sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. Historians have given Western Australia a particularly loathsome reputation, but when you examine the records you find the majority of children placed in state Aboriginal settlements were from destitute families and they went there with their parents. In New South Wales, some children became part of an apprenticeship indenture program to help Aboriginal youth qualify for the workforce. A significant number of other children were voluntarily placed in institutions by Aboriginal parents to give them an education and a better chance in life. Moreover, there is no fall-back position for those who want to argue that, even if the removals might not have quite amounted to genocide, they were still done for racist reasons. In Chapter Three, I demonstrate in an analysis of welfare policy for white children that none of the policies that allowed the removal of Aboriginal children were unique to them. They were removed for the same reason as white children in similar circumstances. Even the program to place Aboriginal children in apprenticeships was a replica of measures that had already been applied to white children in welfare institutions in New South Wales for several decades, and to poor English children for several centuries before that. Chapters Three and Eight also discuss several pieces of legislative discrimination against Aboriginal people and their children that derived from the system of Aboriginal protectionism in the first half of the twentieth century. In some states officials treated Aboriginal people who lived on reserves, government stations, and on state-funded missions, depots and settlements as though they were the equivalent of white inmates of welfare institutions. I have no desire in this book to defend these last measures since they effectively treated Aborigines as second-class citizens. However, the critical question in the debate over the Stolen Generations is not whether all Aboriginal policy was free of discrimination. Rather, it is about why some Aboriginal children were removed from their parents. The answer was the same for black children as it was for white. They were subject to the standard child welfare policies of their time. This is not to say the laws were all the same for black and white children. In some states they were quite different. Nonetheless, the intentions behind the laws that allowed the state to remove children, whether black or white, were the same. One critical point that has always been avoided by the historians of the Stolen Generations is that full-blood children were rarely, and in many places never, removed from their parents. By the early decades of the twentieth century, most Aborigines in the southern half of the Australian continent were people of part descent, but in the northern half, full-descent populations predominated. In the Kimberley district and the Northern Territory, half-castes constituted a small minority of indigenous people. From Federation to the Second World War, the policies of the Queensland, West Australian and Commonwealth governments were to preserve full-blood Aboriginal communities inviolate. By the 1920s and 1930s, when it became clear the full-blood population was not dying out as previously thought, but was actually increasing in some places, these governments established reserves of millions of acres and passed laws forbidding Europeans and Asians from entering Aboriginal communities, employing or removing full-blood Aborigines without permission, having sexual relations with them, or providing them with alcohol or opium. Overwhelmingly, in the north of the continent, the Aboriginal children subject to removal policies came from the minority of half-castes and those of lesser descent. They were removed for both traditional welfare reasons and to help them gain some education and training for the workforce. In the local idiom, the latter was known as “giving them a chance”. The only full-blood children taken into care were those chronically ill, dangerously malnourished or severely disabled, but this was uncommon. Less urgent cases of child abuse and neglect among full-bloods were ignored and simply regarded as Aboriginal business. This is yet another reason why the charge of genocide is untenable. The United Nations Convention on Genocide, Article 2, defines acts of genocide as those “committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such”. Half-castes and those of lesser descent did not constitute any such group. Their identity varied enormously. Some saw themselves and were treated by others as Aborigines, but there were many who did not. In some communities, full-blood people accepted half-castes; in others they were not regarded as true Aborigines at all; in some cases, half-caste babies born to tribal women were routinely put to death. Chapters Seven and Ten discuss evidence about many half-caste people who did not identify as members of a distinct racial community, and indeed, were more concerned to emulate white people and live like other Australians. To say there were no Stolen Generations is not to argue there were no forcible removals of Aboriginal children from their families. There were many forcible removals in the period under discussion, just as there are today. The children of parents who neglected them, who let them go hungry, who abused them with violence, who prostituted them, who let them run wild with no supervision, or who drank themselves into an alcoholic stupor while leaving the children to their own devices, all faced forcible removals—often by the police and occasionally under scenes of great duress. Academic historians and Aboriginal activists, however, have redefined all these legitimate removals as racist and genocidal. Only by this means have they been able to mount the semblance of a case. A detailed study of the surviving individual case records in New South Wales in Chapter Two reveals an array of reasons for removal far too broad to fit into any single-minded bureaucratic program. Some Aboriginal children do have genuine grounds for grievance, but they are not alone. In the rough justice of child welfare policy, white children could be treated harshly too, especially if their mothers were unmarried. Until as recently as the 1970s, such children, white or black, were frequently removed on grounds that we would not approve today. Before governments began paying pensions to unmarried mothers in the 1970s, children could be deemed neglected because they lacked a father, and thus a means of support. Until then, unmarried white teenage girls who fell pregnant were strongly pressured by both church and state to give up their babies, who were often taken from them at birth and adopted out to other families. But in these cases the child’s fate was determined not by its colour but by its illegitimacy. There was a common presumption throughout Australia that unmarried teenage mothers, black or white, could not and should not be left to bring up the children they bore. Some people removed as children remember their former family life as a time when they were happy and well cared for. They recall their removal as an event of great trauma. There is no reason to doubt they are telling the truth. Some of their testimony is inherently convincing. They could not possibly have invented the kind of trauma they described. There were others, however, who remembered trauma from another source—their own homes: “I can understand why they took me,” one former inmate of the Cootamundra Aboriginal Girls’ Home told an interviewer in 1994. “Mum and dad were terrible when they were on the grog—in fact we were dead scared.” The problem with the Stolen Generations thesis is that childhood recollections constitute the only credible evidence its adherents have provided to make their case. But no amount of childhood anecdotes can establish the argument’s central thesis that the intentions of the authorities were both criminal and racist. That accusation was embedded in both the words of the term. The adjective stolen said the removals were deliberately intended to achieve an illegal result. The noun generationssaid this objective was targeted at a particular line of people across successive age cohorts. The childhood memories of individuals are not enough to establish that governments had such intent or such perseverance. Indeed, memories of childhood trauma are consistent with forcible removals for the same welfare reasons as white children. The case for the Stolen Generations needed a convincing account of government policies towards Aboriginal children. However, this book’s examination of the primary source evidence reveals there is a void at the very core of the case. There was no unequivocal statement by anyone in genuine authority that child removal was intended to end Aboriginality. The only support for that proposition has come from creative interpretations of selected statements taken out of context by politically motivated historians. Moreover, the lack of government words on the subject was matched by the lack of government action. The handful of places allocated for the care of Aboriginal children, the tiny budgets that supported the government boards and departments, and the archival records that show how small a fraction of the Aboriginal population they affected, all render the thesis completely implausible. Another of the central claims of the academic historians who created this story was that children were taken by authorities as young as possible so they would never inherit Aboriginal culture. “The younger the child the better,” according to Henry Reynolds, “before habits were formed, attachments, language learnt, traditions absorbed.” In the SBS Television series First Australians, scriptwriters Beck Cole and Louis Nowra confidently declared: “Between 1910 and 1970 an estimated 50,000 Aboriginal children were removed from their families. Most were aged under five.” None of those who make this assertion have ever backed it with proper evidence, such as a breakdown of the ages of the children sent to various institutions. This is not surprising. For the available evidence shows the opposite was true. The statistics of child removals in this book reveal that those most commonly affected in New South Wales were not the very young but those at workforce entry age, which in rural districts in the first half of the twentieth century was normally thirteen, fourteen and fifteen years. This was because of the influence of the state’s apprentice indenture scheme. In Western Australia and the Northern Territory the age of the few separations correlated with primary school age. This was because many part-Aboriginal children in these regions were sent by their parents to board at government and religious hostels and institutions that sent them to school. Whatever their circumstances, it was rare for babies and infants to be removed. In one archive of 800 children removed between 1907 and 1932 in New South Wales, only seven were babies aged twelve months or less and only eighteen were aged between twelve months and two years. Some governments had policies that strictly forbade removing Aboriginal babies unless they were orphans or urgently needed hospitalisation for disease or malnutrition. Another deception is the assertion by historians that most children were removed permanently, that they were never meant to see their parents again. “The break from family, kin and community must be decisive and permanent,” Henry Reynolds has written. “If young people could return to their families the effort had been wasted.” Chapter Two provides good evidence that this was untrue. The case records show that a clear majority of children removed in New South Wales returned either to their families or to Aboriginal communities. In fact, welfare authorities gave the older ones assistance such as money for the rail fare home, and usually accompanied the younger ones on the train. In other states, especially Western Australia, government institutions like the notorious Moore River Settlement and religious missions across northern Australia admitted the majority of child inmates with their parents. Institutions for indigent Aborigines of all ages have been widely but wrongly characterised by historians, television producers and film-makers as homes exclusively for children, when they never were. Rather than acting for racist reasons, government officers and religious missionaries wanted to rescue children from welfare camps and shanty settlements riddled with alcoholism, domestic violence and sexual abuse. Evidence throughout this book shows public servants, doctors, police and missionaries appalled to find Aboriginal girls between five and eight years of age suffering from sexual abuse and venereal disease. They were dismayed to sometimes find girls of nine and ten years old hired out as prostitutes by their own parents. That was why the great majority of children removed by authorities were female. The fringe camps where this occurred were early twentieth-century versions of today’s notorious remote communities of central and northern Australia. Indeed, there is a direct line of descent from one to the other—the culture of these camps has been reproducing itself across rural Australia for more than 100 years. Government officials had a duty to rescue children from such settings, as much then as they do now. From the perspective of child welfare officials, the major problem was that state treasuries would not give the relevant departments and boards sufficient funds to accommodate all the neglected and abused children who should have been removed. The Fate of the Stolen Generations Thesis in the Courts The uncomfortable truth for us all is that the parliaments of the nation, individually and collectively, enacted statutes and delegated authority under those statutes that made the forced removal of children on racial grounds fully lawful. —Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, Apology to Australia’s Indigenous peoples, House of Representatives, February 13, 2008 [I]ntegration of part Aboriginal children was not based on race; it was based on a sense of responsibility —perhaps misguided and paternalistic—for those children who had been deserted by their white fathers and who were living in tribal conditions with their Aboriginal mothers. Care for those children was perceived to be best offered by affording them the opportunity of acquiring a western education so that they might then more easily be integrated into western society. —Justice Maurice O’Loughlin, judgment in Cubillo and Gunner v. Commonwealth, Federal Court of Australia, August 2000, para 162 If the Stolen Generations story were true, its members should have had many victories in the courts, now that the tide of opinion is firmly on their side. The charges involved serious breaches of the law—false imprisonment, misfeasance of public office, breach of duty of care, and breach of fiduciary and statutory duties—and human rights lawyers and Aboriginal legal aid services have been lining up for years to take their cases. Yet only one claimant has ever been successful before a court: Bruce Trevorrow, who in 2007 was awarded $525,000 by the South Australian Supreme Court. Given the huge size of the potential client base, and the fact that Aboriginal people and their lawyers have had a grievance about the issue for more than twenty-five years, the lack of legal success is telling. On its own, it is enough to seriously question whether there really were any Stolen Generations. In his apology in the House of Representatives in February 2008, Kevin Rudd avoided any use of the term genocide but he did accuse the parliaments of the nation of enacting racist statutes. That accusation, however, was untrue, as either Rudd or his speechwriters would have known were they familiar with either of the two major test cases on the Stolen Generations. The best-known of those cases, Cubillo and Gunner v. Commonwealth, was decided by Justice Maurice O’Loughlin in the Federal Court in August 2000. Counsel for the applicants, Ms M. Richards, had submitted that the Northern Territory in the 1940s and 1950s had a policy called “the removal policy” and “the half-caste policy”. She said that, because it targeted only half-caste children, it was based on race rather than welfare. It was pursued “without regard for the welfare of individual children or their individual circumstances”. In his judgment, Justice O’Loughlin said: I cannot accept that submission; it failed to recognize those decisions of the High Court to which reference has already been made that classified the legislation as beneficial and protectionist; it failed to recognize that there was then, as there is now, an acceptance of the need for special legislation and special consideration for Aboriginal people. Finally, there was absolutely no causative link connecting ‘race’ to a failure to have regard for the welfare of children. The existence of one does not preclude the existence of the other. What the judge meant by “those decisions of the High Court to which reference has already been made”, were several verdicts, the most recent of which had been Kruger v. Commonwealth; Bray v. Commonwealth. That was a judgment made by the full bench of the High Court in July 1997 but which today is largely unknown outside legal circles. Yet it was the major case that considered whether the removal of Aboriginal children amounted to genocide. Although handed down only two months after the Bringing Them Home report accused the nation of that very crime, most news media and virtually all members of the political commentariat ignored it. Since then, they have pretended it never existed. I discuss its findings in more detail in Chapter Ten, but let me observe here that five of the six judges commented specifically on the question of genocide. Counsel for the plaintiffs argued that the Northern Territory’s Aboriginal Ordinance of 1918, which permitted the Chief Protector and Director of Native Affairs to remove and detain all Aboriginal people in the Territory, including children, thereby breached the United Nations Convention on Genocide. All five judges rejected the claim. Justice Daryl Dawson said: there is nothing in the 1918 Ordinance, even if the acts authorized by it otherwise fell within the definition of genocide, which authorizes acts committed with intent to destroy in whole or in part any Aboriginal group. On the contrary, as has already been observed, the powers conferred by the 1918 Ordinance were required to be exercised in the best interests of the Aboriginals concerned or of the Aboriginal population generally. The acts authorized do not, therefore, fall within the definition of genocide contained in the Genocide Convention. Justice Michael McHugh concurred: The 1918 Ordinance did not authorize genocide. Article II of the Genocide Convention relevantly defines genocide to mean certain acts ‘committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such’. The acts include ‘imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group’ and ‘forcibly transferring children of the group to another group’. There is, however, nothing in the 1918 Ordinance that could possibly justify a construction of its provisions that would authorize the doing of acts ‘with intent to destroy, in whole or in part’ the Aboriginal race. In short, when they tested specific policies before the Federal Court, and when they argued the general intentions of the parliaments and legislators before the High Court, the historians and political activists who invented the notion of the Stolen Generations proved incapable of substantiating their case. As far as Australia’s highest courts are concerned, the central hypothesis of the Stolen Generations is legally extinct. The only legal cases with any potential credibility would be those made by individuals such as Bruce Trevorrow, who was unlawfully removed from his family and suffered badly as a result. But as Chapter Twelve demonstrates, the Trevorrow case did not confirm the Stolen Generations thesis. Instead, it provided yet more evidence to disprove it. How Many Children Were Removed? Even though one forced removal would be regarded today as one too many, the numbers in the Administrator’s report, if accurate, do not support an argument that there was a large scale policy of forced removals occurring in this period. —Justice Maurice O’Loughlin, judgment in Cubillo and Gunner v. Commonwealth, Federal Court of Australia, August 2000, on the paucity of child removals in the Northern Territory in the 1940s and 1950s In the Prime Minister’s apology, he said the total number of children wrongly removed between 1910 and 1970 was “up to 50,000”. He said this meant between 10 and 30 per cent of Aboriginal children had been “forcibly” taken from their parents. The Bringing Them Home report claimed that between one in ten and one in three Aboriginal children were “forcibly removed”. In reality, these claims were unwarranted guesses. Indeed, the Human Rights Commission seriously misrepresented some of the principal research it used to reach the higher figure. As an example of the rate of removal, it reported the findings of one study made in Bourke: Dr Max Kamien surveyed 320 adults in Bourke in the 1970s. One in every three reported having been separated from their families in childhood for five or more years. That was not the study’s rate for the separation of children “from their families”. What Kamien actually found was this: Between the ages of 5 and 14 years 34 per cent of the 320 adult males and females interviewed had experienced the absence of one parent for more than five years. Absence of both parents for the same time period was recorded in 5 per cent of males and 7 per cent of females. Moreover, the great majority of the “absences” recorded by Kamien were not forcible removals. Most occurred simply because the fathers were away from home, working on rural properties. Of children separated from both parents, Kamien found the most common reason was not to lose their culture but to go to hospital. In four of the other six studies it cited, Bringing Them Home seriously misreported the results. Of the remaining two studies, one was unpublished and no one else can find any record of the other. Chapter Thirteen examines the charade of research interpretations on which the Human Rights Commission made its “confident findings”. My own estimate of the total number of Aboriginal children taken into care in the period from 1880 to 1970 is provided in Chapter Thirteen. The total is 8250. “Taken into care” means Aboriginal children separated from parents and placed in government, church and charitable institutions, plus the very small numbers placed into foster care and adopted by white families. The figure represented 5.2 per cent of the Aboriginal population at the 1976 census of 160,000. This total is not offered as a counter-estimate of the number of the Stolen Generations. The argument of this book is that there were no Stolen Generations. The figure is an overall estimate made from the surviving records of children separated from their families for substantial periods under the broadest range of conditions, both voluntary and involuntary, and for all kinds of reasons, both positive (education and hospitalisation) and negative (neglect, destitution, sexual abuse, and the death of parents). The total and the proportion are much lower figures than are usually claimed but they demonstrate another theme of this book. Rather than governments being over-zealous, the reality was the opposite. Everyone who worked in Aboriginal child welfare complained that the states and territories did not do nearly enough, especially in the period from Federation to the Second World War. There were always many more Aboriginal children badly in need of welfare, education and health services than governments were willing to fund. The most offensive numerical assertion in this debate, that the removal of children was on a scale large enough to be genocidal, is not just wrong but embarrassingly wrong. In the first half of the twentieth century, when university historians and Bringing Them Home assured us governments were doing their best to eliminate the Aboriginal race, its population grew substantially. In the period nominated by the Human Rights Commission as the worst affected, 1910 to 1970, the Aboriginal population of Australia grew by 68 per cent from 83,588 to 139,456. Growth was particularly strong in those regions where governments were purportedly determined to absorb half-caste and other part-Aboriginal people into the white population. In New South Wales, the Aboriginal population grew by 65 per cent from 1915 to 1940. In Western Australia, the supposedly “doomed race” of full-descent people in the north of the state did not decline at all, while in the southern half of the state, where part-Aboriginal people predominated, their numbers were up no less than 120 per cent between 1900 and 1935. In both cases, their populations grew at a faster rate than that of white people. Chapters Two and Seven have the details. If the Stolen Generations thesis is true then the Australian Aborigines are the only people in world history to have suffered genocide in the midst of a boom in their population. Education versus Institutionalisation There is another good reason why it was not the policy of governments to remove Aboriginal children from their parents: they wanted the children to go to school. Governments pursued this objective with far more action and money than they ever gave to child removal. In the 1880s all Australian colonial governments instituted compulsory education for children of school age. All parents, of whatever racial or ethnic background, were required to enrol their children. In New South Wales, the Department of Public Instruction constructed schoolhouses and employed schoolteachers on all the twenty-one Aboriginal stations set up between 1893 and 1917. It also provided schools and teachers on any of the 115 Aboriginal reserves that had enough children of school age to justify it. On those reserves where there were not enough children for a dedicated school, the Aborigines Protection Board insisted they must go to the local public school. In the early years, it tried to coerce Aboriginal parents into sending their children to school by withholding rations if they refused. In its later years, it tried a more conciliatory approach by giving all Aboriginal children a hot midday meal at school. In the early twentieth century, it was true that much provision for Aboriginal schooling was substandard. Many Aboriginal children received a lower-level curriculum than whites. In some parts of New South Wales and Western Australia, protests by white parents about Aboriginal standards of hygiene and disease (including, as I demonstrate in Chapter Four, cases of venereal disease among Aboriginal primary school children) meant some public schools refused to enrol them. Nonetheless, the number of places governments provided for Aboriginal children who lived with their parents and went to school, compared to the number of places governments funded at welfare institutions for those removed from parents, is telling. In New South Wales in the 1920s and 1930s, there were only three welfare institutions designated for Aboriginal children. One at Bomaderry housed twenty-five infants to ten-year-olds, the second at Cootamundra accommodated fifty girls aged up to thirteen years, and the third at Kinchela housed fifty boys aged up to thirteen years. At the same time, some 2800 Aboriginal children in New South Wales lived with their parents and attended public schools. That is, there were twenty-two times as many places for Aboriginal children at public schools than at welfare institutions. In the Northern Territory in the 1950s, virtually none of the approximately 8000 full-blood Aboriginal children either attended school or were housed in a welfare institution. For part-Aboriginal children the government pursued a policy of integration and assimilation. But even here, there were between two and three times as many part-Aboriginal children living with their families and attending schools than housed in welfare institutions. In 1959, for instance, there were 815 part-Aboriginal children at Northern Territory schools and 315 part-Aboriginal children in institutions. Of the latter, many were sent by their parents to be boarders while they went to school. Chapter Ten discusses the role played by the Retta Dixon Home in Darwin and St Mary’s Hostel in Alice Springs. On the grounds of school policy alone, no one can argue that the government was conducting a systematic program to destroy Aboriginality by stealing children from their families. The existence of this disparity disproves the core allegation of the Stolen Generations thesis.

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The following text is by Adolph E. Peschke as presented in the 1998 printing of the 1993 edition of the Pioneering Merit Badge Pamphlet: The craft of building with ropes and spars continues in remote areas throughout the world today. Scouts can apply the skills of knot tying and lashing to build pioneering structures that are needed to make living in camp a little more comfortable. Whether you build a simple gadget, or a bridge to provide a shortcut to the swimming pool, pioneering can be rewarding and fun. The pioneering projects shown here, along with the suggested sizes and lengths of spars, are intended for building “boy-size” structures; that is, projects that can be built by boys of Boy Scout age. You don’t have to build a huge tower to learn the skills and enjoy the fun of pioneering. These projects are designed so that you can build them in a few hours with a minimum of equipment and supplies. Yet, you will still learn how the basic pioneering skills of knot tying and lashing must work together with the design of a structure to produce a sound, safe pioneering project. Building these projects will be much easier if you put together a pioneering kit first. The success of any project is directly related to the planning and preparation you put into the project from the beginning. Here are some things to take into consideration before you build a pioneering project: Decide on the type of project you want to build. Take into consideration the equipment, the number of people needed, and the time required to build it. Check the site where the project is going to be built. Collect all the information that you will need when building the project. For example, are there any natural anchors for guylines? How wide and deep is the creek where a bridge is to be built? Make a rough sketch of the project or work from an approved plan drawing. Along with the sketch, have a list of equipment that includes all the equipment you’ll need. You don’t want to start a project and later learn you need something you don’t have. Select the necessary spars you’ll need for the project, making sure that you have enough spars with the proper butt diameter and length to build a safe project. Determine the size and lengths of all the ropes needed for lashings, guylines, etc. Before you start building, determine if the project can be divided into subassemblies for ease of lashing and erecting. Assign crew members and a crew leader to each of the sub assemblies, based on skill level and experience. Go over the plans with all the crew members. Assign only one person to give signals when raising all or part of the structure. As you’re building the project, frequently check the progress to make sure it is being done with safety in mind. A word about the appearance of the project: Part of the skill in building with ropes and spars is to select the spars that are best suited to the structure. In some situations, the supply of spars might be limited. It is not necessary for your project to be picture perfect, but rather that it is structurally sound. If one or two spars are a bit longer than required, that’s fine as long as the lashings are in the proper location for strength and the diameter of the spars will carry the load applied. Try to avoid cutting off the ends of spars and ropes just to fit a certain project, especially if you’re working with spars from a pioneering kit. The next crew might want to build a different project and could use the spars and ropes at the original lengths. The spars used for a pioneering project should have the bark removed for two reasons. Bark beetles and other boring insects can seriously decrease a spar’s strength, and inspection is easier with the bark removed. Also, if the project racks, the bark under the lashing can be loosened, which in turn makes the lashing loose and adds to the possibility of making the whole project wobbly and unsafe. (And, bark under a lashing can be rubbed off in the process of setting up a project.) Note: Any pioneering structure that is to be a permanent camp improvement should not be left with only lashings. It needs to be bolted together for safety and maintenance. The current Guide to Safe Scouting states, “Pioneering projects, such as monkey bridges, have a maximum height of 6 feet. Close supervision should be followed when Scouts are building or using pioneering projects.” However, under certain circumstances and in accordance with some recently revised standards, Scouts CAN again build and CLIMB ON this and other tower structures. Refer to: NCAP Circular No. 2, pages 3 and 4. The following text is by Adolph E. Peschke as presented in the 1998 printing of the 1993 edition of the Pioneering Merit Badge Pamphlet: This project solves the old problem of wanting to build a signal tower when there aren’t enough big spars to do the job. The double ladder tower requires four 14-foot spars and several smaller spars, but not nearly the amount needed for a four-leg signal tower. It also cuts down the number of lashings required. This tower is not free standing. It requires the use of guylines to hold it steady. Review the sections on anchors and rope tackle if this is your first encounter with guylines. Assemble the ladders. This project begins with building two ladders: a climbing ladder and a supporting ladder. Lay out two pairs of spars on the ground for the legs of the ladders. Be sure the butt ends are even at the bottom so that the tower will stand up straight. Before you begin any lashing, mark the positions where the spars that will hold the top platform are to be lashed onto the legs. This is about 4 feet from the top ends of the legs. To make the climbing ladder, lash ten rungs on one pair of legs at about 1-foot intervals. The top rung should be lashed on where you marked the position of the platform, 4 feet from the top. Also the top handrail is lashed on to complete the climbing ladder. To make the supporting ladder, lash three spars on the other set of legs to serve as the bottom, center, and top spreaders. The top spreader should be lashed at the point you marked for the platform, 4 feet from the top. Then lash on the top handrail, as on the climbing ladder. Lash the ladders together. Now you have to join the two ladders to form the tower. Turn the two ladders up on their sides so they’re parallel to each other and approximately 6 feet apart. Check to see that the bottoms are even. Now lash on the base spreader to join the bottoms of the two ladders. Lash on the platform supporting spar just above the top rung and top spreader on the ladders. Before proceeding, check the measurements from the bottoms of the legs to the platform supporting spar to make sure they’re equal on both legs so that the platform will be level. Continue by lashing on the top long handrail. The lash on the two side X-braces diagonally between the legs using square lashings to lash the ends to the legs, and a diagonal lashing where they cross. Lash the other side. To make the lashings on the other side, you have to get the whole crew together to roll the tower over 180° so that it’s laying on the X braces and the other sides of the ladders are up where they will be easier to get to. Then proceed as before. Lash on the base spreader spar and the platform supporting spar. Again, measure to make sure there’s equal distance from both ends of the platform support spar to the bottoms of both legs. Continue to lash on the top long handrail and finish with the X-braces. Lash on two more platform X-braces under the platform. These braces go diagonally across the legs just under the platform to help the tower resist racking (see figure 137). Use square lashings to lash them to the legs and a diagonal lashing where they cross. Before standing the tower upright, lash on the spars to form the platform floor. Anchors and Guylines. When all the lashings are done, move the tower to where it will be hoisted. Before actually hoisting the tower, lay out the position of the four legs on the ground. Then determine where the four anchors for the guylines will be placed to steady the legs of the tower. (Refer to the Anchors section to determine the position of the anchors.) If the tower is positioned to make use of a natural anchor (such as a tree), prepare anchor strops to attach the guylines. For any guylines that won’t be using natural anchors, build anchors using pioneering stakes. At a minimum, you’ll need to build well constructed 1-1 anchors at all four corners. Attach the four guylines to the legs just above the platform. The guylines should be 3/8-inch diameter manila or polypropylene rope. They’re attached to the legs of the tower using a roundturn with two half hitches and securing the running end of the rope. Note: For safety reasons, never use a taut-line hitch on guylines, or for that matter, in any pioneering work. This hitch is used when adjustments in the tension are called for. It can slip. Hoisting the tower. Hoisting the tower up into a vertical position is done with separate ropes. Do not use the guylines. Tie two lines on the side of the tower being lifted and one line on the opposite side to prevent over pulling and toppling the tower. You’ll need a whole crew to do the hoisting. First there should be a safety officer who observes for all safety considerations and signs of trouble during the hoisting. There should also be a signal caller who tells the crew members when and how fast to pull on the hoisting ropes and when to stop pulling. Two or more Scouts should be on each of the two ropes. And one or two Scouts should be on the rope on the other side to prevent over pulling the tower. When everyone is in position, the signal caller should direct the Scouts on the hoisting ropes to hoist the tower into position. As soon as it’s up, temporarily tie the guylines to the anchors using a roundturn with two half hitches. Heeling in the legs. When the tower is upright, heel in the butt ends of the tower legs in holes about 4 to 6 inches deep. This is done to steady the tower and can also help in leveling the tower to make sure that the platform is level and the tower itself is vertical. Tighten the guylines. To hold the tower steady, gradually apply strain to each of the four guylines at the same time. One of the easiest ways to adjust the strain is to tie a rope tackle on the anchor ends of the guylines. As soon as the tower is in position and the legs are heeled in, go to each of the anchors and untie the roundturns with two half hitches and replace it with a rope tackle. Do this by tying a butterfly knot in each guyline about 6 to 8 feet from the anchor. Then wrap the running end of the guyline around the forward stake of the anchor and back through the loop in the butterfly knot. When rope tackles are tied to all four anchors, gradually tighten the lines. Apply enough strain to each of the guylines to hold the tower firm and in a vertical position. Then tie off the rope tackles and secure the running ends with half hitches. Test the structure. Before the tower can be put into general use, make a test climb while the safety officer and the whole crew observe all the lashings and anchors to ensure they are all secure. Note: Some people are not comfortable climbing up to a high place. They should not be encouraged to climb if they are not sure of themselves. Do not pressure anyone to climb the tower if they don’t want to. four 4-inch x 14-foot tower legs ten 2-inch x 3-foot climbing ladder rungs three 2-inch x 3-foot support ladder spreaders two 2-1/2-inch x 6-foot base spreaders two 2-1/2-inch x 6-foot platform supporting spars two 2-inch x 3-foot platform handrails two 2-inch x 6-foot platform long handrails four 2-1/2-inch x 10-foot X braces two 2-1/2-inch x 8-foot X braces eighteen 2-inch x 3-1/2-foot platform support slats eight pioneering stakes four 3/8-inch x 50-foot manila guylines thirty-one 1/4-inch x 15-foot manila lashing ropes (for 28 square Lashings and 3 diagonal lashings) In accordance with current regulations, a fine adaptation consists of replacing the ladder rungs with support side spreaders, and dispensing with the platform floor slats. Lashing one or more long flag poles to the top of the legs and flying banners or flags never fails to elicit a rousing array of cheers, as the Scouts hoist their tower into an upright position! Click here for project description and materials. The well-known, time-tested, traditional Monkey Bridge is perhaps the most familiar of all Scout pioneering projects. It’s frequently featured at Scout Expos, Camporees, Scout Camps, and is often a central attraction at public gatherings where Scouting is represented. The following instructions and guidelines are provided by Adolph Peschke, taken from the 1993 edition of the Pioneering Merit Badge Pamphlet: Using a double A-frame to build a monkey bridge is a departure from the usual X-frame that supports the foot rope and hand ropes. This new method has two distinct advantages over the X- frame version. First, the double A-frame provides a wider base making it less likely to tip over. The second advantage is that the positions of the A-frames can be adjusted so the span between the hand ropes can be narrowed for better balance as you make the crossing. Building the A-frames. The first step in building the monkey bridge is to build four A-frames using the 8-foot spars for the two legs, and 6-foot spars for the ledger. Lay out the first set of three spars (two legs and one ledger) on the ground in position for lashing. Before lashing, drive three stakes, as follows, to help you make all four A-frames the same size: Drive a stake at the top to mark where the leg spars cross. Then drive stakes to mark the positions of where the bottom ledger crosses the legs. This will also indicate how far the legs are spread apart. Now you can lash the four A-frames together, laying them out one at a time using the stakes. Remember that all three lashings on the A-frames are square lashings, even though the spars cross at less than 90˚ angle. Double A-frame. When you have four A-frames, you can lash two of them together to form a double A-frame. (see figure 140). Lay one A-frame on the ground and then put another on top of it so that the bottom ledgers overlap one-half their length (approximately 3 feet). The first step in lashing the A-frames together is to go up where the two legs cross (the X formed by one leg from each A-frame). Then with a good tight square lashing, lash the two legs together. Note: The point where these two legs are lashed together is where the foot rope will rest. You can adjust the overlap of the two A-frames to adjust how high the foot rope will be off the ground. Also note where the tops of the A-frames are, because this is where the hand ropes will be. To complete the double A-frame, stand it up so the butt ends of all four legs rest solidly on level ground. Lash the two bottom ledgers together where they overlap with three strop lashings. Now repeat the entire process to build the second double A-frame. Site preparation. Before you can erect the double A-frames, you need to prepare the site. Begin by stretching a length of binder twine along the center line of where the monkey bridge is to be built. Working from the center, measure 10 feet toward each end to mark where the A-frames are to be placed. They should be 20 feet apart. Then mark out another 10′ from each A-frame to where the anchors are to be built. Note: These dimensions are for building a bridge with a 20-foot span. This is the maximum span for a bridge using a 50-foot rope. The extra 30 feet of rope is needed to have 15 feet of rope at each end for the proper distance from the A-frames to the anchors (10 feet) and for the knots at the anchors (5 feet). Build the anchors. The foot rope will be attached to anchors at both ends. Before erecting the double A-frames, build a 3-2-1 anchor, or a log and stake anchor, 10 feet from where the A-frames will be erected (see figure 141). Rope grommet. After the anchors are built, attach a rope grommet with a ring or shackle in it. (You can make the rope grommet with a 10-foot length of 1/2-inch diameter polypropylene rope. Tie the ends together using a carrick bend, and permanently secure the ends with some strong twine). Position the A-frames. Prepare to erect the monkey bridge by moving the A-frames into position no more than 20 feet apart. Lay them down on the binder twine that marks the center line of the bridge. Hand and foot ropes. Now you can prepare the foot and hand ropes for the monkey bridge. Lay the foot rope in a straight line off to the side of where the A-frames are laying. Then lay the two hand ropes on the ground next to each other so they’re parallel to the foot rope and 42 inches away. Stringer ropes. Now you can add the stringer ropes that will go from the foot rope to the hand ropes. Start by tying the center of an 8-foot long stringer rope (use 1/4-inch manila rope) at the center of the foot rope, using a clove hitch. The stringer rope is tied around the foot rope so that both ends are 4 feet long. Add two more stringer ropes on both sides of the center stringer rope (so there are five stringer ropes in all), tying them about 4 feet apart. Tie one end of each stringer rope to one of the hand ropes, again using a clove hitch. Then do the same with the other ends of the stringer ropes, attaching them to the other hand rope. Assemble the bridge. You’re just about ready to assemble the bridge. First place a piece of heavy canvas (called a “saddle”) in the V formed by both double A-frames. This will protect the foot rope and allow it to slide a little in the V without interfering with the lashing rope. Now get the crew together to erect the bridge. You will need a safety officer to watch for any problems that might occur, and a signal caller to tell the crew members what to do. You will need two Scouts to lift and hold each double A-frame in place, two more Scouts to lift the foot rope into the V of the double A-frames, and two more Scouts to lift the two hand ropes into place at the tops of the A-frames. Lift everything into place. Then, holding the A-frames steady, temporarily tie the hand and foot ropes into the rings of the grommets using a roundturn and two half hitches (see figure 142). Tighten the foot rope. Now you can put a strain on the foot rope. It’s not necessary to use block and tackle since this will put too much strain on the lashings, anchors, and the foot rope itself when there is a load on the bridge.* Whatever strain three or four Scouts can put on the foot rope by pulling it by hand will be enough. As soon as the bridge is used a few times, there will be a sag in the rope. This is fine because it means that you are working with reduced strain on the foot rope as a safety measure. Tighten the hand ropes. Next, tie the hand ropes to the top ends of the A-frames. First, loosen one end at a time from the anchors. Then, use a clove hitch to tie the hand rope to the top end of the leg of the double A-frame. As you’re tying these clove hitches, adjust the strain on the sections of the hand ropes between the double A-frames to match the sag of the foot rope. Also, adjust the length of the stringer ropes so there is even strain between the foot rope and both hand ropes. After the hand ropes are tied to the tops of the A-frames, move down and retie the ends of the hand ropes to the rings in the grommets using a roundturn and two half hitches. Final testing. With caution, one crew member can get on the bridge as all lashings, anchors, and knots are observed by the safety officer and all other crew members. Make adjustments as required. Then secure the running ends of the hand ropes and foot rope with a piece of cord. Safe operation calls for only one Scout to be on the foot rope of the monkey bridge at a time. LIST OF MATERIALS FOR DOUBLE A-FRAME MONKEY BRIDGE eight 4-inch x 8-foot A-frame legs four 3-inch x 6-foot ledgers fourteen 1/4-inch x 15-foot lashing ropes for Square Lashings one 1/2-inch or 3/4-inch x 50-foot rope two 1/2-inch x 50-foot hand ropes five 1/4-inch x 8-foot stringer ropes six 1/4-inch x 10-foot lashing ropes for Strop Lashings six pioneering stakes for each 3-2-1 anchor eight pioneering stakes for each log-and-stake anchor one 5-inch x 4-foot spar for log-and-stake anchor two 1/2-inch x 10-foot polypropylene ropes for rope grommets two pieces of scrap canvas for foot rope saddle binder twine for anchor tieback straps * It has been found that a rope tackle in the foot rope at each end (not a block and tackle) tightened by one Scout is an excellent procedure to maintain the optimum foot rope tension, and an easy-to-use remedy for too much sagging due to repeated, heavy use and over stretching. There are other configurations used to initially tighten and keep the hand and foot ropes at the optimum tension during use, depending on the weight the bridge must withstand and the amount of traffic it will bear.

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Near-sightedness, also known as short-sightedness and myopia, is a condition of the eye where light focuses in front of, instead of on, the retina. This causes distant objects to be blurry while close objects appear normal. Other symptoms may include headaches and eye strain. Severe near-sightedness increases the risk of retinal detachment, cataracts, and glaucoma. The underlying cause is believed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors include doing work that involves focusing on close objects, greater time spent indoors, and a family history of the condition. It is also associated with a high socioeconomic class. The underlying mechanism involves the length of the eyeball growing too long or less commonly the lens being too strong. It is a type of refractive error. Diagnosis is by eye examination. There is tentative evidence that the risk of near-sightedness can be decreased by having young children spend more time outside. This may be related to natural light exposure. Near-sightedness can be corrected with eyeglasses, contact lenses, or surgery. Eyeglasses are the easiest and safest method of correction. Contact lenses can provide a wider field of vision; however are associated with a risk of infection. Refractive surgery permanently changes the shape of the cornea. Near-sightedness is the most common eye problem and is estimated to affect 1.5 billion people (22% of the population). Rates vary significantly in different areas of the world. Rates among adults are between 15 and 49%. Rates are similar in males and females. Among children it affects 1% of rural Nepalese, 4% of South Africans, 12% of Americans, and 37% in some large Chinese cities. Rates have increased since the 1950s. Uncorrected near-sightedness is one of the most common causes of vision impairment globally along with cataracts, macular degeneration, and vitamin A deficiency. Normally eye development is largely genetically controlled, but it has been shown that the visual environment is an important factor in determining ocular development. Some research suggests that some cases of myopia may be inherited from one’s parents. Genetically, linkage studies have identified 18 possible loci on 15 different chromosomes that are associated with myopia, but none of these loci is part of the candidate genes that cause myopia. Instead of a simple one-gene locus controlling the onset of myopia, a complex interaction of many mutated proteins acting in concert may be the cause. Instead of myopia being caused by a defect in a structural protein, defects in the control of these structural proteins might be the actual cause of myopia. A collaboration of all myopia studies worldwide, identified 16 new loci for refractive error in individuals of European ancestry, of which 8 were shared with Asians. The new loci include candidate genes with functions in neurotransmission, ion transport, retinoic acid metabolism, extracellular matrix remodeling and eye development. The carriers of the high-risk genes have a tenfold increased risk of myopia. Human population studies suggest that contribution of genetic factors accounts for 60%-90% of variance in refraction. However, the currently-identified variants account for only a small fraction of myopia cases suggesting the existence of a large number of yet unidentified low-frequency or small-effect variants, which underlie the majority of myopia cases. To induce myopia in lower as well as higher vertebrates, translucent goggles can be sutured over the eye, either before or after natural eye opening. Form-deprived myopia (FDM) induced with a diffuser, like the goggles mentioned, shows significant myopic shifts. Imposing retinal blur (or defocus) with positive (myopic defocus, that causes the image to be focussed in front of the retina) and negative lenses (hyperopic defocus, that causes the image to be focussed behind the retina) has also been shown to result in predictable changes in eye growth of various animal models, whereby the eye alters its growth to effectively eliminate the lens induced blur. Anatomically, the changes in axial length of the eye seem to be the major factor contributing to this type of myopia. Diurnal growth rhythms of the eye have also been shown to play a large part in FDM, and have been implicated in refractive error development of human eyes. Chemically, daytime retinal dopamine levels drop about 30%. Normal eyes grow during the day and shrink during the night, but occluded eyes are shown to grow both during the day and the night. Because of this, FDM is a result of the lack of growth inhibition at night rather than the expected excessive growth during the day, when the actual light deprivation occurred. Elevated levels of retinal dopamine transporter (which is directly involved in controlling retinal dopamine levels) in the RPE have been shown to be associated with FDM. “Near work” hypothesis The “near work” hypothesis, also referred to as the “use-abuse theory” states that spending time involved in near work strains the eyes and increases the risk of myopia. Some studies support the hypothesis while other studies do not. While an association is present it is unclear if it is causal. “Visual stimuli” hypothesis Although not mutually exclusive with the other hypotheses presented, the visual stimuli hypothesis adds another layer of mismatch to explain the modern prevalence of myopia. There is evidence that lack of normal visual stimuli causes improper development of the eyeball. In this case, “normal” refers to the environmental stimuli that the eyeball evolved for over hundreds of millions of years. These stimuli would include diverse natural environments—the ocean, the jungle, the forest, and the savannah plains, among other dynamic visually exciting environments. Modern humans who spend most of their time indoors, in dimly or fluorescently lit buildings are not giving their eyes the appropriate stimuli to which they had evolved and may contribute to the development of myopia. Experiments where animals such as kittens and monkeys had their eyes sewn shut for long periods of time also show eyeball elongation, demonstrating that complete lack of stimuli also causes improper growth trajectories of the eyeball. Further research shows that people, and children especially, who spend more time doing physical exercise and outdoor activity have lower rates of myopia, suggesting the increased magnitude and complexity of the visual stimuli encountered during these types of activities decrease myopic progression. There is preliminary evidence that the protective effect of outdoor activities on the development of myopia is due, at least in part, to the effect of daylight on the production and the release of retinal dopamine. Other risk factors Other risk factors In one study, heredity was an important factor associated with juvenile myopia, with smaller contributions from more near work, higher school achievement, and less time in sports activity. Long hours of exposure to daylight appears to be a protective factor. Lack of outdoor play could be linked to myopia. Other personal characteristics, such as value systems, school achievements, time spent in reading for pleasure, language abilities, and time spent in sport activities all correlated to the occurrence of myopia in studies. •Axial myopia is attributed to an increase in the eye’s axial length. •Refractive myopia is attributed to the condition of the refractive elements of the eye. Borish further subclassified refractive myopia: •Curvature myopia is attributed to excessive, or increased, curvature of one or more of the refractive surfaces of the eye, especially the cornea. In those with Cohen syndrome, myopia appears to result from high corneal and lenticular power. •Index myopia is attributed to variation in the index of refraction of one or more of the ocular media. As with any optical system experiencing a defocus aberration, the effect can be exaggerated or masked by changing the aperture size. In the case of the eye, a large pupil emphasizes refractive error and a small pupil masks it. This phenomenon can cause a condition in which an individual has a greater difficulty seeing in low-illumination areas, even though there are no symptoms in bright light, such as daylight. Under rare conditions, edema of the ciliary body can cause an anterior displacement of the lens, inducing a myopia shift in refractive error. 3^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Pan, CW; Ramamurthy, D; Saw, SM (January 2012). “Worldwide prevalence and risk factors for myopia”. Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics. 32 (1): 3–16. doi:10.1111/j.1475-1313.2011.00884.x. PMID 22150586. 4^ Jump up to: a b c Ramamurthy D, Lin Chua SY, Saw SM (2015). “A review of environmental risk factors for myopia during early life, childhood and adolescence”. Clinical & Experimental Optometry (Review). 98 (6): 497–506. doi:10.1111/cxo.12346. PMID 26497977. 5^ Jump up to: a b Holden, B; Sankaridurg, P; Smith, E; Aller, T; Jong, M; He, M (February 2014). “Myopia, an underrated global challenge to vision: where the current data takes us on myopia control”. Eye (London, England). 28 (2): 142–46. doi:10.1038/eye.2013.256. PMC 3930268. PMID 24357836. 6 Jump up ^ Ledford, Al Lens, Sheila Coyne Nemeth, Janice K. (2008). Ocular anatomy and physiology (2nd ed.). Thorofare, NJ: SLACK. p. 158. ISBN 9781556427923. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017. 7 Jump up ^ Xiong, S; Sankaridurg, P; Naduvilath, T; Zang, J; Zou, H; Zhu, J; Lv, M; He, X; Xu, X (September 2017). “Time spent in outdoor activities in relation to myopia prevention and control: a meta-analysis and systematic review”. Acta Ophthalmologica. 95 (6): 551–566. doi:10.1111/aos.13403. PMC 5599950. PMID 28251836. 8 Jump up ^ Hobday, R (January 2016). “Myopia and daylight in schools: a neglected aspect of public health?”. Perspectives in public health. 136 (1): 50–55. doi:10.1177/1757913915576679. PMID 25800796. 9^ Jump up to: a b c d Pan, CW; Dirani, M; Cheng, CY; Wong, TY; Saw, SM (March 2015). “The age-specific prevalence of myopia in Asia: a meta-analysis”. Optometry and Vision Science. 92 (3): 258–66. doi:10.1097/opx.0000000000000516. PMID 25611765. 10 Jump up ^ Sivak, Jacob (2012). “The cause(s) of myopia and the efforts that have been made to prevent it”. Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 95 (6): 572–82. doi:10.1111/j.1444-0938.2012.00781.x. PMID 22845416. 11 Jump up ^ Huang, HM; Chang, DS; Wu, PC (2015). “The Association between Near Work Activities and Myopia in Children-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”. PLOS One. 10 (10): e0140419. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1040419H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0140419. PMC 4618477. PMID 26485393. 12 Jump up ^ Tsai; Lin; Lee; Chen; Shih (2009). “Estimation of heritability in myopic twin studies”. Japanese Journal of Ophthalmology. 53 (6): 615. 13 Jump up ^ Robson, David (January 16, 2015). “Why are we short-sighted?”. BBC Future. BBC. Retrieved August 2, 2018. 14^ Jump up to: a b Dolgin Elie (2015). “The myopia boom. Short-sightedness is reaching epidemic proportions. Some scientists think they have found a reason why”. Nature. 519 (7543): 276–78. Bibcode:2015Natur.519..276D. doi:10.1038/519276a. 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(2013). “Genome-wide meta-analyses of multiancestry cohorts identify multiple new susceptibility loci for refractive error and myopia”. Nature Genetics. 45 (3): 314–318. doi:10.1038/ng.2554. PMC 3740568. PMID 23396134. 19 Jump up ^ Dirani M, Chamberlain M, Shekar SN, Islam AF, Garoufalis P, Chen CY, Guymer RH, Baird PN (2006). “Heritability of refractive error and ocular biometrics: the Genes in Myopia (GEM) twin study”. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 47 (11): 4756–61. doi:10.1167/iovs.06-0270. PMID 17065484. 20 Jump up ^ Lopes MC, Andrew T, Carbonaro F, Spector TD, Hammond CJ (2009). “Estimating heritability and shared environmental effects for refractive error in twin and family studies”. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50 (1): 126–31. doi:10.1167/iovs.08-2385. PMID 18757506. 21 Jump up ^ Peet JA, Cotch MF, Wojciechowski R, Bailey-Wilson JE, Stambolian D (2007). “Heritability and familial aggregation of refractive error in the Old Order Amish”. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48 (9): 4002–6. doi:10.1167/iovs.06-1388. PMC 1995233. PMID 17724179. 22 Jump up ^ Tkatchenko AV, Tkatchenko TV, Guggenheim JA, Verhoeven VJ, Hysi PG, Wojciechowski R, Singh PK, Kumar A, Thinakaran G, Williams C (2015). “APLP2 Regulates Refractive Error and Myopia Development in Mice and Humans”. PLoS Genet. 11 (8): e1005432. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1005432. PMC 4551475. PMID 26313004. 23 Jump up ^ Gusev A, Bhatia G, Zaitlen N, Vilhjalmsson BJ, Diogo D, Stahl EA, Gregersen PK, Worthington J, Klareskog L, Raychaudhuri S, Plenge RM, Pasaniuc B, Price AL (2013). “Quantifying missing heritability at known GWAS loci”. PLoS Genet. 9 (12): e1003993. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1003993. PMC 3873246. PMID 24385918. 24 Jump up ^ Shen W, Vijayan M, Sivak JG; Vijayan; Sivak (2005). “Inducing Form-Deprivation Myopia in Fish”. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 46 (5): 1797–1803. doi:10.1167/iovs.04-1318. PMID 15851585. 25 Jump up ^ Ji FT, Li Q, Zhu YL, Jiang LQ, Zhou XT, Pan MZ, Qu J; Li; Zhu; Jiang; Zhou; Pan; Qu (2009). “Form deprivation myopia in C57BL/6 mice”. Chinese journal of ophthalmology. 45 (11): 1020–1026. PMID 20137422. 28 Jump up ^ Graham, B; Judge, SJ (1999). “The effects of spectacle lens wear in infancy on eye growth and refractive error in the marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)”. Vision Res. 39 (2): 189–206. doi:10.1016/s0042-6989(98)00189-8. PMID 10326130. 29 Jump up ^ Hung, L-F; Crawford, MLJ; Smith, EL (1995). “Spectacle lenses alter eye growth and refractive status of young monkeys”. Nature Medicine. 1 (8): 761–765. doi:10.1038/nm0895-761. PMID 7585177. 30 Jump up ^ Tejedor J, de la Villa P; de la Villa (2003). “Refractive changes induced by form deprivation in the mouse eye”. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 44 (1): 32–36. doi:10.1167/iovs.01-1171. PMID 12506052. 31 Jump up ^ Chakraborty, Ranjay; Read, Scott A; Collins, MJ (2011). “Diurnal variations in axial length, choroidal thickness, intraocular pressure, and ocular biometrics”. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 52 (8): 5121–5129. doi:10.1167/iovs.11-7364. PMID 21571673. 32 Jump up ^ Boulamery A, Simon N, Vidal J, Bruguerolle B; Simon; Vidal; Bruguerolle (2010). “Effects of L-Dopa on Circadian Rhythms of 6-Ohda Striatal Lesioned Rats: A Radiotelemetric Study”. Chronobiology International. 27 (2): 251–264. doi:10.3109/07420521003664213. PMID 20370468. 33 Jump up ^ Weiss S, Schaeffel F; Schaeffel (1993). “Diurnal growth rhythms in the chicken eye: Relation to myopia development and retinal dopamine levels”. Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 172 (3): 263–270. doi:10.1007/BF00216608. PMID 8510054. 35^ Jump up to: a b c Lieberman, Daniel E. (2013) The Story of the Human Body: Evolution, Health, and Disease. New York: Pantheon Books. 36 Jump up ^ Smith III; Maguire G.W.; Watson J.T. (1980). “Axial lengths and refractive errors in kittens reared with an optically induced anisometropia”. Investigate Ophthalmology and Vision Science. 19: 1250–55. PMID 7419376. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. 37 Jump up ^ Wiesel, T. N.; Raviola, E (1977). “Myopia and eye enlargement after neonatal lid fusion in monkeys”. Nature. 266 (5597): 66–68. Bibcode:1977Natur.266…66W. doi:10.1038/266066a0. PMID 402582. 40 Jump up ^ Dolgin, Elie (18 March 2015). “The myopia boom”. Nature. 519 (7543): 276–27. Bibcode:2015Natur.519..276D. doi:10.1038/519276a. Archived from the original on 19 March 2015. Retrieved 20 March 2015. 42 Jump up ^ Nickla DL (2013). “Ocular diurnal rhythms and eye growth regulation: where we are 50 years after Lauber”. Experimental Eye Research (Review). 114: 25–34. doi:10.1016/j.exer.2012.12.013. PMC 3742730. PMID 23298452. 43^ Jump up to: a b Mutti DO, Mitchell GL, Moeschberger ML, Jones LA, Zadnik K; Mitchell; Moeschberger; Jones; Zadnik (2002). “Parental myopia, near work, school achievement, and children’s refractive error”. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 43 (12): 3633–40. PMID 12454029. 44 Jump up ^ Cui, Dongmei; Trier, Klaus; Ribel-Madsen, Søren Munk (May 2013). “Effect of Day Length on Eye Growth, Myopia Progression, and Change

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|Schools of economics| Neoclassical economics refers to a general approach in economics focusing on the determination of prices, outputs, and income distributions in markets through supply and demand. These are mediated through a hypothesized maximization of income-constrained utility by individuals and of cost-constrained profits of firms employing available information and factors of production. Neoclassical economics, as its name implies, developed from the classical economics dominant in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Its beginning can be traced to the Marginal revolution of the 1860s, which brought the concept of utility as the key factor in determining value in contrast to the classical view that the costs involved in production were value's determinant. Separating from the Austrian school of economics, the neoclassical approach became increasingly mathematical, focusing on perfect competition and equilibrium. Critiques of this approach involve its separation from the real world, both in terms of the time-frame for an economy to return to equilibrium through market forces, and in the "rational" behavior of the people and organizations that is assumed. Indeed, neoclassical economics has not been entirely successful in predicting the actual behavior of people, markets, and economies in the world so far, nor does it offer a view of a society that resonates with the ideals of a world in which people are able to express their uniquenesses as part of a society of peace, harmony, and prosperity. Despite much criticism, however, mainstream economics remains largely neoclassical in its assumptions, at least at the microeconomic level. Classical economics, developed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, included a value theory and distribution theory. The value of a product was thought to depend on the costs involved in producing that product. The explanation of costs in Classical economics was simultaneously an explanation of distribution. A landlord received rent, workers received wages, and a capitalist tenant farmer received profits on their investment. By the middle of the nineteenth century, English-speaking economists generally shared a perspective on value theory and distribution theory. The value of a bushel of corn, for example, was thought to depend on the costs involved in producing that bushel. The output or product of an economy was thought to be divided or distributed among the different social groups in accord with the costs borne by those groups in producing the output. This, roughly, was the "Classical Theory" developed by Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Thomas Robert Malthus, John Stuart Mill, and Karl Marx. But there were difficulties in this approach. Chief among them was that prices in the market did not necessarily reflect the "value" so defined, for people were often willing to pay more than an object was "worth." The classical "substance" theories of value, which took value to be a property inherent in an object, gradually gave way to a perspective in which value was associated with the relationship between the object and the person obtaining the object. Several economists in different places at about the same time (the 1870s and 1880s) began to base value on the relationship between costs of production and "subjective elements," later called "supply" and "demand." This came to be known as the Marginal revolution in economics, and the overarching theory that developed from these ideas came to be called neoclassical economics. The first to use the term "neoclassical economics" seems to have been the American economist Thorstein Veblen (1900). It was then used by George Stigler and John Hicks broadly to include the work of Carl Menger, William Stanley Jevons, and John Bates Clark. Menger, founder of the Austrian school of economics, is considered significant in the origin of neoclassical thought, with its focus on utilitarianism and value determined by the subjective views of individuals (not costs). Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser, followers of Menger, can also be included to a lesser extent as neoclassical economists. Despite starting from the same point, Austrian economics became increasingly separated from neoclassical economics in both method and focus. In method, whereas mainstream neoclassical economics became increasingly mathematical Austrian economics proceeded non-mathematically, incorporating laws and institutions into its analysis. The neoclassicals focused on equilibrium while the Austrian school focused on the study of institutions, process, and disequilibrium. Also, whereas mainstream neoclassical economics focused on perfect competition as a reference point, Austrian economics did not. Austrian economics had a sense of the correct institutional structure but not of the correct price; correct price was whatever price the institutional structure produced. This difference manifested itself in Menger's lack of concern about mathematical formalism and Wieser's combining a theory of power with his theory of markets to arrive at a full theory of the economy. Today, the term neoclassical is generally used to refer to mainstream economics and the Chicago school. In the years immediately following Karl Marx's publication of Das Kapital, a revolution took place in economics. Marx's development of a theory of exploitation from the labor theory of value, which had been taken as fundamental by economists since John Locke, coincided with labor theory's abandonment. The new orthodoxy became the theory of marginal utility. Writing simultaneously and independently, a Frenchman (Leon Walras), an Austrian (Carl Menger), and an Englishman (William Stanley Jevons) wrote that instead of the value of goods or services reflecting the labor that produced them, value reflects the usefulness (utility) of the last purchase (before the "margin" at which people find things useful no longer). This meant that an equilibrium of people's preferences determined prices, including the price of labor, so there was no question of exploitation. In a competitive economy, said the marginalists, people get what they had paid, or worked, for. Carl Menger (1840-1921), an Austrian economist stated the basic principle of marginal utility in Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre (Menger 1871). Consumers act rationally by seeking to maximize satisfaction of all their preferences. People allocate their spending so that the last unit of a commodity bought creates no more than a last unit bought of something else. William Stanley Jevons (1835-1882) was his English counterpart. He emphasized in the Theory of Political Economy (1871) that at the margin, the satisfaction of goods and services decreases. An example of the theory of diminishing returns is that for every orange one eats, the less pleasure one gets from the last orange (until one stops eating). Then Leon Walras (1834-1910), again working independently, generalized marginal theory across the economy in Elements of Pure Economics (1874). Small changes in people's preferences, for instance shifting from beef to mushrooms, would lead to a mushroom price rise, and beef price fall. This stimulates producers to shift production, increasing mushrooming investment, which would increase market supply leading to a new lower mushroom price and a new price equilibrium between the products. Alfred Marshall (1842-1924) was the first Professor of Economics at the University of Cambridge and his work, Principles of Economics (1890), coincided with the transition of the subject from "political economy" to his favored term, "economics." Coming after the marginal revolution, Marshall concentrated on reconciling the classical labor theory of value, which had concentrated on the supply side of the market, with the new marginalist theory that concentrated on the consumer demand side. Marshall's graphical representation is the famous supply and demand graph, the "Marshallian cross." He insisted it is the intersection of both supply and demand that produce an equilibrium of price in a competitive market. Over the long run, argued Marshall, the costs of production and the price of goods and services tend towards the lowest point consistent with continued production. Francis Ysidro Edgeworth (1845–1926) was an Irish polymath, a highly influential figure in the development of neo-classical economics, who contributed to the development of statistical theory. He was the first to apply certain formal mathematical techniques to individual decision making in economics. Edgeworth developed utility theory, introducing the indifference curve and the famous "Edgeworth box," which have become standards in economic theory. His "Edgeworth conjecture" states that the core of an economy shrinks to the set of competitive equilibria as the number of agents in the economy gets large. The high degree of originality demonstrated in his most work was matched only by the difficulty in reading his writings. Edgeworth was often regarded as “Marshall's man," referring to his support of Alfred Marshall. It was Edgeworth who greatly contributed toward the establishment of the Marshallian Neoclassical hegemony and the decline of any alternative approach. John Bates Clark (1847-1938) pioneered the marginalist revolution in the United States. Having studied in Germany, his ideas were different from those of the classical school and also the Institutional economics of Thorstein Veblen. Together with Richard T. Ely and Henry Carter Adams, Clark was cofounder of the organization that later became the American Economic Association. Clark sought to discover economic relationships, such as the relationship between distribution of income and production, which he argued would occur naturally in a market based on perfect competition. He believed that his "marginal productivity theory of income distribution" scientifically proved that market systems could generate a just distribution of income. He took marginal productivity theory further than others, and applied it to the business firm and the maximization of profits. He also argued that people were motivated not only by self-centered desire, but also considered the interests of society as a whole in their economic decision making. In his Distribution of Wealth, Clark (1899) developed his utility theory, according to which all commodities contain within them “bundles of utilities”—different qualitative degrees of utility. It is this utility that determines the value of a commodity: If we were here undertaking to present at length the theory of value, we should lay great stress on the fact that value is a social phenomenon. Things sell, indeed, according to their final utilities; but it is their final utilities to society (Clark 1899). Alfred Marshall was still working on his last revisions of his Principles of Economics at the outbreak of the First World War (1914-1918). The new twentieth century's climate of optimism was soon violently dismembered in the trenches of the Western front, as the civilized world tore itself apart. For four years the production of Britain, Germany, and France was geared entirely towards the war economy's industry of death. In 1917, Russia crumbled into revolution led by Vladimir Lenin's Bolshevik party. They carried Marxist theory as their savior, and promised a broken country "peace, bread, and land" by collectivizing the means of production. Also in 1917, the United States of America entered the war on the side of France and Britain, President Woodrow Wilson carrying the slogan of "making the world safe for democracy." He devised a peace plan of Fourteen Points. In 1918, Germany launched a spring offensive which failed, and as the allies counter-attacked and more millions were slaughtered, Germany slid into revolution, its interim government suing for peace on the basis of Wilson's Fourteen Points. Europe lay in ruins, financially, physically, psychologically, and its future with the arrangements of the Versailles conference in 1919. John Maynard Keynes was the representative of Her Majesty's Treasury at the conference and the most vocal critic of its outcome. He was particularly opposed to the approach taken by classical and neoclassical economists that the economy would naturally come to a desirable equilibrium in the long run. Keynes argued in A Tract on Monetary Reform (1923) that a variety of factors determined economic activity, and that it was not enough to wait for the long run market equilibrium to restore itself. As Keynes famously remarked: …this long run is a misleading guide to current affairs. In the long run we are all dead. Economists set themselves too easy, too useless a task if in tempestuous seasons they can only tell us that when the storm is long past the ocean is flat again (Keynes 1923). During the Great Depression, Keynes published his most important work, The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936). The depression had been sparked by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, leading to massive rises in unemployment in the United States, leading to debts being recalled from European borrowers, and an economic domino effect across the world. Orthodox economics called for a tightening of spending, until business confidence and profit levels could be restored. From this point, Keynesian economics began its ascension and the neoclassical approach faltered. The framework of neoclassical economics can be summarized as follows. Individuals make choices at the margin, where the marginal utility of a good or of a service is the utility of the specific use to which an agent would put a given increase in that good or service, or of the specific use that would be abandoned in response to a given decrease. This results in a theory of demand for goods, and supply of productive factors. Buyers attempt to maximize their gains from purchasing goods, and they do this by increasing their purchases of a good until what they gain from an extra unit is just balanced by what they have to give up to obtain it. In this way they maximize "utility"—the satisfaction associated with the consumption of goods and services. Individuals provide labor to firms that wish to employ them, by balancing the gains from offering the marginal unit of their services (the wage they would receive) with the disutility of labor itself—the loss of leisure. Similarly, producers attempt to produce units of a good so that the cost of producing the incremental or marginal unit is just balanced by the revenue it generates. In this way they maximize profits. Firms also hire employees up to the point that the cost of the additional hire is just balanced by the value of output that the additional employee would produce. Neoclassical economics conceptualizes the agents as rational actors. Agents were modeled as optimizers who were led to "better" outcomes. Neoclassical economists usually assume, in other words, that human beings make the choices that give them the best possible advantage, given the circumstances they face. Circumstances include the prices of resources, goods and services, limited income, limited technology for transforming resources into goods and services, and taxes, regulations, and similar objective limitations on the choices they may make (Weintraub 1993). The resulting equilibrium was "best" in the sense that any other allocation of goods and services would leave someone worse off. Thus, the social system in the neoclassical vision was free of unresolvable conflict. The very term "social system" is a measure of the success of neoclassical economics, for the idea of a system, with its interacting components, its variables and parameters and constraints, is the language of mid-nineteenth-century physics. This field of rational mechanics was the model for the neoclassical framework: We understand that the allocation of resources is a social problem in any modern economy. Any modern economic system must somehow answer the questions posed by the allocation of resources. If we are further to understand the way in which people respond to this social problem, we have to make some assumptions about human behavior. …The assumption at the basis of the neoclassical approach is that people are rational and (more of less) self-interested. This should be understood as an instance of positive economics (about what is) not normative economics (about what ought to be). This distinction, positive versus normative economics, is important in itself and is a key to understanding many aspects of economics (Huberman and Hogg 1995). Agents, mentioned above, were like atoms; utility was like energy; utility maximization was like the minimization of potential energy, and so forth. In this way was the rhetoric of successful science linked to the neoclassical theory, and in this way economics became linked to science itself. Whether this linkage was planned by the early Marginalists, or rather was a feature of the public success of science itself, is less important than the implications of that linkage. For once neoclassical economics was associated with scientific economics, to challenge the neoclassical approach was to seem to challenge science and progress and modernity. These developments were accompanied by the introduction of new tools, such as indifference curves and the theory of ordinal utility which increased the level of mathematical sophistication of neoclassical economics. Paul Samuelson's Foundations of Economic Analysis (1947) contributed to this increase in formal rigor. Value is linked to unlimited desires and wants colliding with constraints, or scarcity. The tensions, the decision problems, are worked out in markets. Prices are the signals that tell households and firms whether their conflicting desires can be reconciled. EXAMPLE: At some price of cars, for example, a person wants to buy a new car. At that same price others may also want to buy cars. However, manufacturers may not want to produce as many cars as the buyers want. Buyers' frustration may lead them to "bid up" the price of cars, eliminating some potential buyers and encouraging some marginal producers. As the price changes, the imbalance between buy orders and sell orders is reduced. This is how optimization under constraint and market interdependence lead to an economic equilibrium. This is the neoclassical vision (Samuelson 1947). To summarize, neoclassical economics is what is called a "metatheory." That is, it is a set of implicit rules or understandings for constructing satisfactory economic theories. It is a scientific research program that generates economic theories. Its fundamental assumptions include the following: The value of neoclassical economics can be assessed by the fruits of its guidance. The understandings related to incentives—about prices and information, about the interrelatedness of decisions and the unintended consequences of choices—are all well developed in neoclassical theories, as is a self-consciousness about the use of evidence. The rules of theory development and assessment are clear in neoclassical economics, and that clarity is taken to be beneficial to the community of economists. EXAMPLE: In planning for future electricity needs in a state, for example, the Public Utilities Commission develops a (neoclassical) demand forecast, joins it to a (neoclassical) cost analysis of generation facilities of various sizes and types (such as an 800-megawatt low-sulfur coal plant), and develops a least-cost system growth plan and a (neoclassical) pricing strategy for implementing that plan. Those on all sides of the issues, from industry to municipalities, from electric companies to environmental groups, all speak the same language of demand elasticities and cost minimization, of marginal costs and rates of return. In this context, the scientific character of neoclassical economics is not its weakness but its strength (Samuelson 1947). Neoclassical economics has been criticized in several ways. As already mentioned, John Maynard Keynes argued that even if equilibrium would be restored eventually through market forces the time required for this to occur was too long. Others, such as Thorstein Veblen, said that the neoclassical view of the economic world is unrealistic. The "rational" consumer of the neoclassical economist is a working assumption that was meant to free economists from dependence on psychology. However, the assumption of rationality is often confused with real, purposive behavior. In fact, the consumer routinely makes decisions in undefined contexts. They muddle through, they adapt, they copy, they try what worked in the past, they gamble, they take uncalculated risks, they engage in costly altruistic activities, and regularly make unpredictable, even unexplainable, decisions (Sandven 1995). Many economists, even contemporaries, have criticized the neoclassical vision of economic humanity. Veblen put it most sardonically, commenting that neoclassical economics assumes a person to be a lightning calculator of pleasures and pains, who oscillates like a homogeneous globule of desire of happiness under the impulse of stimuli that shift about the area, but leave him intact (Veblen 1898). Tversky and Kahneman (1979, 1986) in their "prospect theory," argued that people are not as calculating as economic models assume. Instead, people repeatedly make errors in judgment, and such errors can be predicted and categorized. Their 1979 paper in Econometrica is one of the most widely cited papers in economics. Thus, the rationality assumption, originating in classical economics and restated by the neoclassicals to maintain their distance from the Austrian school, fails to remove psychological factors from the equation. While mathematical analyses can indeed be carried out, as Tversky and Kahneman showed, these must include the forces that drive real people's decision-making behavior. Modern corporations do not even appear to be acting as if they equilibrate marginal cost-marginal revenue to maximize profits. Rather, they attempt to "beat the average." Consequently, success has less to do with the intuitively convincing textbook equality between marginal cost and marginal revenue, than with the capture of external contested income (Thompson 1997). One neoclassical defense is to suggest that equilibrium is only a tendency towards which the system is moving. However, Weintraub (1991) reveals that econometricians, such as Negishi, maintain that the equilibrium contained in a model is real and intuitively justified by appealing to reality out there … in which it is known that the economy is fairly shock-proof. We know from experience that prices usually do not explode to infinity or contract to zero (Negishi 1962). No matter how hard neoclassical economists try to drive away the world of complexity, it continues to confront them. Yet, to the frustration of "heterogeneous" antagonists the neoclassical paradigm remains dominant (Thompson 1997). According to Varoufakis and Arnsperger, neoclassical economics continues to impact economic thought, research, and teaching, despite its practical irrelevance as evidenced by its failure to describe or predict real-world occurrences: Neoclassical economics, despite its incessant metamorphoses, is well defined in terms of the same three meta-axioms on which all neoclassical analyses have been founded since the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Moreover, its status within the social sciences, and its capacity to draw research funding and institutional prominence, is explained largely by its success in keeping these three meta-axioms well hidden. …it is to be explained in evolutionary terms, as the result of practices which reinforce the profession’s considerable success through diverting attention from the models’ axiomatic foundations to their technical complexity and diverse predictions (Varoufakis and Arnsperger 2006). President Richard Nixon, defending deficit spending against the conservative charge that it was "Keynesian," is reported to have replied, "We're all Keynesians now…" In fact, what he should have said is "We're all neoclassicals now, even the Keynesians," because what is taught to students, what is mainstream economics today, is neoclassical economics (Weintraub 1993). New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

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With the prospect of a chemo-free cure for some blood cancers, and with new targets and new drugs emerging at an unprecedented pace, Simon Crompton asks: Is haematology where the promise of precision medicine will finally be realised? We have come a long way since pioneering French microscopist Alfred Donné provided the first cellular description of a blood cancer in 1844. “More than half of the cells were mucous globules [white cells],” he wrote, which “dominates so much that one wonders, knowing nothing about the clinical course, whether this blood does not contain pus.” In the past 60 years, haematological cancers have provided the testing ground for systemic therapies, the first cure by chemotherapy, the first proof of principle of targeted medicines. In the 1960s, the first chemotherapy cancer cure came with MOPP (nitrogen mustard, oncovin, procarbazine, prednisone) for Hodgkin lymphoma. In the late 1990s, rituximab for non-Hodgkin lymphoma was the first monoclonal antibody to be approved by the US regulators. And imatinib, the first anti-cancer tyrosine kinase inhibitor, was approved for chronic myeloid leukaemia in 2001 – and has since dramatically improved the outlook for the disease in the solid gastrointestinal tumour GIST. “Over the past 65 years, survival rates for many blood cancer patients have doubled, tripled and even quadrupled,” says Louis DeGennaro, CEO of the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society. “Almost 40% of the new cancer drugs developed since 2000 were first approved for blood cancer patients, and are now helping patients with other cancers and chronic diseases.” The figures tell the story of how innovation in blood cancer continues. The FDA has designated 12 novel blood cancer therapies as “breakthrough medicines” – requiring expedited development because of their promise in treating a life-threatening disease. Around 250 of more than 800 cancer medicines in development are in leukaemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma. And genetics studies have recently revealed there are at least 35 types of leukaemia and 50 types of lymphoma – each with distinctive characteristics to target. “There are multiple advances happening at the same time, reflecting an explosion of knowledge in haematological cancers,” comments Anas Younes, medical oncologist and head of the Lymphoma Service at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York. “It sounds like a cliché but it’s true.” Along with others working in haematological cancers, Younes believes there is now the genuine prospect that, as precision medicines become more widely embedded into clinical practice, the days of toxic chemotherapy may be numbered. At least in blood cancers. Given the continuing frustration over the unfulfilled promise of precision medicine in solid tumours, the question then arises: Would the rest of the cancer world do well to pay more attention to the new paradigms that are proving their value in many blood cancers? Franco Cavalli, Scientific Director of the Institute of Oncology of Southern Switzerland, believes they would. He argues that the difficulties for precision medicine stem mainly from the heterogeneity of the tumours – a challenge which he says was first encountered in blood cancers. “Now, the experience in blood cancers of efforts to overcome such difficulties – for example, devising groups of patients who are as homogeneous as possible – may serve as a guide for many solid tumours as well.” In his editorial in this issue, he points to the increasing separation of haematological and solid tumours in the training of medical oncologists, and argues that specialists in solid tumours could glean valuable insights into the basics of tumour biology by paying more attention to developments in haematological oncology. Hodgkin lymphoma and the quest to end toxic treatment The benefits of moving from chemotherapy-based regimens to ones based on precision medicine are amply demonstrated in Hodgkin lymphoma. Although aggressive chemotherapy and radiotherapy regimens made Hodgkin lymphoma one of the first curable cancers in the 1960s and 70s, the cost was high. Studies indicated that the risk of developing neoplasms after treatment was 18 times higher than in the general population, and people who survived Hodgkin (which most commonly affects young adults) were at increased risk of coronary artery disease, valve disease, congestive heart failure, pericardial disease, stroke, arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death. The advent of the monoclonal antibody drug brentuximab vedotin five years ago brought a radical change, bringing induced remission in 75% of patients with relapsed or refractory Hodgkin. Today, according to Andreas Engert, professor of internal medicine, haematology and oncology at the University Hospital of Cologne, new data will show that the drug works well as a first- and second-line treatment in combination with chemotherapy. “But in the end, brentuximab vedotin is still a kind of targeted chemotherapy, and patients who have received a lot of chemo are more likely not to respond to brentuximab. That could be a problem for heavily pretreated patients.” New immunotherapy approaches provide the promise to solve the problem. The first immune checkpoint inhibitor in lymphoma, nivolumab, was approved by the FDA for relapsed or refractory classical Hodgkin lymphoma in May 2016. It is the first monoclonal antibody targeting the programmed death-1 (PD-1) immune checkpoint pathway. The effect is to enhance T-cell anti-cancer activity and induce tumour cell disintegration. Early phase trials indicated a good safety profile, and 66% of patients achieved an objective response after nine months (assessed using immune-related response criteria – IrRC). New trials presented this year at ASCO indicated an objective response rate of 65% after 19 months in patients who had previously had autologous stem cell transplants (ASCT) but not been treated with brentuximab vedotin. There was a complete response in 29% of patients. Engert’s centre in Cologne became involved in the trials at an early stage – having “banged on the door” of Bristol-Myers Squibb to expand the trial from the United States to Europe. “We are using these antibodies right now in the relapsed and refractory setting,” he says. “We saw many patients who we originally thought might be too frail, who responded remarkably well.” The drug, he says, has completely changed expectations about response and cure. “It doesn’t matter if the patient has a 50 g tumour or a 5 kg tumour – the patient can respond just as well with PD-1 drugs. That’s remarkable, and it completely interferes with our knowledge about who’s going to respond and their chances of cure.” The latest nivolumab trial results, announced at ASCO in June and then presented by Engert at the European Hematology Association Congress in Madrid, demonstrated responses in adults with relapsed or progressed Hodgkin lymphoma after ASCT, irrespective of whether they had also been treated with brentuximab vedotin (BV). In the group that had BV therapy after ASCT, the objective response rate was 68% after 23 months, with complete response in 13% of patients. “The new data look great,” says Engert. “In particular, it is quite astonishing to see that those patients who just achieved a partial response or stable disease still did remarkably well overall. This is a clear indicator that PD-1 inhibition offers a really new and different mechanism of action. “It’s very surprising and rewarding to see these major achievements. Now there’s a good chance of curing patients in both the early and advanced stages of the disease. That’s particularly good news for young patients with Hodgkins. “The development of these new antibodies is exciting because it will reduce long-term side effects in young people. We’re conducting studies in early stage patients and I’m convinced it will take just a few more years before we can say with conviction that we can cure Hodgkin patients without chemotherapy or radiotherapy. I think that’s what we always wanted to achieve.” However, there is a problem in bringing these advances to fruition. Drug companies, says Engert, are reluctant to invest in Hodgkin trials because they are overwhelmed by opportunities in solid tumours. “It’s a question of where you put your money, and where the highest value is. So far we have done well with brentuximab and the PD-1s. Some companies are uncertain if they want to invest in first-line Hodgkin treatments with much bigger trials, but I think data is going to look so good that they will have to.” Targeting the micro-environment: learning from CLL The story of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) provides another example of how precision medicine paradigms are playing out in blood cancers. Twenty years ago, little was known about CLL, which accounts for around a third of all leukaemias worldwide. We knew that it affected the B-cell lymphocytes. We knew there were two types, determined by the presence of mutations in the immunoglobulin genes – one aggressive and requiring treatment, one more indolent. We knew that the leukaemia carried a few recurrent cytogenetic abnormalities, but how they contributed to the disease was unclear. We knew that the treatment invariably revolved around chemotherapy – sometimes combined with a monoclonal antibody (chemo-immunotherapy). And we knew that it was incurable. “When we had only chemo-immunotherapy, there was a proportion of patients that was chemo-refractory – and this proportion was larger the more the disease was treated,” says Davide Rossi, leader of the experimental haematology group at the Institute of Oncology Research, Switzerland. “We were unable to provide effective treatment for these patients.” Chemo-immunotherapy failed in 20–25% of patients. For these patients with ultra-high risk CLL, survival after failure was less than three years, and the only effective salvage option was an allogeneic stem cell transplant. The rigours of this approach, however, meant it was only available to a minority of patients who were fit or young enough. Then, three years ago, everything changed, with the introduction of two new types of compound – one that inhibits the signalling between the cancer and its micro-environment, and one that blocks the signalling that prevents cell death. The drugs are: B-cell receptor (BCR) inhibitors, such as ibrutinib and idelalisib, and B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2) inhibitors, such as venetoclax. Durable responses are now common in many patients with previously relapsed CLL. “In clinical practice, we now have potent drugs that almost, although not completely, overcome chemo-refractoriness in CLL,” says Rossi. “In ultra-high risk patients, ibrutinib, idelalisib and venetoclax all provide an unprecedented high response rate in the range of 70–80%, which are durable.” This, he said, points the way towards the end of what he calls “bombastic” therapy – the old paradigm of bombarding the patient with treatments. Clinical research is now investigating the possibility of combining BCR and BCL-2 inhibitor drugs with each other, and also with other monoclonal antibodies, “to try to provide deep responses and hopefully the cure for CLL”. The significance of the CLL revolution goes beyond a single disease. Rossi says it is exciting because it demonstrates the absolute dependence of many cancers on their microenvironment – and ways to exploit that weakness. “There’s a long story of basic and translational research in CLL that, in the end, established the addiction of this tumour to signals coming from the microenvironment, to gain survival and proliferation signals,” says Rossi. “Many cancers are addicted in the same way. The key point is understanding which of the cellular programmes and pathways are central, and are to be targeted. In CLL, we gain this understanding from fundamental science.” “I want to underscore that CLL is a paradigm, because as well as BCR inhibitors, which interfere with the mechanisms coming from the microenvironment, we have the BCL-2 inhibitors, which block the anti-apoptotic cellular programmes, which tumours activate through genetic lesions. So we are addressing both the microenvironment and the genetics of the tumour as drivers of cancer.” Nearing a chemo-free cure The move towards precision medicine in CLL could herald the end of chemotherapy for many patients, says Rossi. A BCR inhibitor has already been approved as a first-line monotherapy for CLL patients in the United States and Europe. And there are hopes that, within three years, the results of trials combining different BCR and BCL-2 inhibitors may indicate that combinations bring longer remissions, and reduce the need for long-term treatment. The prospect of chemo-free treatment spreads far beyond CLL. A multiple myeloma diagnosis used to mean a life expectancy of three to five years, with standard treatment consisting of chemotherapy and stem cell transplant. Today, average survival has nearly trebled thanks to new proteasome inhibitors, immune-modulating therapies like thalidomide – and then combinations of these drugs with steroids, in doublet and then triplet therapies. A randomised trial presented at the American Society of Hematology last year suggested that triplets should now be the standard of care for patients newly diagnosed with multiple myeloma. “Today, we have learned to talk in terms of tablet triplets,” says Rossi. “In the future, I can see the possibility of a chemo-free, novel agent based treatment paradigm for every CLL patient.” Philippe Moreau from the University Hospital of Nantes, France, believes that for the first time there is the possibility of curing the 50–70% of multiple myeloma patients who are classified as “standard risk”, using all the effective drugs and stem cell treatments. “The goal is to achieve very fast and very deep responses and to reach minimal residual disease negativity,” he says. The challenge of exponential knowledge growth But the explosion of knowledge in blood cancers also presents massive challenges. Researchers and clinicians have at their fingertips exponentially increasing data about their genetics, subtypes and precise biological relationship to their microenvironment. Dozens of novel therapies are being developed, each of which may have a more potent effect if used in combination with any of dozens more. Yet there are only limited clinicians, researchers and facilities to be able to act on the information. So where do priorities lie? Franco Cavalli believes that increasing knowledge about different molecular types of blood cancer requires a rethink about how resources are allocated. “What were once a handful of haematological cancers are in fact hundreds of different ones when you look at their molecular biology. So this re-classifying has implications for specialist pathology and for specialisation. “Classifying individual cancers has become very difficult, so worldwide the big problem is how to have a correct diagnosis. And haemato-oncologists may also now have to subspecialise. There are already specialists in leukaemia, lymphoma and myeloma. This is making everything more expensive and more difficult in terms of practical organisation.” According to Anas Younes, who conducts translational research into novel treatment strategies for Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma at his own laboratory at Memorial Sloan Kettering, the key to moving forward constructively is to rationalise. For example, all the new molecular information characterising different types of cancers needs to be reviewed – and the cancers need to be re-categorised into types that are clinically useful, not simply observable. “The trend is divide and conquer,” he said, “slicing each large cancer type into small pieces.” But classifying them according to morphology, clinical behaviour and genetic composition is not in itself useful. “We need to slice them based on a genetic landscape that is actionable – not just saying a particular biomarker expresses so and so. Unless it’s actionable it’s not going to help me design a clinical trial. “So at Memorial, we’re going backwards to try and re-group lymphomas into common baskets that share actionable genetic alterations or activated oncogenetic pathways – then try to build clinical trials based on that. So there’s a huge effort going on trying to authoritatively gene sequence all the different types of lymphoma. “Every patient who walks through our doors is asked to fill out a consent form, and we will sequence their tumours for free, to collect this information. Then we can decide which genetic alterations are common across different subtypes, and then design clinical trials based on that.” There is no doubt that dividing diseases like CLL into subtypes according to biomarkers is very useful, says Davide Rossi. For example, in CLL the mutational status of the immunoglobulin gene provides prognostic information as well as informing therapy. And the status of the p53 gene can stratify patients according to which will respond best to chemo-immunotherapy. “But perhaps in the future it may not be the same,” says Rossi. “Now the field is quite confused because we don’t have a lot of clinical studies to support our treatment decisions, so we have to support them by biomarkers. But in the future, who knows? Will we still need biomarkers, if treatments become chemotherapy free? It’s a field in continuous evolution.” The challenge of prioritisation For Anas Younes, the single most important challenge as knowledge explodes in blood cancers – and increasingly in all cancers – is how to prioritise the research agenda. “We now have more than 600 agents available in pre-clinical testing or testing for cancer, he says, “and we never had this before. So how do you choose? Every time you commit yourself to one trial you’re locking in your patients, your progress, your resources for at least three years. You can’t test all of them at the same time.” The problem escalates, because combinations need to be tested. Very few cancers have one unique Achilles heel – most use multiple oncogenetic pathways to thrive. So finding drug combinations to inhibit several pathways simultaneously is essential. Younes points out that a vital next step is to test immune checkpoint inhibitors in combination with other immune therapeutic agents, small molecule drugs or even traditional chemotherapy. But trialling just ten drugs in all their doublet combinations could take 90 years. “So how do you prioritise those combinations?” The answer, said Younes, is to use preclinical studies to try to establish the most promising drugs and combinations – evaluating safety and then comparing them head to head. These preclinical studies need to be run completely independently of drug companies. “You need to step backwards and be an independent judge, because each sponsor comes to you with their own ideas, but it might not be the best idea. So it’s very important for academic centres to do these combinations in an unbiased way – test in vitro, and then in mice. Then, even if two combinations seem to meet in efficacy, you can see which has the best safety profile and make a judgement as to the best available based on your own data.” “It’s not perfect. But that’s what larger cancer centres are doing these days – they’re no longer being passive recipients from sponsors who ask you to do things.” Setting an agenda No one, says Younes, could claim that developments in blood cancer are ahead of those in solid tumours. “There are areas where blood cancer is leading the way and other areas where we’re learning from solid tumours. The reason is that a lot of knowledge is being shared, and this is because there are shared genetic alterations among some solid tumours and some blood cancers that can be targeted. One area he mentions where blood cancers are “way ahead” is in developing chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies – a novel type of immunotherapy which early trials have shown to be effective in patients with refractory lymphoma and leukaemia (see box). But as he adds, “Just for practical reasons, some solid tumours that have a high frequency and a higher unmet medical need – like lung, colon, breast and prostate cancer – tend to have more funding and concentrated clinical research effort, so they often take an early lead.” The fact is that the most common cancers will always attract the big research investment. But given their annexed existence from the mainstream of funding, discussion and research focus, haematological cancers are still charting a remarkable course in unlocking the potential of precision medicine. The way in which clinicians, researchers and funders build on the explosion of knowledge in the next ten years will demand the attention of the rest of the cancer world. Learning from blood cancers: CAR T-cell therapy Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy is an experimental form of immunotherapy that revolves around genetically engineering T-cells to recognise and then attack cancer cells. Groundbreaking studies have shown durable complete remissions in patients with therapy-refractory lymphoma and leukaemia. The results prompted the US regulators to grant CAR T-cell therapy breakthrough status for B-cell malignancies like acute lymphoblastic leukaemia and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia, as well as B-cell lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. “This is a rapidly growing field,” says Anas Younes, head of the lymphoma service at New York’s Memorial Sloan Kettering hospital, “but I think CAR T-cell therapy in liquid tumours is way ahead of solid tumours. The platform technology is now beginning to be applied in solid tumours.” There are now more than 100 CAR T-cell clinical trials running. In November 2016, Novartis presented results from a phase II trial with its CAR T-cell therapy CTL019 for B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. It achieved remission in 82% of patients after three months. This is in a disease with limited treatment options, where currently the chance of survival for children who relapse or fail to attain remission is between 16% and 30%. The company is preparing to submit applications to the FDA and EMA this year. Severe side effects, which have included deaths in early trials, are a problem with CAR T-cell therapy. Cost is also an issue. The EMA believes “there are still scientific and regulatory challenges to overcome to bring these innovative products to the market.”

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Antarctic territorial claims. The Australian Antarctic Territory (AAT) is the part of Antarctica claimed by Australia and is the largest territory of Antarctica claimed by any nation. It consists of all the islands and territory south of 60° S and between 44°38' E and 160° E, except for Adélie Land (136°11' E to 142°02' E), which divides the territory into Western AAT (the larger portion) and Eastern AAT. It is bounded by Queen Maud Land in the West and by Ross Dependency in the East. The area is estimated at 5,896,500 km². The territory is inhabited only by the staff of research stations. The Australian Antarctic Division administers the area primarily by maintaining three year-round stations (Mawson, Davis and Casey), which support various research projects. Australia is among seven nations which have claimed territory in Antarctica. These claims are based on discovery and effective occupation of the claimed area and are legal so far as each nation's laws are concerned. Three countries -- the United Kingdom, Chile and Argentina - have overlapping claims in the Antarctic. Some countries explicity recognise these claims, some have a policy of not recognising any claims in Antarctica, and others reserve the right to make a claim of their own. The Antarctic Treaty puts aside the potential for conflict over sovereignty by providing that nothing that occurs while the Treaty is in force will enhance or diminish territorial claims. Member states cannot make any new claims while the Treaty is in force. Australian Antarctic Territory Australian Antarctic Territory covers nearly 5.9 million square kilometres, about 42 percent of Antarctica and nearly 80 percent of the total area of Australia itself. The Australian claim is based on a long historical association with this part of Antarctica. Australia's Douglas Mawson (later Sir Douglas Mawson) led a group of Australians and New Zealanders in the 1911 to 1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition which had bases at Commonwealth Bay, south of Tasmania, and the Shackleton Ice Shelf south of Perth. This expedition explored extensively along the coast near the bases. Mawson also led the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) of 1929 to 1931. During this expedition Mawson claimed what is now Australian Antarctic Territory as British sovereign territory. Early in 1933, Britain asserted sovereign rights over the claimed territory and placed the territory under the authority of the Commonwealth of Australia. That part of the Territory in the Antarctic seas which comprises all the islands and territories, other than Adelie Land, situated south of the 60th degree south latitude and lying between the 160th degree east longitude and the 45th degree east longitude, is hereby declared to be accepted by the Commonwealth as a Territory under the authority of the Commonwealth, by the name of the Australian Antarctic Territory. (The Red area is Australian territory) The Madrid Protocol: a singular achievement Australia decided in 1989 that it would not ratify a planned regime to control mineral resource activity in Antarctica, but instead opted to seek the support of Antarctic Treaty countries for full environmental protection for the continent and its surrounding seas. The Madrid Protocol, signed by Treaty members in that city in 1991, was a direct result of this initiative pursued by Australia, France, Italy and Belgium. It was a landmark agreement in the 30 year history of the Antarctic Treaty. The Protocol places an indefinite ban on mining or mineral resource activity in Antarctica, designating the Antarctic as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science. It provides a multinational, codified set of environmental standards (Antarctica is the only continent for which this applies), and creates a new system of protected areas. The Protocol establishes environmental principles for the conduct of all activities, which must be assessed for their potential environmental impact before they are undertaken, and provides guidelines for conservation of Antarctic flora and fauna, managing and disposing of waste, and preventing marine pollution. As a signatory to the Protocol, Australia acted quickly to impose stronger environmental protection measures to its Antarctic activities, notably through introduction of an environmental impact assessment process. In 1994 Australia completed enactment of legislation to ratify the Protocol, which means that all Australians are bound by law to observe its provisions. WELLINGTON, New Zealand — Countries that manage Antarctica plan tough new controls on ships visiting the southern oceans and the fuels they use to reduce the threat of human and environmental disasters as tourist numbers rise, officials said Saturday. The new code will reduce the number of ships carrying tourists into the region by requiring that all vessels have hulls strengthened to withstand sea ice. Officials and ship operators said a ban on heavy fuel oil will effectively shut out big cruise ships. Experts from among the 47 signatory nations to the Antarctic Treaty — the world's main tool for managing the continent — and the International Maritime Organization discussed plans to impose a mandatory Polar Code to control all shipping in the region at a meeting in the New Zealand capital, Wellington. The safeguards are seen as necessary to limit accidents in the region, where blinding sleet, fog, high winds and treacherous seas pose major dangers for ships and huge problems for rescuers located thousands of miles (kilometers) from remote Antarctic waters. The code will cover vessel design, safety equipment, ship operations and crew training for ice navigation, meeting chairman and New Zealand Antarctic policy specialist Trevor Hughes said. The nearly completed Polar Code is expected to be in place by 2013, he said. Once approved, it would operate on a voluntary basis until it is ratified by treaty states and becomes legally binding. While existing rules bar tourists or tour operators from leaving anything behind — like garbage or human waste — and require protection of animal breeding grounds, there are no formal codes on the kind of vessels that can use the waters or the kinds of fuel and other oil products they can carry. In March, the International Maritime Organization, the United Nations' shipping agency, is to ratify a ban on the carriage or use of heavy fuel oil in Antarctica. It is to come into effect in 2011. The moves follow a huge growth in tourist traffic as people flock to see the world's last great wilderness. Annual tourist numbers have grown from about 10,000 a decade ago to 45,000 last year. Tourists can pay between $3,000 and $24,000 for a two-week trip. Some travel on ships carrying up to 3,000 passengers that also take many tons of heavy fuel oil, chemicals and garbage that can pollute the region. Nathan Russ, operations manager of Antarctic eco-tourism company Heritage Expeditions, said the proposed heavy fuel ban "will most likely regulate the biggest cruise ships out of Antarctic operations" because of the costs involved in switching to lighter fuel. The Antarctic Treaty, first signed in 1959, is the main tool for regulating what is the world's only continent without a native human population. New Zealand is one of the dozen founding members of the treaty, along with Australia the United States, Russia and Britain. The treaty now has 47 signatories. The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System or ATS, regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent without a native human population. For the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude. The treaty has now been signed by 47 countries, and set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War. The main treaty was opened for signature on December 1, 1959, and officially entered into force on June 23, 1961. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-58 and willing to accept a US invitation to the conference at which the treaty was negotiated. These countries were the ones with significant interests in Antarctica at the time: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom. Among them, the signatories had established over 50 Antarctic stations for the IGY. The treaty was a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved "on the ice". Since the designation of the Australian Antarctic Territory pre-dated the signing of the Antarctic Treaty, in 1959 some of the complex suite of Australian laws that relate to Antarctica date from more than two decades before the Antarctic Treaty era. In terms of criminal law, the laws that apply to the Jervis Bay Territory (a non-contiguous part of the Australian Capital Territory) apply to the Australian Antarctic Territory. Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960, the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 and the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981. The Australian Antarctic Territory (AAT) is the part of Antarctica claimed by Australia and is the largest territory of Antarctica claimed by any nation. [Image Can Not Be Found] Australia is among seven nations which have claimed territory in Antarctica. The other claimant nations are Argentina, Chile, France, New zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom. The Australian claim is based on discovery and a long historical association with this part of Antarctica. Australia's Douglas Mawson led the 1911 to 1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) which established bases at Commonwealth Bay and the Shackleton Ice Shelf. The expedition explored extensively along the coast near the bases and claimed this land as British territory. In 1929 – 1931 further extensive claims to sovereignty were made by the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research (BANZARE) expedition again led by Douglas Mawson. Three new landings were made and aircraft flights discovered the BANZARE Coast and Princess Elizabeth Land. The expedition also generated scientific results that were so voluminous that reports were still being published three decades later. In two summer voyages Discovery and the expedition aircraft traversed the whole coastline from 45°E to 160°E, defining the limits of what was to become the Australian Antarctic Territory. Mawson made proclamations claiming sovereignty for Britain over Antarctic lands at each of landfall. Photographer Australasian Antarctic Expedition James Francis (Frank) Hurley (1885-1962) is regarded as an extraordinary Australian photographer, adventurer, filmmaker and writer. His craving for exploration and adventure complemented his image-making to produce some of the most enduring achievements of Australian photography, and a profound impact on a young Australian film industry. Hurley's most consequential work comes from his first two trips to Antarctica. Among his best known images, are those of the destruction of the Endurance, during Ernest Shackleton's legendary ill-fated Antarctic expedition of 1914-16. [Image Can Not Be Found] [Image Can Not Be Found] [Image Can Not Be Found] [Image Can Not Be Found] June 1, 2012. New Shelf rights an opportunity for greater protection. New rights over the seabed do not mean Australia wants to mine it, says TONY PRESS Australia's proclamation last month of its rights over 11 million square kilometres of continental shelf is the culmination of two decades of scientific research and international diplomacy. The proclamation gives Australia exclusive rights to the resources of the seabed over an area greater than the Australian landmass. Even though Australia's rights over these areas are affirmed under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, there was an almost immediate comment that this sovereign action by Australia might provoke conflict in the Antarctic Treaty. Comments on ABC Online refer to two areas of continental shelf extending from the north into the Antarctic Treaty area south of 60 degrees. The largest of these areas is the extended continental shelf arising from the Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands between Australia and South Africa; the other is from Macquarie Island, which is part of the state of Tasmania. The suggestion of conflict shows a fundamental misunderstanding of what has actually happened here. Couple this misunderstanding with the inference that because Australia now has exclusive rights over the seabed it will open all of these areas to mining and we have the inevitable conclusion that Australia is interested in mining in the Antarctic Treaty area. There are no objective facts to support this conclusion. Quite to the contrary, Australia can use this opportunity to use its exclusive rights to protect these areas. Let us start with the fact that it was Australia that first walked away from the Antarctic minerals negotiations in 1989, and, along with France and others, negotiated the international protocol that prohibits mining in the Antarctic (the Madrid Protocol). Abandoning the minerals convention had strong bipartisan political support in Australia - it was John Howard who raised the issue in Parliament in the late 1980s and it was Bob Hawke who, as prime minister, changed Australia's policy and garnered the agreement with France to overturn the steady diplomatic talks that would have seen the Antarctic minerals convention enter into force. The Madrid Protocol prohibits mining in the Antarctic Treaty area - that is, all the oceans and seabed below 60 degrees south, and Antarctica itself. Australia has enacted legislation to enforce the commitments in the Madrid Protocol, including the prohibition on mining. Comment in the media after last Friday's announcement inferred that Australia's proclamation of the extended continental shelves appurtenant to Heard Island and Macquarie Island are new Antarctic claims contrary to the Antarctic Treaty. Nothing could be further from the truth. The Antarctic Treaty does prohibit new claims, but the extended continental shelves are not new claims - they are areas where rights can be exercised. These rights, granted under international law, flow from existing sovereignty outside the Antarctic Treaty area. This is what is known as the ''outside-inside'' issue, where rights under the Law of the Sea extend into the Antarctic Treaty area. While this may seem like an arcane piece of international law, it does have practical implications for Australia in the Antarctic Treaty system. Australia can use this proclamation to further protect the Antarctic environment by using it to deny access to the sea floor by countries that have not signed up to the Madrid Protocol. Australia could also go further and protect seabed marine living resources in all of the areas of its extended continental shelf, not only in the Antarctic Treaty area but in those parts of the Heard Island and Macquarie Island extended continental shelf that lie within the area of the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. A prohibition by Australia on destructive bottom fishing on its extended continental shelf would greatly assist international efforts in the area. Australia will be hosting the Antarctic Treaty meeting in Hobart in the middle of this month. There are no legal or diplomatic surprises in the action taken by Australia. A clear statement of Australia's continued commitment to protect the Antarctic environment will reinforce that there is no real or perceived conflict between its continental shelf proclamation and the Antarctic Treaty. Australia to create world's largest network of marine parks. June 14, 2012 The Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea reserve will become the world's largest joint protected area Australia plans to create the world's largest network of marine reserves, its government announced Thursday. The proposal would increase the number of protected areas from 27 to 60 and would cover 3.1 million square kilometers (1.9 million square miles), roughly one-third of Australia's waters. "We have an incredible opportunity to turn the tide on protection of the oceans and Australia can lead the world in marine protection," said Tony Burke, the country's environment minister. "This new network of marine reserves will help ensure that Australia's diverse marine environment, and the life it supports, remain healthy, productive and resilient for future generations." The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the Coral Sea marine reserve will become the world's largest adjoining marine protected area, covering 1.3 million square kilometers. Interactive: Conservation hits and misses "Our aim is to protect our unique marine environment, while supporting coastal communities and marine industries around the country," said Burke. "Over the coming months, the government will consult the fishing industry and fisheries management agencies on the design and implementation of a fisheries adjustment assistance package." WWF Australia hailed the plan as an "important example to the world." The newly created sanctuaries would give protection to Australia's biggest undersea mountain range, the Diamantina fracture zone off the southwest coast, as well as new parts of the Coral Sea that are critical nesting sites for green turtles and rich in large predatory fish and sharks. Paul Gambin from WWF Australia cautioned that some areas equally rich in biodiversity had not been included in the plan, possibly because of their proximity to rich reserves of fossil fuels. "Oil and gas rigs are still moving ever closer to places like the stunning Rowley Shoals and Ningaloo Reef off Western Australia," said Gambin in a press statement. "These are among the jewels in the crown for Australia's marine environment and surrounding waters have not been protected under this plan." The marine reserves network is expected to be finalized before the end of 2012. Push for more Antarctic protection. A meeting of 25 member countries of the Commission for the Conservation of Living Marine Resources (CAMLR) is being held in Hobart. Four proposals are on the table to protect more than four million square kilometres of ocean and ice. Australia is behind a proposal to foster greater conservation of Antarctica. It is working with France on a proposal for next week's meeting of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CAMLR). The parks would include seven protected areas covering 1.1 million square kilometres. Current rules govern the management of the fisheries and scientific research. Australia's representative to CAMLR, Tony Fleming, says the proposal will be put to the meeting in Hobart. "It would provide protection of the high conservation values in East Antarctica but it would also allow for sustainable fishing in East Antarctica as well," he said. "One of the proposals will protect spawning grounds for krill and fish like toothfish. "The proposals would also protect the feeding grounds of penguins and marine mammals." April 9, 2009 "greeney2" wrote: Do you ever wonder why, Santa Claus picked the North Pole, instead of the South Pole? He picked the North Pole and left all his bad little elfs on the South Pole, and called them Australians. Santa would never allow that to happen to his fellow Australian's. Marine park a step closer October 30, 2012 PLANS for the world's biggest marine park, in Antarctica, have received a significant boost after the US and New Zealand resolved a major split on the issue. The two nations had been divided on the plan for the Ross Sea -- largely over the issue of New Zealand's harvest of Antarctic toothfish -- but have now agreed a common proposal covering 2.27 million square kilometres. The deal -- allowing "light" fishing rather than banning it altogether in a key New Zealand toothfishing ground -- dramatically increases the prospects of the world body for Antarctic marine life accepting the move. US and New Zealand negotiators told The Australian yesterday that the compromise -- news of which was broken by The Australian online -- included a 1.6 million sq km "no take" zone where fishing would be banned. Without a joint proposal, it had been expected that the Commission for the Conservation of Marine Living Resources, meeting in Hobart, would fail to reach agreement on a marine park for the Ross Sea, south of New Zealand. The joint plan means an outcome is far more likely, although not guaranteed, while the future of a joint Australian-French plan for a 1.9 million sq kilometre marine park in East Antarctica also hangs in the balance. The stand-off between the US and New Zealand had reached the highest levels, with US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton pushing for a resolution and New Zealand sending senior diplomat Gerard van Bohemen to the CCAMLR summit. A final decision is expected late this week. "We now have to get everyone else on board and that process has begun in earnest," US Ocean and Polar Affairs director Evan Bloom told The Australian. New Zealand negotiator Carolyn Schwalger said the compromise with the US on the Ross Sea marine park would not reduce her country's $14 million a year toothfish harvest. "None of the marine park area proposals are about reducing fishing; they are all about moving fishing into areas that will have less of a negative impact on the wider ecosystem," she said. The two nations still appear divided on whether the giant marine park should have a sunset clause, beyond an agreed 10-year review. CCAMLR delegates heard an emotional plea in favour of a Ross Sea marine reserve from the great, great, great granddaughter of 19th century explorer James Clark Ross, after whom the area is named. Philippa Ross urged delegates to "show the same courage and resilience" as her forebear. "This is your last chance to save the last ocean," she said. Antarctic marine park negotiations end in failure 1 November 2012. Delegates at an international conference in Hobart have failed to agree on new reserves in Antarctic waters. About 250 delegates representing 25 countries have been locked in talks at the meeting of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. Australia wanted 1.9 million kilometres of Antarctica's east coast protected. France and the European Union had backed the proposal. The Commission will reconsider the plan at a meeting in Germany next year. After 11 days of intense talks, the meeting was dogged by conflicting demands, among them China's concern over restrictions to ocean resources. The Antarctic Ocean Alliance and the World Wildlife Fund say they are disappointed a consensus could not be reached. Protesters had staged an eleventh-hour vigil, where international negotiators face a deadline to agree on Antarctic marine protection. Antarctic Ocean Alliance campaign manager Steve Campbell had said the failure to find consensus could impact on climate change research, sustainable fishing and wildlife. China Blocks Protection of Antarctica’s Waters: November 1, 2012 Some 1.2 million people asked the 25 member governments of the Commission on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR, composed of 24 countries and the EU) to take action during their annual meeting this week to conserve Antarctic marine ecosystems. Most of them answered this call and were prepared to work on proposals for marine protected areas and reserves in the ecologically important Ross Sea and East Antarctic regions. Ultimately, however, the Antarctic conservation aspirations of the majority of CCAMLR members were reportedly blocked by just a few countries, under the leadership of China. CCAMLR requires consensus on all decisions, which allows a small minority to stifle the aims of the majority. Since 2009, CCAMLR members and observer organizations have worked constructively to develop a system of marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Southern Ocean, which surrounds Antarctica. CCAMLR members pledged to develop this network to help fulfill the targets set by the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD). The WSSD targets call for countries around the world to establish representative networks of MPAs throughout the world’s oceans by 2012, and CCAMLR agreed that it would create such a network in the Southern Ocean by that time. This pledge was followed up with intensive scientific analysis, special workshops, and targeted diplomatic engagement. At last year’s CCAMLR meeting, experts advised that the science on the ecosystems of the Ross Sea and East Antarctica was sufficient to move forward with creating MPAs in those areas. In the case of the Ross Sea, there is a long, impressive record of important scientific research, and the ecosystem itself has been identified as one of the most pristine marine ecosystems remaining on the planet. In fact, it’s difficult to imagine a more ideal candidate for protection. East Antarctica is a vast region with many significant populations of seabirds and marine mammals plus unique bioregions – again, an obvious area to protect. Nevertheless, the meeting closed on Thursday without any new MPAs designated, to the disappointment of the countries that had put forward proposals, the environmental community, and those 1.2 million people. So what happened? It seems some countries are putting economic gain over conservation, even though CCAMLR is first and foremost a conservation body (as its name implies). According to a report in The Australian, a major Australian newspaper, China blocked all MPA proposals this year due to its desire to maintain access to fishing. Interestingly enough, China does not currently fish in any of the areas proposed for MPAs, meaning that it would be prioritizing potential economic gain over certain conservation benefit. CCAMLR’s meetings aren’t open to the public. An official meeting report is published but it is not a transcript of the proceedings, so many comments will not be reflected in the official record. However, other countries known to be skeptical of MPAs include Russia and the Ukraine. Science and conservation in the interest of the broader public is getting trumped by economic concerns in service of a few. The recalcitrant countries are not convinced by reams of scientific data from experienced researchers, and they are not too concerned about living up to their own promises. The result is that our oceans don’t get the protections they need, whether in the Southern Ocean or anywhere else. The Southern Ocean is relatively remote, and fishing activity is less intense than it is in many parts of the world. If countries can’t protect the marine ecosystems here, then what hope is there for the rest of the world? CCAMLR members have agreed to continue working on MPAs in advance of their 2013 meeting. The question remains whether all countries are truly willing to live up to their commitments and give the amazing biodiversity of the Southern Ocean the protection it deserves.

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You are looking at 181-200 of 276 articles Alyce McGovern and Nickie D. Phillips The relationship between the police and the media is complex, multidimensional, and contingent. Since the development of modern-day policing, the police and the media have interacted with one another in some way, shape, or form. The relationship has often been described as symbiotic, and can be characterized as ebbing and flowing in terms of the power dynamics that exist. For the police, the media present a powerful opportunity to communicate with the public about crime threats and events, as well as police successes. For the media, crime events make up a significant portion of media content, and access to police sources assists journalists in constructing such content. But the police–media relationship is not always cosy, and at times, tensions and conflicts arise. The increasing professionalization of police media communications activities has further challenged the nature and scope of the police–media relationship. Not only has the relationship become more formalized, driven by police policies and practices that are concerned with managing the media, but it has also been challenged by the very nature of the media. Changes to the media landscape have presented police organizations with a unique opportunity to become media organizations in their own right. The proliferation of police reality television programming, together with the rise of social media, has served to broaden the ways in which the police engage with the media in the pursuit of trust, confidence, and legitimacy; however, this has also opened the police up to increasing scrutiny as citizen journalism and other forms of counterveillance challenge the preferred police image. John M. Violanti All too often we emphasize the dangers of police work, but seem to neglect the hidden psychological danger of this profession. Suicide is a consequence of that hidden danger. It is a clear indication of the intolerable strain placed on the police officer’s work and life roles. Policing is an occupation replete with stress and traumatic incidents. For example, witnessing death, encountering abused children, and experiencing violent street combat weigh heavily as precipitants to depression, alcohol use, and suicide among police. Ideas as far back as Freud’s aggression theory relate to the police because officers cannot legally express anger and aggression outwardly and turn it within. Following Freud, other studies examined the frustration of police work and how it was turned inward. Other theoretical ideas concerning police suicide that have emerged over the years are included in this article—police cultural socialization, strain theory, and interpersonal suicide theory. Scientific research on police suicide has helped to focus on this topic. Much research is on suicide rates in an effort to determine the scope of this problem. Several recent studies are discussed in this article, including a national study. Such studies, however, are not without controversy and more work is necessary to clarify the validity of findings. There is lack of data available on police suicide, which adds to the problem of research. Many believe that causes of police suicide are really no different than those in other groups in society, such as relationship problems, financial difficulties, or significant loss. While scholars cannot yet be certain that police work is an etiological suicide risk factor, we can with some assurance state that it serves as a fertile arena for suicide precipitants. Culturally approved alcohol use and maladaptive coping, firearms availability, and exposure to psychologically adverse incidents all add to the suicide nexus. Last, and most important, the issue of police suicide prevention is discussed. Likely the biggest challenge in prevention is convincing officers to go for help. The police and societal culture at large attach a stigma to suicide which is difficult to deal with. Additionally, the police culture does not allow for weakness of any kind, either physical or psychological. Several promising prevention approaches are discussed. Given the reluctance to report the deaths of police officers as suicides unfortunately leaves us in a position of “best guess” based on what evidence we can collect. Looking to the future, the development of a national database focused on police suicide would help to establish the actual scope of this tragic loss of life. Interventions need to more efficaciously target at-risk police officers. More research, using longitudinal study designs, is needed to inform interventions and, in particular, to determine how suicide prevention efforts can be modified to meet the unique needs of law enforcement officers. The issue of educational entry requirements for police officers has been a perennial one. Since August Vollmer first broached the topic of police education as a serious consideration, there have been opinions on both sides of the subject. A number of presidential commissions have examined the question of a police minimum education requirement, and numerous academic studies have attempted to empirically define predictor variables which correlate higher education and different training methods with police performance. Although progress has been made in training and educating police differently, policy on police training continues to remain an important subject. Jenna Milani, Ben Bradford, and Jonathan Jackson The ability of the police to assert social control and reproduce social order depends, crucially, on the capacity to use force to achieve these ends—whether when restraining someone attempting to self-harm or shooting dead an armed terrorist. But what do we know about police use of force in the United States and England and Wales? Why does unjustified police use of force occur? And why do citizens have different views on the acceptability and unacceptability of various forms of police violence? Gangs have been subjects of extensive empirical research since the 1920s. Scholarly interest in gangs was largely due to gang members’ increased likelihood of engaging in delinquent behavior. Gang members have been involved in criminal activities ranging from drug dealing to theft, property offenses, gun violence, and homicide. In the 1980s, there was nationwide concern about gangs as violent gang-related crimes increased and drew media attention. As a result, important legislation was implemented that made gang membership illegal. These policies were designed to curb gang involvement and de-escalate gang violence. The legislation included civil gang injunctions, the development of gang databases, and the formation and strengthening of gang task force units. Indeed, the policies resulted in an increase of gang unit officers focused on mitigating gang involvement and gang crime. Officer strategies focused on stopping, detaining, and arresting individuals who often fit certain stereotypes. Specifically, officers routinely based gang-related encounters on suspects’ race, age, clothing, gender, and geographic location, focusing mostly on young men of color in economically depressed neighborhoods. Perhaps unsurprisingly, a number of problems and concerns related to aggressive and biased police behavior surfaced, resulting in questionable outcomes of gang suppression. Research suggests that directed patrols and removing leadership might not be effective. Instead, alternate policies should include policing in conjunction with support from community-based nonprofit organizations and research that accounts for gang members’ experiences of law enforcement strategies. This is an advance summary of a forthcoming article in the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Please check back later for the full article. Street gangs are prevalent throughout the United States. Recent estimates provided by law enforcement agencies note that there are approximately 30,000 gangs and 850,000 gang members across the United States. The most common crimes street gangs commit are assaults, street-level drug trafficking, robberies, and threats and intimidation. Rival gang members or law-abiding citizens are often the targets of these crimes. Other than crime, the influence of gangs can disrupt the socializing power of schools, families, and communities. These institutions help socialize young people to learn and follow the appropriate rules of a law-abiding society. Gangs also have an impact on the quality of life in neighborhoods and cities. The presence of gangs and gang-related activity induces fear in the local community and imposes a great concern for citizens. To confront these concerns, law enforcement is often considered the first line of defense. Despite the relationship between law enforcement and gangs being tenuous, police officers have special knowledge and access to gang members and at-risk youth, which puts law enforcement in a unique position to help prevent gang membership and respond to and mitigate gang violence. There are several ways in which law enforcement is involved in confronting gang violence. In the effort to prevent gang violence, law enforcement plays a crucial role monitoring and regulating gang activity and preventing those at risk from joining gangs. Law enforcement can reduce gang violence by implementing gang prevention strategies that either increase awareness or directly attempt to prevent individuals from joining gangs. Awareness programs are wide in focus and attempt to teach youths the skills to resist peer pressure to join a gang. Gang membership prevention programs are narrower in focus and look to identify youths with risk factors for joining gangs. Police help refer at-risk youths to programs where they are offered psychological and substance abuse counseling, tutoring, and employment training, among other services. Law enforcement can also reduce gang violence by implementing activity regulation strategies that provide alternatives to gang membership and that either prevent or suppress gang activity. Gang alternative programs look to get individuals to leave their gangs, and they provide opportunities to prevent the individual from rejoining the gang. Gang activity prevention strategies focus on specific activities, places, or behaviors associated with gang activity. These strategies typically include special laws, mediation, and situational crime prevention strategies. Gang activity suppression strategies are deterrence-based strategies. The main difference between prevention and suppression strategies is that prevention strategies try to make committing gang activity more difficult while suppression prioritizes arrests and imprisonment. Although the effectiveness of these programs varies, law enforcement is better utilized in a prevention capacity rather than an enforcement one. Also, law enforcement should not tackle gang violence alone, but in partnership with other community organizations and stakeholders. These partnerships with community organizations, along with a visible commitment to combating gang violence through prevention and suppression efforts, can build trust and increase police legitimacy in at-risk communities. Regulatory and legal approaches to prostitution are subject to considerable debate among researchers, policymakers, and those tasked with the everyday enforcement of measures intended to control, abate, or otherwise manage the sex industry. Law, policy, and everyday policing practices all contribute to the de jure and de facto organization of the sex industry at the levels of policy formulation, coordination between police, social services, and other socio-institutional forces, and encounters between sex workers and criminal justice professionals. Despite considerable cultural-contextual variations, researchers have ascertained three predominant approaches to regulating prostitution worldwide: criminalization, legalization, and decriminalization. Each of these approaches takes a unique form in the specific cultural context in which local authorities implement them, thereby generating special issues for policing with respect to ideological frameworks and police–sex worker encounters. Taken together, the philosophical and pragmatic concerns raised by policing or otherwise regulating prostitution encompass an extraordinary gamut of deeply human concerns regarding political power, sexual behavior, individual rights, historically rooted inequalities, and state responsibility Clayton Peoples and James E. Sutton The state is responsible for maintaining law and order in society and protecting the people. Sometimes it fails to fulfill these responsibilities; in other cases, it actively harms people. There have been many instances of political corruption and state crime throughout history, with impacts that range from economic damage to physical injury to death—sometimes on a massive scale (e.g., economic recession, pollution/poisoning, genocide). The challenge for criminologists, however, is that defining political corruption and state crime can be thorny, as can identifying their perpetrators—who can often be collectives of individuals such as organizations and governments—and their victims. In turn, pinpointing appropriate avenues of controlling these crimes can be difficult. These challenges are exacerbated by power issues and the associated reality that the state is in a position to write or change laws and, in essence, regulate itself. One possible solution is to define political corruption and state crime—as well as their perpetrators and victims—as broadly as possible to include a variety of scenarios that may or may not exhibit violations of criminal law. Likewise, a resolution to the issue of social control would be to move beyond strictly institutional mechanisms of control. Criminological research should further elucidate these issues; it should also, however, move beyond conceptual dilemmas toward (a) better understanding the processes underlying political corruption/state crime and (b) illustrating the broader ramifications of these crimes. Zelia A. Gallo The literature on contemporary Western punishment presents us with a number of possible approaches to political ideologies and penality. The first approach requires us to ask what different political ideologies have to say about crime and punishment. This entails a close analysis of the ideologies’ main claims on matters of power, authority, and collective co-existence, to see if and how such claims have played out in the penal sphere. Analyses of social democratic penality serve here as useful case studies for such an approach. Such analyses also illustrate the second approach to questions of political ideology and penality. This approach requires us to ask what impact crime has had upon the fate of different ideologies. Have the changing incidence and changing perceptions of crime come to threaten the legitimacy of dominant ideologies? The third approach is that of critique of ideology: penality is studied as ideology, to discern what it conceals about reality and existing power relations. Here the analysis of contemporary UK offences of dangerousness acts as a case study for such an approach. To the extent that offences of dangerousness are rooted in neoliberalism, the discussion also introduces us to debates concerning neoliberalism and penality, in particular the idea that contemporary punishment expresses both the ascendancy of neoliberal doxa, and the decline of existing macro-ideologies such as social democracy. This decline can be seen as a move toward a post-ideological era, in which crime and punishment have come to replace political visions and utopias. However, recent scholarship on political ideologies argues that the latter are ubiquitous and permanent features of political thinking. This implies that the contemporary era cannot be described as post-ideological. Rather, it is an era in which macro-ideologies such as social democracy—which provided a holistic view of social order and comprehensive ideational resources to construct it—have been replaced by thin ideologies—which offer us narrower visions and ambitions. Examples of such thin ideologies include populism and technocracy. It is then possible to study the link between thin-ideologies and penality, a study that is here exemplified by the analysis of populism and penal populism, and technocracy and epistemic crime control. An analysis of thin ideologies and penality can also be undertaken with a normative project in mind, namely that of identifying within these thin ideologies, possible ideational resources that might be used to imagine a better penal future: one that is more moderate, more democratic, and less punitive. Political violence includes an array of conducts and events that defy unilateral examination. It may be authorized or unauthorized violence, and while the latter is almost always associated with crime, the former is normally deemed an expression of the legitimate monopoly in the use of force characterizing modern societies. There are institutional and anti-institutional forms of political violence, namely violence of the authority and violent expressions of defiance against authority. Both have been the object of analysis by sociologists and criminologists, with some contending that theories of “common” violence should be applied to the analysis of political violence. It is assumed, for example, that both types of violence possess a goal-directed character: achieving results, extracting something of value from others, or exercising justice by punishing wrongdoers. Other analysts, however, link political violence with social conflict derived from collective grievance around inequality and injustice, thus locating this type of violence within the tradition of social movement analysis and the dynamics of collective action. Conflict theory provides a prime framework for this type of analysis, which focuses on contentious issues, organizational matters, and the shaping of identities that lead aggrieved groups to turn to violence. Sociological and criminological theories also offer a rich analytical patrimony that helps focusing on political crime committed by states and their representatives occupying powerful social positions. Many contributions, in this respect, cover atrocities perpetrated by institutional actors and the different forms of conscious, unconscious, personal, cultural, or official denial accompanying such atrocities. The term political crime, therefore, ends up relating to state crime, political and administrative corruption, and a variety of crimes of the elite normally included under the umbrella definition “the crimes of the powerful.” Conversely, when the focus moves onto political violence perpetrated by anti-institutional or non-state actors, the term “terrorism” is usually referred to, a term that is not likely to meet universal acceptance or unquestioned adoption due to the difficulties social scientists find in defining it. In sum, political violence and crime present scholars and practitioners with the same ambiguity that connotes definitions of social behavior and the processes of its criminalization. Such ambiguity becomes clear if, as proposed in the following pages, political violence and crime are examined through multidisciplinary lenses, particularly those offered by social theory, philosophy, and political science, along with criminology. As we begin to think about the United States as a carceral state, this means that the scale of incarceration practices have grown so great within it that they have a determining effect on the shape of the the society as a whole. In addition to the budgets, routines, and technologies used is the culture of that carceral state, where relationships form between elements of its culture and its politics. In terms of its visual culture, that relationship forms a visuality, a culture and politics of vision that both reflects the state’s carceral qualities and, in turn, helps to structure and organize the society in a carceral manner. Images, architecture, light, presentation and camouflage, surveillance, and the play of sight between groups of people and the world are all materials through which the ideas of a society are worked out, its politics played out, its technology implemented, its rationality or common sense and identities forming. They also shape the politics of freedom and control, where what might be a free, privileged expression to one person could be a dangerous exposure to another, where invisibility or inscrutability may be a resource. In this article, these questions are asked in relation to the history of prison architecture, from premodern times to the present, while considering the multiple discourses that overlap throughout that history: war, enslavement, civil punishment, and freedom struggle, but also a discourse of agency, where subordinated peoples can or cannot resist, or remain hostile to or in difference from the control placed upon them. Popular criminology is a theoretical and conceptual approach within the field of criminology that is used to interrogate popular understandings of crime and criminal justice. In the last decade, popular criminology has most often been associated with analyses of fictional crime film, while in previous decades, popular criminology referred most often to “true crime” literature or, more generally, to popular ideas about crime and justice. While the term has appeared sporadically in the criminological literature for several decades, popular criminology is most closely associated with the work of American criminologist Nicole Rafter. Popular criminology refers in a broad sense to the ideas that ordinary people have about the causes, consequences, and remedies for crime, and the relationship of these ideas to academic discourses about crime. Criminologists who utilize this approach examine popular culture as a source of commonsense ideas and perceptions about crime and criminal justice. Films, television, the Internet, and literature about crime and criminal justice are common sources of popular criminology interrogated by criminologists working in this field. Popular criminology is an analytic tool that can be used to explore the emotional, psychological, and philosophical features of crime and criminal justice that find expression in popular culture. The popular cultural depiction of crime is taken seriously by criminologists working in this tradition and such depictions are placed alongside mainstream criminological theory in an effort to broaden the understanding of the impact of crime and criminal justice on the lives of everyday people. Popular criminology has become solidified as an approach within the broader cultural criminology movement which seeks to examine the interconnections between crime, culture and media. Graham C. Ousey Immigration and gentrification are two sources of population change that occur in geographic communities. Immigration refers to the inflow of foreign-born residents, while gentrification involves middle- and upper-income residents moving into poor urban communities. Scholars have speculated that both types of population change may be related to crime rates. The nature of those relationships, however, is debated. Classic criminological perspectives, such as Social Disorganization Theory, suggest that these population changes are likely to result in increased crime rates. More recent perspectives proffer an opposing viewpoint: that immigration and gentrification may lower crime rates. Some research suggests that these opposing arguments may each draw empirical support but under differing social conditions or circumstances. Regarding the effects of immigration on crime, one theory is that immigration is most likely to be a crime-protective factor when it occurs in places where there is a well-established immigrant population base and institutional supports. And immigration may contribute to higher crime rates in places that lack the strong preexisting immigrant population and institutions. Study design variations also appear to impact the findings that researchers investigating the immigration-crime relationship have found, with longitudinal studies more consistently reporting the immigration works to reduce (rather than increase) crime. With respect to gentrification, scholars suggest that its effects on crime are likely to hinge on factors such as the racial composition of the place, the timing or stage at which the gentrification process is observed, or the degree to which gentrifying neighborhoods are surrounded by poor non-gentrifying neighborhoods or by other communities that have already progressed through the gentrification process. The changing cultural role, visibility, and meaning of pornography, particularly its increased accessibility and the sociocultural reverberations that this is seen to cause, have been lively topics of public debate in most Western countries throughout the new millennium. Concerns are routinely yet passionately voiced, especially over the ubiquity of sexual representations flirting with the codes of pornography in different fields of popular media, as well as children’s exposure to hardcore materials that are seen to grow increasingly extreme and violent. At the same time, the production, distribution, and consumption have undergone notable transformations with the ubiquity of digital cameras and online platforms. Not only is pornography accessible on an unprecedented scale, but also it is available in more diverse shapes and forms than ever. All this has given rise to diverse journalistic and academic diagnoses on the pornification and sexualization of culture, which, despite their notable differences, aim to conceptualize transformations in the visibility of sexually explicit media content and its broader sociocultural resonances. Predictive policing, also known as crime forecasting, is a set of high technologies aiding the police in solving past crimes and pre-emptively fighting and preventing future ones. With the right deployment of such technologies, law enforcement agencies can combat and control crime more efficiently with time and resources better employed and allocated. The current practices of predictive policing include the integration of various technologies, ranging from predictive crime maps and surveillance cameras to sophisticated computer software and artificial intelligence. Predictive analytics help the police make predictions about where and when future crime is most likely to happen and who will be the perpetrator and who the potential victim. The underpinning logic behind such predictions is the predictability of criminal behavior and crime patterns based on criminological research and theories such as rational choice and deterrence theories, routine activities theory, and broken windows theory. Currently many jurisdictions in the United States have deployed or have been experimenting with various predictive policing technologies. The most widely adopted applications include CompStat, PredPol, HunchLab, Strategic Subject List (SSL), Beware, Domain Awareness System (DAS), and Palantir. The realization of these predictive policing analytics systems relies heavily on the technological assistance provided by data collection and integration software, facial/vehicle identification and tracking tools, and surveillance technologies that keep tabs on individual activities both in the physical environment and in the digital world. Some examples of these assisting technologies include Automatic License Plate Recognition (ALPR), Next-Generation Identification (NGI) System, the Global Positioning System (GPS), Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL), next-generation police body-worn cameras (BWC) with facial recognition and tracking functions, aerial cameras and unmanned aircraft systems, DeepFace, Persistent Surveillance Systems, Stingrays/D(i)RT-Box/International Mobile Subscriber Identity Catcher, SnapTrends that monitors and analyzes feeds on Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Picasa, Flickr, and YouTube. This new fashion of using predictive analytics in policing has elicited extensive doubt and criticism since its invention. Whereas scholarly evaluation research shows mixed findings about how effectively predictive policing actually works to help reduce crime, other concerns center around legal and civil rights issues (including privacy protection and the legitimacy of mass surveillance), inequality (stratified surveillance), cost-effectiveness of the technologies, militarization of the police and its implications (such as worsened relationship and weakened trust between the police and the public), and epistemological challenges to understanding crime. To make the best use of the technologies and avoid their pitfalls at the same time, policymakers need to consider the hotly debated controversies raised in the evolution of predictive policing. Arlen Egley, Jr. Street gang activity has garnered academic and public attention for many decades. Compared with other youth groups, street gangs contribute disproportionately to crime and violence, though the vast majority of crime and violence in the United States is unrelated to gang activity. A distinctive aspect in the study of gangs is the multiple dimensions in which gangs are situated. Depending on the research interest, gang activity may be construed as an independent variable (as a cause) or a dependent variable (as an effect). Moreover, gang activity simultaneously represents multiple levels of analysis: the individual level (gang member), the group level (gang), and the macro level (neighborhoods and broader geographical places in which gangs form and transform). These multiple dimensions present a wide variety of research streams in which to study gangs. Where and why gang activity emerges, when and why individuals join and leave gangs, the wide-ranging diversity in gang structure and organization are but a few of the many areas gang scholars have focused on in order to describe and explain gangs and gang members. Some research areas, such as the association between gang membership and criminal offending and the risk factors for gang joining, have been researched quite extensively. Other areas, such as the nature and extent of gang migration outside larger cities and desistance processes from the gang, have not received or have only recently begun to receive intensive and consistent scholarly attention. Definitional matters are also paramount and inextricably linked to understanding gang activity. How should we define “street gangs,” how should “gang membership” be defined and determined, when and how should a crime be designated as “gang related”? These definitional issues have sparked considerable and sometimes heated debates, and consensus remains elusive. It is important to be mindful of these various dimensions, streams, and issues as we continue our efforts to describe and document street gangs and enhance our understanding of gang processes. Successful strategies for the response to and reduction of street gang activity are contingent on them. Iain Coyne and Marilyn Campbell The knowledge base on bullying within school and working contexts has matured to the extent that researchers and practitioners are developing a deeper understanding of this complex social relationship problem. Although controversies still exist, evidence to date provides estimates of the prevalence of bullying, risk factors for bullying, antecedents of bullying, and theoretical models explaining bullying behavior and experience. There is little doubt that bullying in all its forms can have severe negative impacts on those involved in the bullying situation. As a result, it is important to establish coherent and evidence-based approaches to preventing bullying behavior in schools and workplaces. In contrast, the development and evaluation of bullying interventions has not received the same level of support. Both in school and working contexts, there are examples of preventative approaches, but either these are espoused and not directly evaluated, or, where evaluations exist, data is limited in providing definitive answers to the success of an approach. An increasingly dominant voice advocates the creation of policies and laws for preventing workplace bullying. However, the usefulness of policies and laws on their own in reducing bullying is questionable—especially if they are developed with a quick-fix mentality. Trying to prevent such a complex social phenomenon requires an integrated program of actions necessitating significant investment over a prolonged period of time. Stakeholder engagement is paramount to any intervention. Ultimately, schools and workplaces need to try to develop a culture of dignity, fairness, respect, and conflict management which pervades the institution. Challenges remain on how to create such interventions, whether they are effective, and what impact societal values will have on the success of bullying prevention strategies. The variables impacting how one experiences imprisonment are far ranging. George Jackson (1994), a pivotal character in American penal history, wrote that, “[b]lackmen born in the [United States] and fortunate enough to live past the age of eighteen are conditioned to accept the inevitability of prison” (p. 4). Ruth Wyner (2002), incarcerated 40 years after Jackson under vastly different circumstances, describes a very different sort of bleakness associated with her incarceration: One evening, just before I settled down to try to sleep, I allowed myself to remember my daughter in a way that I usually suppressed: remembering and feeling all the love that I had for her, every bit. A huge chasm grew inside me, dark and raw, and my throat constricted as I felt enveloped by the sadness. This was what was inside of me when I allowed myself to touch it. Such personal experiences of incarceration offer a window into how prisons function, or often more correctly, fail to function, from the point of view of the prisoner. These perspectives are vitally important to a fulsome understanding of incarceration because prisoners and their experiences paint a picture of confinement that is patently different from those described by penal officials and governments. There are numerous issues that shape the experiences of confinement, both historically and in the present day, a list longer than can be adequately addressed in this entry. Still, there are key concerns that recur in the literature and in ongoing debates about incarceration. Included here are human rights abuses, overcrowding, the overuse of solitary confinement, the situation of women prisoners, the incarceration of indigenous peoples, and health, especially mental health concerns. Ashley T. Rubin Prisons are government-sanctioned facilities designed for the long-term confinement of adults as punishment for serious offenses. This definition of prisons, frequently belied by actual practice but an accurate representation of the prison as an ideal type, emerged relatively late in human history. For most of Western history, incarceration played a minor role in punishment and was often reserved for elites or political offenders; however, it was rarely considered a punishment in its own right for most offenders. The notion of the prison as a place of punishment emerged gradually, according to most accounts, over the 17th through 19th centuries. Although there were several precursors to penal incarceration, the most influential was the 17th-century Dutch workhouse, the first formal uses of penal incarceration in a prison as a distinct institution began with the American proto-prison in late 18th century and evolved into the modern prison in the early to mid-19th century. These modern prisons proved influential around the world. In late-19th-century America, however, the modern prison experienced a series of re-imaginings or iterations beginning with a proliferation of different forms, including distinctive forms of Southern punishment (convict leasing, chain gangs, and plantation-style prisons), specialized prisons across the country (women’s prisons, adult reformatories, and maximum-security prisons), and efforts to reduce reliance on prisons (drawing on innovations from Australia and Ireland). This flurry of activity was followed by a period of serial re-creation in the 20th century in the form of the big-house prison, the correctional institution, and the warehouse prison, including its subtype: the supermaximum-security prison. In this recent period, American prisons have once again become models copied by other countries. Dawn K. Cecil Popular culture has the ability to entertain and, on some level, educate. People’s perceptions and understanding of an issue can be influenced by the images and messages contained within common representations. According to social constructionism, the further a subject is removed from our day-to-day lives, the more important second-hand knowledge becomes in shaping perceptions. Prisons are a prime example. These institutions are not a part of most people’s lives; therefore, they must rely on information gathered from other sources to come to an understanding of these complex social institutions. Many turn to popular prison imagery to be entertained and in doing so they may be taking away lessons about imprisonment. By relying on the mediated experiences provided by representations of prison in popular culture, they are likely to have an incomplete and, perhaps, inaccurate perception of institutional life. Early images of prison were limited, however, today there is an abundance. The first popular prison imagery came in the form of Hollywood films, which gave audience members a glimpse of the prison routine, while following the journey of a new inmate. While these movies are the most iconic images of prison, in today’s media landscape representations of prison life can be found in a variety of places. Most often they are depicted in entertainment and infotainment-type programming on television, but can also be seen in documentary films and represented in various other aspects of popular culture, including music and cartoons. There is a growing body of literature that discusses these depictions. This research examines the accuracy of the portrayals and identifies underlying messages about crime and punishment, which provides vital information on how people come to understand prison in a media culture. Stereotypes and caricatures abound; however, one can also find important messages about prisoners, prison life, and ultimately the role of prison in society. Overwhelmingly people are subjected to images of violent men and women locked up, where their violent behavior continues, which ultimately sends a message that prison is a social necessity. Examining these popular representations of prison allows us to begin to understand the potential impact this imagery has on people’s perceptions of these institutions in modern society.

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History of cryonics History of cryonics The historical predecessor of cryonics was, of course, the mummification of pharaohs by the ancient Egyptians. Possibly the oldest reference to the general idea of cryonics can be found in a letter written by Benjamin Franklin: To Jacques Dubourg. I wish it were possible... to invent a method of embalming drowned persons, in such a manner that they might be recalled to life at any period, however distant; for having a very ardent desire to see and observe the state of America a hundred years hence, I should prefer to an ordinary death, being immersed with a few friends in a cask of Madeira, until that time, then to be recalled to life by the solar warmth of my dear country! But... in all probability, we live in a century too little advanced, and too near the infancy of science, to see such an art brought in our time to its perfection... I am, etc.- B. FRANKLIN. The cryonics movement began in 1962 with the publication of two books: The Prospect of Immortality by Robert Ettinger; the first non-fiction book to seriously consider and advocate cryonics, and the privately-published Immortality: Physically, Scientifically, Now by Evan Cooper, which also advocated cryonics, under the name of a "freezing program". The former reached the masses in 1964 when reprinted and distributed by Doubleday following a suggestion by science-fiction author Isaac Asimov. It was Cooper who founded the world's first cryonics and Immortalism organization, the Life Extension Society; whose purpose was to create a world-wide network of Cryonics organizations. Believing it would not be a plausible option in his lifetime, Cooper ended his involvement in cryonics in 1970. He was a boat carpenter and sailor for the next 13 years of his life until being lost at sea. 1964 - 1972 "It was show business. I never wanted to freeze people if I had to dig them up and they’d been embalmed. But Ettinger said, ‘Freeze ‘em, they’re better off frozen than not frozen.’" - Curtis Henderson - Early on, there had been optimism. Robert Ettinger wrote in The Prospect of Immortality, "My own guess is that most of us will be frozen by nondamaging methods . . ." - Following the publication of The Prospect of Immortality and Ettinger’s mass media expositions of the idea, he again waited for prominent scientists, industrialists, or others in authority to see the wisdom of his idea and begin implementing it. By contrast, Cooper was an activist, and must be credited with forming the first cryonics organization (although that name was not to be coined until 1965) the Life Extension Society (LES). LES advocated immediate action to implement cryopreservation and established a nationwide network of chapters and coordinators to develop a grassroots capability for delivering cryopreservation on an emergent basis. Cooper left cryonics activism in 1969, and was lost at sea in 1982, but his work with LES was indispensable in helping to launch the first Cryonics Societies. The first of these was the Cryonics Society of New York, formed in 1965 by writer Saul Kent, attorney Curtis Henderson, and mechanical engineer Karl Werner. It was Werner who coined the term “cryonics.” - In 1966 the Cryonics Societies of California and Michigan were formed. Ettinger was elected President of the Cryonics Society of Michigan (CSM). - It wasn't long though, before it was recognized that there would be problems in getting even one person frozen, despite the best efforts of a few dedicated individuals - After two years of promoting the concept, Evan Cooper in December, 1964 fumed in exasperation, "Are we shouting in the abyss? How could 110 million go to their deaths without one, at least trying for a life in the future via freezing? Where is the individualism, scientific curiosity, and even eccentricity we hear so much about?" - Cooper's Life Extension Society, in June 1965, offered to freeze the first person free: "The Life Extension Society now has primitive facilities for emergency short term freezing and storing our friend the large homeotherm (man). LES offers to freeze free of charge the first person desirous and in need of cryogenic suspension." - there were some near-misses - Wilma Jean McLaughlin of Springfield, Ohio expired of heart and circulatory problems May 20, 1965 - Ev Cooper filed a report the following day "The woman who almost became the first person frozen for a possible reanimation in the future died yesterday. The attempt to freeze her was abandoned. The reports on why the freezing was given up vary considerably according to the newspaper, newscast, or long distance call. However, the following are apparently some of the obstacles that developed." - Though the husband was pro-freezing, some of the relatives and their minister were against it - The physician would not aid in the experiment - he hospital administration and trustees refused to go along with certain procedures after death - Leonard Gold of Juno, Inc., as reported in the Washington Post, said his company's `capsule' or insulated container wasn't available - The subject for freezing did not know anything about the plan according to most reports - Dandridge M. Cole was a brilliant scientist and technological forecaster who had received a pre-publication copy of Ettinger's book in 1963, and had been deeply impressed. - His own most recent book, Beyond Tomorrow, had devoted several pages to the subject of suspended animation. - He had expressed a wish to be frozen after death to several friends and relatives, and had had a long discussion on the subject with a close friend and colleague, Robert Prehoda - Cole was only 44 when, on Oct. 30, 1965, he suffered a fatal heart attack. After some delay a call was placed to Ettinger, who later would write, "I was consulted by long-distance telephone several hours after he died, but in the end the family did what was to be expected -- nothing." - the first freezing - April 22, 1966 - An elderly woman (never identified) who had been previously embalmed was straight-frozen, though only after a long interval of non-frozen storage. The freezing was by Cryocare Corporation in Phoenix, Arizona, and the woman appears to have come from the Los Angeles area. "Someone has been frozen at last!" Cooper jubilantly responded, but added a cautionary note: - "There is little or no thought that this first frozen pioneer will rise again in the 21st or 22nd century as considerable time elapsed between death and freezing. If the cooling and perfusion of the person with cryoprotective agents isn't begun immediately at death the memory which is believed a matter of fine molecular placement would soon disintegrate. As this first person was frozen long after death there is no known hope for re-establishing the original memory and thus the personality. Yet this imperfect beginning may be a step forward toward bringing an extended life to others via cryogenics." - (Within a few months the woman was removed from suspension. ) - the first REAL freezing - Dr. James Bedford January 12, 1967, in Glendale, a Los Angeles suburb - Bedford was a 73-year old retired psychology professor who had written several books on occupational counseling. "A SECOND PERSON HAS NOW BEEN FROZEN IN CALIFORNIA. REVIVAL A GOAL" was how Cooper broke the news in the January, 1967 issue of Freeze-Wait-Reanimate, from which the quotations that follow were taken. - The freezing was carried out by affiliates of the newly-formed Cryonics Society of California: Robert Prehoda, author and cryobiological researcher; Dr. Dante Brunol, physician and biophysicist; and Robert Nelson, President of the Society. Also assisting was Bedford's physician, Dr. Renault Able. Several advances were outlined in Cooper's report: "1. The time between death and beginning the cooling has been drastically reduced. This means there may be some hope for reanimation in the distant future when reanimation techniques have been perfected and a cure for cancer [the cause of death] has been found. "2. This reduction in time was made possible by the person in danger of death making his wishes known, in locating a suitable place and a willing doctor. A nursing home was located in this instance. Nursing homes, the home of a doctor or nurse, or the patient's home are the most likely places for these pioneering freezings. In these homes only one or a few people need to be convinced of the worth and rationality of freezing. Whereas, in a large hospital the chain of acceptance is a long one. . . . "3. Another advance is that this second person is reported to have been perfused with cryoprotective agents whereas the first person was embalmed. Is there a difference? Yes, perfusion at its best in a good hospital or clinic under careful scientific control can be quite a complicated procedure in comparison to embalming. The aim of perfusion is to extend that process to man which has been most successful in freezing, storing and reanimating micro-organisms, tissue and organs. Embalming fluids would be quite destructive to tissue in comparison to the protective acton of DMSO and glycerol." - Unfortunately, Nelson's fledgling cryonics operation would not prove viable; nine cryonics patients would be lost, some years later, in what became known as the Chatsworth disaster. (Happily, Bedford escaped by being transferred by relatives, only six days after the freezing, to another facility, Cryo-Care in Phoenix, from which he would continue a long and eventful journey across time.) "The stench near the crypt is disarming, strips away all defenses, spins the stomach into a thousand dizzying somersaults." - Walker, David: "Valley Cryonic Crypt Desecrated, Untended." Valley News newspaper, June 1979. After James Bedford was cryopreserved, Robert Nelson looked for a cooperative mortician for future cases. In September of the same year, he received a letter from Joseph Klockgether, in reply to an ad placed in Mortuary Management magazine. Nelson replied, claiming he had received offers from 147 mortuaries, but Mr. Klockgether's letter had caused such an impression on him that he had chosen him. Mr. Klockgether, who owned the Renaker Mortuary at Buena Park, California; accepted the flattery which a decade later led to a million-dollar lawsuit. The first 'patient' under his care was Marie Phelps-Sweet, who died in the summer of 1967 and was stored in dry ice at the mortuary due to lack of proper storage facilities. Helen Kline followed, again suffering storage at dry ice (While it is a coolant, its temperature is significantly higher than that of Liquid Nitrogen, so long term storage causes significant decay). Mrs. Kline had virtually no money; and so Nelson continued keeping his patients in dry ice. Decades later he complained that he had to drive 200 miles every day, carrying dry ice to mantain care, and that this ruined the upholstery of his car. (He drove a Porsche, and couldn't afford a simple dewar). In September of 1968, Russell Stanley (The most 'gung-ho cryonicist' Nelson had ever known) died of a heart attack. He was frozen after 24 hours of ischemia; and left behind a substantial sum of money (Between $5,000 and $10,000, according to different sources). He was the third patient to be stored in dry ice at Mr. Klockgether's mortuary, while Nelson used the funds to build a storage facility. At this point, Mr. Klockgether was insisting that Nelson finish his facility, since a California mortuary license only allows temporary storage of dead persons. "Get your facility built, Bob." He recalled saying in a later interview "Build the facility, Bob. I have to get these people out of here!". In 1969, the facility remained incomplete; yet Nelson gave an interview to Cryonics Reports magazine claiming it already existed. He claimed patients were stored in containers 14 feet in diameter (pictured), capable of holding 15 to 20 people. Each of these patients, he claimed, were stored in pods "very similar to the units that were used in 2001: A Space Odyssey," and were "moved by a series of stainless steel cables that guide them into position, and they can be introduced and retrieved at will". It should be noted that the picture in the magazine, besides being fake, was of a tank destined to the storage of bulk nitrogen, and could not possibly have stored cryonics patients. Marie Bowers, daughter of Louis Nisco, who had been cryopreserved by Ed Hope of CryoCare Equipment Corporation, met Nelson at a cryonics conference and showed her an artist's rendering of the facility, showing technicians with lab coats standing in front of capsules with viewing windows, gauges and dials. He convinced her to turn her father over to his care, saying he would pay $1,100 to Ed Hope to cover her long term storage debts, and she would have to pay less than $50 a month for maintenance. Nelson opened the dewar, and placed Marie Sweet, Helen Kline and Russ Stanley inside. "We put this one in head first, that one in feet first," Klockgether stated. "It didn't look like there was room, but they fit". Later on, Mike Darwin contacted the welder that had sealed the dewar, who described it as one of the worst experiences of his life, claiming he could smell hair and flesh burning as he welded the inner can shut. The tank was only meant for one person, leaving little room for Liquid Nitrogen, something none of the relatives of any of the patients were informed of. Unable to store it in a non-existent facility, Nelson stored it in Klockgether's garage. In July of 1970, Ms. Bowers wrote to Nelson, saying she could not continue paying, but hoping her father would remain in cryopreservation. The facility was finally completed in the same year: Two 8 by 10 feet concrete vaults undernath a 10 by 20 feet plot in the Oakwood Park Cementery in Chatsworth, California. The lot cost $3,872. While the single storage dewar was filled with four patients; Nelson searched for new members. He visited Iowa where Terry and Dennis Harris, brothers and sons of Mildred Harris, said they wanted to have their mother, who they thought was dyeing, "perfectly preserved". For $10,000, he stored Harris in dry ice, and even disinterred her husband, Gaylord Harris. The next case was eight-year-old Genevieve de la Poterie, who died from kidney cancer that metastasized to her lungs. Nelson claimed to have a deep emotional concern for the girl, stating that he "adopted her like my own child" and that "I loved her, and I watched her slowly get sicker and sicker... I never saw this little girl smile till we took her to Disneyland... I told her mother I was going to speak French to the little girl, to make her smile, and that was the only time I saw her smile. Heartbreaking." She died in January of 1972 and was stored in dry ice. The problem of storage was solved in the same way: Steven Jay Mandell was a 24-year-old Aerospace Engineering student who died in 1968 and was frozen by the Cryonics Society of New York. The cementery that housed CSNY's facilities evicted them, not due to unpaid rent but after the realization that cryonics would not be a profitable business venture for them. Pauline Mandell, Steven's mother, and Nick DeBlasio (Who were romantically involved at the time), whose wife died of breast cancer at the age of 43 and later joined the cast of CSC's victims; objected to the two being transferred to a leased facility in Farmingdale, L.I., NY, insisting that the only legal place to store cryopatients was a cementery. Nelson convinced Pauline Mandell to transfer the tank to him, in exchange for charging a reduced fee for Liquid Nitrogen. Ann DeBlasio was only moved to Mt. Holiness Cementery on 17 September of 1971. "What I had in mind," Nelson said in an interview, "is that this capsule could hold 3 or 4 people. Perhaps I misled her. But on the other hand, perhaps I didn't, you know? I told her I would do my very best to keep that capsule in operation, as long as I possibly could. What more could I promise her than that?". Mildred Harris and Genevieve de la Poterie were moved from dry ice to the Mandell dewar, which was stored at Chatsworth. In October 1974, Nelson quit his position of president of the Cryonics Society of California; stopped maintaning the tanks and went to Hawaii. In a letter to Marce Johnson, former treasurer of CSC, he wrote: "I am maintaining the facility--have installed a new alarm system and ordered an additional capsule." Nelson started spreading rumors about CSNY, saying the patients were not fully submerged and that their heads were above dry ice temperature. Mike Darwin called Curtis Henderson, who told him to come over and see for himself the state of the facilities. "He was visibly nervous," Darwin said. "One eye kept twitching the whole time. I asked him more and more questions, and he got more and more evasive." Nelson had stated that he had no formal arrangement for LN2 deliveries, that he was friends with a driver of a Liquid Nitrogen delivery tank who'd give him what was left over. When Darwin tried to confirm this, not only did the suppliers find the idea ridiculous, they asked if he knew Nelson for he owned them several hundred dollars worth of Liquid Nitrogen bills. Virginia Gregory, President of Gilmore Liquid Air, said Nelson had kept two LS-160 delivery dewars worth almost $7,000, in today's dollars. Nelson's fraud was found out in 1979, when Genevieve's father began wondering whether his child was properly preserved. Klockgether told him the suspicion might be justified, and on April 2 of 1979 he disinterred Genevieve; who had decomposed. A local journalist picked up the story; and the Harris brothers found out. Dennis was vacationing in Acapulco, where he told the story to a stranger, who has the brother-in-law of attorney Michael Worthington. He was trying to collect a cryonics-unrelated debt from Robert Nelson. In June, of that same year, Worthington and a news team smashed the lock of the door to Nelson's vault. All of the patients had thawed and decomposed, the Liquid Nitrogen having long vaporized. An observed claimed that the bodies had "sludged down into what I can best describe as a kind of a black goo." "I never promised anyone anything." Nelson was quoted as saying. "They had cameras and would zero in, maybe, on a fly on top of the vault, and say, Oh, the stench! But there was no stench whatsoever." The victims of the Cryonics Society of California were: Mildred Harris, Marie Phelps-Sweet, Steven Mandell, Louis Nisco, Genevieve de la Poterie, Helen Kline, Russ Stanley, Clara Dostal, Gaylord Harris, Pedro Ledesma, and the eight year old son of an Orange County ADA. The scandal affected cryonics for the rest of its history: There were almost no signups in the early 1980s. Matt Groening, who had followed the Chatsworth Scandal in his youth, was unboudtedly inspired by it when the pilot episode of TV series Futurama featured a company called Applied Cryogenics: No power failures since 1997. Cryonics became a joke. In 1980, Chatsworth was repeated when the dewar that contained Ann DeBlasio and a still unidentified woman was recovered: The bottom of the dewar had rusted (Even thought it was made from stainless steel), it had been sitting in six inches of water on a concrete hole on the ground (The 'facility' Nick DeBlasio and Robert Nelson had built). The dewar had long lost its vacuum and the bodies of the two women thawed and decomposed. Nick DeBlasio tried to freeze his late wife yet again, but the Los Angeles court ordered that her remains be buried. 1972 - 1981 In 1972, Alcor was founded as a response team for the Cryonics Society of California. In the early 70's, a Bay Area mathematics grad student named Art Quaife, along with electrical engineer John Day, Paul Segall and other cryonicists, decided to form Trans Time, Inc.. TT's focus was to reboot cryonics as a legitimate business and medical practice. Their perfusion equipment was purchased from Manrise Corporation and they developed the first complete business model of cryonics, and were the first to undertake the effort of clarifying legal issues surrounding the practice. They were also the first to actively market cryonics. Facilities for perfusion and storage were set up in Northen California, on the same year of the first scientific human cryopreservation, that of Ray Mills (pictured). This first step showed the need for research and animal testing in cryonics: The image shows severe edema, due to the use of DMSO in the perfusion. Dimethyl sulfoxide has excellent cellular permeability, allowing it to cryopreserve the most tissue; however, a factor that was unknown to them was that it caused severe edema, which in turn worsens perfusion by constriction of the blood vessels. In 1976, the Cryonics Society of Michigan was transformed into the CryonicsInst and the Immortalist Society. By 1979, Alcor had achieved good control over the perfusion and cooling. The latter, for example, was improved by replacing the use of dry ice cooling with immersion in a bath of isopropanol (Alcohol). 1981 - 1991 Cryonics as practiced in the eighties reached a standard of care (If not cryoprotection, considering that Glycerol was still being used) comparable (If not exceeding) that of mainstream medicine. All of this lasted until September of 1991. "Jerry Leaf is dead of a heart attack in the emergency room of Downey Community hospital." With this, and with Mike Darwin temporarily leaving to pursue cryobiological research, ended the best era of cryonics. 1991 - Present At that time of Jerry Leaf's cryopreservation, Mike Darwin wrote that the news of Leaf's death was like waking up and discovering that the law of gravity had been abolished. - Charles Platt

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An immune mechanism that makes babies more likely than adults to die from sepsis has been identified by scientists affiliated with the Center for Research on Inflammatory Diseases (CRID in Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo State (Brazil). The study is published) in Critical Care. The scientists are planning to test new therapeutic approaches based on the discovery. “We’re designing a clinical trial with drugs that have been approved for human use and are known to induce this immune mechanism. The goal is to improve the survival rate for infants with sepsis,” said Fernando de Queiroz Cunha, CRID’s principal investigator. CRID is one of the Research, Innovation and Dissemination Centers (RIDCs funded by São Paulo Research Foundation – FAPESP. Sepsis (sometimes referred to as blood poisoning) is systemic inflammation usually triggered by a localized bacterial infection that spins out of control. The body’s immune response to combat the pathogen ends up damaging multiple organs and tissues. Symptoms include fever or low temperature, difficulty breathing, low blood pressure, a fast heart rate, and an abnormally high or low white blood cell count. The condition may remain active even after the initial threat has been eliminated. Its most severe form can lead to lesions that impair the function of vital organs, septic shock and death. “In any experimental animal model of sepsis, all the parameters used to measure the severity of the condition are higher in infants. There’s more systemic inflammatory response, more organ impairment, and higher mortality,” said Cunha, who is a Full Professor in the Department of Pharmacology at the University of São Paulo’s Ribeirão Preto Medical School (FMRP-USP). In humans, it is more difficult to compare infant and adult mortality rates, he explained, because, before contracting sepsis, the adult patient may have been weakened by diseases such as diabetes, cancer, heart failure or hypertension (high blood pressure). “Most adults who die as a result of septic shock already had serious health problems,” Cunha told. Given their knowledge that organ injury is more severe in young individuals, both human and murine, the group decided to determine exactly what substances are produced by the immune system during sepsis. Their hypothesis was that defense cells in infants must produce more oxidizing substances, such as oxygen and nitrogen free radicals. What they found, however, was the opposite. “We took a long time to understand why infants have more tissue injury if they produce smaller amounts of free radicals. Finally, we decided to investigate NETs [neutrophil extracellular traps],” Cunha said. Neutrophils are white blood cells that form the front line of the immune system, phagocytosing (killing) bacteria, fungi and viruses. NETs are structures composed of DNA and granular proteins that rapidly trap and kill pathogens. “This immune mechanism was first described about ten years ago. In some situations, for poorly understood reasons, the immune system activates an enzyme called PAD-4, which increases the permeability of the neutrophil nucleus. When this happens, the genetic material in the nucleus decondenses and forms networks, which are released by the cell into the extracellular medium to trap and kill bacteria,” Cunha said. NETs are typically activated by bacterial infections, he added, as well as some viruses, including chikungunya, the arbovirus that causes the most tissue injury. The mechanism also occurs in some autoimmune disorders. “The main problem is that NETs aren’t just toxic for pathogens: they also damage human cells. In fact, they do more damage than oxygen and nitrogen free radicals.” Tests involving pediatric patients were conducted in collaboration with a research group led by Professor Ana Paula Carlotti, attached to the ICU at FMRP-USP’s teaching and general hospital (Hospital das Clínicas). Laboratory analysis showed that neutrophils from infants produced 40 percent more NETs than those taken from adults, in the case of humans. The difference was 60 percent in mice. The group then set out to use experimental models to understand how this immune mechanism works in sepsis. The experiments with mice involved a group of two-week-old infants and a group of healthy young adults. Both received an intraperitoneal injection of intestinal bacteria and developed sepsis. “A dose of bacteria sufficient to kill 100 percent of infants killed only 50 percent of the adults. That’s a significant difference. Moreover, in the days following the injection, the infant mice displayed higher levels of bacteremia [bacteria in the bloodstream] and of biochemical markers indicating organ injury,” Cunha said. When NETs were broken down with recombinant human DNase (a drug used to treat cystic fibrosis), the survival rate jumped from 0 to 50 percent in the infant group. In the adult group, the proportion of mice that survived sepsis rose from 50 percent to 60 percent. “The difference between the groups when treated with DNase was small, clearly showing that greater infant susceptibility is associated with higher levels of NETs,” Cunha said. In another experiment, the group replaced DNase with a compound designed to inhibit PAD-4, the enzyme that triggers the activation of NETs. In this case, the survival rate for the infant group was 40 percent. “It was somewhat less effective than DNase because it’s not actually a specific PAD-4 inhibitor. One of our goals for future research is the development of a specific drug to inhibit PAD-4,” Cunha said. The group analyzed the expression of the PAD-4 gene, which encodes the PAD-4 enzyme, in neutrophils from patients and from mice. In both cases, PAD-4 expression was higher in infants with sepsis than in adults with the same condition. The reasons are unknown and are currently being sought by David Fernando Colón Morelo, the first author of the article. Cunha is Morelo’s Ph.D. supervisor. Morelo has a doctoral scholarship from FAPESP and is now doing a research internship at Bonn University in Germany. “We’re also studying the role of NETs in other diseases involving organ injury, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus,” Cunha said. Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cells in the circulation and serve antimicrobial functions. One of their antimicrobial mechanisms involves the release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), long chromatin fibers decorated with antimicrobial granular proteins that contribute to the elimination of pathogens. However, the release of NETs has also been associated with disease processes. While recent research has focused on biochemical reactions catalyzed by NETs, significantly less is known about the mechanical effect of NETs in circulation. Here, microfluidic devices and biophysical models are employed to study the consequences of the interactions between NETs trapped in channels and red blood cells (RBCs) flowing in blood over the NETs. It has been found that the RBCs can be deformed and ruptured after interactions with NETs, generating RBC fragments. Significant increases in the number of RBC fragments have also been found in the circulation of patients with conditions in which NETs have been demonstrated to be present in circulation, including sepsis and kidney transplant. Further studies will probe the potential utility of RBC fragments in the diagnostic, monitoring, and treatment of diseases associated with the presence of NETs in circulation. Neutrophils are the most abundant immune cells in the circulation and are the first line of defense during infections. Neutrophils employ several strategies to eliminate invading microbes including the engulfing of pathogens, production of antimicrobial compounds, and formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). The NETs consist primarily of DNA fibers, histones, and granule proteins. However, in addition to the antimicrobial role, it is also known that NETs contribute to the pathology of several diseases, such as sepsis,[5,6] asthma, thrombosis,[8–10]lupus erythematosus, type 2 diabetes, cystic fibrosis.[13–15] Although NETs provide an important mechanism for clearing pathogens, excessive NETs release can lead to organ failure and even death. Moreover, NETs release and accumulation within blood vessels have been described recently as well as the ability of NETs in circulation to block capillaries, impair the microcirculation, damage tissues, and promote inflammation.[6,18] A microfluidic device designed to mimic a capillary plexus has shown that NETs can block capillary networks in vitro and divert RBCs flow, resulting in large areas void of RBCs. Interestingly, almost half a century ago, the mechanical interaction between RBCs and fibrin fibers was reported to damage the RBCs, resulting in schistocyte formation. It was proposed that schistocytes are generated when there is damage to the blood vessel and a clot begins to form. The formation of the fibrin strands in the vessels, as part of the clot formation process, can trap red blood cells and the blood flow can shear the trapped RBCs. Schistocytes are often found in the blood of patients with hemolytic anemia. It was also reported that the schistocyte count of >1% is suggestive of disseminated intravascular coagulation, which is caused by a systemic response to a specific condition including sepsis. It is likely that the RBC fragments are cleared out by the spleen. Recent experiments in animals have shown that schistocytes are present in the blood in the absence of DNase to degrade NETs. Together, these observations led us to hypothesize that RBCs may be damaged by NETs trapped in arteriole and capillary networks. If this is true, a correlation may exist between RBC damage and diseases associated with the presence of increased amounts of NETs in the circulation. Such large amounts of NETs have been measured in the blood from various patients[6,14,16] and it is possible that they contribute to the larger frequency of schistocytes in these patients. Here, we designed a microfluidic device to capture chromatin fibers and to study the mechanical interactions between RBCs and chromatin fibers under flow. We employed chromatin fibers both in the form of NETs released from human neutrophils as well as ligated lambda DNA (λ DNA), a simplified biomimetic model that shares mechanical features with NETs but without the associated enzymes and histones. We found that λ DNA and NETs when trapped inside channels can damage RBCs, producing RBC fragments. We also used a finite element method to study the effect of NETs on trapped RBCs and calculated shear stresses compatible with the RBC damage. Moreover, we measured the presence of larger numbers of RBC fragments in blood samples from ICU patients with and without sepsis as well as patients receiving immunosuppressive therapy posttransplant compared to healthy controls. A better understanding of the interaction between excessive NETs release and circulating RBCs will enhance our ability to diagnose, monitor, and treat chronic inflammatory processes associated with NETs release in the circulation such as sepsis. We designed devices with arrays of 50 μm diameter posts spaced at various distances inside microscale channels (10, 20, 40, and 80 μm). We employed these devices to mechanically trap chromatin fibers, either NETs or λ DNA, across the post arrays (Figure 1a,b). We imaged the trapped chromatin fibers, using a DNA intercalating dye as well as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Figure 1c-e). The amount of chromatin trapped by the posts is significantly larger than the amount of chromatin that may stick to the glass. Following entrapment of chromatin fibers, we injected human blood through the microfluidic device, at 40 μL mi−1 flow rate. We monitored the integrity of RBCs and found that RBCs are mechanically damaged after the interactions with the chromatin fibers. High-speed microscopy documented directly the trapping of RBCs inside the chromatin fibers network, followed by retention, deformation, and fragmentation (Figure 1f and Movie S1, Supporting Information). Using finite element method with Comsol Multiphysics, we studied the effect of NETs on the shear stress around trapped cells. Without NETs, RBCs follow the flow lines between the posts. They experience minimal shear stress due to negligible difference between their velocity and the velocity of the fluid. In the presence of NETs, two processes take place at the same time. Firstly, RBCs are trapped in the NETs. The trapped RBCs experience very high shear stress due to the flow of blood around them. Secondly, NETs and RBCs can block the spaces between posts diverting the flow through the unblocked gaps between posts. This situation leads to a higher shear stress on the RBCs trapped in those regions. To calculate shear stress around trapped RBCs, we modeled RBCs as biconcave discoid and simulated different blocking configurations, as shown in Figure 2f. Readers are referred to Experimental Section for more discussion on the computational model and its validation. Figure 2-e shows contour plots of shear stresses around a trapped RBC as the percentage of the blocked interpillar channels increases. In these simulations, interpillar spacing was 20 μm, and the flow rate was 40 μL min−1. Additionally, cells moving with the flow will experience even, lower shear stress. With 50% of the interpillar channels blocked, maximum shear stress rises to 100 Pa around the mid-plane of a trapped cell. When 75% of the interpillar channels are blocked, maximum shear stress goes up to ≈200 Pa. At this shear stress, 10 min of exposure will ensue hemolysis.[23,25] Our results are consistent with previous studies showing RBCs damage after interactions with fine fibrin strands. The shear stress around RBCs increases with the reduction of interpillar channel size (Figure 2g) and can reach as high as ≈1268 Pa (in devices with 10 μm interpillar gap when 90% interpillar channels are blocked). We also employed imaging flow cytometry and examined the presence of RBC fragments in the effluent from the microfluidic devices. We distinguished the platelets from RBC fragments and intact RBCs as well as other small vesicles by size and the binding of fluorescent antibodies against specific cell surface markers. We found a significant increase in the number of RBC fragments in the blood after passage through chromatin fibers mechanically trapped in the microfluidic channels (Figure 3a,b). We observed increases in the number of RBC fragments both in the presence of NETs and λ DNA. While the amount of DNA introduced in the devices as NETs and λ DNA were similar, we noted differences in the number of RBC fragments generated. One possible explanation for these differences is the organization of the fibers over the posts, where the λ DNA appears to form smaller number of thicker bundles (Figure 1c,d). Additionally, we calculated that the decrease in the fraction of intact RBCs matches the increase in RBC fragments in the presence of chromatin fibers. This result suggests that RBC fragments were generated from intact RBCs, after interacting with chromatin fibers. We also found that a decrease in post distance from 80 to 10 μm increases the number of RBC fragments by 9.5% (Figure 3c). We measured an increase in the free hemoglobin concentration in the blood after passage through microfluidic devices when chromatin fibers are entrapped in the post arrays (Figure 3d). The source of this hemoglobin is likely the RBC fragmentation. When the integrity of RBC membrane is transiently disrupted, some hemoglobin can leak out from RBCs. In the absence of chromatin, the free hemoglobin concentration remained between 4 and 5 mg dL−1 for all devices with different post distances. However, in the presence of NETs, the free hemoglobin concentration increases with decreased post distance (Figure 3d). This increase in free hemoglobin correlates with the increase in RBC fragments. We also found that the concentration of free hemoglobin of the blood passed through the microfluidic devices decreases quickly over time. The effect is likely due to the neutralization of free hemoglobin by proteins in the whole blood, as measured over 48 h (Figure 3e). While the number of RBC fragments does not change over the same time, the RBC fragments may represent a better indicator of RBC damage compared to the free hemoglobin. In addition to RBCs, other blood cells have a high chance to get damaged when passing through a device after NETs trapping Although neutrophils are known to be able to squeeze in minutes through narrow spaces during chemotaxis, the deformation inside the devices under flow is significantly faster, in the order of milliseconds. The shorter time may not allow neutrophils to deform sufficiently to pass through the NETs mesh. Moreover, this deformation is under the effect of external forces, rather than due to active remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton. Thus, similar to RBCs, neutrophils can be damaged by high shear forces, releasing nuclear chromatin and small particles. The release of chromatin from damaged neutrophils may further contribute to the increasing amount of NETs trapped in the microfluidic device. We tested this possibility by passing neutrophils through the microfluidic device after trapping NETs across the posts. We found that the area of trapped NETs increased over time, indicating neutrophils were sheared, releasing chromatin that was trapped by the posts. We utilized imaging flow cytometry to compare the geometry of neutrophils before and after injection through the microfluidic device in the presence of trapped NETs. The neutrophils were stained with anti-human CD66b+ antibody. We found that a significant number of neutrophils was damaged after passing through the trapped NETs, resulting in deformed neutrophils and a large number of particles carrying the CD66b neutrophil markers (Figure S2e-f, Supporting Information). Other white blood cells may undergo similar damages when flowing into trapped NETs. However, besides the qualitative similarities, one would have to consider that the white blood cells are present in the blood at 1000-fold smaller concentration compared to RBCs. Thus, at a similar rate of damage, the number of white blood cells derived particles will always be in the orders of magnitude lower than the number of RBC fragments. We explored the presence of RBC fragments in blood derived from healthy individuals (Table S1, Supporting Information) and patients with different medical conditions, including ICU patients without sepsis or with sepsis (Table S2, Supporting Information), and posttransplant patients (Table S3, Supporting Information) using imaging flow cytometry. We found that the number of RBCs fragments from ICU patients with sepsis was higher compared to ICU patients without sepsis and to healthy controls (Figure 4). The number of RBC fragments was also higher in patients receiving immunosuppressive therapy after an organ transplant, compared to healthy individuals (Figure 4). The increase in RBC fragments in these patients is intriguing considering that the immunosuppressive treatment can lower the leukocyte counts, reducing the presence of NETs in circulation. One potential explanation takes into account the role of chronic inflammation in activating the neutrophils and the release of NETs. The number of patient samples analyzed in this study is small and therefore more extensive studies are necessary to clarify if the differences between RBC fragments in different patient groups correlate with clinically-relevant endpoints. While the patients and healthy individuals in our pilot measurements were not matched for age and sex, further studies will also have to take these variables into account. n summary, we employed devices with microfluidic channels that mimic mechanical features of capillary networks and studied the interaction between mechanically trapped chromatin fibers and circulating RBCs. We found that the flow of blood over trapped NETs could damage the RBCs and generate significant numbers of RBCs fragments. Our in vitro experiments and finite element simulations validate the role of higher shear stresses (>150 Pa) in the RBC damage by trapped chromatin fibers. The flow cytometry studies of patient blood samples indicate that the presence of RBC fragments could be more ubiquitous in patients than previously considered. Further studies will clarify if any correlations exist between the presence of RBC fragments in the circulation, release of NETs in the circulation and the pathological processes associated with the NETs trapping in the vasculature. More information: David F. Colón et al, Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) exacerbate severity of infant sepsis, Critical Care (2019). DOI: 10.1186/s13054-019-2407-8 Journal information: Critical Care Provided by FAPESP

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As the importance and the value of exchanged data over the Internet or other media types are increasing, the search for the best solution to offer the necessary protection against the data thieves' attacks along with providing these services under timely manner is one of the most active subjects in the security related communities. This paper tries to present a fair comparison between the most common and used algorithms in the data encryption field. Since our main concern here is the performance of these algorithms under different settings, the presented comparison takes into consideration the behavior and the performance of the algorithm when different data loads are used. Section 2 will give a quick overview of cryptography and its main usages in our daily life; in addition to that it will explain some of the most used terms in cryptography along with a brief description of each of the compared algorithm to allow the reader to understand the key differences between them.Section 3 will show the results achieved by other contributions and their conclusions. Section 4 will walk through the used setup environment and settings and the used system components. Section 5 illustrates the performance evaluation methodology and the chosen settings to allow a better comparison. Section 6 gives a thorough discussion about the simulation results, and finally section 7 concludes this paper by summaries the key points and other related An overview of the main goals behind using cryptography will be discussed in this section along with the common terms used in this field. Cryptography is usually referred to as "the study of secret", while nowadays is most attached to the definition of encryption. Encryption is the process of converting plain text "unhidden" to a cryptic text "hidden" to secure it against data thieves. This process has another part where cryptic text needs to be decrypted on the other end to be understood. Fig.1 shows the simple flow of commonly used encryption algorithms. Fig.1 Encryption-Decryption Flow As defined in RFC 2828 [RFC2828], cryptographic system is "a set of cryptographic algorithms together with the key management processes that support use of the algorithms in some application context." This definition defines the whole mechanism that provides the necessary level of security comprised of network protocols and data This section explains the five main goals behind using Cryptography. Every security system must provide a bundle of security functions that can assure the secrecy of the system. These functions are usually referred to as the goals of the security system. These goals can be listed under the following five main categories[Earle2005]: Authentication: This means that before sending and receiving data using the system, the receiver and sender identity should be verified. Secrecy or Confidentiality: Usually this function (feature) is how most people identify a secure system. It means that only the authenticated people are able to interpret the message (date) content and no one else. Integrity: Integrity means that the content of the communicated data is assured to be free from any type of modification between the end points (sender and receiver). The basic form of integrity is packet check sum in IPv4 packets. Non-Repudiation: This function implies that neither the sender nor the receiver can falsely deny that they have sent a certain message. Service Reliability and Availability: Since secure systems usually get attacked by intruders, which may affect their availability and type of service to their users. Such systems should provide a way to grant their users the quality of service they expect. One of the main categorization methods for encryption techniques commonly used is based on the form of the input data they operate on. The two types are Block Cipher and Stream Cipher. This section discusses the main features in the two types, operation mode, and compares between them in terms of security and performance. Before starting to describe the key characteristics of block cipher, the definition of cipher word must be presented. "A cipher is an algorithm for performing encryption (reverse is decryption) "[Wikipedia-BC]. In this method data is encrypted and decrypted if data is in from of blocks. In its simplest mode, you divide the plain text into blocks which are then fed into the cipher system to produce blocks of cipher text. ECB(Electronic Codebook Mode) is the basic form of clock cipher where data blocks are encrypted directly to generate its correspondent ciphered blocks (shown in Fig. 2). More discussion about modes of operations will be discussed later. Fig.2 Block Cipher ECB Mode. Stream cipher functions on a stream of data by operating on it bit by bit. Stream cipher consists of two major components: a key stream generator, and a mixing function. Mixing function is usually just an XOR function, while key stream generator is the main unit in stream cipher encryption technique. For example, if the key stream generator produces a series of zeros, the outputted ciphered stream will be identical to the original plain text. Figure 3 shows the operation of the simple mode in stream cipher. Fig. 3 Stream Cipher (Simple Mode) This section explains the two most common modes of operations in Block Cipher encryption-ECB and CBC- with a quick visit to other modes. There are many variances of block cipher, where different techniques are used to strengthen the security of the system. The most common methods are: ECB (Electronic Codebook Mode), CBC (Chain Block Chaining Mode), and OFB (Output Feedback Mode). ECB mode is the CBC mode uses the cipher block from the previous step of encryption in the current one, which forms a chain-like encryption process. OFB operates on plain text in away similar to stream cipher that will be described below, where the encryption key used in every step depends on the encryption key from the previous step. There are many other modes like CTR (counter), CFB (Cipher Feedback), or 3DES specific modes that are not discussed in this paper due to the fact that in this paper the main concentration will be on ECB and CBC modes. Data encryption procedures are mainly categorized into two categories depending on the type of security keys used to encrypt/decrypt the secured data. These two categories are: Asymmetric and Symmetric encryption techniques In this type of encryption, the sender and the receiver agree on a secret (shared) key. Then they use this secret key to encrypt and decrypt their sent messages. Fig. 4 shows the process of symmetric cryptography. Node A and B first agree on the encryption technique to be used in encryption and decryption of communicated data. Then they agree on the secret key that both of them will use in this connection. After the encryption setup finishes, node A starts sending its data encrypted with the shared key, on the other side node B uses the same key to decrypt the encrypted messages. Fig.4 Symmetric Encryption The main concern behind symmetric encryption is how to share the secret key securely between the two peers. If the key gets known for any reason, the whole system collapses. The key management for this type of encryption is troublesome, especially if a unique secret key is used for each peer-to-peer connection, then the total number of secret keys to be saved and managed for n-nodes will be Asymmetric encryption is the other type of encryption where two keys are used. To explain more, what Key1 can encrypt only Key2 can decrypt, and vice versa. It is also known as Public Key Cryptography (PKC), because users tend to use two keys: public key, which is known to the public, and private key which is known only to the user. Figure 5 below illustrates the use of the two keys between node A and node B. After agreeing on the type of encryption to be used in the connection, node B sends its public key to node A. Node A uses the received public key to encrypt its messages. Then when the encrypted messages arrive, node B uses its private key to decrypt them. Fig.5 Asymmetric Encryption This capability surmounts the symmetric encryption problem of managing secret keys. But on the other hand, this unique feature of public key encryption makes it mathematically more prone to attacks. Moreover, asymmetric encryption techniques are almost 1000 times slower than symmetric techniques, because they require more computational processing power[Edney2003] [ Hardjono2005] . To get the benefits of both methods, a hybrid technique is usually used. In this technique, asymmetric encryption is used to exchange the secret key, symmetric encryption is then used to transfer data between sender and receiver. This section intends to give the readers the necessary background to understand the key differences between the compared algorithms. DES: (Data Encryption Standard), was the first encryption standard to be recommended by NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology). It is based on the IBM proposed algorithm called Lucifer. DES became a standard in 1974 [TropSoft] . Since that time, many attacks and methods recorded that exploit the weaknesses of DES, which made it an insecure block cipher. 3DES: As an enhancement of DES, the3DES (Triple DES) encryption standard was proposed. In this standard the encryption method is similar to the one in original DES but applied 3 times to increase the encryption level. But it is a known fact that 3DES is slower than other block cipher methods. AES: (Advanced Encryption Standard), is the new encryption standard recommended by NIST to replace DES. Rijndael (pronounced Rain Doll) algorithm was selected in 1997 after a competition to select the best encryption standard. Brute force attack is the only effective attack known against it, in which the attacker tries to test all the characters combinations to unlock the encryption. Both AES and DES are block ciphers. It is one of the most common public domain encryption algorithms provided by Bruce Schneier - one of the world's leading cryptologists, and the president of Counterpane Systems, a consulting firm specializing in cryptography and computer Blowfish is a variable length key, 64-bit block cipher. The Blowfish algorithm was first introduced in 1993.This algorithm can be optimized in hardware applications though it's mostly used in software applications. Though it suffers from weak keys problem, no attack is known to be successful In this section a brief description of the compared encryption algorithms have been introduced. This introductions to each algorithm are to provided the minimum information to distinguish the main differences between them. To give more prospective about the performance of the compared algorithms, this section discusses the results obtained from other One of the known cryptography libraries is Crypto++ [Crypto++]. Crypto++ Library is a free C++ class library of cryptographic schemes. Currently the library consists of the following, some of which are other people's code, repackaged into classes. Table 1 contains the speed benchmarks for some of the most commonly used cryptographic algorithms. All were coded in C++, compiled with Microsoft Visual C++ .NET 2003 (whole program optimization, optimize for speed, P4 code generation), and ran on a Pentium 4 2.1 GHz processor under Windows XP SP 1. 386 assembly routines were used for multiple-precision addition and subtraction. SSE2 intrinsics were used for multiple-precision multiplication. It can be noticed from the table that not all the modes have been tried for all the algorithms. Nonetheless, these results are good to have an indication about what the presented comparison results should look like. Also it is shown that Blowfish and AES have the best performance among others. And both of them are known to have better encryption (i.e. stronger against data attacks) than the other two. |Algorithm||Megabytes(2^20 bytes) Processed||Time Taken||MB/Second| |Rijndael (128-bit key)||256||4.196||61.010| |Rijndael (192-bit key)||256||4.817||53.145| |Rijndael (256-bit key)||256||5.308||48.229| |Rijndael (128) CTR||256||4.436||57.710| |Rijndael (128) OFB||256||4.837||52.925| |Rijndael (128) CFB||256||5.378||47.601| |Rijndael (128) CBC||256||4.617||55.447| Table 1 Comparison results using Crypto++ [Nadeem2005] In this paper, the popular secret key algorithms including DES, 3DES, AES (Rijndael), Blowfish, were implemented, and their performance was compared by encrypting input files of varying contents and sizes. The algorithms were implemented in a uniform language (Java), using their standard specifications, and were tested on two different hardware platforms, to compare their performance. Tables 2 and 3 show the results of their experiments, where they have conducted it on two different machines: P-II 266 MHz and P-4 2.4 GHz. Table 2 Comparative execution times (in seconds) of encryption algorithms in ECB mode on a P-II 266 MHz machine Table 3 Comparative execution times (in seconds) of encryption algorithms in ECB mode on a P-4 2.4 GHz machine From the results it is easy to observe that Blowfish has an advantage over other algorithms in terms of throughput. [Nadeem2005] has also conducted comparison between the algorithms in stream mode using CBC, but since this paper is more focused on block cipher the results The results showed that Blowfish has a very good performance compared to other algorithms. Also it showed that AES has a better performance than 3DES and DES. Amazingly it shows also that 3DES has almost 1/3 throughput of DES, or in other words it needs 3 times than DES to process the same amount [Dhawan2002] has also done experiments for comparing the performance of the different encryption algorithms implemented inside .NET framework. Their results are close to the ones shown before (Figure 6). Fig. 6 Comparison results using .NET implemntations[Dhawan2002] The comparison was performed on the following algorithms: DES, Triple DES (3DES), RC2 and AES (Rijndael). The results shows that AES outperformed other algorithms in both the number of requests processes per second in different user loads, and in the response time in different user-load This section gave an overview of comparison results achieved by other people in the field. This section describes the simulation environment and the used system components. As mentioned this simulation uses the provided classes in .NET environment to simulate the performance of DES, 3DES and AES (Rijndael). Blowfish implementation used here is the one provided by Markus Hahn under the name Blowfish.NET. This implementation is thoroughly tested and is optimized to give the maximum performance for the algorithm. The implementation uses managed wrappers for DES, 3DES and Rijndael available in System.Security.Cryptography that wraps unmanaged implementations available in CryptoAPI. These are DESCryptoServiceProvider, TripleDESCryptoServiceProvider and RijndaelManaged respectively. There is only a pure managed implementation of Rijndael available in System.Security.Cryptography, which was used in the tests. Table 4 shows the algorithms settings used in this experiment. These settings are used to compare the results initially with the result obtained from Table 4 Algorithms settings 3DES and AES support other settings, but these settings represent the maximum security settings they can offer. Longer key lengths mean more effort must be put forward to break the encrypted data security. Since the evaluation test is meant to evaluate the results when using block cipher, due to the memory constraints on the test machine (1 GB) the test will break the load data blocks into smaller sizes .The load data are divided into the data blocks and they are created using the RandomNumberGenerator class available in System.Security.Cryptography namespace. This section describes the techniques and simulation choices made to evaluate the performance of the compared algorithms. In addition to that, this section will discuss the methodology related parameters like: system parameters, experiment factor(s), and experiment initial settings. The experiments are conducted using 3500+ AMD 64bit processor with 1GB of RAM. The simulation program is compiled using the default settings in .NET 2003 visual studio for C# windows applications. The experiments will be performed couple of times to assure that the results are consistent and are valid to compare the different algorithms. In order to evaluate the performance of the compared algorithms, the parameters that the algorithms must be tested for must be Since the security features of each algorithm as their strength against cryptographic attacks is already known and discussed. The chosen factor here to determine the performance is the algorithm's speed to encrypt/decrypt data blocks of various sizes. By considering different sizes of data blocks (0.5MB to 20MB) the algorithms were evaluated in terms of the time required to encrypt and decrypt the data block. All the implementations were exact to make sure that the results will be relatively fair and accurate. The Simulation program (shown below in Fig. 7) accepts three inputs: Algorithm, Cipher Mode and data block size. After a successful execution, the data generated, encrypted, and decrypted are shown. Notice that most of the characters can not appear since they do not have character representation. Another comparison is made after the successful encryption/decryption process to make sure that all the data are processed in the right way by comparing the generated data (the original data blocks) and the decrypted data block generated from the process. Fig.7 GUI of the simulation program This section will show the results obtained from running the simulation program using different data loads. The results show the impact of changing data load on each algorithm and the impact of Cipher Mode (Encryption The first set of experiments were conducted using ECB mode, the results are shown in figure 8 below. The results show the superiority of Blowfish algorithm over other algorithms in terms of the processing time. It shows also that AES consumes more resources when the data block size is relatively big. The results shown here are different from the results obtained since the data block sizes used here are much larger than the ones used in their Another point can be noticed here that 3DES requires always more time than DES because of its triple phase encryption characteristic. Blowfish ,although it has a long key (448 bit) , outperformed other encryption algorithms. DES and 3DES are known to have worm holes in their security mechanism, Blowfish and AES, on the other hand, do not have any so far. These results have nothing to do with the other loads on the computer since each single experiment was conducted multiple times resulting in almost the same expected result. DES, 3DES and AES implementation in .NET is considered to be the best in the market. Fig.8 Performance Results with ECB Mode As expected CBC requires more processing time than ECB because of its key-chaining nature. The results show in Fig. 9 indicates also that the extra time added is not significant for many applications, knowing that CBC is much better than ECB in terms of protection. The difference between the two modes is hard to see by the naked eye, the results showed that the average difference between ECB and CBC is 0.059896 second, which is relatively small. Fig. 9 Performance Results with CBC Mode This section showed the simulation results obtained by running the four compared encryption algorithms using different Cipher Modes. Different load have been used to determine the processing power and performance of the compared algorithms. The presented simulation results showed that Blowfish has a better performance than other common encryption algorithms used. Since Blowfish has not any known security weak points so far, which makes it an excellent candidate to be considered as a standard encryption algorithm. AES showed poor performance results compared to other algorithms since it requires more processing power. Using CBC mode has added extra processing time, but overall it was relatively negligible especially for certain application that requires more secure encryption to a relatively large data blocks. |3DES||Triple Data Encryption Standard| |AES||Advanced encryption Standard| |CBC||Chain Block Chaining Mode| |CFB||Cipher Feedback Mode| |ECB||Electronic Codebook Mode| |NIST||National Institute of Standards and Technology| |OFB||Output Feedback Mode| |PKC||Public Key Cryptography|

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The Use and Misuse of Questionnaires in Intercultural Training John W. Bing, Ed.D. In this paper, the terms intercultural and cross-cultural are used interchangeably to refer to training which helps participants learn about, adjust to, or develop skills with respect to a culture other than their own. Cross-Cultural Training programs have many purposes, venues, and audiences. In my experience, they have been used to orient Peace Corps volunteers, government aid workers, health workers, students arriving and departing, the military, and employees in many busi-ness contexts. As of late, they are being utilized in some diversity programs in the U.S. and Canada. Questionnaires can be used in many different ways including assessing the needs of participants before program design; in formative or summative evaluations; as a way of determining the knowledge of participants; and as a way for gathering information about the environment into which, or in which, participants are or may be working. There are also cross-cultural questionnaires which are intended to elicit the preferences of respondents without referring to a research-generated database. In this paper I will focus on a specific form of questionnaire used in intercultural training programs: Multi-country questionnaires based on quantitative research. Description of the Questionnaires There are only two major databases which compare cross-national data over more than 50 countries gathered through questionnaires. These have been developed by Geert Hofstede, the pioneer in the field of quantitative research in comparative management, and Fons Trompenaars, a consultant and author in the same field. Both are from The Netherlands. The older of the two questionnaire-generated databases was developed by Hofstede. At IBM, he headed a team of six researchers to develop the first internationally standardized questionnaires and a system for administering them; the results of his 53 country and region surveys were published in Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values (Hofstede, 1980). The more recent of the two questionnaires and associated databases has been developed by Fons Trompenaars and published in Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Differences in Business (Trompenaars, 1993). There were 47 countries represented in this survey at the time of publication of Riding the Waves of Culture. The databases generate mental geographies. They are two different geographies, as if created by explorers who have crafted their own maps of the parts of the same new world each explored. Hofstede calls culture "the software of the mind," set against the "hard wiring" of genetic development. In fact, he draws out three levels of what he calls "mental programs": 1. "The universal level of mental programming which is shared by all, or almost all, mankind. This is the biological 'operating system' of the human body, but it includes a range of expressive behaviors such as laughing and weeping and associative and aggressive behaviors which are found in higher animals." 2. "The collective level of mental programming is shared with some but not with all other people; it is common to people belonging to a certain group or category. . . . The whole area of subjective human culture. . . belongs to this level." 3. "The individual level of human programming is the truly unique part—no two people are programmed exactly alike, even if they are identical twins raised together." These three levels of what Hofstede calls "programming" describe the three levels of fountainheads of human behavior: The biological/genetic basis of universal (as well as, I believe, specific) human traits; the environment, chiefly culture; and the combination of the two, which produces our personalities. Both Hofstede and Trompenaars describe what they are exploring as the map of culture. Hofstede's map is divided into four provinces; Trompenaars' into seven. Only one of the provinces has been named the same (the individualism/collective dimension). A rather significant complication, perhaps it might be better called a confusion, to both maps is that although the information from these studies are often interpreted as cultural dimensions which describe the differences between cultures, in fact they both analyze the differences between national groups. In the case of many countries, perhaps most, this means measuring multicultural societies and lumping the results as national scores. For the Japanese scores, this may not be a problem; for Canadian, Belgian and Malaysian scores it may well be. However, it makes pedagogical sense to gather, analyze, and disseminate information by country name; to gather the data by separate cultures would mean problems in other directions: For example, would Flemish and Dutch cultures be labeled the same, or different? Perhaps future researchers will gather data by both cultural and national names. Certainly this would make it easier to deal with the creation or disappearance of countries, a development more common now than in the past. It should be noted that chapter 7 of Culture's Consequences, Hofstede (1980) presents data by language area for Belgium and Switzerland and discusses at length the difference between Flemish and Dutch. Once again, Hofstede has established the standard for future research. The two questionnaires which developed the databases (in the above analogy, the "map") changed over time as questions were substituted or rewritten to improve reliability. Hofstede used many versions of the questionnaire over the years he researched and analyzed the IBM data. Trompenaars has also utilized different versions. Hofstede's database is the larger, with 116,000 questionnaires provided to recipients in their own countries and analyzed to provide the basis for his four-dimension map of cultural geographies. The four dimensions were "discovered" from the data; that is to say, they were determined after data were gathered and derived through study of those data. Later, he and Michael Bond added a fifth dimension, valid only for Asian cultures. Trompenaars' dimensions were generated through a study of the literature and his questionnaire generated from these dimensions. His database is as of now smaller, consisting perhaps of around 50,000 questionnaires. Trompenaars' questionnaire is often provided to participants outside their countries, unlike Hofstede's approach. However, Trompenaars' data cover much of the active business world of today, including areas Hofstede never covered because IBM had not yet penetrated these areas. They include Eastern Europe, Russia, and China. Trompenaars has also been successful at popularizing the notion of cultures' influence on business, both in Europe and the Americas. The Four Hofstede Dimensions are as follows (I am using the original terminology, with simplifications in brackets): The individual-collective dimension describes differences in how respondents view the focus of their work—as a fundamentally solitary, individual activity, in which credit or blame, reward or punishment, falls on the individual; or as a collective or team enterprise, in which the group receives credit, blame, reward or punishment. Example: In Hofstede's study. the U.S. is the most individualistic country. Those coming to work in the U.S. from any other country (here for the moment and in future examples discounting individual differences) should therefore feel themselves relatively unsupported upon their arrival. They may feel a bit as if they were dropped into the U.S. work environment to sink or swim on their own. In my experience (having worked with over 500 arriving employees and their families), this is indeed the case. High Power Distance—Low Power Distance [Hierarchical—Participative Orientation] This dimension differentiates hierarchical and participative workplaces. In high-power-distance organizations, the flow of decision-making and responsibility is top-down; in low power-distance organizations, the authority may be expressed in coaching rather than ordering, and responsibility may be devolved. For example: If a high-power distance subordinate is matched with a lower power-distance supervisor who prefers coaching to providing strong direction, the subordinate may feel a sense of bewilderment or resentment at what is perceived as a lack of direction. High Uncertainty Avoidance—Low Uncertainty Avoidance [Need for Certainty—Tolerance for Ambiguity] This dimension discriminates between those who prefer a highly structured work environment and those who prefer not to be encumbered by rules, regulations, and red tape. For example: A work environment in which every person has his or her own distinct work, and is provided with clear guidelines, and for which there are predictable long-term rewards and benefits, is preferred by those with a high need for certainty. Government and university offices are typically so structured. In other cultures and workplaces (the software industry in the U.S., for example), rules and regulations are perceived as barriers to creative development or to entrepreneurial advances. This end of the scale is inhabited by those with a low need for certainty. Masculinity—Femininity [Achievement—Quality of Life Orientation] This dimension measures the degree to which cultures differentiate between gender roles. How this dimension is interpreted depends on the culture in which your point of view begins. An achievement oriented (masculine) society is one in which social gender roles are clearly distinct; challenge, earnings, recognition and advancement are important. A quality of life oriented (feminine) society is characterized by overlapping gender roles; cooperation, modesty, service and compromise are valued.. An example: In cultures and workplaces which are more achievement oriented, there is an expectation that work often takes precedence over family life. Long hours are expected; there may be lots of travel and weekend work. On the opposite side of the spectrum, quality of life issues are not secondary considerations that are easily sacrificed for the sake of the job. More regular hours are the norm, and family life is taken into account. Turning to the second research area, the Trompenaars' Dimensions are as follows (again, I am using Trompenaars' original terminology, with interpretations in brackets): Relationships with People: Universalism vs. Particularism [rules vs. relationships] The question at the heart of this dimension revolves around whether rules or relationships regulate workplace behaviors. Example: If you are a universalist, you will follow societal or work rules in your life and work; a particularist is concerned about whether or not the needs of people, particularly those people closest to him or her, are being met. Individualism vs. Collectivism So far as I am able to determine, this area is very similar to Hofstede's; in other words, the two maps overlap at this coordinate. Neutral vs. Affective [unemotional vs. emotional] This dimension relates to the display of emotion at work. Those who are from cultures which do not show much emotion at work (for example, who do not talk about their health or lack of health) are "neutral"; those who do are "affective." Specific vs. Diffuse [brief and numerous vs. long-term relationships] This dimension distinguishes between people who make many friendships, which are normally brief and superficial, and those who make very few but very deep friendships which last for many years. In those workplaces in which specific relationships are prevalent, friendships may be instrumental, that is to say, they may enable the participants to accomplish goals. In those organizations and societies in which diffuse relationships are more common, there is a clearer divide between acquaintenceships, which are the norm, and friendships, which are exceptional and significant and take long to develop. Achievement vs. Ascription [achievement vs. other attributes] This dimension describes the difference between those who value achievement as the primary dimension of success, and those who value not only achievement, but also the background of the colleague, his or her education, other attainments, and even the reputation of the family or extended family itself. For example, in parts of Europe, there is still a special cachet for those who are considered to be of aristocratic background. In Islamic cultures, those who have been on the Haj or the pilgrimage are often accorded higher status. Attitudes toward Time [relative emphasis on the importance of the past, present, or future] In some societies, for example in France, the importance of the past, as represented in literature, architecture, music, and other streams of culture, are significant; in others, for example the U.S., the future is perceived to be more important than a past away from which many Americans immigrated. Attitudes toward the Environment [harmony vs. control of the outside world] A basic concept of Japanese life is Wei, or harmony. This is reflected in such societal expressions as the Tea Ceremony and the architecture of gardens and religious sites. In other countries, controlling nature is much more important than understanding or recreating its harmonies. These differences are often reflected in the workplace. In Japan, confrontations are not supposed to occur; collaboration, consensus and other techniques have been developed to maintain harmony. In other societies, workplace disagreements and even violence are not unknown. With this background we will move to the issue of the proper use of questionnaires associated with these databases. The Use of Research-Based Quantitative Questionnaires in Cross-Cultural Training Programs Over the past six years, cross-national research-based quantitative questionnaires in cross-cultural training programs have been developed to achieve two purposes: 1. To aid participants in developing an understanding of their own cultural profile and thus to foster an understanding of others' cultural profiles. 2. To help participants compare country culture profiles on the Hofstede or Trompenaars' dimensions, and to understand what bridging might be required for each participant to be more effective in working with people from those cultures. These techniques were pioneered in the United States at International Training Associates of Princeton (a company which has since 1986 provided training and consulting to global companies and to nonprofit organizations such as the United Nations and the American Management Association), when ITAP was licensed to offer a version of Hofstede's questionnaire in its training programs as a didactic tool. As a research tool, it has only recently been used to gather data to update earlier data or to add new countries. As such, ITAP began providing its clients with the Culture in the Workplace Questionnaire™ (CW), as it is now called, in 1989. Participants answer a questionnaire made up of questions Hofstede had selected from his series of questionnaires, from which their CW score is computed. The scores for each participant become bar charts representing his or her culture profile on each of the Hofstede dimensions. Because the list of questions has been drawn from the original research questions, the relationship between the participants' scores and the country scores is direct and clear. Reliability and validity are thus related to the original research, as are the participants' scores. Pedagogical inferences can thereby be drawn between individual scores and country scores. For example, consider participant Bill, an American, who has a high score for individualism and he is being transferred to a job requiring team development in a country with a lower average score for individualism, as determined by the Hofstede database. Bill must determine how best to proceed with his new team, tempered with the knowledge that it is likely that his colleagues on the team will prefer a more collective approach to decision-making, reward provision, task allocation, and so on, than his own preferred personal style. Knowing both his own cultural style and the national average for the country in which he will be working gives Bill the tools to analyze and project alternative approaches. Should he adopt a more "collective" style, allowing decisions to be made more by the team than he would have done? Should he insist on his style even if that might cause his team to resist that process? The point here is that such information gives participants the knowledge that different approaches exist. It also provides training designers the opportunity to create skill-building role-plays and other exercises to assist participants in developing competencies to work effectively in different countries. The Culture in the Workplace Questionnaire™ can also be utilized as a way of compiling individual scores of members of a team. This information can then be used to help team members understand the diversity of approaches within the team and which team members might be predisposed toward certain kinds of team activities. For example, if one member had an especially high need for certainty (i.e., a high score on Hofstede's uncertainty avoidance dimension) compared with other members, that individual might be pressed into service as the team planner. Variations of the Trompenaars questionnaire have sometimes been used to analyze corporate culture. The Misuse of Research-Based Quantitative Questionnaires in Cross-Cultural Training Programs With so much competitiveness in the cross-cultural training and consulting market today, there have been examples of questionnaires cobbled together with little research and no statistical analysis of reliability or validity. In these cases, they are more marketing than instructional tools, and they may in fact be misleading. There may also be claims made for the use of such questionnaires which exceed the limits of their development. Such sins are many, and are here enumerated: Venial (or less serious) Sins 1. The use of questionnaires, whether research-based or not, whether in the field of cross-cultural training or not, is too often accompanied by claims of miraculous and quick cures to very complex problems. In fact, because questionnaires create data which represent models of reality, they must be seen for what they are: A simplification and reduction of reality. In fact they gain their pedagogical power, as for example do simulation games as well, from this process of simplification and reduction. It is therefore incumbent on practitioners to carefully explain to their participants the limitation of the models they are using. 2. Representing a national database as a cultural database is an easy sin to commit; however it is important to point out that in multicultural societies there maybe be much cultural variation within a country (e.g., Canada, Belgium, China, the United States). 3. Each database is created within a time frame and has specific limitations. Although the Hofstede database is not contemporary, it is now being updated, and a recent study (Hoppe, 1990) indicates the dimensions are stable over time. A limitation of the Trompenaars database is that it has not always been tightly controlled for demographic aspects of information-gathering; this may have implications for its reliability. 4. It is tempting to claim that the questionnaires and associated databases provide the coordinates for the entire map of culture. We do not yet know the complete map of culture (that is to say, all of the dimensions of cultures that should be compared to have a complete view of those cultures), nor are we likely to in the near future. It is therefore important to point this out, supplementing these databases with other sources of information about cultural aspects of business in different countries. 5. Practitioners can err by leading our participants to assume that cultural differences will account for all the differences in a cross-cultural interaction. However, it is clear that differences in personality and institutional and environmental influences will also play a role in interactions between people no matter whether those interactions take place between people of different cultures or the same culture. Cross-cultural practitioners should take care to take account of these other influences in their seminars. 6. With quantitative databases and associated questionnaires, it is very easy to make the error of directly comparing individual scores to country scores. However, country scores are average scores, and individual scores cannot be directly compared to averages. It is impossible, for example, for someone, even with a very high score on individualism, to be completely individualistic. Human beings do not operate as walking scales. Practitioners should therefore be careful to use the information didactically rather than engage in mathematical comparisons of scores. Mortal (flagrant) Sins There are three flagrant sins. They are: 1. Assuming that country averages in a database relate to individuals in that country. Country averages are typically (but not always) bell-shaped curves, with individuals at the tails of these curves who may behave in some ways more like members of other cultures than members of their own cultures. I was guilty of such a sin early in my career when I gave the Culture in the Workplace Questionnaire™ to a Japanese employee of an American company and, when his score was very high on individualism, accused him of being insufficiently Japanese. In fact, I surmised later, the employee decided to work for an American company specifically because his own preference, for whatever reason, was higher on individualism than many of his fellow Japanese. Practitioners should help participants in their seminars avoid stereotyping people from other countries and cultures by pointing out that those they meet on their travels may be not "typical" at all, but rather examples of exceptions from cultural norms. 2. Taking for granted that sociologically-based questionnaires and databases developed in one culture are sufficient to explain cultural differences to people from other cultures. This is a serious difficulty in the field, because there are few models which address cultural differences available in the West which have their origin in other cultures. I discovered an example of the kind of problem this causes in a class I taught at the United Nations in Vienna. I had just provided Trompenaars' definition of culture as "a way of solving problems." A man (originally from China) declared: "To me, culture is the water that we swim in: It surrounds and defines us." Clearly, the definition of culture itself is culturally-influenced. Practitioners should be careful to elicit definitions of culture from participants themselves in order to avoid the imposition of one set of ideas over another. Researchers should work to develop models which can serve across cultures. 3. The pressure of competition sometimes causes otherwise sane practitioners to create fictional questionnaires. One, developed by a major training organization some years ago, is still in use today. It claims to be tied to the Hofstede database. However, it is not. Because the Hofstede questionnaire is copyrighted but the database is in the public domain, the practitioner devised his own questions unrelated to the database. But the resulting profile appeared to be related to the database. Why is this a sin? It can yield cultural profiles which do not relate to the dimensions which define them and can seriously mislead participants. Such questionnaires are but smoke and mirrors. Practitioners should maintain standards which prevent such debasing of the field and of research standards. There are other conundrums in these areas which are less sins than areas of uncertainty. Clifford Clarke, one of the leaders in the field of Japan/U.S. business-focused cross-cultural research, has questioned the validity of sociological (multiple national questionnaires) versus anthropological approaches (single-culture questionnaires and interviews). He believes that the reliability of such questionnaires is questionable given the translation problem and the fact that for Japanese, for example, the context of the question asked is as important as its content. Questionnaires and their associated databases must be used sensitively and with caution. Sometimes results may be counter-intuitive. It is precisely in these counter-intuitive areas that new understanding of cultural differences may be discovered. If practitioners learn to use questionnaires and their associated databases responsibly, they can provide valuable assistance to people learning to work effectively in other countries. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Trompenaars, F. (1993). Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business. London: The Economist Press. Hoppe, M.H. (1990). A Comparative Study of Country Elites: International Differences in Work-Related Values and Learning and Their Implications for Management Training and Development. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of North Carolina, 1990).

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Stories of EARTH University women changing their communities Since its founding, EARTH University, at times, has faced challenges to admit an equitable population of female students. For one, convincing rural families that their daughters should be free to study agriculture in a foreign nation, far from home, can be a major hurdle. Other reasons involve either culturally imposed limitations and expectations regarding appropriate “roles” or rural families’ historically low financial resources that often have hindered such girls from completing primary school, let alone high school – thereby making them ineligible for a university education. “In many regions, agronomy is seen as men’s work,” said Junior Acosta Peña, head of admissions at EARTH University. “We’ve had to work very hard to change that perception.” These barriers persist, but thankfully their pervasiveness has been receding little by little. Year after year, the number of women on campus has grown toward true gender parity. In fact, last year’s incoming class is majority female – a first for the University. This year’s freshman cohort, the Class of 2017-2020, is 48.7 percent female. “We [at EARTH] have long understood the value of women’s participation at the University and in society at-large,” Acosta added. “It was and is a necessity for us to offer equally robust opportunities to them. We’re thankful to The MasterCard Foundation for support in this endeavor.” EARTH University has a unique way of improving the lives of women, who, in turn, improve the lives of others. Here are four stories of EARTH women whose hope for a better world extends far beyond themselves, whose hope turns to bold action. The MasterCard Foundation Scholar Esnath Divasoni (’19, Zimbabwe) In their second year at EARTH, students receive a real-world education by operating full-fledged entrepreneurial projects. For Esnath Divasoni, schooling is precious. After her father lost his job in 1999, her family’s financial struggles placed her on the verge of dropping out. Fortunately, she received a helping hand at 13, when she became a Camfed scholar in her town of Wedza, Zimbabwe. Camfed (Campaign for Female Education) is a non-profit organization that, in its 24-year existence, has funded the secondary schooling of more than 1.2 million girls from low-resource households in five African nations. Camfed paid for Esnath’s tuition for five years, as well as provided her with school uniforms, hygiene products, books and the support of the organization’s alumni network. A year after becoming sponsored, Esnath got her first taste of farming. Her father received a 6-hectare plot through the land reform in Zimbabwe. She learned how to grow maize, tobacco and peanuts by working alongside her father on the weekends. Her weekdays, however, were spent walking the daily 12-km round trip to and from school and studying until dark. After graduating from secondary school in 2006, Esnath hoped to attend university. Camfed supports its girls well into womanhood, but only a small number is sponsored to attend university. Esnath wasn’t one of them. During the next 10 years, she tirelessly applied for scholarships, took accounting classes at a technical college, and worked various jobs – from being a maid in Botswana for $50 a month to farming potatoes thanks to a $500 microloan from Kiva, an online lending platform. Back in early 2014, she was repaying that loan’s interest by volunteering at Camfed’s Zimbabwean office in the capital, Harare. One task was coordinating a trip funded by The MasterCard Foundation – a program taking 15 women from Zimbabwe, Zambia and Tanzania to learn about Patsari eco-stoves, solar water heaters, and sun-powered dehydrators for six weeks. The destination: EARTH University. She wasn’t invited to attend the trip to Costa Rica in 2014, but came to learn a great deal about the University and, unbeknownst to her at the time, her own future. Less than a year later, Esnath eagerly awaited a decision on her last-minute application to EARTH University. After praying 10 years for the opportunity of a university education, she earned her admission and a full scholarship through The MasterCard Foundation. She often jokes that her earlier inability to get funding was fate’s way of helping her find EARTH. Only in her second year, Esnath is already planning her future contribution to Zimbabwe. She is determined to construct a demonstration farm and processing plant to teach women how to grow diverse microgardens, set up greenhouses, harvest water in places with infrequent rainfall, produce biogas and conserve energy. “In my community, there are no bakeries, no production,” she said. “I want to initiate value-added opportunities to create jobs and grow skills for women who haven’t had the opportunity to attend university.” In this effort, she hopes to team up with two of her classmates, Memory Jinga (’19, Zimbabwe) and Forget Shareka (’19, Zimbabwe), to launch one such farm in each of their home villages. Each of the three women has complementary specialties, Esnath said. She considers her talents to be in crops and conservation, Memory’s in alternative energy, and Forget’s in animal husbandry and “convincing people to change their ways.” She recognizes that getting to this point has been very difficult. “The community I come from thinks educating a girl is a waste of money because she’ll just end up getting married,” Esnath said, adding that she was one of only seven females in her 40-student senior class. And, of those, many were already pregnant. She also remembers the nights in the late 1990s, before Camfed’s intervention, when her family would go hungry in an attempt to save enough money to buy her school uniform. In 2009, she met Lameck, a male volunteer in Camfed’s Harare office. Almost immediately, they began dating and pooling their monthly stipends together to pay for Esnath’s accounting courses. They were married in 2010, when she was 21 – “very, very old” by her community’s standards, she notes – and gave birth to their son, Adel, a year later. This further complicated her higher education ambitions. “I wasn’t sure my in-laws would accept my desire to continue my education,” Esnath said. “In my culture, if you’re married, you can’t leave your family for any reason. I was scared to tell them because, if they said ‘no,’ I wouldn’t be able to leave.” Esnath and Lameck spoke with her mother’s brother, a well-respected member of the family. “My uncle told us he was worried I’d turn out to be just a housewife,” she recalled. Thanks to his influential approval, the rest of the family supported her desire to study in Costa Rica. “I survived a village that told me a girl can’t have an education,” she reflected. “I’m a married woman going out to get an education and support my family. I defeated the odds.” She returned home to visit her family in December of her first year, a surprise trip thanks to The MasterCard Foundation. She arrived during the farming season and observed more keenly the struggles of peasant farmers. She’s ready to collaborate and innovate her country out of these problems. The MasterCard Foundation Scholar Johana Carmona (’17, Colombia) In their final year at EARTH, students prepare for their return to their homes, to put their educations to use for their communities and to implement their intended change agendas. Johana Carmona grew up in La Unión, a small farming municipality nearly 60 kilometers outside Medellín. It’s a place deeply shaken by the decades of violence that have gripped Colombia. Much of that violence recently came to an official end. The 2016 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos for his administration’s peace talks with the FARC, the principal leftist guerrilla group in the country. Many hailed the disarmament deal as a major step toward healing the country; however, it leaves the futures of some Colombians in limbo, including the rural women who’ve defected from the guerrilla. “For a woman of this social standing, there are already few opportunities, mostly cooking and cleaning,” Johana said. “And if that woman is a former guerrilla, there are even fewer because people feel uneasy around them.” To help combat this prejudice, Johana plans to initiate a pilot program that teaches these forgotten women farming and business skills, believing it will have a strong social impact. “While these prejudices are reduced, these women need an opportunity to work. They need spaces to demonstrate that they’re capable. They need opportunity. I want them to exchange their guns for farming tools,” she said, referencing the surrendering of guerrilla arms to the United Nations. Johana intends to build a Community Supported Agriculture (CSA)-style arrangement that delivers baskets of high-quality produce and value-added goods (breads, jams, cheeses, etc.) to customer households near her home – baskets with products sourced entirely from post-conflict women, ensuring them each a market for their goods and a fair share of the profits. Currently, Johana is enrolled in EARTH’s new Master’s Degree in Agribusiness Innovation in addition to her fourth-year undergraduate studies. She originally strove to study agribusiness as a way to help her father, who she’d seen struggle to repay crippling loans from destroyed crops and questionable governmental policies. Her parents have ambitions of turning their 1-hectare farm into a destination for eco-tourists. Johana believes her EARTH education will help her to assist them in building their dream and, in turn, enable them to do their part to transform the scarred region into a place of tranquility and prosperity. “When I was very young, various neighbors had to abandon their homes by force or from fear. Many were murdered by either the FARC or the opposing paramilitary group,” she said. “Yes, I hold some resentment for all that’s happened, but I just want peace for my people. What is the solution, if not peace? And if we want a peaceful society, we need to reintegrate the outsiders and outcasts into our communities.” The MasterCard Foundation Scholar Sindy Ramos (’16, Guatemala) After graduation, EARTH students implement the changes they’ve prepared themselves to make during their four years at the University. Sindy Ramos is one example of countless EARTH graduates springing into action in support of their communities. While a student at EARTH, she learned of a group of Ecuadorian women who use banana stalks, a waste product, to make durable goods and, in the process, helped to pull themselves out of abject poverty. During her third-year studies, Sindy raised $12,000 in funds and services – through sponsorships from The MasterCard Foundation, University departments such as the Permanent Education Program (PEP) and the Grameen Association of Costa Rica, among others – to fly three of those Ecuadorian artisans to EARTH’s campus. In June of 2015, the trio arrived and over a span of five days, trained 35 women from rural Limón, Costa Rica, in the art of producing and selling natural banana fiber products – bags, hats, bracelets, wallets and more. Sindy was confident this concept would serve the rural banana-growing area well because its barrier to entry is very low and its primary input is an otherwise-trashed material, making the work accessible to even the poorest of people. The success of her trial run in Costa Rica emboldened her to launch the project in her homeland of Guatemala – specifically in Tiquisate, a rural, banana-producing region. “A lot of bananas means a lot of opportunity for work,” she said. “In Tiquisate, there are many poor women and many more bananas.” For the workshop in Guatemala, she plans to include Maritza Pérez, one of the Costa Rican women enabled through her graduation project two years ago. Since being trained, Pérez has been selling her products at farmer’s markets along with hosting her own trainings on the production technique. “[Maritza] told me she’s now a proud, self-made businesswoman who’s no longer in need of anyone’s handouts to care for herself,” Sindy said. “She is not selfish about her success, either. She uses her knowledge to help others pull themselves out of their economic situation, and she refuses to charge very poor women who want to learn from her.” In time, Sindy would like to form a team of associates and artisan labor cooperatives to aid in marketing and help grow the customer base. She’s also gearing up to reach new buyers by selling many of their products on Amazon.com Handmade under the brand name Inkine’y (meaning “banana” in the indigenous K’iche’ language). “I want to expand the network of support for these rural women,” she said. “I see potential in them. They don’t have education, access to development, or jobs, but they’re eager to learn and to work. I’m providing them with a path to self-employment.” She has plans to use any future profits to provide educational scholarships for low-income children who struggle as she once did. Her mother died when Sindy was only 13 and her father abandoned the family two years later. Sindy was left to take care of her younger sister on her own, working in a customer service role to make ends meet. “My greatest challenge in life was convincing others to help me,” she said. Since then, she’s been receiving that help. At the end of 2016, she won the Sustainability Lab’s Sustainability Award along with $10,000 in seed funding. Today, Sindy lives in Villa Nueva, near Guatemala City, as she continues organizing for the launch of her banana fiber initiative in Tiquisate. Her little sister, who lives with a boyfriend and has a 6-month-old child, hasn’t enrolled in any university or technical program since graduating high school. Sindy continues encouraging her to study. She recognizes the impact her university education at EARTH has had on her. The staff member Ana Elsa Mancía Vides, Manager of Third-Year Work Experience (La Flor) Ana Elsa Mancía Vides began her employment at EARTH in Jan. 2014 as part of the Permanent Education Program (PEP) – the office that, among its many duties, oversees placement of students in farms near the University’s Guácimo campus for their community development experiences. Salvadorian by birth, Mancía left her home country for Guatemala in the 1980s to escape the civil war and to study agronomy. Between 1990 and 2013, Mancía worked off-and-on for the association Vivamos Mejor (meaning “Live Better” in Spanish), a private, non-profit Guatemalan NGO that promotes sustainable development and community self-management among the country’s rural populations. She had started as a volunteer after graduating from university the year before. The initiatives she led changed periodically, but one of the most impactful was working in the southwestern Guatemalan Department of Sololá, among three indigenous groups – the Kaqchikel, the Tz’utujil and the K’iche’. “I have always felt a connection to rural communities and social work,” Mancía said, recalling how she became involved with Vivamos Mejor. “This new NGO’s restlessness to help rural populations allowed me to connect agriculture with a serious social commitment.” Mancía was struck by the reality of rural Guatemala: Girls attend school only until the third grade before they’re pulled out to work at home. “It’s one of the huge injustices that still exists,” she said. As a result, the majority of rural females are illiterate in their native language and don’t know how to speak Spanish – a considerable disenfranchisement compared to rural men, who are better educated. The women spoke tribal languages, posing even more challenges for the Spanish-speaking Mancía. At the time she was a single mother raising her daughter in a “completely isolated” and isolating places – often with no potable water, no cell phones, no electricity. In her various roles in the NGO, Ana Elsa trained these women in different skills, including self-esteem building, leadership, reforestation, agroforestry, organic coffee production, female empowerment, entrepreneurship, growing native plants, sausage-making and family planning. These experiences prepared her for the transition into her current role, leading community work experience placements for third-year EARTH students around the La Flor campus in Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica. It’s a role that helps her bring positive changes to rural Guanacaste by matching regional producers, businesses, non-profit groups and local farmers with the third-year EARTH students who spend six weeks there. Students develop and carry out three distinct socio-sustainable development projects – spending Mondays and Tuesdays working at a local agribusiness, Wednesdays in classes, Thursdays and Fridays implementing their community projects, and evenings and weekends assisting their host families. These professor-reviewed projects expose students to learning about areas, lifestyles, and crops that contrast those of the humid tropics of Guácimo. “Ninety-five percent of our hosts are women: widows, retirees, single mothers,” Mancía said, adding that the women really benefit from the students’ contributions – biodigestor installations, improved animal husbandry projects, diversified family gardens, better waste management systems and more. Positive change can take hold more quickly here in rural Guanacaste than in rural Guatemala, as most Costa Rican women already know how to read and write. Looking back on all her experiences, Mancía recognizes the effect that supporting women has on others, with positive change rippling through communities. Her daughter, Issa Secaira (’14, Guatemala), grew up to be an EARTH graduate inspired by the experiences she shared with her mother in Guatemala. Issa’s career, carrying out a Vivamos Mejor campaign aimed at enhancing food security for rural women, emanates its own ripples of woman-powered change.

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——— (2015). "Is the "Final Solution" Unique?". The Third Reich in History and Memory. London: Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-14075-9. Revised and extended from Richard Evans (2011). "Wie einzigartig war die Ermordung der Juden durch die Nationalsocialisten?" in Günter Morsch and Bertrand Perz (eds). Neue Studien zu nationalsozialistischen Massentötungen durch Giftgas: Historische Bedeutung, technische Entwicklung, revisionistische Leugnung. Berlin: Metropol Verlag, pp. 1–10. ISBN 9783940938992 A second roll call took place at seven in the evening after the long day's work. Prisoners might be hanged or flogged in the course of it. If a prisoner was missing, the others had to remain standing until he or she was found or the reason for the absence discovered, even if it took hours. On 6 July 1940, roll call lasted 19 or 20 hours because of the escape of a Polish prisoner, Tadeusz Wiejowski; following another escape in 1941, a group of prisoners was sent to block 11 to be starved to death. After roll call, prisoners were allowed to retire to their blocks for the night and receive their bread rations and water. Curfew was at nine o'clock. Inmates slept in long rows of brick or wooden bunks, lying in and on their clothes and shoes to prevent them from being stolen. The wooden bunks had blankets and paper mattresses filled with wood shavings; in the brick barracks, inmates lay on straw. According to Nyiszli: The French armies were much reduced in strength and the confidence of their commanders shaken. With much of their own armour and heavy equipment lost in Northern France, they lacked the means to fight a mobile war. The Germans followed their initial success with Operation Red, a triple-pronged offensive. The XV Panzer Corps attacked towards Brest, XIV Panzer Corps attacked east of Paris, towards Lyon and the XIX Panzer Corps encircled the Maginot Line. The French were hard pressed to organise any sort of counter-attack and were continually ordered to form new defensive lines and found that German forces had already by-passed them and moved on. An armoured counter-attack organised by Colonel de Gaulle could not be sustained and he had to retreat. Germany implemented the persecution of the Jews in stages. Following Adolf Hitler's appointment as German Chancellor in January 1933, the regime built a network of concentration camps in Germany for political opponents and those deemed "undesirable", starting with Dachau on 22 March 1933. After the passing of the Enabling Act on 24 March, which gave Hitler plenary powers, the government began isolating Jews from civil society, which included a boycott of Jewish businesses in April 1933 and enacting the Nuremberg Laws in September 1935. On 9–10 November 1938, during Kristallnacht (the "Night of Broken Glass"), Jewish businesses and other buildings were ransacked, smashed or set on fire throughout Germany and Austria, which Germany had annexed in March that year. After Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, triggering World War II, the regime set up ghettos to segregate Jews. Eventually thousands of camps and other detention sites were established across German-occupied Europe. Holocaust, Hebrew Shoʾah (“Catastrophe”), Yiddish and Hebrew Ḥurban (“Destruction”), the systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men, women, and children and millions of others by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II. The Germans called this “the final solution to the Jewish question.” Yiddish-speaking Jews and survivors in the years immediately following their liberation called the murder of the Jews the Ḥurban, the word used to describe the destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 bce and the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in 70 ce. Shoʾah (“Catastrophe”) is the term preferred by Israelis and the French, most especially after Claude Lanzmann’s masterful 1985 motion picture documentary of that title. It is also preferred by people who speak Hebrew and by those who want to be more particular about the Jewish experience or who are uncomfortable with the religious connotations of the word Holocaust. Less universal and more particular, Shoʾah emphasizes the annihilation of the Jews, not the totality of Nazi victims. More particular terms also were used by Raul Hilberg, who called his pioneering work The Destruction of the European Jews, and Lucy S. Dawidowicz, who entitled her book on the Holocaust The War Against the Jews. In part she showed how Germany fought two wars simultaneously: World War II and the racial war against the Jews. The Allies fought only the World War. The word Holocaust is derived from the Greek holokauston, a translation of the Hebrew word ʿolah, meaning a burnt sacrifice offered whole to God. This word was chosen because in the ultimate manifestation of the Nazi killing program—the extermination camps—the bodies of the victims were consumed whole in crematoria and open fires. In 1983, French scholar George Wellers was one of the first to use German data on deportations; he arrived at a figure of 1,471,595 deaths, including 1.35 million Jews and 86,675 Poles. A larger study in the late 1980s by Franciszek Piper, published by Yad Vashem in 1991, used timetables of train arrivals combined with deportation records to calculate that, of the 1.3 million deported to the camp, 1,082,000 died there between 1940 and 1945, a figure (rounded up to 1.1 million) that he regarded as a minimum and that came to be widely accepted.[e] On 1 August 1940, Governor-General Hans Frank issued a decree requiring all Kraków Jews to leave the city within two weeks. Only those who had jobs directly related to the German war effort would be allowed to stay. Of the 60,000 to 80,000 Jews then living in the city, only 15,000 remained by March 1941. These Jews were then forced to leave their traditional neighbourhood of Kazimierz and relocate to the walled Kraków Ghetto, established in the industrial Podgórze district. Schindler's workers travelled on foot to and from the ghetto each day to their jobs at the factory. Enlargements to the facility in the four years Schindler was in charge included the addition of an outpatient clinic, co-op, kitchen, and dining room for the workers, in addition to expansion of the factory and its related office space. Remarkably, there were instances of individual resistance and collective efforts at fighting back inside Auschwitz. Poles, Communists and other national groups established networks in the main camp. A few Jews escaped from Birkenau, and there were recorded assaults on Nazi guards even at the entrance to the gas chambers. The 'Sonderkommando' revolt in October 1944 was the extraordinary example of physical resistance. Initially, arrivals at Auschwitz-Birkenau would be unloaded on a ramp alongside the main railway lines at Oświęcim. The prisoners would then walk the short distance to the camp. However, in preparation for the arrival of 440,000 Hungarian Jews during the spring of 1944, railway tracks were laid right into the camp, through the now infamous gatehouse building. When a train carrying Jewish prisoners arrived “selections” would be conducted on the railroad platform, or ramp. Newly arrived persons classified by the SS physicians as unfit for labor were sent to the gas chambers: these included the ill, the elderly, pregnant women and children. In most cases, 70-75% of each transport was sent to immediate death. These people were not entered in the camp records; that is, they received no serial numbers and were not registered, and this is why it is possible only to estimate the total number of victims. What the arms, whose charges can be partly traced in tithing seals and boundary stones back to the 16th century, mean is unclear. The charge that the German blazon describes as a “wall anchor” (Maueranker) is not accepted as such by everyone, with some saying it could have been meant to be taken as a weaver’s reel. With a document from 22 July 1926, the interior minister of the People's State of Hesse granted the community the right to bear these arms. There was initially little to distinguish Schindler from the other businessmen who cooperated with the Nazis, until the liquidation of the Kraków ghetto threatened the workers he relied on. As the war dragged on and Schindler began to build personal relationships with his workers, he underwent a personal transformation. Over time, Schindler became less concerned with making a profit; soon he was spending enormous sums of money to keep his workers safe. Some Auschwitz prisoners were subjected to inhumane medical experimentation. The chief perpetrator of this barbaric research was Josef Mengele (1911-79), a German physician who began working at Auschwitz in 1943. Mengele, who came to be known as the “Angel of Death,” performed a range of experiments on detainees. For example, in an effort to study eye color, he injected serum into the eyeballs of dozens of children, causing them excruciating pain. He also injected chloroform into the hearts of twins, to determine if both siblings would die at the same time and in the same manner. Advocacy organizations worldwide called for British Royal Air Forces to bomb concentration camps particularly at Auschwitz. Although the plan was adopted by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill poor information-sharing between parts of the British government led the order to be ignored and the plan dropped. Such calculations were hardly the low point of Allied Responses. One story has that, low on supplies, the Nazis offered the British a million Jews in exchange for 10,000 trucks, which one British diplomat promptly refused saying, “What would I do with one million Jews? Where would I put them?” Killing on a mass scale using gas chambers or gas vans was the main difference between the extermination and concentration camps. From the end of 1941, the Germans built six extermination camps in occupied Poland: Auschwitz II-Birkenau, Majdanek, Chełmno, and the three Operation Reinhard camps at Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka II. Maly Trostenets, a concentration camp in the Reichskommissariat Ostland, became a killing centre in 1942. Gerlach writes that over three million Jews were murdered in 1942, the year that "marked the peak" of the mass murder of Jews. At least 1.4 million of these were in the General Government area of Poland. Birkenau is a very large place and thus it is easy to miss a small portion of camp. In this respect it is well worth visiting the small exhibit located behind Canada - the storehouses where victims belongings were kept. The exhibition is to be found in what was known as the Sauna. Inmates were disinfected here, their hair cut, and they were stripped of their belongings. The exhibition is simple and moving. There is also a room devoted to specific families caught up in the tragedy. Smiling holiday photographs are in contradiction to the madness of what was in store. Sanitary facilities for prisoners at Auschwitz-Birkenau were extremely poor. It was impossible for inmates to keep clean or have a change of clothes. For the first two years of the camp’s existence, the prisoners had no access to water for washing. When there was later water, it was not clean. Prisoners, therefore, spent their existence in the camp dirty and in filthy clothes, which increased the likelihood of them contracting infections and diseases. One element that was lacking from the German army in 1914 was the ability to move long distances quickly. Had the German army been mechanised at the outbreak of World War One, it is likely that the outcome of the war would have been very different. As things were then, the German army was unable to defeat its enemies decisively in the war's early battles, and reluctantly settled into trench warfare in late 1914. In order to gain a more personal perspective on the film, Spielberg traveled to Poland before principal photography began to interview Holocaust survivors and visit the real-life locations that he planned to portray in the movie. While there, he visited the former Gestapo headquarters on Pomorska Street, Schindler’s actual apartment, and Amon Goeth’s villa. Before beginning Jewish exterminations, though, the Nazi’s used the Soviet POWs at the Auschwitz camp in trials of the poison gas Zyklon-B, produced by the German company “Degesch” (Deutsche Gesellschaft zur Schädlingsbekämpfung), which was marked as the best way to kill many people at once. The POWs were gassed in underground cells in Block 11, the so called “Death Block,” and following these trials, one gas chamber was setup just outside the main camp and two temporary gas chambers were opened at Birkenau. By August 1944 there were 105,168 prisoners in Auschwitz whilst another 50,000 Jewish prisoners lived in Auschwitz’s satellite camps. The camp’s population grew constantly, despite the high mortality rate caused by exterminations, starvation, hard labor, and contagious diseases. Upon arrival at the platform in Birkenau, Jews were thrown out of their train cars without their belongings and forced to form two lines, men and women separately. At Auschwitz I, the majority of the complex has remained intact. The architecture of the camp consisted mostly of pre-existing buildings converted by the Nazis to serve new functions. The preserved architecture, spaces and layout still recall the historical functions of the individual elements in their entirety. The interiors of some of the buildings have been modified to adapt them to commemorative purposes, but the external façades of these buildings remain unchanged. Responding to domestic pressures to act on behalf of Jewish refugees, U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt convened, but did not attend, the Évian Conference on resettlement, in Évian-les-Bains, France, in July 1938. In his invitation to government leaders, Roosevelt specified that they would not have to change laws or spend government funds; only philanthropic funds would be used for resettlement. Britain was assured that Palestine would not be on the agenda. The result was that little was attempted and less accomplished. Most troops were moved by half-track vehicles so there was no real need for roads though these were repaired so that they could be used by the Germans at a later date. Once a target had been taken, the Germans did not stop to celebrate victory; they moved on to the next target. Retreating civilians hindered any work done by the army being attacked. Those civilians fleeing the fighting were also attacked to create further mayhem. The French battery now opened rapid fire on our wood and at any moment we could expect their fire to be aimed at our tank, which was in full view. I therefore decided to abandon it as fast as I could, taking the crew with me. At that moment the subaltern in command of the tanks escorting the infantry reported himself wounded, with the words: 'Herr General, my left arm has been shot off.' We clamored up through the sandy pit, shells crashing and splintering all round. Close in front of us trundled Rothenburg's tank with flames pouring out of the rear. The adjutant of the Panzer Regiment had also left his tank. I thought at first that the command tank had been set alight by a hit in petrol tank and was extremely worried for Colonel Rothenbttrg's safety. However, it turned out to be only the smoke candles that had caught light, the smoke from which now served us very well. In the meantime Lieutenant Most had driven my armored signals vehicle into the wood, where it had been hit in the engine and now stood immobilized. The crew was unhurt." “I suddenly see Steinlauf, my friend aged almost fifty, with nude chest, scrub his neck and shoulders with little success (he has no soap) [He] sees me and asks me severely why I do not wash. Why should I wash? Would I be better off than I am? Would I please someone more? Would I live a day longer?…. Does Steinlauf not know that after half an hour with the coal sacks every difference between him and me will have disappeared?…. The German view of the Roma as hereditary criminals and "asocials" was reflected in their classification in the concentration camps, where they were usually counted among the asocials and given black triangles to wear. According to Niewyk and Nicosia, at least 130,000 died out of nearly one million in German-occupied Europe. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum calculates at least 220,000. Ian Hancock, who specializes in Romani history and culture, argues for between 500,000 and 1,500,000. The treatment of the Roma was not consistent across German-occupied territories. Those in France and the Low Countries were subject to restrictions on movement and some confinement to collection camps, while those in Central and Eastern Europe were sent to concentration camps and murdered by soldiers and execution squads. Before being sent to the camps, the Roma were herded into ghettos, including several hundred into the Warsaw Ghetto. Further east, teams of Einsatzgruppen tracked down Romani encampments and murdered the inhabitants on the spot, leaving no records of the victims. After the Germans occupied Hungary, 1,000 Roma were deported to Auschwitz.[x] The people in the houses were rudely awoken by the din of our tanks, the clatter and roar of tracks and engines. Troops lay bivouacked beside the road, military vehicles stood parked in farmyards and in some places on the road itself. Civilians and French troops, their faces distorted with terror, lay huddled in the ditches, alongside hedges and in every hollow beside the road. We passed refugee columns, the carts abandoned by their owners, who had fled in panic into the fields. On we went, at a steady speed, towards our objective. Every so often a quick glance at the map by a shaded light and a short wireless message to Divisional H.Q. to report the position and thus the success of 25th Panzer Regiment. Every so often a look out of the hatch to assure myself that there was still no resistance and that contact was being maintained to the rear. The flat countryside lay spread out around us under the cold light of the moon. We were through the Maginot Line! It was hardly conceivable. Twenty-two years before we had stood for four and a half long years before this self-same enemy and had won victory after victory and yet finally lost the war. And now we had broken through the renowned Maginot Line and were driving deep into enemy territory. It was not just a beautiful dream. It was reality." The twin goals of racial purity and spatial expansion were the core of Hitler’s worldview, and from 1933 onward they would combine to form the driving force behind his foreign and domestic policy. At first, the Nazis reserved their harshest persecution for political opponents such as Communists or Social Democrats. The first official concentration camp opened at Dachau (near Munich) in March 1933, and many of the first prisoners sent there were Communists. When the Soviet army entered Auschwitz on January 27, they found approximately 7,600 sick or emaciated detainees who had been left behind. The liberators also discovered mounds of corpses, hundreds of thousands of pieces of clothing and pairs of shoes and seven tons of human hair that had been shaved from detainees before their liquidation. According to some estimates, between 1.1 million to 1.5 million people, the vast majority of them Jews, died at Auschwitz during its years of operation. An estimated 70,000 to 80,000 Poles perished at the camp, along with 19,000 to 20,000 Gypsies and smaller numbers of Soviet prisoners of war and other individuals. During the interwar period, aircraft and tank technologies matured and were combined with systematic application of the traditional German tactic of Bewegungskrieg (maneuver warfare), deep penetrations and the bypassing of enemy strong points to encircle and destroy enemy forces in a Kesselschlacht (cauldron battle). During the Invasion of Poland, Western journalists adopted the term blitzkrieg to describe this form of armoured warfare. The term had appeared in 1935, in a German military periodical Deutsche Wehr (German Defence), in connection to quick or lightning warfare. German manoeuvre operations were successful in the campaigns of 1939–1941 and by 1940 the term blitzkrieg was extensively used in Western media. Blitzkrieg operations capitalized on surprise penetrations (e.g., the penetration of the Ardennes forest region), general enemy unreadiness and their inability to match the pace of the German attack. During the Battle of France, the French made attempts to re-form defensive lines along rivers but were frustrated when German forces arrived first and pressed on. December 8, 1941 - In occupied Poland, near Lodz, Chelmno extermination camp becomes operational. Jews taken there are placed in mobile gas vans and driven to a burial place while carbon monoxide from the engine exhaust is fed into the sealed rear compartment, killing them. The first gassing victims include 5,000 Gypsies who had been deported from the Reich to Lodz. The gas chambers worked to their fullest capacity from April to July 1944, during the massacre of Hungary's Jews. Hungary was an ally of Germany during the war, but it had resisted turning over its Jews until Germany invaded that March. A rail spur leading to crematoria II and III in Auschwitz II was completed that May, and a new ramp was built between sectors BI and BII to deliver the victims closer to the gas chambers. On 29 April the first 1,800 Hungarian Jews arrived at the camp; from 14 May until early July 1944, 437,000 Hungarian Jews, half the pre-war population, were deported to Auschwitz, at a rate of 12,000 a day for a considerable part of that period. The crematoria had to be overhauled. Crematoria II and III were given new elevators leading from the stoves to the gas chambers, new grates were fitted, and several of the dressing rooms and gas chambers were painted. Cremation pits were dug behind crematorium V. The last mass transports to arrive in Auschwitz were 60,000–70,000 Jews from the Łódź Ghetto, some 2,000 from Theresienstadt, and 8,000 from Slovakia. The last selection took place on 30 October 1944. Crematorium IV was demolished after the Sonderkommando revolt on 7 October 1944. The SS blew up crematorium V on 14 January 1945, and crematoria II and III on 20 January. Although not ordered to take part, psychiatrists and many psychiatric institutions were involved in the planning and carrying out of Aktion T4 at every stage. After protests from the German Catholic and Protestant churches, Hitler ordered the cancellation of the T4 program in August 1941, although the disabled and mentally ill continued to be killed until the end of the war. The medical community regularly received bodies and body parts for research. Eberhard Karl University received 1,077 bodies from executions between 1933 and 1945. The neuroscientist Julius Hallervorden received 697 brains from one hospital between 1940 and 1944: "I accepted these brains of course. Where they came from and how they came to me was really none of my business." Here over an acre of ground lay dead and dying people. You could not see which was which. ... The living lay with their heads against the corpses and around them moved the awful, ghostly procession of emaciated, aimless people, with nothing to do and with no hope of life, unable to move out of your way, unable to look at the terrible sights around them ... Babies had been born here, tiny wizened things that could not live. ... A mother, driven mad, screamed at a British sentry to give her milk for her child, and thrust the tiny mite into his arms. ... He opened the bundle and found the baby had been dead for days. This day at Belsen was the most horrible of my life. In March 1941, Himmler ordered a second, larger complex to be built next to the original camp. It was called Auschwitz II - Birkenau. The camp at Birkenau was divided into subsections surrounded by electric fences with barbed wire. During 1943 and 1944 the BIIb section became the location of the „Terezín family camp“. At its summit, Birkenau had over 100 000 inmates. In March 1942, the Auschwitz III camp was set up at nearby Monowitz, also known as Buna Monowitz. German company I.G. Farben set up a synthetic rubber factory there, in which it used the prisoners' slave labour. Auschwitz also had a further 45 auxiliary camps, where prisoners were forced to engage in slave labour, mostly for German companies. Other historians wrote that blitzkrieg was an operational doctrine of the German armed forces and a strategic concept on which the leadership of the Third Reich based its strategic and economic planning. Military planners and bureaucrats in the war economy appear rarely, if ever, to have employed the term blitzkrieg in official documents. That the German army had a "blitzkrieg doctrine" was rejected in the late 1970s by Matthew Cooper. The concept of a blitzkrieg Luftwaffe was challenged by Richard Overy in the late 1970s and by Williamson Murray in the mid-1980s. That the Third Reich went to war on the basis of "blitzkrieg economics" was criticised by Richard Overy in the 1980s and George Raudzens described the contradictory senses in which historians have used the word. The notion of a German blitzkrieg concept or doctrine survives in popular history and many historians still support the thesis. Companies operate in a very similar fashion to military units when it comes to org structures. The army has specialized divisions. Businesses have departments. But instead of focusing on infantry, air or supplies, companies focus on engineering, product, marketing and so on. And the core thing that an executive needs to learn from the application of Blitzkrieg is that all departments need to be synchronized in order for the maneuver to succeed. It may sound obvious considering most executives are familiar with agile methodologies, and more than 70% of companies consider themselves nimble in their approach. Often, however, the actions taken by these same companies contradict how they perceive themselves. While there were only 23 main camps between 1933 to 1945, the Nazi regime established some 20,000 other camps used for forced labor, transit or temporary internment. During the Holocaust it is estimated that 6 million Jews were slaughtered along with, 3 million Soviet prisoners of war, 3 million Polish Catholics, 700,000 Serbians, 250,000 Gypsies, Sinti, and Lalleri, 80,000 Germans (for political reasons), 70,000 German handicapped, 12,000 homosexuals, and 2,500 Jehovah’s Witnesses. By July 1944, Germany was losing the war; the SS began closing down the easternmost concentration camps and deporting the remaining prisoners westward. Many were killed in Auschwitz and the Gross-Rosen concentration camp. Schindler convinced SS-Hauptsturmführer Amon Göth, commandant of the nearby Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp, to allow him to move his factory to Brněnec in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, thus sparing his workers from almost certain death in the gas chambers. Using names provided by Jewish Ghetto Police officer Marcel Goldberg, Göth's secretary Mietek Pemper compiled and typed the list of 1,200 Jews who travelled to Brünnlitz in October 1944. Schindler continued to bribe SS officials to prevent the execution of his workers until the end of World War II in Europe in May 1945, by which time he had spent his entire fortune on bribes and black market purchases of supplies for his workers.

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Detection of metabolic gas emitted by termites using semiconductor gas sensors. The feasibility of using three types of semiconductor gas sensors to detect the metabolic gas generated by termites was investigated. Odor, methane, and hydrogen sensors made of a tin oxide semiconductor were tested. A polypropylene container was prepared with three sensors in the lid to investigate the relationship between the number of termites and food material on gas concentration over time. Worker and soldier termites (Coptotermesformosanus), collected from a laboratory colony, were put into the container with and without food material (wood specimen). The variation in the electrical resistance of the sensors during the detection of gas components was monitored, and the detected voltage was converted into gas concentration. The hydrogen concentration increased with an increase in the number of termites and was not influenced by gases released from the wood specimen. Similar findings were obtained for the odor sensor, even though it detected odor components from both termites and the wood specimen. The methane sensor did not detect any significant increase in gas concentration. The results showed that the hydrogen emission depended on the feeding activity of worker termites, whereas soldier termites that were supplied with food material by worker termites made a small contribution to hydrogen emission. These findings suggest that because of the high selectivity and sensitivity of the hydrogen sensor, its performance is better than that of the odor and methane sensors for the detection of termite attacks. Presently, the detection of termite attacks in wood is mostly performed by visual inspection. However, it is difficult to detect early termite attacks in this way. Few nondestructive methods for the detection of termite attacks are currently in use in Japan. In the future, there will be a greater need for efficacious nondestructive detection methods to assist in developing a termite control process that requires less termiticide or to realize a chemical-free process. Several methods have been developed and investigated for nondestructive detection of termite attacks. They are classified into two categories: detection of termite activity in wooden structures and evaluation of the loss of mass of wooden structures attacked by termites. Traditionally used methods, such as acoustic emission (AE) monitoring, were developed and investigated for nondestructive detection of early termite attacks. This method involves the detection of elastic waves, or AEs, generated by the feeding activity of worker termites in wood (Fujii et al. 1990, 1998; Noguchi et al. 1991; Yanase et al. 1999). A technique to detect the reflection of micrometer (Evans 2002) or millimeter (Fujii et al. 2007) electromagnetic waves from termite movement in wood has been developed and applied. As for the latter methods, evaluation of inner cavities by measuring the velocity or loss of sound, elastic, or radio waves propagating in wood is one of the popular methods. A scanning radar apparatus at 1.4 GHz, which detects the reflection of waves radiated onto the wood, has been applied for nondestructive detection of inner defects in wood, such as cavities (Fujii and Yanase 2001). Trained dogs can also be employed to detect odors emitted from termite colonies. The ability of dogs to detect varying numbers of subterranean termites has been investigated to (1) differentiate five species of termites, (2) discriminate termites from termite-damaged wood, and (3) distinguish cockroaches and carpenter ants from subterranean termites (Brooks et al. 2003). The trained dogs identified more than 40 termite workers with 96 percent accuracy. However, they incorrectly indicated the presence of termites in 2.7 percent of the containers in which termites were not present. The ability of trained beagles and the use of electronic odor-sensing devices to detect gases emitted by termites have also been investigated by Lewis et al. (1997), who reported that in experiments using wooden blocks with different densities of subterranean termites, beagles identified blocks with termites with an accuracy of 81 percent, whereas electronic odor-sensing devices that primarily detect methane gas had an accuracy of only 48 percent. However, it must be considered that even though trained dogs possess the ability to detect odors from termites with reasonable accuracy, the cost and time required to train these dogs is exorbitant. The most common and abundant gases emitted from termite colonies are C[O.sub.2] and C[H.sub.4]; other gases, such as CH[Cl.sub.3], [N.sub.2]O, CO, and [H.sub.2], may also be emitted (Khalil et al. 1990, Sugimoto et al. 1998). Therefore, the early and accurate detection of these gases might enable nondestructive detection of early termite attacks. On the other hand, semiconductor gas sensors that detect odors, methane, and hydrogen have recently been developed (Suzuki and Takada 1995, Katsuki and Fukui 1999), and these sensors might also be applied to accurately detect termite attacks. In the present study, we investigated the nondestructive detection of termite attacks in wooden structures using three types of semiconductor sensors (odor, methane, and hydrogen) to determine the presence of metabolic gases emitted by termites. The odor sensor applied in this study detected chemical compounds with molecular weights under 300 (e.g., carboxylic acid, amine, and sulfur compounds). Materials and Methods Semiconductor gas sensors Three types of semiconductor gas sensors provided by New Cosmos Electric Co., Ltd., were used for the detection of combustible gases--namely, hydrogen, methane, and hydrocarbon-rich odor components. The gas detection unit of the sensors is made of a tin oxide (Sn[O.sub.2]) semiconductor and is connected to a heater. In clean air, oxygen is adsorbed onto the surface of the unit in the negatively charged state (i.e., [O.sup.-]). When a combustible gas component accesses the unit that is heated at a fixed operating temperature between 300[degrees]C and 450[degrees]C, it is combined with the adsorbed oxygen (oxidized), and the oxygen simultaneously releases an electron. This results in an increase in the electrical conductivity of the metal oxide, which is monitored as the electrical resistance of the unit decreases. Using a small amount of another type of metal oxide as a catalyzer or changing the formation of Sn[O.sub.2] and heaters, the gas detection unit is made functional; the unit selectively detects odors, methane, and other hydrocarbons (Suzuki and Takada 1995). The Sn[O.sub.2] unit covered with a dense but fine porous silica (Si[O.sub.2]) layer is used to detect hydrogen (Katsuki and Fukui 1998). Using a filtering function, only gases with the smallest molecular weight, such as hydrogen, can reach the gas detection unit. A transparent container (inside diameter, 110 mm; height, 80 mm; capacity, 725 mL) made of polypropylene was prepared, and three types of gas sensors were connected to the container lid (Fig. 1). A specific number of worker and soldier termites with and without food material were placed in the container. The variations in the electrical resistance of the sensors during the detection of the gas components were monitored by a bridge circuit and a buffer amplifier, recorded to a voltage logger, and eventually postprocessed by a computer. The detected voltage was converted into a gas concentration by a calibration curve obtained previously using the target gas (ethanol for odor sensor). Subterranean termites (Coptotermes formosanus) were collected from a laboratory colony (Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere). Four termite groups, each comprising a worker-soldier pair, were formed: (1) 100 workers with 10 soldiers, (2) 200 workers with 20 soldiers, (3) 500 workers with 50 soldiers, and (4) 1,000 workers with 100 soldiers (10% of the each worker group). Each termite group was placed in a polypropylene container prepared under one of the four conditions shown in Figure 2: Condition 1." A sheet of wet filter paper was placed in the container. Condition 2: A small wood specimen (30 by 30 by 50 mm) of Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora), with water supplied, was placed in the container as food material. Condition 3: A wet cotton sheet was placed under an acrylic tube (inside diameter, 80 ram; height, 50 mm) sealed by water-permeable plaster at the bottom, and a small specimen of Japanese red pine was placed in the tube as food material. Condition 4: Same as Condition 3, except that the termites had not eaten for 2 days (starving) before gas measurement. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Gas measurements without termites in each of the four conditions were also conducted as a control. All gas measurements continued for 10 hours after placing the termite group in the container, and the measured gas concentrations were compared for different termite groups and container conditions. All gas measurements were repeated five times. The relationship between the gas concentration and ratio of the number of workers to that of soldiers in a group of 200 termites was also investigated. Termite groups in Experiment 2 were as follows: (1) 200 workers, (2) 150 workers with 50 soldiers, (3) 100 workers with 100 soldiers, (4) 50 workers with 150 soldiers, and (5) 200 soldiers. These groups were placed in the polypropylene container under Condition 4 as shown in Figure 2, and after 10 hours, the gas concentrations were measured using the three types of gas sensors. All gas measurements were repeated five times. Results and Discussions Figure 3 shows the gas concentrations over time for a termite group of 500 workers and 50 soldiers in Condition 3. The gas concentrations increased for the first 3 hours but then changed only slightly thereafter. For the methane sensor, the gas concentration was greater than 300 ppm from the beginning of the measurement, even though no methane-emitting objects other than the termite group were present in the container. Similar trends were observed in the other conditions containing termites. The initial methane concentration can be attributed to an offset voltage in the gas-detecting device, and we will subsequently discuss the differences relative to the initial value. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] The gas concentrations measured by each gas sensor after 10 hours from the beginning of the measurement are shown in Figures 4, 5, and 6. For the odor sensor (Fig. 4), gas concentrations measured in each termite group were greater than 20 ppm, except for the group in Condition 1 without food material. However, the correlation between gas concentrations and the number of termites was not significant, and the difference in the gas concentration between Conditions 3 and 4 (with and without starving) was not clear. In addition, more than 20 ppm of the odor component was detected for Japanese red pine without termites. These findings suggest that the gas concentrations measured by the odor-selective sensor can be attributed to the odor components generated from the wood specimen. Thus, the odor sensor is not considered to be suitable for the selective detection of odors generated from termites. For the methane sensor (Fig. 5), the gas concentration in the conditions without termites was approximately 300 ppm, and this can be attributed to the previously mentioned offset voltage in the device. However, the gas concentration increased with the number of termites. The feeding activity of worker termites was expected to increase by the addition of moisture, as in Condition 3 as opposed to Condition 2, or by using the termites in a starving state, as in Condition 4 as opposed to Condition 3. However, corresponding changes were not observed in the methane concentration. Thus, it was difficult to detect methane gas generated from termite activity using the methane sensor, even though methane is one of the most dominant metabolic gases emitted by termites (Khalil et al. 1990). The measurement time of 10 hours may not have been sufficient to detect methane gas, because the extent of wood consumption by termites was small in these measurements. For the hydrogen sensor, gas concentrations ranging from 10 to 60 ppm were measured only for the conditions with termites (Fig. 6). The gas concentrations increased with the number of termites in the container, with the exception of Condition 3. The gas concentrations for Condition 4 (with starving) were higher than those for Condition 3 (without starving), except for the case with 200 workers and 20 soldiers. The gas components emitted from the wet filter paper or wood specimen were found to have no influence. Therefore, the change in hydrogen concentration can be attributed to the termite activity, and literature reporting that hydrogen is produced in the guts of termites by a termite-symbiont system (Sugimoto et al. 1998) supports these results. The hydrogen sensor detected small numbers of termites and may be useful in early detection of structural infestations. Figure 7 shows the gas concentrations for five termite groups with different worker:soldier ratios; concentrations were measured using the three gas sensors for 10 hours. No significant relationship was found between the ratio of workers to soldiers and the concentrations of odor or methane, whereas higher concentrations of hydrogen were measured as the ratio of workers to soldiers increased. In particular, the hydrogen concentration was remarkably higher for groups of 200 or 150 workers than for the group with no workers. This suggests that hydrogen is generated by the feeding activity of workers, whereas soldiers that were provided with food material from workers generated only a small amount of hydrogen. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] [FIGURE 6 OMITTED] Regarding the detection of metabolic gases generated by a small number of termites using three types of semiconductor gas sensors, the performance of the hydrogen sensor was better than that of the odor and methane sensors. Hydrogen was generated by the feeding activity of workers, whereas soldiers that were fed by workers generated only a small amount of hydrogen. [FIGURE 7 OMITTED] It appears that the gas concentration is below the lower detectable limit when gas sampling is conducted in the condition of exposure to air. Thus, to establish the use of gas sensors, especially the hydrogen sensor, for nondestructive detection of termite attacks, it is necessary to develop sampling and evaluation methods for smaller gas concentrations. It is also important to obtain useful information about the mechanisms of metabolic gas emission by investigating the effects of other termite species and environmental factors (e.g., humidity and temperature) on gas emission and the relationship between termite feeding activity and gas emission. We thank Dr. Toru Maekawa and Mr. Kengo Suzuki of New Cosmos Electric Co., Ltd., for providing semiconductor gas sensors. Brooks, S. E., F. M. Oi, and P. G. Koehler. 2003. Ability of canine termite detectors to locate live termites and discriminate them from nontermite material. J. Econ. Entomol. 96(4): 1259-1265. Evans, T. A. 2002. Assessing efficacy of Termatrac[TM]; a new microwave based technology for non-destructive detection of termites (Isoptera). Sociobiology 40(3):575-583. Fujii, Y., Y. Fujiwara, Y. Yanase, S. Okumura, K. Narahara, T. Nagatsuma, T. Yoshimura, and Y. Imamura. 2007. Nondestructive detection of termites using a millimeter-wave imaging technique. Forest Prod. J. 57(10):75-79. Fujii, Y., M. Noguchi, Y. lmamura, and M. Tokoro. 1990. Using acoustic emission monitoring to detect termite activity in wood. Forest Prod. J. 40(1):34-36. Fujii, Y. and Y. Yanase. 2001. Nondestructive evaluation of decay and insect attack in wood using acoustic emission (AE) monitoring and a radar technique. Tools for maintaining wood in outdoor applications. In: High-Performance Utilization of Wood for Outdoor Uses. Wood Research Institute, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan. pp. 145-160. Fujii, Y., Y. Yanase, Y. lmamura, S. Okumura, and S. Oka. 1998. Detection of termite attack in wooden buildings with AE monitoring: Case study at a traditional Japanese warehouse. Jpn. J. Environ. Entomol. Zool. 9(3): 101-105. Katsuki, A. and K. Fukui. 1998. H2 selective gas sensor based on SnO2. Sons. Actuators B Chem. 52(1):30-37. Katsuki, A. and K. Fukui. 1999. Applications of gas sensors for security and control systems in use of hydrogen. In: Proceedings of the 5th Korea-Japan Joint Symposium '99 on Hydrogen Energy, Yusong, November 26, 1999; Korean Hydrogen Energy Society, Taejon, Korea. pp. 183-191. Khalil, M. A. K., R. A. Rasmussen, J. R. J. French, and J. A. Holt. 1990. The influence of termites on atmospheric trace gases: C[H.sub.4], C[O.sub.2], CH[CL.sub.3], [N.sub.2]O, CO, [H.sub.2], and light hydrocarbons. J. Geophys. Res. 95(D4):3619-3634. Lewis, V. R., C. F. Fouche, and R. L. Lemaster. 1997. Evaluation of dog-assisted searches and electronic odor devices for detecting the western subterranean termite. Forest Prod. J. 47(10):79-84. Noguchi, M., Y. Fujii, M. Owada, Y. Imamura, and M. Tokoro. 1991. AE monitoring to detect termite attack on wood of commercial dimension and posts. Forest Prod. J. 41(9):32-36. Sugimoto, A., T. Inoue, I. Tayasu, L. Miller, S. Takeichi, and T. Abe. 1998. Methane and hydrogen production in a termite-symbiont system. Ecol. Res. 13(2):241-257. Suzuki, K. and T. Takada. 1995. Highly sensitive odor sensors using Sn[O.sub.2] thick films. Sons. Actuators B Chem. 24-25:773-776 Yanase Y., Y. Fujii, S. Okumura, Y. Imamura, and M. Kozaki. 1999. Detection of termite attack in wooden buildings using AE monitoring: A case study at a house of wooden panel construction. Jpn. J. Environ. Entomol. Zool. 10(4):160-168. The authors are, respectively, Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, and Professor, Div. of Forest and Biomaterials Sci., Graduate School of Agric., Kyoto Univ., Kyoto, Japan ([email protected] [corresponding author], [email protected], [email protected]); and Professor, Research Inst. for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto Univ., Kyoto, Japan ([email protected]). This paper was received for publication in August 2012. Article no. 12-00091. |Printer friendly Cite/link Email Feedback| |Author:||Yanase, Yoshiyuki; Fujii, Yoshihisa; Okumura, Shogo; Yoshimura, Tsuyoshi| |Publication:||Forest Products Journal| |Date:||Aug 1, 2012| |Previous Article:||Physical properties and consumer reaction to use of compressed wood bricks in southeast Alaska.| |Next Article:||The effect of raw material, cut length, and chip discharge on the performance of an industrial chipper.|

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The Sumerian City Laments and the Book of Lamentations Introduction: Sumerian City Laments The City Laments are characterized by vivid, rich descriptions of the destruction of the city, the mass killing of its inhabitants, and the loss of its central temple. In addition, the laments devote special attention to the divine sphere, where the great gods order the destruction of the city, and the city patron gods beseech them to alter their decision, but to no avail. The patron gods are then forced to abandon their city prior to, or simultaneously with, the destruction. They live as deportees in foreign cites, lamenting their devastated shrine. Eventually, after the destruction, they are invited to return to their holy abode and to renew their days as of old. Eichah (Lamentations) as Part of the City-Lament Genre Shortly after the first Sumerian City Laments were deciphered in the early twentieth century, scholars began to notice their thematic and phraseological parallels to the biblical book of Lamentations. For instance, the deportee goddess in the Ur Lament l. 360 cries: “I am one who can find no rest”, and an identical phrase describes the exiled daughter of Zion in Lamentations 1:3 (לֹא מָצְאָה מָנוֹחַ; she found no rest). Another example is the reference to the lack of musicians in the destroyed city, which appears in both traditions: Ur Lament (356) זְקֵנִים מִשַּׁעַר שָׁבָתוּ בַּחוּרִים מִנְּגִינָתָם |The old men are gone from the gate, The young men from their music.||They are no longer playing for you the šem and ala drums that gladden the heart, nor the tigi.| Both traditions also use the image of pitchers, or potsherds, as a metaphor for dying people: Ur Lament (211) בְּנֵי צִיּוֹן הַיְקָרִים הַמְסֻלָּאִים בַּפָּז אֵיכָה נֶחְשְׁבוּ לְנִבְלֵי חֶרֶשׂ מַעֲשֵׂה יְדֵי יוֹצֵר |The precious children of Zion; Once valued as gold—Alas, they are accounted as earthen pots,Work of a potter’s hands!||Its people littered its sides like potsherds.| Another famous example is the ‘fox in the ruins’ image, which is shared by the biblical and Sumerian lament traditions: Ur Lament (269) עַל הַר צִיּוֹן שֶׁשָּׁמֵם שׁוּעָלִים הִלְּכוּ בוֹ |Because of Mount Zion, which lies desolate; Foxes walk over it.||In the rivers of my city, dust has gathered, foxholes are made therein| Did the Authors of Lamentations Know the Sumerian Laments? On the basis of these and other parallels, some scholars suggested that the authors of Lamentations were familiar with the Sumerian city laments, and were deeply influenced by them. However, our current knowledge of the history of transmission of Sumerian Literature does not support this theory. It is now known that Sumerian City Laments, like most of the Sumerian classical literature, ceased to be transmitted during the sixteenth century BCE at the latest. The Book of Lamentations was composed a millennium later, after the destruction of Jerusalem in 586. In that period, the Sumerian City Laments would have long been forgotten, in Mesopotamia as well as in other parts of the ancient Near East. However, the lack of direct historical connection between the two City Lament traditions does not necessarily mean that any comparative discussion of them would be futile. Comparisons that focus on direct literary dependence are only one type of comparative discussion. We may replace historical questions by theological, typological or cultural ones, which are by no means less fruitful. Lamentation literature involves crucial theological issues, such as: - How to explain the chaotic phenomenon of destruction? - How to deal with the pure evil involved in it? - In what terms should the divine involvement in this horrifying event be treated? - Is it possible to restore the relationship with a god who has abandoned his people and city, or alternatively demolished them by his own hands, and if so, how? Each civilization has its own set of philosophical and theological assumptions, and each wrestles differently with the challenges involved in the extraordinary phenomenon of destruction. A theological comparison between the two traditions sheds light on the unique features of each culture and on its specific theology. Below is a short review of several central points of similarity and difference between the theology and philosophy of Sumerian City Laments and the Biblical Book of Lamentations. The Nature of Destruction Sumerian Laments: Cosmological Imagery In the Sumerian City Laments, the destruction of the city and temple involves an overall cosmological chaos. The physical destruction is conceptualized as an expression of the destruction of the mythological infrastructure of the city’s existence. Thus, what are actually being destroyed are the city’s “plans” (Sumerian: ĝišhur), “rituals” (Sumerian: ĝarza), and “rational judgment” (Sumerian: umuš, ĝalga, or dim). The divine powers of the city-of-holiest-divine-powers were overturned. The divine powers of the rites of the greatest divine powers were altered. In Eridu everything was reduced to ruin, was wrought with confusion (Eridu Lament 15–17). The devastation of these infrastructures is expressed in reality by means of an abrupt loss of the city’s wealth, honor, and fertility, and by the collapse of all social institutions. Priests abandon their offices; shepherds burn their pens; men neglect their wives and sons. The mother looked away from her daughter—the people moan. The father turned away from his son—the people moan. In the city, the wife was abandoned, the child was abandoned, possessions were scattered about (Ur Lament 232–234). Abnormal climatic phenomena, such as dimmed daylight and blazing fire, are also associated with the destruction: In front of the storm, a fire blazes—the people moan. With the raging storm, a fiery glow burns. At noon, when the fog usually dissipates, the fire blazes. At midday, when a bright sun usually rises, the somber “storm-day” scorched. In the land, the bright sun did not rise; like a twilight star it dawned (Ur Lament 187–192). Lamentations: Realistic Depiction The book of Lamentations, on the other hand, is interested mainly in the real, terrestrial rather than heavenly or cosmic realm of the destruction, and its descriptions are mostly realistic, and do not include miraculous disruptions of the laws of nature. The desolation is the consequence of destruction and exile (Lamentations 1:5), not of an overall cosmic collapse: הָיוּ צָרֶיהָ לְרֹאשׁ עוֹלָלֶיהָ הָלְכוּ שְׁבִי Her enemies are now the masters, Her foes are at ease… Her infants have gone into captivity Before the enemy. The death of the inhabitants is the consequence of natural events such as famine or killing (Lamentations 4:4–10), and, unlike in the Sumerian City Laments, the consuming fire is a natural rather than a supernatural phenomenon (Lamentations 1:13; 2:3). This difference between the two traditions is related to a broader issue of biblical theology. Scholars have noticed that the Bible generally prefers to describe the divine activities in the realm of history, while other religious groups from the Ancient Near East preferred to focus on the actions of the gods in the sphere of nature. Sumerian City Laments: The Great Gods against the Patron Gods According to the Sumerian City Laments, The generators of the destruction are the “great gods,” especially the chief god, Enlil. The great gods decide to destroy the city (Sumer and Ur Lament 1–55), and carry out this decision either by themselves, or with the help of minor deities and demons. On the other side of the theological barricade we find the patron-gods of the city, who, following the formal decision of the divine assembly, are forced to abandon their city and temple. In some cases, the patron gods – and especially the patron goddesses – attempt to rescue their city from destruction by pleading, screaming and shedding tears before the divine council, but their plea is rejected: When they (=the great gods) had commanded the utter destruction of my city, When they had commanded the utter destruction of Ur, When they had ordered that its people be killed – On that day, I (=the patron goddess) did not forsake my city, I did not neglect my land. I shed my tears before An, I myself made supplication before Enlil: “Let not my city be destroyed!” I said to them. “Let not Ur be destroyed!” I said to them. “Let not its people perish!” I said to them. But An would not change that word, Enlil would not soothe my heart with that: “It is good; so be it.” (Ur Lament 140-151). The patron deities are then forced to leave their city, and the goddess laments her city and shrine: Mother Ningal (=Ur’s patron goddess) kept away from her city… the woman bitterly utters the wailing for her devastated house, The princess bitterly cries over her devastated shrine, Ur: “…My daughters and sons have been carried off in ships; ‘Alas, my men!’ I shall cry… My young men, in a desert they know not, wear filthy garments… Woe is me! My city that ceased to exist, I am no longer its lady!” (Ur Lament 252–286) This division between two divine groups is typical of a polytheistic world. In the current case, it seems to have a very useful theological function. While the destruction itself is assigned to the great, fearsome gods, the compassion, the attempts to defend the city and the final return are ascribed to the accessible and benevolent patron gods of the city. Book of Lamentations: The Decision of the One God The monotheistic world of Lamentations does not enable such a separation. The furious, destroying god is also the compassionate savior. The second chapter in Lamentations, for instance, depicts a cruel picture of God as the exclusive destroyer of Jerusalem, who demolishes the city and kills his people by his own hands (Lamentations 2:1–5): אֵיכָה יָעִיב בְּאַפּוֹ אֲדֹנָי אֶת בַּת־צִיּוֹן הִשְׁלִיךְ מִשָּׁמַיִם אֶרֶץ תִּפְאֶרֶת יִשְׂרָאֵל וְלֹא־זָכַר הֲדֹם רַגְלָיו בְּיוֹם אַפּוֹ. בִּלַּע אֲדֹנָי וְלֹא חָמַל אֵת כָּל־נְאוֹת יַעֲקֹב הָרַס בְּעֶבְרָתוֹ מִבְצְרֵי בַת יְהוּדָה הִגִּיעַ לָאָרֶץ חִלֵּל מַמְלָכָה וְשָׂרֶיהָ. גָּדַע בָּחֳרִי אַף כֹּל קֶרֶן יִשְׂרָאֵל הֵשִׁיב אָחוֹר יְמִינוֹ מִפְּנֵי אוֹיֵב וַיִּבְעַר בְּיַעֲקֹב כְּאֵשׁ לֶהָבָה אָכְלָה סָבִיב. דָּרַךְ קַשְׁתּוֹ כְּאוֹיֵב נִצָּב יְמִינוֹ כְּצָר וַיַּהֲרֹג כֹּל מַחֲמַדֵּי־עָיִן בְּאֹהֶל בַּת־צִיּוֹן שָׁפַךְ כָּאֵשׁ חֲמָתוֹ. הָיָה אֲדֹנָי כְּאוֹיֵב בִּלַּע יִשְׂרָאֵל בִּלַּע כָּל אַרְמְנוֹתֶיהָ שִׁחֵת מִבְצָרָיו וַיֶּרֶב בְּבַת־יְהוּדָה תַּאֲנִיָּה וַאֲנִיָּה. How has the Lord covered the daughter of Zion with a cloud in his anger! He cast down from heaven to earth the majesty of Israel, and did not remember his footstool in the day of his wrath. The Lord has laid waste without pity all the habitations of Jacob, he has destroyed in his wrath the strongholds of the daughter of Judah; He has brought low in dishonor the kingdom and its leaders. He has cut down in fierce anger all the might of Israel; he has drawn back their (=Israel’s) right hand from before the enemy, and he burned against Jacob like a flaming fire, consuming on all sides. He has bent his bow like an enemy, (held) the sword’s haft in his right hand like an adversary, and slew all who were delighted to the eye. In the tabernacle of the daughter of Zion he poured out his wrath like fire. The Lord was as an enemy, he has laid waste Israel, he has laid waste all her citadels, destroyed his strongholds, and has increased in the daughter of Judah mourning and moaning. The divine action in Lamentations 2 is so dominant that it overshadows any potential human involvement; God is the one and only generator of the disaster. However, a monotheistic point of view does not mean a monolithic theology. In addition to the harsh model of responsibility suggested by Lamentations 2, the book suggests also a softer mechanism, which assigns a fair part of the responsibility to the human foes. The latter model is characteristic especially to Lamentations 1, which pays a great deal of attention to the human enemies who destroyed the city (Lam 1:3–6), as well as to those who betrayed and despised her (Lam 1:1–2; 7–9). בָּכוֹ תִבְכֶּה בַּלַּיְלָה וְדִמְעָתָהּ עַל לֶחֱיָהּ כָּל־רֵעֶיהָ בָּגְדוּ בָהּ הָיוּ לָהּ לְאֹיְבִים She weeps sore in the night, and her tears are on her cheek; There is none to comfort her of all her lovers; all her friends have betrayed her, they have all became her enemies (Lamentations 1:2). בִּנְפֹל עַמָּהּ בְּיַד־צָר וְאֵין עוֹזֵר לָהּ שָׂחֲקוּ עַל מִשְׁבַּתֶּהָ When her people fell into the hand of the enemy, and none did help her, the adversaries saw her, and mocked at her downfall (Lamentations 1:7). Thus, the Sumerian drama relates to the triangle: Great Gods – Patron Gods – People; the biblical drama has to do with the triangle: God – Foreign Nations – Israel. These triangles reflect two different arenas, each dealing in its own way with the divine cruelty. The Reasons for the Destruction Sumerian City Laments: Determinism The Sumerian City Laments suggest several different explanations for the destruction. In one passage, it states that the destruction is unexplainable, since the heart of the chief god Enlil is “darkened,” that is, his considerations are inaccessible to human beings “Father Enlil, the one who advises with just words, the wise words of the Land […] your inimical judgment […] look into your darkened heart, terrifying like waves. O Father Enlil, the fate that you have decreed cannot be explained” (Sumer and Ur Lament 456–458). Another passage presents the Sumerian belief that the end of a reign comes when its appointed duration expires. The existence of this appointed time of duration is a cosmic law that cannot be changed or resisted. The judgment uttered by the assembly cannot be turned back, the word spoken by An and Enlil knows no overturning. Ur was indeed given kingship; but it was not given an eternal reign… who has ever seen a reign of kingship that would take precedence (for ever)? The reign of its kingship has been long indeed, but had to exhaust itself (LSUr 364–369). Yet another explanation suggests that the gods decided to destroy the city and kill its inhabitants in order to balance the uncontrolled multiplying of mankind Mortal man multiplied to become as numerous as the gods. When together […] had achieved a momentous decision, the […] of the gods […] Enki and Ninki determined the consensus… Enul and Ninul assigned the fate” (Uruk Lament 4–5). All these explanations share the basic assumption that the destruction is unrelated to, and unaffected by, human deeds. From this respect, the theology of Sumerian City Laments could be classified as deterministic. The Book of Lamentations: Human Culpability The book of Lamentations, on the other hand, assumes, at least in certain passages, a basic mechanism of divine retribution: The city and the temple were destroyed due to the nation’s sins (Lam 1:8). חֵטְא חָטְאָה יְרוּשָׁלִַם עַל־כֵּן לְנִידָה הָיָתָה Jerusalem has grievously sinned; therefore she became despised. Similarly, any prospective restoration will be possible only when the nation recognizes its guilt (Lamentations 3:40–42). נַחְפְּשָׂה דְרָכֵינוּ וְנַחְקֹרָה וְנָשׁוּבָה עַד י-הוה נִשָּׂא לְבָבֵנוּ אֶל־כַּפָּיִם נַחְנוּ פָשַׁעְנוּ וּמָרִינוּ אַתָּה לֹא סָלָחְתָּ Let us search and examine our ways, and turn back to the Lord. Let us lift up our heart with our hands to God in heaven. We have transgressed and rebelled, and you have not forgiven. This point of view is in accordance with the common biblical theology, which is fundamentally based on the assumption of free choice. TheTorah.com is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. We rely on the support of readers like you. Please support us. July 22, 2015 October 8, 2019 Dr. Nili Samet teaches Bible and Assyriology at the department of Bible in Bar-Ilan University. She holds a Ph.D. in Bible from Bar-Ilan University and an M.A. in Assyriology from the Hebrew University. She is the author of The Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur: A Revised Edition. Essays on Related Topics: Previous in the Series Next in the Series

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Post by Cliff Harvey The New Zealand Heart Foundation state that the “Tick Programme helps New Zealanders make healthier food choices” but evidence would suggest that many of the foods that sport the Heart Foundation’s Tick are exactly the type of foods that do not support making of better health. The Heart Foundation have only recently reinstituted a sugar requirement for the tick (and the new ‘two tick’ strategy) in spite of voluminous evidence that sugar intake is of primary importance for a range of health outcomes including those related to cardiovascular health. The guidelines still fail to adequately address glycaemic loads from non-sugar choices and for example, provide a highly favourable weighting to wholegrain foods including breads and other high carbohydrate, highly glycaemic and highly insulinergic foods, along with a continued preference for low-fat dairy despite there being no compelling evidence that low-fat dairy offers any benefit. In fact it has been demonstrated that (contrary to the authors hypothesis) lower fat varieties of milk products are associated with weight gain but full-fat dairy is not (Berkey, Rockett, Willett, & Colditz, 2005), and amongst other evidence a recent review has concluded that recommendations to reduce dairy fat are in contrast to the available evidence (Kratz, Baars, & Guyenet, 2013). Many of the guidelines (including for example that of low-fat dairy preference) are based on the a priori position that energy intake trumps other factors related to diet. At HPN we contend that this is not in fact the case. There are efficiencies and inefficiencies within any living system and thus a calorific argument based solely on laboratory calorimetry fails to take these into account. Feinman and Fein (2004) have noted that “’a calorie is a calorie’ violates the second law of thermodynamics” due to its relative inability to account for metabolic advantages (such as alterations in lipogenesis, lipolysis, protein accretion and catabolism) arising from various dietary strategies incorporating differing macronutrient contents. A reason for continuing to endorse a low-fat high-carbohydrate diet is based on the greater energy density of fats compared to carbohydrates. The Atwater factor for carbohydrate is 4 calories per gram compared to 9 calories per gram for fats. Thus avoiding fat equates to fewer calories per mouthful and therefore a greater likelihood of weight gain. Willet and Liebel (2002) concluded that "within the United States, a substantial decline in the percentage of energy from fat during the last two decades has corresponded with a massive increase in the prevalence of obesity. Diets high in fat do not appear to be the primary cause of the high prevalence of excess body fat in our society, and reductions in fat will not be a solution (p.1)." The failure of high-carbohydrate and low-fat diet recommendations is indicated by the consistent lowering of carbohydrate recommendations over the last 20 years. The World Health Organisation (WHO) published dietary guidelines in 1998 (World Health Organisation, 1998) suggesting a range of 55%-70% of calories come from carbohydrate, but a 2007 update suggests that there is little actual evidence for the lower threshold and suggesting this could be lowered to 50% of calories (Mann et al., 2007). Indeed Nutrient Reference Values (NRV) for New Zealand and Australia state that the diet should contain a only a minimum of 45% of its calories from carbohydrate (Dietitians Association of Australia, 2013). In contrast to the recommendations favouring a high carbohydrate (and consequently low fat and low-moderate protein) high-protein, low-carbohydrate (HPLC) diets appear to enhance weight-loss and improve glycaemic control, with a greater loss of body-fat and reduced loss of lean body mass compared to high-carbohydrate diets. This is due to a number of factors that are yet to be fully elucidated including (but perhaps not limited to): increased satiety, increased thermogenesis, muscle sparing and enhanced glycaemic control (Farnsworth et al., 2003; Labayen, Diez, Gonzalez, Parra, & Martinez, 2002; Layman & Baum, 2004; Piatti et al., 1994). Noakes and others have demonstrated that there may be further nutritional benefits (aside from weight-loss which was demonstrated) resulting from higher protein diets—with greater fat loss in the obese exhibiting high triacylglycerol TAG)counts, reduced TAG and improved B12 status compared to higher carbohydrate diets (Noakes, Keogh, Foster, & Clifton, 2005). The positive effects of higher protein intake on anthropometry in particular can be explained due to several factors, including increased satiety and thermogenesis when compared to equivalent amounts of either carbohydrates or fat (Keller, 2011). There is also higher thermic effect of feeding (TEF) associated with protein ingestion as compared to either carbohydrate or fat (Johnston, Day, & Swan, 2002; Robinson et al., 1990; Westerterp, 2004) A higher protein intake is considered to be more satiating than the carbohydrate it is displacing. A 2004 review by Halton and Hu (2004) found there to be convincing evidence that a higher protein intake increases thermogenesis and satiety compared to diets of a lower protein content. Low carbohydrate, high fat diets (often with low-to-moderate protein) likewise have demonstrated sufficient evidence to be considered a therapeutic option for the primary and adjunctive treatment of: fatty liver disease (Tendler et al., 2007); type 1 diabetes (Nielsen, Gando, Joensson, & Paulsson, 2012); type 2 diabetes (W. Yancy, Foy, Chalecki, Vernon, & Westman, 2005); cancer (Fine et al., 2012); and cognitive impairment (Krikorian et al., 2012). LCHF diets are also likely to be superior to low fat diets for improving several markers of cardiovascular health (Ebbeling et al., 2012; McAuley et al., 2006; Shai et al., 2008) with the possible exception of low density lipoprotein (LDL). However the HDL:triglyceride ratio appears to be more favourably impacted with an LCHF diet in comparison with a higher carbohydrate diet (Sikaris, 2014), and lipid sub-fractions (including large particle LDL) may be increased favourably with an LCHF diet (Westman, Yancy Jr, Olsen, Dudley, & Guyton, 2006). LCHF diets may provide ‘metabolic advantage’ of greater retention of lean mass, with greater fat-loss when compared to higher carbohydrate diets providing the same amount of calories. This has been demonstrated in short term studies since the 1960s (Benoit, Martin, & Watten, 1965). This does not contravene the laws of energy conservation (first law of thermodynamics) as there are inefficiencies and efficiencies within systems based on macronutrient inputs and the thermic effect of foods of varying macronutrient contents may provide for a net calorie loss (Buchholz & Schoeller, 2004; Feinman & Fine, 2004). These studies taken in totality suggest that a restriction of carbohydrate, irrespective of what it is replacing has the greatest effect on weight-loss and may positively affect cardiovascular health. Therefore the position that a higher-carbohydrate diet with low levels of fat is superior for health and thus foods with lower energy, lower fat and higher carbohydrates warrant the Tick is spurious. The Heart Foundation’s Tick Programme continues to heavily weight against foods containing higher levels of fat and in particular saturated fats despite a paucity of statistical evidence linking reduced fat or reduced saturated fat with cardiovascular disease end points. A Cochrane Review (Hooper et al., 2011) of RCTs on the effects of modifying fat intake and reduced fat intakes found no overall effect of the diets on total mortality (relative risk 0.98, 95% CI: 0.93 to 1.04) nor CVD mortality (relative risk: 0.94, 95% CI 0.85 to 1.04). However a small relative reduction in cardiovascular events was noted (pooled RR: 0.86, 95% CI 0.77 to 0.96). Other meta-analyses find little statistical evidence for an effect of modified saturated fat intake on CVD mortality (Mente, de Koning, Shannon, & Anand, 2009; Siri-Tarino, Sun, Hu, & Krauss, 2010). Links between saturated fat intake and CVD end points are primarily found when in modified fat diets, where saturated fat is replaced with another macronutrient, typically either carbohydrate of another fat class (PUFA or MUFA). For example Jakobsen et al. (2009) demonstrated from cohort data a reduction in coronary disease events (pooled hazard ratio 0.69; 95% CI 0.59, 0.81) and coronary disease mortality (pooled hazard ratio 0.57; 95% CI 0.42 to 0.77) when saturated fat was replaced by polyunsaturated fats. However no association was noted when SFAs were replaced with either MUFAs or carbohydrate, suggesting a positive role in cardio-protection from PUFA intake, and not an absolute effect from the ingestion of SFAs, and casting doubt on the common recommendation to replace saturated fat with carbohydrate and/or MUFAs. More specifically it is suggested that omega 3 PUFAs may be cardio-protective and that this may account for the benefits seen with PUFA for SFA substitution. The meta-analysis by Skeaff and Miller (2009) found that higher intakes of total fat and saturated fat were not significantly associated with CHD in cohort studies, but that various substitutions of PUFA for SFA had beneficial associations in randomised controlled trials (RCTs). However, the strength of results from RCT meta-analysis is highly dependent on selection criteria; inclusion of the Finnish Hospital study (Turpeinen, Pekkarinen, Miettinen, Elosuo, & Paavilainen, 1979), with its unusual “revolving door” methodology and confounding drug use, increases the likelihood of findings favourable to PUFA substitution, while adding the newly recovered data from the Sydney Diet Heart Study has the opposite effect (Ramsden et al., 2013). Mozaffarian et al.(2010) in a meta-analysis of FA substitution RCTs which also failed to distinguish between omega 6 and omega 3 fatty acids stated that the method “cannot distinguish between potentially distinct benefits of increasing polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) versus decreasing saturated fatty acids (SFA).” RCTs conducted in the past to test this hypothesis did not produce conclusive results, but were suggestive of benefit from omega 3 fatty acids only (Ramsden et al., 2013). And clinical practice guidelines such as those published by the American College of Cardiology support the use of omega 3 fatty acid supplements for women (Mosca et al., 2004). A common criticism of higher fat-containing diets is the suggested linear correlation between LDL-cholesterol and ischemic heart disease mortality. However the effect of a distorted HDL-total cholesterol level appears to be a greater factor associated with IHD mortality by a factor of around 40% (Prospective Studies Collaboration, 2007) and diets lower in carbohydrate and higher in fat have consistently demonstrated improved HDL-total cholesterol ratios, along with reduced triacylglycerol levels (Foster et al., 2003; "A Randomized Trial Comparing a Very Low Carbohydrate Diet and a Calorie-Restricted Low Fat Diet on Body Weight and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Healthy Women," 2003; Sharman et al., 2002; J. W. S. Yancy, Olsen, Guyton, Bakst, & Westman, 2004). More recently Westman and colleagues have evaluated differences in lipid sub-fractions between low-fat and low-carbohydrate, high-fat diets and found reductions in VLDL, medium and small size LDL, increases in large particle LDL although total LDL wasn’t reduced(Westman et al., 2006). A review of RCTs including 447 participants found statistically significant reductions in triglycerides and improved high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in those following LCHF vs LFHC (Total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol values were reduced more in those following LFHC) (Nordmann, Nordmann, Briel, & et al., 2006). Recently Chiu and colleagues have demonstrated no appreciable difference in insulin sensitivity or plasma lipids or lipoproteins related to either saturated fat intake or protein intake in a lower carbohydrate diet (Chiu et al., 2014). There is little evidence to suggest that saturated fat or total fat intake play a causal role in cardiovascular or other disease and the continued attention that these receive as a result of the existing Heart Tick criteria are providing for confusion in the public and this confusion is not warranted given the existing scientific evidence. Likewise a continued predilection to higher-carbohydrate food type, often of a highly processed and refined nature ignores the role of dysglycaemia, dysregulated insulin response and resultant metabolic disorder that is a co-factor in the development of cardiovascular disorders. Benoit, F. L., Martin, R. L., & Watten, R. H. (1965). Changes in body composition during weight reduction in obesity. Balance studies comparing effects of fasting and a ketogenic diet. Annals of Internal Medicine, 63(4), 604-612. Berkey, C. S., Rockett, H. H., Willett, W. C., & Colditz, G. A. (2005). Milk, dairy fat, dietary calcium, and weight gain: A longitudinal study of adolescents. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 159(6), 543-550. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.159.6.543 Buchholz, A. C., & Schoeller, D. A. (2004). Is a calorie a calorie? The American journal of clinical nutrition, 79(5), 899S-906S. Chiu, S., Williams, P. T., Dawson, T., Bergman, R. N., Stefanovski, D., Watkins, S. M., & Krauss, R. M. (2014). Diets High in Protein or Saturated Fat Do Not Affect Insulin Sensitivity or Plasma Concentrations of Lipids and Lipoproteins in Overweight and Obese Adults. The Journal of Nutrition, 144(11), 1753-1759. doi: 10.3945/jn.114.197624 Dietitians Association of Australia. (2013). Nutrient Reference Values. Retrieved 10/3/2015, from http://daa.asn.au/for-the-public/smart-eating-for-you/nutrition-a-z/nutrient-reference-values-nrvs/ Ebbeling, C. B., Swain, J. F., Feldman, H. A., Wong, W., Hachey, D. L., Garcia-Lago, E., & Ludwig, D. S. (2012). Effects of dietary composition on energy expenditure during weight-loss maintenance. JAMA, 307(24), 2627-2634. doi: 10.1001/jama.2012.6607 Farnsworth, E., Luscombe, N. D., Noakes, M., Wittert, G., Argyiou, E., & Clifton, P. M. (2003). Effect of a high-protein, energy-restricted diet on body composition, glycemic control, and lipid concentrations in overweight and obese hyperinsulinemic men and women. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 78(1), 31-39. Feinman, R. D., & Fine, E. J. (2004). "A calorie is a calorie" violates the second law of thermodynamics. Nutrition Journal, 3, 9-9. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-3-9 Fine, E. J., Segal-Isaacson, C., Feinman, R. D., Herszkopf, S., Romano, M. C., Tomuta, N., . . . Sparano, J. A. (2012). Targeting insulin inhibition as a metabolic therapy in advanced cancer: A pilot safety and feasibility dietary trial in 10 patients. Nutrition. Foster, G. D., Wyatt, H. R., Hill, J. O., McGuckin, B. G., Brill, C., Mohammed, B. S., . . . Klein, S. (2003). A Randomized Trial of a Low-Carbohydrate Diet for Obesity. New England Journal of Medicine, 348(21), 2082-2090. doi: doi:10.1056/NEJMoa022207 Halton, T. L., & Hu, F. B. (2004). The Effects of High Protein Diets on Thermogenesis, Satiety and Weight Loss: A Critical Review. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 23(5), 373-385. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2004.10719381 Hooper, L., Summerbell, C. D., Thompson, R., Sills, D., Roberts, F. G., Moore, H., & Davey Smith, G. (2011). Reduced or modified dietary fat for preventing cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews(7), CD002137. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD002137.pub2 Jakobsen, M. U., O'Reilly, E. J., Heitmann, B. L., Pereira, M. A., Balter, K., Fraser, G. E., . . . Ascherio, A. (2009). Major types of dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease: a pooled analysis of 11 cohort studies. Am J Clin Nutr, 89(5), 1425-1432. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.27124 Johnston, C. S., Day, C. S., & Swan, P. D. (2002). Postprandial Thermogenesis Is Increased 100% on a High-Protein, Low-Fat Diet versus a High-Carbohydrate, Low-Fat Diet in Healthy, Young Women. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 21(1), 55-61. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2002.10719194 Keller, U. (2011). Dietary proteins in obesity and in diabetes. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research, 81(23), 125-133. Kratz, M., Baars, T., & Guyenet, S. (2013). The relationship between high-fat dairy consumption and obesity, cardiovascular, and metabolic disease. European Journal of Nutrition, 52(1), 1-24. doi: 10.1007/s00394-012-0418-1 Krikorian, R., Shidler, M. D., Dangelo, K., Couch, S. C., Benoit, S. C., & Clegg, D. J. (2012). Dietary ketosis enhances memory in mild cognitive impairment. Neurobiology of Aging, 33(2), 425.e419-425.e427. Labayen, I., Diez, N., Gonzalez, A., Parra, D., & Martinez, J. (2002). Effects of protein vs. carbohydrate-rich diets on fuel utilisation in obese women during weight loss. Paper presented at the Forum of nutrition. Layman, D. K., & Baum, J. I. (2004). Dietary Protein Impact on Glycemic Control during Weight Loss. The Journal of Nutrition, 134(4), 968S-973S. Mann, J., Cummings, J. H., Englyst, H. N., Key, T., Liu, S., Riccardi, G., . . . Wiseman, M. (2007). FAO//WHO Scientific Update on carbohydrates in human nutrition: conclusions. Eur J Clin Nutr, 61(S1), S132-S137. McAuley, K. A., Smith, K. J., Taylor, R. W., McLay, R. T., Williams, S. M., & Mann, J. I. (2006). Long-term effects of popular dietary approaches on weight loss and features of insulin resistance. International Journal of Obesity, 30(2), 342-349. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803075 Mente, A., de Koning, L., Shannon, H. S., & Anand, S. S. (2009). A systematic review of the evidence supporting a causal link between dietary factors and coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med, 169(7), 659-669. doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2009.38 Mosca, L., Appel, L. J., Benjamin, E. J., Berra, K., Chandra-Strobos, N., Fabunmi, R. P., . . . Williams, C. L. (2004). Evidence-based guidelines for cardiovascular disease prevention in women 1. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 43(5), 900-921. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2004.02.001 Mozaffarian, D., Micha, R., & Wallace, S. (2010). Effects on coronary heart disease of increasing polyunsaturated fat in place of saturated fat: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS Medicine, 7(3), e1000252. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000252 Nielsen, J. V., Gando, C., Joensson, E., & Paulsson, C. (2012). Low carbohydrate diet in type 1 diabetes, long-term improvement and adherence: A clinical audit. Diabetology & metabolic syndrome, 4(1), 23. Noakes, M., Keogh, J. B., Foster, P. R., & Clifton, P. M. (2005). Effect of an energy-restricted, high-protein, low-fat diet relative to a conventional high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet on weight loss, body composition, nutritional status, and markers of cardiovascular health in obese women. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 81(6), 1298-1306. Nordmann, A. J., Nordmann, A., Briel, M., & et al. (2006). Effects of low-carbohydrate vs low-fat diets on weight loss and cardiovascular risk factors: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(3), 285-293. doi: 10.1001/archinte.166.3.285 Piatti, P. M., Monti, L. D., Magni, F., Fermo, I., Baruffaldi, L., Nasser, R., . . . Pozza, G. (1994). Hypocaloric high-protein diet improves glucose oxidation and spares lean body mass: Comparison to hypocaloric high-carbohydrate diet. Metabolism, 43(12), 1481-1487. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0026-0495(94)90005-1 Prospective Studies Collaboration. (2007). Blood cholesterol and vascular mortality by age, sex, and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of individual data from 61 prospective studies with 55 000 vascular deaths. The Lancet, 370(9602), 1829-1839. Ramsden, C. E., Zamora, D., Leelarthaepin, B., Majchrzak-Hong, S. F., Faurot, K. R., Suchindran, C. M., . . . Hibbeln, J. R. (2013). Use of dietary linoleic acid for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease and death: evaluation of recovered data from the Sydney Diet Heart Study and updated meta-analysis. British Medical Journal, 346. doi: 10.1136/bmj.e8707 A Randomized Trial Comparing a Very Low Carbohydrate Diet and a Calorie-Restricted Low Fat Diet on Body Weight and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Healthy Women. (2003). The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 88(4), 1617-1623. doi: doi:10.1210/jc.2002-021480 Robinson, S. M., Jaccard, C., Persaud, C., Jackson, A. A., Jequier, E., & Schutz, Y. (1990). Protein turnover and thermogenesis in response to high-protein and high-carbohydrate feeding in men. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 52(1), 72-80. Shai, I., Schwarzfuchs, D., Henkin, Y., Shahar, D. R., Witkow, S., Greenberg, I., . . . Stampfer, M. J. (2008). Weight loss with a low-carbohydrate, mediterranean, or low-fat diet. New England Journal of Medicine, 359(3), 229-241. doi: doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0708681 Sharman, M. J., Kraemer, W. J., Love, D. M., Avery, N. G., Gómez, A. L., Scheett, T. P., & Volek, J. S. (2002). A Ketogenic Diet Favorably Affects Serum Biomarkers for Cardiovascular Disease in Normal-Weight Men. The Journal of Nutrition, 132(7), 1879-1885. Sikaris, K. (2014). Cholesterol vs fat vs glucose. Paper presented at the The why and how of low carb eating, Auckland. Siri-Tarino, P. W., Sun, Q., Hu, F. B., & Krauss, R. M. (2010). Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies evaluating the association of saturated fat with cardiovascular disease. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 91(3), 535-546. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27725 Skeaff, C. M., & Miller, J. (2009). Dietary fat and coronary heart disease: summary of evidence from prospective cohort and randomised controlled trials. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism, 55(1-3), 173-201. doi: 10.1159/000229002 Tendler, D., Lin, S., Yancy, W. S., Jr., Mavropoulos, J., Sylvestre, P., Rockey, D. C., & Westman, E. C. (2007). The Effect of a Low-Carbohydrate, Ketogenic Diet on Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Pilot Study. Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 52(2), 589-593. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10620-006-9433-5 Turpeinen, O., Pekkarinen, M., Miettinen, M., Elosuo, R., & Paavilainen, E. (1979). Dietary prevention of coronary heart disease: the Finnish Mental Hospital Study. International Journal Of Epidemiology, 8(2), 99-118. Westerterp, K. R. (2004). Diet induced thermogenesis. Nutrition & metabolism, 1(1), 5. Westman, E. C., Yancy Jr, W. S., Olsen, M. K., Dudley, T., & Guyton, J. R. (2006). Effect of a low-carbohydrate, ketogenic diet program compared to a low-fat diet on fasting lipoprotein subclasses. International Journal of Cardiology, 110(2), 212-216. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2005.08.034 Willett, W. C., & Leibel, R. L. (2002). Dietary fat is not a major determinant of body fat. American Journal of Medicine, 113 Suppl 9B, 47S-59S. World Health Organisation. (1998). Carbohydrates in Human Nutrition: World Health Organisation or the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Yancy, J. W. S., Olsen, M. K., Guyton, J. R., Bakst, R. P., & Westman, E. C. (2004). A Low-Carbohydrate, Ketogenic Diet versus a Low-Fat Diet To Treat Obesity and HyperlipidemiaA Randomized, Controlled Trial. Annals of Internal Medicine, 140(10), 769-777. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-140-10-200405180-00006 Yancy, W., Foy, M., Chalecki, A., Vernon, M., & Westman, E. C. (2005). A low-carbohydrate, ketogenic diet to treat type 2 diabetes. Nutrition & metabolism, 2(1), 34. Research and popular science articles by the members and faculty of the Holistic Performance Institute.

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NOTE: The answers to this quiz were sent out through our “Answers” email service on Monday 1/21/13. If you are a teacher and you were not signed up for “Answers by Email,” please email [email protected] from your school email address to request these answers (please include your name and the name of your school.) MATCHING. (1 point each) WORLD LEADERS: 1. Write the letter of the description next to each ruler’s name. _____ Mohammad Morsi _____ Pope Shenouda III _____ Mamoud Admadinejad _____ Francois Hollande _____ Bashar Assad _____ Queen Elizabeth II _____ Vladimir Putin _____ Ludwig Guttmann _____ Benjamin Netanyahu _____ Otto Molina a) in his last address to the United Nations as president of Iran, he did not address his country’s nuclear program, but referred to Israelis as ‘uncivilized Zionists’ b) used a diagram of a bowling-ball bomb to illustrate the danger of Iran’s nuclear program during his address to the UN General Assembly in October; President Obama refused to meet with him during this trip to the U.S. c) was elected president for a third (non-consecutive term) in 2012 amidst charges that the election was riddled with fraud, intimidation and ballot-box stuffing d) died in March; was the leader of the Coptic Orthodox Church in Egypt for 40 years e) this newly elected president announced in February that he was considering legalizing drugs in his country because it has become a major transit point for US-bound drugs from South America f) celebrated Diamond Jubilee celebration in June, marking 60 years on the throne g) Jewish neurosurgeon who fled Nazi Germany, pioneered athletic competition as therapy for patients with spinal injuries and organized what became the Paralympic Games h) longtime member of the Muslim Brotherhood until he was elected president of Egypt i) dictator of Syria; has continued to respond with violence against rebels fighting against his regime j) Socialist politician who was elected president of France in May. Catholic groups protested his liberal social agenda, which included introducing same-sex marriage, cutting government funding to religious schools and legalizing euthanasia under certain conditions. MULTIPLE CHOICE. (2 points each) There is one correct answer for each question. Circle the correct answer. PEOPLE IN THE NEWS: 2. In February 2012 astronaut John Glenn marked the 50th anniversary of his historic flight as ___________________, and said it was the best day of his life. a) the first American to travel to the moon b) the first American to orbit the Earth c) the first person to orbit the earth d) the first man to go to Mars 3. ___________________, the first man to set foot on the moon on July 21, 1969, died August 25, 2102 at the age of 82. a) Lance Armstrong b) Louis Armstrong c) Neil Armstrong d) Stretch Armstrong 4. U.S. Rep. Tim Scott, a South Carolina Republican, was appointed in December to fill the seat of departing Sen. Jim DeMint. Mr. Scott made history because he will be: a) the youngest Senator in South Carolina’s history b) the first Republican senator from South Carolina since Reconstruction c) the only man to ever serve as a Congressman AND a Senator d) the first black senator from the South since Reconstruction 5. Republican ___________________ was Mitt Romney’s choice for vice-presidential running mate in the 2012 presidential election. a) Congressman Paul Ryan b) Governor Chris Christie c) Senator Marco Rubio d) Governor Bobby Jindal 6. Former first lady Hillary Clinton has served in this post during President Obama’s first term but is expected to resign before his second term begins: a) Secretary of Defense b) Secretary of State c) Attorney General d) National Security Advisor 7. Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker became a figure of national recognition and controversy in 2012 because of his proposed “Wisconsin budget repair bill.” The bill, which was passed by the Wisconsin Legislature, significantly changed the collective bargaining process for most public (government) employees in Wisconsin. Union opponents of Walker’s legislation pushed for a recall election in June, a first for a governor in Wisconsin. Walker won the recall election against his Democratic opponent by 53% to 46%, making him the first U.S. governor to ___________________. a) have successfully ended all collective bargaining rights for union employees in his state b) have successfully kept his seat as governor in a recall election c) have won two elections in a row by a large margin d) have passed a bill to fix the state budget 8. In a speech at the Business Executives for National Security meeting in October, Secretary of Defense ___________________ warned his audience that there has been a sudden escalation of cyber terrorism and that attackers have managed to gain access to control systems for critical infrastructure in the U.S. a) Hillary Clinton b) Timothy Geitner c) Eric Holder d) Leon Panetta 9. In December, ___________________ became the 24th U.S. state to pass a right-to-work law which prohibits unions from establishing a “closed shop” by requiring employees to join and contribute dues to a union as a condition for employment. 10. In December, a federal appeals court struck down a ban on carrying concealed weapons in the state of ___________________. Before the federal appeals court ruling, this was the only state in the nation where carrying concealed weapons was illegal. 11. In April, French tire manufacturer Michelin announced it is building a new tire plant in South Carolina that likely will make it the tire-making capital of the U.S. by 2013. Ohio, once the rubber capital of the world, has seen a migration of tire production out of Ohio to southern states. This movement has been spurred by these states’ tax incentives and ___________________ laws. Auto makers, such as BMW and Volkswagen also have set up plants in the South. b) right to work c) minimum wage 12. In September, the mayor of New York City, the largest city in New York state, successfully persuaded the members of the NYC Board of Health (which he appointed) to: a) block future permits for any new fast food restaurants b) ban the sale of soft drinks larger than 16 oz. c) require all residents to ride bikes to work d) legalize the use of small amounts of recreational marijuana AGENCIES OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: 13. The FCC, with 1,898 federal employees and a budget of $354 million, announced in February it would be revising its phone subsidy program which is riddled with fraud and abuse, as well as adding a new ___________________ program for low-income Americans. a) X-box/Sony PlayStation subsidy b) newspaper subscription subsidy c) Netflix subsidy d) broadband internet subsidy 14. In February, the U.S. Senate passed a bill to provide four years of funding ($63 billion) for this government agency, the ___________________ . One of the provisions of the bill requires the agency to clear the path for wider spread use of drones (unmanned aircraft) for governmental and commercial purposes. 15. In April the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) dropped its lawsuit claiming that an energy company contaminated drinking water in Texas, the third time in the past several months that the agency has backtracked on its accusations linking ___________________ to water pollution. a) coal mining c) wind farms d) oil drilling 16. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers this year attempted to prevent two huge but very different problems on major waterways in the U.S. by doing the following: (You must circle two correct answers for this question to be correct.) a) finding the best solution for preventing destructive Asian carp from infiltrating the Great Lakes b) draining Florida’s Lake Okeechobee in an attempt to kill the Burmese pythons that have taken over the Everglades c) clearing a drought-stricken stretch of the Mississippi River to enable commercial shipping traffic to operate without disruption d) piling millions of sandbags along the shores of New Jersey beaches to prevent future beach erosion after superstorm Sandy 17. In 2012, NASA hired two private companies to ___________________, the $100 billion research complex orbiting 240 miles above Earth. a) fly cargo to the International Space Station b) build an escalator to the International Space Station c) replace U.S. astronauts with their own employees at the International Space Station d) conduct tours to the International Space Station 18. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has authority to regulate and oversee all aspects of civil aviation in the U.S. In April it was revealed that dozens of ___________________ have been given approval by the FAA to use unmanned aircraft known as drones, according to documents obtained via the Freedom of Information Act. a) universities and law-enforcement agencies b) ranchers living on the border in Arizona and New Mexico c) military bases in the U.S. d) celebrity news websites OBAMA ADMINISTRATION POLICIES: 19. The Obama administration in March blocked a new law in Texas requiring voters to show photo identification before voting, saying that the law: a) prevents illegal immigrants from voting b) reduces the number of people casting votes for Democrats c) embarrasses potential voters who may have had their drivers license revoked d) could harm Hispanic voters who lack such documents 20. The federal government won a lawsuit against Arizona in June when the Supreme Court sided with them. The Obama administration wanted to stop enforcement of many of the provisions of a 2010 Arizona law allowing local police officers to check a person’s immigration status when they are stopped for another offense. The U.S. Solicitor General had argued that: a) Arizona officials have no right to arrest a person just for being in the U.S. illegally b) the Constitution gives the federal government alone the authority to control immigration and that Arizona was treading on that exclusive authority in their immigration law c) since the federal government does not wish to enforce current immigration laws, states shouldn’t enforce them either d) illegal immigrants do the jobs Americans won’t do and should therefore be allowed to stay and be given green cards 21. In May President Obama became the first U.S. president in history to ___________________. In explaining why he had changed his position on this controversial social issue, the President said, “I’ve been going through an evolution on this issue.” a) persuade Congress to cut spending dramatically as the only way to reduce the deficit b) refrain from playing golf while our military is engaged in combat c) express his support for same sex marriage d) express his support for a business owner’s right to choose whether he/she wants to fund abortions in their employee health care plans 22. In 2012 the Obama administration announced it was considering publishing the names of extremist groups associated with al Qaeda that could be targeted by the Pentagon for drone attacks. Unmanned aerial drone strikes on terrorist suspects began after the Sept. 11 attacks. Under the Obama administration, drone strikes by the CIA and the military ___________________ in U.S. national-security strategy. a) are rarely used b) have been eliminated c) have become increasingly common as a primary tool d) have become obsolete 23. This pipeline, approved by energy agencies in South Dakota and Canada in 2010, would ship oil from Canada and northern states to Texas. A large majority of Americans support the construction of the pipeline. Based on criticism from the EPA, President Obama put the $7 billion project on hold in early 2012 pending further environmental review. A presidential permit is required because the pipeline will cross the Canada/U.S. border. The name of the pipeline is: b) Keystone XL 24. Despite the fact that August marked the 30th straight month of private-sector job gains, a jobs report issued in September showed 43 straight months in which unemployment had exceeded ___________________. PATIENT PROTECTION AND AFFORDABLE CARE ACT (OBAMACARE): 25. The Obama administration in January rejected appeals to overturn guidelines of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care act requiring health insurance plans to pay for drugs that can cause abortions (the “morning-after” pill). The administration made an exception by giving an extra year for compliance to nonprofit employers who presently refuse to cover contraceptives in their insurance plan because of their religious beliefs. The organizations that oppose the requirement say it violates their: a) freedom of conscience and religious freedom b) second amendment rights c) freedom from taxation without representation d) rights to free speech 26. A Florida restaurant corporation announced in October that it was considering permanently reducing employees’ hours because of the increased costs they will incur due to the requirements of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care act (Obamacare). Under the law, large companies must provide affordable health insurance to employees working an average of 30 hours or more per week. The law also requires every citizen to: a) congratulate their Congress members for passing a law from which they themselves are exempt b) read the law in its entirety c) purchase health insurance d) work at least 29 hours a week 27. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in June over the constitutionality of the individual mandate in the Affordable Care Act, which will take effect in 2014. The individual mandate will require all Americans to purchase health care or pay a penalty. In a surprise to many observers, ___________________ provided the swing vote in a 5-to-4 decision that upheld the constitutionality of almost all of Obamacare. a) Justice Ruth Bader Ginsberg b) Chief Justice John Roberts c) Justice Anthony Kennedy d) Justice Clarence Thomas 28. Military counterterrorism officials asked Congress in December to authorize the use of armed drones and special operations teams to pursue terrorist groups in ___________________, the latest area of the world to see a rise in al Qaeda terrorist activity. Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb became an increasing concern to U.S. counterterrorism officials because the group has been actively recruiting fighters, and wants to attack the West. a) the Middle East b) South America c) North Africa 29. In September, naval power from 25 countries, led by the U.S., converged on this strategic location to practice tactics on how to breach an Iranian blockade of the area and to conduct counter-mining drills. These were the largest war games ever undertaken in the region. a) Strait of Hormuz b) Panama Canal c) Horn of Africa d) Gulf of Aden 30. In 2000, al Qaeda used a small boat as a floating suicide bomb to severely damage the U.S. Naval destroyer USS Cole and kill and injure Navy sailors. In 2012, to counter a growing threat to U.S. Navy ships from small boat swarms used as a means of attack by terrorists and other enemies, the Navy began testing the use of: a) dolphins armed with explosives to attack the boats b) water cannons c) blasting ear piercing heavy metal music to scare them away d) missiles shot from robot boats 31. The U.S. agency DARPA has developed the Cheetah robot, which can run faster than world record holder and Olympic gold medalist Usain Bolt. The goal DARPA has for the Cheetah robot is to eventually use it: a) to carry highly classified documents between the White House and Pentagon b) to train U.S. Olympic runners to win the gold in the next Olympics c) for emergency responses, humanitarian missions and other defense missions d) to replace U.S. Olympic athletes in future games 32. Public school students across the country voiced their opposition in September to a new government mandate imposing a calorie cap on school lunches by ___________________. The new regulations are part of the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 promoted by First Lady Michelle Obama. a) boycotting school lunches b) calling the White House to complain c) transferring to private schools d) staging rallies in which they shouted “no justice, no peace” 33. Pork prices are predicted to greatly increase by the end of 2013 because of the high cost of corn. Prices for corn feed doubled, due to drought across the U.S., Europe and South America, as well as ___________________. a) the U.S. government’s mandate that ethanol made from corn be used in gasoline for environmental reasons b) the skyrocketing number of Americans eating pork due to the popularity of the Food Channel show “Pigs in a Blanket” c) Swine flu d) increased popcorn sales in movie theaters 34. In September, the MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston announced the launch of a new program aimed at ___________________ eight types of cancer within the next ten years. The cancers the MD Anderson Cancer Center program will target include skin cancer, leukemia and lung cancer. b) reducing deaths from d) creating vaccines for 35. The Associated Press is a news service which provides content to thousands of newspapers, radio stations, television networks and web sites. It is the most commonly used of all news services in the world. In January, the AP opened its newest news bureau in ___________________, a country known for having no independent press, only state-run media. b) North Korea d) the U.S. 36. Researchers at North Carolina State University have found a way to control the movements of cockroaches. Their goal is to use them in an earthquake recovery situation to: a) give the public a positive impression of these plentiful insects b) help locate people trapped in collapsed buildings c) conduct races to accurately record the top speed at which roaches can travel d) bring supplies to people trapped in rubble after an earthquake TRUE/FALSE (2 points each) Directions: Decide whether the bolded part of the statement is true or false. Write TRUE or FALSE next to each statement. Rewrite each false statement to make it true. 37. __________________ In Egypt on September 11, protesters scaled the walls of the U.S. embassy in Cairo and pulled down the American flag during a protest over what they said was a film made in the United States that insulted the Prophet Mohammad. 38. __________________ In Libya on 9/11, Islamist protesters attacked the U.S. consulate in a coordinated attack and killed four Americans, including U.S. Ambassador Chris Stevens. It was later reported that U.S. drones flew over Behghazi during the attack and officials at the White House and State Department were advised two hours after the attack began that an Islamic militant group had claimed credit for the attack. Upon hearing the news U.S. officials immediately ordered a fighter jets and special ops forces to go into the consulate and rescue the ambassador and his staff. 39. __________________ Six scientists and a government official were sentenced in October to six years in prison for manslaughter by an Italian court for failing to give adequate warning of a tsunami that killed more than 300 people in a town in Italy in 2009. 40. __________________ In November, more than two-thirds of the United Nation’s 193 member states approved the resolution upgrading the Palestinians’ status from an observer to a nonmember observer state. The U.S. opposes any acknowledgement of a Palestinian state at the UN until a permanent peace agreement has been signed with Israel. 41. __________________ The head of Nestle, the world’s largest food producer, said in September high food prices are due to the growing of crops for biofuels, and said this puts pressure on food supplies by using land and water that would otherwise be used to grow crops for human or animal consumption. “If no food was used for fuel, the prices would come down again – that is very clear,” he says. 42. __________________ During the Presidential Medal of Freedom awards ceremony at the White House in May, President Obama referred to a “Polish” death camp rather than a “Nazi” death camp. The Polish government was upset with President Obama’s mischaracterization, saying it opposes descriptions of former concentration camps as “Polish” because it says the term can give the impression that Poland bore responsibility for Nazi Germany’s World War II genocide. 43. __________________ G8 stands for the “Group of Eight” countries. It consists of the U.S., Russia, Japan, Canada, France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom. The G8’s focus is on economic policies. In March, President Obama announced that he was moving the G8 summit taking place in May from Chicago to Hawaii. 44. __________________ An American doctor has fitted hundreds of poor British heart patients with second-hand pacemakers and defibrillators recovered from corpses in morgues and crematoria throughout the United States, which they otherwise could not afford. Every four years, the two major U.S. political parties hold a national convention to nominate a presidential and vice presidential candidate. They also meet to approve a party platform of issues and positions upon which the candidates will run. Both platforms caused controversy in the news in 2012: 45. __________________ The 2012 Republican Party platform supported a human life amendment to the Constitution, and opposed using taxpayer dollars to fund any abortions or any organizations which perform or advocate abortion. 46. __________________ The 2012 Democratic Party platform for the first time did not acknowledge God or that Jerusalem was the capital of Israel. This was quickly amended by a voice vote after widespread public criticism, although many of the delegates at the convention booed the insertion of these two items. (Teacher to determine length/content of answer required for the extra credit, and number of extra points to be given) Extra Credit question #1: Which of the following was not a real news story in 2012 (or ever)? a) As a follow-up to the short-range Iron Dome rocket-defense system developed by the Israeli military, Israel is close to completing a long-range missile-defense shield that will destroy Iranian ballistic missiles in space. Some defense experts believe the ability to protect its civilian population will give Israel a freer hand in dealing with threats from Iran. b) In a surprise move, Israeli Prime Minster Netanyahu announced that the Israeli government has sent specially trained suicide bombers into Iran to target President Ahmadinejad and the ruling mullahs. Prime Minister Netanyahu believes the announcement will force the Iranian government to end their plans for destroying the state of Israel and establish a peace treaty. c) It was announced in September that an Israeli company is developing a new system for detecting explosives and narcotics at airports, docks and border crossings using specially trained mice. Mice were chosen to detect explosives because they are easy to care for and cost little to feed. d) An Israeli inventor has developed a cardboard bicycle which is both waterproof and fireproof. It will cost $20 to buy and will be made on largely automated production lines supplemented by a workforce made up of retirees and the disabled. Extra Credit question #2: Which do you think was the most important issue/event of 2012? Explain your answer. a) the re-election of President Barack Obama / the defeat of Republican challenger Mitt Romney b) the U.S. Supreme Court ruling on the Patient Protection and Affordable Care act (also known as Obamacare) that the individual mandate is constitutional c) the coordinated terrorist attack on the Benghazi consulate, and the Defense Department’s lack of response to the attack, even as officials were aware of the true nature of the attack 2 hours into it d) the destruction and power outages caused by Hurricane/superstorm Sandy in the northeast in October; also the amount of time it took to restore power in many areas NOTE: Regular weekly news quiz will resume Friday, Jan. 25. Daily “Answers” emails are provided for Daily News Articles, Tuesday’s World Events and Friday’s News Quiz.

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Time for some fun with Pythagoras! Lego tends towards rectangular constructs, but sometimes we might want to make triangular connections. Technic beams especially lend themselves to this. Right-angled pythagorean triangles are fairly easy to construct. Here’s a 3,4,5 triangle: Notice that when you build it you build it as 4,5,6. That’s because it’s the distance between the pin centers that has to be in the 3-4-5 ratio. Two pins separated by 2 holes are a total distance (center-to-center) of three holes apart. Or said another way, two pins right next to each other are distance “one unit” apart, not two. Thus: A two-hole beam would be a distance of “one unit” in this analysis. There are many pythagorean integer triangles. Here’s the complete list up to a reasonable size: - 3-4-5 (also 6-8-10, 9-12-15, 12-16-20 etc) If you try to build these don’t forget the +1 factor for counting holes. If we allow half unit offsets there are some more pythagorean triangles available. Obviously any of the above constructs can be divided in two; beyond those we also have: In the 3-4-5 family the angle opposite the “4” side is 53.13 degrees. The reason this is good to know is that the standard bent beams are at that same angle (53.130) and now you know why: If you build this you will see that the angles match up perfectly. If you combine a pythagorean triangle with its mirror you will get an isosceles triangle. Here, for example, is a 6-5-5 construction which is two mirrored 3-4-5 triangles Notice, once again, you build 6-5-5 as 7-6-6 if you are counting the total number of holes in each side. This kind of construction will be very strong and also has the advantage of being able to attach things to the vertical riser in the spine of the triangle and have them be “on grid” whereas the holes in the angled beams are rarely ever “on grid” except at the vertices. Trapezoid Extension – Pythagorean Once you can make a triangle, you can make a corresponding trapezoid by extending it evenly in one dimension. This is easy to do for right (pythagorean) triangles: Here I took a 3-4-5 triangle and extended out the base (by 4 in this case; “n” as shown in the diagram). I have to extend the connection point up top out the same amount. The geometry still works and everything lines up. We’ll revisit this topic for non-pythagorean triangles in a moment; there are some triangles that you can extend into trapezoids and some that you can’t (easily). System Brick Triangles You can make triangles using system (“standard lego”) bricks too: Note how I used two 1×1 bricks to create “pylons” for the angled brick. You have to do this, or something similar, because the neighboring studs will interfere with the angled piece. Any three beams that satisfy the triangle inequality can be formed into a triangle. In general you will need to use four beams in the construction because you need to “jump” up/down one level to make the last connection work. Look at the construction of the 3-4-5 pythagorean triangle to see an example of why 4 beams are needed (and in that case since one of the joints is a 90 degree angle I used a T piece but in general you will want to use just straight beams when making angles that are not 90 degrees). The lengths of the triangle sides will determine the angles according to standard triangle side-side-side (SSS) solutions. Just hook them together and let the angles fall where they may. Of course, we might like to know what those angles actually are. I wrote a small python program that calculates Lego triangle angle information for a given configuration of sides. The source is available here: http://neilwebber.com/files/legotriangles If you prefer, here is the table of output it generates for full-unit constructions and half-units: - Full units only: http://neilwebber.com/files/lego-t1 - Including half units: http://neilwebber.com/files/lego-t2 You can use the command line options (read the source) or just peruse the uploaded table and see that there are some other useful angles you can construct, though in some cases you will have to settle for close approximations. For example, there is no 45 degree construction but there are two that come close: - 5-12-15 will generate an angle of 45.036 degrees. - 13-17-17 generates 44.959 Any equilateral construction generates 60 degrees but so do these: Here’s a 3-7-8 construction. The angle between the blue and red beams is 60 degrees. This construction also more clearly illustrates the need to use four beams (not just three) to make a triangle because of how the “levels” at the vertices work out. One of the sides has to jump back down in order to join with the remaining side. Because of that 60 degree angle, that implies you can build a 3-7-8 connection across an 8-8-8 equilateral triangle: The angles opposite the blue beam (both above it and below it) are both 60 degree angles (by definition because the outer frame is an equilateral triangle). This construction is probably demonstrating some deep mathematical relationship between the 3-7-8 60 degree construction and the 5-7-8 construction; perhaps someone will point it out to me and I’ll add it back into this note. If you have a larger equilateral triangle you can still make this connection at this point near the vertices or of course you could scale up the 3-7-8 or 5-7-8 as appropriate (possibly using half unit constructions too if necessary). Don’t forget (in case you are confused again): building something with a 3-7-8 relationship takes hole counts of 4-8-9. You can count the holes in the above picture and verify this. Let’s look at a 4-8-10 triangle (which would be equivalent to a 2-4-5 triangle but this is easier to construct): As always: built as 5-9-11. The angles on this triangle are 22.332 (between blue and yellow), 49.458 (between blue and red), and 108.21 (between red and yellow). Let’s say we want to make a trapezoid out of this. We can, for example, extend the blue beam to the right by making it longer, and finish out the rest of the trapezoid with right angles: but, as you can see, we have a problem with the final joint at the red/yellow (and pink) vertex. That point isn’t on grid, whereas the pink beam, the black “riser” L piece, as well as the blue base are all on grid. We can calculate the location of the red/yellow vertex using standard trigonmetry. Using the yellow/blue vertex as the origin, the X and Y coordinates (X along the blue beam) of the end of the yellow beam will be: X = 8 * cos(22.332°) = 7.4 Y = 8 * sin(22.332°) = 3.04 NOTE: It’s “8” because that’s the length of the yellow side of the triangle. The vertex doesn’t even line up vertically even though it looks like it might. It’s just close. It definitely doesn’t line up horizontally. We have no way to make that final connection. Generally speaking you can’t easily extend non-pythagorean triangles into grid-legal trapezoid constructions. A few constructions come very close; whether you want to use them in your models is up to you. They aren’t “on grid” but any given construction always has a certain amount of play in it and if they are close enough then things will appear to work. I believe the Lego corporation would refuse to accept these constructions as part of a design for a set, so in that sense they are “illegal”. Here’s one that comes very close. Take the 3-7-8 triangle we saw before: Taking the blue base as the X axis and the blue-red vertex as the origin, we can calculate the location of the red-yellow vertex. We already know that the angle between the red and blue is 60 degrees (you can reverify this using my tables or perform your own SSS triangle solution for 3-7-8; the angle opposite the 7 side is 60 degrees). Since the red leg is 8 units in length the location of the red-yellow vertex is: X = 8 * cos(60°) = 4.00 Y = 8 * sin(60°) = 6.93 The X coordinate works out evenly on-grid, thanks to the cosine of 60 degrees being exactly one half. The Y coordinate is off grid but close enough that the following construction will appear to work: In reality the pink beam is at (relative) height 6.93 on its left end and 7.00 on its right, thus there is some stress/flexing in the construction to make it work. You might reduce that stress slightly by only pinning the pink beam with one pin at the right end (vs the two shown in this build). This just happens to work out as a case where the off-grid amount is smaller than the inherent flex in the pieces. Your mileage may vary; personally I don’t use these non-aligned constructions in my models but I present this as being one that is very close to ok. You can find others generally by doing math or by just trying things to see what works within reason. Going back to the 4-8-10 (5-9-11) construction, there is a way to make a trapezoid out of it, like this: because what I did here is just extend the base, then insert a parallel corresponding extension (the black beam), and connect them with a beam (the second red beam) that is parallel to the original side of the triangle. This preserves all the geometry and gets everything lined up in the right spot; however, in this entire construction only the blue beam is “on grid”; everything else is at non-standard locations. This structure is quite stable and reasonably strong though I’d be cautious about putting too much weight or pressure on it from top (perhaps someone will work out the statics on this one; just going by feel it seems reasonably strong but I’m not sure exactly where the forces are going when it is put into compression that way). Approximate “standard” angles I already listed two constructions that are very close to a 45 degree angle; here is a more complete list of approximations to common/useful angles. 30 degrees (approximate) |3||5||6||∠A = 29.9264||0.0736°||should prefer 4 7 8 usually| |4||7||8||∠A = 29.9947||0.0053°||closest / smallest| |7||12||14||∠A = 29.9947||0.0053°||same angle as 4-7-8; larger| Of course multiples of those triples works, so for example 8-14-16 is another good 30 degree approximation (doubled from 4-7-8). Half-unit constructions can get even closer: |5.5||9.5||11||∠A = 29.9996||0.0004°| |5.5||14.5||19||∠B = 29.9996||0.0004°||same angle as 5.5-9.5-11 which is easier to build.| |7.5||13||15||∠A = 29.99997||0.00003°||nearly “exact” for all practical purposes.| The 7.5-13-15 triple can be looked at as half of a 15-15-15 equilateral triangle. A point 7.5 along one leg is halfway; if we then went exactly 90 degrees up to the other vertex we should have a height of: h = 15 * sin(pi/3) # (pi/3 = 60 degrees in radians) which computes out to h = 12.9904. So our actual height of 13 won’t form a true half of a true equilateral triangle; it will resolve to angles that are slightly off in all spots, but based on how close 13 is to 12.99 you can see why building the triangle at 7.5-13-15 gets so close to the 30 degrees. If you really need an exact 30 degrees you can get it from the complementary angle on an equilateral construction or from any of the other exact 60 degree constructions (see table lower down). 45 degrees (approximate) There aren’t any 45 degree approximations that are as close as the 30 degree ones unless we allow half unit constructions. Here is the table of some useful ones including half-units: |3||19||21||∠B = 45.06135||0.061°| |5||12||15||∠B = 45.03565||0.036°||best/smallest integer construction.| |6||12.5||16||∠B = 45.00612||0.006°||very good; see 8-8.5-12.| |8||8.5||12||∠B = 45.00612||0.006°||Same ∠ as 6-12.5-16 but smaller. Second best known.| |9.5||14||19||∠B = 45.00349||0.0035°||Best (but uses half-units).| |11||18||24||∠B = 45.05405||0.054°||5-12-15 is a better integer construct.| You can, of course, easily get 60 degrees from any equilateral triangle construction (all sides equal). You can also get it from the complementary angle on any of the above 30 degree constructions. There are quite a few triples that lead to exact 60 degree angles. Here are a few of the simpler and more likely useful ones (including half units): |3||7||8||Just double 1.5-3.5-4| |5||7||8||Just double 2.5-3.5-4| NOTE: In all of these, it is angle B that is the 60 degree (exact) angle. Say what? Well, the cosine of 41.4096 is 0.75, which means that a beam on this angle will generate a half-unit offset at two holes and every four holes thereafter. Is this useful? I’m not sure. There is a problem that the sine (0.6614) is nothing useful, so this means that while your beam will have holes at half-unit offsets in one dimension, the other dimension will never be on-grid. Nevertheless, for your amusement, I present this table: |2||2||3||cos(∠A) = 0.75 exact||Isoceles; angle B also works.| |3||8||10||cos(∠B) = 0.75 exact||Note this one is angle B| |4||5||6||cos(∠A) = 0.75 exact| Here’s an example 2-2-3 construction, with the orange lines showing which holes (in the blue beam) are on half-unit offsets from the adjacent beam. Any appearance of not being in alignment is an artifact of the 3D rendering; the math works. However, as already pointed out, the holes are definitely off-grid in the other dimension so I’m not sure how this sort of construction might be useful. I present it anyway just as food for thought. If for some unusual reason you needed to get a very specific offset, you could use this cosine concept to figure out what angle you’d need to get you there. Let’s say you need an 0.6 offset and you’ve decided (usually for construction reasons) you want to go three units along the hypotenuse to get there. You need an angle that has a cosine of 0.2, which, after you’ve gone three units along the angled beam will have moved you 0.6 on the rectilinear grid. You find the angle using arccos; that angle would be 78.463 and you could build it using (per the table or the program) 5-6-7. Admittedly, it’s going to be a very unusual set of circumstances that makes you want special offsets — probably involving integrating with other non-Lego parts, or desparately trying to make a non-standard trapezoidal construction work out. Regardless, you’ll still have the problem of the other dimension which just won’t be where you want it anyway. In reality you’ll probably just use an axle and one piece slid along the axle (thus taking on a non-grid position) to get there; thus all this math is probably a waste of space. But maybe it will inspire someone to do something particularly clever one day. We already saw that this angle (more precisely it is 53.130102) appears in the 3-4-5 family of pythagorean triangles and is the angle of one of the standard lego “bent” beams. Are there any other triples that generate this angle? Yes, there are. First of all, any isoceles triangle constructed using a mirrored pythagorean 3-4-5 (or multiples of this) will have this angle. We already saw that in the 6-5-5 example. Other combinations (that are not 3-4-5 in disguise) that give a 53.1301 angle are: |4||13||15||Just double 2-6.5-7.5| There are actually quite a few of these; I’ve only listed some above. All of those except the last form the 53.130 angle at B. Half Unit Construction There are many ways to generate half-unit offsets with technic; here’s one construction you may find handy when trying to make these triangles: That’s probably the best one I’ve found so far. You can build this with the 1×2 bricks with pins, as shown, or the 1×2 technic bricks (with holes) and separate pins. Here’s another technique that isn’t quite as elegant but might be handy at times: The yellow beam and the holes the yellow connector (usually red in real life) form a beam of total length 7.5 (the two holes in the connector are at 6.5 and 7.5). As shown above the half offset connector is held in place by an axle pin and isn’t necessarily completely stable. You can brace it in a variety of ways if necessary: That’s it for today’s Lego rambling. Happy Building!

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Public speaking is the process of speaking to an audience in a deliberate, structured manner intended to inform, entertain or influence the listeners. It can be a powerful tool to use for various purposes including motivation, persuasion, influence, translation or entertaining. What is the speech of a salutatorian all about? The speech by a Salutatorian is generally about the overall school experience, how the student life progressed and how the student experience enriched over the High School years. Often, it also discusses the future path for classmates, with novel inspirational message that can uplift the fellow students, teachers and parents alike. Famous Salutatorians include First Lady Michelle Obama, Singer John Legend, Singer Carrie Underwood and Author Eric Segal. The salutatorian speeches are often found to be higher in merit and quality than other graduation speeches To exemplify various aspects the Salutatorian speech, here is presented one of the most popular and exceptionally outstanding Salutatorian speeches of 2010, from Boston Globe - Boston.com. This speech is entitled "Operation Red Sprinkles", written and presented on June 12, 2010, by Anisha Shenai, Salutatorian from Danvers High School, MA. Operation Red Sprinkles Anisha shenai, Salutatorian, Danvers High School, MA. "Good afternoon and welcome. I would like to acknowledge and thank family, friends, teachers, administrators, and of course, fellow members of the Danvers High School class of 2010 for making the past four years as memorable and as amazing as they were. Though we find ourselves today as seniors on the brink of graduation, I ask all of you, for just a moment, to remember the September of 2006, when we first entered Danvers High School as timid young freshmen. We perceived high school as an uncharted no-man's-land. We wanted simply to survive. The pursuit of excellence took second priority, as we strived to be merely good enough - only satisfactory academically, socially, and in extracurriculars. Overwhelmed, only in the beginning, we resigned ourselves to the ordinary; we resigned ourselves to the "plain vanilla," or we resigned ourselves to the "plain chocolate," as I prefer to say. Let me explain what I mean by this. When I was younger, my mother was an avid supporter of all sorts of activities designed to bond mothers and daughters. One year, she decided that, with Valentine's Day just around the corner, making a cake together would be wonderful. As I, at the time, only had all the culinary prowess of any other typical eight-year-old, she enlisted me to decorate and frost, while she would mix and bake. We set out the ingredients and were finally ready to begin. Suddenly, my mother was alarmed to see that nowhere within this cluster of eggs and flour did we have any sprinkles! A Valentine's Day cake without red sprinkles simply would not do, she declared. So we embarked upon a mission: Operation Red Sprinkles. The first store that we visited held only brown chocolate sprinkles. They had run out of red ones, as it was so close to Valentine's Day. I suggested we just purchase the brown and be done with it; they all taste the same anyways. However, my mother refused. She insisted that we would find them eventually. Indeed, one and a half hours and six stores later, there they were, sparkling scarlet in a plastic shaker. Later, I asked my mother why she was so insistent that we find those red sprinkles, instead of accepting the plain brown ones that were so readily available. Was it really worth all that time and effort to search for the red, merely for the sake of aesthetic value? Her answer was enough to make me understand. "Rani," she began, employing the Indian term of endearment she saves for such particularly significant conversations. "Brown sprinkles are basic. They are good enough to make the cake taste as it should, but not for anything more. Red sprinkles are beyond just simple; they are extraordinary." And suddenly I could see. The red sprinkles, in serving a purpose that transcends the mere gustatory senses, had in them a flicker of passion, of life. They were greater than mediocre. They were greater than plain. They were greater than mere sprinkles. They were red sprinkles, and that made all the difference. The great American author Mark Twain once stated the following: "Don't part with your illusions. When they are gone you may still exist, but you have ceased to live." In her quest for the red sprinkles, in her desire to follow the dream rather than to simply opt for the easily attainable reality, my mother showed me the worth in searching for life rather than accepting mere existence. To settle for the ordinary brown would be to concede to the need for basic survival, rather than to continue to strive for anything more. Fellow classmates, in our four years at Danvers High School, I do believe that every one of us has abandoned the primitive search for brown chocolate sprinkles -- the search to which we so desperately clung when we first entered high school. Instead, we now embrace the ambition for red sprinkles, the desire to be extraordinary. In our time in high school, we have all realized that it is not enough just to get by, just to be simply average. We have reached the understanding within ourselves that neutrality and simplicity are not enough. And we have seen the need to be passionate rather than to float along unfeeling, rather than to simply exist. Each of us in the class of 2010 has found that source of passion, that shimmering spark of life which allows us to go beyond mere existence. We are gifted musicians. We are inspired artists. We are champion athletes. We are dedicated employees. We are serious students, and above all, we are more than what we once thought we could be. We were able not only to survive the perceived no-man's-land of high school, but to flourish with intensity and power. As a class, we went beyond our original hopes of mediocrity, to create and attain dreams of magnificence. After four years in high school, we have become rational but passionate, pragmatic but emotional, logical but idealistic. We contradict ourselves and it is wonderful. It is wonderful, because I know that it is this paradoxical state that will guide us. It will ground us in the realities of the present, but still never allow us to cease forging onwards and upwards, forever in pursuit of that glimmer that separates the plain from the remarkable. So be remarkable. Let a flame of passion illuminate your way. Be extraordinary. Stray from the dullness of shadows, into a radiant glow. Feel. Dream. Live. And never concede. Never settle for anything less, as you move full speed ahead in the quest for a life full of light and color. Thank you." Is there any treatment for being gay? No, there is no "cure" for homosexuals. But there's no problem in being so, either. Homosexuality is not an illness or disease. A long time ago foolish people thought it was, but doctors and psychiatrists agree that it is a normal part of the human condition. The Exodus Foundation, which set itself up to change gay people to straight, has recently disbanded itself, apologised for all the harm it has done, and said that it never had any success in changing people's orientation. Millions of people all over the world are homosexual. Many famous people have been and are homosexual. There are gay doctors, prime ministers, cleaners, teachers, painters, singers, bus drivers, police. Don't be afraid of other people's bullying opinions. Think for yourself! The solution: Accept it as the gift it is and be happy & proud. You aren't "common" like most everyone else, you are different and outside the box. Use that status to see the world from a slightly different perspective and glean insights not generally available to all those poor "regular" folk who have most of their lives already planned for them. Take advantage of your difference to help you see the world a little better. Have fun, ignore those who don't understand and show their anger and shallow thinking. But foremost: like yourself as you are. Asked in Math and Arithmetic, Public Speaking What does I read you 5 by 5 mean? In voice procedure (the techniques used to facilitate spoken communication over two-way radios) a station may request a report on the quality and strength of signal they are broadcasting. In the military of the NATO countries, and other organizations, the signal quality is reported on two scales; the first is for signal strength, and the second for signal clarity. Both these scales range from one to five, where one is the worst and five is the best. The listening station reports these numbers separated with the word "by". Five by five therefore means a signal that has excellent strength and perfect clarity ? the most understandable signal possible. Five by five by extension has come to mean "I understand you perfectly" in situations other than radio communication, the way Loud and Clear entered slang, post-WW2. Asked in Oratorical Declamation, Public Speaking Short declamation piece entitled bad girl? Bad Girl Hey! Every Body seems to be staring at me..You! You! All of you!How dare you to stare at me?Why? Is it because I'm a bad girl?A bad girl I am, a good for nothing teen ager, a problem child?That's what you call me!I smoke. I drink. I gamble at my young tender age.I lie. I cheat, and I could even kill, if I have too.Yes, I'm a bad girl, but where are my parents?You! You! You are my good parents?My good elder brother & sister in this society were I live?Look…look at me…What have you done to me?You have pampered and spoiled me, neglected me when I needed you most!In trusted me to a yaya, whose intelligent was much lower than mine!While you go about your parties, your meetings and gambling sessions…Thus… I drifted away from you!Longing for a fathers love, yearning for a mothers care!As I grow up, everything change!You too have change!You spent more time in your pokers, mahjong tables, bars and night clubs.You even landed on the headline of the news paper as crook, peddlers and racketeers.Now, you call my name; accuse me in everything I do to myself?Tell me! How good you are?If you really wish to ensure my futureThen hurry….hurry back home! Where I await you, because I need you…Protect me from all evil influences that will threaten at my very own understanding…But if I am bad, really bad…then, you've got to help me!Help me! Oh please…Help me! What are some examples of opening remarks? Here are some examples of opening remarks: Good afternoon everyone and also to THE PRESIDENT, PRINCIPAL and to all teachers and staffs, welcome to makabayan showcase event. My name is YOUR NAME, and I am the YOUR POSITION. It is my great honor to welcome you to today's event. It is my great pleasure and honor to make opening remarks at this very exciting day…. Is ditto slang? Yes, it is. ========= Ditto is correct English when you are referring to a ditto mark (which looks like a quotation mark). That is, in a list if you have an item partly the same as the item above it, you can use a ditto mark in place of a repetation of the word. Such as.... 1. Take out trash. 2. Study algebra. 3. " French. 4. Save the world. The ditto mark means "study" which is the word above it. Is communication a circular process? Whether or not communication is a circular process depends on which model of communication best fits the particular communicative act you are discussing. One of the earliest communication models is the Shannon-Weaver model, which is linear; a message is sent through a channel to a recipient, who does not provide any feedback. Obviously, this means that the communication is not circular. An example of this would be most televised broadcasts, like the president's speeches, as the viewer has few opportunities to provide feedback. Later models of communication, however, added a mechanism for recipient feedback. In what is known as the transactional or circular model of communication, the receiver and recipient both send and receive messages, leading to both parties being renamed sender-receivers. This is a circular model of communication. An example of this is most interpersonal, face-to-face communication. You receive feedback from your conversation partner through their body language and verbal responses and so adjust your messages to fit that; your partner does the same. Today, most communication tends to be seen as transactional, meaning that it is circular. When does a public road become private? This is a complicated issue and the law varies in different jurisdictions. Research usually needs to be done on a case by case basis. Public roads are not usually transformed into private roads because when the state or town abandons a road the reason is that it is no longer used. Briefly, the government entity with control over the road must officially abandon it in the public records. Generally, the road is abandoned to title holders in descending order. For example, a state road must be abandoned to the county (if there is county government), and the county abandons it to the town. If the road is no longer used, the town can abandon it to the abutters. By that process (generally) the fee to the land reverts to the landowners on each side up to the center line of the road. It is not converted to a private road. To determine the process in your jurisdiction you would need to consult with an attorney who is familiar with real estate law. What are some examples of sentences using countries'? Asked in Business Communication, Public Speaking How noise affects communication? Noise affects communication by somehow altering the message. In a very basic model of communication, a message has to pass from the receiver to the recipient through a channel (like the air, television, a printed page, etc.). Noise is something that interferes with the transmission of the message through the channel. An easy way to think of this is to picture static on a TV. The static is the noise that interferes with the transmission of the TV program through the channel of your cable box or satellite dish. This makes it difficult to understand the message sent by the TV program; you may not hear what someone on TV says correctly, and so misinterpret what they say, for example. Noise doesn't necessarily have to be something external that affects the channel. It can also be something internal to the recipient that affects how they receive the message. An example of this is if someone is in a bad mood. Being in a bad mood makes you more likely to interpret other people's messages as negative or hostile; the noise of your emotion affects how you see what they're trying to communicate. Merits and demerits of hire purchase? of Hire Purchase Agreements to the consumers Spread the cost of finance. Whilst choosing to pay in cash is preferable, this might not be possible for consumer on a tight budget. A hire purchase agreement allows a consumer to make monthly repayments over a pre-specified period of time; • Interest-free credit. Some merchants offer customers the opportunity to pay for goods and services on interest free credit. This is particularly common when making a new car purchase or on white goods during an economic downturn; • Higher acceptance rates. The rate of acceptance on hire purchase agreements is higher than other forms of unsecured borrowing because the lenders have collateral; • Sales. A hire purchase agreement allows a consumer to purchase sale items when they aren't in a position to pay in cash. The discounts secured will save many families money; • Debt solutions. Consumers that buy on credit can pursue a debt solution, such as a debt management plan, should they experience money problems further down the line. The Disadvantages of Hire Purchase Agreements to the consumers • Personal debt. A hire purchase agreement is yet another form of personal debt it is monthly repayment commitment that needs to be paid each month; • Final payment. A consumer doesn't have legitimate title to the goods until the final monthly repayment has been made; • Bad credit. All hire purchase agreements will involve a credit check. Consumers that have a bad credit rating will either be turned down or will be asked to pay a high interest rate; • Creditor harassment. Opting to buy on credit can create money problems should a family experience a change of personal circumstances; • Repossession rights. A seller is entitled to 'snatch back' any goods when less than a third of the amount has been paid back. Should more than a third of the amount have been paid back, the seller will need a court order or for the buyer to return the item voluntarily. Great Answer Report Asked in Mobile Phones, Public Speaking What are merits and demerits of plastic? It depends on what type of plastic .... for instance for plastic bags: Advantages The durability, strength, low cost, water and chemicals resistance, welding properties, lesser energy and heavy chemicals requirements in manufacture, fewer atmosphere emissions and light weight are advantages of plastic bags. Many studies comparing plastic versus paper for shopping bags show that plastic bags have less net environmental effect than paper bags, requiring less energy to produce, transport and recycle; however these studies also note that recycling rates for plastic are significantly lower than for paper. Plastic bags can be incinerated in appropriate facilities for waste-to-energy. Plastic bags are stable and benign in sanitary landfills. Plastic carrier bags can be reused as trash bags or bin bags. Plastic bags are complimentary in many locations but are charged or "taxed" in others. Disadvantages The following disadvantages have also been identified: Plastic bags are made of petrochemicals, a nonrenewable resource. Plastic bags are flimsy and often do not stand up as well as paper or cloth. When disposed of improperly, they are unsightly and represent a hazard to wildlife. Conventional plastic bags are not readily biodegradable in a sanitary landfill. Plastic bags can cause unsupervised infants to suffocate. They clog roadside drains, which could cause the flooding of the street at heavy rainfalls. BY JOMON JOSEPH What is the proper way to vacuum a pool? Answer Attach a pole to the vacuum with wheels. Place the hose into the hole on the bottom of the vacuum. Lower the hose and pole, with the vacuum body with wheels into the water. Lower the hose fully into the water, so that it fills up with water - no air. Cover The end of the hose with your hand. Lift the end of the hose up and into the strainer area. With the skimmer baskets removed, place the hose into the water there, and place it into the black hole, or jet system, inside the skimmer area. That starts the vacuum. Move the vacuum head, pole, and hose around, while picking up all dirt and debris. If there is a lot of dirt and debris, clean out the lint strainer, and backwash. You must backwash, otherwise you will be sending out dirty water to clean with. After the backwash, continue until complete. After you are complete, backwash one more time, after cleaning out the lint strainer. Never backwash before removing the vacuum hose and plate, and cleaning skimmer basket and pump basket. Any flow restrictions reduce backwash effectiveness. Answer If you have an above ground pool, you must place the cover over the skimmer that has a protruding end (it should have come with your pool). The vacuum hose fits right over the end of the cover. Asked in Grammar, Public Speaking What does though your wallet was scant mean? Asked in Letters Notes and Memos, Public Speaking How do you write a letter of hardship? Writing hardship letters does not have to be difficult, but you need to know what your lender is looking for. Many homeowners simply do not understand the basics of writing an effective hardship letter and this is costing them their homes. Here are some main points on writing a Hardship Letter: 1. Subject Line Request - Right off the bat let the loss mitigator know what you are requesting. 2. Brevity - Don't let your financial hardship letter go on for page after page. Keep it as short as possible. 3. Personal - Let the loss mitigator get to know you and your circumstances. 4. Clarity - Get your points across in the clearest possible way and then provide a summary. 5. Information - Make sure you leave nothing out of your financial hardship letter. Attach important information such as bank statements, cash flow documents, income tax statements, letters of reference, etc. 6. Be Appreciative - The person reading this financial hardship letter did not get you into this mess but he or she is the one that can help you out of it. So be thankful and humble in your tone. The hardship letter is not the only tool in your chest for a financial reprieve but it is by far one of the most important. So make it your prime instrument when dealing with the bank and get it in soon. : When you request a loan modification from your lender for the purpose of lowering your house payment or doing a short sale, they will ask you to write a hardship letter. In order to get them to take your request seriously you will need to comply with their request. If you want to have it written for you and personalized you can have a FREE personal hardship letter written for a limited time at a website called: : The reality is lender's really don't care what the person's situation is, they simply want their money. The best option, however, is to contact the lender by phone and explain the situation so as to learn what the lender's policy is in such matters. A letter will likely get a response of "call this number" or something similar if indeed there is a response at all. If the party chooses to make the initial contact by mail the best option is to keep it brief and to the point. Explain why it is not possible to comply with the original terms of the agreement, and request modification of the obligatory terms until one's financial situation improves. A hardship letter is easy however, the hardship letter only works with collection agencies in the event of accepting a small partial payment arrangement or to get a lower settlement percentage that the original creditor allows. Your letter needs to be sent to the collection agency and convince the original creditor cut you some slack.The basics of the letter is anything out of the ordinary that would be causing you financial distress. Good examples: you lost your employment and you are in danger of losing your home, any medical complications that would prevent you from maintaining employment, drastic decrease in salary, fixed income, and single parent w/out child support. If you are a disaster victim the original creditor will already try to cut you a deal and you will be notified. Bad examples: you are a student, you are overextended, divorce, legal issues,and threatening to file bankruptcy. Remember that hardship letters do not resolve your debts. basic hardship letter breakdown 1. your hardship. 2. your offer to resolve your debt. 3. thanking them for for their time. 4. your current contact information. Send the letter by either fax or mail preferably certified. Go to Google.com - Then type in: What is a letter of hardship? You will get the forms this way as well. go to the special civil part of the court and tell them you want to write a hard ship letter file as soon as you get the letter and be ready to have money to deposit when you write your letter to put in escrow I have written more than a couple Hardship Letters for my credit card companies that have resulted in lowered interest rates, lowered payments and waived late fees. Of Approval Process for 401k Hardship My Company, in order to improve a Hardship needs to see the following. A letter from your lender stating that you owe a particular dollar amount (1), by a particular date (2), to prevent forclosure (3), on the address on record for the participant (4). 1. The letter must have an exact dollar amount that is owed, and can only be approved for that dollar amount or the maximum available, wichever is less. 2. The date on the letter much be a future date of when these funds are due. For example: if the letter states that the funds are due on February 20th, the letter must be received before that date. Note: the date must be a date of when the funds are due, not just when the letter was generated. 3. The letter must contain the word "forclosure" weather is states it is in forclosure staus, or to prevent forclosure proceedings. 4. The letter must show the address that is on our records for the participant to prove that it is infact there house. If using a P.O Box generally a Utility bill with the physical address on it, the P.O box that is on file, and the participants name is a sufficient document to include to show ownership of home.

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Ralph Waldo Emerson, one of the most prominent writers to represent transcendentalism to this day, wrote Boston Hymn as a calling to the American people. Emerson uses God as a speaker in this poem. He speaks with the voice of authority, from the viewpoint of one who rules the universe. The effect of this particular voice is that it gives the poem an authoritative sound which very much parallels the tone in the books of the Old Testament. Emerson uses this tone tactfully, as he calls the American people to all that is right and just in his eyes. He also personifies Freedom, and calls him the angel that God has sent to the American people to warn them of their wrongs and give them a chance to repent of all crimes against freedom. Boston Hymn Analysis The word of the Lord by night To the watching Pilgrims came, As they sat by the seaside, And filled their hearts with flame In this stanza, the speaker begins with clearly biblical language. Using the phrase “the word of the Lord” causes the average reader to take these words seriously. It also gives the speaker a voice of authority. With the first line, it seems as though this is going to be a poem taken directly from the Old Testament, but the second line reveals that this is the word of the Lord to the Pilgrims, not to the Israelites. The speaker suggests that as the American Pilgrims sat by the seaside, the word of the Lord came to them and “filled their hearts with flame”. The similarity of tone between the Old Testament and Boston Hymn implies that the Pilgrims are the new Israelites. It gives the reader the idea that the Pilgrims are people set apart for God’s purposes. Thus, it also implies God’s protection over the Pilgrims. God said, I am tired of kings, I suffer them no more; Up to my ear the morning brings The outrage of the poor At this point in the poem, the speaker shifts to God himself. He then asserts, as though from God’s point of view, that he is “tired of kings” and that he will be done with them. Then he explains why. He says that each morning, he hears the outrage of the poor. This is a direct parallel to James 5:4 which says, “Behold, the wages of the laborers who mowed your fields, which you kept back by fraud, are crying out against you, and the cries of the harvesters have reached the ears of the Lord of hosts.” This is the speaker’s first hint at the injustice of slavery. Although he has indeed set apart the Pilgrims as God’s people, he will eventually point out the wrongdoings of the American people, and this is the first instance in which he touches on the idea of slavery. Without a thorough knowledge of the Bible, many would pass over this line and assume that the rebuke is meant only for those kings and queens of other countries who live in luxury while others starve. However, a closer reading reveals that the speaker is likely condemning both America and as well as other countries. When the speaker says that the “outrage of the poor” has reached “up to [His] ear”, it is clear that he intends to parallel the verse in James chapter 5. Thus, anyone familiar with the American situation at the time this poem was publicly read, would likewise know that the rebuke in this stanza extended to America. Emerson composed this poem in late 1862, just before the emancipation proclamation. This poem was publicly read in 1863, the very same year that African American slaves were declared free. Thus, given the time and place of this particular poem, it is clear that the “outrage of the poor” were the slaves. Just as the verse in James says that “the cries of the harvesters have reached the ears of the Lord”, so the cries of the African American slaves reached the ears of the Lord. And with this stanza, the speaker declares that God has had enough with kings and queens, nobility, and slavery. Therefore, Emerson, with just two stanzas, effectively sets up the Pilgrims as God’s chosen people, and yet rebukes them for holding and owning slaves, using the Bible to support his claims. Think ye I made this ball A field of havoc and war, Where tyrants great and tyrants small Might harry the weak and poor? In this stanza, the author continues to use the voice of God as his speaker. He asks a question. Essentially, he asks the people of the world, “Do you think that I made this world so that you could wreak havoc on it with war? Did I give you this world so that tyrants great and small could rule and terrorize the weak and the poor?” This, clearly a rhetorical question, causes the reader to see the world from God’s point of view. Anyone who believes in a God who created the earth would see from this stanza, that God is mortified at what humans have done with the earth that He gave to them. He didn’t make it for them to destroy it with their wars and their hatred and oppression of the poor. The author clearly knows that the Bible speaks of the poor time and time again, calling for justice and warning the rich not to oppress them. Yet, in nearly every society, this command has been broken and the rich have lived in luxury while the poor suffer. This stanza allows the readers to see that from God’s point of view. My angel- his name is Freedom, Choose him to be your king; He shall cut pathways east and west And fend you with his wing. In this stanza, the speaker introduces an angel. This angel is in fact, Freedom personified. The speaker calls the American people to elect Freedom as king. Thus, there is no flawed human being on the throne. Rather, on the metaphorical American throne, sits Freedom, God’s own angel sent to America to rebuke them of their misdeeds and sit himself on the throne to rule the American people with justice. The speaker promises the American people that if they choose Freedom as their king, that he would protect them “with his wing”. Lo! I uncover the land Which I hit of old time in the West, As the sculptor uncovers the statue When he has wrought his best This stanza goes back in time, and talks about when the land in the West was first revealed to the people of the east, and the Pilgrims settled there. He suggests that the discovery of the western lands was because God chose to reveal it to them. He also suggest that it was the last land to be known because it was God’s best work, and He wanted to show it to them last. I show Columbia, of the rocks Which dip their foot in the seas And soar to the air-borne flocks Of clouds and the boreal fleece With this stanza, the speaker identifies with the reader’s feelings of the land of the west. He particularly points out Columbia, and describes her beauty. He personifies her as he describes the land as “dip[ping] their foot in the seas”. This description of the beauty of the land serves to help the readers feel a pride in their own land. The fact that he picks out Columbia, reveals that he wishes to include all the lands of the west in his desire for them to be ruled by Freedom. I will divide my goods; Call in the wretch and slave None shall rule but the humble And none but Toil shall have This beautiful stanza states emphatically that those who work should have what they work for. This corresponds with stanza two in stating that all who work, especially the slaves who have toiled year after year, should have wealth and the wages they have worked for. He says that no one should have wealth if he does not toil. This is also biblical language, and is clearly said in defense of the slaves and as a rebuke to former slave owners everywhere. 2 Thessalonians 3:10 states, “ For even when we were with you, we would give you this command: If anyone is not willing to work, let him not eat. 11 For we hear that some among you walk in idleness, not busy at work, but busybodies.” Thus, this is a rebuke of all slave owners who lived lives of luxury without work. They had all of the best that the land had to offer, but did none of the work themselves. This stanza is clearly a call for justice on behalf of those who work, and a rebuke to those who do not. Under the rule of Freedom, all who work will be paid, and all who do not will suffer. I will have never a noble, No lineage counted great; Fishers and choppers and ploughmen Shall constitute a state With this stanza, the speaker (still God) declares that America will be different from other lands where Kings and Queens rule. He declares that there will be no noble bloodlines, for people will not be wealthy based upon their ancestors. Rather, the “fishers and choppers and ploughmen” will be the ones with money, because they have worked for it, and they will make up the state. Go, cut down trees in the forest And trim the straightest boughs; Cut down trees in the forest And build me a wooden house Since Emerson still uses the very voice of God as his speaker, it is clear that this is yet another parallel to the Old Testament. While God asked the Israelites to build him a temple made of gold and other fine stones, here, God is asking the Pilgrims to build him a home from the trees of the forest. This is simply suggesting that God is calling the American people to a simpler life. Rather than building empires on the backs of slaves, he calls them to go themselves into the forest and to build homes of wood. Call the people together, The young men and the sires The digger in the harvest field, Hireling and him that hires This is simply a call for all American people to come together with one purpose. The speaker calls for the young and old, the workers and those who hired them, to come together for one purpose. And here in a pine state-house They shall choose men to rule In every needful faculty, In church and state and school This stanza has a strong biblical tone, and parallels the book of Judges, where God called the Israelite people to place certain rulers over certain numbers of people so that when conflict arose, it may be dealt with justly. This calls all American people to elect those who are in charge of churches, states, and schools. This is democracy. The speaker calls for the people to choose who will rule them. But it is important to remember that the speaker has already placed Freedom, the angel, on the throne of America. No person is to be king, however, many people are to rule over certain organizations of society. At this point, it is important to note that the Old Testament states that God did not ever intend for Israel to have a king. He meant to be their king himself, and to have his priests to rule over the people to a certain degree. It was not until the Israelites declared that they would have a king, that God placed a king over them (1 Samuel Chapter 8). Thus, this stanza can be seen as the new Israel. The Pilgrims are the new Israelites, and they will do what God had originally intended. They would not name a king. Rather, Freedom, an angel sent from God himself, would be King of America, and the certain people would be elected to rule under him. This is clearly the author’s idea of true Freedom, and using the voice of God and parallels between the Pilgrims and the Israelites allow the readers to see themselves as God’s people. Lo; now! If these poor men Can govern the land and sea And make just laws below the sun, As planets faithful be This stanza simply states that poor men can rule a land as effectively, if not better than, the nobility of other countries. And ye shall succor men; ‘T is nobleness to serve; Help them who cannot help again: Beware from right to swerve This stanza contains yet another biblical reference as it declares that it is “nobleness to serve”. In Matthew 28, the author states that the Son of Man (Jesus) did not come to be served, but to serve. Thus, the highest nobility (God himself) sought to serve others rather than seeking others to serve Him. The speaker of this poem is calling the American people to the very same thing. He has already called all people to work for their money, and now he tells them that it is noble of them to serve. This is a very different idea from what many Americans and early Pilgrims were used to. In England, especially, a gentleman was one who had inherited so much money that he did not have to work, and that was considered nobility. In many ways, that mindset and way of life transferred to the west. Particularly in the South, plantation owners were valued for their wealth and ownership of enough slaves to do all of their work for them. The speaker in this poem seeks to break the idea of nobility that has penetrated society for generation upon generation. In order to do this, He brings the reader right back to the Bible times, and reveals that true nobility serves, and thus he calls for the Americans to take pride not in their bloodlines, but in their work. He warns them not to swerve away from the conviction that it is honorable to work, and to work hard enough to help those who cannot help themselves. I break your bonds and masterships And I unchain the slave: Free be his heart and hand henceforth As wind and wandering wave At this point, the speaker finally states his meaning clearly. While he has been referring to the slaves and the masters inadvertently up until this point, here he decides to make his meaning very clear. As God speaking, he says, “I unchain the slave”. This reveals the author’s notion that God himself freed the slaves. He then declares that the slave should be as free as “wind and wandering wave”. I cause from every creature His proper good to flow: As much as he is and doeth, So much he shall bestow. In this stanza, the speaker (God) claims that all good that can be found in every creature on earth, comes from him. This corresponds with some of Ralph Waldo Emerson’s major beliefs. The ideas of transcendentalism that he purported suggested that God was everywhere, and in everything. Many of the lines of this poem contradicts these ideas, and suggest that Emerson was writing these lines to a people who believed in the God of the Bible, and played off of that to earn their agreement in his call for Freedom and equality. Nonetheless, some of Emerson’s true spiritual beliefs still come through. This stanza particularly contains the transcendentalist belief that God is part and parcel of the good that is everywhere in the world, whether found in human beings, plants, or animals. This stanza suggests that all the good in the world comes directly from God. But, laying hands on another To coin his labor and sweat, He goes in pawn to his victim For eternal years in debt This stanza reveals that Emerson knew his audience well. He was calling to all people, the North and the South, to come together under the rule of Freedom. He knew that the South had lost desperately, and that they needed to feel a part of this beautiful country. He also knew that many former slave owners had used the Bible to justify their ownership of slaves. After all, the Bible does in fact say, “slaves obey your masters” (Ephesians 6:5). Thus, Emerson uses the voice of God to clarify, by explaining that the only biblical reason for owning a slave, was when a person owed so much money to another, that he had to work it off with seven years of slavery (Proverbs 22:7). Thus, the speaker effectively rebukes slave owners of their ownership of slaves and uses biblical reference to counter their arguments for their rights to own slaves. To-day unbind the captive, So only are ye unbound; Lift up a people from the dust, Trump of their rescue, sound! Still assuming the voice of God, the speaker calls for freedom. He calls the American people to “unbind the captive” and to “lift up a people from the dust”. Then, yet another biblical reference is used when the speaker calls to sound the “trump of their rescue”. The Christians have long held to the belief that God will eventually come to their rescue, and that at the sound of the trumpet, they would be taken from the world, relieved of persecution, and saved by their God. The speaker parallels this very idea to the release of the African American slaves. Pay ransom to the owner And fill the bag to the brim. Who is the owner? The slave is the owner, And ever was. Pay him. As the American Civil War raged on, the South held on to their idea of their right to their own way of life. Many believed that if the North wished to free the slave, the slave owners should be paid for them. After all, they bought the slaves with their own money. With the first line of this stanza, it seems as though the speaker is calling for payment to be made to the slave owners for the freedom of each of his slaves. However, when the third line, it becomes clear that the speaker means just the opposite. He calls for the slaves to be paid money for all their years of work. After all, the plantations should really be owned by them because they are the ones who worked, planted, and harvested. The speaker claims that the plantations have always belonged to the slaves, and calls for payment to be made to them. O North! Give him beauty for rags, And honor, O South! For his shame; Nevada! Coin thy golden crags With Freedom’s image and name Here, the speaker calls all people to come together under that name of Freedom. Emerson, knowing his audience, the shame of the South and the faults of the North, gives them all a chance to come together. He calls the North to give of their riches to bring the people of slavery up out of the dust. Then he calls to the South, to exchange their shame for honor by renouncing their ways. Then, he calls for Nevada (known for it’s silver and gold) to engrave “Freedom’s image and name” unto their coins. Up! And the dusky race That sat in darkness long, Be swift their feet as antelopes, And as behemoth strong In the previous stanza, the speaker called out to the North and to the South to come together under the name of Freedom. Here, he calls to the former slaves to rise up out of the darkness and to be “swift” and “strong” in making a life for themselves with their newfound freedom. Come, East and West and North By races, as snowflakes, And carry my purpose forth, Which neither halts nor shakes Here, the speaker (still assuming the voice of God) calls for all people from the west to come together by races “as snowflakes”. Just as no snowflake is the same as another, the speaker suggests that each and every human being is unique, but calls them to come together anyway. He asks them to “carry [his] purpose forth”. Since the speaker, as God, claims that He sent His angel, Freedom, it is safe to assume that this purpose is also freedom. Thus, God is calling all people of the west, all races and types of people, to come together to carry out one purpose: freedom. He then claims that this purpose is one that “neither halts nor shakes”. Thus, the speaker claims that He will not stop until Freedom has been established as King of America. My will fulfilled shall be For, in daylight or in dark My thunderbolt has eyes to see His way home to the mark. In this stanza, the speaker (God) declares that his will shall be fulfilled whether in day or night, because his “thunderbolt”, another name for the angel, Freedom, has “eyes to see his way home to the mark”. With this last line, the speaker states that Freedom will be King, no matter how long it takes. With these lines, the writer reveals the belief that it is God’s will for Freedom to reign, and that Freedom will reign, no matter the cost. - Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Masterpieces of American Literature: With Biographical Sketches. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1891. Print. - The Holy Bible: English Standard Version: The ESV Study Bible. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Bibles, 2008. Print.

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How can such complexity come from just one plant? Many people are surprised to learn that all teas, white, green, oolong, black and pu-erh are made from the leaves of the same species. While the varietal of the particular Camellia sinensis plant as well as the weather conditions and soil contribute to the final taste of the tea, the significant differences of tea type develop in the processing of the leaves. The distinguishing factor that determines whether a tea plant will become white, green, oolong, or black tea is oxidation. Oxidation begins after the leaf has been plucked from the plant, and begins a process of being dried, withered, rolled, and heat treated. A black tea is fully oxidized, causing it to turn black, while a white tea is barely oxidized at all, thus retaining its soft, silvery down. We tend to call many things that we infuse in hot water a tea. But technically, it’s only tea if it’s made from the leaves of Camellia sinensis, an evergreen plant indigenous to China and India. Today tea is grown in over one hundred countries to meet the worldwide demand. Tea is the world’s second most popular beverage, after water. More people in the US are drinking tea than ever before, joining a booming worldwide trend. Increased understanding of the role antioxidants play in weight loss as well as the prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease has revealed tea as an ideal health beverage. Fresh brewed tea is 100% natural, fat-free, calorie-free, gluten-free, sugar-free, preservative-free, and low in caffeine—tea is the healthy choice. White teas are the least processed of all teas. They release the least amount of caffeine of all teas, generally ranging from 10-15 milligrams per 8 oz cup. Almost all white teas hail from Fujian Province, China. White teas are picked when young tea buds are tightly enclosed in new leaves. This retains a silky, downy quality in the leaves. When you first drink white tea, it seems quite tasteless – as if you were drinking hot water. However, after a while, you’ll become aware of a subtle change in your breath and at the back of your mouth. You will taste a soft, nourishing sweetness and eventually experience a similar sensation down your throat. Preparation of white teas requires pure water at 175° F. (Boil, then cool 3 mins) Process: White tea is the most delicate tea in flavor and aroma, as the leaves are not rolled or crushed in the processing. Camellia sinensis bushes that have large, fleshy leaf buds are used for most white teas today. Those leaf buds become Silver Needles white tea. If the next two leaves are picked and processed the same way, they yield White Peony white tea. Origins: With flavors that are close to the heart of the tea plant, they were the favorite of the famous ’Tea Emperor’ in the 1100’s who was so preoccupied with his love of tea and his pursuit of the perfect cup, that he lost his empire to invading Mongols. White teas have since traditionally been used as a Tribute Tea to the Chinese Emperor. Long popular in China, they are just becoming well-known in America. Recent claims that white tea has less caffeine than green tea are often debatable. Caffeine content is sometimes more dependent on the part of the plant used, rather than on process. View our selection of White Teas. Green tea leaves plucked in the morning are ready to be brewed in a pot the same night. The bypass of oxidation allows green tea to retain most of its natural dark green color, tannins, vitamin C, chlorophyll and minerals. The taste of green tea is therefore more astringent and subtler than oolong or black tea. The lack of oxidation is also responsible for the very low caffeine content of green tea (only 1%). Its caffeine effect produces a nearly steady, mild high with no big peaks or plunges. Green tea is therefore the perfect meditative aid: it acts as a mild stimulant, without causing insomnia or nervousness. It refreshes and quiets. The names of Chinese green teas denote leaf styles and often make reference to the region where the tea is from. The names of Japanese green teas generally end in "cha" (meaning tea). Preparation of green teas requires pure water at 175° F. (Boil, then cool 3 mins) Process: The leaves are heated immediately after plucking. The heat prevents the leaves from withering or oxidizing. The dry leaf retains its green color. Origins: Traditionally from China and Japan. Chinese green teas include such classics as Lung Ching and Gunpowder, as well as Pi Lo Chun (Green Spring Spiral) and Yunwu (Cloud-and-Mist). Japan produces only green teas, including Gyokuro, Sencha, Bancha, Hojicha (roasted), Genmaicha (tea with roasted corn and rice), Kukicha (roasted twigs) and Matcha (powdered tea that must be whisked.) Green teas can also be flavored and scented. Jasmine is the most popular scented green tea. Other green tea producing countries now exporting include Thailand, Korea and Vietnam. View our selection of Green Teas. Oolong teas are semi–oxidized, which places them mid–way between green and black teas. This gives them the body and complexity of a black tea, with the brightness and freshness of a green tea. The caffeine content and antioxidant level is also mid–way between that of green and black teas, making them most healthy and palatable. A very favorite and desired tea amongst connoisseurs, all oolongs hail from either China or Taiwan. Preparation of oolong teas requires pure water at 195° F. (Boil, then cool 2 mins) They may be infused multiple (3–7) times, each steep lasting 1–3 minutes. The caffeine content of oolong teas decreases dramatically from the first to the third brew, yielding about 30–50 mg in first the cup, 15–25 mg in the second, and 5–10 mg in the third. Process: The leaves are withered and then rolled, often by hand. The leaves are allowed to partially oxidize and then are fired in pan or basket to arrest the oxidation process. Oxidation may range from 12–85%. Sometimes charcoal smoke is used to impart a flavor to the tea. Origins: From lightly oxidized to dark roasted, oolongs can be fragrantly floral to lusciously rich. A special category of minimally oxidized oolong leaves ranges from 6–12% and are known as pouchongs. Taiwan is famous for its many wonderful oolong teas, and deservedly so. Their teas are often named after the particular mountain on which they're grown. In China, Ti Quan Yin ("Iron Goddess of Mercy") is one of the most famous oolong teas whose characteristic flavor is produced in the charcoal firing of the leaves. Ti Quan Yin is a variety of tea plant that produces Ti Quan Yin oolong, and was discovered in the Anxi province of China. Other well–known Chinese oolongs include Huang Jin Gui and Bai Hao. View our selection of Oolongs. Black teas are fully oxidized teas. Black teas brew a liquor from reddish brown to dark brown. They are the most popular type of tea in the Western world. Black teas range from 40 – 60 milligrams of caffeine per 8 oz cup. Black Teas from China are divided into two main categories: Northern Chinese (Keemun teas from Anhui province and similar teas such as Golden Monkey) and Southern Chinese which are the black teas from the Yunnan province. Many teas from China often have poetic names that don’t give any information about the type of tea or the region that it came from, such as Cloud Mist and Fairy Branch. There are three major tea producing areas in India: Darjeeling, Assam, and Nilgiri. Black teas are also available from Sikkim, an area bordering Darjeeling. Ceylon teas come from the island nation now called Sri Lanka. Other loose-leaf black tea producing countries include: Nepal, Turkey, Indonesia, Kenya and Australia. Preparation of black teas requires pure water at boiling point (212° F). Process: After the leaves are plucked they are allowed to wither. They are then rolled and crushed by hand or by machine. This activates the oxidation processes and the leaves are allowed to turn black. Finally they are fired in ovens to stop the oxidation process. Origins: Traditionally from China, India, and Sri Lanka (Ceylon). There are several ways to reference any particular tea from India or Sri Lanka: - By estate - The grade of the tea - The year of the plucking - The plucking season (or flush) Tea gradings refer primarily to the way the leaf looks. - S, or "super" means that the particular estate considers this tea one of its "best of best". - F, or "fine" usually means that the tea is a very high quality, clean, dust free and relatively uniform leaf. - T, or "tippy" means that the tea has many leaves from the very end bud - the terminal bud. - G, or "golden" refers the those terminal buds that had tiny hair-like fuzz on them that, after oxidation, has turned golden in color (desirable) - F, or "flowery" generally refers to the nose, it’s floral in character. - O, or "orange" is a reference to the Earl of Orange who once was so involved in tea trade that he required the estates to note whether or not they thought the teas measured up to his expectations. Using the letter "O" means that the tea does indeed do this. - P, or "pekoe" simply means a hand picked and processed tea that is dust and mold free. Flavored Black Teas Chinese black tea leaves have been flavored since around the time the Ming Dynasty was founded in 1368, and have become wildly popular in America and Europe in recent decades. The addition of natural essences and flavors create an exciting sensual and gastronomic experience, as both the tea and the scent are often enhanced in the marriage of the two. Tea can be flavored by adding fruits, floral essences, and/or flavorings to the finished black tea leaves. All tea leaves are very absorbent of fragrances (and all odors, which is another reason why air-tight containers are important for storage.) Popular scented black teas include Earl Grey, scented with bergamot; Lapsang Souchong, which is scented with pine wood smoke; Rose tea, Caramel tea and various fruit-flavored black teas. View our entire selection of Black Teas. India is the largest tea exporter in the world. Most of its tea production is consumed at home. This gives us an idea of the magnitude of production, and of its economic impact on the country. While tea plants are indigenous to parts of northwestern India, tea was not a part of the Indian diet until after the British began producing tea there circa 1850. The Indian palate was not satisfied by the thin, sugared beverage. But by drawing from their own cultural pantry they created the tea drink that we know as chai - black tea simmered with milk, sugar, and rich flavorful spices such as cardamom, ginger, clove and cinnamon. Every household in India has their own family recipe for what they call masala chai, or spice tea. Pu’erh teas are aged and fermented. These aged teas are revered throughout Asia for their medicinal benefits, which range from curing hangovers to reducing cholesterol. Pu’erh tea is very smooth in taste, and can be even darker than black tea. This is a naturally fermented tea, and, if stored properly, the older the tea, the better the flavor. Black Pu’erh teas contain about 60–70 milligrams of caffeine per 8 oz cup, and Green Pu’erh yields about 30–40 milligrams of caffeine for the same sized serving. Preparation: Requires pure water at boiling point (212° F). Process: Pu’erh tea is processed through special fermentation by using the semi-fermented green tea of Yunnan large leaf tea. It is black or brown in color. This tea undergoes a secondary fermentation process that takes 6 months to a year, during which the tea is contained in a warm, humid environment, allowing beneficial bacteria and fungal microflora to flourish. The more aged Pu’erh tea is mellow and gives a sweet taste in mouth after drinking. Health Benefits: This is an ideal health drink. It can cut through grease and cholesterol, help digestion, warm you, help produce saliva and shake thirst, dispel the effects of alcohol, and refresh one’s mind. Pu’erh tea has also been shown to lower triglyceride and cholesterol levels in the body. Origins: Grown exclusively in and around the county of Pu’erh in Yunnan Province, China, the leaves are mildly sweet, with an aroma reminiscent of autumn leaves. View our selection of Pu'erh Teas. Yerba Maté (pronounced "yerba mahtay") is a medicinal and cultural drink of ancient origins. Introduced to the world by the Guarani Indians of South America, Maté is a species of holly plant, and can range in flavor from earthy and roasted to grassy. Mate is a healthy and stimulating drink, with roughly 35 milligrams of caffeine per 8 oz. serving. Yerba Maté is an appetite suppressant, also high in Vitamin C, potassium, magnesium, and manganese. Mate contains xanthines, which are in the same family as caffeine, and sometimes called "mateine". Mate also contains other natural chemicals and trace minerals that seem to mellow out the experience of consuming this particular type of caffeine, and many mate drinkers report that they feel alert and focused without any negative effects of coffee, such as jitters and a caffeine crash. Preliminary scientific studies of mate have shown that the compounds in the plant have a relaxing effect on smooth muscle tissue, rather than a stimulating effect on the central nervous system. Preparation: Requires pure water at 203° F (Boil, then cool 1 min) Yerba Maté should be steeped for 6–7 minutes using hot, but not boiled water. Boiling water can make mate bitter, just like tea. Some people even like to pour cool water over the mate leaves before filling the rest of the cup with hot water to avoid extracting tannins, which create the bitter flavor. Process: After harvesting, yerba mate branches are dried sometimes with a wood fire, imparting a smoky flavor to some styles. Other styles are steamed which results in a grassier flavor, which can be likened to Japanese green tea. The leaves are then chopped to a specific size of leaf cut. Origins: Grown and processed in South America, specifically in northern Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and southern Brazil. Cultivators are known as yerbateros (Spanish) or ervateiros (Brazilian Portuguese). View our selection of Yerba Mate Teas. The history of herbs and spices is far more ancient than that of tea. Herbal Infusions are not tea, per se, as they do not come from the Camellia sinensis plant. They are popular after’dinner beverages and naturally 100% caffeine–free. Many host a variety of health benefits, and all the ones we offer deliver a sensational experience in aromatherapy and taste. Herbal Infusions include many well-known herbs such as mint, flowers such as hibiscus and chamomile, roots like licorice and ginger, and other botanicals including rooibos and lemongrass. Some blends combine many herbs and even add seeds, berries, nuts and even cocoa. Herbal infusions have a wide variety of purported health benefits and cures, from indigestion to allergies to insomnia. There are infinite combinations and possibilities for creating herbal infusions, and all of them are free of caffeine. Most herbal infusions should be steeped for 6–7 minutes using freshly boiled water, or decocted for 10–20 minutes on the stovetop for maximum effectiveness. View our selection of Herbal Teas. As a naturally decaf tea, hibiscus is a great way to stay healthfully hydrated any time of day. Medical research shows that hibiscus is promising in treating high blood pressure and possibly high cholesterol triglyceride levels*. It also offers a natural source of Vitamin C and antioxidants to give your immune system a boost. When cold-brewed, hibiscus makes a mouthwatering, smooth & refreshing, vibrant red infusion in under ten minutes. Brewed hot, the taste of hibiscus flowers is more tart. Hibiscus is the most prevalent component in herbal teas sold in North America. View our selection of Hibiscus Teas. * Reference: Hopkins AL, et al., Hibiscus sabdariffa L. in the treatment of hypertension and hyperlipidemia: a comprehensive review of animal and human studies, Fitoterapia. 2013 Mar;85:84-94. doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2013.01.003. Rooibos is a naturally caffeine-free herbal tea indigenous to the Cedarburg mountain area in South Africa, also known as red bush tea. Its naturally sweet flavor, lack of bitter tannins, and naturally decaf nature makes it a great tea for the whole family. Its needle-like leaves are well suited to its arid home. It is harvested manually during the summer, at which point it is still green. Oxidation is essential in order to enhance the flavor of the tea and this turns the tea leaves from green to bright red. This faintly sweet red herbal infusion is unique because it contains health benefits while being naturally caffeine free and low in tannin, thus allowing iron absorption. Rooibos contains almost no tannins, but has many replenishing minerals including iron, potassium, copper, alpha-hydroxy and zinc. It is rich in antioxidants, the substances that combat free radicals in the body. Rooibos is a great thirst quencher and is an excellent beverage for active people, including children. Most kids will drink Rooibos without added sugar or sweeteners. This tea contains almost no oxalic acid, making it a good beverage for people prone to kidney stones. Rooibos contains the following minerals: copper, iron and potassium, calcium, fluoride, zinc, manganese, alpha-hydroxy (for healthy skin) and magnesium (for the nervous system) are also components of this tea. In South Africa pregnant women and lactating mothers drink Rooibos because it contains loads of antioxidants without any caffeine. With its many positive attributes, Rooibos tea is an excellent choice of drink for health conscious people. View our selection of loose leaf Rooibos.

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In this comprehensive blog post, we’re going to walk you through what actual malice is, its definition, how it relates to defamation lawsuits and claims, why public officials must prove actual malice in order to succeed in their libel or slander claim, the damages associated with actual malice, several state examples and cases concerning actual malice, and more! - Actual malice is the legal requirement imposed on specific defamation plaintiffs when filing a lawsuit for libel or slander, and will be found where a defendant publishes or communicates a false statement with knowledge of its falsity or reckless disregard for its veracity. - Specifically, actual malice is the legal threshold and burden of proof a public defamation plaintiff must prove in order to recover damages, while private persons and plaintiffs need only prove a defendant acted with ‘ordinary negligence’. - Constitutional malice differs slightly from common law malice, as constitutional malice emphasizes two fundamental components; knowledge of the statement’s falsity or reckless disregard for the truth, while common law malice emphasizes the ideas of “ill will” and “spite” or the plaintiff’s feelings towards the plaintiff. United States Defamation Law Fact: Defamation may also be commonly referred to as calumny, vilification, traducement, or character assassination, and persons who commit defamation may be called “defamers,” “libelers,” “slanderers,” and in somewhat rare cases “famacide.” Keep in mind that “disparagement” is an entirely different tort than defamation, as it refers to the harm or damage to a person or business’s proprietary and financial rights, rather than to their/its reputation. If you’re a private or public figure and have been the victim of malicious and defamatory online attacks, reach out to the defamation removal lawyers of Minc Law now! At Minc Law, we’ve secured the effective removal of over 25,000 pieces of libelous and defamatory content/websites, litigated in over 22 states and 3 countries, and boast a nearly 100% online defamation removal takedown rate – and we do it all for a flat, reasonable fee. Rest assured when working with the online defamation attorneys of Minc Law, you’re in good hands. Furthermore, we’ve worked tirelessly with website administrators, online content managers, and third-party arbitration firms to secure swift and permanent takedowns. We know who to work with and how to contact them. We want to fight for your reputation. The Facts: Definition of Actual Malice? Actual malice refers to the legal requirement imposed on certain defamation plaintiffs when they file a lawsuit for libel or slander. Specifically, actual malice’s definition was laid out in the 1964 landmark defamation case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, which reads: “The constitutional guarantees require, we think, a Federal rule that prohibits a public official from recovering damages for a defamatory falsehood relating to his official conduct unless he proves that the statement was made with ‘actual malice’ – that is, with knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not.” New York Times Co. v. Sullivan. Simply put, if a public defamation plaintiff cannot prove actual malice, then they cannot recover damages. We’ll expand on this landmark case further in Section 2: The Significance of New York Times v. Sullivan. At its very core, actual malice centers around two requirements (and may vary in some way by state), that the defamatory statement in question was either made with: - Knowledge of the statement’s false nature, or - Reckless disregard of the truth or falsity of the matter. It’s important to understand that while the definition of actual malice alludes to public figures in the context of the media, it actually applies to all defendants, including individuals. Such standard is considered a necessary safeguard to prevent overly litigious persons/entities and frivolous lawsuits. Furthermore, public figures have availed themselves to certain levels of scrutiny, comment, and criticism in our society, and should therefore be discussed openly without fear of legal repercussion or censorship. While the term actual malice was not actually created specifically for New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, it was given constitutional significance under Sullivan, and ultimately defined in a more thorough manner. You might have heard the term ‘Common Law Malice’ thrown around occasionally, so let’s take a look to see how constitutional malice (also known as actual malice) compares to common law malice. Constitutional Malice vs. Common Law Malice Just above, we addressed the definition of constitutional malice, or what it’s more commonly referred to as – actual malice. Actual malice emphasizes two fundamental prongs: knowledge of statement’s falsity or reckless disregard for the truth of the matter asserted. Common law malice on the other hand specifically refers to a defamation defendant’s feelings towards the libel or slander plaintiff (much different from an express and explicit knowledge or disregard for the statement). Common law malice emphasizes the concepts of ill will or spite, and will likely manifest itself under a different name in United States defamation law. We recommend first looking to the constitutional standard of malice to base your understanding off of, and then looking to your state’s specific requirements for actual malice – as this may affect your right to recover punitive damages. Keep in mind that while U.S. states may create a higher and stricter threshold for a libel plaintiff to prove in order to recover damages, they may not lower the threshold as required by the First Amendment. We’ll address everything in depth below. So, How Can You Prove Actual Malice? That’s a great question, and luckily there are numerous ways a defamation plaintiff prove a defendant acted with actual malice or reckless disregard when publishing or communicating a statement. As long as a defamation claim and lawsuit is supported by admissible evidence, then actual malice may be shown and proved. Malice may be proved via any competent and sufficient evidence – which may either be: - Direct, or Just make sure evidence and circumstances being shown aren’t too remote, and it will likely be admissible. Such evidence and supporting circumstances which have generally been accepted are: past threats, other defamatory and false statements, subsequent statements by a defendant, evidence of ill will or hostility between both parties, and facts which prove a defendant’s reckless disregard. Online Defamation Fact: When confronting defamation, it’s important to understand the form in which it’s conveyed, as it could significantly impact your legal rights and remedies under United States defamation law. Specifically, libel refers to a false written or published statement (including videos, photographs, and other media), while slander refers to a false spoken statement. When confronting online defamation, you are almost always dealing with libel. Note that most states have differing statutes of limitations for libel and slander claims, so remember to familiarize yourself with your state’s respective statutes. History & Significance of New York Times v. Sullivan It should be no surprise by now that the most fundamental takeaway and overhaul brought forth by the Court in New York Times Co v. Sullivan was in the burden of proof established for public figures and persons when bringing a defamation claim. New York Times Co. v. Sullivan is one of the defining cases which supports and upholds “freedom of the press” in United States jurisprudence. At the very heart of Sullivan was the defined distinction between both private and public defamation plaintiffs in the United States. Most notably, the Supreme Court ruled that it was imperative when determining libel plaintiff’s rights and remedies under U.S. defamation law, to impose two distinct burdens of proof – depending on what one’s status in the community is. Prior to this ruling, there were roughly USD $300,000,000 accrued in libel lawsuits from Southern states (and still outstanding) against media outlets and news organizations – mostly due to the attempted suppression of coverage of the numerous civil rights issues and abuses taking place in those states. You might be asking yourself, “why did the Supreme Court feel the need to draw a distinction between public and private plaintiffs?” Simple. To further “uninhibited debate of public issues.” Differentiating between the two types of plaintiffs was absolutely essential for promoting free discussion and debate in today’s society, a fundamental requirement for a true democracy. Think about it, our democracy revolves around the right to free speech, and should we begin to start censoring persons who openly comment on influential members in society and the community, our democracy would soon fail and the general public would become less informed. On top of that, the Court’s decision in Sullivan enabled newspapers and media outlets more freedom to accurately report on the overall chaos and abuses taking place during the Civil Rights Movement. Finally, while the term “actual malice,” which was the burden of proof tacked onto defamation actions brought by public figures and persons, may at times protect inaccurate speech, it’s still incredibly important for the advancement of free debate. Justice William J. Brennan acknowledged that an “erroneous statement is inevitable in free debate, and … it must be protected if the freedoms of expression are to have the ‘breathing space’ that they need to survive.” Defamation Law Fact:Keep in mind that when charged with a defamation claim, there’s numerous defenses a defamation defendant may rely on. Specifically, four of the most common defenses include: truth/falsity – while the truth hurts, it does not give rise to an actionable claim, opinion – if a statement may not be independently be verified as fact, then it will likely be considered opinion, privilege – certain statements are protected under free speech, and consent – think about it, if you consent to a publication, you can’t later rescind it and later sue for defamation. Public vs. Private Figures: Actual Malice vs. Ordinary Negligence As we noted in the definition of actual malice, such legal requirement serves to prevent overly litigious persons and entities and frivolous legal claims from being filed in our already clogged judicial system. New York Times Co. v. Sullivan stresses that actual malice is the standard for public persons and figures, and must be proved in order for them to succeed in their claim. So, why do public persons and figures have a stricter burden of proof to meet when bringing a defamation claim? Public Figures/Persons & Actual Malice In this section, we’re going to walk you through the two core types of defamation plaintiffs in today’s U.S. defamation legal-sphere, along with three subsets and categories. For starters, actual malice as a burden of proof for public figures exists to further open discussion and debate – two concepts at the very heart of our democracy. Public figures and persons have taken upon a duty or status in society (voluntarily or involuntarily), which requires open comment, debate, and criticism. Without it (and should censorship run rampant), our very public would fail to stay informed, and our democracy would slowly erode. Imagine never being legally able to openly criticize a politician or celebrity. As such figures have “voluntarily or involuntarily availed themselves” to the public light (or thrust themselves into the public light), they are required to prove a defamation defendant acted with actual malice when bringing a libel or slander claim. Private Figures & Ordinary Negligence Funnily enough, The Associated Press estimates that roughly 95% of all libel cases involving news stories are not high-profile, and considered “run of the mill” – meaning they likely concern local businesses, criminal investigations, and local trials. Cue private figures and citizens. If you’re reading this, there’s a high likelihood that you’re considered a private person or figure under United States defamation law. Specifically, private persons and figures are persons who have not voluntarily or involuntarily availed themselves to public comment, debate, or criticism, and as such, should be left alone. Because private persons and figures do not “invite” public attention and comment, they are merely required to prove a defendant acted with ordinary negligence when communicating or publishing a defamatory statement. Ordinary negligence can be defined as acting outside the scope of how a reasonable person would act in similar circumstances. Should a private defamation plaintiff prove a libel or slander defendant acted with ordinary negligence, then they will be able to recover damages under U.S. and state defamation law. Now that we’ve walked you through the two core types of defamation and libel plaintiffs in the U.S., let’s take a careful look at three different subsets of defamation plaintiffs: - Public Official, - All-Purpose Public Figure, - Limited-Purpose Public Figure. To compare all five types of defamation plaintiffs, we’ve constructed an educational table. |Classifications of U.S. Defamation Plaintiffs||Private Persons/Plaintiffs||Public Officials||All-Purpose Public Figures (APPFs)||Limited-Purpose Public Figures (LPPFs)| |Definition||All plaintiffs and persons who have not voluntarily or involuntarily availed themselves to public comment, criticism, or open debate. Private persons may also be defined as plaintiffs who do not fall within one of the three other categories.||Public officials are generally government employees, who occupy positions of potential social harm if abused or taken advantage of, or persons who have a substantial amount of control or responsibility over government affairs.||Sometimes referred to as ‘general-purpose public figures’, APPFs are typically persons who have attained notable status in society or the community, and assumed roles of special prominence (meaning they occupy a position of influence and power).||Plaintiffs who have generally voluntarily or involuntarily thrust themselves to the forefront of a particular event, issue, or controversy. Such persons then become an LPPF for a “limited” scope of issues.| |Burden of Proof||Ordinary Negligence||Actual Malice||Actual Malice||*Actual Malice – however, actual malice generally only extends to the controversy for which the LPPF thrust themselves into the public light.| U.S. Defamation Law Fact:Wondering whether you can sue out-of-state defendants for online defamation? Generally, most states have long-arm statutes which specifically lay out core criteria a plaintiff must meet and prove before suing an out-of-state defamation defendant. Such criteria typically includes whether a defendant purposefully availed themselves to the specific state, the effect of the defamation on residents of that state, and whether they possess any minimum contacts with the state where the defamation occurred. United States and online defamation law is comprised of countless nuances and is constantly changing, therefore we recommend reaching out to an experienced online defamation attorney when confronting libelous online posters and trolls. Doing so will not only save you time, but hassle and future headache. What are you waiting for? Reach out to the experienced and nationally recognized defamation lawyers of Minc Law now! How Actual Malice Differs by State: Actual Malice Examples In this section, we’re going to take you through three (3) specific state examples of actual malice, showing you how various requirements and elements may differ by state in order for libel and slander plaintiffs to recover punitive damages. First, before addressing the below state examples, let’s first understand what punitive damages are. Punitive damages – also referred to as ‘exemplary damages’ – are damages sought by the plaintiff which are meant to punish a defendant who acted in an especially malicious or wanton manner. They are generally enforced in cases of violence, fraud, and other inappropriate instances of conduct. In the context of U.S. defamation law, punitive damages are awarded in cases where a defendant published or communicated a defamatory statement in an especially egregious or malicious manner. Let’s take a look at 3 state examples to see their respective requirements for the procurement and enforcement of punitive damages. Defamation Law Fact: The United States is typically considered very pro-defendant when it comes to defamation claims and laws, due to its longstanding enforcement of free speech and the U.S. Constitution. European countries and other Commonwealth countries (ex. Australia, United Kingdom, and Canada) are generally considered more pro-plaintiff friendly. New York Actual Malice & Punitive Damages Under New York defamation law, actual malice involves a defendant’s subjective statement of mind at the time or point a defamatory statement was communicated or published. Furthermore, New York courts will look to whether the speaker or published actually believed the statement was false, or published it with reckless disregard – this also includes a high probability of awareness that the statement was not in fact true. To recover punitive damages under New York defamation law, a libel or slander plaintiff must not only prove actual malice, but show common law malice as well. Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 U.S. 323, 94 S. Ct. 2997 (1974). Remember, common law malice is comprised of spite or ill will by the defendant. California Actual Malice & Punitive Damages In order for libel and slander plaintiffs in California to recover punitive damages, they must prove both: - Actual malice or reckless disregard, and - Common law malice – ill will, spite, and a heightened degree of awareness of falsity. Carney v. Santa Cruz Women Against Rape, 211 Cal. App. 3d 1009, 1019 (1990); Cal. Civ. Code § 48a. Broken down even more, this means that California libel and slander plaintiffs must show: - Conscious & Willful Disregard: A plaintiff will have to prove that the defendant published or communicated the defamatory statement in question with a conscious and willful disregard of another’s rights, in a manner “so vile, contemptible, miserable, wretched or loathsome that it would be looked down upon and despised by ordinary decent people.” Lackner v. North, 135 Cal. App. 4th 1188, 2110 (2006). - Ill Will & Hatred: It must be shown that the defendant in question made a defamatory statement with a “state of mind arising from hatred or ill will toward the plaintiff…” Cal. Civ. Code § 48a(4)(d). Note that if a California defendant was “occasioned” by a good faith belief that part or all of the statement was true, then a court will not find actual malice. Ohio Actual Malice & Punitive Damages Ohio, like the above two states, requires defamation plaintiffs to prove “actual malice” and common law malice in order to recover punitive damages. Specifically, Ohio law requires the proof of: - The defendant having made the libelous or slanderous communication/statement “with knowledge that [the statement] was false or with reckless disregard of whether [the statement] was false or not.” Burns v. Rice, 157 Ohio App. 3d 620, 631 (2004). - The defendant having made the defamatory communication or statement with hatred, ill will, a spirit of revenge, or conscious disregard for the safety and rights of other parties. Preston, 32 Ohio St. 3d 334. There are however exceptions to Ohio’s stance on the enforcement of punitive damages. In on case, Gilbert v. WNIR 100 FM, an Ohio court did not rule out the possibility of enforcing punitive damages in cases where a defendant’s fault never rose to the level of malice. They noted: “[I]f the plaintiff is a private individual and the matter is not of public concern, the plaintiff need not show actual malice to recover punitive damages.” The case is significant due to its discussion of non-malice-based punitive damages recovery – leaving the door open for potential legal cases in the future. To dive into each state’s respective libel and slander laws, we recommend you head on over to our Legal Resource Center and check out our mega-page tackling U.S. Defamation & Libel Laws. It includes an interactive defamation map, and everything you need to know about today’s defamation framework in the U.S. Trump Libel Laws & Actual Malice While it’s obvious U.S. states often differ in their definitions of libel, slander, and defamation, there’s a chance that U.S. defamation law could begin to take a far different shape than what it is. In 2017, after two Watergate reporters appealed for a closer examination of Donald Trump’s ties to Russia (post-election), Trump’s chief of staff made several statements implying today’s libel laws as we know it might be subject to repeal or change in the coming years. Mix in added frustration from the president after author and essayist Michael Wolff’s published his book Fire and Fury: Inside the Trump White House – which detailed an unflattering look into the White House and Trump himself. Trump described present day libel laws affecting our free media as a “sham and a disgrace,” noting such reportings were not news at all. Such statements fail to acknowledge the longstanding history by which our present day libel and media laws have developed, as the Court in New York Times heavily weighed the general public’s right to free speech and open debate, with the rights of public figures. This ruling has stood the test of time, as it has been carefully and thoroughly constructed. It’s worth noting that just because a public figure or party feels aggrieved or insulted by the media and general public, this does not provide legitimate grounds for complete overhaul of a tried and tested principle/system. Justice William J. Brennan, who ultimately issued the Sullivan decision opined: “Although the Sedition Actwas never tested in this Court, the attack upon its validity has carried the day in the court of history.” Furthermore, as libel is a matter individually addressed by all 50 states, there is no federal libel law to be altered or amended. Such change would likely only come through the overhaul and destruction of the First Amendment. Summing up the matter succinctly, Arizona Republican Senator Jeff Flake stated, “It was the year in which an unrelenting daily assault on the constitutionally protected free press was launched by that same White House, an assault that is as unprecedented as it is unwarranted.” Take solace in knowing that our current libel and defamation laws are likely not being repealed or overhauled in any significant way in the near future. Libel Removal Fact: When approaching online libel and defamation, we strongly recommend you document everything. While the Internet has a way of preserving information, it also has an uncanny way of altering it. Screenshotting the offensive and libelous material in question is an effective way to combat online defamation and help refute any claims of evidence tampering. Furthermore, we also recommend having a trusted family member or friend make a second copy of the material. Work With the Online Defamation Attorneys of Minc Law Today! Have you been the victim of online defamation, libelous posts and comments, or malicious accusations? Contact the defamation removal lawyers of Minc Law now! At Minc Law, we’re here to fight for your reputation, and have proven success in the online defamation removal arena. Specifically, in our tenure as nationally recognized and experienced online defamation lawyers, we’ve removed over 25,000 websites and pieces of content from the Internet, litigated in over 22 states and 3 countries, and boast a nearly 100% online defamation takedown rate. That’s not all! We also do it all for a flat, reasonable fee. What are you waiting for? Reach out now! Here’s what you can expect when working with the Ohio-based defamation attorneys of Minc Law: - Courtesy & Respect: At Minc Law, we understand how overwhelming and stressful online defamation and false posts can be. Just know that we’re always on your side, and here to make the removal process as painless as possible. After all, your goals are our goals! - Open Dialogue & Communication: Unfortunately some attorneys go missing or silent once the online defamation takedown process has begun, not us. We know how important it is to stay informed about your case, so rest assured we’ll be keeping you in the loop! - Proven Results: Websites and businesses respond to Minc Law! As mentioned above, we’ve removed over 25,000 pieces of libelous and false content from the web, and know who to work with. Having worked tirelessly with countless website administrators, content managers, and third-party arbitration firms, we know what it takes to secure swift and permanent results!

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Below are a variety of mindfulness resources for educators and families: curriculums, apps, programs, books, trainings, retreat centers, and more. Listings are free. We do not do extensive review of the listings and do not endorse any of them. We provide them as a starting point for individual research by educators and schools. See our Chapters webpage for resources local to specific states. We recommend reading the article in the International Journal of Yoga Therapy, titled Secularity: Guiding Questions for Inclusive Yoga in Schools. It focuses on the legal imperative and the relationship between secularism and access and inclusivity. To post a resource, email Tracy your .png logo, web link, and approx. 50-100 word description. Also join and share resources with our Facebook group at https://www.facebook.com/groups/educatingmindfullly. Search By Category: LFY has worked since 2006 to support children and teens in the development of strong inner resources. Our goal is to help kids thrive in the world regardless of circumstances, and navigate the challenges they face with personal power and self-awareness. We share practices that give children full access to the resources of their body, breath and mindset, within the context of compassionate, respectful relationships. Direct service programming is available for students, educators, parents and allied professionals in the greater NYC area. Certification and CE offered worldwide. For-credit online courses, webinars, and educator resources available at littlefloweryoga.com. Founded in 2007, Mindful Schools is one of the key players in the movement to integrate mindfulness into the everyday learning environment of K-12 classrooms. The non-profit organization has trained over 25,000 educators, parents, and mental health professionals who work with youth. These graduates, spanning 100+ countries, have reached over 2 million children worldwide. Their courses and curricula offer educators practical skills for self-care, facilitation, and connecting with youth. You can learn more about how mindfulness practices can be integrated into the school day and adapted for diverse environments at mindfulschools.org. ChildLight Yoga / Yoga 4 Classrooms’ mission is to empower youth with the tools they need to be healthy, happy and resilient at school, at home and throughout their lives. We provide evidence and trauma-informed professional development trainings, curricula, resources and consulting to individuals, schools and organizations who support the social, emotional, cognitive and physical wellbeing of children, youth and families. Our sustainable programs are successfully implemented in thousands of schools and communities worldwide. Still Quiet Place offers comprehensive in-person and online training for teachers, therapists, and allied professionals interested in sharing mindfulness with children and adolescents, as well as specialized in-person and online training for athletes and coaches. Amy Saltzman, MD has also authored three books: “Love causes learning.” That is the philosophy statement behind the SEL Initiative at Erikson Institute. We conduct professional development with teachers and school staff, direct service with children and parents, and research to help schools become more compassionate AND productive places, from top to bottom. We specialize in using whole-child development principles, brain science, and culturally- and trauma-informed lenses to infuse SEL strategies as a natural part of the school day rather than an “add-on.” We provide customized training as well as partnering around program elements we have designed such as the Calm Spot app, Mindful Behavior Guidance, and Calm Community Curriculum. Inner Strength Foundation was founded in 2014 to bring mindful awareness and systems thinking to teens. Our flagship program incorporates mindfulness techniques with 300 million years of brain development and 800 years of cultural change. Over 5500 teens have completed this 12-week training, gaining essential understanding and resources to navigate an increasingly complex world. A CASEL approved SEL related approach, it emphasizes the cultivation of calm, curiosity, and care empowering youth with inner strength and outer stability. Inner Strength also offers teacher training and staff self-care programs. Founder Amy Edelstein is author of award-winning The Conscious Classroom and the Inner Strength Teachers’ Manual. Mindful Practices utilizes Mindfulness, Yoga and Social-Emotional Learning strategies to create equitable learning environments. For Student Services: During the school day and out-of-school time programming from Mindful Practices helps students learn to cultivate awareness of self and others so that they are better able to regulate their behavior and positively contribute to their classroom community. Educator Services: Mindful Practices provides in-class coaching and modeling for districts across the country to empower educators with Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) strategies to embed into their instruction. Classroom Catalyst: Mindful Practices offers an online tool for students and teachers to self-assess their readiness for instruction. Each participant receives suggested activities to regulate energy and increase preparedness. The Mindfulness in Education Network was created by students of Thich Nhat Hanh, and has created an annual conference for 11 years, featuring leaders in the field of mindfulness and education. They also have a large MiEN listserv to sign up for to learn more about the latest mindfulness research, resources, and conferences. Pure Edge offers a set of strategies that guide educators and students achieve success through focus based upon Five Principles of Health and Wellness: Body, Breath, Mind, Attention, and Engagement. It is a CASEL 'Complementary Program.' They offer a variety of easily accessible, open educational resources (OER) and curricula, as well as professional development options that include self-care of staff, daily classroom integration of brain breaks, health and wellness curriculum, and other resources that promote social, emotional, and academic development. Pure Edge, Inc. Pure Power Curriculum is available to any non-profit entity that strives to improve the lives of students by teaching strategies to achieve success through focus. They also provide free trainings at school districts around the country. Niroga Institute is a 14-year-old non-profit that develops the whole child and the whole educator through Dynamic Mindfulness. Our trauma-informed curriculum has been validated by independent researchers, and has been widely field-tested in K-12 schools, special ed and alt ed. DMind systematically develops stress resilience, self-awareness, emotion regulation and healthy relationships, keys for academic excellence and emotional intelligence in students, and prevention of burnout and compassion-fatigue in educators. We envision a mindful generation for a more connected world. JusTme (Timothy Scott, Jr.) is a mindful hip-hop artist and mindfulness instructor. Since 2012, he has been bringing students and their families positivity, mindful practices, and well-being through his coined term, "mindful Hip-hop", JusTme started working with K-12 students in the West Contra Costa Unified School District of Richmond, CA. Inspired by JusTme's musical approach, a group of 5th grade student's at Glendale Elementary made a music video for JusTme's "D.F.Y.L" (Don't Flip Your Lid). This song explains the brain science on the 'Fight or Flight response', and how mindfulness can help a person calm that response. He does school visits and assemblies as well as virtual mindfulness "Kick It" sessions. Peace of Mind Inc is a DC nonprofit that encourages and supports the comprehensive integration of effective mindfulness-based social and emotional learning in elementary schools to improve student well-being and create kinder, more inclusive school climates. The Peace of Mind Program includes the Peace of Mind Curriculum for PreK through Grade 5, the Henry and Friends storybook series, and classroom and educator resources that reflect our more than a decade of experience teaching mindfulness-based SEL to elementary school students. The Peace of Mind Curriculum has been taught and developed since 2003 at Lafayette Elementary and integrates Mindfulness, Social Emotional Learning, Brain Science and Conflict Resolution into one cohesive, comprehensive, spiral, weekly, year-long curriculum for elementary school. The Peace of Mind Curriculum helps to create kinder, more inclusive schools by helping students learn to notice and manage their emotions, understand how their brains work, build healthy relationships and solve conflicts skillfully. Peace of Mind is considered a Tier I Gina M. Biegel, LMFT, is a psychotherapist, researcher, speaker, and author who specializes in mindfulness-based work with adolescents. She is founder of Stressed Teens, which has been offering mindfulness-based stress reduction for teens (MBSR-T) to adolescents, families, schools, professionals, and the community for over a decade, including a variety of online courses. She is the author of Be Mindful & Stress Less: 50 Ways to Deal with Your (Crazy) Life, The Stress Reduction Workbook for Teens (first and second edition), the Be Mindful Card Deck for Teens and the forthcoming book Mindfulness for Student Athletes: A Workbook to Help Teens Reduce Stress and Enhance Performance. She also has a mindfulness practice audio CD, Mindfulness for Teens Practices to Reduce Stress and Enhance Well-Being. The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) is the world’s leading organization advancing one of the most important fields in education in decades: the practice of promoting integrated academic, social, and emotional learning for all children in preschool through high school. CASEL provides a unique combination of research, practice, and policy to support high-quality social and emotional learning in districts and schools nationwide. Leaders of the Chicago-based nonprofit organization catalyzed the collaboration that defined the field more than 20 years ago. Now, working closely with educators, researchers, policymakers, community leaders, families, and students, they are turning this momentum into a movement. PESI, Inc. is a non-profit organization focused on the mental health and wellness of children and adults alike. Our proven and practical books and trainings are developed by professionals like you – professionals who are passionate about bringing educators, counselors, therapists and social workers tools that can immediately improve behaviors and bring peace and calm to any situation. Our website is loaded with resources you can use today! Visit www.kids.pesi.com for FREE worksheets and videos. Kira Willey is an award-winning children’s music artist, kids’ yoga & mindfulness expert, speaker, and creator of Rockin’ Yoga school programs. Kira’s four releases of yoga albums for kids have all won numerous industry awards and earned national acclaim. Kira’s TEDx talk, “Bite-Sized Mindfulness,” can be viewed online, and her children’s mindfulness book, “Breathe Like a Bear,” has been translated into eight foreign languages so far. Kira leads Professional Development days for teachers, conducts music and yoga workshops, speaks at education conferences, and performs Rockin’ Yoga School Assemblies and Concerts with her band nationwide. Curriculums and Programs The MindUP™ is a science-centric and evidence-based mindfulness curriculum for PreK-8th grade students. It is a CASEL 'SELect Program.' The curriculum is dedicated to helping students and educators in the fields of positive psychology, mindful awareness, social and emotional learning, and neuroscience. Learning to BREATHE (L2B) is a sequenced mindfulness program that can be used to introduce adolescents to mindfulness and its practice. It is a CASEL 'SEL-Related Approach.' L2B is appropriate for many settings (e.g. schools, universities, clinical settings, after-school programs, residential facilities, etc.). Each lesson includes age-appropriate discussion, activities, and opportunities to practice mindfulness in a group setting. L2B has been researched in many setting and used with adolescents and adults. In this full curriculum training you will learn the many benefits of mindfulness in education and the most effective ways of teaching it. Gain the competence to integrate mindfulness and social and emotional learning lessons into daily work with youth. Gain expertise from videos, webinars, and worksheets from leaders in the mindfulness and SEL fields. Learn fun and easy ways to introduce students to mindfulness. Founder, lead faculty, and course curator is Daniel Rechtschaffen. He is a Marriage and Family Therapist and the author of The Way of Mindful Education and The Mindful Education Workbook. DeStress Monday at School is a stress reduction program designed especially for teachers by Johns Hopkins University and The Monday Campaigns. The goal is to help teachers start the week in a positive frame of mind and manage stress throughout the week. Each Monday, teachers receive an email with new stress reduction practices and complementary exercises that can be used in the classroom. Yoga Foster has developed a comprehensive, affordable yoga training program, made specifically for teaching children. It includes: 15 hours of self-paced, online training Digital library of over 100 poses, meditations, mindful videos and more 45 lesson plans for classes, brain breaks, mindful reflection, and take-home Gently-used yoga mats for your entire classroom, donated by the community (~$500 value) Free subscriptions to meditation and yoga programs (for grownups) Teaching Transformative Life Skills to Students: A Comprehensive Dynamic Mindfulness Curriculum This CASEL-approved Curriculum is a multimedia guide for teaching your students how to manage stress and pay attention. As you lead your students in simple mindful movement, coordinated with breathing techniques and centering practices, you will see a positive impact on student engagement and behavior, as well as classroom culture and climate in moments. “Bravo to the brilliant pioneers who have courageously created such an important contribution to the field of education!” – Daniel Siegel, MD, acclaimed author and renowned neuropsychiatrist. LG and Discovery Education have set out to equip youth with the skills necessary to reduce stress and create Sustainable Happiness in their lives. As part of the LG Experience Happiness platform, the 26-minute 'Discover Your Happy' Virtual Field Trip provides science-based tools for educators, students and parents to show how happiness can be achieved through learnable skills and practices. YES! for Schools provides students, parents and school staff with a toolkit of restorative practices. Our unique whole-body approach to stress and social emotional learning combines transformative physiological techniques, including breathing and meditation, along with cognitive awareness tools. This approach supports participants’ inner states and the overall school climate, attending to the source of many chronic school concerns, including behavioral issues, absenteeism and truancy, and the all around well-being of all members of the community. Simultaneously, it uplifts qualities such as responsibility, commitment, compassion, service, and cooperation. In ten years, we’ve supported nearly 100,000 students in over 190 schools. At Generation Mindful, our passion is raising an emotionally healthy world. We make tools and toys that nurture emotional intelligence via play and positive discipline. Join GENM parents, educators and therapists from 66 countries and growing as together we’re making connection a habit in homes and schools. The code COSEM10 provides a 10% saving for all members AND the schools, families and people they serve. Plus for every 10% saved, 10% is given to the ongoing support of COSEM. Teen Adam Avin created the nonprofit Wuf Shanti Children's Wellness Foundation to teach mindfulness and social emotional learning, so children can live in health and wellness & peace and positivity. Wuf Shanti has two tracks, one for early learning 3-10 years old, with fun, games, videos, books, a mobile app, and a dog mascot character that visits schools and hospitals, and one for tweens and teens 11-17 years-old. Adam is certified in Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction for Teens, Kidding Around Yoga, and the Emotion Code. He gave a TEDxTalk about getting mindful and social emotional learning programs into our education system, why mental health education is so important to stopping the violence, and using our voice to make a positive difference in the world. Empowering Education provides a comprehensive online mindfulness-based social & emotional learning curriculum, Empowering Minds. Empowering Minds is one of the only curricula available that comprehensively blends the best of mindfulness, cognitive behavioral theory, neuroscience, restorative approaches, and cultural responsiveness in one teacher-friendly program. Empowering Minds is fully aligned with CASEL best practices and includes resources for all aspects of implementation, including explicit skills instruction, academic integration, teacher instructional practices, school culture & policy, and school-family partnerships. Empowering Education also provides professional development and implementation support. Sign up for a free trial here to get access to the first 5 lessons. Inner Explorer program is a series of daily 5-10-minute audio-guided mindfulness practices. It is a CASEL 'SEL-Related Approach.' The program focuses on key areas of development, bringing mindfulness to education and helping students prepare for learning. Daily practice teaches kids the practical techniques to appropriately handle negative emotions such as stress, anxiety, anger and more. Inner Explorer offers 90 age-appropriate (PreK, Elementary, Middle, and High School) mindfulness practices following MSBR progressions. Teachers 'press play' and practice right alongside students. No training or prep work required. What if kindness and compassion were taught in schools just like math and reading? What if kids were taught how to pay attention not only to lessons, but also to their own emotions? What if we all took steps to improve well-being in our lives and communities? At the Center for Healthy Minds, they ask these questions through the lens of the latest science and research. They've made their mindfulness-based Kindness Curriculum, a set of practices used in one of their studies in preschool classrooms, freely available. Foundry empowers young people to lead healthy lives by providing easy access to the tools, resources and skills they to form a plan for wellness…and work towards their goals for mental, emotional, physical and social well-being. Foundrybc.ca has information, tools and resources on topics including: mental health, substance use, healthy living and other tough topics and can help young people find the support they need when they need it. BalancED Learning provides curriculum and resources to achieve emotional, mental, and physical balance for both students and teachers. Through yoga and mindfulness techniques and principles, the program combines knowledge of body, mind, and emotions to empower students, build self-esteem, and construct community within the classroom. UC Santa Barbara’s Center for Mindfulness and Human Potential aims to ensure that every high school student— regardless of location or resources—has access to evidence-based mindfulness training that empowers them to be better stewards of their own minds. With the support of the U.S. Dept. of Education, they have built a digital mindfulness course that is free for high school students and teachers. This 22-day interactive course is tailored to teenagers and personalized to each student. An interdisciplinary team of experts at UC Santa Barbara is constantly improving the course through rigorous research with school partners around the country. The Mindful Kids Peace Summit for tweens and teens, is an online initiative for middle and high schools created by teen Adam Avin, providing curriculum to help engage students aged 11 to 17 in social emotional learning, positive psychology, enhanced physical and mental health and wellbeing, and mindfulness. Students learn tools to help them cope with stress, deal with emotions, and grow into happier peace loving adults. More than 50 subject matter experts talk, demo, or give a presentation, and in between segments, celebrities speak about their health and wellness, and why mindfulness and kindness are so important. Schools that register for the summit have access to it throughout the school year so they can watch the 45 hours of content at their leisure. There are videos, lesson plans, suggested activities, projects, and discussion points for parents and teachers to download if they want as well, so teachers, if they choose, can continue an open dialogue with the kids each day. Infinite Focus Schools is the socio-emotional and mindfulness app for the kids you love. We've merged socio-emotional learning, mindfulness and mobile tech in a whole new way. Our innovative software teaches kids about their cognitive functions and gives them the tools they'll need to cut out toxic stress. What happens to the brain and body when they feel anger or sadness? We teach that. What tools can they use to relax when they feel stress? We teach that. How to deal with rejection and conflict? We teach that too, and a lot more. It's mindfulness made easy. Just press play. Inward Bound Mindfulness Education (iBme) is a nonprofit that offers in-depth mindfulness programming for youth and the parents and professionals who support them. Our programming guides teens and young adults in developing self-awareness, compassion, and ethical decision making, and empowers them to apply these skills in improving their lives and communities. The iBme retreat model is unique in that it allows participants to gain a level of insight into their own experience and authentic connection with peers that is rare in everyday life. Effectively engage children of all abilities with the Movement & Mindfulness Bundle or Curriculum. Enhance resiliency, executive function, focus, self-control, and emotional stability through our award winning integration of yoga stories, movement, music, cooperative play, mindfulness, and self-regulation techniques. Developed with young children and aligned with early learning/ common core standards, all lessons, flash cards, stories, games and activities help kids slow down, grow self-awareness, enjoy brain building movement, and develop the ability to both self-care and self-regulate. Join us for our next Movement & Mindfulness Curriculum Certification. Live Free Yoga provides comprehensive and integrative yoga and mindfulness education programs for the adolescent and teenage population in public and private schools and other facilities that serve youth. Co-Founders, Phyllis Smith and Tida Chamber’s mission is to help give these kids the tools to help ease their transition into young adulthood through mindfulness. Trainings and Professional Development CARE stands for Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education. It is a unique professional development program that helps teachers handle their stress and rediscover the joys of teaching. The goal of CARE is to meet the specific needs of K-12 teachers. CARE offers teachers and administrators tools and resources for reducing stress, preventing burnout, enlivening teaching and helping students thrive socially, emotionally and academically. They offer a four-day retreat at the Garrison Institute, a series of weekend sessions or a three-day model with follow-up. The Greater Good Science Center is at the fore of a new scientific movement to explore the roots of happy and compassionate individuals, strong social bonds, and altruistic behavior—the science of a meaningful life. The Greater Good Education Program uses a variety of methods to help education professionals understand the science behind social-emotional learning, mindfulness, ethical development, mindsets, purpose, and related topics—then apply those insights to their schools, classrooms, and other educational settings. The highly ranked Curry School of Education at the University of Virginia is building a series of courses on mindfulness in education that will eventually become a M.Ed. or Ed.D. emphasis. These are graduate level 3 credit courses. Two of these courses are now available as online courses: MINDFULNESS FOR TEACHERS — EDIS 5012 and TEACHING MINDFULNESS IN SCHOOL — EDIS 5013. Todd Fink is an artist, thinker, speaker and social and environmental activist. He is the co-founder of the internationally-acclaimed music group The Giving Tree Band and the creator of the "Kind Mind" podcast. A modern Renaissance man - his songs, videos, articles and lectures on health and harmony have inspired so many around the world. He holds certifications in addiction counseling and mindfulness meditation and earned his psychology and music degrees from Georgetown University. Todd has been a wellness consultant and mentor for Fortune 500 companies, non-profits, schools, governments and other administrations and works fervently to help communities build sustainable cultures of well-being and peace. Kripalu's RISE program is leading the way by impacting individual and organizational performance through yoga and mindfulness-based practices. Anchored in the science and practice of mindfulness and positive psychology, the RISE program is specifically designed to support greater clarity and resilience, improved situational awareness, better decision making, work/life integration, and superior long-term performance for individuals and organizations. For the past ten years, RISE has delivered this life-changing program to frontline providers and leadership in some of the most critical social institutions in North America: human services organizations, K–12 schools, correctional facilities, law enforcement, and healthcare. NeuroHealth Partners (NHP) is an organization dedicated to educating educators about the neuroscience of brain-behavior relationships in children and adolescents. Next to parents, educators have the greatest potential to shape the emotional, cognitive and social lives of children and adolescents. NHP, with its team of psychologists, educators and scientists, uses evidence-based strategies to teach educators about what practical tools they can use in their classrooms to promote healthy emotional and cognitive development for all students. Additionally, with expertise in traumatic stress, NHP has years of experience training other professionals how to best care for traumatized students in ways that are both practical and meaningful. With Pause® boosts your ability to develop richer connections, manage stress, collaborate effectively and renew your mental clarity. We offer leadership development, workshops and coaching to organizations, schools, parents – and even private or group coaching to individuals and entrepreneurs – seeking clarity, calm and a more meaningful life. Our approach cultivates mindfulness balanced with compassion. Pause for a moment and explore what we can do for you. MindWell Education supports school communities in developing wellbeing through mindfulness and social and emotional learning. We use the 3 Aspects of Mindfulness in Education - Be Mindful, Teach Mindfully, Teach Mindfulness - as a foundation for flourishing schools with a focus on teacher self-care and stress management. The Integral SELf-Mastery™ program was designed by Tovi Scruggs-Hussein to personally and professionally develop the social emotional learning of adults in service of youth. We teach the foundation of emotional intelligence in order to help educational leaders and teachers thrive and build the core skills needed for peak performance, especially as it relates to equity work, culturally-responsive teaching, and creating trauma-sensitive environments. The key to leadership success is self-awareness and personal development, not what we traditionally find being offered by our educational system. We design and facilitate transformative, interactive workshops that uniquely combine healing modalities of inside-out work, emotional intelligence, mindfulness, compassionate equity, and leadership principles to result in “Integral SELf-Mastery” – the personalized combination of focused leadership and lifestyle SEL strategies that result in the transformation of mindsets and ways-of-being to positively impact our work with the children we serve. Center for Adolescent Studies offers a free onlline course worth 2 CEs called Teaching Mindfulness To Teens for those interested in learning mindfulness-based techniques in an innovative way youth will be receptive to. You can login and complete the lessons ANYTIME you want and will have lifetime access. Other courses are offered including Trauma-Informed Care for Professionals Working With Youth, a 4-week online course that will help you learn how to identify trauma, understand how it impacts the brain and learning, and how to work with trauma-impacted youth. The Center for Mindfulness ("CFM") in Medicine, Health Care, and Society at the University of Massachusetts Medical School was founded by Jon Kabat-Zinn in 1979 to promote the practice and science of mindfulness with his groundbreaking Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, or MBSR, program. Nearly forty years later, MBSR is taught all over the world and is the gold standard for research into the effects of mindfulness in daily life. Here at CFM, we continue to offer rich in-person and live online practice experiences in MBSR and other mindfulness programs such as MBCT, (Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy), Mindful Eating, and Unwinding Anxiety. Our Oasis Institute for Professional Education and Training remains the most comprehensive and respected training pathway for those interested in becoming mindfulness teachers. To learn more about the CFM at UMass, please visit us at www.umassmed.edu/cfm. Books for Educators Educational consultant Carla Tantillo Philibert has four new books each geared to a different age group. You'll gain practical strategies for teaching social-emotional learning (SEL), mindfulness, and movement to help your students maintain positive relationships, assume responsibility, become bodily aware, and grow into productive, contributing citizens. You’ll find out how to lead students through games, simple yoga poses, breathing techniques, and other activities that are easy to incorporate and help you manage your classroom. The books also offer a Professional Development Facilitator’s Guide to help you and your colleagues master the core concepts of SEL and implement them effectively in the classroom. A Daily Dose of Mindful Moments is about weaving mindfulness into daily life. It blends the science of mindfulness and happiness to offer brief, research-based mindful practices drawn from decades of research in mindfulness, positive psychology, and neuroscience. These mindful moment practices can be easily tailored to classrooms to enhance mindfulness, reduce stress, sustain a positive outlook, and cultivate character strengths such as kindness, gratitude, and compassion. Dr. Barbara Larrivee’s previous books include Cultivating Teacher Renewal: Guarding Against Stress and Burnout, Authentic Classroom Management, and An Educator’s Guide to Teacher Reflection. Donating the profits from this book, Barbara has established Mindful Moments in My Classroom to sponsor grants to educators to implement mindful moment practices. Meditation can be a potent practice for creating focus and facilitating learning in the classroom. This is true for kindergarteners, grad students, and everyone in between. Longtime schoolteacher William Meyer has taught a variety of meditation techniques to students, fellow teachers, and parents with remarkable results. In Three Breaths and Begin: A Guide to Meditation in the Classroom, Meyer details how teachers can incorporate mindfulness into their curricula every day. He covers every aspect of teaching meditation, from creating a dedicated space in the classroom to meditating on field trips, during sports, and even in the midst of tragedy. Offering numerous ready-to-use scripted meditations, this insightful, practical, and loving guide will benefit anyone interested in the well-being of students — and, most of all, the students themselves. The demands and pressures of everyday life can really stress you out! School, work, relationships, social media, and the like can leave you pulled in so many directions it can make your head spin. When you need help fast, these simple, accessible, mindfulness-based practices will help bring you relief and ease right away. If you make these mindfulness and self-care practices part of your routine, you’ll discover little life hacks to get through even the toughest days. "This book brings mindfulness down to earth with many wonderfully simple ways to savor life and come home to yourself. It's also rich with methods for self-compassion and self-care. Gina Biegel writes with remarkable clarity, simplicity, and heart. A truly beautiful, thorough, helpful book." —Rick Hanson, PhD, author of Hardwiring Happiness: The New Brain Science of Contentment, Calm, and Confidence The new edition of The Stress Reduction Workbook for Teens offers go-to tips and activities to help teens relax, prioritize, and keep calm during stressful times. They’ll find out how mindfulness—being aware of their thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations in the moment—can help them stop their inner worry bully. They’ll also learn how to balance their emotions and stay cool in difficult situations. And once they discover how to keep calm and collected when life gets crazy, they’ll gain a new sense of confidence and independence. Student athletes feel an intense pressure to perform well—both on and off the field. Unfortunately, this pressure can add up to lots of stress and anxiety—two emotions that get in the way of being your best. The good news is that mindfulness can help you stay present, focused, and calm so you can achieve peak performance. In Mindfulness for Student Athletes, you’ll find practical and tactical ways to cope with stress and anxiety in the moment, prevent stress in the future, and experience more satisfaction and enjoyment while playing sports. You’ll also find proven-effective tools to naturally enhance your performance. Co-author TODD H. CORBIN, CPC, is an avid runner, sports enthusiast, mindfulness teacher, motivational speaker, and certified parenting coach. Reconstructing Education Through Mindful Attention is a journey into your own mind and into understanding education. For those of you who are interested in getting deeper into how mindfulness and other contemplative practices are associated with education, teaching and learning, this book will offer a great resource spanning philosophy, psychology and neuroscience. Other works by Oren Ergas including a variety of published papers on mindfulness and yoga in education from diverse perspectives can be found here: https://beitberl.academia.edu/OrenErgas New Harbinger Publications is an independent, employee-owned publisher of books on psychology, health, spirituality, and personal growth. Our evidence-based self-help books and pioneering workbooks help readers make positive changes to improve mental health and well-being. Our professional books serve as powerful resources for mental health clinicians to build their practice and better serve clients. And our spirituality books offer timeless wisdom for living consciously in the modern world. We offer books that have the power to change lives. Chronic stress and trauma can have devastating effects on children’s development, making it very difficult for them to function well at school. In this book Dr. Patricia (Tish) Jennings, the author of Mindfulness for Teachers, shares classroom-tested, compassionate teaching practices that support students’ healing, build their resilience, and create safe places for them to learn. The Way of Mindful Education is a practical guide for cultivating attention, compassion, and well-being not only in these students, but also in teachers themselves. Packed with lesson plans, exercises, and considerations for specific age groups and students with special needs, this working manual demonstrates the real world application of mindfulness practices in K-12 classrooms. Author Daniel Rechtschaffen founded the Mindful Education Institute and the Omega Mindfulness in Education conference, has developed a variety of curricula for mindfulness in the classroom, and leads mindfulness trainings for schools and communities around the world. Mindfulnessforteens.org is an introduction for youth into mindfulness practice, from Dr. Dzung Vo, adolescent medicine pediatrician and author of The Mindful Teen: Powerful Skills to Help You Handle Stress One Moment at a Time. The videos, guided mindfulness meditations, blog, articles, and collection of resources is for teens who are wondering, “What is mindfulness, and why should I care?” Kevin Hawkins truly understands the joys of teaching and the desire to make a real difference in the lives of students, as well as the challenges and risks of burnout that most teachers experience on a daily basis. With this guide to mindful practice, educators can learn how to use mindfulness in their own professional and personal lives as well as how to incorporate it in their teaching to support student wellbeing. Packed full of DIY exercises, activities to use in the classroom and links to resources and further reading, this inspiring book will support experienced and new teachers to maintain a healthy work-life balance and thrive as a teaching professional. Written especially for the teacher or camp director who wants to bring mindfulness, social and emotional learning (SEL), and the arts into their busy day through storytelling and fun games, this book offers a complete course that helps kids identify and talk about their feelings, self-regulate and self-soothe when stressed, and learn from easy mindfulness practices. Books for Youth There are sooo many more books than this...we'll eventually get them all! Written by Laurie Grossman, cofounder of Mindful Schools and director of program development at Inner Explorer, and Mr. Musumeci’s fifth grade class at Reach Academy in Oakland, California, Master of Mindfulness presents helpful practices—mindful activities proven to make it easier to pay attention, accept yourself and others, manage your anger, and even get to sleep at night. Also check out Breath Friends Forever! All day long, you breathe — in and out, in and out — without even thinking about it. But did you know that you can play with your breath, use it to take you on an adventure? All you have to do is find a comfy spot and close your eyes. Does your breath sound like ocean waves? Like the wind before a storm or a breeze at the start of spring? Can you feel it all the way down to the tips of your toes? By the time you open your eyes, you might just feel a little lighter, calmer, more relaxed. In Big Breath, William Meyer’s gentle prompts, alongside Brittany R. Jacobs’s wonderful illustrations, make meditation as fun as a game, but with big results. Kids Yoga Stories award-winning books and engaging yoga cards were created to foster happy, healthy, and globally educated children while encouraging fun and movement. Giselle Shardlow, author and founder of Kids Yoga Stories, draws from her vast experiences as a teacher, traveler, yogi, and mom to write the yoga stories. Discover how our yoga stories combine easy yoga poses for kids with reading adventures that will help growing bodies and minds. Find yoga books and yoga cards on the Kids Yoga Stories Shop or on Amazon. Meet Emma Lou the Yorkie Poo, a little dog with big worries. She loves playing with her best friend, Pearl, but Pearl doesn’t always pay attention to Emma Lou’s worries. With the help of some new friends, Caleb the Calico Cat, Patrick the Pig and Gigi the Ginormous Giraffe, Emma Lou and Pearl begin to learn a new technique to calm their minds and bodies. Parents, educators, counselors and especially children can benefit from Emma Lou and her friends' curious adventure to a mindful experience. In Alphabreaths, children will learn their ABCs and the basics of mindfulness through playful breathing exercises. Breaths like Mountain Breath and Redwood Breath will connect them with nature, while breaths like Heart Breath and Wish Breath will help them remember to fill their heart with gratitude and send good wishes to others. Simple, playful, and with delightful illustrations, Alphabreaths is the perfect introduction to mindfulness and breath awareness. Educator and theater director Andrew Nance is the author of the popular children’s book Puppy Mind, which brought a new dimension of cuteness to the practice of mindfulness in the form of a rambunctious, playful puppy. Learn more about Andrew's books and card decks at Mindful Arts San Francisco.

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The flashcards below were created by user on FreezingBlue Flashcards. What type of cell secretes surfactant? What are the 4 critical life functions? Ventilation: air in and out Oxygenation: o2 into blood Circulation: moving blood through body Perfusion: getting blood and o2 into tissue What is water vapor pressure? 47 torr regardless of the inspired humidity. Absolute humidity: 100% humidified is 44mg/L. When in the presence of gas, it behaves accoring to gas law What is the Aa gradient? P(A-a)O2: PAlveolar o2 (100)- Parterial o2 (80) = 20. Normal AC membrane o2 < 20 if its high, that means decrease in diffusion rate due to poor AC membrane fxn due to enlargement What is FRC? Volume present in lung @ end of normal expiration b4 start of inspiration What is in atmosphere aka barometric pressure? 78% N2, 21% O2, .95% Argon, .05% C02. At sea level its 760 mmHg or 1 atm. What is the Alveolar air equation? - Approximate Alveolar partial pressure of o2. - PAo2=[(Pb-PH20)× fio2] - PaC02 × 1.25 What is normal CO and what is the formula? What is the anatomical dead space? 1 mL/Lb or 2.2mL/kg What is the formula for true alveolar VE? [VT- Vd] × breathes per minute Normal breathing at rest: what happens to the diaphragm and what is the intrapleural pressure? Diaphragm drops 1.5 cm and intrapleural prrssure is 3-6 cwp or 2-4 mmHg When there is no air movement @ end expiration, what does that tell us about pressures? CaO2 calculation. Short cut... - Look @ SaO2, PaO2, Hb, if they are normal, pick normal and move on. Short cut to calculate: - CaO2=Hb x 1.34 Shortcut to calculate alveolar air equation (7 x fio2 as a whole#) - (PaC02 + 10) How do u calculate pulse pressure? Systolic - diastolic. Normal: 40 mmHg How do u calculate map? (2 x diastolic) + systolic ) ÷ 3. Normal is 120/80 What 3 factors control bp? Heart, blood, vessel Normal QT (cardiac output) Normal CI (cardiac index) Left heart (4-12mmHg) Right heart (2-6 mmHg or 4-12 cwp) 2-6 mmHg or 4-12 cwp 17-20 vol% ml/dL A-a gradient range for V/Q mismatch 66 -300 mmHg. Tx with o2 A-a gradient range for shunting >300 mmHg. Tx with o2, peep or cpap Normal A-a gradient 25-65 mmhg on 100% fio2 No chloride channel. Causes thick mucus accumulation. Drowsy state, may have decreased cough or gag reflex Assess ADL to determine 6 things - -Nursing home admission - -need for home health care providers - -living arrangements - -use of hospital services - -insurance coverage Describes tx pt would want if he became terminally ill (<6 months to live) Normal RR, depth, and rhythm Responds only 2 painful stimuli What are the 6 criterias for ADL? - -urine and bowel incontinence - -toilet use What do you want to review in a pt. chart? - 1. Admission Notes - 2. S/Sx - 3. Occupational hx (maybe they were a cole miner?) - 4. Allergies/Rxns? - 5. Prior surgery,illness, or injury - 6. V/S (pulse,rr,bp,temp) - 7. Physical exam of chest (percussion,auscultation, inspection, palpation) - 8. Smoking hx How do you measure ventilation? RR, VT, chest movement, BS, PaCO2 How do you monitor oxygenation? Heart rate, color (if cyanotic, waited too long), sensorium, PaO2 How do you monitor Circulation? - Pulse/heart rate and strength, cardiac output - -Strong and bounding: hypoxic, need O2 - -Weak and thready: Heart failure=> circulation is at risk How do you monitor Perfusion? Blood pressure, sensorium, temperature (cold and clammy), urine output, hemodynamics Respiratory care orders must include... - 1. Type of tx - 2. Frequency - 3. Med dose and dilution - 4. Physician signature Normal urine output? - 40 ml/hr (Minimum) - => if <40, then we should be concerned with perfusion problems. Poor perfusion of kidneys=poor urine output How do we know if intake exceeds output? - 1. weight gain - 2. electrolyte imbalance - 3. increased hemodynamic pressures - 4. decreased lung compliance Changes in CVP pressures indicate what? Decreased CVP <2 mmHg indicates... Incresed CVP >6 mmHg indicates... Somnolent, lethargic, sleepy think COPD O2 overdose or sleep apnea responds inappropriately, think drug overdose, intoxication 4 reasons why pt may be uncooperative - 1. Language difficulties - 2. Influence of medications - 3. Hearing loss - 4. Fear, apprehension, depression, etc 1. Anxiety,nervousness: watching every movement, asthmatic, rt distress, hypoxemia 2. Depressed: quiet or denial 3. Anger, combative, or irritable: electrolyte imbalance 4. Euphoria: drug overdose 5. Panic: hypoxia, tension pneumothorax, status asthmaticus Katz ADL scoring 0: pt unable to perform or need assistance in performing ADL 1: pt needs NO direction or assistance in performing ADL Interpretation of Katz scoring 6: pt is independent and has full functional capability 4: pt has moderate impairment and needs some assistance <2: pt requires assistance when performing any activity difficulty breathing except when in upright position CHF, heart problem run down feeling, nausea, weakness, fatigue, headache Grades for dyspnea - 1. dyspnea occuring after unusual exertion - 2. breathless after going up hills or stairs - 3. dyspnea while walking at normal speed - 4. dyspnea slowly walking short distances - 5. dyspnea at rest, shaving, dressing, etc 8 characteristics to identify symptoms of pain (all are important) - 1. location - 2. quality (what kind is it) - 3. severity ( on a scale of 1-10) - 4. aggravating factors - 5. relieving factors - 6. hx (when did it start and how did it progress) - 7. context (under what circumstances did it occur) - 8. accompanying symptoms symptoms of nose and throat excessive nasal seretions from irritants, pollutants, allergies itching, buring sensation of nose and thoat dysphagia and hoarsness Definition of assessing pt learning needs influencing pt behaviou and producing changes in knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to maintain and improve health use of medication and equipment nutrition (eating more or less) Pt/ Family history History of present illness: current medical/physical problems Past medical history: previous medical problems, accidents, injuries, etc Family history: heart disease, diabetes, cystic fibrosis, etc Social history: smoking, substance abuse, etc age, height, weight, sex, nourishment, etc excessive fluid in the tissue aka Pitting edema (may cause sob) occurs mostly in arms and ankles, but ankles is usually best choice (think of gravity) caused by CHF. rated +1, +2, +3, etc. the higher the #, the greater the swelling accumulation of fluid in the abdomen ususally caused by Liver Failure Tx: NG Tube Clubbing of the fingers caused by Chronic hypoxemia. Presence is suggestive of pulmonary disease or congenital heart defect occurs with CHF, also seen in pts with Obstructive lung disease JVD from chronic hypoxemia=>vasoconstriction=>heart failure indication of peripheral circulation. Pinching their finger to see if it fills back up again, if it doesn't then we need to be concerned with perfusion Define diaphoresis and list common causes. A state of heavy/perfuse sweating. - Heart failure - Fever, Infection - Anxiety, nervousness - TB (night sweats) Abnormal skin color (ashen, pallor) due to.. anemia or acute blood loss. (vasoconstriction will cause color to change by reduction of blood flow). Tx with O2 Increased bilirubin in blood and tissue causes Jaundice. It appears mostly in the face and trunk What is Erythema? redness of the skin. may be from capillary congestion, inflammation, or infection or a reaction or CO poisoning blue or blue-grey dusky discoloration. Caused by hypoxia from increased amount of reduced hemoglobin (5g reduced hgb) Lateral curvature of the spine (side to side) combination of both and causes severe restrictive impairment convex curvature of spine (lean forward, hunch back) depression of part or all of the sternum anterior protrusion of the sternum Unequal (asymmetrical) movement may indicate what underlying pathologies? - 1. Chronic lung disease - 2. Atelectasis - 3. Pneumothorax - 4. Flail chest-Paradoxical - 5. Intubated pt with ET in one lung (deflate cuff, pull out, reinsert) Normal Adult RR Increased RR >20 breaths/min Causes: hypoxia, fever, pain, CNS problem decreased rr <12 per min variable depth and irregular rhythm. Causes: sleep (normal), drugs, alcohol, metabolic disorders cessation of breathing increased rr, increased depth, regular rhythm Cause: Metabolic disorder/CNS disorders gradually increasing then decreasing and depth in cycle lasting from 30- 180 seconds with periods of apnea lasting up to 60 seconds. Cause: increased ICP, meningitis, drug overdose increased RR and depth with irregular periods of apnea. Each breath is same depth. Cause: CNS problem increased RR (usually over 20 breaths/min), increased depth, irregular rhythm, breathing sounds labored Cause: Metabolic acidosis, renal failure, DKA Tx of diabetes with insuline and HCO3 with documented blood gas only Normal Muscles of ventilation - 1. Diaphragm - 2. External intercostals - 3. Exhalation is normally passive Accessory muscles of ventilation - 1. Intercostal, scalene, sternocleidomastoid, pectoralis major - 2. Abdominal muscles (oblique, rectus abdominus, etc) - 3. Hypertrophy (increase in muscle size) of accessory muscle occurs with COPD increase in muscle size muscle wasting. loss ofmuscle tone, occurs with paralysis. May be referred to cachectic intercostal and/or sternal retractions occur when the chest moves inward during inspiratory effors instead of outward Causes: blocked (obstructed) airway **Sign of RT distress in infants** Flaring of nostrils during inspiration. **A sign of RT distress in infants** Retraction, Nasal flaring, Grunting is them trying to produce cpap=> give cpap for support Evidence of Difficult Airway - 1. Look externally of evidence of face or neck pathology. - -Enlarged tongue (macroglossia) (recommend anasthesiologist to intubate) - -Bull Neck - -Limited range of motion of neck - -Short receding mandible Pulse (2nd life function) >100 indicates hpoxemia, anxiety, stress Tx with O2 <60 indicates heart failure, shock, code/emergency (inc. o2 consumption in muscle) Atropine with O2 what do you do if there is increased heart rate > 20 beats/min it's an ADVERSE REACTION, stop therapy, notify nurse and doctor Paradoxical pulse/ Pulsus paradoxus pulse/bp varies with respiration. May indicate severe air trapping (status asthmaticus or cardiac tamponade). Emphysema: define and dx alveoli distention resulting in rupture of elasticiy of the lung - Increased Hb/HCT - Barrel Chest, Increased AP diameter - Accessory muscle use - Digital clubbing CXR: hyperlucency with diminished vascular markings and flattened diaphragm ABG: compensated RT acidosis with moderate to severe hypoxemia Pulmonary fxn: decreased DLco, decreased flows (FEF 25-75% and FEV1/FVC) Chronic Bronchitis: define and dx Productive cough for more than 3 months out of the year for 2 or more consecutive years - Smoking hx with chronic infxns - Productive cough with Purulent Sputum - CXR: Essentially Normal or may exhibit and Emphysemic Pattern - ABG: Hypoxemia with Normal to slightly increased PCO2 Levels - Pulmonary fxn: Decreased flows (FEV1, FEF 25-75%), DLco Normal How do you tx Emphysema? - Low Flow (FiO2) O2 Therapy @ 1-2 L/min (.24-.28) - Antibiotics as indicated from sputum culture - Rehab and Home Care - Bronchodilators, MDI, Aerosol Nebulizers - Perhaps Trans-Tracheal oxygenation - Nicotine replacement therapy may help to quit smoking How do you tx Chronic bronchitis? - good bronchial hygiene (CPT) - Antibiotics for infxn - Bronchodilator therapy - O2 for hypoxemia Bronchiectasis: define and dx Abnormal dilation of bronchi secreting large amounts of purulent secretions - Hx of recurrent gram negative infxn - Digital clubbing - Productive cough involving hemoptysis - 3 Layer Sputum - CXR: Normal - Bronchogram: BEST DIAGNOSTIC TEST Show "A Tree in Winter Pattern" - Pulmonary Fxn: Decreased Flows (FEV1) (obstruction) How do you TX Bronchiectasis? - Good bronchial hygiene (CPT) - Abs for infxn (senormyocin, tobermyocin) - Aerosol Therapy with Bronchodilators - Surgical resection of involved segments is an option He/O2 mixtures using an o2 flowmeter 70/30 mixture Actual flow is 1.6 times greater than the L/min on an o2 flowmeter with an 70/30 mixture Patient's maximum heart rate 220 - age in years Volume lost through chest tubes Delivered Vt - exhaled Vt He/O2 mixtures using an o2 flowmeter Actual flow is 1.8 times greater than L/min on o2 flowmwter with an 80/20 mixture Air - o2 ratio for various o2 (100-X) / X-20 Factor X Liter flow Tank Factors: E cylinder, H cylinder E cylinder = .28% L/psi (0.3) H cylinder= 3.14 L/psi (3.0) Duration of flow (cylinder duration in minutes) Guage pressure (psi) x Tank factor / liter flow To approximate fiO2 with a nasal cannula 20 + (4 x Liter flow) = approximate FiO2 Calculating minimum flow rate Flowrate= (tidal volume x rate) x (I+E) Work of breathing Change in pressure x change in volume IBW formula for females 105 lb + 5 lb/in over 5 ft Ibw formula males 106 lb + 6 lb/in over 5 feet Airway resistance (raw) - (estimate) Raw = peak pressure - plateau pressure Exhaled volume/ plateau - peep Exhaled vol / pip - peep Diagnostic chest percussion, norm Norm heart sounds S1 and s2 Norm cerebral perfusion pressure 12-16 gm/100 ml blood 5000-10,000 per mm3 Norm potassium (k+) 4.0 mEq/L, range 3.5 -4.5 mEq/L Norm sodium (Na+) 140 mEq/L, range 135-145 mEq/L Normal Chloride (Cl-) 90 mEq/L, range 80-100 mEq/L Normal bicarbonate (HCO3-) 24 mEq/L, range 22-26 mEq/L 0.7 - 1.3 mg/dL Norm Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) Norm Clotting time Up to 6 minutes Norm platelet count Activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) Norm Prothrombin (PT) Norm Thrombin time Norm term infant (gestational age) Normal infant temp Norm heart rate (infant) 110 - 160/min Norm RR (infant) 30-60 breaths min Normal BP (infant) Normal birth weight (term infant) Down and to the left Electrical impulse begins in upper right corner (sa, rt atria) and moves down and across the heart to the left Normal air filled lung, gives hollow sound Flat percussing sound heard over the sternum, muscle, or areas of atelectasis **LOSS of Air** Dull percussing sound heard over fluid fille dorgans such as the heart or the liver. Pleural Effusion (tracheal deviation away) or PNA (tracheal deviation toward) will give this a thudding sounds. **loss of air** Tympanic percussion sound.. heard over air filled stomach. This is a drum like sound and when heard over the lungs, indicates increased volume. **loss of Air** Hyperresonant percussion sound... found in areas of the lung where pneumothorax (absent bs with tracheal shift) or emphysema is present. this is a booming sound. Bronchial breath sounds normal sounds over the trachea or bronchi. These sounds over the lung periphery would indicate lung consolidation. When the pt says "E" and it sounds like "A". This indicates Consolidation of the lung wiht PNA-like condition Adventitious breath sounds Abnormal breath sounds Rales (crackles) indicate.. Coarse rales (rhonchi) indicates... Large airway secretions. Pt needs suctioning Medium rales indicate MIddle airway secretions, Pt needs CPT Fine rales (moist crepitant rales) indicate... fluid in the alveoli, can't suction in the alveoli. Pt needs IPPB, heart durgs, diuretics, and o2. Pt probably has CHF/Pulmonary Edema airway narrowing due to bronchospasm. Pt needs bronchodilator Unilateral wheeze indicates ... foreign body obstruction, need bronchoscope to go down and find it to get it ous. Can't have asthma on just one side. - due to upper airway obstruction - a. supraglottic swelling (epiglottitis) - b. subglottic swelling (croup, post extubation) - c. Froeign body aspiration (solids or fluids) - a. racemic epi for swelling and edema - b. suctioning and /or bronchoscopy for secretions and foreign body aspiration - c. intubation for severe swelling. Pleural friction rub... A coarse grating or crunching sound caused by inflamed surface of the visceral and parietal pleura rubbing 2gether. Associated with pleurisy, TB, PNA, pulm infarct, CA TX with abs (infxn) or steriods (inflammation) 5 things to note on a normal cxr 1. both hemidiaphragms dome shaped 2. Right hemidiaphragm slightly higher due to liver 3. Right hemidiaphragm @ the level of 6th anterior rib (if @ 7,8,9 Emphysemic) 4. Trachea midline, bilateral radiolucency, sharp costrophrenic angles 5. head of clavicles should be level, if not (scoliosis) Midline, will shift with pleural effusion or pneumothorax increased with COPD, barrle chest, hyperinflation obliterated with Pleural effusion (also dull percussion) dome shaped normally, flattened with COPD. Left or Rt Pneumothorax may shift downward, appearing flattened on one side engorged with CHF, absent with Pneumo or a collapsed lung left ventricle normally seen, cardiomegaly seen with CHF Tissue surrouding the echest and avove the neck area. Sub Q emphysema is when hyperlucency is seen in the surrounding tissue. projection from either the right or left side Aid in localizing lesions behind bones or unusal places Pt lying on affected side Good for detecting small pleural effusions projection from lung apices End expiratory film Taken when the pt is at end exhalation. Good for detecting small pneumothorax or if their is an obstruction 2cm or 1 inch above the carina, level with aortic knob or aortic arch position of Ng tube 2-5 cm below the diaphragm Solid, normal for bones and organs, heart shadow solid, PNA/Pleural effusion EXTRA air, COPD, asthma attack Fluffy infiltrates, Butterfly/Batwing pattern Patchy infiltrates, Platelike infiltrates Gound glass, homeycomb pattern, diffuse bilateral rediopacity Pna fills small airways with fluid, big airways are full of air so they stand out Peripheral wedge shaped infiltrate Concave superior interface/border, basilar ifiltrates with meniscus A sprial CT with contrast dye is used to dx.. Resusitation Equipment for MRI should be... In V/Q scan, if ventilation is normal but perfusion is abnormal, this indicates... If pt has dysphagia, what kind of therapy would be inappropriate and may cause the pt to aspirate? Bronchography (bronchogram) is an injection of radio-opaque contrast medium into that tracheobronchial tree that is helpful for what disease process? Bronchiectasis, helps id location of involved areas that will allow better administration of postural drainage Indications for EEG Traumatic brain injuries Evaluation of sleep disorders Indications for Echocardiograpy Cardiac anomaliles in the infant (ASD, VSD, PDA, etc) Abnormal heart sounds treatment of ICP > 20mmHG hyperventilation until PaCO2 is 25-30 torr Shortcut for remembering RBC, Hgb, Hct Magic # is 3 5 (norm rbc) x 3 = 15 (norm hgb) x 3 =45% (norm hct) Increased vs Decreased WBC Norm: 5000-10,000 per mm3 Increased (leukocytosis):::bacterial infection Decreased (leukopenia)::: viral infection Hypokalemia occurs with Metabolic alkalosis, excessive excretion, renal lowss, flattened T wave on EKG Metabolic Acidosis, Spiked T wave, Kidney Failure fluid loss from diuretics, vomiting, diarrhea low chloride: metabolic alkalosis (it follows K+ so K+ is low too) high chloride (metabolic acidosis) (K+ is high) Bicarbonate (HCO3-) ::: total Co2 content co2 is carried in blood as HCO3, so total co2 contetn relfects changes in blood base - high co2=high HCo3=Metabolic alkalosis=low K+ - low CO2=low HCo3=Metabolic acidosis=high K+ Mucoid white/grey sputum presence of WBC, bacterial infxn gram neg. bacteria, bronchiectasis, pseudamonas bright red sputum hemoptysis (bleeding , tumor) pink, frothy sputum Which is considered a "Quick" assessment for sputum tests? a) Gram Stain b) Sputum culture & sensitivity a) Gram stain: it's quick and will tell you if its a gram neg or gram pos. If it doesn't as for "Quick Assessment" then you could pick Sputum culture and sensitivity to tell yuou the type of bacteria and what kind of abs will work. Sputum C&S takes time what is the difference between Neurtrophil bands and segs? Bands: immatures cells, 4% of wbc, INCREASED BACTERIAL INFXN Segs: mature cells, 60% of wbc, DECREASED BACTERIAL INFXN What pathology is associated with increased eosinophils? Athma, 2% of wbc, Increased with ALLERGIC rxn produce yellow sputum Pulmonary angiogram is used to dx what pathology? Tx is recommended when ICP increases above what level? > 20 mmHg Define cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) pressure gradient that measures cerebral perfusion What is the formula to calculate cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) CPP=MAP - ICP What is the normal value for CPP? What is exhaled nitric oxide (NIOX) testing used for? monitor asthma pt's response to antiinflammatory (corticosteroid) through monitoring pt level of nitric oxide in pt exhaled breath Decrease in FEno level suggests... decrease in airway inflammation What are the indications for a barium swallow test? Suspected esophageal malignancy A ballon tipped, flow directed catheter positioned in the pulmonary artery with the balloon inflated measures which pressure? (this multiple choice question has been scrambled) A balloon tipped, flow directed catheter is positioned in the pulmoary arter with the balloon deflated, which pressure is being measured by the proximal lumen? (this multiple choice question has been scrambled) Symptoms of Pleural Effusion Dullness to Percussion Decreased Tactile Fremitus Dry, Non productive cough Diminished Breath Sounds What is a Galvanic Cell used for? to monitor o2 concentration which is the best aerosolized bronchodilator fo ra pt with acute asthma exacerbation? A) Tiotropium (spiriva) B) Salmeterol (Serevent) C) Albuterol (proventil) D) Ipratrpium Bromide (Atrovent) C) Albuterol. A fast acting beta 2 agonist is the appropriate tx for acute bronchospasm (this multiple choice question has been scrambled) In VCV, which controls can be changed to adjust the I:E ratio? - Volume (affects i time) - Mandatory Rate(affects e time) - Inspiratory Flow (affects i time) Drug: Dornase alfa (Pumozyme) ususally used with what kind of pts? and what does it do? It decreases the viscosity of sputum in CF pts to decreased exacerbations that req. hospitalization If pt has increased PaCo2 during weaning trial, this indicates... respiratory muscle fatigue with resulting hypercapnia MIP, VT, VC measures what exactly in weaning from mechanical ventilation? Suction pressures for Infant, Child, Adult?? Infant: -60 to 80mmHg Child: -80 to -100 mmHg Adult: -100 to -120 mmHg Drug: Pentamidine Isethionate (NebuPent) What is it and what side effect may be caused by it? Anti-Viral for tx of Viral PNA. Side effect: Bronchospasm Bilateral fluffy infiltrates in cxr indicative of... Pulmonary Edema from increased interstitial and alveolar fluid when calibrating a thermal conductivity helium analyzer, what should the analyzer read when calibrated in air? A) 0%. Air contains no helium; therefore, it should read 0 (this multiple choice question has been scrambled) When in proper position, the tip of the CVP catheter should be where? in the lower portion of the superior vena cava the is the correction factor for heliox mixture 80/20 and 70/30? 1.8 for 80/20 mix, 1.6 for 70/30 mix If a pt is on a beta blocker medication and requires bronchodilator therapy, which medication should the RT recommend in leu of Albuterol? Atrovent. Albuterol is a beta receptor stimulator and may show reduced efficacy int eh presence of beta blocking agents. Atroven uses a different mechanism for bronchodilation. Cuff pressures > 30 ktorr on the tracheal wall will cause obstruction of... What device is used to deliver Pentamidine (NebuPent)? A filtered exhalation nebulizer to prevent environmental contamination what is the appropriate location of a chest tube for a pt with a hemothorax? 5th ics in mid axillary line is appropriate to drain fluids from the chest. Any higher and thorax may not adequately drain the fluid inspiratory muscle strength

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Discourses of domesticity in the May Fourth period Throughout the May Fourth period, from the late 1910s to early 1920s, educators, reformers and general commentators emphasized the importance of domestic science for women’s education, indicating a continuing and nagging fear that had taken root almost from the very beginning of public education for girls. Such a fear centred on the perceived tendency for the direction of women’s education to escape the control of male intellectuals. It is significant, for example, that the Beijing Women’s Higher Normal School not only had a separate faculty of home economics, but also required students in the other two faculties of sciences and the arts to take courses in domestic science.31 A contributor to Jiaoyu zazhi also noted in 1919 both how new the discipline of domestic science was and how little appreciated it was amongst the public. Yet, he continued, the material and spiritual advance of the household (the aim of domestic science) was absolutely essential in the ‘battle for survival’. He urged girls’ schools to pay more attention to the cultivation of domestic virtues – cleanliness, punctuality, hygiene, orderliness.32 At commemorative events staged by girls’ schools, which could attract huge audiences, teachers and dignitaries always made a point of emphasizing the importance of domestic training. Such was the case with a girls’ school in the capital of Jiangxi province, which celebrated its tenth anniversary in October 1919. Several thousand men and women attended the event and heard speeches from local dignitaries and former students expressing the hope that more girls’ schools would be opened to ‘create (zaojiu) virtuous mothers and good wives’. One female educator urged her peers (nu tongbao) not to indulge in ‘extravagance’ (shehua) but rather to concentrate on ‘practical learning’ (shixue), an expression often used at this time to refer to the acquisition of domestic skills, while the male principal of the school, Cai Jingbao, argued that households and society in the future could only be improved with the training of creative, hardworking and persevering ‘virtuous mothers and good wives’ (xianmu liangqi).33 Significantly, a lower primary school reader for girls first published by the Commercial Press in Shanghai in the 1910s, and in wide use during the 1920s and 1930s, contained a lesson on the meaning of marriage that encapsulated all the features of a woman’s perceived ideal role and character (i. e. as the faithful helpmate of her husband and guardian of the household): Xu Sheng was fairly young and was a wastrel. His wife, Lu Rong, often tried to persuade him to study. Every time he behaved badly she would bring him to his senses with her tears. Lu Rong’s father, knowing the situation, became very angry and offered to find her another husband. She replied that the way (dao) of marriage was never to separate and remarry. Xu Sheng was so moved by this that he began to exert himself more in study. Finally, he made something of himself.34 It was for this reason that many commentators (including those writing in progressive or radical journals) throughout the May Fourth period continued to assume that education for girls would always be different from that of boys. Thus in an article on the ‘ question of women’ (nuzi wenti) published in the foremost radical journal of the time, Xin qingnian (New Youth), Liang Hualan tortuously argued that equality in education did not mean girls being taught the same subjects as boys.35 What Liang had in mind was equality of treatment as human individuals (renge zhi pengdeng); thus if young men had access to higher education, so should young women. However, because of ‘biological differences’, Liang continued, women should be channelled into humanities and men into the sciences. He also warned that women in Europe and America were beginning to ignore biological differences and were ‘unnaturally’ studying technology (such as Katherine Stinson and her involvement with aviation).36 Liang then got to the gist of his concerns; in China, he declared, the education women received had to inculcate the xianmu liangqi ideal so that they could in the future fulfil their responsibility to the state by ‘assisting husbands and instructing sons’ (xiangfu jiaozi) – the phrase identical to that used by late nineteenth-century male and female reformers championing women’s education. He confidently predicted that if Chinese women’s innate virtues of ‘compliance’ and ‘service’ (fucong) were consolidated and developed in education, they would enhance China’s international reputation and occupy ‘the top rank of women in the world’ (at a time, Liang ruefully acknowledged, when China has to look to the West for its scientific knowledge). For Liang, in the final analysis, it was precisely because women in China were becoming more educated and beginning to gain access to higher levels of learning that the xianmu liangqi ideal had to be taught.37 Another article in Xin qingnian attributed the superiority of the West to its cultivation of worthy mothers who ‘assisted their husbands’ (xiang qi fu) and guided their children. Such ‘worthy’ mothers, the article lamented, were not like the Chinese female student of the present who merely had a smattering of scientific knowledge and was obsessed with Western fashions. The author of the article called on Chinese women not to be ‘corrupted’ by the educated and ‘loose’ (ziyou) women of the day, and insisted that China’s worthy mothers of the future had to be morally upright and the possessor of ‘household management skills’.38 Even an educational reformer and progressive such as Cai Yuanpei insisted on an appropriate education for girls that would perfect their domestic skills. In a speech given at the Shanghai Patriotic Girls’ School in 1917, Cai began by announcing in grandiose terms that the aim of the school was to cultivate ‘complete individuals’. Cai told his audience that a combination of physical, intellectual and moral education would enable female pupils to transcend their normally dependent, parasitic and superficial natures. In the process, Cai continued, girls would become more autonomous, but he warned that such autonomy was not to be misunderstood – female students should not become haughty and arrogant and think highly of themselves (aoman zifu). This led Cai to the core of his argument. Having begun his speech by claiming that women’s education should create allround and confidently autonomous individuals, Cai concluded, paradoxically, that it would be scandalous if girls, once educated, disdained or were incapable of performing household tasks. In Cai’s view, modern schools should not be seen by girls as a means of escaping their ‘natural duty’ (tianzhi) of household management but rather should be welcomed as the primary site in which girls would perfect their household skills with new knowledge (chemistry, he noted, would enhance their culinary skills by giving pupils an insight into which kinds of food would be beneficial for health). ‘ To abandon household affairs’ , Cai solemnly informed his audience, ‘did not accord with proper principles’.39 In a lecture to the Zhejiang Provincial Women’s Normal School in 1921, a certain Jiang Qi insisted that educational policy would always have to take into account a specific female agenda.40 Jiang was not opposed to co-education per se or the idea that girls should receive as much education as boys. However, Jiang continued, since girls differed from boys, both physiologically and mentally, they had to receive a different kind of education (Jiang cannily argued that an education designed to make everyone the same would be unacceptable to those who championed the ‘new education’ tailored to the individual).41 Jiang then went on to maintain that the aim of women’s education to produce xianmu liangqi accorded with progressive views since such women, by their very definition, would possess a range of economic and intellectual skills; for this reason, Jiang noted, the term gongmin (citizen) could be used instead of xianmu liangqi since it more accurately reflected the social and national significance of their role as household managers and educators of future citizens, a role, in Jiang’s view, that accorded with women’s character and abilities.42 One of the household skills Jiang focused on was cooking; disagreeing with those who since the May Fourth Movement had insisted that women were not family slaves and hence were not obliged to cook, Jiang argued that cooking was, in fact, ‘honourable labour’ (similar to handicrafts) and that it required knowledge of hygiene and economic know-how. Thus, Jiang concluded, the culinary arts, along with other domestic skills, must always constitute the core of the curriculum for female education. It is worth noting here also that the biological essentialism to which Jiang subscribed in his talk was pervasive during this period. One year later, in a lecture delivered at the Beijing Women’s Higher Normal School, Liang Qichao reiterated the essentialist views that he had first raised in his 1897 essay on women’s education (see Chapter 1).43 As with the case of the contributor to the journal, Xin fund (New Woman), also in 1922 (see Chapter 4), Liang declared that certain innate features of women’s character and mental outlook equipped them to perform certain occupations better than men. In particular Liang argued that whereas women’s ‘creative talents’ (chuangzao li) were not as developed as men’s, women’s ‘organizational skills’ (zhengli li) were superior to men’s.44 He suggested that there were four kinds of profession ideally suited to women because of their innate characters (and in which they would not therefore compete with men): the study of history (because women were more ‘ patient’ and adept at organizing research time), librarianship, accountancy (because women were more ‘meticulous’ and ‘orderly’), and journalism (because women were more likely to be impartial and would be better able to elicit cooperation from their interviewees).45 Other commentators, such as Zhu Xue, simply argued that women’s innate ‘meticulousness’ equipped them to be ideal primary school teachers (which he referred to as ‘mothers for producing citizens’).46 Another contributor to Jiaoyu zazhi agreed, declaring that since men were by nature ‘rough and crude’ (cubao), quick-tempered, and impulsive (fuzao), they were potentially worse primary teachers than more circumspect (jinxi), compassionate (cishan) and mild- tempered (wenhe) women.47 Clearly, such essentialism was a response to a situation that suggested girls and young women thought and acted rather differently. As a frequent contributor to Jiaoyu zazhi, Jia Fengzhen, noted in 1920, female students were increasingly resentful at having to study domestic science and household skills at school; they wanted to study the same subjects as boys, Jia observed, so that there would be no preordained differences in their life trajectories. Such a view, Jia opined, was misguided; although girls’ intellectual abilities were not necessarily inferior to those of boys, neither should they forget that the ideal of ‘worthy mother and good wife’ was not a social construction dreamt up by reactionary educators but rather described a natural and inevitable role for women that no female student could ignore.48 The primary role of women as skilled and ‘professional’ household managers had become so entrenched by this time in the minds of writers and educators that an a article in the Fund zazhi in 1921 detailing the division of labour within the ‘new’ and ‘progressive’ nuclear family (xin jiating) accepted as a given that the wife managed everything within the household (education, finances, hygiene).49 Not all commentators were in agreement over this. A certain Ms Tao Yi, in a 1924 article in Fund zazhi, although criticizing female students at university (as most did at this time) as pleasure-seeking and extravagant ‘new-style young madams’ (xinshi de taitai xiaojie), also called for an education that would transform girls into ‘complete persons’. This meant above all else providing girls with the same education as boys; while Tao did not object to the teaching of domestic science at school, for example, she did object to it being a subject that was solely taught to girls. Such a situation, Tao observed, meant that girls were simply trained as ‘hired labourers within the household’ (jiating de gugong); women’s education, she concluded, had to avoid simply turning out ‘lopsided’ or ‘unbalanced’ people (jixing de ren), by which she meant women defined solely by their household role (it was precisely for this reason that Tao urged universal co-education so as to eliminate once and for all any notion of a unique ‘women’s’ education).50 Such a view, however, was very much a minority one in the periodical and women’s press. Far more ubiquitous was the approach taken by a 1920 article in Fund zazhi, which argued that just as officials or soldiers were considered productive (rather than being perceived as mere consumers) to the extent that they guided or defended the country, so women within the household were productive because their management skills enabled the household to prosper.51 Thus, the article declared, if a female textile worker neglected household management and her duties to in-laws and children, spending money and time on herself, she was in reality a consumer; on the other hand, a woman who remained at home (and thus did not ‘produce’ anything) but who skilfully and efficiently managed the household was in effect the productive one (the author referred to the concept of ‘indirect productivity’, which allowed husbands to pursue productive work without being encumbered by any worries – an idea first mentioned, as we saw in Chapter 3, by Qian Zhixiu in late 1911). The female textile worker who disdained household duties, however, was not the worst of ‘unproductive’ women castigated by the article. After nuns, prostitutes and actresses, the very epitome of unproductivity, the article concluded, was ‘bogus civilized women’ (jia wenming de fund).52 Such women, according to the article, were educated females who, on the surface, seemed to be productive but in reality were the worst kind of consumer; they might be proficient in Chinese and dextrous in the writing of letters, the article continued, but they could not cook, sew or manage household accounts. Echoing criticisms of female students from the first decade of the twentieth century, the article condemned these women for indulging in ‘laziness and unrestraint’ (landuo fangzong), and putting on airs in public by wearing spectacles and high-heeled leather shoes, and smoking cigarettes. Such a phenomenon, the article concluded, gave girls’ schools a bad name and inhibited parents from sending their daughters to school. For some commentators, in fact, the independent ‘new woman’ was precisely the person who assiduously sought to learn about domestic skills in order to avoid dependence on a husband for advice and guidance in the management of the household,53 as opposed to the ‘new woman’ referred to by Hu Shi in a speech he gave in 1918 at the Beijing Women’s Normal School. Hu Shi, generally considered to have been the first Chinese intellectual and writer to use specifically the term ‘new woman’ (xin fund),54 had in mind a person who was independent and did not respect separate spheres, thereby transcending completely the ‘virtuous mother and good wife’ ideal.55 A far more pervasive attitude at this time in the women’s press, however, was represented by the contributor to Fund zazhi in 1920. Echoing the writer in 1912 who had first described household duties as a professional vocation (see Chapter 3), the female author, Cheng Shuyi, referred to the traditional aphorism ‘ men rule the outer [sphere], women rule the inner [sphere] ’ (nanzi zhi wai ndzi zhi nei) to explain that such an arrangement did not imply female inferiority but rather signalled a rational ‘division of occupational specialty’ (zhiye de fenke).56 In a similar vein, another article in the same year argued that the ‘new woman’ was one who transformed herself from a xianmu liangqi (worthy mother and good wife) totally under the control of a man to a ‘genuine’xianmu liangqi who autonomously exercised management duties within the household.57 An intriguing insight into the assumptions concerning the purposes of women’s schooling is provided by the preface to an anthology of ‘model letters’ written by girls and that served as a school textbook reader and ethics guide.58 First published in 1926, the preface to the anthology cited the traditional ‘four virtues’ (si ’de) of women first championed by Ban Zhao (of appearance, dress, work and learning), and declared that Chinese women of the present likewise needed to possess ‘four virtues’. The first virtue (furong: appearance) connoted a ‘regular and correct’ (yirong duanzheng) demeanour, ‘proper and gentle’ (juzhi dafang) behaviour, a ‘tranquil and calm’ temperament, and ‘sweetness’ of speech (yuyan piaoliang); the second virtue ( fushi: dress and adornment) referred to both a woman’s ‘regular’ personal clothing (yishang qingzheng) and her aesthetic skills in matching household colours; and the third virtue (fuzhi: occupation) referred to a woman’s production of exquisite handicrafts (chuangzao jingmei) and her detailed economic management of all aspects of household life (baifan jingji). On the fourth virtue (fuxue: learning), the author of the preface laid down the precise boundaries of what women’s education entailed: Women’s learning is not initially about aspiring to reach stupendous heights in the natural and physical sciences, nor is it about becoming proficient in foreign languages, but rather is about seeking a certain level of knowledge of Chinese literature and art so that they can write simply and clearly without vulgarity, and then add a little embellishment to the characters through their instruction in calligraphy. It will not be difficult to educate such a girl, and with a female education such as this there will be no more worries or anxieties.59 Against this background of domesticity discourse it is no coincidence that during the early years of the Republic articles began to appear on the thought of the Swedish feminist Ellen Key (1849-1926), whose valorization of motherhood led her to argue that marriage and the family were the central focus of a woman’s life, and that work outside the home made women sterile or incapable of bringing up children.60 As early as 1906 translated excerpts from Key’s book The Century of the Child (1900) had appeared in China’s first modern educational journal, Jiaoyu shijie (Educational World),61 while excerpts from her other major work, Love and Marriage, appeared in Funu zazhi in 1920.62 In the same year a contributor to Dongfang zazhi, Yan Bin, praised Ellen Key’s concept of motherhood, referring to her as a ‘pure feminist’ (chuncui de nuzi zhuyizhe) in opposition to socialist feminists because she accepted that the natures of men and women were different and recognized the necessary division of labour between the two. Yan drew attention to Key’s emphasis on motherhood (muzhi) as the pre-eminent focus of a woman’s life (based on solid scientific, psychological and biological evidence) and her argument that it was unnecessary for women to seek economic independence.63

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Reading and listening are both essential skills when learning Chinese, not only because they allow you to read and listen, but also because it is the gateway to all other knowledge. Understanding is, in a sense, more important than being able to make other people understand. The more you understand, the more you learn If you read something where you understand most of the text, you’re sometimes able to pick up new words and grammar patterns automatically, or incidentally as it’s called in the literature. Reading easier text also allows you to read much more, so instead of reading 1,000 characters worth of text in your textbook, you could read 10,000 at a lower level, which would allow you to get a better feel for what words mean and how they are used, as well as increased reading speed and so on. This kind of reading, where reading a lot is more important than understanding everything in difficult texts, is called extensive reading. The problem facing adult learners of Chinese is twofold: - There isn’t enough learner-oriented reading material - The material that exists is not interesting enough You need much more reading than your textbook can offer and you need it to be at roughly the same level. It’s no good reading a real novel if it takes you an hour to read one page. One way of alleviating this problem is to use more than one textbook series in parallel, but this solution is far from ideal. A far better solution is to use graded readers! A graded reader is a book with a limited difficulty, often set by a certain number of words to make it easy to read. For Chinese graded readers, the number of unique characters is the most common measurement. Mandarin Companion offers a series of readers, currently on three levels with twelve books in all. That means that they are accessible from a very early stage, but are still useful well up into the intermediate stage: - As a beginner, you can extend you reading beyond the textbook and read texts that are both interesting and capped at a certain difficulty, meaning that you can read and learn everything in these books and be quite sure you’re learning very high frequency characters and words. That’s true for most textbooks as well, but certainly not any material not particularly written for students - As an intermediate learner, you can use the series for extensive reading (i.e. the kind I mentioned above where you understand most of the text already). Even though 300 or 450 characters doesn’t sound like much, I think only advanced learners will be able to read through all these books without finding a single new word. For more about Mandarin Companion, the science and philosophy behind the series, as well as many other interesting things about reading in Chinese, I suggest you head over to their website. Make sure to not miss the blog or the podcast! In order to write this review, I read through all twelve books (a big thanks to Mandarin Companion for providing me with the books). They come in both a simplified and traditional editions, so choose whichever you prefer; I read the traditional versions for this review. They are also available for Kindle, Apple Books and Kobo. Some books have audio recordings, but not all. Before I review each volume individually, I’d like to say a few words about them as a whole. To begin with, they are all much more interesting than the average textbook, much longer and generally well-written. I would say this is the best series of graded readers currently available. The language is mostly natural-sounding (given the strict limit in the number of characters, of course) and in difference to native texts, the same words are reused over and over, which is great for learning. Each volume consists of a total of roughly 10,000 Chinese characters, so while not super long, they should last the reader a long time, depending on your reading ability. Combining all the books forms a solid step on your journey to becoming literate in Chinese. Don’t read just one of these books, read them all! I promise you than if you thought the first book on level 1 was hard, you will find the last book on that level much, much easier. You will have read almost a hundred thousand Chinese characters by then! Each story is adapted from a well-known work of fiction, which has been relocated to China and populated by Chinese people. I think these adaptations are very well done, keeping many details and characters from the original stories, while still not hesitating to change major elements in the stories to fit the new environment. If you had never heard of the original story, I doubt you’d think that these books were adapted from Western fiction. Building on known fictional work has the added advantage of giving you some idea of what to expect. A story adapted from Jules Verne will of course be different from one adapted from Jane Austen. There is also a list of words included, all hyperlinked in the digital versions (footnoted in the printed books), so if you read on screen, you can find the definitions of selected words easily. Each book also comes with discussion questions, which perhaps feel more relevant if you use the books in class or in a group, but you could also answer them yourself or discuss them with a tutor or friends. Each volume is illustrated with pictures of much higher quality than we’re used to in educational material, a big thumbs up! I’m now going to introduce and briefly comment on all the books currently available. The story summaries are from the official website and the comments are from myself after reading them. - Breakthrough level (150 characters) - Level 1 (300 characters) - Level 2 (450 characters) Breakthrough level (150 characters) 周海生 (The Misadventures of Zhou Haisheng) Zhou Haisheng is a fun-loving and determined young boy whose life revolves around school and his family’s Chinese restaurant. Always well-intentioned, he finds ways to help out his hard-working parents with the family business. Whether it’s inventing his own noodle recipe, delivering the wrong order to a customer, or resorting to extremes when a competing noodle shop opens across the street, Zhou Haisheng manages to combine his mischief and wit to save the day. This book was published only recently and is an attempt to provide a stepping stone to level 1. I want to mention this, because it is somewhat different from the others in that it’s not adapted from a famous work of fiction, but rather specifically written for this purpose. The story focuses on everyday activities, dialogue and scenes, recycling vocabulary all the time without being so blunt about it that it gets boring. While the story is of course not as interesting as the more advanced levels, this is not the authors’ fault, it’s just very difficult to write something with only 150 characters. I have written texts in Chinese capped at specific levels, and I can tell you that it’s not easy. This book is roughly half the length of the other books in this series, but I still think that doing this much with such limited vocabulary is an achievement. I also love the fact that this story provides a link to Emma, one of the level 1 readers. Paperback or e-book, with simplified characters available on Amazon Note: At the time of writing, there seems to be no traditional character version Level 1 (300 unique characters) 盲人国 (Country of the Blind by H.G. Wells) “In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is king” repeats in Chen Fangyuan’s mind after he finds himself trapped in a valley holding a community of people for whom a disease eliminated their vision many generations before and no longer have a concept of sight. Chen Fangyuan quickly finds that these people have developed their other senses to compensate for their lack of sight. His insistence that he can see causes the entire community to believe he is crazy. With no way out, Chen Fangyuan begins to accept his fate until one day the village doctors believe they now understand what is the cause of his insanity those useless round objects in his eye sockets. This s my favourite story among the five. The story is well-worth reading apart from any language-learning ambition, and the twist at the end is the same as the one I thought of when I read the original story some fifteen years ago. I think the reason I liked this book the most is also that it has a well-paced narrative, a clear structure and an interesting basic premise. The book focuses more on what happens and what people do, rather than what they say. I have nothing to complain about, really good! 安末 (Emma by Jane Austen) Clever, rich, and single, the beautiful Ān Mò (Emma Woodhouse) is focused on her career as fashion designer in the glamor of 21st-century Shanghai. She sees no need for romance in her life, but when she tries to find a boyfriend for her new friend Fangfang (Harriet), her carefully laid plans begin to unravel. As she ignores the warnings of her good friend Shi Wenzheng (Mr. Knightley), her decisions bring consequences that she never expected. With its witty and charming characters, Emma is often seen as Jane Austen’s most flawless work. Just like the original, this modern version set in Shanghai focuses on people and their interactions with each other. This means a lot of dialogue and talking or thinking about social relationships. While being somewhat predictable (regardless of familiarity with the original), the story is well-paced, never gets boring and in general manages to keep the readers attention through-out. The heavy focus on dialogue makes it great for improving conversational Mandarin too! 秘密花园 (The Secret Garden by Francis Hodgson Burnett) Li Ye (Mary Lennox) grew up without the love and affection of her parents. After an epidemic leaves her an orphan, Li Ye is sent off to live with her reclusive uncle in his sprawling estate in Nanjing. She learns of a secret garden where no one has set foot in ten years. Li Ye finds the garden and slowly discovers the secrets of the manor. With the help of new friends, she brings the garden back to life and learns the healing power of friendship and love. I liked this story, mostly because the characters were interesting and not as bland as they tend to be in many textbooks. I haven’t read the original, but I think this adaptation is most suitable for younger readers. I like the theme of exploration, both in the physical sense of exploring the estate and in the figurative sense of finding out the truth about the secret garden. 红猴的价格 (The Ransom of Red Chief by O. Henry) Trying to make some fast cash, two small-time crooks devise a plan to kidnap the son of a wealthy family in a village and hold him for ransom. When the kidnapped boy pulls out his Hong Hou (“Red Monkey”) costume, the two burglars realize they may be in for more than they planned. As their ransom notes remain unanswered and their scheme starts to drag on, the two crooks find out for themselves how a child’s imagination can spell disaster for two inexperienced criminal minds. I like this book and I think it would suit many learners. It’s fast-paced and entertaining, even though you kind of know how it will end in advance, even if you haven’t read the original. This would work very well as an animated cartoon, too, I think. The book contains a variety of language, focusing both on what people do and what they say (and occasionally write). I think the plot summary above should tell you enough about the book to tell you whether it’s for you or not. I recommend it! 猴爪 (The Monkey’s Paw by W.W. Jacobs) Mr. and Mrs. Zhang live with their grown son Guisheng who works at a factory. One day an old friend of Mr. Zhang comes to visit the family after having spent years traveling in the mysterious hills of China’s Yunnan Province. He tells the Zhang family of a monkey’s paw that has magical powers to grant three wishes to the holder. Against his better judgement, he reluctantly gives the monkey paw to the Zhang family, along with a warning that the wishes come with a great price for trying to change ones fate… This story also has a clear narrative and good pacing. I found the story a bit too predictable and less interesting than the Country of the Blind, but still worthwhile. If you like horror stories more than speculative fiction, perhaps this is the best book for you, although like many classic horror stories, it isn’t very scary. 王子和穷孩子 (The Prince and the Pauper by Mark Twain) During a chance encounter, two nearly identical boys, one a poor beggar and the other a prince, decide to exchange places. The pauper, now living in the royal palace, is constantly filled with the dread of being discovered for who and what he really is while the Prince, dressed in rags, lives on the street enduring hardships he never thought possible. Both children soon discover that neither life is as carefree as they expected. This story is, as are many of the others reviewed in this article, well-structured with a narrative that switches between the two boys in a way that makes it particularly easy to turn pages and want to find out what happens. While stories that have a moral message might irritate some readers because they sometimes sacrifice realism (for example, it’s not particularly plausible that two “nearly identical boys” with completely different social backgrounds could be switched like this), I think ought to be a minor issue at most. The story doesn’t shy away from portraying misery and injustice, even if the ending is redeeming. 六十年的梦 (The Sixty-Year Dream, Rip Van Winkle by Washington Irving) Zhou Xuefa (Rip Van Winkle) is well loved by everyone in his town, everyone except his nagging wife. With his faithful dog Blackie, Zhou Xuefa spends his time playing with kids, helping neighbors, and discussing politics in the teahouse. One day after a bad scolding from his wife, he goes for a walk into the mountains and meets a mysterious old man who appears to be from an ancient time. The man invites him into his mountain home for a meal and after drinking some wine, Zhou Xuefa falls into a deep sleep. He awakes to a time very different than what he once knew. This is the weakest story of the books I’ve read I can’t wholeheartedly recommend it. I found the premise interesting, but the story lacked an interesting plot and more felt like the main character experiencing a series of disconnected events that built up to nothing in particular. If the premise sounds very interesting, you could still give it a try, though. 卷发公司的案子 (Sherlock Holms: The Red Headed League by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle) Mr. Xie was recently hired by the Curly Haired Company. For a significant weekly allowance, he was required to sit in an office and copy articles from a book, while in the meantime his assistant looked after his shop. He had answered an advertisement in the paper and although hundreds of people applied, he was the only one selected because of his very curly hair. When the company unexpectedly closes, Mr. Xie visits Gao Ming (Sherlock Holmes) with his strange story. Gao Ming is certain something is not right, but will he solve the mystery in time? I’ve read and liked most of the original Sherlock Holmes stories, and I have read several children’s versions in Chinese as well. I wish I had read this one instead! It’s much more suitable for learners than any book for Chinese children. The story is a typical Sherlock Holmes story where we follow the confused Watson as Holmes expertly solves another mystery. An interesting and neatly paced story and a good read in general, and also neatly adapted to a Chinese setting (note the curly hair instead of red hair as in the original). Level 2 (450 unique characters) 地心游记 (Journey to the Center of the Earth by Jules Verne) Join Professor Luo and his niece Xiaojing in their daring quest down the mouth of a volcano to reach the center of the earth. Guided by a mysterious passage on an ancient parchment and accompanied by their faithful guide Lao Xu, the three explorers encounter subterranean phenomenon, prehistoric animals, and vast underground seas. A Journey to the Center of the Earth is one of Jules Verne’s best-known works and one of the most classic tales of adventure ever written. I loved Jules Verne’s books as a teenager and enjoyed 20,000 Leagues under the Sea and The Mysterious Island immensely. Therefore, it shouldn’t come as a surprise that I like this book, too. Naturally, some sacrifices have to be made to allow for the shorter text and the limited vocabulary, but I find these mostly acceptable. Here we can see the clear advantage of using famous novels: if you know you like Jules Verne, you can be quite sure you will enjoy this book as well. 美好的前途 (Great Expectations by Charles Dickens) Great Expectations is hailed as Charles Dickens’ masterpiece. A gripping tale of love and loss, aspiration and moral redemption, the story follows the young orphan Xiaomao (Pip) from poverty to a life of unexpected opportunity and wealth. In Part 1, Xiaomao (Pip) is raised by his short-tempered older sister and her husband who run a small repair shop in the outskirts of Shanghai. Xiaomao dreams of leaving his life of poverty behind after becoming playmates with the beautiful Bingbing (Estella), daughter of the eccentric Bai Xiaojie (Ms. Havisham). His prospects for the future are bleak, until one day a mysterious benefactor gives Xiaomao the opportunity of a lifetime. Considering the complexity and length of the original, I understand why this story is split into two volumes. In order to not spoil the first part, I have only included the introduction to the first part above. Still, this is one book and should be thought of as such, even though it contains twice as many Chinese characters than the other books in the Mandarin Companion series! Anyone who has read the original will be interested in seeing how many details remain the same, but transported to a Chinese setting. Anyone not familiar with Dickens novel will enjoy following the development of Xiaomao and the other interesting characters. The length of this novel makes it doubly useful as a reading resource because it’s so much easier to read more of the same than get into a whole different novel. Room for improvement I’m very enthusiastic about graded readers in general, but no review would be complete without also covering a few areas where there’s room for improvement. The most glaring examples of this is that most books still don’t have audio. This is something I brought up in my first review almost four years ago. Some books on level 1 do have audio now, but having audio for all books would vastly increase the usefulness of these books! Please, Mandarin Companion, give us audio! Some other, minor things that could be improved is that the glossary is sometimes based only on word frequency, meaning that some phrases that are far from obvious are left unexplained, while some easy words you can find in any dictionary are included. I would have liked to see more notes for these types of phrases that I guess most beginners will struggle with. To show you what I mean, here are two examples: 奇怪 here means 觉得很奇怪, but this isn’t explained. If you look the word up, it means “strange”, but this sentence doesn’t mean that he (陳方遠) is strange. This usage is normal in Chinese, but not in English. I would have either avoided it or explained it. Students usually learn this much later than many of the words that are explained. Here’s another example: This is another sentence that would have benefited from an explanation. 聽我的 means that other people should do as you say, but with a beginner’s understanding of Chinese, this sentence just means that they should listen to him. Finally, I’d like to mention that the footnotes are sometimes a bit hard to see. Light blue is not an ideal colour to use, and grey is even worse. I have no chance of seeing the tone marks on the Pinyin in the footnotes, for example. I don’t have very good eye-sight, but I imagine I can’t be the only one who thinks it could have been bigger or at least with higher contrast. These are mostly minor problems, though, and very small compared to the huge advantage of having access to these stories in general. I haven’t made a careful comparison, but it also seems that the later books do have better annotations. In summary, Mandarin Companion fills a gap and does it very well. I recommend all beginner and intermediate learners to get at least one book and try it out, then get the rest of them. I would have liked audio for all books and my recommendation will be even more wholehearted as more audio versions are released. Still, these are good graded readers and as such, I warmly recommend them! What do you think? Have you read any of these books? How did you find them? Leave a comment below!

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Most of us have suffered through food poisoning at one time or another. It generally refers to a foodborne illness or infectious condition that stems from consuming food or drinking fluids that have been contaminated by certain bacteria, viruses, parasites, or chemicals (toxins). The process of contamination can occur at any stage of production or processing. Furthermore, if the food is improperly stored, handled, or prepared, it becomes increasingly susceptible to getting polluted by various infectious pathogens and toxins. While these contaminants cannot be eradicated from the food chain altogether, they can be kept in check by following proper and hygienic handling, cooking, and storage of food. What Are the Common Causes of Food Poisoning? - Bacteria such as coli, C. botulinum, Salmonella, Listeria, and Campylobacter are some of the prime culprits for foodborne diseases. - Norovirus is the most common viral pathogen that leads to severe food poisoning, which in rare cases has also proven to be fatal. Others include sapovirus, rotavirus, and astrovirus. - Food poisoning caused by parasites present in food is not entirely uncommon and can pose grave side effects especially in pregnant women and people with compromised immunity. Some of the common parasites that make their way to your digestive tract through what you put in your mouth are amoeba, Toxoplasma (often found in cat litter), Giardia, Trichinella, and Taenia solium. Food can get contaminated in any of the following ways: - Because heat from the cooking process is usually enough to kill the disease-carrying agents residing in or on the food, eating raw food or undercooked meals can pave the way for a food poisoning episode. - Improper storage of food, for instance, not storing food at the prescribed temperature or leaving it too long in a warm climate before storing, can open it up for contamination. - Not reheating previously prepared food is another reason for contamination. - Cross-contamination, which is the transfer of contaminating agents from one surface to another, is often the cause for raw ready-to-eat food items such as salads to go bad. Because these items don’t undergo any heating process, the pathogens colonizing them don’t get destroyed and are ingested along with the food. - Not washing your hands properly before handling, preparing, and eating the food can also contribute towards its defilement. Similarly, inadequately washed cooking utensils or unclean kitchen surfaces can also be harboring grounds for disease-carrying pathogens. The foods that are most prone to getting contaminated are: - Raw meat - Poultry, including raw or undercooked eggs - Raw or undercooked shellfish, oysters, and scallops - Unpasteurized milk - Ready-to-eat items such as soft cheeses, uncooked luncheon meats, refrigerated meat spreads or pate, and prepacked snacks such as sandwiches - Raw unwashed fruits and vegetables - Raw sprouts such as radish sprouts, beans, clover, and alfalfa - Ground beef, which might contain meat from a variety of animals What Are the Tell-Tale Signs of Food Poisoning? Some of the symptoms of food poisoning are: - Abdominal cramps - Muscle pain How to Safeguard Yourself from Food Poisoning? - Germs can flourish on your hands and on your cooking utensils, cutting boards, and kitchen surfaces. It is, therefore, of primordial importance to disinfect every surface that your food comes in contact with. Wash your hands thoroughly with warm and soapy water before and after you handle, prepare, and eat the food. Do the same for your dishes, kitchen platforms, and other kitchen apparatus. - Avoid cross-contamination between raw and ready-to-eat foods by keeping them entirely separate while you go shopping for them and during food preparation and storage. - Cook foods at optimum temperatures, especially meats, fish, and eggs. Use a food thermometer to be certain that the food is actually “done,” rather than just looks done. - Defrost foods properly, preferably in the refrigerator rather than at room temperatures. If you use a microwave for the same, be sure to cook the food immediately after and don’t leave it lying around. - When in doubt, throw it out: If you have apprehensions about the way the food was prepared, served, or stored, it’s best to let go of it than invite possible health troubles. - Keep your food stored at chilled temperatures by setting the refrigerator at below 40 F. In the case of perishable food items, refrigerate or freeze them within 2 hours from purchasing and quicker if the room temperature is above 90 F. - Wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly before eating to rid them of any dirt, pesticides, toxins, and other infectious pathogens. - If the food is already past its expiration date, chuck it out at once. - Avoid sushi or other products that are served raw, as they may contain parasites responsible for food poisoning. - Avoid unpasteurized milk, juices, and unwashed fruits and vegetables that are likely to cause food poisoning. Primary Treatment for Food Poisoning - Vomiting and diarrhea in food poisoning are the body’s ways to flush out as much toxins and pathogens as possible. However, it can also result in severe dehydration. It is therefore of primordial importance to keep the body hydrated by increasing your fluid intake to make up for the lost water content. This will in turn help amp up the body’s immune system. - When you are suffering from food poisoning, your body is likely to suffer from a deficiency in minerals such as sodium, potassium, and calcium. Up the intake of foods that are rich sources of the said minerals to compensate for the deficit. - Drinks such as oral rehydration solution (ORS), sports drinks, fresh fruit juices, or coconut water are effective options to restore the fluid/mineral balance. - If the vomiting is severe such that you are unable to keep anything down, then wait for 1 hour before drinking anything. After 1 hour, start drinking fluid slowly, such as one sip of water every 5 minutes. This will give your body enough time to absorb the water without triggering another vomiting episode. - Avoid nicotine or drinks with diuretic properties such as tea or coffee. - You can take over-the-counter medicines to treat diarrhea or vomiting. You should consult your doctor before starting any medications for food poisoning to avoid any future complications. - Avoid eating solid, heavy, spicy, and oily foods, which can put more strain on your already upset stomach. Some safer and healthier alternatives are bananas, boiled or mashed potatoes, boiled vegetables, oatmeal, rice, yogurt, etc. Concentrate more on taking in fluids than eating solids. - Take plenty of rest to give your body sufficient time to fight and recover from the infection. When to Consult a Doctor Generally, food poisoning resolves on its own without any specific treatment, but you should contact your GP immediately if: - You are severely ill and not able to hold on fluids due to vomiting or diarrhea. - You are over 60 or the patient is an infant. - You are severely dehydrated and having the following symptoms: rapid and irregular heartbeat, confusion, passing negligible or no urine, and sunken eyes. - You are pregnant. - You have a weakened immune system, as in the case of patients undergoing HIV or cancer treatment. - You experience symptoms such as blood in the urine, impaired vision or speech, or a fever higher than 101.5 F. Home Remedies for Food Poisoning Here are the top 10 home remedies for food poisoning. 1. Ginger is a Legitimate Digestive Aid Ginger is an excellent home remedy for curing almost all types of digestive problems, including those caused by food poisoning. Given its antimicrobial attributes, ginger helps fend off foodborne pathogens and helps in the absorption of essential nutrients from the food, thus promoting healthy digestion. - Drink one cup of ginger tea after eating lunch or dinner to stop heartburn, nausea, and other symptoms associated with food poisoning. To make ginger tea, boil 1 teaspoon grated ginger in 1 cup of water for a few minutes. Add a little sugar or honey, and your tea is ready. - Another option is to add a few drops of ginger juice to 1 teaspoon of honey. Swallow this mixture several times a day to reduce the inflammation and pain. - You can also eat raw ginger slices. 2. Oregano Essential Oil Helps Eliminate the Bacteria The two active compounds found in oregano essential oil, namely, carvacrol and thymol, boast potent antimicrobial properties that help eradicate some of the prime culprits of food poisoning – foodborne pathogens. Furthermore, oregano oil is also emerging as an effective food preservative that prevents food from going bad. You can also use other essential oils such as thyme oil or lemon essential oil, which are equally effective against tummy bugs. - Only use 100 percent pure food-grade oregano oil. - Prepare a concoction by adding 1 drop of wild oil of oregano to a few drops of olive oil. Consume this thrice a day with a meal for two days. Be sure not to exceed the dosage. 3. Improve Your Digestive Functioning with a Bit of Apple Cider Vinegar Although acidic in nature, apple cider vinegar has an alkaline effect due to the way it is metabolized in the body. It is precisely this mechanism at play that helps soothe the inflammation of the gastrointestinal lining, which is often associated with food poisoning. Moreover, it is effective against E. coli and other disease-causing bacteria due to its antibacterial properties. A 2007 study published in the Journal of Food Protection found that vinegar and aqueous extracts of virgin olive oil showed the strongest bactericidal activity against all strains of foodborne pathogens. - Just mix 2 tablespoons of raw, unfiltered apple cider vinegar in 1 cup of warm water and drink this solution before eating your food. - Alternatively, you can drink 2 to 3 teaspoons of undiluted apple cider vinegar. 4. Fenugreek Seeds and Yogurt Makes for A Stomach-Friendly Combo - The recommended amount to take is 1 teaspoon of fenugreek seeds along with 1 tablespoon of yogurt. - You just need to swallow the seeds and need not chew them. - The combining effect of fenugreek seeds and yogurt will give you immediate relief from stomach pain and vomiting. 5. Lemon Juice is a Detox Tonic The anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antibacterial properties of lemons can help speed up your recovery from a bout of food poisoning. The acid in lemons helps kill bacteria that cause food poisoning, and it is a renowned digestive aid as well. A 2016 study published in Food Science and Nutrition found that lemon and lime juice concentrates exhibit good inhibitory and bactericidal activities against Staphylococcus aureus, which is one of the most common bacteria implicated in food poisoning. - Just add a pinch of sugar to 1 teaspoon of lemon juice and drink this juice two to three times a day. - You can also sip on warm water with lemon juice to clean out your system. 6. Basil May Help Relieve Abdominal Distress You can get the benefits from basil in several ways. - Drink basil juice extracted from a few basil leaves with 1 tablespoon of honey several times a day. You can also add some fresh coriander juice to it. - Put a few drops of basil oil in 4 cups of drinking water. Drink it slowly throughout the day to kill bacteria causing the stomach pain and other problems. - Add basil leaves, some sea salt, and a pinch of black pepper to 3 tablespoons of plain yogurt. Eat this mixture three to four times a day until your symptoms subside. 7. Garlic Can Give You Symptomatic Relief from Food Poisoning - Chew one fresh garlic clove, and then wash it in with some warm water. If you can tolerate the smell of garlic, you can also try garlic juice. - Alternatively, you can make a concoction mixing garlic oil and soybean oil and rub it on your tummy after eating. 8. Treat Yourself to a Banana Bananas are easy on your stomach because they are easy to digest. Plus, being rich in potassium, they help replenish your potassium stores that have been depleted due to the vomiting and diarrhea that follow in the wake of food poisoning. The high fiber content only acts as a bonus to give your digestive tract the much-needed help. Eating just one banana will also help restore your energy level. - You can simply eat a ripe banana or make a tasty and healthy banana shake and drink it two to three times a day. 9. Trust the Healing Properties of Cumin Cumin seeds, also called jeera, are a time-tested remedial agent to alleviate abdominal discomfort and stomach inflammation due to food poisoning. - Boil 1 teaspoon of cumin seeds in 1 cup of water. Add 1 teaspoon of coriander juice extracted from fresh coriander leaves and a little salt. Drink this solution twice a day for a few days. - You can also make an herbal drink from cumin seeds, salt, and asafetida. Drink it two to three times a day. This will cleanse the system and relieve your symptoms. 10. Herbal Tea Can Help Soothe Your Digestive System Sipping on different types of herbal tea can help your disturbed gastrointestinal system regain its balance. It also works to keep your body well hydrated. - Peppermint tea has a soothing effect on your stomach and can relieve stomach cramps. - Comfrey root tea will work to curb your stomach infection. - If you are experiencing nausea, try chamomile tea in order to reduce inflammation and calm your stomach. 11. Honey is a Godsend for Treating Digestive Issues Honey has both antifungal and antibacterial properties that can be effective for the treatment of indigestion and other food poisoning symptoms. Honey as a natural remedy can be taken in its pure form or added to tea. - A teaspoon of honey three times a day can do wonders to heal an upset stomach. It also controls the formation of excess acid in the stomach. - In fact, when experiencing diarrhea and vomiting, it is best to increase your fluid intake with water and clear liquids and avoid taking solid food. - Hold back from eating heavy or oily foods for the first few hours, and steer clear of dairy products, caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine. - Treat your tummy to some restorative chicken broth from time to time. - M A, M S. Food Poisoning: Mini-review. Research & Reviews: Journal of Pharmaceutical Analysis. http://www.rroij.com/open-access/food-poisoning-minireview-.php?aid=84772. Published October 21, 2016. - M HI, H AM. Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity of Ginger (Zingiberofficinale) Essential Oil Treated by Gamma Radiation. International Atomic Energy Agency. https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:40099180. Published January 1, 1970. - Bode AM, Dong. Z. The Amazing and Mighty Ginger. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92775/. Published 2011. - Paster N, Juven BJ, Shaaya E, et al. Inhibitory effect of oregano and thyme essential oils on moulds and foodborne bacteria. Letters in Applied Microbiology. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1472-765X.1990.tb00130.x. Published June 28, 2008. - Silva JPLda, MeloBDGde. Application of Oregano Essential Oil Against Salmonella Enteritidis in Mayonnaise Salad. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition Engineering. http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.food.20120205.01.html. Published 2012. - MEDINA EDUARDO, ROMERO CONCEPCIÓN, BRENES MANUEL. Antimicrobial Activity of Olive Oil, Vinegar, and Various Beverages against Foodborne Pathogens. Journal of Food Protection. http://www.jfoodprotection.org/doi/abs/10.4315/0362-028X-70.5.1194. Published May 2007. - Meghwal M, Goswami TK. A Review on the Functional Properties, Nutritional Content, Medicinal Utilization and Potential Application of Fenugreek. OMICS International. https://www.omicsonline.org/a-review-on-the-functional-properties-nutritional-content-medicinal-utilization-and-potential-application-of-fenugreek-2157-7110.1000181.php?aid=8944. Published August 29, 2012. - Adolfsson O, Meydani SN, Russell RM. Yogurt and gut function. OUP Academic. https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/80/2/245/4690304. Published August 1, 2004. - Oikeh EI, Omoregie ES, Oviasogie FE, Oriakhi K. Phytochemical, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities of different citrus juice concentrates. Food Science & Nutrition. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4708628/. Published January 2016. - Suppakul P, Miltz J, Sonneveld K. Antimicrobial Properties of Basil and Its Possible Application in Food Packaging. ACS Publications. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf021038t?src=recsys&journalCode=jafcau. Published April 24, 2003. - Cohen MM. Tulsi – Ocimum sanctum: A herb for all reasons. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4296439/. Published 2014. - Zasshi SE. Antibacterial Action of Garlic Extract on Food Poisoning Bacteria. Research Gate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270038332_Antibacterial_Action_of_Garlic_Extract_on_Food_Poisoning_Bacteria. Published January 1990. - Nejad ASM, Shabani S, Bayat M, Hosseini SE. Antibacterial Effect of Garlic Aqueous Extract on Staphylococcus aureus in Hamburger. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4332239/. Published November 2014. - Vomiting and Diarrhea in Children. American Family Physician. https://www.aafp.org/afp/2001/0215/p775.html. Published February 15, 2001. - Rabbani GH, Teka T, Zaman B. Clinical studies in persistent diarrhea: Dietary management with green banana or pectin in Bangladeshi children. Plum X Matrix. https://www.gastrojournal.org/article/S0016-5085(01)89171-X/abstract. Published September 2001. - Dua A, Gaurav G, Mahajan R. Antimicrobial properties of methanolic extract of cumin (cuminumcyminum) seeds. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283534141_Antimicrobial_properties_of_methanolic_extract_of_cumin_cuminum_cyminum_seeds. Published February 2013. - Kligler B, Chaudary S. Peppermint Oil. American Family Physician. https://www.aafp.org/afp/2007/0401/p1027.html. Published April 1, 2007. - Staiger C. Comfrey: A Clinical Overview. PHYTOTHERAPY RESEARCH. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ptr.4612. Published February 23, 2012. - Srivastava JK, Shankar E, Gupta S. Chamomile: A herbal medicine of the past with a bright future (Review). Molecular Medicine Reports. https://www.spandidos-publications.com/mmr/3/6/895?text=abstract. Published November 1, 2010. - Israili, H Z. Antimicrobial Properties of Honey : American Journal of Therapeutics. American Journal of Therapeutics. https://journals.lww.com/americantherapeutics/Abstract/2014/07000/Antimicrobial_Properties_of_Honey.13.aspx. Published 2014. - Mandal MD, Mandal S. Honey: its medicinal property and antibacterial activity. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3609166/. Published April 2011.

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In which you will find words of truth about wisdom and halacha, the knowledge of Chazal and what is to be found to enlighten an unknowing heart and the reader will understand from it the source of knowledge and wisdom Please safeguard the sanctity of this page The month of Marcheshvan, year 5759 “Ben Bag Bag said: Turn it over and turn it [again] for all is contained therein” (Avot, chapter 5, mishna 22). We are lucky to have been judged worthy. After we publicized Pamphlet no. 1 in a new edition many readers have asked for the other pamphlets in their new form. We are now publishing Pamphlet no. 2 and soon will publish no. 3. Thanks to all those who contacted us and to those who held our hands in this work; the words will speak for themselves. It is accepted by us that just as the Written Torah was given at Sinai, so too were the scientific words in the Talmud handed down from Sinai. These are the words of Chazal (Mesechet Rosh Hashanah 21b,), who said that 50 measures of understanding were created in this world and all were given to Moshe Rabbeynu OBM at Sinai aside from one, as it is said: “That You have made him little less than divine.” And so writes the Ramban in his introduction to Genesis, that the fifty measures of understanding are one measure of mineralogy and one measure of knowledge of ground plants, and one measure of knowledge of trees and animals and birds and reptiles, etc., etc. In Pamphlet no. 1 we set out to check the knowledge of Chazal. We began with the issue of vermin (the problem of the louse which “does not multiply nor reproduce,” see there) and with G-d’s help we well showed that Chazal did not receive [information from] or did not understand Moshe Rabbeynu OBM; we have found that their knowledge of natural wisdom was as the knowledge of the wise men of those generations. We have found in the Writings: “One should not validate the words of doctors against the words of the Sages which are as a pegs established forever,” the words of the “Chazon Ish” in Hilchot Treifot chapter 5 section 3. And so wrote the Saba of Kelem “B’m’orot Gedolim,” “What the renowned wise man Aristotle, chief of philosophers, innovated in philosophy throughout his life, is found hidden and intended in one word by Rabbeynu Yonah in the book ‘Shaarei Teshuvah’.” And now we will clarify the knowledge of Chazal about the anatomy of the animal, from which halacha in all issues of treifot were determined.We will prove, G-d willing, that the pegs of the sages are not established forever but rather the opposite. One of the types of treifot is the drusa—an animal known to have been attacked by a beast of prey, and in Hulin page 42, in the mishna, they counted the prey saved from the attack of a wolf, and Rashi commented that it strikes with its nails and poisons it and burns it. And so it is written in the Gemara, in Hulin page 53a: there is no prey except by forefoot, to exclude by hindfoot, there is no prey except in life, to exclude after death, and the Gemara adds that if it was preyed upon and [the attacker’s] forefoot was cut off before it managed to retract the forefoot it does not project its venom. And in the words of Chazal there: “Now, if you say unintentionally, is it necessary to say not after death? No, it is necessary, for if people cut its forefeet off while it was attacking you might think it discharges its venom when it inserts its nails. This comes to teach us that it discharges its venom when it retracts its nails.” That is to say, the projection of venom is only when the beast of prey’s claw is withdrawn from the animal or bird who was attacked. And in order to remove all doubts, you should know that the animal is known as a drusa because of the projection of venom alone and not because of the penetration of nails to the internal organs of the bird or animal, since it would then be considered punctured and not drusa. The whole issue of the drusa is also brought in the Cuzari (see there, fourth article, section 31) as a proof and sign of Chazal’s knowledge of realistic knowledge. Yet here it is, simple and known to every schoolchild, that neither the lion nor the wolf nor the cat secrets any venom. And the Sages’ claim that these animals secret venom is particularly difficult. The Rambam, in the laws of shechitah chapter 5, halacha 3 wrote, “And even though they all (all types of treifot) are law handed down by Moses on Sinai, since none are mentioned explicitly in the Torah except for the drusathey were stringent about it and every doubt which arises about a drusa makes it forbidden.” It turns out, therefore, that the only treifah explicitly mentioned in the Torah is not found in reality at all! And in the book “Mitchtav M’Eliyahu” by R’ Eliyahu Dessler (volume 4, page 355) he was asked about this issue and answered that one should not change halacha, even if its cause has ceased to be. The book’s editor, Rabbi Friedlander OBM, found a pretext that issue of the drusa is not the projection of venom but the fear of filth and dirt which accumulate under the nails, which could lead to pollution and could kill the slashed animal (and by this agrees that beasts of prey have no venom, nullifying the words of the holy Gemara!). And if truth and honesty will guide you, you will understand and learn that this pretext does not at all hold true since Chazal explicitly stated that if you should cut off the forefoot before it retracts it is kosher, the venom only being projected when the forefoot is retracted. Were it for fear of pollution there would be no difference were they to cut off the forefoot before it was retracted (because if there is pollution it is specifically from the very moment the nail penetrates, as then the filth enters the body) and the law should have been that it certainly is treif. And to reinforce our words I will further state that according to “Michtav M’Eliyahu” the pollution is what makes it trief, and logically there is no difference between a forefoot or hindfoot—with both of them the rule should be treif, but Chazal, in Hulin page 53a, say that it is considered as being drusa by forefoot, to exclude the hindfoot. But the whole issue of venom in beasts of prey and all the halachot of the drusa which are learned from it have no hold in reality and a wise person will fall astonished and silent. And if we are dealing with treifot, we will bring more from Masechet Hulin, page 45b,: “If it pierced the heart to its chamber, it is treif. Rabbi Zira asked: to the small chamber or the large chamber?” And Rashi interprets: “the large chamber, the middle chamber, the small chamber: there are many chambers around it,” end of quote. And so interprets the Ran. And the Rashba, in “Torat HaBayit” wrote: There are three chambers to the heart, one is large in the center, and there are two smaller ones, one to the right and one to the left. And so rules the Shulchan Aruch in Yoreh Deah, chapter 40: “The heart has three chambers, etc.” And who is a fool and does not know that the heart has fourchambers, two large (ventricles) and two small (atria)? About these the “Yad Yehuda” wrote in his laws of treifot, chapter 30: “And it is clear that our master the Rashba OBM was not an expert in this, it is only that this is how it appears from the view of the Gemara.” Cutting words. According to the author of “Yad Yehuda” not only did the Rashba, one of the greatest in his generation, make a mistake in a halachic issue, not only this, but he obtained his mistake from the Gemara which misled him. What can we say? And who will remove the dust from the eyes of the author of the Tanya, whose words all are kaballah and the Divine spirit coming from his throat? He writes in Part A, chapter 9: “The left chamber of the heart is full of blood, etc. and also the right chamber of the heart which has no blood, as is written, ‘a wise heart to his right’.” And it is known and obvious that in the cycle of blood there is blood in the right chamber. It is obvious that an understanding of the actions of the heart and the cycle of blood in an animal’s body is predicated on correct knowledge of the anatomy of the heart and its functioning; anyone who is not expert in these simple and obvious matters can not be called a scholar nor an expert but an ignoramus, with all due respect. And how will one who is not expert in simple reality make halachic rulings? About these did the “Yad Yehuda,” in the laws of treifot, say: “And we find that in some matters they were not fully expert, etc. and this is not to detract from their honor, as we have also found in the Gemara in Hulin 57a that Chizkiyah said a bird has no lung and Rabbi Yochanan said it has. The Gemara concluded ‘from the words of Baribi (Chizkiyah) it is obvious that he is not expert in fowl.” Because a leader of his generation like Chizkiyah did not know that birds have lungs is there no lessening of honor in the ignorance of the Achronim? And look at the more difficult example of the sages’ ignorance of reality. In Hulin page 45b it is said, “Amimar said in Rabbi Nachman’s name, ‘there are three windpipes, one goes off to the heart and one goes off to the lungs and one goes off to the liver’.” And Rashi commented that the windpipe enters the chest and divides in three. According to Chazal through Rashi’s interpretation: the windpipe branches off to the lungs, the liver, and the heart. And anyone who has eyes in his head knows that the windpipe goes only to the lungs and divides in two, one to the right lung and one to the left lung. Go and learn how the laziness of rabbis in our generation preventsthem from learning and knowing matters which could not be more simple or clear: The author of “Kehilat Yaakov,” the Steipler, did not bother to check at all and wrote (in Hulin section 17) about the needle found in the liver, “that there is a vein which goes from the liver to the lung.” This is not reality and is not correct at all. There is no vein which goes from the liver to the lung. And on that same topic, the Rama (Yoreh Dayah, section 40, article 3) says: “If it (the needle) was only found in the large tube in the heart and the vessel to the outside, that is, next to the open area of the heart, if the head of the needle is as the seed of a date-palm, it is kosher, as something which enters through the windpipe to the tube and through to the heart.” And there never has been and never was any way through the windpipe to the tube of the heart. And all these things are known not only to those with secular knowledge; here is what the “Yad Yehuda” (R’ Leibush Landa, who held the rabbinical post in the holy community of Kallis and the holy community of Mahlov and the holy community of Sadigora and there is buried) said on this matter in the introduction to chapter 30: “I always thought that the liver really hangs from the windpipe, since this is what it seems from Rashi’s interpretation on page 45b about ‘Amimar said…there are three pipes, one goes off to the heart, etc.’ and Rashi interpreted ‘that after the pipe enters the chest it splits in three,’ end of quote and that is what the world thinks, etc. but I have seen that really they (the liver and heart) have no connection to the windpipe. That the windpipe, after it enters the chest, splits in two, one enters one part of the lung and one the other. But the windpipe does not go to the heart and the liver at all. This I have seen with my own eyes and this is what is brought by surgical scholars.” And we will stand shaken and see with our own eyes how the actual truth uproots the words of the Gemara and the Rishonim; it is the words of the doctors and surgical scholars which are found in reality, and they are as established pegs. Even according to the “Yad Yehuda” this is so. Opinion becomes fact, and he saw with his own eyes the mistakes of the Gemara and the poskim and related them. And every thoughtful person, educated in science, knows that the Gemara really did make many mistakes in matters of reality. And is it possible, G-d forbid, that Chazal received mistakes from Mt.Sinai? G-d forbid we raise such a possibility. But if not, then it is certain that Chazal said these things based on their own knowledge. And if Chazal said what they did based on their own knowledge, what will be of the Oral Law? And you, the thinking student and the thoughtful person, after being convinced again that Chazal did not correctly know more about natural things than their generation and it is not possible that the Holy Spirit assisted them, but that they said what they said from their own knowledge, do not follow blindly without convincing proof—not after claims which do not exist in clear, known reality and certainly not after excuses which merely push aside evidence. And you have no greater pushing aside of evidence than the common saying “that in a single word are hinted all the words of Aristotle…” Because if the Tanaim and Amoraim, the Rishonim and Achronim made mistakes about things in reality and spoke of their own accord, how very much more so [is it true] that not in a single word nor in an entire book of Rabbeynu Yonah is there wisdom like the wisdom of the philosopher Aristotle, as the Saba of Kelem boasted above. The holy Rambam said that Aristotle was the chief of all philosophers and also said about him, in the book Moreh Nevuchim, section 2, chapter 14 about the commands of scholars, “And I will pay attention to nonesave Aristotle, for his opinions are worthy of study.” The scholar Aristotle looked at reality correctly and found therein the truth. And you, too, search and constantly research the actual truth, proven facts, and that which can be examined and verified; remember that only from reality can come deductions and not the opposite. And we will say, as a side-note, that after the first pamphlet was published, the newspaper “Yated Neeman” criticized us and did not rest until they accused us in articles of “apostasy of the worst and most poisonous sort,” that in our pamphlets there appear “distorted quotes of sources from the Torah and Chazal,” and other such difficult and pernicious things. How can the truth be “apostasy”? Where, in all that was said, are there “poisonous things”? All that we said is in honorable language which honors all. It is not possible that truth and plain honesty are “poisonous things,” as it were. If there is one who disagrees with some or all of the issues, he should stand and say his piece without unfounded slander and defamation. And if the people of “Yated Neeman” think that we have brought distorted quotes from the sources, would those honorable ones please be kind enough to print, in their newspaper, a Torah article which would show where and how those so-called distorted quotes were cited. While we were dealing with these matters an announcement was publicized throughout Bnei Brak in the name of Rabbi Moshe Yehuda Leib Landa, head of the Bnei Brak Beit Din, about these pamphlets. What reason he had for calling us heretics and missionaries we do not know. The rabbi knows well who we are and from which yeshivas we have come. Are all Jews who seek knowledge and truth to be called heretics and missionaries? After all, we hate the Christian faith with all our heart and soul. Perhaps he should be saddened once again that he has not found an answer to our precise words; a person is not blamed for words uttered in sorrow. But the honorable Rabbi Landa did us a great service when he wrote about the pamphlets in his letter and made a comparison to a Torah scroll written by a heretic. The honorable Rabbi Landa went to great lengths to note that even if the scroll is exact, “he did not add to it nor take away from it,” even so it is forbidden. He wanted to warn against the pamphlets, even if there were no changes, no additions or distortions in all the words of the Gemara, Rishonim and Achronim. And it is so; everything we have brought is exactly as in the sources, we have not added nor taken away. And may Rabbi Landa be our honest advocate against false charges of distortion which have been launched against us by the people of “Yated Neeman.” And you who thirsts for the truth, if you have thoughts and ideas or questions or disagreements with what we have written in these pamphlets, please write to us at the post office box number which appears here. We promise, on our honor, to maintain the confidentiality of those who write and what they write. We also promise to give a full and correct answer to all correspondents, so as to be pleasing to the listener and the speaker. We have a small number of the first pamphlet, which will be willingly sent free of charge to anyone who requests it through our post office box. First come, first served.

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In 1988, John Paul II beatified Junípero Serra (1713–1784), the Franciscan friar who founded California. Given the treatment of Native Americans under colonialism, some have questioned Serra’s prospective sainthood. On an episode of Firing Line in 1989, William F. Buckley Jr. hosted a discussion of the merits of the case. The exchange was predictably lively. One guest was Edward Castillo, a Cahuilla-Luiseño professor of Native American Studies at Sonoma State University, and a Serra critic. The other, Fr. Noel Moholy, was vice-postulator for the Serra cause. Buckley began by asking Castillo if he was “protesting the canonization of Junípero Serra in your capacity as a Christian or merely in your capacity as a Californian, or both?” Castillo, who had participated in the Indian occupation of Alcatraz Island in 1969, declared himself “a pagan.” To which Buckley responded, “But as the lawyers put it, you really have no standing, do you? That is to say, it’s none of your business who the church canonizes.” Noel Moholy, who must have watched that exchange with a mixture of apprehension and bemusement, put it succinctly: “Now, the question before the house is not canonizing the mission system. The question is about this individual: What kind of life did he lead?” To some, that complicated and arduous life seems beside the point. Last January, shortly after Pope Francis’s surprising announcement that he would canonize Serra during his visit to the United States this month, a statue of Christ in a cemetery at Mission San Gabriel in Los Angeles was toppled, its head and arms removed, and a cross smashed at another grave. A MoveOn.org petition, which is supposedly signed by “descendants of California mission Indians,” seeks to “enlighten” the pope about “the deception, exploitation, oppression, enslavement, and genocide” of California natives. And that’s just for starters. Yet José Gómez, the archbishop of Los Angeles, sees Serra as an ally of those who defended the indigenous peoples against Spain’s early violence, but with a difference. “Fr. Serra never delivered fiery sermons like [Antonio] de Montesinos,” Gómez says. “He never engaged in theological and moral debates in the royal courts, as [Bartolomé] las Casas did. One way to think about him is that he was kind of a ‘working class’ missionary—a guy who tried to get things done.” So who, exactly, was Fr. Junípero Serra? Why are some people angry about his canonization? And finally, why did Pope Francis take a stalled sainthood case, dispense with the need for a second miracle, and not only make Serra the first Hispanic saint in the United States (and the first who worked primarily in the American West), but make himself the first pope to canonize a saint on U.S. soil? (The canonization will take place on September 23 at the Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D.C.). Serra is virtually a household name in California, where all fourth-graders are required to study him and the missions. Mention his name in the East, however, and people usually draw a blank. This may have something to do with the Anglocentric narrative told about the birth of this country. But the Spaniards were here first, by almost a century. Junípero was born Miguel José Serre on the island of Mallorca off the northeast coast of Spain. Taking the name of St. Francis’s sidekick, Miguel became a Franciscan priest as Junípero. Like many Franciscans, he was a disciplinarian and a vigorous practitioner of self-mortification. He was also an accomplished academic, rising to a chair in theology at Mallorca’s Llullian University. Discerning a vocation to missionary work in middle age, he arrived in the New World in 1749. On a legendary first walk—from Veracruz to Mexico City—he was bitten by a venomous spider that caused him leg pain for the rest of his life. Before being sent to California, he spent eighteen years toiling with the Pames Indians in the Sierra Gorda of Mexico, and on missionary trips almost as far south as the Yucatan. Then in 1768 he was sent to Baja California, and the following year into what is now the state of California. The Spanish monarchy was eager to protect its trade routes between the Philippines and Mexico by securing California’s harbors from the encroaching Russians in the north. But Serra was eager for souls. Over the next fifteen years, he founded nine of twenty-one missions along the Pacific coast. He baptized or confirmed six thousand Indians himself (over eighty thousand California Indians were ultimately baptized by the early Franciscans), dying at Carmel, his home mission, in 1784. Six hundred Indians were said to have wept at Serra’s funeral, piling his bier high with wildflowers. Perhaps this is not surprising, for Serra could be a fierce critic of the Spanish colonists and a staunch defender of the Indians. Writing to the Spanish viceroy in Mexico City demanding the removal of a military commander, he was graphic in his outrage: “The soldiers, clever as they are at lassoing cows and mules, catch an Indian with their lassos to become prey for their unbridled lust. At times some Indian men would try and defend their wives, only to be shot down with bullets.” Contrary to some contemporary claims, the testimonies gathered sixty-six years ago in making the case for Serra’s sainthood give unmistakable, consistent, and concrete evidence of Indian reverence toward the Franciscan. The current debate, suggests Fr. Henry Sands, a Native American and director of the U.S. bishops’ Secretariat for Cultural Diversity, is filled with “overblown and incorrect” information about Serra’s character and life. To be sure, given the tragedy that engulfed the native population after the arrival of the Spaniards and then the Anglos, skepticism about the motives and actions of missionaries like Serra is warranted. “There is so much that has been done in the past, and to the present day, that is wrong,” said Sands at a 2015 conference on America’s “Founding Padres.” But Serra, although implicated in that tragedy, was never an advocate or a perpetrator of those crimes. PERHAPS A BRIEF summary of what happened to the Indians of the Americas is in order. What one historian has called the first “world war” is also certainly the original sin of the nation. No Catholic, no Christian, can explain it away. During the French and Indian War of the 1760s, the British officer Sir Jeffrey Amherst suggested to his officers that they “Inoculate the Indians [with smallpox] by means of Blankets, as well as to Try Every Other Method, that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race.” In 1763, at Ft. Pitt (today’s Pittsburgh), a fellow named William Trent gave “two Blankets and a Handkerchief out of the Smallpox Hospital” to two Delaware Indians. Soon the Delaware were overwhelmed by smallpox. In the following century at least forty smallpox and measles epidemics would ravage the native population. Although disease was responsible for the vast majority of Indian deaths, American violence was pervasive as well. Some of the most egregious incidents are well known, often tied to prospecting for gold. At Sand Creek during the Colorado gold rush of 1859, Col. John Chivington bragged of killing five hundred Cheyenne Indians. At Wounded Knee in 1889, three hundred Indians, mostly women and children, were massacred by U.S. troops and dumped into a ditch. During the Modoc War of 1872, the last stand for California’s native peoples after the gold rush, white Americans briskly pursued the goal announced by Peter Burnett, the state’s first governor: “It is inevitable the Indian must go.” By the time Nez Perce Chief Joseph (“I will fight no more forever”) died in 1904 of what the reservation doctor called “a broken heart,” the population of Indians in the United States was about 250,000. If we accept historian William E. Denevan’s estimate that there were 3.8 million natives in what is now the United States and Canada when the Europeans arrived on the continent, that makes a decline of 93 percent (see Denevan’s The Native American Population of the Americas in 1492). There is no evidence that Serra was complicit in any such crimes. Quite the contrary. The Kumeyaay attacked the San Diego mission in 1775, killing three Spaniards, including one of Serra’s closest associates. As the imprisoned rebels waited to be hanged, Serra called for pardon: “As to the killer, let him live so that he can be saved, for that is the purpose of our coming here and its sole justification.” (In fact, Serra said that even if he himself were killed, no one should be arrested.) Indeed, Serra seemed to sense the inevitability, if not the justice, of the Kumeyaay’s revolt. He often spoke of the Indians being en su tierra (in their country). Yet isolating the Spanish colonists was not the answer. When the local military commander had the Tongva of San Gabriel erect the very stockade walls that would shut them out, Serra asked, “If we are not allowed to be in touch with these gentiles, what business have we…in such a place?” Beyond this missionary imperative, there is another distinction to be made between the Spanish and the Anglo colonists. As historian David Weber has noted, by the 1790s in Spanish America, “numerous indigenous peoples had been incorporated rather than eliminated.” Spanish and Indian intermarriage was commonplace, whereas such mingling was anathema to most Anglos. Moreover, in California under Spain there were no large-scale massacres—nothing like Wounded Knee or the slaughter of the Modocs. True, the pre-contact population of California (225,000) had been reduced by 33 percent during Spanish and Mexican rule, but that was caused mostly by epidemics. Under American rule (from 1848 on), when most of the twenty-one missions were in ruins, the loss of indigenous lives was catastrophic—80 percent died, leaving just 30,000 in 1870. And nearly half of those losses were due not to disease, but to murder. Despite this exculpatory history, three accusations have been made against Serra and the missions that need to be answered: that they perpetrated genocide; that they enslaved Indians; and that their treatment of Indians was cruel. What the Americans did in all but extirpating Indians from the continent was genocide. What the Spanish did, at least in California, was not. This important distinction was acknowledged by two distinguished historians at a California Indian Conference in 2010. The Spanish had no intention of expelling the Indian population, according to James Sandos (Converting California) and George Harwood Philips (Vineyards and Vaqueros). The missions were designed to attract Indians, not destroy them. The slavery accusation has its roots in misunderstanding or ignorance of how the missions worked. No Indian was forced to enter a mission, at least in Serra’s time. For a native population undergoing a disorienting invasion, the missions offered considerable enticements: food, clothing, shelter, the beauty of the churches, and the transfixing (sometimes fearful) display of Spanish power. Fr. Pedro Font, diarist of the second settler expedition into Upper California (1775–1776), observed, “The method of which the fathers observe in the conversion [of the Indians] is not to oblige anyone to become Christian, admitting only those who voluntarily offer themselves for baptism.” Historians confirm the accuracy of Font’s statement. But there was a catch. Once one entered the mission, one was forbidden to leave without permission, and those who did—unless they voluntarily returned—were punished. (Indians typically were given leave for weeks or months to visit their villages, and in some instances, such as at Mission San Luis Rey, Indians stayed in their villages and the mission served as a kind of parish church.) But the survival of the missions was never a sure thing, and Indian labor (“spiritual debt peonage,” as Sandos puts it) was depended on by all. Indians were hunted down and lashed for leaving. It is estimated that the desertion rate was about 10 percent. Yet it is also important to keep in mind that the majority of California Indians never came into the missions in the first place, nor were they forced to—a fact critics often forget. Of course, if 10 percent were fleeing, 90 percent were staying. Was it from fear? From a sense of defeat or disorientation? Or did those who stayed do so because the missions provided what seemed a stable community in a frequently perilous world? Serra may have felt himself to have landed in Eden at first, but perhaps not all Indians did. True, California tribes had their own sustaining faith systems, mastery in art, pottery, and canoe-building, and great skills in hunting, fishing, and gathering. Still, just as it is today, eighteenth-century California was subject to severe drought. Outside the missions, tribal rivalries could result in bloodshed. Women were bought and sold. A shaman could target you with vengeance. Life in the missions with its food and shelter, its art and music and gospel of love, may have appealed to a not insignificant number of native peoples, despite onerous punishment. Were Indians flogged? Yes, for theft, assault, concubinage, and desertion. Corporal punishment was of course routine at the time in European and most other cultures, though strange to California Indians (some tribes subjected prisoners-of-war to a gauntlet of thrashings). Did that make it right? Of course not. It was wrong. However, nothing in the record suggests that Serra was a cruel or vindictive overlord. “We have all come here and remained here for the sole purpose of [the Indians’] well-being and salvation,” he wrote. “And I believe everyone realizes we love them.” Unlike many of his co-religionists, Serra almost never referred to Indians as savages or barbarians; though at times he’d say infieles, most often he called them gentiles or pobres or simply indios. He boldly questioned the Spanish governor’s application of the phrase gente de razón (people of reason) solely to Spaniards. Clearly, Serra thought he was bringing salvation to people of equal dignity. Part of the current puzzlement and anger over the Serra canonization is motivated by an entirely justified revulsion over the historic crimes committed against the Indians. Until the past few decades, American culture was largely indifferent to those crimes, and portrayed the victims as savages. Serra figured as a character in the 1955 film Seven Cities of Gold, which, according the New York Times, involved “acrobatic Indians as painted and feathered demons.” Good riddance to all that. We must put away the caricatures of Hollywood, and come to terms with the real history—the near extermination—of Native Americans at the hands of white Americans. But if that is the case, I think an understanding of the real Serra is just as essential. The historical record tells us that Serra was neither the perfect man the pious long for nor the vicious conquistador others imagine him to have been. In seeking reconciliation, can a real Serra and real Native Americans speak to each other across the centuries? Isn’t this what Pope Francis called for in his remarks about the sins of Spanish colonialism during his visit to Bolivia in July? “I also would like us to recognize the priests and bishops who strongly opposed the logic of the sword with the strength of the cross,” he said. “There was sin. There was sin, and in abundance, and for this we ask forgiveness. But…where there was sin, where there was abundant sin, grace abounded, through these men who defended the justice of the native peoples.” THERE HAVE BEEN have been moments of real grace in the battle over Serra’s canonization. Consider two protest moments at Carmel, separated by thirty years. In 1987, Sr. Boniface, the nun whose cure had elevated Serra to beatification, “greeted and embraced” protesting Native Americans at Mission Carmel. Her fellow sisters were welcomed into the prayer circle of the protesters. Chumash leader Cheqweesh Auh-Ho-Oh was sitting off to the side with her eyes closed. Sr. Carolyn Mruz recalls touching her on the shoulder and saying, “Peace, sister.” At first, the Indian woman did not respond, but then her eyes fluttered open, and she said, “You are the first member of the church to approach me in peace. I knew it was a woman. And I knew it would be a religious sister.” This year, during an Easter protest over Serra’s canonization, Fr. Paul Murphy emerged after saying Mass to welcome the protesters to Mission Carmel. He asked them to come at any time and state their needs. “I see Mission Carmel as a place of healing,” he said. “We all need healing.” Former Esselen tribal chief Rudy Rosales, who had attended the Mass, also spoke to the protesters. Though some local Indians grumbled that their cemetery was being violated by outside tribes participating in the protest, the fifty protesters dispersed peacefully—partly, some thought, because of the presence of so many children at Easter. Archaeologist Ruben Mendoza—of both Yaqui Indian and Hispanic descent—was impressed by the peacefulness of the demonstration. His father had hated the church and the missions. When in fourth grade, Mendoza refused to do his required history project on the Franciscans (instead he built a model of a dinosaur). In high school, he fashioned Aztec pyramids out of stone and took an Aztec name: Tezcatlipoca. “I became obsessed with ‘pure’ Indian cultures,” he remembered. He carried this obsession into graduate school at the University of Arizona, where he studied under Vine Deloria Jr., the celebrated author of Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto. Three “transformative” experiences, however, brought Mendoza to a new understanding of California history. The first was an invitation from the Mexican government to excavate a sixteenth-century convent in Puebla. There Christian and Spanish artifacts were mixed with Aztec ceramics and mosaics that showed “an incredibly diverse mass of humanity,” Mendoza said. The idea of a “pure” culture—Indian or otherwise—came to seem illusory. Mendoza himself is a mixture. A second revelatory moment occurred when, excavating at the San Carlos Cathedral in Monterey, he discovered the earliest chapel used by Serra in 1770. “After years of rejecting the California mission era, I felt a powerful personal connection with it,” he said. “I’m Iberian, indigenous, and Mexican. It took years to reconcile those differences.” Finally, during the 2000 winter solstice, Mendoza witnessed the dawn sunlight flood into Mission San Juan Bautista. Investigating other missions, he identified thirteen “precisely oriented…to capture illuminations, some on days that would have been sacred to Native Americans.” Might the Franciscans have gone out of their way to show respect for Indian traditions? What is happening now, one hopes, is the complementary emergence of an ethic of apology in the church over the sins of colonialism and of Indian representatives who are willing to take another look at the complexity of the encounter between the Franciscans and native peoples. This gradual convergence, demonstrating good faith on both sides of the issue, has been underway for some time. “If you take a look at the accomplishments of Serra, there has to be recognition,” Jerry Nieblas, an Acjachemen leader at San Juan Capistrano told me in 2010. “But I don’t want Franciscans to be too proud.” The Ohlone-Patwin Andrew Galvan, the only Indian curator of a California mission (San Francisco Dolores), puts it well: “The bottom line is my belief that Junípero Serra was a very good person in a very bad situation.” California Indian leader Galvan and his Mexican Indian counterpart Mendoza agree on sainthood. Says Mendoza, “I’ve always felt the canonization process was stymied through misinformation and politicization, and laying blame and onus on one individual who was actually in constant conflict with governors and military commanders in New Spain over how they were treating Indians.” On August 11, 2013, Ernestine de Soto—a Chumash shaman and registered nurse—prayed to a relic of Serra from Mission Santa Barbara and witnessed the apparently miraculous recovery of her daughter from a deathbed case of cryptogenic pneumonia. It was the first contemporary miracle attributed to Serra by a Native American. But now, because of Pope Francis, another miracle is no longer necessary. WHY DID POPE FRANCIS pick Serra? Why did he dust off an old candidacy lost in centuries of controversy, and put it in the spotlight? And why would he choose to celebrate Serra in the seat of American power—Washington, D.C.? I think there are several reasons. First, Francis finds in Serra a powerful kindred soul, an echo of his own love of the simple, the humble, and service to the poor. He sees Serra as a saint for our anxious times, and canonizing him in Washington rather than California implicitly marks him as a national, and even transnational, saint of the Americas. Francis dispensed with the need for a second miracle in part because he felt Serra’s spiritual qualifications and missionary work were so compelling. I suspect that Francis also admires Junípero’s courage to speak truth to power. After all, the pope himself has taken on the Curia, the Vatican Bank, Wall Street, as well as those who would deny global warming or the injustice of abortion. In a one-day Vatican conference on the Californian Franciscan in May, Francis cited “missionary zeal” as the first of the three “key aspects” of Serra’s life (the others are his devotion to Mary and “witness of holiness”). “What made Friar Junípero leave his home and country, his family, university chair, and Franciscan community in Mallorca to go to the ends of the earth?” Francis asked during Mass at the Pontifical North American College. “Certainly it was the desire to proclaim the Gospel ad gentes, that heartfelt impulse which seeks to share with those farthest away the gift of encountering Christ.” Notice that Francis identifies Serra’s faith with the heart. Faith is a function of the heart as far as this pope is concerned. “Such zeal excites us, it challenges us!” the pope proclaimed. Admitting that it’s important to “thoughtfully examine [the missionaries’] strengths and, above all, their weaknesses and shortcomings,” Francis still found Serra to be a saintly man and true disciple of Christ. “I wonder if today we are able to respond with the same generosity and courage to the call of God,” especially to those “who have not known Christ and, therefore, have not experienced the embrace of his mercy,” the pope said. Of his “shortcomings” over public silence concerning the depredations of the Argentine junta in the 1970s, Francis has spoken eloquently of his own need for mercy; he may see a mirror of his attempt to do good in extraordinarily difficult, dangerous times in Serra’s own life. Finally, Serra’s attention to, and reverence for, the natural world resonates with Francis’s new environmental encyclical, Laudato si’. The title of that encyclical is borrowed from St. Francis’s “Canticle of the Sun,” with its refrain of “praised be” (“Praised be You, my Lord, through Brother Wind…. Praised be You, My Lord, for Sister Water.”) Serra’s detailed observations about the trees and plants he found in California end with the same praise for their Creator: “I have in front of me a cutting from a rose-tree with three roses in bloom, others opening out, and more than six unpetaled: blessed be He who created them!” Serra also demonstrated great respect—remarkable at the time—for Indian watering holes. Coming across “good, sweet water,” he insisted that the Spaniards and their animals not drink it: “We do not want to spoil the watering site for the poor gentiles.” In short, Serra was a Franciscan who truly lived up to the spirit of St. Francis, a spirit also embodied by the first pope to use that name. In canonizing Serra, Francis “seizes the day” of the Hispanic ascension in North America. Many Americans think of this demographic change as an “invasion.” Francis has come to remind Americans who was here first—and not just physically, but spiritually. And who, indeed, is here now. This is not an attempt to erase original Indian life from the church’s memory, but a deeply respectful acknowledgement of it, because it was that life that Serra served up to the moment of his death. As the essayist Richard Rodriguez has suggested, the Mestizo—the melding of the Hispanic and the Indian—is the key to both North America’s mostly hidden past and its future. Which group of Americans will likely determine the result of the next presidential election? Who plants, fertilizes, and harvests the crops that feed this country? Who cleans American homes? Who, indeed, builds them? Who fixes the roads? Who tends to the gardens? And who leads the way to Mass? The children of Junípero Serra, that’s who.

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The BC Hydro and Power Authority is a Canadian electric utility in the province of British Columbia known as BC Hydro. It is the main electric distributor, serving 1.8 million customers in most areas, with the exception of the City of New Westminster, where the city runs its own electrical department and the Kootenay region, where FortisBC, a subsidiary of Fortis Inc. directly provides electric service to 213,000 customers and supplies municipally owned utilities in the same area. As a provincial Crown corporation, BC Hydro reports to the BC Ministry of Energy and Mines, is regulated by the British Columbia Utilities Commission, its mandate is to generate, purchase and sell electricity. BC Hydro operates three natural gas-fueled thermal power plants; as of 2014, 95 per cent of the province's electricity was produced by hydroelectric generating stations, which consist of large hydroelectric dams on the Columbia and Peace Rivers. BC Hydro's various facilities generate between 43,000 and 54,000 gigawatt hours of electricity annually, depending on prevailing water levels. BC Hydro's nameplate capacity is about 11,000 megawatts. Electricity is delivered through a network of 18,286 kilometers of transmission lines and 55,254 kilometers of distribution lines. For the 2013-2014 fiscal year, the domestic electric sales volume was 53,018 gigawatt hours, revenue was $5.392 billion and net income was $549 million. BC Hydro was created in 1961 when the government of British Columbia, under Premier WAC Bennett, passed the BC Hydro Act; this act led to the expropriation of the BC Electric Company and its merging with the BC Power Commission, to create the British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority. The BC Power Commission had been established with the Electric Power Act in 1945 by Premier John Hart; the mandate of the Power Commission was to amalgamate existing power and generating facilities across the province not served by BC Electric, to extend service to the many smaller communities without power. BC Electric Company began as the British Columbia Electric Railway in Victoria and New Westminster in 1897. Power was generated by coal-fired steam plants. Increasing demand in the Edwardian boom years meant BC Electric sought expansion through developing Hydro power at Buntzen Lake, at Stave Lake. Sensible growth and expansion of the power and coal gas utilities meant that BC Electric was a major company in the region. An English financier named Robert Horne-Payne had secured investment funding and created a large company from what had been a patchwork of small regional electric railway and steam and diesel plants. About this time and factories converted to electricity, further increasing the demand for electric power. BC Electric developed more hydro stations in the province. Small towns built and operated their own power stations. More power transmission lines were built. Dams and hydro-electric generating stations were built on Vancouver Island on the Puntledge and Elk rivers in the 1920s. BC Electric created one of the largest streetcar and interurban systems in the world in the Lower Mainland of BC with some 200 miles of track running from Point Grey to Chilliwack. There were both city street cars and interurban cars servicing Richmond, New Westminster, North Vancouver, Victoria. By the time of the First World War, private cars and jitneys were beginning to affect streetcar traffic; the expansion of private automobile ownership in the 1920s further constrained the expansion of streetcar lines. 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It opened in 1961 and, although it is now fueled only by natural gas, operated only intermittently when needed, it continues to generate controversy due to its proximity to Vancouver and its associated greenhouse gas emissions. In 2001 it represented over 9% of BC Hydro's gross metered generation. With completion of new transmission capacity to the Lower Mainland from the interior of BC, Burrard Thermal Station is being converted into a large Synchronous condenser facility. On August 1, 1961, just days after company president Dal Grauer died, the BC government passed the legislation which changed BC Electric from a private company to a crown corporation known as BC Hydro. In 1988 BC Hydro sold its Gas Division which distributed natural gas in the lower mainland and Victoria to Inland Natural Gas. Inland was acquired by Terasen Gas in 1993. Between 1960 and 1980, BC Hydro completed six large hydro-electric generating projects. 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By the early twentieth century, many of these had become bankrupt; the federal government nationalized several failing Western railways and combined them with its existing Intercolonial and other line in the East to create Canadian National Railways in 1918 as a transcontinental system. The CNR was unique in, a conglomerate, besides passenger and freight rail, it had inherited major business interests in shipping and telegraphy and was able create new lines of business in broadcasting and air travel. Many of the components of this business empire where spun off into new Crown corporations including some the most important businesses in the mid-twentieth century economy of Canada, such Air Canada, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Via Rail, Marine Atlantic. Provincial Crown corporations re-emerged in the early twentieth century, most notably in the selling of alcohol. Government monopoly liquor stores were seen as a compromise between the ended era of Prohibition in Canada and the excesses of the previous open market which had led to calls for prohibition in the first place. All the provinces used this system at one point; the largest of these government liquor businesses, the Liquor Control Board of Ontario, was by 2008 one of the world's largest alcohol retailers. Resource A student loan is a type of loan designed to help students pay for post-secondary education and the associated fees, such as tuition and supplies, living expenses. It may differ from other types of loans in the fact that the interest rate may be lower and the repayment schedule may be deferred while the student is still in school, it differs in many countries in the strict laws regulating renegotiating and bankruptcy. This article highlights the differences of the student loan system in several major countries. Tertiary student places in Australia are funded through the HECS-HELP scheme; this funding is in the form of loans. They are repaid over time via a supplementary tax; as a consequence, loan repayments are only made when the former student has income to support the repayments. Discounts are available for early repayment; the scheme is available to permanent humanitarian visa holders. Means-tested scholarships for living expenses are available. Special assistance is available to indigenous students. There has been criticism that the HECS-HELP scheme creates an incentive for people to leave the country after graduation, because those who do not file an Australian tax return do not make any repayments. The province of British Columbia allows the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia to withhold issuance or renewal of driver's license to those with delinquent student loan repayments or child support payments or unpaid court fines. Students need to meet the qualification with an individual’s direct educational costs and living expense to get the certificate to obtain a loan and this policy is directly controlled by the government. New Zealand provides student loans and allowances to tertiary students who satisfy the funding criteria. Full-time students can claim loans for both fees and living costs while part-time students can only claim training institution fees. While the borrower is a resident of New Zealand, no interest is charged on the loan. Loans are repaid when the borrower starts working and has income above the minimum threshold, once this occurs employers will deduct the student loan repayments from the salary at a fixed 12c in the dollar rate and these are collected by the New Zealand tax authority. The public sector is one of the most important sections in Thailand's higher education system. In addition, many public educational organizations receive profits from the students' tuition fees and the governments. There are six various sections in the public sector's organization: colleges with the limited enrollment，universities, opening to public, universities, national autonomous, Rajabhat colleges, Ajamangala Universities of Technology, polytechnic colleges. Citizens in India show that the Indian Nation Loan Scholarship Scheme which operated from 1963 would make the extra waste on expenditure for the reason of'limiting', which means only the people who need to borrow would apply the student loan for the future education; because of this, most Indian students would be more careful to choose their jobs in order to pay back the balance due. The Indian government has launched a website, for students seeking educational loans and five banks including SBI, IDBI Bank and Bank of India have integrated their system with the portal. Vidya Lakshmi was launched on the occasion of Independence Day i.e. 15th August, 2015 for the benefit of students seeking educational loans. Vidya Lakshmi was developed under three departments of India i.e. Department of Financial Services, Department of Higher Education and Indian Banks Association. To bridge the constraint of increasing institutional fees, NSDL e-Governance in India launched Vidyasaarathi portal to help students seeking scholarship for studies in India or overseas. South Korea's student loans are managed by the Korea Student Aid Foundation, established in May 2009. According to the governmental philosophy that Korea's future depends on talent development and no student should quit studying due to financial reasons, they help students grow into talents that serve the nation and society as members of Korea. In South Korea, the default rate of redemption is related to each student's academic personalities. For instance, comparing with other majors, students in fine arts and physics are supposed to possessing a higher default rate. Therefore, students in such majors would be inclined to a higher rate of unemployment and a higher risk of default in redemption. People will tend to have an inferior quality of human capital if the period of unemployment is too long. Student loans in the United Kingdom are provided by the state-owned Student Loans Company. Interest begins to accumulate on each loan payment as soon as the student receives it, but repayment is not required until the start of the next tax year after the student completes their education. Since 1998, repayments have been collected by HMRC via the tax system, are calculated based on the borrower's current level of income. If the borrower's income is below a certain threshold, no repayments are required, though interest continues to accumulate. Loans are cancelled if the borrower becomes permanently unable to work. Depending on when the loan was taken out and which part of the UK the borrower is from, they may be cancelled after a certain period of time after 30 years, or when the borrower reaches a certain age. Student loans taken out between 1990 and 1998, in the introductory phase of the UK government's phasing in of student loans, were not subsequently collected through the tax system in following years. The onus was (and stil Royal British Columbia Museum Founded in 1886, the Royal British Columbia Museum consists of The Province of British Columbia's natural and human history museum as well as the British Columbia Provincial Archives. The museum is located in British Columbia, Canada; the "Royal" title was approved by Queen Elizabeth II and bestowed by HRH Prince Philip in 1987, to coincide with a Royal tour of that year. The museum merged with the British Columbia Provincial Archives in 2003; the Royal BC Museum includes three permanent galleries: natural history, modern history, local First Nations’ history. The museum’s collections comprise 7 million objects, including natural history specimens and archival records; the natural history collections have 750,000 records of specimens exclusively from BC and neighbouring states, provinces, or territories. The collections are divided into eight disciplines: Entomology, Palaeontology, Invertebrate Zoology, Herpetology and Ornithology; the museum hosts touring exhibitions. Previous exhibitions have included artifacts related to the RMS Titanic, Leonardo da Vinci, Egyptian artifacts, the Vikings, the British Columbia gold rushes and Genghis Khan. The Royal BC Museum partners with and houses the IMAX Victoria theater, which shows educational films as well as commercial entertainment. The museum is beside Victoria's Inner Harbour, between the Empress Hotel and the Legislature Buildings; the museum anchors the Royal BC Museum Cultural Precinct, a surrounding area with historical sites and monuments, including Thunderbird Park. The museum operates traveling exhibitions which tour the province of BC, as well as international exhibits Guangzhou, China. On March 26, 2012, Jack Lohman was appointed CEO of the Royal BC Museum. Various groups assist with the development and maintenance of the Royal BC Museum; these include volunteers, who number over 500 and outnumber the Royal BC Museum staff 4 to 1. The BC Government founded the Royal BC Museum in 1886 in response to a petition from prominent citizens who were concerned about the loss of British Columbian natural products and native artifacts. Judge Matthew Baillie Begbie, Charles Semlin, William Fraser Tolmie, former Premier George A. Walkem were amongst those who wanted to stop European and American museums from appropriating BC artifacts. Notably, the petitioners argued that the export of First Nations artifacts was troubling, under the premise that “their loss irreparable.”On October 25, 1886, the 15-by-20-foot Provincial Museum of Natural History and Anthropology opened in the Birdcages. The first curator was naturalist John Fannin, who donated his own large collection of preserved birds and animals to the museum. After its inception, the Royal BC Museum continually expanded. In 1896, the museum was given space in the east wing of the new Legislative buildings; the museum’s mandate was updated by the BC government in 1913, the collection of natural history specimens and anthropological material became official parts of the museum’s operations, as well as the dissemination of knowledge to the people of British Columbia. In 1921, the basement of the east annex of the Legislature was excavated to provide the museum with additional room; as part of the 1967 Canadian centenary celebrations, BC Premier W. A. C. Bennett committed to building a new home for the Royal BC Museum. It opened on August 1968, with a final construction budget of $9.5 million. The museum remains housed in this building. One of the most prized displays is the 1965 Rolls Royce Phantom Limousine once owned by John Lennon, it was donated to the museum. Http://blog.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/2010/10/imagine.html The museum is situated in the cultural precinct, an area comprising various significant historical buildings near the Inner Harbour. The cultural precinct occupies the space between Douglas Street, Belleville Street, Government Street. Included in the cultural precinct is the BC Archives, Helmcken House, St. Ann's Schoolhouse, the Netherlands Centennial Carillon, Thunderbird Park, Mungo Martin House, Wawadit'la, a traditional big house built by Mungo Martin and his family; the Royal BC Museum hosts 3 permanent galleries focused on BC heritage. The First Peoples gallery on the third floor contains a large collection of First Nations artifacts, many of the artifacts in the gallery are from the Haida people. Artifacts in the First Peoples Gallery include a village model, as well as indigenous totem poles and masks. Notably, the gallery maintains the long house of Chief Kwakwabalasami, a Kwakwaka'wakw chief from Tsaxis; the house and surrounding carvings were created by his son, Henry Hunt, his grandsons, Tony Hunt and Richard Hunt. An exhibit of artist Bill Reid's argillite carvings are available for viewing; the gallery has been criticized by indigenous scholars for its portrayal of First Nations people, its use of controversial images and film from Edward Curtis. In 2010, many of the museum's Nisg Canada is a country in the northern part of North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering 9.98 million square kilometres, making it the world's second-largest country by total area. Canada's southern border with the United States is the world's longest bi-national land border, its capital is Ottawa, its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto and Vancouver. As a whole, Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its land area being dominated by forest and tundra, its population is urbanized, with over 80 percent of its inhabitants concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, many near the southern border. Canada's climate varies across its vast area, ranging from arctic weather in the north, to hot summers in the southern regions, with four distinct seasons. Various indigenous peoples have inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Beginning in the 16th century and French expeditions explored, settled, along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces; this began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster of 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act of 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition, with Elizabeth II as its queen and a prime minister who serves as the chair of the federal cabinet and head of government; the country is a realm within the Commonwealth of Nations, a member of the Francophonie and bilingual at the federal level. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, education. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. A developed country, Canada has the sixteenth-highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the twelfth-highest ranking in the Human Development Index, its advanced economy is the tenth-largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the G7, the Group of Ten, the G20, the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona. Cartier used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona. From the 16th to the early 18th century "Canada" referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named the Canadas. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference, the word Dominion was conferred as the country's title. By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth"; the government of Louis St. Laurent ended the practice of using'Dominion' in the Statutes of Canada in 1951. In 1982, the passage of the Canada Act, bringing the Constitution of Canada under Canadian control, referred only to Canada, that year the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day. The term Dominion was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion. Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Métis, the last being a mixed-blood people who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married European settlers; the term "Aboriginal" as a collective noun is a specific term of art used in some legal documents, including the Constitution Act 1982. The first inhabitants of North America are hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago; the Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Canadian indigenous societies included permanent settlements, complex societal hierarchies, trading networks; some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations. The indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000 Columbia Power Corporation Columbia Power Corporation is a Crown Corporation, owned by the province of British Columbia, Canada. Its mandate is to undertake hydro-electricity projects in the Columbia River region of British Columbia. In so doing, it is required to work with its sister crown corporation the Columbia Basin Trust, its assets include: Brilliant Dam 145 MW purchased from Teck Cominco in 1996 Brilliant Expansion 120 MW Arrow Lakes Generating Station 185 MW Partnered with FortisBC at Waneta Expansion 335 MW Columbia Power Corporation - Official Site Partnering in Power Development Documents and clippings about Columbia Power Corporation in the 20th Century Press Archives of the German National Library of Economics British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. With an estimated population of 5.016 million as of 2018, it is Canada's third-most populous province. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, which gave rise to the City of Victoria, at first the capital of the separate Colony of Vancouver Island. Subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Moody was Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works for the Colony and the first Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia: he was hand-picked by the Colonial Office in London to transform British Columbia into the British Empire's "bulwark in the farthest west", "to found a second England on the shores of the Pacific". Moody selected the site for and founded the original capital of British Columbia, New Westminster, established the Cariboo Road and Stanley Park, designed the first version of the Coat of arms of British Columbia. Port Moody is named after him. In 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, Victoria became the united colony's capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the sixth province of Canada, its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu. The capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for Queen Victoria, who ruled during the creation of the original colonies; the largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, the second-largest in the Pacific Northwest. In October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371; the province is governed by the British Columbia New Democratic Party, led by John Horgan, in a minority government with the confidence and supply of the Green Party of British Columbia. Horgan became premier as a result of a no-confidence motion on June 29, 2017. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871. First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties, the question of Aboriginal Title, long ignored, has become a legal and political question of frequent debate as a result of recent court actions. Notably, the Tsilhqot'in Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the 2014 Supreme Court of Canada decision in Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia; the province's name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i.e. "the Mainland", became a British colony in 1858. It refers to the Columbia District, the British name for the territory drained by the Columbia River, in southeastern British Columbia, the namesake of the pre-Oregon Treaty Columbia Department of the Hudson's Bay Company. Queen Victoria chose British Columbia to distinguish what was the British sector of the Columbia District from the United States, which became the Oregon Territory on August 8, 1848, as a result of the treaty. The Columbia in the name British Columbia is derived from the name of the Columbia Rediviva, an American ship which lent its name to the Columbia River and the wider region. British Columbia is bordered to the west by the Pacific Ocean and the American state of Alaska, to the north by Yukon Territory and the Northwest Territories, to the east by the province of Alberta, to the south by the American states of Washington and Montana; the southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, although its history is tied with lands as far south as California. British Columbia's land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbia's rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres, includes deep, mountainous fjords and about 6,000 islands, most of which are uninhabited, it is the only province in Canada. British Columbia's capital is Victoria, located at the southeastern tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of Vancouver Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is populated. Much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by temperate rainforest. The province's most populous city is Vancouver, at the confluence of the Fraser River and Georgia Strait, in the mainland's southwest corner. By land area, Abbotsford is the largest city. Vanderhoof is near the geographic centre of the province; the Coast Mountains and the Inside Passage's many inlets provide some of British Columbia's renowned and spectacular scenery, which forms the backdrop and context for a growing outdoor adventure and ecotourism industry. 75% of the province is mountainous. The province's mainland away from the coastal regions is somewhat moderated by the Pacific Ocean. Terrain ranges from dry inland forests and semi-arid valleys, to the range and canyon districts of the Central and Southern Interior, to boreal forest and subarctic prairie in the Northern Interior. High mountain regions both north and south subalpine climate; the Okanagan area, extending from Vernon to Osoyoos at the United States border, is one of several wine and cider-produci

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Co-authored by Hari Ravikumar In 2007, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations conducted a survey of meat consumption per person in every country. India came last. Food: Vegetarian and Non-Vegetarian Further, there are more vegetarians in India than the rest of the world combined (we can get a sense from this list). There is a widespread notion that such a high level of vegetarianism is due to Hinduism. While it is true that many Hindus are vegetarians, it is incorrect to say that Hinduism forbids meat-eating. In the large body of the fundamental works of Hinduism, there are several rules and prescriptions (quite often contradictory in letter though not in spirit) with respect to food and drink. We can find quite a few of these rules in the four Vedas but most of them are found in the Smṛti texts (like Manusmṛti), the Dharmasūtras (like Āpastamba Dharmasūtra), and the Gṛhyasūtras (like Āśvalāyāna Gṛhyasūtra).We can glean several interesting details from our traditional works. For example, we learn that food was eaten while being seated (Rigveda Saṃhitā 4.30.3), food was eaten only twice a day (Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 1.4.9), and that talking was kept to a minimum while eating (Baudhayana Dharmasūtra 2.7.2). In times of emergencies, there were absolutely no restrictions on food (Brahma Sūtra 3.4.29-31). We are asked to greet our food, honour it, rejoice upon seeing it, and pray that we may always obtain it (Manusmṛti 2.54-55). There are many references to meat-eating in our scriptures. In the oldest composition of them all, the Rigveda Saṃhitā, we see that our ancients cooked the flesh of oxen and offered it to the gods, especially Indra (see RVS 10.86.14 or 10.27.2, for example). Horses, bulls, oxen, barren cows, and rams were sacrificed for Agni (RVS 10.91.14). Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 18.104.22.168 says that sage Yājñavalkya would eat the meat of cows and oxen, provided it was tender. Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 6.4.18 says that if a couple wants to beget a son who will grow up to be a great scholar, they have to eat rice cooked with beef, along with ghee. Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 22.214.171.124 goes on to say that meat is the best kind of food! But even in the early texts, we can see the compassion of our ancient people. In RVS 8.43.11, Agni is hailed as one whose food is the ox and the barren cow. Often in the Rigveda Saṃhitā (see 1.164.27, 1.164.40, 4.1.6, and 5.83.8, for example), the cow is called aghnyā, ‘one who doesn’t deserve to be killed.’ Therefore, it seems that only barren cows were killed. How else do we account for the lavish praise showered on cows (RVS 6.23.1-8 and 8.101.15-16)? One verse (RVS 8.101.16), which hails the cow as devī, ‘goddess.’ Although animal sacrifices were prevalent in the Vedic period, there were already some attempts to reduce this. They came up with the idea that instead of killing an animal, one could offer heartfelt praise to the gods or a fuel-stick or cooked food (see RVS 8.19.5 and 8.24.20 for example). In later times, they even developed an ingenious theory that a person who eats meat will—in his next birth—become the meat eaten by that animal (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 126.96.36.199). In the Mahābhārata (Droṇa Parva / Book 3, Chapter 199), sage Mārkāṇḍeya tells Yudhiṣṭhira the story of a hunter and a priest. When the priest accuses the hunter of violence, the latter narrates the story of King Rantideva: “In Rantideva’s kitchen, two thousand animals were killed every day as were two thousand cows. Rantideva became famous because he fed meat to all his people.” Kālidāsa (5th century CE) says in Meghadūta 1.45 that River Charmanvati (modern-day Chambal) arose from the glory of King Rantideva who sacrificed thousands of cows. Mallinātha (13th century CE) says in his commentary on the Meghadūta that Charmanvati originated with the constant washing of cow hide and the flowing of the blood of cows. But over the years, meat-eating reduced in India. This was due to a combination of socio-religious, geographical, and cultural factors. However, we observe that meat (including beef) was still consumed as part of rituals and special occasions. For example, during śrāddha, a ritual in memory of dead parents and other ancestors (Āpastamba Dharmasūtra 188.8.131.52); while preparing a meal for a distinguished guest as part of madhuparka (Āśvalāyāna Gṛhyasūtra 1.24.22-26, Vasiṣṭha Dharmasūtra 4.8); or in the śūlagava ritual in which a bull is killed (Āśvalāyāna Gṛhyasūtra 4.9.10). In fact, to put to rest arguments of those days, a text no less than the Brahma Sūtra (3.1.25) says that the scriptures don’t have a problem with killing animals for a specified ritual. Even the Manusmṛti, a text that is rather partial to vegetarianism, says that meat-eating is fine under specific circumstances like during a calamity or as part of a ritual (MS 5.27, 5.32). Madhuparka is the practice of offering honey to honour a distinguished guest. According to Yājñavalkyasmṛti 1.110, six kinds of people are offered madhuparka – a priest (ṛtvik), a teacher (ācārya), bridegroom, king, graduate (snātaka), and someone dear to the host. The Baudhāyana Gṛhyasūtra 1.2.65 adds ‘guest’ (atithi) to this list. As part of madhuparka, honey, curds, ghee, water, and grains were offered while meat was optional (See Āśvalāyāna Gṛhyasūtra 1.22.5-26 for more details). In the prelude to Act IV of Bhavabhūti’s play, Uttararāmacarita (8th century CE), there is a delightful dialogue between two ascetics, Saudhātaki and Daṇḍāyana. Saudhātaki is curious about the guest who is visiting their āśrama and learns that it is Vasiṣṭha. He tells Daṇḍāyana, “I thought it was a tiger or a wolf. My poor calf was terrified since his arrival.” “When a great scholar visits us, we should offer the madhuparka with beef or mutton, as it is said in the dharmasūtras!” Saudhātaki says, “You contradict yourself. A calf was sacrificed for Vasiṣṭha but when King Janaka came, he was offered just milk and curds. The calf was set free.” “What the dharmasūtras say in this matter applies to those who have not given up meat. King Janaka is a vegetarian. All these examples – of Kālidāsa, Bhavabhūti, and Mallinātha – serve to shed light on how meat-eating was perceived in the first millennium CE in India. Jainism was the first (and perhaps only) religion whose adherents were strictly vegetarian. Buddhism did not forbid meat-eating per se but they were against animal sacrifice. People were weaned away from eating meat due to the influence of these two religions and also with the rise of the Vaiṣṇava faith, which used Bhāgavata Purāṇa 7.15.7-8 as their reference for wholly avoiding meat. As for consuming alcohol, many texts prescribe abstinence while some others prohibit consumption for some groups of people. However, in the Vedas, we find many instances of the consumption of the juice from the soma creeper (possibly Cannabis sativa) as an immediate reward after conducting yajña and the consumption of surā (alcohol made from fermented barley or wild paddy) for pleasure (for example, see RVS 1.116.7, 8.2.12, or 10.131.4-5). While the drinking of soma was commended, drinking surā was condemned. Kāṭhaka Saṃhitā 12.12 puts it eloquently when it says that one should keep away from alcohol in order that a person may avoid committing a sinful act, in speech or in deed. There is a verse in the Rigveda Saṃhitā (10.5.6) that lists the seven rules of conduct for men; anyone who violates even one of these is a sinner. We know from Yāska’s Nirukta (6.27) that drinking alcohol is one of the seven transgressions. Manusmṛti 11.55 lists the five terrible sins (pañcamahāpātaka) among which we find alcohol consumption. According to Manu, it is especially forbidden for a brāhmaṇa to drink alcohol and he even prescribes a harsh punishment for it (MS 11.91). It is interesting to note that there are references for both Rāma and Kṛṣṇa partaking alcohol and/or meat. Rāma offers meat to Sītā and coaxes her to try it out since it is well-cooked (Ayodhyākāṇḍa / Book 2, 96.1-2). When Hanuman meets Sītā in the Aśoka-vātikā, he tells her that Rāma has been pining for her, and afflicted by sorrow, he has turned vegetarian and a teetotaller (Sundarakāṇḍa / Book 5, 36.41). Later, there is another section where Rāma feeds Sītā with wine, meat, and fruits (Uttarakāṇḍa / Book 7, 42.18-20). Similarly, there is a segment where Kṛṣṇa and Arjuna get totally drunk in a party along with Draupadi and Satyabhāma (Udyoga Parva / Book 5, 58.5). That said, there is no need for devout Hindus to get upset by this or for Hindu critics to get take their usual perverse delight. These incidents don’t affect the personalities of great heroes like Rāma and Kṛṣṇa; at any rate, one need not judge others by their personal habits. The texts of Āyurveda tell us that in terms of health and wellness, a purely vegetarian diet is not superior to a healthy mix of vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods. In fact, some kinds of meat have been recommended for staple use. Further, Āyurveda does not emphasise vegetarianism even in its code of ethics; it is not a prerequisite for high culture. This is in sharp contrast to its take on alcoholic drinks, which though regarded healthy in moderation, has been despised in the code. To get an overall picture about food and drink, we need to look no further than the Bhagavad-Gītā, the greatest summary of Hindu thought. Krishna (BG 3.13) gives us an idea of how we should approach food and drink in general: The wise ones eat the food that remains after being offered to yajña; thus, they are released from all evils. The wicked ones prepare food for their own sake and indeed live on sin alone. In the act of obtaining food, we cause some harm to the natural environment. So we should eat our food with a sense of gratitude, which is what Krishna refers to as ‘offering to yajña.’ We should never feel entitled to our food; ‘living on sin’ refers to this. Later, in Bhagavad-Gītā 17.7-10, Krishna speaks about the nature of people and the food that they enjoy but he never prescribes a particular type of food that one should eat. It is impossible for us to survive without inflicting some degree of violence to the world around us. Manusmṛti (3.68-71) mentions the five places in a house (pañcasūnā) where living beings may be accidentally killed – the fire-place, grinding slab, pestle and mortar, places swept with a broom, and the water pot. To absolve themselves of this sin, householders are expected to perform the five great worships (pañcamahāyajña) every day: prayers to the gods, homage to ancestors, respect to the wise and the pursuit of knowledge, service to fellow beings, and worship of forces of nature. Attitude Towards Food and Drink We cannot altogether be non-violent but to the extent possible we should avoid violence. It is noteworthy that Manu prohibits any form of killing for pleasure (MS 5.45) and declares that a person who does not injure any living being attains the highest bliss (MS 5.46-47). Therefore, when it comes to food habits, being a vegetarian is preferred – with sustainability in view – but not imposed. Keeping this in mind, it will be better if meat-eaters respect their vegetarian (and vegan) brethren rather than look upon them with disdain. On the other hand, the vegetarians (and vegans) need not look at meat-eaters with a ‘holier than thou’ attitude because it is only natural for humans to eat meat. A commonly used word for food in Sanskrit and other Indian languages is āhāra. The etymology of the word – āhriyate iti āhāraḥ, ‘āhāra is that which is taken in’ – suggests that it refers to anything that we consume, not just food. If we truly want sustainability of the planet and all the living beings in it, then we have to look at our intake not just from the point of view of food. Just as a start, think about how our food is produced, processed, and shipped. If we learn more about food procurement, then we can make more informed choices of what foods to avoid and how we can help sustainability in the large sense. Whatever positive ecological effects one might have by being vegetarian might be cancelled out by a bad choice in what kind of foods we pick (heavily processed food, genetically modified food, etc.) Similarly, the negative effects of meat-eating can be tempered by making better choices in how the meat is procured. Finally, there can be no universal dictum about the food that we can eat or should not eat. Let us try our best to behave in a way that is sustainable for the world. Let us develop the right attitude towards our food – that of gratitude and joy. And let us remember the wise words of Manu (MS 5.56) lest we beat ourselves about it: Meat-eating, drinking, and sex – can you call these faults? It is but natural for people to engage in it, however, it’s a great thing if one stays away from it! (Additional input thanks: Dr. G. L. Krishna and Dr. Koti Sreekrishna) - Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdayam by Vāgbhaṭa, Sūtrasthānam, Chapters 2, 5, 6 and 8 - Bhavabhūti’s Uttararāmacarita. Bombay: Nirṇayasāgara Press, 1949. pp. 103-5 - Kālidāsa’s Meghadūta. Bombay: Nirṇayasāgara Press, 1915. pp. 37 - Kane, Pandurang Vaman. History of Dharmaśātra. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1941. Vol. II, Part II. pp. 542-49 (Chapter X. Madhuparka and Other Usages) and pp. 757-800 (Chapter XXII. Bhojana) - Mahabharata, Book 3, Chapter 199 < http://sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs03199.htm> - Mahābhārata: Text as Constituted in its Critical Edition. Vol. 2. Udyoga-, Bhīṣma- and Droṇa-Parvans. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1972 - Prakash, Om. Food and Drink in Ancient India. New Delhi: Munshi Ram Manohar Lal, 1961 - Sreekrishna, Koti and Ravikumar, Hari. Tastarians. 1 Jul. 2015 < blogspot.in/2010/02/tastarians.html> - Sreekrishna, Koti and Ravikumar, Hari. The New Bhagavad-Gita. Mason: W.I.S.E. Words Inc., 2011. pp. 84, 243 - Śrīmadvālmīkirāmāyaṇam (Mūlamantram). Gorakhpur: Gita Press, 1963 - Swamy, B. G. L. The Rg Vedic Soma Plant. Indian Journal of History of Science (1976) Dr. Ganesh is a Shatavadhani, a multi-faceted scholar, linguist, and poet and polyglot and author of numerous books on philosophy, Hinduism, art, music, dance, and culture.

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After seven devastating years of civil war in Syria, which have left more than 350,000 people dead, President Bashar al-Assad appears close to victory against the forces trying to overthrow him. So how has Mr Assad got so close to winning this bloody, brutal war? A joint investigation by BBC Panorama and BBC Arabic shows for the first time the extent to which chemical weapons have been crucial to his war-winning strategy. Sites of the 106 chemical attacks in Syria, 2014-2018 Tap or click for more details Source: BBC Panorama and BBC Arabic research. Map built with Carto. 1. The use of chemical weapons has been widespread The BBC has determined there is enough evidence to be confident that at least 106 chemical attacks have taken place in Syria since September 2013, when the president signed the international Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) and agreed to destroy the country’s chemical weapons stockpile. Syria ratified the CWC a month after a chemical weapons attack on several suburbs of the capital, Damascus, that involved the nerve agent Sarin and left hundreds of people dead. The horrific pictures of victims convulsing in agony shocked the world. Western powers said the attack could only have been carried out by the government, but Mr Assad blamed the opposition. The US threatened military action in retaliation but relented when Mr Assad’s key ally, Russia, persuaded him to agree to the elimination of Syria’s chemical arsenal. Despite the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) and the United Nations destroying all 1,300 tonnes of chemicals that the Syrian government declared, chemical weapons attacks in the country have continued. “Chemical attacks are terrifying,” said Abu Jaafar, who lived in an opposition-held part of the city of Aleppo until it fell to government forces in 2016. “A barrel bomb or a rocket kills people instantly without them feeling it… but the chemicals suffocate. It’s a slow death, like drowning someone, depriving them of oxygen. It’s horrifying.” But Mr Assad has continued to deny his forces have ever used chemical weapons. “We don’t have a chemical arsenal since we gave it up in 2013,” he said earlier this year. “The [OPCW] made investigations about this, and it’s clear that we don’t have them.” What are chemical weapons? The OPCW, the global watchdog that oversees implementation of the Chemical Weapons Convention, says a chemical weapon is a chemical used to cause intentional death or harm through its toxic properties. The use of chemical weapons is prohibited under international humanitarian law regardless of the presence of a valid military target, as the effects of such weapons are indiscriminate by nature and designed to cause superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering. Since 2014, the OPCW’s Fact-Finding Mission (FFM) in Syria and the now-disbanded OPCW-UN Joint Investigative Mechanism (JIM) have investigated allegations of the use of toxic chemicals for hostile purposes in Syria. They have determined that 37 incidents have involved or are likely to have involved the use of chemicals as weapons between September 2013 and April 2018. The UN Human Rights Council’s Independent International Commission of Inquiry (COI) on Syria and other UN-affiliated bodies have meanwhile concluded that there are reasonable grounds to believe that chemical weapons have been used in 18 other cases. Panorama and BBC Arabic examined 164 reports of chemical attacks alleged to have happened since Syria signed up to the CWC just over five years ago. The BBC team determined that there was credible evidence to be confident a chemical weapon was used in 106 of those 164 incidents. While only a few of these attacks have made headlines, the data suggests a pattern of repeated and sustained use of chemical weapons. “The use of chemical weapons has delivered some outcomes for [government forces] that they believe are worth the risk, and [chemical weapons] have subsequently been shown to be worth the risk because they keep using them, repeatedly,” said Julian Tangaere, former head of the OPCW mission to Syria. Karen Pierce, the United Kingdom’s permanent representative to the UN in New York, described the use of chemical weapons in Syria as “vile”. “Not just because of the truly awful effects but also because they are a banned weapon, prohibited from use for nearly 100 years,” she said. About the data The BBC team considered 164 reports of chemical attacks from September 2013 onwards. The reports were from a variety of sources considered broadly impartial and not involved in the fighting. They included international bodies, human rights groups, medical organisations and think tanks. In line with investigations carried out by the UN and the OPCW, BBC researchers, with the help of several independent analysts, reviewed the open source data available for each of the reported attacks, including victim and witness testimonies, photographs and videos. The BBC team had their methodology checked by specialist researchers and experts. The BBC researchers discounted all incidents where there was only one source, or where they concluded there was not sufficient evidence. In all, they determined there was enough credible evidence to be confident a chemical weapon was used in 106 incidents. The BBC team were not allowed access to film on the ground in Syria and could not visit the scenes of reported incidents, and therefore were not able to categorically verify the evidence. However, they did weigh up the strength of the available evidence in each case, including the video footage and pictures from each incident, as well as the details of location and timing. The highest number of reported attacks took place in the north-western province of Idlib. There were also many incidents in the neighbouring provinces of Hama and Aleppo, and in the Eastern Ghouta region near Damascus, according to the BBC’s data. All of these areas have been opposition strongholds at various times during the war. The locations where the most casualties were reported as a result of alleged chemical attacks were Kafr Zita, in Hama province, and Douma, in the Eastern Ghouta. Both towns have seen battles between opposition fighters and government forces. According to the reports, the deadliest single incident took place in the town of Khan Sheikhoun, in Idlib province, on 4 April 2017. Opposition health authorities say more than 80 people died that day. Although chemical weapons are deadly, UN human rights experts have noted that most incidents in which civilians are killed and maimed have involved the unlawful use of conventional weapons, such as cluster munitions and explosive weapons in civilian populated areas. 2. The evidence points to the Syrian government in many cases Inspectors from an OPCW-UN joint mission announced in June 2014 that they had completed the removal or destruction of all of Syria’s declared chemical weapons material, in line with the agreement brokered by the US and Russia after the 2013 Sarin attack. “Everything that we knew to be there was either removed or destroyed,” said Mr Tangaere, one of the OPCW inspectors. But, he explained, the inspectors only had the information they were given. “All we could do was to verify what we’d been told was there,” he said. “The thing about the Chemical Weapons Convention is it’s all based on trust.” The OPCW did, however, identify what it called “gaps, inconsistencies and discrepancies” in Syria’s declaration that a team from the watchdog is still trying to resolve. In July 2018, the OPCW’s then-director general, Ahmet Üzümcü, told the UN Security Council that the team was “continuing its efforts to clarify all outstanding issues”. Despite the June 2014 announcement that Syria’s declared chemical weapons material had been removed or destroyed, reports of continued chemical attacks continued to emerge. Abdul Hamid Youssef lost his wife, his 11-month-old twins, two brothers, his cousin and many of his neighbours in the 4 April 2017 attack on Khan Sheikhoun. He described the scene outside his home, seeing neighbours and family members suddenly drop to the ground. “They were shivering, and foam was coming out of their mouths,” he said. “It was terrifying. That’s when I knew it was a chemical attack.” After falling unconscious and being taken to hospital, he woke, asking about his wife and children. “After about 15 minutes, they brought them all to me – dead. I lost the most precious people in my life.” The OPCW-UN Joint Investigative Mission concluded that a large number of people had been exposed to Sarin that day. Sarin is considered 20 times as deadly as cyanide. As with all nerve agents, it inhibits the action of an enzyme which deactivates signals that cause human nerve cells to fire. The heart and other muscles – including those involved in breathing – spasm. Sufficient exposure can lead to death by asphyxiation within minutes. The JIM also said it was confident that the Syrian government was responsible for the release of the Sarin in Khan Sheikhoun, with an aircraft alleged to have dropped a bomb on the town. The images from Khan Sheikhoun prompted US President Donald Trump to order a missile strike on the Syrian Air Force base from where Western powers believed the aircraft that attacked the town took off. President Assad said the incident in Khan Sheikhoun was fabricated, while Russia said the Syrian Air Force bombed a “terrorist ammunition depot” that was full of chemical weapons, inadvertently releasing a toxic cloud. But Stefan Mogl, a member of the OPCW team that investigated the attack, said he found evidence that the Sarin used in Khan Sheikhoun belonged to the Syrian government. There was a “clear match” between the Sarin and the samples brought back from Syria in 2014 by the OPCW team eliminating the country’s stockpile, he said. The JIM report said the Sarin identified in the samples taken from Khan Sheikhoun was most likely to have been made with a precursor chemical – methylphosphonyl difluoride (DF) – from Syria’s original stockpile. “It means that not everything was removed,” Mr Mogl said. Mr Tangaere, who oversaw the OPCW’s elimination of Syria’s chemical stockpile, said: “I can only assume that that material wasn’t part of what was declared and wasn’t at the site that we were at.” “The reality is, under our mandate all we could do was verify what we’d been told was there. There was a separate process to investigate potential gaps in the declaration.” But what of the other 105 reported attacks mapped by the BBC team? Who is believed to have been behind those? The JIM concluded that two attacks involving the blister agent sulphur mustard were carried out by the jihadist group Islamic State. There is evidence suggesting IS carried out three other reported attacks, according to the BBC’s data. The JIM and OPCW have so far not concluded that any opposition armed groups other than IS have carried out a chemical attack. The BBC’s investigation also found no credible evidence to suggest otherwise. However, the Syrian government and Russia have accused opposition fighters of using chemical weapons on a number of occasions and have reported them to the OPCW, who have investigated the allegations. Opposition armed factions have denied using chemical weapons. The available evidence, including video, photographs and eyewitness testimony, suggests that at least 51 of the 106 reported attacks were launched from the air. The BBC believes all the air-launched attacks were carried out by Syrian government forces. Although Russian aircraft have conducted thousands of strikes in support of Mr Assad since 2015, UN human rights experts on the Commission of Inquiry have said there are no indications that Russian forces have ever used chemical weapons in the Syria. The OPCW has likewise found no evidence that opposition armed groups had the capability to mount air attacks in the cases it has investigated. Tobias Schneider of the Global Public Policy Institute has also investigated whether the opposition could have staged any air-launched chemical attacks and concluded that they could not. “The Assad regime is the only actor deploying chemical weapons by air,” he said. Dr Lina Khatib, head of the Middle East and North Africa programme at Chatham House, said: “The majority of chemical weapons attacks that we have seen in Syria seem to follow a pattern that indicates that they were the work of the regime and its allies, and not other groups in Syria.” “Sometimes the regime uses chemical weapons when it doesn’t have the military capacity to take an area back using conventional weapons,” she added. Sarin was used in the deadliest of the 106 reported attacks – at Khan Sheikhoun – but the evidence suggests that the most commonly used toxic chemical was chlorine. Chlorine is what is known as a “dual-use” chemical. It has many legitimate peaceful civilian uses, but its use as a weapon is banned by the CWC. Chlorine is thought to have been used in 79 of the 106 reported attacks, according to the BBC’s data. The OPCW and JIM have determined that chlorine is likely to have been used as a weapon in 15 of the cases they have investigated. Experts say it is notoriously difficult to prove the use of chlorine in an attack because its volatility means it evaporates and disperses quickly. “If you go to a site where a chlorine attack has happened, it’s almost impossible to get physical evidence from the environment – unless you’re there within a very short period of time,” said Mr Tangaere, the former OPCW inspector. “In that sense, being able to use it leaving virtually no evidence behind, you can see why it has happened many, many times over.” 3. The use of chemical weapons appears to be strategic Plotting the timings and locations of the 106 reported chemical attacks appears to reveal a pattern in how they have been used. Many of the reported attacks occurred in clusters in and around the same areas and at around the same times. These clusters coincided with government offensives – in Hama and Idlib in 2014, in Idlib in 2015, in Aleppo city at the end of 2016, and in the Eastern Ghouta in early 2018. “Chemical weapons are used whenever the regime wants to send a strong message to a local population that their presence is not desirable,” said Chatham House’s Dr Khatib. “In addition to chemical weapons being the ultimate punishment, instilling fear in people, they are also cheap and convenient for the regime at a time when its military capacity has decreased because of the conflict.” “There’s nothing that scares people more than chemical weapons, and whenever chemical weapons have been used, residents have fled those areas and, more often than not, not come back.” Aleppo, a city fought over for several years, appears to be one of the locations where such a strategy has been employed. Opposition fighters and civilians were trapped in a besieged enclave in the east as the government launched its final offensive to regain full control of the city. Opposition-held areas first came under heavy bombardment with conventional munitions. Then came a series of reported chemical attacks that are said to have caused hundreds of casualties. Aleppo soon fell to the government, and people were displaced to other opposition-held areas. “The pattern that we are witnessing is that the regime uses chemical weapons in areas that it regards as strategic for its own purposes,” said Dr Khatib. “[The] final stage of taking these areas back seems to be using chemical weapons to just make the local population flee.” From late November to December 2016, in the final weeks of the government’s assault on eastern Aleppo, there were 11 reported chlorine attacks. Five of them were in the last two days of the offensive, before opposition fighters and supporters surrendered and agreed to be evacuated. Abu Jaafar, who worked for the Syrian opposition as a forensic scientist, was in Aleppo during the last days of the siege. He examined the bodies of many of the victims of alleged chemical attacks. “I went to the morgue and a strong smell of chlorine emanated from the bodies,” he said. “When I inspected them, I saw clear marks of suffocation due to chlorine.” The use of chlorine had a devastating effect, he said. “The gas suffocates people – spreading panic and terror,” he said. “There were warplanes and helicopters in the sky all the time, as well as artillery shelling. But what left the biggest impact was chemical weapons.” When liquid chlorine is released, it quickly turns into a gas. The gas is heavier than air and will sink to low-lying areas. People hiding in basements or underground bomb shelters are therefore particularly vulnerable to exposure. When chlorine gas comes into contact with moist tissues such as the eyes, throats and lungs, an acid is produced that can damage those tissues. When inhaled, chlorine causes air sacs in the lungs to secrete fluid, essentially drowning those affected. “If they go up, they get bombed by rockets. If they go down, they get killed by chlorine. People were hysterical,” said Abu Jaafar. The Syrian government has said it has never used chlorine as a weapon. But all 11 of the reported attacks in Aleppo came from the air and occurred in opposition-held areas, according to the BBC’s data. More than 120,000 civilians left Aleppo in the final weeks of the battle for the city, according to organisations on the ground. It was a turning point in the civil war. A similar pattern of reported chemical weapons use can be seen in the data from the Eastern Ghouta – the opposition’s final stronghold near Damascus. A number of attacks were reported in opposition-held towns in the region between January and April 2018. Maps show how the incidents coincided with the loss of opposition territory. Douma, the biggest town in the Eastern Ghouta, was the target of four reported chemical attacks over four months, as pro-government forces intensified their aerial bombardment before launching a ground offensive. The last – and deadliest, according to medics and rescue workers – incident took place on 7 April, when a yellow industrial gas cylinder was reportedly dropped onto the balcony of a block of flats. The opposition’s surrender came a day later. Videos published by pro-opposition activists showed what they said were the bodies of more than 30 children, women and men who had been sheltering downstairs in the basement of the block of flats. Yasser al-Domani, an activist who visited the scene that night, said the people who died had foam around their mouths and appeared to have chemical burns. Another video from a nearby building shows the bodies of the same children found dead in the block of flats wearing the same clothes, with the same burns, lined up for identification. The BBC spoke to 18 people, who all insist they saw bodies being taken from the block of flats to the hospital. Two days after the reported attack, Russian military specialists visited the block of flats and said they found no traces of chlorine or any other chemical agents. The Russian government said the incident had been staged by the opposition with the help of the UK – a charge the British government dismissed as “grotesque and absurd”. An OPCW Fact-Finding Mission team visited the scene almost two weeks later and took samples from the gas cylinder on the balcony. In July, it reported that “various chlorinated organic chemicals” were found in the samples, along with residues of explosive. The FFM is still working to establish the significance of the results, but Western powers are convinced the people who died were exposed to chlorine. A week after the incident in Douma, the US, UK and France carried out air strikes on three sites they said were “specifically associated with the Syrian regime’s chemical weapons programme”. The Western strikes took place hours before the Syrian military declared the Eastern Ghouta free of opposition fighters, by which time some 140,000 people had fled their homes and up to 50,000 had been evacuated to opposition-held territory in the north of the country. “I saw the amount of destruction, the people crying, bidding farewell to their homes or children. People’s miserable, exhausted faces, it was really painful. I can’t forget it. People in the end said they’d had enough,” said Manual Jaradeh, who was living in Douma with her husband and son. The Syrian government would not answer the BBC’s questions about the allegations that it has used chemical weapons. It refused to allow the Panorama team to travel to Damascus, examine the site of the reported attack in Douma, and turned down interview requests. When asked whether the international community had failed the Syrian people, former OPCW inspector Julian Tangaere said: “Yes, I think it has. “It was a life and death struggle for the Assad regime. You know, there was certainly no turning back. I can understand that. “But the methods used, and the barbarity of some of what’s happened has… well, it’s beyond comprehension. It’s horrifying.” So has President Assad got away with it? Karen Pierce, the UK’s ambassador to the UN, thinks not. “There is evidence being collected,” she said. “One day there will be justice. We will do our best to try to bring that about and hasten it.” Panorama: Syria’s Chemical War will be broadcast in the UK on Monday 15 October on BBC One at 20:30. It will be available afterwards on the BBC iPlayer. It will also be broadcast on BBC Arabic on Tuesday 23 October at 19:05 GMT. Credits: Producers Alys Cummings and Kate Mead. Online production David Gritten, Lucy Rodgers, Gerry Fletcher, Daniel Dunford and Nassos Stylianou.

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Created: 6/27/2013 Updated: 8/9/2016 After the very challenging drought year of 2012, the Butterfly Conservation Lab is up and running. Recently I traveled to far southern Indiana to continue our ongoing work with the Swamp Metalmark. Swamp metalmark habitat in southern Indiana. The swamp metalmark is an endangered species in Illinois. In fact, many people consider it to be extirpated (locally extinct) from the entire state. The reason the butterfly is so rare is that it inhabits an extremely rare type of wetland called a fen. Its caterpillars can only feed on the leaves of swamp thistle and tall thistle. Both grow in fens. We are attempting to re-establish swamp metalmarks to their last known home in Illinois, Bluff Spring Fen near Elgin. In Indiana I found dozens of metalmarks from a wooded fen near the Ohio River. We brought four females into the laboratory, and set them up in special cages to lay eggs. Over the course of about a week and a half, the butterflies laid over 200 eggs. We are currently waiting for them to hatch. When they do, we will place them on leaves of swamp thistle and rear them to adulthood. We hope to have adults in August when we can release them at their new home. With a bit of luck, they will establish a new population. Egg laying cages with female metalmarks in them. Created: 6/26/2013 Updated: 8/9/2016 People often think of carnivorous plants as being tropical monstrosities, but many species make their homes in cold climates, and some can even be found in the Chicago region. The Museum's Biology Department took a trip several years ago to the Indiana Dunes' Pinhook Bog (open only to guided tours due to the fragility of the ecosystem) where we saw sundews, pitcher plants, and bladderworts--all species that make up for the low-nutrient peat moss they grow in by digesting insects. Combined with the rare orchids, blueberry-lined walkways, and the fact that the ground moves when you walk on it, it was one of my favorite daytrips. Volo Bog, north of Chicago, is home to such strange plants as well. While the Venus Flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) is the most iconic carnivorous plant outside of Super Mario Brothers and Little Shop of Horrors, our local meat-eating flora have plenty to offer. Pitcher plants (Sarracenia purpurea) have leaves that form a tube that collects rainwater. The attractive red coloration draws curious creatures to the rim of the "pitcher." Occasionally an insect will fall down the slippery slopes into the pool of rainwater and be trapped, and shortly thereafter digested. But since plants lack teeth, the plant has to hire someone else to chew its food. It is said that "If you build it, they will come," and a host of invertebrates make their home in the water of the pitcher plant, forming a mini-ecosystem inside the leaves of one plant. The top predator is usually the larva of the Pitcher Plant Mosquito (Wyeomyia smithii), one of several animals which lives only inside pitcher plant puddles, and nowhere else. Please don't think we should fog the bogs, though; the pitcher plant mosquito doesn't go for people. Eventually bits of the prey are chewed, shredded, digested, and excreted by enough little bugs, bacteria, and other critters that nutrients from the victim's body become usable by the plant. Drosera rotundifolia, the Downy Sundew, takes a different tactic. Its leaves are covered with red, tentacle-like protrusions, and coated in a sticky, sugary substance. When prey come investigating they get stuck. The tentacles then curl up around the insect, and the plant begins to exude enzymes to extract precious, nitrogen-containing compounds that are otherwise hard to come by in the sundew’s habitat. This is because in bogs, the high acidity of the peat moss and water inhibit the breakdown of organic matter, so nutrients remain locked away instead of cycling through the ecosystem as they might in more garden-variety soils. Many Drosera species have become so adapted to their conditions that they completely lack the enzyme that enables other plants to absorb nitrogen from their roots. While our collection is small, the Museum does maintain several living examples of carnivorous plants in our Mysteries of the Marsh exhibit. As these are wetland plants, they are members of some of the most imperiled ecosystems in our region, and throughout the world. While we are tempted to think of plants as basically immobile, passive denizens of our world, carnivorous plants are some of the most obvious examples of the incredibly active role plants take in nature. Stop by and see ours, but more importantly make sure to get out into the wild, visit our protected wetlands, and spot these fantastic plants in their native environments. You won't regret it.View Comments Created: 6/26/2013 Updated: 8/9/2016 It's a question I get asked all the time, ‘where do you get your animals from?’ There is no short answer, some are donated, some are left at our door, some are purchased, some are bred in house and some we go out and collect. For this last group we can’t just go out randomly picking up any animal we like the look of, as a scientific institution we have to have all the appropriate paperwork and permits to allow us to collect our specimens. Also we are collecting creatures for live display so we have to be very mindful of our collection methods. This past week we were out collecting fish for our tanks in the Riverworks exhibit. Last year when we did this we had very little water to work in because of the drought, this year we had the opposite problem! Trying to use a seine net in rushing water is a bit of a challenge to say the least and for the species we were looking for we needed to find some quieter bodies of water. It took us a while but we eventually found some good spots. The seine net is held in place while a couple of people drive the fish forward into it. The net is then scooped up at the last moment to secure the fish in the middle of the net. This method ensures the fish are completely unharmed in the process and also allows us a good view of everything in the net. You never know what you are going to find in the net, which is all part of the fun. This particular scoop had a number of huge Bullfrog tadpoles in it and also a rather startled looking frog in amongst the mud and weed. They all got safely returned to the water. We were looking for compatible species to the ones we already have on display so this haul of Top Minnows were a great addition. Some of our cache is photographed and then returned to the river, like this beautiful Heelsplitter mussel. We also ‘do our bit’ collecting up invasive species. Well actually, one particular invasive species, the Rusty Crayfish. An extremely popular snack for our Blanding’s Turtles! Inspite of the high water levels we had a very successful trip, bringing home lots of new fish which will undergo a 30 day quarantine period before going on display.View Comments Created: 6/21/2013 Updated: 8/9/2016 In June 1913, the Chicago Academy of Sciences presented an exhibit to its visitors unlike any other. It was a planetarium where, unlike others of the time period, visitors could walk inside to experience the night sky while the apparatus rotated around them. Atwood Celestial Sphere at the Academy’s Laflin Memorial Building, c1926 The Atwood Celestial Sphere was designed by and named for Wallace W. Atwood, who served on the Academy’s Board and briefly as Acting Director of the museum. Mr. LaVerne W. Noyes, President of the Board of Trustees, had the structure crafted by his company, Aermotor Windmill Company, and donated it to the Academy. Wallace W. Atwood inside the Atwood Celestial Sphere Atwood Celestial Sphere, c1913 The sphere, constructed of a thin galvanized sheet metal, was only 15 feet in diameter. Tiny perforations in the exterior of the sphere allowed light to penetrate, appearing as stars to those viewing from the inside. Atwood designed the celestial sphere to portray the stellar sky as seen from Chicago and visitors would watch as the sun, moon, and stars rotated around them in simulation of Earth’s orbit through the solar system. The sphere was utilized heavily for educational programs at the Academy. School groups, clubs, and other visitors would tour the sphere, with programs often led by Atwood himself during his time with the Academy. Wallace W. Atwood with children inside the Celestial Sphere The stars were positioned with such mathematical precision that in 1941, the U.S. Navy began incorporating use of the Atwood Sphere in navigational training exercises for the U.S. Naval Reserve Unit stationed on the Chicago Campus of Northwestern University. Modifications were made to the Sphere to accommodate these trainings, including the installation of a meridian (an arc that follows the circumference of the sphere and passed through the zenith) and movable arm with which to measure the zenith angle – the distance between the zenith (the point directly overhead) and any star. Atwood Celestial Sphere at the Academy’s Laflin Memorial Building, c1920s In the 1960s, the Academy began extensive redesign of its exhibits and developing life zone dioramas created by William Beecher and Academy staff. The exterior of the Atwood Celestial Sphere was painted to look like the Earth and the ceiling of the Laflin Building painted to look like the night sky to blend more readily with the new exhibits. Thurston Wright working on the Atwood Celestial Sphere, c1950s Atwood Celestial Sphere with the exterior painted to look like Earth, c1960s. William Beecher in the foreground and Thurston Wright in the background. The Atwood Celestial Sphere was transferred to the Adler Planetarium in 1995 when the Academy vacated its Laflin Building, where it currently resides. Dawn RobertsView Comments Created: 6/12/2013 Updated: 8/9/2016 We are all rather fond of Harriet here at the Nature Museum. She is a very large, female Striped Knee Tarantula who has been with the institution longer than pretty much everyone. She has been here so long that I have never actually been able to find any record of where she came from or when. In spite of her somewhat intimidating appearance she is a very gentle creature and also quite a celebrity. She has featured on a blues album cover. She has done numerous TV appearances for various local stations and she also appeared on the cover of a medical paper about treating arachnophobia. But in between all this jet setting she is just a regular arachnid. She spends most of her time in the Istock family Look-in-Lab raising squeals from countless children. Once in a while we will notice that she starts to slowly spin a thick web mat and then we know exactly what she is up to. She is getting ready to shed. The first time she did this after I started working here I was alone in the lab one evening, I have to confess I had never seen a tarantula shed before so imagine my horror when I walked past her tank and she was laying upside down with all her legs in the air! Absolutely no prizes for guessing what I thought. I was so upset and spent most of that night imagining having to tell everyone that dear, sweet Harriet was no more. When I came in the next morning there appeared to be TWO tarantulas in Harriets’ cage, and they were both the right way up. By now I had begun to put two and two together, or in this case, one and one and realized what had happened, Harriet had shed. I have been here for several years now and after the trauma of that first time I made a little sign which reads ‘She’s not dead, she’s shedding!’ I have witnessed numerous Harriet sheds and each time I marvel at the process. Here is Harriet the morning after her most recent shed. She is the one on the right of the picture! And here is her freshly shed skin, called an exuvium. If you look closely you can see each individual hole where she carefully pulled her legs out of the old skin. Now even if you are not keen on spiders, you have to admit, that is pretty cool! Created: 6/12/2013 Updated: 8/9/2016 ‘Father of the Year’ is an annual public program that highlights the best animal dad around the Nature Museum. Every Spring, as new life is booming inside and outside of the museum, we keep our eyes open to observe traits in male animals that contribute to the healthy upbringing of young. Once an exemplary ‘dad’ has emerged, we learn facts about his species and decide if he has what it takes to bestowed this honor. On Sunday, June 16th at 12:00 we will announce the 2013 Father of the Year. Visitors will learn all about the celebrated recipient and what he does to benefit the next generation during the award presentation. We started doing this program a few years ago as way of sharing our fondness of the parental instincts of members of our living collection. Visitors are often surprised at how much we might have in common with the rest of the animal world when it comes to ‘bringing up baby’. This program fosters a connection with these notable parents. The 2012 winner of the accolade was the Button Quail- an adorable bird species that resides in the Butterfly Haven. Button Quail males are known to share nesting duties and are be strong protectors of chicks. One day last spring, faint peeping could be heard in the Haven. After a search in between the thick plants, two cute button quail babies were spotted under the wing of one of our males. We knew we had our winner. This year the winner is an equally suitable title holder, but we can’t give it away until the ceremony. Please join us on Father’s Day to learn all about the lauded papa. Laura SalettaView Comments Public Programs Educator Created: 6/11/2013 Updated: 8/10/2016 A sure sign of the change of seasons is when we in the Biology Department finally start to get out to do field work. Our Blanding’s Turtle work was severely affected last year by the drought so we had some catching up to do. First order of business, release all last years hatchlings that we had held onto due to a lack of water. We begin by blanking out their individual ID numbers to make them less conspicuous. Then we select suitable sites with relatively shallow water, plenty of vegetation for cover and a healthy population of aquatic invertebrates for food. It is always a delightful moment when we watch these little turtles get their first taste of freedom. After all the hatchlings were released we started doing some radio tracking. This can be a slow process as we work to follow the beeps emitted by the transmitter and home in on its location. This time we had so much water to work in we had a problem reaching the bottom to grab the turtle when we located it. We go from one extreme to the other it seems! Unfortunately our first trail was a bust as we came up with a detached transmitter but we would far rather have this happen than find one that had obviously been removed by a predator. We can recycle and refit these transmitters so we carefully stowed it and then set of tracking another turtle. This one led us on a merry dance through all kinds of habitat... ...before we eventually tracked it down. It is always a great way to end a day of fieldwork by finding a large, strong, healthy turtle. He will have his transmitter replaced and then be rereleased at the exact location he was found. Hopefully he will soon find some female turtles and start work on this year's batch of babies! Created: 6/11/2013 Updated: 8/10/2016 Earlier this month, I had the privilege of learning the art of taxidermy, or, in layman's terms, skinning an animal and stuffing it with cotton and wire. I have to admit that I thought it would be a much more complicated process involving toxic chemicals and specialized safety equipment. In reality, all you need is a sharp knife (preferably a scalpel) and some borax. So long as you're sure to wash your hands afterwards, you don't even need gloves. As we waited for our chipmunks to thaw, we spent some time drawing them, taking a few minutes to learn about the contours of their bodies, where their joints are, and how their fur lies. I learned two things during that time. First, I'm not very good at drawing. Second, I learned what a chipmunk really looks like: how its legs move, how the features of its head sit upon its skull, how the color patterns flow across its body. It was all quite intimate. After bonding with our specimens, it came time to cut into them, from thigh to thigh, right above the genitals, being careful not to cut through the thin layer of muscle separating us from the rodent's stinking bowels. This was a relief, it hadn't dawned on me that by only collecting the skin, we could leave its mess of organs tucked safely in the package nature made for them. This was the only time we cut through the skin, the rest of the cutting we performed was done in between the skin and the muscle, delicately cutting away at the layers of connective tissue. We worked our way from that initial incision to the back knees until we could peel the skin up and over them to fit our scissors around the joint without cutting skin. Then, a bit of pressure, a quick snap, and the femur was separated from the tibia and fibula. We'd come back for those later, it was time for the really fun part. Taxidermists have a special tool for getting the tail out, it almost looks like a pair of wire cutters, but instead of cutting them, it’s designed to hold onto the bones in the tail as you slip off the bushy tail. I don't think I could describe the feeling to you. It sounds rather morbid, I'm sure, but it's really quite delightful, almost like popping the cork on a bottle of sparkling grape fruit juice as a kid on Thanksgiving. You gently apply pressure, anticipation mingled with a tinge of fear, then POP, off it goes. Things were pretty straightforward from there to the skull, just like pulling off a sock. It was actually pretty meditative, and there were times when I had to stop and take stock of what I was doing, assuring myself that, "Yes, I really am peeling the skin of a chipmunk, and it really is this interesting." This is around the same time that the museum guests started showing up, many of them school groups. There were two facts which many of the children seemed to have difficulty holding in their heads at the same time: these are real chipmunks, and they are dead. One child, nearly at the point of holding these facts together asked, "Are you're fixing it?" Aside from the confusion, there were some wonderfully refreshing moments when a child grasped what was happening and watched with awe rather than disgust. These are the young scientists our country so desperately needs. Steadily working our way up toward the head, casually chatting amongst ourselves, and enthusiastically sharing with the public what we ourselves had learned only a short while ago, it was time for the difficult part. Not only is the face the cutest part of the chipmunk, it's also the most tenaciously wrapped around the skull. The ears, eyelids, and lips can all easily be disfigured by a hand too quick to finish the job. With the help of our resident expert and trainer, we all managed to keep the cuteness intact. At last, the skin was off, and it was on to the next stage. The hollow skin was rubbed with borax to dry it out, and the fluffy side was turned back to face the right side. Next, wires were cut to replace the bones we had removed. One wire reaching from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail, and two reaching from the front to back paw on either side. The central wire was then wrapped in cotton and molded with twine to approximate the shape and size of the body. Because chipmunk tails are rather thin, about a third of the wire was left bare so that what we ended up with looked a bit like a popsicle. This was then gently pushed back through the incision we had made hours ago, all the way up to the adorable little face we had affectionately drawn at the start of our day. The other two wires were then set into place along the sides of the body, pushing it into the superman pose which it will hold for centuries to come. I thought the final step would be sewing it back up, but I'm glad it wasn't (partly because I found it the most difficult). The final step was "to make the specimen look good." I understand that the real reason for this is scientific, for the sake of our collections, but it allowed me to show my respect for the little critter I had just skinned. Gently combing his fur straight and using pins to get his tail and face aligned was a warm way to end what had been a day of cutting, bone breaking, and stuffing. I found it suiting that the process should begin with careful consideration of the creature in its natural form and end with time spent approximating that form. After all, a quick internet search for "bad taxidermy" might make one shudder to think how embarrassed the ancestors of those creatures would be if they were ever to gain sentience.View Comments Created: 6/4/2013 Updated: 8/10/2016 Alfred M. Bailey, director of the Chicago Academy of Sciences from 1927-1936, was an avid nature photographer in both still and motion picture formats. Bailey was an ornithologist, so the majority of his images are of birds. The Academy has a large number of Bailey's photographs in their Archives taken on his trips all over the United States and Canada with the intention of recording a variety of species of birds in their natural habitat. Here are a few examples from his trips to Louisiana: Anhinga with young on nest taken in Louisiana ca. 1930. Francis R. Dickinson canoeing to bird blind for taking images of migrating birds at the Paul Rainey Bird Sanctuary in Louisiana, ca. 1932. Laughing Gull with eggs on nest taken in Louisiana ca. 1930. Brown Pelican feeding its young taken on shore in Louisiana, ca. 1930. Close-up of Royal Tern with young in nesting colony taken on shore of Louisiana, ca. 1930. Amber KingView Comments Assistant Collections Manager Created: 6/4/2013 Updated: 8/10/2016 Conservation has long been a part of the Academy’s history. Today we are actively working with area endangered butterfly species and the Blanding’s turtle, but in our past there were many other conservation efforts for which Academy scientists and staff passionately fought, most often in collaboration with representatives from other agencies or institutions. Some involved preserving large parcels of land like the Indiana Dunes and others focused on one small area or species. One such effort in 1941 saved colonies of the mound building ants, Formica ulkei, that made their home in Palos Hills. The ants came under scrutiny when the land on which they made their home was purchased by the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA). The YMCA was concerned that the ants would cause harm to the people that would come visit the campground they were going to establish. Accordingly, they contacted a representative at the Illinois State Natural History Survey to ascertain the best way to destroy the colony. This representative quickly alerted those individuals he knew had been monitoring the colony, and Dr. Eliot C. Williams, Assistant to the Director of the Chicago Academy of Sciences spearheaded the effort. The Academy published an article on the ants by Alton S. Windsor in its publication, The Chicago Naturalist, entitled “Pyramids of Palos” in October 1939. The colony had been located by Windsor and Dr. T.C. Schneirla in 1931 following local reports of the presence of numerous mounds. They found dozens of mounds at that time and confirmed that the species was Formica ulkei. This particular ant species was only found in a few areas in the Chicago region. The mounds ranged in size from about eighteen inches in diameter and ten to twelve inches in height to as large as seven feet in diameter and three feet above the ground. Windsor continued to visit the site and monitor the ants over the years and he and Schneirla returned together to the site in August of 1939. While some of the mounds had been abandoned due to human intervention or natural progression, the ants as a whole were thriving; a census conducted a few years earlier of just a few acres gave a total number of over 400 mounds! Dr. Schneirla at mound in Palos Hills, from "The Chicago Naturalist" article. The YMCA was uninformed as to the scientific importance of the colony when they initially inquired into their removal, but upon receiving letters from Dr. Williams, Jr. and other local scientists, began working with him to formulate a way of using the ant colony to further education about the species and its importance, instead of destroying them. The YMCA and the Academy drew up an agreement in which visitors to the Palos Hills Camp would be informed of the scientific importance of the ants, visitors observing the ants could record their findings, the Academy would have permission to relocate ant mounds located on proposed building sites, and a small sign would be erected at each mound site to help protect the ants “against injury and unthoughtful acts”. In addition, the signs would be numbered so that the observations made by visitors could be accurately recorded and a “history” for each mound could be established. Scan of a mound marker sign from the Academy's Insitutional Archive used to mark and number each ant mound. Today this species is no longer present in Palos Hills and not much is known about the effort and why and when it ended or even where the proposed visitor records are now. Williams was drafted in July 1942 and served in the Army until March 1946. Many others from the Academy and the scientific community joined Williams, leaving the Academy and other organizations with a skeletal staff during the war years. It was perhaps this absence and the increased responsibility of those who remained stateside that led to the decline in the oversight of this site, but we can only speculate. While this effort did not culminate in the continuation of the Formica ulkei at Palos Hills in perpetuity, the open dialogue created on both sides of the issue resulted in fruitful discussion and compromise. For further information: Greenberg, Joel, ed. Of Prairie, Woods, and Water: Two Centuries of Chicago Nature Writing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010, pp. 457-468. Windsor, A.S. “Pyramids of Palos.” The Chicago Naturalist, Vol. 2, No. 3: October 1939, pp. 67-72, 91. Chicago Academy of Sciences Institutional Archives Amber KingView Comments Assistant Collections Manager

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Name of text – remember “ ”and capital letters 3. Key words from the title 4. Give a brief summary of the playpoemshort storynovel (1 senten.How to write an exemplification essay from the word example, critical, an exemplification essay uses examples to elaborate or support a certain structure. So, write in the strong, direct manner of a pr.A critical analysis is subjective writing because it expresses the writer analyze the structure of the passage by sample outline for critical essay.The critical essay is informative; it emphasizes the literary work being studied rather than the feelings and opinions of the person writing about the literary work;.A critical essay format and critical essay structure are the same as in all other essay types. If you need a good critical essay sample or a professional piece of. a memorable experience essay

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Despite, wide reporting of Holocaust atrocities including gas chambers, many prominent analysts doubted the authenticity of these reports. Prominently, Roger Allen, a member of the British Foreign Office discounted intelligence reports on the use of gas chambers in Polish extermination camps because he could “never understand what the advantage of a gas chamber over a simple machine gun or over starving people would be.” Guderian argued that the tank would be the decisive weapon of the next war. "If the tanks succeed, then victory follows", he wrote. In an article addressed to critics of tank warfare, he wrote "until our critics can produce some new and better method of making a successful land attack other than self-massacre, we shall continue to maintain our beliefs that tanks—properly employed, needless to say—are today the best means available for land attack." Addressing the faster rate at which defenders could reinforce an area than attackers could penetrate it during the First World War, Guderian wrote that "since reserve forces will now be motorized, the building up of new defensive fronts is easier than it used to be; the chances of an offensive based on the timetable of artillery and infantry co-operation are, as a result, even slighter today than they were in the last war." He continued, "We believe that by attacking with tanks we can achieve a higher rate of movement than has been hitherto obtainable, and—what is perhaps even more important—that we can keep moving once a breakthrough has been made."[l] Guderian additionally required that tactical radios be widely used to facilitate coordination and command by having one installed in all tanks. A separate camp for the Roma, the Zigeunerfamilienlager ("Gypsy family camp"), was set up in the BIIe sector of Auschwitz II-Birkenau in February 1943. For unknown reasons, they were not subject to selection and families were allowed to stay together. The first transport of German Roma arrived at Auschwitz II on 26 February that year. There had been a small number of Romani inmates before that; two Czech Romani prisoners, Ignatz and Frank Denhel, tried to escape in December 1942, the latter successfully, and a Polish Romani woman, Stefania Ciuron, arrived on 12 February 1943 and escaped in April. Throughout the 1930s, the legal, economic, and social rights of Jews were steadily restricted. On 1 April 1933, there was a boycott of Jewish businesses. On 7 April 1933, the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service was passed, which excluded Jews and other "non-Aryans" from the civil service. Jews were disbarred from practising law, being editors or proprietors of newspapers, joining the Journalists' Association, or owning farms. In Silesia, in March 1933, a group of men entered the courthouse and beat up Jewish lawyers; Friedländer writes that, in Dresden, Jewish lawyers and judges were dragged out of courtrooms during trials. Jewish students were restricted by quotas from attending schools and universities. Jewish businesses were targeted for closure or "Aryanization", the forcible sale to Germans; of the approximately 50,000 Jewish-owned businesses in Germany in 1933, about 7,000 were still Jewish-owned in April 1939. Works by Jewish composers, authors, and artists were excluded from publications, performances, and exhibitions. Jewish doctors were dismissed or urged to resign. The Deutsches Ärzteblatt (a medical journal) reported on 6 April 1933: "Germans are to be treated by Germans only." When in August 1944 his factory was decommissioned, Schindler successfully petitioned to have it moved to Brnĕnec (Brünnlitz) in the Sudetenland, close to his hometown. Schindler and his associates composed a list of Jewish workers that he deemed essential for the new factory and submitted it for approval to the Jewish labour office. (With several versions of the list known, it is difficult to determine how many people were ultimately selected.) Though those chosen were diverted for a time to other concentration camps, Schindler intervened, ensuring that 700 men and 300 women eventually arrived at Brnĕnec. They were later joined by 100 more Jews who had been transported from another concentration camp by the Nazis and abandoned in train cars in Brnĕnec. Those who reached the camp spent the remaining months of the war manufacturing munitions that were rigged to fail. A final head count compiled at this time listed 1,098 Jews at the camp. The biblical term shoah (Hebrew: שׁוֹאָה), meaning "destruction", became the standard Hebrew term for the murder of the European Jews, first used in a pamphlet in 1940, Sho'at Yehudei Polin ("Sho'ah of Polish Jews"), published by the United Aid Committee for the Jews in Poland. On 3 October 1941 the cover of the magazine The American Hebrew used the phrase "before the Holocaust", apparently to refer to the situation in France, and in May 1943 The New York Times, discussing the Bermuda Conference, referred to the "hundreds of thousands of European Jews still surviving the Nazi Holocaust". In 1968 the Library of Congress created a new category, "Holocaust, Jewish (1939–1945)". The term was popularized in the United States by the NBC mini-series Holocaust (1978), about a fictional family of German Jews, and in November 1978 the President's Commission on the Holocaust was established. As non-Jewish groups began to include themselves as Holocaust victims too, many Jews chose to use the terms Shoah or Churban instead.[g] The Nazis used the phrase "Final Solution to the Jewish Question" (German: die Endlösung der Judenfrage). Around 50,000 German gay men were jailed between 1933 and 1945, and 5,000–15,000 are estimated to have been sent to concentration camps. It is not known how many died during the Holocaust. James Steakley writes that what mattered in Germany was criminal intent or character, rather than acts, and the "gesundes Volksempfinden" ("healthy sensibility of the people") became the guiding legal principle. In 1936, Himmler created the Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion. The Gestapo raided gay bars, tracked individuals using the address books of those they arrested, used the subscription lists of gay magazines to find others, and encouraged people to report suspected homosexual behavior and to scrutinize the behavior of their neighbors. Lesbians were left relatively unaffected; the Nazis saw them as "asocials", rather than sexual deviants. Gay men convicted between 1933 and 1944 were sent to camps for "rehabilitation", where they were identified by pink triangles. Hundreds were castrated, sometimes "voluntarily" to avoid criminal sentences. Steakley writes that the full extent of gay suffering was slow to emerge after the war. Many victims kept their stories to themselves because homosexuality remained criminalized in postwar Germany. John Ellis wrote that "...there is considerable justice in Matthew Cooper's assertion that the panzer divisions were not given the kind of strategic mission that was to characterize authentic armoured blitzkrieg, and were almost always closely subordinated to the various mass infantry armies." Steven Zaloga wrote, "Whilst Western accounts of the September campaign have stressed the shock value of the panzer and Stuka attacks, they have tended to underestimate the punishing effect of German artillery on Polish units. Mobile and available in significant quantity, artillery shattered as many units as any other branch of the Wehrmacht." These evacuations were regarded as provisional or "temporary solutions" ("Ausweichmöglichkeiten").[p] The final solution would encompass the 11 million Jews living not only in territories controlled by Germany, but elsewhere in Europe and adjacent territories, such as Britain, Ireland, Switzerland, Turkey, Sweden, Portugal, Spain, and Hungary, "dependent on military developments". There was little doubt what the final solution was, writes Peter Longerich: "the Jews were to be annihilated by a combination of forced labour and mass murder". According to Polish historian Andrzej Strzelecki, the evacuation of the prisoners by the SS in January 1945 was one of the camp's "most tragic chapters". In mid-1944, about 130,000 prisoners were in Auschwitz when the SS moved around half of them to other concentration camps. In November 1944, with the Soviet Red Army approaching through Poland, Himmler ordered gassing operations to cease. The crematorium IV building was dismantled, and the Sonderkommando was ordered to remove evidence of the killings, including the mass graves. The SS destroyed written records, and in the final week before the camp's liberation, burned or demolished many of its buildings. The plundered goods from the "Canada" barracks at Birkenau, together with building supplies, were transported to the German interior. On 20 January, the overflowing warehouses were set ablaze. Crematoria II and III at Birkenau were blown up on 20 January and crematorium V six days later, just one day ahead of the Soviet attack. In nearly every country overrun by the Nazis, the Jews were forced to wear badges marking them as Jews, they were rounded up into ghettos or concentration camps and then gradually transported to the killing centers. The death camps were essentially factories for murdering Jews. The Germans shipped thousands of Jews to them each day. Within a few hours of their arrival, the Jews had been stripped of their possessions and valuables, gassed to death, and their bodies burned in specially designed crematoriums. Approximately 3.5 million Jews were murdered in these death camps. At this time only the main camp, later known as Auschwitz I, had been established. Himmler ordered the construction of a second camp for 100,000 inmates on the site of the village of Brzezinka, roughly two miles from the main camp. This second camp, now known as Birkenau or Auschwitz II, was initially intended to be filled with captured Russian POWs who would provide the slave labor to build the SS “utopia” in Upper Silesia. Chemical giant I G Farben expressed an interest in utilizing this labor force, and extensive construction work began in October 1941 under terrible conditions and with massive loss of life. About 10,000 Russian POWs died in this process. The greater part of the apparatus of mass extermination was eventually built in the Birkenau camp and the majority of the victims were murdered here. Prior to the German offensive in May, Winston Churchill had said "Thank God for the French Army". That same French army collapsed after barely two months of fighting. This was in shocking contrast to the four years of trench warfare they had engaged in during the First World War. The French president of the Ministerial Council, Reynaud, attributed the collapse in a speech on 21 May 1940: Rzepliñski, Andrzej (25 March 2004). "Prosecution of Nazi Crimes in Poland in 1939–2004" (PDF). First International Expert Meeting on War Crimes, Genocide, and Crimes against Humanity. Lyon, France: International Criminal Police Organization – Interpol General Secretariat. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2014. There is no question that Oskar Schindler was appalled by the murder of Jewish children when the Krakow ghetto was closed but Crowe argues “evidence suggests that he had already chosen his path sometime before this tragedy” and that the murders “simply made him more determined to help as many Jews as he could.” In a film, of course, it is more challenging to portray gradual determination rather than a single moment that inspires action. However, Crowe writes, “In the end, there was no one, dramatic transforming moment when Oskar Schindler decided to do everything he could to save his Jewish workers.” Throughout German-occupied territory the situation of the Jews was desperate. They had meagre resources and few allies and faced impossible choices. A few people came to their rescue, often at the risk of their own lives. Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg arrived in Budapest on July 9, 1944, in an effort to save Hungary’s sole remaining Jewish community. Over the next six months, he worked with other neutral diplomats, the Vatican, and Jews themselves to prevent the deportation of these last Jews. Elsewhere, Le Chambon-sur-Lignon, a French Huguenot village, became a haven for 5,000 Jews. In German-occupied Poland, where it was illegal to aid Jews and where such action was punishable by death, the Zegota (Council for Aid to Jews) rescued a similar number of Jewish men, women, and children. Financed by the London-based Polish government in exile and involving a wide range of clandestine political organizations, Zegota provided hiding places and financial support and forged identity documents. Responding to domestic pressures to act on behalf of Jewish refugees, U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt convened, but did not attend, the Évian Conference on resettlement, in Évian-les-Bains, France, in July 1938. In his invitation to government leaders, Roosevelt specified that they would not have to change laws or spend government funds; only philanthropic funds would be used for resettlement. Britain was assured that Palestine would not be on the agenda. The result was that little was attempted and less accomplished. Treatment inside the concentration camps were horrible. Prisoners were given tiny rations of food and forced into physical labor. They often slept more than three to a bed without pillows or blankets, even in the winter months. In many concentration camps, Nazi doctors conducted medical experiments on prisoners against their will, in many cases killing the prisoners in the process. In 1980, Australian author Thomas Keneally by chance visited Pfefferberg's luggage store in Beverly Hills while en route home from a film festival in Europe. Pfefferberg took the opportunity to tell Keneally the story of Oskar Schindler. He gave him copies of some materials he had on file, and Keneally soon decided to make a fictionalised treatment of the story. After extensive research and interviews with surviving Schindlerjuden, his 1982 historical novel Schindler's Ark (published in the United States as Schindler's List) was the result. The concepts associated with the term "Blitzkrieg" - deep penetrations by armour, large encirclements, and combined arms attacks - were largely dependent upon terrain and weather conditions. Where the ability for rapid movement across "tank country" was not possible, armoured penetrations were often avoided or resulted in failure. Terrain would ideally be flat, firm, unobstructed by natural barriers or fortifications, and interspersed with roads and railways. If it was instead hilly, wooded, marshy, or urban, armour would be vulnerable to infantry in close-quarters combat and unable to break out at full speed. Additionally, units could be halted by mud ( thawing along the Eastern Front regularly slowed both sides) or extreme snow. Artillery observation and aerial support was also naturally dependent on weather. Birkenau had its first documentary mention in 795 in the Lorsch Codex as a cell of the Lorsch Abbey. As one of the Abbey’s holdings, it passed into the ownership of the Archbishopric of Mainz in 1232. The centres of Hornbach and Balzenbach, on the other hand, belonged to the Electorate of the Palatinate, meaning that after the Reformation, they belonged to different denominations. In 1532 the town hall was built, and in 1771 the palace, Schloss Birkenau, of the Lords of Wambolt von Umstadt. By 1964, the population had grown to more than 5,000. In 1967 the community was recognized as a recreational resort (Erholungsort) and in 1979 as an open-air resort (Luftkurort). Owing to the only slight tourism, however, it has not reapplied for this designation. In 1995, Birkenau celebrated its 1,200-year jubilee. After the start of World War II, Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), the chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, implemented a policy that came to be known as the “Final Solution.” Hitler was determined not just to isolate Jews in Germany and countries annexed by the Nazis, subjecting them to dehumanizing regulations and random acts of violence. Instead, he became convinced that his “Jewish problem” would be solved only with the elimination of every Jew in his domain, along with artists, educators, Gypsies, communists, homosexuals, the mentally and physically handicapped and others deemed unfit for survival in Nazi Germany. German forces had begun evacuating many of the death camps in the fall of 1944, sending inmates under guard to march further from the advancing enemy’s front line. These so-called “death marches” continued all the way up to the German surrender, resulting in the deaths of some 250,000 to 375,000 people. In his classic book “Survival in Auschwitz,” the Italian Jewish author Primo Levi described his own state of mind, as well as that of his fellow inmates in Auschwitz on the day before Soviet troops arrived at the camp in January 1945: “We lay in a world of death and phantoms. The last trace of civilization had vanished around and inside us. The work of bestial degradation, begun by the victorious Germans, had been carried to conclusion by the Germans in defeat.” In the course of one recent 24-hour blitzkrieg, the Say Cheese Instagram (342,000 followers and counting) — which Cotton maintains along with one full-time employee — averaged a post an hour. — Jeff Weiss, latimes.com, "How Instagram and YouTube help underground hip-hop artists and tastemakers find huge audiences," 4 July 2018 While Trump traveled to Europe for NATO meetings Tuesday, Vice President Mike Pence accompanied Kavanaugh to Capitol Hill and led a blitzkrieg of media appearances. — latimes.com, "Democrats hope Obamacare fears will derail Kavanaugh as White House moves to soften his image," 11 July 2018 But their emergent defense might be the difference between this season's playoff run and last year's failure, when the D wore out in the face of the Patriots' ball-control Super Bowl blitzkrieg. — Nate Davis, USA TODAY, "20 things we learned during NFL wild-card weekend," 7 Jan. 2018 But that all ended in 2014, when Islamic State launched its blitzkrieg across Iraq’s northern regions. — Nabih Bulos, latimes.com, "Basra was once a jewel of a city. Now it's a symbol what's wrong in Iraq," 17 June 2018 Scooter startups are using similar blitzkrieg tactics, and cities are taking action. — NBC News, "The next Uber? Scooter startups flood U.S. cities as funding pours in," 9 July 2018 Thiem pushed Nadal deep behind the baseline with a blitzkrieg of groundstrokes. — Geoff Macdonald, New York Times, "Players to Watch at the French Open," 25 May 2018 Harmon’s brilliantly caustic play frames serious issues of Jewish identity within a breathtaking blitzkrieg of invective guaranteed to make your eardrums smolder. — Matt Cooper, latimes.com, "The week ahead in SoCal theater: 'Rodgers + Hammerstein's Cinderella' and more," 16 June 2018 The Mariners pulled off the latest blitzkrieg in a 7-1 win over the Astros on Tuesday at Minute Maid Park. — Hunter Atkins, Houston Chronicle, "Dallas Keuchel struggles in Astros' loss to Mariners," 5 June 2018 Auschwitz, perhaps the most notorious and lethal of the concentration camps, was actually three camps in one: a prison camp (Auschwitz I), an extermination camp (Auschwitz II–Birkenau), and a slave labour camp (Auschwitz III–Buna-Monowitz). Upon arrival, Jewish prisoners faced what was called a Selektion. A German doctor presided over the selection of pregnant women, young children, the elderly, handicapped, sick, and infirm for immediate death in the gas chambers. As necessary, the Germans selected able-bodied prisoners for forced labour in the factories adjacent to Auschwitz, where one German company, IG Farben, invested 700 million Reichsmarks in 1942 alone to take advantage of forced labour, a capital investment. The conglomerate presumed that slave labour would be a permanent part of the German economy. Deprived of adequate food, shelter, clothing, and medical care, these prisoners were literally worked to death. Periodically, they would face another Selektion. The Nazis would transfer those unable to work to the gas chambers of Birkenau. German-occupied Denmark rescued most of its own Jews by spiriting them to Sweden by sea in October 1943. This was possible partly because the German presence in Denmark was relatively small. Moreover, while anti-Semitism in the general population of many other countries led to collaboration with the Germans, Jews were an integrated part of Danish culture. Under these unique circumstances, Danish humanitarianism flourished. Here over an acre of ground lay dead and dying people. You could not see which was which. ... The living lay with their heads against the corpses and around them moved the awful, ghostly procession of emaciated, aimless people, with nothing to do and with no hope of life, unable to move out of your way, unable to look at the terrible sights around them ... Babies had been born here, tiny wizened things that could not live. ... A mother, driven mad, screamed at a British sentry to give her milk for her child, and thrust the tiny mite into his arms. ... He opened the bundle and found the baby had been dead for days. This day at Belsen was the most horrible of my life. While the labour camps at Auschwitz and Majdanek used inmates for slave labour to support the German war effort, the extermination camps at Belzec, Treblinka, and Sobibor had one task alone: killing. At Treblinka a staff of 120, of whom only 30 were SS (the Nazi paramilitary corps), killed some 750,000 to 925,000 Jews during the camp’s 17 months of operation. At Belzec German records detail a staff of 104, including about 20 SS, who killed some 500,000 Jews in less than 10 months. At Sobibor they murdered between 200,000 and 250,000. These camps began operation during the spring and summer of 1942, when the ghettos of German-occupied Poland were filled with Jews. Once they had completed their missions—murder by gassing, or “resettlement in the east,” to use the language of the Wannsee protocols—the Nazis closed the camps. There were six extermination camps, all in German-occupied Poland, among the thousands of concentration and slave-labour camps throughout German-occupied Europe. The Holocaust began in 1933 when Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany and ended in 1945 when the Nazis were defeated by the Allied powers. The term Holocaust is derived from the Greek word holokauston, which means sacrifice by fire. It refers to the Nazi persecution and planned slaughter of the Jewish people and others considered inferior to "true" Germans. The Hebrew word Shoah, which means devastation, ruin or waste, also refers to this genocide. In late January 1945, SS and police officials forced 4,000 prisoners to evacuate Blechhammer on foot. Blechhammer was a subcamp of Auschwitz-Monowitz. The SS murdered about 800 prisoners during the march to the Gross-Rosen concentration camp. SS officials also killed as many as 200 prisoners left behind in Blechhammer as a result of illness or unsuccessful attempts to hide. After a brief delay, the SS transported around 3,000 Blechhammer prisoners from Gross-Rosen to the Buchenwald concentration camp in Germany. Hi, I am travelling to Poland - Krakow on the 11th of november and thought of visiting Auschwitz Birkenau......But i am a little confused.....I can see from satelite photos the site of one of the concentration camps, but i know there are 3 but i only want to go visit Auschwitz Birkenau. Can someone please explain which one is which and if the Museaum is in fact one of the camps??? Many thanks in Advance Matt Jerzy Tabeau (prisoner no. 27273, registered as Jerzy Wesołowski) and Roman Cieliczko (no. 27089), both Polish prisoners, escaped on 19 November 1943; Tabeau made contact with the Polish underground and, between December 1943 and early 1944, wrote what became known as the Polish Major's report about the situation in the camp. On 27 April 1944, Rudolf Vrba (no. 44070) and Alfréd Wetzler (no. 29162) escaped to Slovakia, carrying detailed information to the Slovak Jewish Council about the gas chambers. The distribution of the Vrba-Wetzler report, and publication of parts of it in June 1944, helped to halt the deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz. On 27 May 1944, Arnost Rosin (no. 29858) and Czesław Mordowicz (no. 84216) also escaped to Slovakia; the Rosin-Mordowicz report was added to the Vrba-Wetzler and Tabeau reports to become what is known as the Auschwitz Protocols. The reports were first published in their entirety in November 1944 by the United States War Refugee Board, in a document entitled The Extermination Camps of Auschwitz (Oświęcim) and Birkenau in Upper Silesia. The Polish government-in-exile in London first reported the gassing of prisoners in Auschwitz on 21 July 1942, and reported the gassing of Soviet POWs and Jews on 4 September 1942. In 1943, the Kampfgruppe Auschwitz (Combat Group Auschwitz) was organized within the camp with the aim of sending out information about what was happening. Sonderkommandos buried notes in the ground, hoping they would be found by the camp's liberators. The group also smuggled out photographs; the Sonderkommando photographs, of events around the gas chambers in Auschwitz II, were smuggled out of the camp in September 1944 in a toothpaste tube. According to Fleming, the British press responded, in 1943 and the first half of 1944, either by not publishing reports about Auschwitz or by burying them on the inside pages. The exception was the Polish Jewish Observer, published as a supplement to the City and East London Observer and edited by Joel Cang, a former Warsaw correspondent for the Manchester Guardian. The British reticence stemmed from a Foreign Office concern that the public might pressure the government to respond or provide refuge for the Jews, and that British actions on behalf of the Jews might affect its relationships in the Middle East. There was similar reticence in the United States, and indeed within the Polish government-in-exile and the Polish resistance. According to Fleming, the scholarship suggests that the Polish resistance distributed information about the Holocaust in Auschwitz without challenging the Allies' reluctance to highlight it. The Blitzkrieg was fundamentally about moving away from the tried and tested methods of modern warfare and creating a new, more effective doctrine. To that end, Hitler had given his full backing to Guderian. Ironically, he had got his idea for Blitzkrieg from two officers – one from France and one from Britain and he had copied and broadened what they had put on paper. In Britain and France, however, the cavalry regiments ruled supreme and they were adamant that the tanks would not get any influence in their armies. The High Commands of both countries were dominated by the old traditional cavalry regiments and their political pull was great. These were the type of officers despised by Hitler and he took to his Panzer officer, Guderian, over the old officers that were in the German Army (the Wehrmacht). After the arrival of a transport at the ramp in Birkenau, the process known as selection took place. SS officers decided who would be taken to work, and who would be sent directly to the gas chambers. Often it was mere chance or the mood of the SS officer that decided whether someone died immediately or had a hope of survival. The prisoners selected for slave labour were sent to one of the many auxiliary camps at Auschwitz or elsewhere in the Nazi concentration camp system. Their aim was „Vernichtung durch Arbeit“ - extermination through labour. The Soviets found 7,600 inmates in Auschwitz. Some 60,000 prisoners were discovered at Bergen-Belsen by the British 11th Armoured Division; 13,000 corpses lay unburied, and another 10,000 people died from typhus or malnutrition over the following weeks. The BBC's war correspondent, Richard Dimbleby, described the scenes that greeted him and the British Army at Belsen, in a report so graphic the BBC declined to broadcast it for four days, and did so, on 19 April, only after Dimbleby had threatened to resign. Following Germany's military reforms of the 1920s, Heinz Guderian emerged as a strong proponent of mechanised forces. Within the Inspectorate of Transport Troops, Guderian and colleagues performed theoretical and field exercise work. Guderian met with opposition from some in the General Staff, who were distrustful of the new weapons and who continued to view the infantry as the primary weapon of the army. Among them, Guderian claimed, was Chief of the General Staff Ludwig Beck (1935–38), whom he alleged was sceptical that armoured forces could be decisive. This claim has been disputed by later historians. James Corum wrote: The Nuremberg Laws, issued on Sept. 15, 1935, was designed to exclude Jews from public life. The Nuremberg Laws stripped German Jews of their citizenship and prohibited marriages and extramarital sex between Jews and Gentiles. These measures set the legal precedent for anti-Jewish legislation that followed. Nazis issued numerous anti-Jewish laws over the next several years. Jews were banned from public parks, fired from civil service jobs, and forced to register their property. Other laws barred Jewish doctors from treating anyone other than Jewish patients, expelled Jewish children from public schools, and placed severe travel restrictions on Jews. Around Birkenau are several nature conservation areas and a considerable number of hiking paths. These are found on the one hand in the woods around Birkenau, but on the other hand, the Höhenweg (“Height Way”, European walking route E1, plateau path between Birkenau and Reisen), for example, is also worth visiting, as there is a striking view over Birkenau and Nieder-Liebersbach. After their defeat in 1918, German military intellectuals began reshaping the army. Under the direction of Hans von Seeckt, commanders fashioned the doctrine that the Wehrmacht was to employ in World War Two. Repelled by the waste and indecisiveness of trench warfare, they returned to the ideas of Schlieffen, and in 1921 the army published its new doctrine, Command and Combat with Combined Arms. On November 12, 1938, Field Marshal Hermann Göring convened a meeting of Nazi officials to discuss the damage to the German economy from pogroms. The Jewish community was fined one billion Reichsmarks. Moreover, Jews were made responsible for cleaning up the damage. German Jews, but not foreign Jews, were barred from collecting insurance. In addition, Jews were soon denied entry to theatres, forced to travel in separate compartments on trains, and excluded from German schools. These new restrictions were added to earlier prohibitions, such as those barring Jews from earning university degrees, from owning businesses, or from practicing law or medicine in the service of non-Jews. The Nazis would continue to confiscate Jewish property in a program called “Aryanization.” Göring concluded the November meeting with a note of irony: “I would not like to be a Jew in Germany!” In October 1939 Hitler signed a "euthanasia decree" backdated to 1 September 1939 that authorized Reichsleiter Philipp Bouhler, the chief of Hitler's Chancellery, and Karl Brandt, Hitler's personal physician, to carry out a program of involuntary "euthanasia"; after the war this program was named Aktion T4. It was named after Tiergartenstraße 4, the address of a villa in the Berlin borough of Tiergarten, where the various organizations involved were headquartered. T4 was mainly directed at adults, but the "euthanasia" of children was also carried out. Between 1939 and 1941, 80,000 to 100,000 mentally ill adults in institutions were killed, as were 5,000 children and 1,000 Jews, also in institutions. In addition there were specialized killing centres, where the deaths were estimated at 20,000, according to Georg Renno, the deputy director of Schloss Hartheim, one of the "euthanasia" centers, or 400,000, according to Frank Zeireis, the commandant of the Mauthausen concentration camp. Overall, the number of mentally and physically handicapped murdered was about 150,000. The Holocaust was the systematic annihilation of six million Jews by the Nazis during World War 2. In 1933 nine million Jews lived in the 21 countries of Europe that would be military occupied by Germany during the war. By 1945 two out of every three European Jews had been killed. 1.5 million children were murdered. This figure includes more than 1.2 million Jewish children, tens of thousands of Gypsy children and thousands of handicapped children. Auschwitz I, a former Polish army barracks, was the main camp (Stammlager) and administrative headquarters of the camp complex. Intending to use it to house political prisoners, Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, head of the Schutzstaffel (SS), approved the site in April 1940 on the recommendation of SS-Obersturmbannführer (lieutenant colonel) Rudolf Höss, then of the Concentration Camps Inspectorate. Höss oversaw the development of the camp and served as its first commandant, with SS-Obersturmführer (senior lieutenant) Josef Kramer as his deputy. Around 1,000 m long and 400 m wide, Auschwitz I consisted of 20 brick buildings, six of them two-story; a second story was added to the others in 1943 and eight new blocks were built. The camp housed the SS barracks and by 1943 held 30,000 inmates. The first 30 prisoners arrived on 20 May 1940 after being transported from the Sachsenhausen concentration camp in Oranienburg, Germany. Convicted German criminals (Berufsverbrecher), the men were known as "greens" after the green triangles they were required to wear on their prison clothing. Brought to the camp as functionaries, this group did much to establish the sadism of early camp life, which was directed particularly at Polish inmates, until the political prisoners began to take over their roles. Haaretz.com, the online edition of Haaretz Newspaper in Israel, and analysis from Israel and the Middle East. Haaretz.com provides extensive and in-depth coverage of Israel, the Jewish World and the Middle East, including defense, diplomacy, the Arab-Israeli conflict, the peace process, Israeli politics, Jerusalem affairs, international relations, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, the Palestinian Authority, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, the Israeli business world and Jewish life in Israel and the Diaspora. ^ In his testimony, according to Polish historian Aleksander Lasik, "Höss neither protected anyone nor evaded his own responsibility. His stance came as a surprise to many, especially those who viewed him as a bloodthirsty beast. Instead, he viewed his crimes in terms of the technical obstacles and challenges with which he had to cope. Höss stated that he led the killings in Auschwitz on express orders of Reichsführer Himmler."

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Middle Tech is a term used for the characteristic technologies of Old Earth from the Industrial Age to the late Information Age. Though powerful, these technologies have high energy and material requirements in proportion to their outputs, and can cause resource exhaustion and environmental degradation if the mechosystem is not carefully managed to capture and recycle its products and its abundant wastes. Middle tech societies may take a variety of forms, but the diversity of middle tech societies on any one world or megahab may actually be small due to the levelling effect of rapid local transportation and communication. Characteristic midtech includes nonsentient computers, interactive media, presentient and subturingrade expert systems, network architecture, basic biotech with crude gengineering, nuclear fission, chemical rocket engines, electronics, artificial dyes and fertilisers, artificial fibres, fusion weapons, crude solar cells, antibiotics and other synthetic drugs, inexpensive refining of raw materials, basic automation, and mechanised agriculture. Though of course midtech is widespread as a component in higher tech societies, exclusively midtech societies are vanishingly rare. Midtech lacks the stability of both higher and lower tech levels, so such regions either evolve to high tech societies or slip down to a more sustainable lowtech level. Nevertheless, midtech level artifacts may be popular among modosophonts in higher tech societies who prefer items that have powerful effects but are easy to operate and repair. Adaptive Mimetic Materials - Text by John B A piece of matter designed to gather specific biometric traits of a being and store them for later recovery or broadcast/narrowcast to a dedicated recorder. The most common is the adaptive mimetic material handle, which samples both palm print, finger prints, bioelectrical signatures, and sweat chemistry amongst bionts. With careful design, such materials can gather similar abiometric data from cyborgs and vecs, mapping the specific frequencies released by actuators, relative actuator strength, precise beam lengths, etc. This is often used as a cheap security measure. Adbomb - Text by M. Alan Kazlev, based on original by Michael Beck Subliminal memebot broadcast devices, scattered them around a designated area, they release a message into the brain of everyone in the area, usually an advertisement. Banned throughout much of the Civilized Galaxy, they are widely used in market state free zones such as the NoCoZo, and out towards the Periphery where the reach of the noetic and other big ai states is not very strong. AFV - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Armoured Fighting Vehicle. Any macroscopic armoured military fighting vehicle equipped with a selection of projectile and/or energy weapons, whether wheeled, tracked, walker, or a ground-effect, Industrial Age to Recent. Alcohol II - Text by Daniel Harle One of the first biologically active systemic nanotic injections, designed to keep a 'reasonable' (non-fatal) level of alcohol in the blood stream and to scavenge the unpleasant biochemical byproducts of alcohol metabolism. Arachnoweave - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Fabric created using biomimemetic synthesis of spider-silk proteins. Strong yet subtle and light, used for a variety of purposes, including police and military body armor, sporting clothing, and fashion statements. Arcjet - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Simple very lo-tech rocket used for short low power thrusters, such as station keeping motors and satellites. A non-flammable propellant is heated (not combusted) by an electrical heat source, causing it to undergo a phase change (from liquid to gas) and is then expelled out of the nozzle under pressure. Although extremely inefficient and low thrust, arcjets are very reliable and require no sentient or subsentient ai controller. Almost any fluid from spare drinking water to human urine to vec cleaning oils can be used as a propellant in an emergency. Arcology - Text by Anders Sandberg, Trent Shipley, and M. Alan Kazlev A planned, building/ neighborhood/ city that is integrated into the landscape and enables the inhabitants to live holistic lives, integrating work and play. Arcology designs are fully 3-dimensional, mega-structure cities which can in theory achieve much greater efficiencies, and promote more social interaction than 2-dimensional cities, while using far less land and consuming fewer resources. Autonomous Agent - Text by M. Alan Kazlev In general, an ai or aioid that has limited perception of its environment but is still able to process information to calculate an action so as to be able to perform a task or seek a goal. Bacca - Text by Anders Sandberg Family of crops derived from the tobacco plant through gengineering during the interplanetary era and later. Designed for use in space hydroponics, different strains produce livestock feed, vegetables, drugs and decorative flowers. Especially common is Qianxuesen, a bacca vegetable eaten, generally either boiled or mashed, by terragen bionts. Barbwire-Bush - Text by David Hallberg The Barb-wire Bush is a genetic construct designed for use in low-tech entrenched fortifications, such as those on the Western Front in the First World War of Old Earth, or in any number of prim to low-tech conflicts in the millennia since. It may also be used in civil settings as a low-cost privacy and security measure. Body Armour - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Body armour developed early as protective suits made of such materials as leather, shells, wood, and basketwork, later supplemented by metal and synthetic materials. Boltzmann Machine - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Stochastic neural network systems that are capable of learning hidden structure in data. Brainstorm - Text by Todd Drashner Semi-legal drug occasionally used by baselines/near- baselines seeking to solve a complex problem without the assistance of an ai. Bubblehabs - Text by Stephen Inniss Artificial habitats that float in a planetary atmosphere, usually the atmosphere of a cool gas giant or ice giant planet. Capacitors - Text by Stephen Inniss A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (non-conductor). Advanced designs allow capacitors to act as potent energy storage devices. Chameleon Suit - Text by M. Alan Kazlev; minor additions by Stephen Inniss Full-body stealth suit covered in specialized interlinked mesobots and nanobots that form an Optical Phased Array. The background on one side of the suit is detected via cambanks and this is then projected on the other side, enabling the wearer to be invisible. Some models also have built-in laser capacity. Not as sophisticated or impervious to detection as a janusuit, and easily detected by most perimeter security tech (motion analysis, nano cloud, sonics, interferometry, etc). It is still used in some kinds of games and sports, or on occasion for casual anonymity where security devices have not been deployed. It is till popular among some feral and barbarian groups. Chemical Engineering - Text by M. Alan Kazlev, based on the original by Robert J. Hall The macro-, micro-, meso- or nano-scale chemical conversion of raw materials into such end products as bioplastoids, synthetic petroleum products, dumb (macroscale) detergents, plastics, natural and synthetic fuels, pharmaceuticals, fullerenes, hardcopy paper, and industrial chemicals. While most products can be easily synthesized with any household nanofab, chemical engineering is still important in the mass-production of large quantities of material in large chemical plants. Chemosynthesis - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Primary production of organic matter using various substances and chemical reactions instead of light as an energy source; a common phenomenon throughout the galaxy, but rare in terragen ecologies. Chromatoclothes - Text by Mike Parisi "Smart" clothing that mimics the chromatophore firing patterns of certain species (most notably Bitenic Squids) that use chromatophores for communications. Cimri - Text by Anders Sandberg Kitchen MRI tool, used to check temperature, texture and juiciness of food by nuclear magnetic resonance. Clone - Text by M. Alan Kazlev A biological organism asexually reproduced or bionanonically copied from another cell or genome or a template thereof. A clone is genetically identical to its original. Computer - Text by M. Alan Kazlev A computation device, which may be sentient or non-sentient. AIs can be either sentient computers, or complex systems residing in the RAM of computers. Without computers, galactic civilization would be impossible. Crack - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Dumb, smart, or turingrade software that permits the user to penetrate a program or system even without a password. Often illegal but difficult to enforce, because of the ease by which such programs can be copied (a few are even self-replicating). Cycler - Text by M. Alan Kazlev A cycler is a ship or mobile habitat that travels continuously along an orbit or interstellar route in such a way that it makes a regular series of rendezvous with other stations, orbitals, planets, or stars along the way. Cyclers may be small or large, sparse or luxurious, slow or fast. They may be interplanetary (also called an Aldrin Cyclers) or interstellar (also called a Schroeder Cyclers), and may be completely passive (simple ballistic orbit) or with may have course correction drive units. Ear, The - Text by John B "The Ear" is used by baselines to indicate if they are under surveillance by active sensors or via active transmissions. Evolutionary Algorithm - Text by M. Alan Kazlev A computer program that simulates the processes biological evolution; a problem-solving system that use computational models of evolution as key elements of design. All alife, evolutionary ai and aioids, and self-evolving virchworlds are determined by evolutionary algorithms. Firewall - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Software, hardware, or firmware that protects an AI, program, or agent from attack. Firmware - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Software encoded into the hardware or wetware. Programming involves replacing the circuitry or chips or implants. Many simple bots, nanites, and simple bioborg modules and wetware applications are based on firmware. Fossil Fuel - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Naturally-occurring, energy-rich carbon-based substance, such as shale, petroleum, coal, or natural gas, in a Gaian Type world's crust that was formed from ancient organic material. During the Industrial, Atomic, and early Information ages on Old Earth fossil fuels were burned in a criminally negligent manner, resulting in drastic climate change and ecological crisis that was only repaired during the late Interplanetary Age. Friendzines - Text by Tony Jones A form of electronic media, not entirely unrelated to the madvert, but rather more benevolent, they are a combination of electronic magazine, news source and companion, combining an expert system optimized towards research and information storage with another expert system tooled towards interpersonal interaction with a specific user. Fullerene - Text by Stephen Inniss Any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube, as opposed to forms of carbon such as graphite or diamond which make extended networks that lead to crystals, or to amorphous forms of carbon such as soot. Gauss Gun - Text by M. Alan Kazlev A generic term for kinetic weapon that uses a magnetic charge to accelerate a projectile. Geckotech - Text by John Edds Use of nanoscale hairs (setae) to provide adhesion by Van der Waals forces. Genetic Algorithm - Text by Anders Sandberg in his Transhumanist Terminology Any algorithm which seeks to solve a problem by considering numerous possibilities at once, ranking them according to some standard of fitness, and then combining ("breeding") the fittest in some way. In other words, any algorithm which imitates natural selection. Ghost Interface (alias Washu pad) - Text by Peter Kisner Device in which the computer holographically projects an interface screen in some area near the user. The screen can be "touch" sensitive, with the computer monitoring phalangial position in relation to the projected image, or view-screen and "keyboard" can be separate projections. Ghost interfaces are usually activated either by a command word or easy hand gesture. Intelligent Agent - Text by M. Alan Kazlev An autonomous software program or very simple ai (usually turingrade but sometimes only subturingrade) that performs a function on its own, such as searching the Known Net for information based on certain criteria. Knowbot - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Knowledge robot, a data miner or intelligent search agent, a type of software-only aioid, instructed by users to scan networks for various kinds of related information, regardless of the language or form in which it expressed. May be turing or subturing grade. Lofstrom Loop - Text by Anders Sandberg in his Transhuman Terminology Dynamic launch loop using a continuous stream of linked magnetic units to raise payloads above the atmosphere for launch. Lorrey Loop - Text by Steve Bowers Advanced form of Lofstrom Loop using three geostationary terminii in orbit at the points of an equilateral triangle, and three ground terminii opposite them, connected by a stream of vessels or particles which travel in Hofmann orbits (except when in the atmosphere), thereby saving energy. Mecha - Text by Steve Bowers Humanoid Armoured Fighting Vehicle, basically a manned walking weapons platform. Can range from an armoured exoskelton only slightly larger than the occupant, to an excessively large construct the size of a skyscraper. Mega Factory - Text by Rhea47 Large scale, often deliberately anachronistic manufactory units which do not use nanofab technology Mitebot - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Microscopic or near-microscopic organic or mechanical robot, usually arachnid-like in form. Similar to a gnatbot except that it crawls rather than flies. Nanite - Text by M. Alan Kazlev; amended by Stephen Inniss and Ryan B Generic term for a molecular or nanoscale device, whether bionano or hylonano; a cluster of reactive nanoparticles. Nanomachine - Text by M. Alan Kazlev and Pran Mukherjee Generic term for a microscopic or molecular mechanical (non-biotic) device, for example a hylonanite or nanobot. It is important to note that nanomachines (and indeed nanites in general) do not have to be nanoscale; they may simply be microscale machines that can manipulate nanoscale objects. neoSQuID - Text by John B, additional comments by Steve Bowers New Superconducting Quantum Interference Device - a device which is capable of nanometer-resolution of microvolt discharges over a meter distance, or better. Net - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Distributed network of processing nodes, data-storage and distribution faculties, and virtual environments. See also Local Net, Known Net. Nuclear Reactor - Text by M. Alan Kazlev A power plant that uses controlled atomic fission or fusion to generate energy. Operating System, o/s, os - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Any software program that manages and provides a variety of services to application programs, including user interface facilities and management of input-output and memory devices. Operating systems are usually nonturing or subturing, more rarely dedicated turing or superturing, more rarely still (e.g. in ISOs) hyperturing. Optical Computer - Text by M. Alan Kazlev A computer that processes information using light instead of electrons. Each stream of photons represents an independent sequence of data, thereby providing extremely massive parallel computation. Nanooptical computers can use a single photon as a bit. Overcharge - Text by John B This is a deliberately destructive biostimulant cocktail designed to greatly amplify the capabilities of the baseline body. It is often considered to be the 'last gasp' of the pure baseline warrior concept. Photoelectrochemical Cell - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Generic term for a wide range of cheap and easily fabricated, flexible photovoltaic device based on nanocrystalline materials and conducting polymer films, that provide a very high efficiency ratio of conversion of sunlight to electrical power. Widely used in many space habitats and for ground-based planetary power production for remote habitats and instruments. Photonics - Text by M. Alan Kazlev based on a list by Robert J. Hall The study of the control of photons, especially for the transmission of information. Includes technology such as lasers, laser amplifiers, fiber optic cables, light-conducting buckytubes, light emitters, sensors and imaging systems of all sorts, charge-coupled devices, optical communication systems, holography, phased array optics, optical computers, and all types of optical data storage systems. Plastic (material) - Text by M. Alan Kazlev; some additions by Stephen Inniss A synthetic or semi-synthetic amorphous solid material, typically a polymer of high molecular weight made with monomers organic compounds that may be natural or synthetic in origin. QED Fusion Reactor - Text by M. Alan Kazlev, Inspired by an entry in the Lunar Institute of Technology The electrostatic fusion reactor first suggested by Robert Bussard of 20th century Old Earth (C.E.), uses fusion fuel confined by a spherical voltage potential well of around 100,000 volts. It makes an excellent, and fairly low tech (late Information Age / early Interplanetary Age equivalent) light power plant, that it can be used as part of a basic high thrust to weight ratio propulsion system for spacecraft and aircraft. Basic propulsion versions have a specific impulse of between 1500 and 6000 sec. Quantum Cryptography - Text by Anders Sandberg in his Transhuman Terminology A system based on quantum-mechanical principles. Eavesdroppers alter the quantum state of the system and so are detected. Qubit - Text by M. Alan Kazlev A "quantum bit," used in quantum computing. Quantum mechanics allows for a qubit to be both zero and one at the same time, and hence to store two possible numbers (zero and one) simultaneously. N qu-bits store 2N possible numbers, thus is able to perform 2N possible solutions to a problem simultaneously. This is what gives the quantum computer its enormous power. Measurement is via quantum decoherence, which causes the qubit to collapse into a standard binary state of either zero or one. Railgun - Text by M. Alan Kazlev A ship or vehicular mounted kinetic weapon that uses magnetic fields to accelerate a shell at very high velocity Ratbot - Text by Jorge Ditchkenberg The earliest type of practically usable and self-governed bot known to the terragens. It emulates some aspects of terragen rodents. Recombinant DNA - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Basic primitive technique used in gengineering, dating back to early Information Age Old Earth. It involves cutting the DNA into discrete segments, and then recombining the segments to form new genes. The recombinant DNA molecule is then inserted into a cell. Retroism - Text by Anders Sandberg Retrotechnological movement during the Expansion Era, a counter-dependent reaction to Keterism. Robot - Text by M. Alan Kazlev; some additional material by Stephen Inniss A programmable hardware or software device, agent, or expert system, either non- sub-turing, or dedicated turingrade, that follows certain instructions in order to perform tasks autonomously. A physical (hardware) robot mechanical manipulators and sensors. A robot may perform a physical task normally done by a biont, often with greater speed, strength, efficiency, and precision. Although vecs are sometimes also called robots (because of similarity of appearance), robots differ from vecs in that they are less cognitively flexible, and lack or have only limited initiative. Most vecs would respond to being called "robot" the way most sophont bionts would respond to being called "animal". RV-5 Transport Vehicle - Text by M. Alan Kazlev inspired by entry by Kevin Self Robust and popular Federation era all-environment wheeled vehicle used by extraterrestrial mining and exploration teams. The RV-5 carried four crew and a limited amount of cargo, and came with turingrade expert systems and pilots. Both electric and hydrogen fuel cell versions were available. Variants on the design remained common for centuries on many middle region, frontier and less developed worlds. Scanning Probe Microscope - Text by M. Alan Kazlev An atomic and information age microscope-manipulator that allowed researchers to see individual atoms and molecules. The device was fitted with a fine point that allowed it to push atoms or molecules around on a surface. A precursor to nanotech. Scion - Text by Stephen Inniss A partial or full copy of a sophont, using the same substrate as the original. Sea Of Logic Machine - Text by M. Alan Kazlev, based on KurzweilAI A computer or information processor constructed only of NOR gates. Many aioids are constructed as a sea-of-logic machines. Self-Propulsive Tethers - Text by Steve Bowers Satellites which are joined by tethers orbiting any world with a magnetic field will generate electrical power by passing through the lines of magnetic force; this energy can be used to power ion thrusters for example and thereby power rotating tether systems, amongst other uses. Sentience Algorithms - Text by John B and Pran Mukherjee The flow of steps which, when followed, allow an organized system to develop and maintain a degree of sentience. The underpinning of ai design. Required massive (at the time) neural nets or even more massive emulations thereof on hardware, state vector machines, and other information age new technology, being massively parallel (capable of running many many tasks simultaneously, or at least appearing to be able to do so to an outside observer.) SpamShield - Text by John B Any program used to protect against messages that contain unwanted information or memetic manipulation. The SpamShield can be set to several modes, depending on the region and the user's level of tolerance. The most common modes are 'off', 'reword' or 'delete'. Transistor - Text by M. Alan Kazlev based on original by Ray Kurzweil A switching and/or amplifying device using semiconductors, first created in 1948 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley of Bell Labs (pre-singularity Old Earth). These atomic age devices were soon superseded. During the early to middle Information age molectronic and nanotransistors were developed, thus enabling extremely dense and fast rates of computation. Triphibious - Text by M. Alan Kazlev A vehicle that is able to travel on or under water, on land, and in the air. Triphibious vehicles are very popular on Pacifica.

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August has two birthstones, peridot and sardonyx. Peridot is a transparent form of olivine which is formed due to volcanic activity It ranges in color from olive green to lime green, sometimes with a brownish tinge to it, depending on the mineral content. The green color comes from its iron content and the brownish hue is from a higher iron content. Quality peridot are sometimes referred to as "Evening Emeralds" because they appear greener under artificial light. This gemstone is associated with prosperity, growth, dignity, and love. It is also believed to have the power to ward away evil and nightmares. Peridot is believed to bring peace and progress to one’s life. In ancient times, Egypt was the primary source of peridot and was known as the 'Gem of the Sun'. Peridot is currently mined in Burma, Norway, Brazil, China, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Australia, and Mexico. Small stones can also be found in Arizona. Peridot has also been found in some meteorites. Peridot is one of the oldest known gemstones. It was believed that the gemstones worn by the Queen Cleopatra were not emeralds as was believed in history but may have actually been peridot. References to the August gemstone have also been found in the Bible, going by its Hebrew name ‘Pitdah’. The “topaz” on the breastplate of Aaron, in the Old Testament, was believed to actually be peridot. Ancient Egyptians, around 1580 B.C. to 1350 B.C., created beads from peridot. For Greeks and Romans, peridot was in popular use as intaglios, rings, inlays, and pendants. The Crusaders thought that peridots were emeralds, and brought them back to Europe where they were featured as ornaments in churches. The most sought after and expensive peridots are of the lime-green color not having any brown or yellow hue. Sardonyx is a variety of the silica mineral called chalcedony. This sort of mineral contains layers of tiny quartz fibers, which are stacked on top of each other to give a banded appearance. The layers in these stones range from translucent to opaque. Sardonyx can vary in color from white or gray to more colorful varieties such as browns and reds. The best stones are found in India but can also be found in Germany, Czechoslovakia, Brazil, and Uruguay. Here at home In the United States, you can find sardonyx in the Lake Superior region and in Oregon. Cameos and intaglios are often carved from sardonyx. Sardonyx is a relatively common and inexpensive gemstone and was a favorite in ancient times because it was attractive, but also because it was could be found readily. Unlike most rare gemstones that could only be bought by the wealthy, sardonyx could be obtained by many people. Roman soldiers wore sardonyx talismans to guard from evil and bring good fortune engraved with heroes such as Hercules or Mars, god of war. It was believed that the stone would make the wearer as brave and daring as the figured carved on it. During the Renaissance period, sardonyx was thought to bring eloquence to anyone wearing it and was highly valued by public speakers and orators. Sardonyx is a stone of strength and protection. It is used to enhance willpower, integrity, stamina and vigor. It is also believed to bring lasting happiness and stability to marriage and partnerships. It also attracts friends and good fortune. A lovely stone to have! Rubies are said to bring good health, wisdom, wealth and success in love and other matters. They are a good luck charm as well as being a beautiful and highly sought after gemstone. Ruby is found in the corundum family, which is harder than any gemstone except for diamond. This makes ruby a candidate for wearing every day in rings, earrings and pendants. Unfortunately, high quality ruby is quite rare and the color determines the value. The color to look for is a medium or dark red or even a faint purplish red. What you don't want is a stone that is too light or has too much purple or orange. If the color goes to that range, it will be considered a fancy sapphire. The ruby is among the most highly prized of gems throughout history. The Ruby was considered to have magical powers, and was worn by royalty as a talisman against evil. It was thought to grow darker when peril was imminent, and to return to its original color once danger was past—if it was in the hands of its rightful owner! Rubies were thought to represent heat and power. It was said that a pot of water would boil instantly if a Ruby was tossed into it. The word Ruby comes from the Latin "ruber," which means red. Wear or carry Ruby to overcome exhaustion and lethargy. It stimulates circulation and amplifies energy and vitality to the whole system. Ruby has been known to calm hyperactivity in some individuals. Ruby is an aphrodisiac and deepens a couple’s relationship and encourages closeness and commitment. Ruby is said to hold strong energy that helps to sharpen the mind and strengthens concentration. It also promotes courage and is good to have when dealing with difficult situations and during disagreements. Ruby also helps reduce fear from nightmares.. It shields the home from fire and intruders, and if worn on the body is a good talisman for staying safe. Rubies also are used in technology such as in medical instruments and lasers. Rubies have been mined for more than 2,500 years and today the highest quality stones are from Burma. They are also found in Sri Lanka, Australia, Kenya, Tanzania, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the United States. No matter when your birthday is, Rubies have qualities that anyone can appreciate and delight in! There are three birthstones associated with the month of June. They are the pearl, alexandrite, and moonstone. The most common birthstone associated with the month of June is the pearl Pearls have been used throughout history as an adornment and were a favorite of the Romans. In England, the 1500s were known as "The Pearl Age". Pearls are made inside shells of certain types of clams and oysters. While some pearls are formed in mollusks that live in rivers and in the ocean, many pearls are now farmed in oysters. Early commercial culturing began in the 1900s and since the 1920s, cultured pearls have almost totally replaced natural pearls in jewelry design. Pearls are formed from a mineral that is what the shells of the mollusks are made of. They are unique in this way and don't require polishing or faceting to show their beauty. Asian mythology says that pearls were thought to be dewdrops from heaven that fell into the sea and were caught by shellfish when there was a full moon. In 17th century Europe, pearls were used as decoration and adornment. Pearls are said to help heal the stomach and help with immunity and emotional stress. Pearls aid in digestion and may reduce the chance of developing ulcers. They reduce stress, hypertension, headaches and exhaustion. They have a soothing influence and are said to reduce over-sensitivity and promote peacefulness. Pearls have long been a symbol of purity and innocence and are frequently given to brides to wear and have been sewn into their bridal gowns. Moonstones & Alexandrite A phenomenal gemstone, moonstones show a floating play of light (called adularescence) and sometimes show either a multi-rayed star or a cat's eye. It is considered a sacred stone in India where moonstones often are displayed on a background of yellow (a sacred color). Moonstone soothes emotional instability and stress, and stabilises the emotions, providing calmness. Moonstone enhances intuition, promotes inspiration, success and good fortune in love and business matters. It also aids the digestive system, assimilates nutrients, eliminates toxins and fluid retention, and alleviates degenerative conditions of skin, hair, eyes, and fleshy organs such as the liver and pancreas. It balances hormonal cycles, being excellent for PMS, conception, pregnancy, childbirth, and breast-feeding. Moonstone is also beneficial to men in reaching their emotional side. Moonstones are believed to hold a spirit whose purpose it is to bring good fortune. The Roman natural historian Pliny, wrote that moonstone's appearance altered with the phases of the moon — a belief that held until well after the sixteenth century. Moonstone is part of the feldspar family which occurs in many igneous and metamorphic rocks and comes in a variety of colors such as green, blue, peach, and champagne. Moonstones come from Sri Lanka; India, Australia, the United States, Mayanmar, and Madagascar. Alexandrite appears to be a beautiful green color with perhaps a blue or brown tint. But when looking at the stone under artificial lighting it turns a reddish violet. Alexandrite is not common and is extremely expensive because of this. Alexandrite is also one of the hardest stones available. This stone is a somewhat new discovery. In the 1800s, the Russians discovered it and named it after the Czar Alexander II, who reigned during that time. Most Alexandrite it found in Sri Lanka but because it is so rare, synthetic versions have become popular. (Synthetic gemstones are man-made versions of a natural stone and possess the same properties). Alexandrite is considered to be a stone of longevity and affluence. It brings peace to both mind and body and gives the wearer emotional strength. So it is said to be good for those that have a temper. It is also believed to purify the blood and improve blood flow and helps strengthen intuition and imagination. We enjoyed great weather, music, food and friendship at the Wimberley Arts Fest this year! It was even better than last year, in my opinion. The weather turned out beautiful and we had some wonderful music playing for the two day show. The turnout was amazing and we had great success with our jewelry! It was so nice to visit with folks from far and near and get their feedback. That is invaluable! Hopefully, we will be able to do more Wimberley shows! We'll keep you posted right here. We also had a great time in Bulverde! We were at the Bulverde Market Days Show and again we lucked out with beautiful weather and great customers. We ran into friends and family and had some surprises along the way. We were visited by one of our previous customers who came by to visit and shop and as always, we were delighted to see her! She looked lovely in her RiverRock druzy pendant! We are so lucky to have such awesome and loyal customers and we hope to see you all again soon! The emerald is the birthstone for May and belongs to the beryl family of minerals. Emeralds vary in color from light to deep green. The dark green emeralds are the most prized and rare and also the most expensive. Emeralds were discovered in Russia in the 1800s ,however, Colombia produces the largest and highest quality emeralds. In the U.S., emeralds can be found in North Carolina. Other countries that mine emeralds are Brazil, Pakistan, India, Australia and Madagascar. In addition to natural emeralds, lab grown or synthetic emeralds are a source for this stone. German chemists first manufactured synthetic emeralds decades ago and the U.S. began to grow good quality stones by 1946. But emeralds can be traced back to ancient times when they were worn by royalty in places such as Egypt. Queen Cleopatra wore emeralds that were thought to have been mined in Egypt near the Red Sea. During the Spanish invasion to South America, the Spanish conquistadors took large quantities of emeralds from Peru but didn't discover their source. Later, in the 1500s, the Spaniards found and took over mines in Columbia. These mines have continued to be in use and produce some of the best emeralds in the world. The emerald has many myths associated with it. It was once thought to prevent epilepsy, cure dysentery and fever, stop bleeding and protect the wearer from panic. The ancient romans dedicated the stone to the goddess Venus because the green emerald represented the reproductive forces of nature. Christians took it as a symbol of Christ's resurrection. The emerald was also believed to hold the power to tell the future in the Middle Ages. Whether these tales are true or not, the emerald continues to be a favorite and coveted stone and will probably continue to be sought after for centuries to come. Photo 1: statesymbolsusa.org Photo 2: Emeral rough: https://www.pinterest.com/triosjewelry/elegant-emeralds/ Photo 3: Spanish emerald and gold pendant: Wikipedia.org For the month of April, the diamond is the traditional birthstone. The name comes from the Greek word "adamas" which means "hardest metal". This is descriptive of the property of the stone. It is a member of the carbon family which gives it incredible hardness. While most diamond jewelry is "colorless" or clear, they can also range from pink to red, white to yellow, or green to blue. This April birthstone is believed to bring good luck, protecting its wearer from misfortune. Besides diamond, sapphire is also a traditional birthstone for April. While it can occur in a variety of colors anywhere from pink to orange and yellow and also from white to black — sapphire is most popular in its brilliant blue color. This April birthstone is believed to bring inner peace and spiritual enlightenment. Beside diamond and sapphire, clear quartz, also known as rock crystal, has also been designated as a birthstone for April. This stone provides a less expensive alternative for an April birthstone than diamond. This new April stone is a colorless variety of quartz. When yellow in color, it is known as citrine, and when violet it's known as amethyst. This gemstone is a precious variety of corundum, which when red in color is known as ruby. Clear quartz is believed to bring inner peace, spiritual enlightenment and happiness. Aquamarines are a form of beryl crystal that vary in color from a deep blue to a blue-green with different intensities. This is caused by traces of iron. Naturally occurring deep blue stones are the most prized because they are rare and so will be the most expensive. Yellow beryl stones can be heated to transform them to blue aquamarines. The best commercial source of aquamarines is Brazil. Colombia, Russia and India also produce quality stones. In the United States, Colorado, Maine, and North Carolina are the best sources. The name aquamarine comes from the Roman word for water, which is "aqua" and the word "mare" which means sea because the stone resembles sea water. Aquamarines were believed to belong to sirens and were believed to be sacred to Neptune, Roman god of the sea. Because of this, sailors believed it held protection from perils at sea and sea monsters and promised safe voyages. It was also believed to hold medicinal and healing powers, curing ailments of the stomach, liver, jaws, and throat. Later, it was used as an antidote against poison and also was used in fortunetelling. The second birthstone for March is the bloodstone. This quartz variety is also called chalcedony. Green chalcedony with red flecks in it is known as bloodstone. This stone can be found in India, Brazil, and Australia. Bloodstone is favored for carving religious objects, especially the Crucifixion. According to legend, bloodstone was believed to have formed during the crucifixion of Christ. When a Roman soldier thrust his spear into Christ’s side and drops of blood fell on some pieces of dark green jasper lying at the foot of the cross, the bloodstone was created. Bloodstone was believed to hold healing powers, especially for stopping nosebleeds. Powdered and mixed with honey and white of egg, it was believed to cure tumors and stop all types of hemorrhage. Ancient alchemists used it to treat blood disorders, including blood poisoning and the flow of blood from a wound. Bloodstone was also believed to draw out the venom of snakes. Image Credit: Gunnar Ries Image Credit: Ra’ike Photo Credit: Wikimedia February's Birthstone is Amethyst. It is also a Zodiac stone for the consellation of Pisces. It is associated with spirituality, wisdom, sobriety, and security. The word amethyst comes from the Greek word “amethystos” meaning “not drunk,” and was believed to prevent its wearers from intoxication. Amethyst is a quartz stone that comes in a variety of purple hues. Most common are the dark grape colors and the light lilac. Today, most amethyst is found in Brazil but can still be found in Zambia and in the U.S. in Arizona and North Carolina, as well The color purple is traditionally the color of royalty and amethyst has been used since the dawn of history to adorn the rich and powerful monarchs and rulers. Amethyst has been found in ruins dating as far back as the ninth century, adorning crowns, scepters, jewelry, and breastplates worn into battle. During the Middle Ages, it was used as medication, believed to dispel sleep, sharpen intellect, and protect the wearer from sorcery. It was also believed to bring victory in battle. In Arabian mythology, the amethyst was supposed to protect the wearer from bad dreams and gout. Amethyst is also symbolic of spirituality and piety. Photo 1 credit: UCL Mathematical and Physical Sciences Each year Pantone chooses a palette that designers in all industries use in their designs for the season or the year. This year Pantone did something that they have never done before. This year's color of the year are actually two colors. They've chosen Rose Quartz and Serenity. Rose Quartz is a soft pink color and Serenity is a soft baby blue. You will be seeing them in clothing, home décor, fabrics and of course, jewelry. They are great neutrals and perfect for spring and summer. I look forward to using them in some of my designs for spring! Here's a link to Pantone for more info on these two great colors and their meanings. http://www.pantone.com/color-of-the-year-2016?from=hpfeatures My last post discussed the opal as being a birthstone for October. However, some charts also show Tourmaline as being a birthstone for October. As with opal, tourmaline comes in different colors. Depending on it's makeup, tourmaline can be black, brown, yellow, green, red, pink or bi or tri-colored. Tourmaline Is said to become electrostatically charged when rubbed due to high manganese and iron concentrations.. Tourmaline symbolizes wealth, friendship and love. While most gem quality tourmaline comes from Africa, Brazil and Sri Lanka, the U.S. is producing in mines in Maine and California. Green tourmaline is said to regulate blood pressure and strengthen the heart and nervous system. Black tourmaline can protect against high radiation while blue tourmaline combats water retention and strengthens the immune system. It also reduces throat and bronchial infections. Watermelon tourmaline is helpful in relieving pain. "Watermelon Tourmaline" by Madereugeneandrew (talk) - self-made. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikipedia - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Watermelon_Tourmaline.JPG#/media/File:Watermelo Wikipedia: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Tourmaline01" by Reno Chris at English Wikipedia - Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons.. Licensed under Public Domain via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tourmaline01.jpg#/media/File:Tourmaline01.jpg I am excited to begin bringing you new information about trends in design and colors as they relate to jewelry and gemstones. I'll also be adding some great links that I've found along the way from professionals in both the fashion and jewelry industries. And I would love to hear from you!

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Note: I’m taking a brief break from my recent series on the women’s history course I’m teaching. I’ll provide a final update on the course next time I write here, but today I want to talk about teaching something else: the history of slavery in the United States. Do you remember when and how you first learned about slavery? I don’t. I wish I could say I remember, but I have no memory of when I first read descriptions of slavery and enslavement, nor how I felt about it. I suspect this is not uncommon for white people like myself who grew up after the Civil Rights Movement seemed to end, and as school bussing began declining in the late 1980s and 1990s. There was also the matter of geography: my parents knew few black people, having grown up in Southern California (dad) and Northern Iowa (mom), and until I was 15, we lived in places that tended to be majority white or Latinx. I can count on one hand the number of African American people I knew before I started college, including a friend when I was six or seven, and a youth minister when I was 15. Even my reading was pretty whitewashed: I know I read Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cryand its sequels, but I have more vivid memories of Nancy Drew books and my obsession with British books (Secret Garden, A Little Princess…). I didn’t encounter A Raisin in the Sun until college. Probably the only thing I can tell you for sure is that I did somehow learn that slavery caused the Civil War, although I spent more time visiting battlefields than reading about the causes of the war. I know my historical knowledge expanded in undergrad, where I first encountered the concepts of analyzing race, gender, and class, and certainly graduate school deepened my knowledge and understanding much further. Last year, I returned to teaching US History after several years of teaching only world history. Coming back to my specialty area was exciting, but also thought-provoking, as I worked to develop a new honors-level US history course that would spin off of AP US History (the class prepares students for that exam, while not being specifically an AP class). Over and over again, I found myself disappointed in how poorly I was teaching my students about the history of slavery. I could blame the AP curriculum, on the one hand, because there was so much to go through that it didn’t seem like it could be helped on the one hand, but on the other hand – that’s not the right place to direct the blame. As a result of this, I started a personal effort to better understand and teach the history of slavery to my students. It began with a lot of reading, beyond what I’d studied in grad school, to look more deeply at what I thought I knew, and how I’ve approached that in the classroom. Most of you know that among many of the hats I wear, one of my favorites is director of the Fort Negley Descendants Project, a digital humanities archive of oral histories from the descendants of the enslaved and free blacks who built and defended Nashville’s Civil War Fort Negley. My team of three films the interviews, researches their testimony to find additional resources, edits the footage, uploads it, creates content, and maintains/updates the website which gives you more information about the interviews, as well as information pertaining to the UNESCO Slave Route site of Fort Negley, and its unique role in shaping our nation’s history. We also occasionally put on events and screenings of the videos for the public. It’s a ton of work, and I love doing this, and feel grateful to be able to do it alongside my job as postdoctoral fellow for Vanderbilt’s school of Arts & Sciences. It’s been humbling to be trusted with people’s family histories, and to hear their pain, share their triumphs, and help amplify their voices in a city whose demographics are rapidly shifting as gentrification pushes black people to its peripheries. Analyzing the stakes others have in this project has been useful for keeping our team on track and developing its mission. For us, it is has always been most important to collect the histories of people who have gone digging for their own and are ready to share their findings with the world. We want to film and edit these videos in the highest quality, and offer the videos alongside supporting primary sources, secondary reading, and family histories. We want to create lesson plans that expand upon the important historical themes touched on in the videos. We want to preserve all this information, and keep it available for free to everyone. Often our goals dovetail with the goals and stakes of others. For example, Fort Negley and the Friends of Fort Negley benefit from the project giving human faces and voices to a physical site. Vanderbilt University benefits from increased visibility and interaction with the wider community through my team and I. Some people have politically benefited from descendant voices being amplified in local politics, while others may have had their plans and aspirations thwarted by this same amplification. To each of them, I would say the same thing: We are here to record, disseminate, and amplify the voices of a group of under-documented and under-heard people whose incredibly rich family histories have shaped our nation. Who do we work for? We work for history and its preservation. We work for a future in which everyone is equally heard, and in which everyone’s history holds equal value to this nation. Nothing more, and nothing less. How would you articulate the mission of your Digital Humanities project? In addition to chemotherapy and radiation, self-care has been an important part of my cancer treatment. Self-care can be difficult for many of us, despite how important it is, because of the expectation that we stay busy on productive, worthwhile activities. Thus, for me, self-care often means exercise and reading-both useful and relaxing. However, another soothing activity is watching television…way too much television. Needless to say, I am at odds with this habit. With access to Netflix, Hulu, AmazonPrime, HBO-GO, etc. it’s rare that I can’t find something to distract and entertain at any given moment. However, while in graduate school a beloved professor/mentor likened watching television during the day to drinking before 5pm. As someone who does most of their work at home, this slightly nagging inner voice prevented me from diversions that would have interfered with work. However, does watching tv and doing something valuable have to be mutually exclusive? After a particularly difficult day of doctor appointments, and after having already binged the new episodes of “The Great British Baking Show” on Netflix, I happened upon a show entitled “Fake or Fortune”. “Fake or Fortune” is a BBC program hosted by journalist, Fiona Bruce and art dealer, Philip Mould. The two come together, along with various researching side-kicks, to investigate the style, material, and provenance of art works in order to determine their authenticity. From the start I was hooked, not only because I’m an art historian but also because the art mysteries were hugely entertaining. However, the more I watched, the more I saw the value in the series also as a teaching tool. Bruce and Mould, along with historians, curators, art historians, scientists, gallery owners, cultural institutions, and librarians, show the lengthy and laborious process of research. What a gift this could be to students who struggle with exactly that. The hosts, and hosts of scholars who help them along, rely on interviews with collectors, connoisseurs, and curators. They dig through insurance inventories, gallery archives, and sales receipts. They travel to local libraries, foreign countries, and scientific labs to find clues in the unlikeliest of places. Perhaps most important in its accessibility to the viewer is the way they present research as a fun, and important, investigation. Again, the more episodes I watched, the more I saw how I could use this in the classroom and how it could help my students in their approach to historical research. Although I have passed shied away from the use of videos in the classroom, and certainly pop culture programs such as this one, I plan to show my students an episode in the next few weeks. I’ll have to leave this post on a bit of a cliff-hanger (the value is currently in its theory stage), but my theory is that viewing research through this new lens will help them in their own projects. At the least, they will get a fuller sense of what goes into the research process; it’s just not lonely hours in a library with mountains of monographs. Research is also talking to people, reading journals, watching documentaries, looking at photographs, collaborating people in and outside your field, and confronting preconceived notions and hopes. I’ve been taking a break from my own personal research projects during treatment, but watching tv has me getting excited about them again. Wait…did I just tun my only self-care guilty pleasure into work? Oh well. Good books are the ones you can’t get off your mind. You continue to think about them, mull over the plot lines and character development, try to discern the ending’s “meaning”––especially when the novel is a “tough read,” one that takes you out of your comfort zone and causes you to see people and places in a new light. I just finished Ananda Devi’s Ève de ses décombres (Gallimard, 2006), and it is what I classify as a “good book.” When I fell asleep, and the moment I woke up, the novel was on my mind. And luckily for you, it’s available in English as Eve Out of Her Ruins (Deep Vellum, 2016). (J. M. G. Le Clézio, who won the 2008 Nobel Prize in Literature, wrote the forward to the novel’s English translation; I haven’t read it yet, but I’m dying to.) Ananda Devi is both a scholar and novelist. Born in Trois-Boutiques, Mauritius, she earned a doctorate in social anthropology from the School for Oriental and African Studies in London. After spending time in Congo-Brazzaville, she moved to Switzerland. Devi has published more than a dozen novels and also writes poetry and short stories. She writes in French, but incorporates Mauritian Creole into her texts; much of her work is set in the island of Mauritius, which is located off the eastern coast of Africa. The French government named Devi a Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres in 2010. In 2006, the author won the Prix des Cinq Continents de la Francophonie for Ève de ses décombres. For my academic work, I veer towards novels written in poetic prose. These are the texts that make me want to write and attempt to untangle various layers of meaning and discern the literary devices that create meaning. The novel’s polyvocality is one of the poetic aspects that drew me in. It is told through the voices of 4 young adults––Sad, Ève, Savita, and Clélio––who disturb the reader’s desire to make quick assumptions by following a singular narrative. The poetic style illustrates the characters’ exploration of the complex and difficult psychological development of youth. There is also a nameless narrator whose thoughts appear in italicized font, noting their non-physical existence in the text’s setting. The characters live in the city of Troumaron, which might be a wordplay on the familiar word for “sewer” in French trou and the color “brown,” marron, a name that disrupts the stereotype of Mauritius as a tourist destination with sandy beaches and palm trees.The young people in this novel are at a grave disadvantage: they suffer from being a neglected group on a small island with few few role models and resources they need to succeed. The only teacher we meet in the novel is ineffective (an extreme understatement) and their parents are worn down by economic struggles and harmful gender dynamics. The text’s violence is certainly tied to Mauritius’ postcolonial history, which I do not fully understand but am interested in knowing more about. In the novel, the volcano that created the island becomes a metaphor for the violence in their own lives. While Savita feels herself being swallowed by the disaster “My feet are sinking in lava. Soon I won’t be able to move anymore. The volcano will tear me to pieces.” (73) Sad feels he might have the chance to escape it “I don’t want to be one of those waking up the volcano. This island was born from a volcano. One eruption is enough.” (126) Other scholars have written on the inexpressibility of pain, such as that which is experienced by the characters, particularly the young women, in Ève de ses décombres. I’ve also been thinking about how poetic language serves as a possible, and perhaps ethical, way to narrate stories of extreme violence and trauma, which we might call correlates of “pain.” Devi’s poetic language imbues the fear, confusion, and identity disruption that often results from these situations. Ève de ses décombres, (like Devi’s other novels) also caught my attention because of its subject matter. The novel closely examines the “construction and confinement of femininity” through the main character, Ève, who struggles with disembodiment. Ève uses her body as a source of power to get what she wants. And yet these endless sexual encounters in exchange for material objects comes with a price as she slowly loses her sense of self. Because of the themes it tackles, Devi claims that this story extends outside the borders of Mauritius: “I am not only talking about Mauritius in my books, I am talking about human beings who happen to live in Mauritius and who could be from anywhere in the world. This is particularly so for Ève, whose four young people could be from anywhere — a Parisian suburb or a South American city.” (Devi cited in a LARB interview with the translator, Jeffrey Zuckerman) I have a feeling that my relationship with Devi’s texts will be a long one. Her 2018 novel Manger l’autre (Eating the Other) is now on my bedside table, and I’m already wondering how it will figure into my next book project on consumption. Part 3 in an ongoing series about Tanya’s fall elective on American women’s history. See Part 1 here and Part 2 here. It’s September, which must mean that my course is ACTUALLY under way. Yippee! We started the school year two weeks ago, and as expected, it’s been a good – but intense – two weeks of getting to know my students, getting my first lesson plans out the door, and, unexpectedly, getting hit with a massive head cold (on the second day of school, no less). When I last talked to you, I pulled the veil back on my initial course planning efforts for my one-trimester Intro to American Women’s History. But a month ago, I didn’t know how many students I’d end up with, or who they were, or what they would want to do. I’ve now solved 2 of those three problems, and reader, it’s about get interesting. History is a relatively solitary field. The vast number of articles and books written have just one author, and many historians go their whole careers publishing alone. I don’t mind doing that, but have found the Atlantic World projects I’m most interested in generally require more than one person’s worth of expertise to do well. No one person can cover the scope of the Atlantic World: 4 continents over 4 centuries with primary sources in dozens of languages. So when I find opportunities to collaborate, I jump on them. I’m pleased to announce that The Historical Journal is going to publish the results of one of these collaborations. It’s a co-authored article entitled “Projections of Desire and Design in Early Modern Caribbean Maps.” This article came out of a collaborative map analysis project funded by the John Carter Brown library’s relatively new Collaborative Cluster fellowship that allowed my partner and I to meet up for two weeks in Providence to analyze maps and plot out an article. After the two weeks, he and I finished the writing together electronically, and we learned a lot about workflow when it comes to collaborative writing and co-authoring in the humanities. It’s been a while. Perhaps you haven’t noticed, but I have. It’s been a while since I’ve been able to sit down and put my thoughts to paper and today I do so for release. Writing functions as such an important catharsis for me, which is why I was so desperate to get back to the page after a very long, and unexpected, writing hiatus. I wish I could say it was for exciting reasons, but alas, it was not. As you read in my last post, 2019 started out much the same as it always has, but it did not maintain its mundanity. The next post I had planned to write was going to feature the professional conference I attended in February. Instead, directly after that conference, I was confronted with a life changing diagnosis; Colorectal Cancer, Stage IV. I tried crying about it for about a week, contemplating my demise, but it didn’t suit me. Neither did eating my feelings instead of writing them down (although mindfully eating a bag of Doritos does have its merits). So here I am, doing something I usually loathe, making my personal life public. I’ve gone back and forth about this post, and about extending my hiatus, but then I remembered that “the personal is political”, and felt empowered by idea that one’s personal experience can help political or social discourse. Perhaps that is what I’m supposed to do with this experience. I finished my 8th and final round of chemo at the end of July and today I start radiation as I also begin another semester teaching art history at 2 community colleges. My doctors and I have high expectations for remission, but it will be a long road until then. I remain my optimistic self and fortunately, the nature of my job has allowed me to use the summer to focus on my health and my family. I was also fortunate that, despite a demanding schedule of chemo, radiation, and surgery, I was, and continue to be, able to work, semi-normally, with the help of my family, friends, and colleagues. It truly does take a village. Now let me pause for a moment right here, dear reader, to assure you that this isn’t intended to be a traditional cancer post. I’m not ready to detail my treatment or any deep insights I may have gained from this humbling experience. I may never have insights. I still change the cat litter and my daughter still steals my phone to use the toilet. I guess at the the least I’ve learned to be thankful that everyone else in this house has a colon functioning better than I. In addition, I have yet to fully face the fears that come with this disease. Not yet. I need space from it and time to figure out what my relationship with cancer will be. However, fighting cancer has heightened the lens through which I view the world and my own life. Detailing my journey (thus far) to close family and friends, I quickly noticed my over-use of the word “lucky”. Lucky that I had doctors who took me seriously when I told them my pain was unusual. Lucky that those doctors sprung to action. Lucky my co-workers stepped in to teach the classes I was unable to attend and help me finish my spring semester so I didn’t lose the already tenuous hold I have on my contingent faculty position. Lucky that my husband has good insurance and kind co-workers as well. Lucky that I’m surrounded by family that are friends and friends that are family who have come to help take care of me, my child, my house, my cooking and cleaning, because considering hiring help on an adjunct salary is laughable. As a long-term, career, adjunct professor, I’ve always kept up with information about the status of contingent faculty experiences, but that attention is now focused even more with one question: what if this happens to someone else who isn’t so “lucky”. The answer to that question isn’t hard to find since my story is not unique. The death of Margaret Mary Vojtko sparked much debate about the treatment of adjuncts as did the death of Thea Hunter. Both women had done everything right, in terms of securing degrees and accolades, which should have garnered them success in their respective fields. Instead, they both died in poverty. In addition, there are myriad articles detailing the realities of life as a contingent employee, including data on low pay and the need to secure additional jobs to make ends meet, which is easier said than done. Reflecting on my mortality, and how expendable I seem to be to the field I’ve devoted myself to for decades, has made me realize just how integral I am. I have been teaching part-time at community colleges and universities in the DMV for about 15 years. At the onset, I felt as many in my position probably have: adjunct work was the consolation prize. I took the abuse about failure and not being good enough to be full time or tenured because I thought I deserved it. Luckily, I’ve stopped thinking of my position in these terms. I am great at what I do: I’m invested in my students, I’m committed to my field, I attend (on my own dime) conferences, symposia, and local lectures that keep me up to date on research and pedagogy, and perhaps most importantly, I fulfill a need in the system. That’s something that seems to be lost in this: I’m not the desperate one. The adjunct, the graduate student, the post-doc, the non-tenured are not disposable. Not only is it common decency to provide a living wage and a safety net for any worker, this respect should be given to those upon who we so desperately rely. Instead, so many of us are left to rely on luck. Despite our part-time status, we are not contingent humans. The problem now resides in a system that has not evolved to understand our power and our worth. Academia is not doing me a favor. It’s the other way around Again, I survive the system purely because of luck, but many others do not have the same support system. Thus, we need to come together within the profession. It’s time for us to collectively bargain for rights we deserve. We didn’t lose the game, we didn’t fail, the job system changed, so our approach to it needs to change as well. I know people will balk at the idea of unionization and detail the varied reasons it won’t fix the problem. However, at this point we’ve tried nothing and we’re all out of ideas. (There really is a Simpsons reference for every occasion). Luckily, I know I will survive both cancer and a life as an adjunct professor, but I’d like colleagues in a position like mine to have the same outlook. In addition to writing publicly about this very personal struggle, my cancer diagnosis caused me to do something else uncharacteristic: I purchased a book of encouraging quotes.

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What is the Difference Between Self-Esteem and Self-Confidence? Self-esteem refers to the way you feel about yourself, it means to have an appreciation for and how you view yourself in the world. Self-esteem is developed from experiences and situations that have shaped how you view yourself today. “If you have high self-esteem at work, you probably have it in other areas of your life too, because this is a reflection of how you see yourself. People with high self-esteem tend to see the universe as a pretty friendly place.” (Kay, 2014) Self-confidence is your self-belief and how you feel about your abilities to handle any situation and the belief that you can succeed no matter what, it is related to an action. It is the ability to make decisions and trust that those decisions are for your highest good. You trust your own judgment; your own abilities and you exhibit self-reliance. This is one of the most imperative characteristics of successful people. People with little self-esteem and low confidence may find it difficult to find a level of success because they let fear stop them from realizing their true potential. “You gain strength, courage, and confidence by every experience in which you really stop to look fear in the face.” Eleanor Roosevelt “There are two main things that contribute to self-confidence: self-efficacy and self-esteem. We gain a sense of self-efficacy when we see ourselves (and others similar to ourselves) mastering skills and achieving goals that matter in those skill areas. This is the confidence that, if we learn and work hard in a particular area, we’ll succeed; and it’s this type of confidence that leads people to accept difficult challenges, and persists in the face of setbacks.” Mindtools(2016). Self-Doubt Is The Thief Of Happiness. Doubt is that insidious thing that we all face from time to time, it’s the sub-vocalizations in the brain that try and keep you living out your limits and not your true potential. It says things like “you can’t, you aren’t good enough, you aren’t pretty enough, you aren’t smart enough, don’t even try, you are going to look foolish when you fail.” These gremlins and voices in your mind aren’t even real, this is called resistance and another word for it is FEAR. The Ego’s job is to keep you safe, in your own limited world. But that’s not where the magic exists now is it? Self-doubt certainly has a way of getting under your skin. Especially if you believe the voices in your head to be true. The beauty about human beings is that you don’t have to believe every thought that crosses your mind. You have the true privilege of CHOOSING your what you are going to believe and then acting on them. I know, the irony is killer! It is one of those pivotal moments where you get to choose. You can 1. Believe in yourself or 2. Get sucked in and seduced by your own self-pity. Unfortunately, when we get sucked in by our limited mind, we are more prone to holding a low opinion of ourselves because we believed those gremlins and that inner critic to be true then we act in accordance with those gremlins and we start doubting our self-worth and our own capabilities. Then we falter and make a mistake or NOT get our goals and we say “see, I am a failure, I knew I couldn’t do it.” And then we identify ourselves with that mistake as if WE ARE THE MISTAKE, but in actuality, you are NOT your mistakes. When you strike out once, and you feel defeated. Get back up and try again. Don’t quit now, you are just getting started. Sometimes in life, things don’t always go according to plan, in fact, more often than not, it WON’T go according to plan. Be flexible, change your strategy and trust that you can get it together and stretch yourself to the possibility that things can get uncomfortable. Growth and comfort cannot exist together. Get comfortable with being uncomfortable and know that this feeling is overcoming your fear and, it is you gaining dominion over your mind. Fear is a roadblock to confidence; fear of love lost, fear of failure, fear of rejection, fear of heights, fear of success, fear of going overseas, fear of taking risks and trying new things and the list is endless right? Fear has an insidious way of controlling us and holding us back from truly expressing and living out our greatness and our unrealized potentials. Don’t let doubt thieve away your ability to be happy and confident. Doubt is subtle and its cunning and you must protect yourself from it. Resistance shows up in many different ways and fear does not want you to let it go so easily. Resistance in self-doubt would have you believe that getting angry will solve the problem, that gossiping will make you right and feel righteous, and have you making up lewd stories to keep you limited and stuck. Resistance is like anything else, it can be beaten and you have the ability to do that, beat it, and when it shows up again, you will know how to handle it and choose the path to overcome it. Resistance loves drama and all the things that come with it, you have all the tools to do it but you have to CHOOSE it. You CAN Overcome The Inner Critic. It is a lie to think you are not good enough and not worth it. But you will never be good enough when you have false ideals. But you can defeat the inner critic and the inner war against self-doubt. Step-by-step. Bit by bit. When you decide on WHY you will succeed and continue on that trajectory, you can put that inner critic on mute and shut it down. You MUST stop carrying around with you like it is part of you, the idea that you are less capable than anyone else. You ARE capable of anything you set your mind to. We all fall, we all fail at times and we all falter. That is just part of life. The confident person will LEARN from their mistakes and celebrate their successes and their victories, small or big and forget about their mistakes but gain WISDOM from them. Use your errors to your advantage, learn from them and then dismiss them from your mind and from your heart. Us humans have this innate ability to remember mistakes and replay them in our minds much to our detriment and demise. This quality will keep you stuck, frustrated and continue the perpetual nature of self-doubt. It doesn’t not matter how many times we fail and falter, what matters is that you continue to make attempts which should be remembered. When you miss the mark, know that it is not YOU who is a failure, and not let your self-esteem be compromised because of it. You must be willing to miss the mark many times in order to succeed. Learn to playback your successes, elongate those thoughts and those feelings and impress them into your mind and celebrate them. Setting daily goals helps with this feedback loop. Set micro goals for yourself, achieve them and continue to gain confidence by doing that. “Rome was not built in a day.” Set yourself up for success. Things don’t always go your way, but when you have the confidence in yourself, you will learn to become more resilient and when you do falter, you pick yourself back up, you make a different decision and your keep moving forward. “Our greatest weakness lies in giving up. The most certain way to succeed is always to try just one more time.” Thomas Edison. Most of us destroy our confidence by remembering past failures and obsessively playing them back in our minds when what we need to do is forget them. When we do this, we condemn ourselves to live out our failures as if we were a failure. This is a way to self-resentment and self-condemnation. When you love yourself, your self-esteem improves which makes you more confident in all areas of your life, you begin to increase your overall self-esteem. Roberts (2012). Stop Comparing Yourself To Others. One of the first steps of becoming mentally stronger is realizing that you and me, we all have weaknesses and are NOT perfect. We have to really know this to understand it. We are ALWAYS a work in progress. You never just really get it or get to that elusive place we all believe is real, that point in some future time. We are never going to hit the mark every single time. We are always learning, growing and expanding our knowledge base and we never really arrive at some point called “PERFECTION.” Your life, and my life is not a static point in time, it is dynamic and it is always CHANGING. Self-esteem means to “appreciate the worth of. ”If you are constantly judging, criticizing or comparing your life to others, you will never see the true greatness of your own life. These limited mindsets prevent you from really SEEING your own value and your own worth. Too often we judge our greatest failures to others greatest successes. That is a really bad habit and needs to stop if you want to achieve peace of mind and contentment in your life. When you constantly compare your life to others, you will never see the true greatness of YOU in your own life. It doesn’t serve you to constantly compare yourself to others because you are uniquely YOU. You are inherently different; you have a different set of values, beliefs, opinions, wants and desires. We come in all shapes, sizes, and colors, and every one of us is different and that is the beauty of it isn’t it? If you keep comparing yourself to others, you don’t have the confidence to accept that you and that your life is good enough and nothing will ever be good enough. So cease it immediately, if you want to be happy and free. If you keep comparing yourself to others, you will always feel inferior and it will NEVER work to get you to that place of self-worth. Stop Rejecting Yourself. Women are notorious for comparing themselves to the standards of others and to an artificial standard, especially when it comes to BEAUTY. Beauty is an elusive word within itself. Your definition of beauty is different than my definition of beauty, and it’s different still, from the definition of beauty than that of a model that graces the front cover of Vogue or Cosmopolitan. So then, it begs the question, whose definition of beauty is correct then? Self-Rejection is a way to keep you limited and a way to demean yourself. When you have an artificial standard that you are identifying with, you will never feel secure about yourself. When you continuously compare yourself to the cover of a fashion magazine or look the way they do or want to contort your face with surgery to become somebody else, you are seeking the approval of an artificial standard that will NEVER be met. If you feel ashamed to be you, and hate that you are not perfect like they are, you may have a warped sense of self. This causes a lot of anxiety and stress because you aiming for a popular ideal and then you don’t like yourself because you aren’t “like them.” Some examples of these limiting beliefs go like this; “well, I’m not as thin as she, then I’m nothing, if i don’t get their approval, I must be worthless, I need to look that way or no one will like me.” But guess what? Most of us aren’t supermodels that are 6 feet tall and super skinny, and we must find that place of acceptance for ourselves and reject the artificial ideals of popular culture. WE are all BEAUTIFUL, every single one of us. You don’t need designer magazines to show you or tell you what their definition of beauty is, that is just good marketing and advertising, and you don’t have you bought into their story of what beautiful means. Don’t be seduced or hypnotized by the media’s version of beauty. That is another ploy and tactic to BUY what they want you to. When you learn to become immune to media manipulation and live your own version of your life, you will be free of the burden of self-rejection. Neurotic people aim for perfection, perfection is an illusion of the mind and is resistance at its finest deterring you from seeing the truth of what really IS. Fanaticism and perfection will always lead to disappointment and misery because these people are operating in reality while representing false ideals and hiding from their authentic selves. Don’t live your life as a fictitious person, you will never be happy, confident or fulfilled. You DEFINE your own life by just being you. No one can stand in the way of your own unique greatness and it is up to you to decide. Instead of rejecting yourself, try accepting yourself. Your life is a reflection of everything that you are made up of, your strengths, your weaknesses, your attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, your knowledge, your mistakes and your unrealized potential and guess what, so everyone else’s life is made up of much the same. Stop turning your back on yourself and engage in self-improvement. You cannot realize the beauty and the magic of yourself when you keep rejecting it and comparing yourself to false idols and false expectations. Your ability to accept yourself is one of your greatest allies and it will serve you greatly in your life. You MUST learn to tolerate and accept imperfection in yourself and in others. You, me and everyone else are NOT perfect, and that is a fact. Don’t hate yourself because of human error, self-loathing is not a virtue. When you miss the mark, make sure you learn from it and grow in some way, don’t make the same mistake again, learning from our mistakes makes them that much more worthwhile wouldn’t you agree? Mistakes, bloopers, and blunders are just part of the journey, that’s what colors your experience of life. The more you pretend that you are impervious to folly, the more you resist the evolutionary process of learning and growing. Don’t pretend to be perfect, vulnerability is a virtue and should be embraced. Use Discernment When Listening to Others. People are notorious for voicing their opinions, it is their right and you have the right to listen to them, OR not. When someone offers you THEIR opinion and their viewpoint, you have the right to reject it and not take it on. But when we are vulnerable to the opinions of others and we seek to be validated, we WANT other people to accept us and when or if they don’t a little bit of self-doubt may creep into our minds. A healthy amount of skepticism is okay. But somewhere along the way, we stopped trusting ourselves and started measuring our self-worth by other people’s standards and opinions and seeking their approval before acting on something important. You will never be confident if you attempt to please everyone else and live life to another person’s standards. When we are not using discernment, it keeps us from seeing our true selves and keeps us from observing the greatness in our lives. Don’t just believe everything that you are told or take on someone else’s opinion of you, doubt and a healthy level of skepticism are okay but when you don’t trust your own judgement and trust your own inner voice, you may be subject to another person’s viewpoint so much so that their voice overrides yours. This within itself can be a downright complicated mess. But if you take control and be confident in you and stop comparing yourself to everyone else, and letting their belief’s infiltrate your mind. It is a lesson in futility at times. If you don’t believe in your worth then who will? It is good practice to exercise caution and discretion on whose opinion that you choose to listen to. It is your responsibility alone on whose voice you are listening to. You have the ability to discard what has been said or determine whether or not resonates with you and connects with a new possibility that may awaken a “sleeping giant” to help propel you to the next level and help you gain confidence in yourself . Trusting in yourself takes strength and courage. When you find and unleash the wisdom within, you will know your worth and live according to your own standards of what truth means to you. Trust in yourself is the undercurrent of confidence. Self-Esteem’s Greatest Weapon. Self-love and self-acceptance are the greatest weapons of self-esteem. When you can truly appreciate yourself you will inevitably appreciate others and accept them for who they really are. Each one of us is different and unique and is allowed to live life on our own terms. When you can accept that, you will free yourself of the burden that they “should” be a certain way. Acceptance is the mark of someone who exhibits self-confidence. Self-esteem is not directly derived from the things that you have accomplished and all of your successes, self-esteem is the ability to value yourself and value the others. Appreciation of others is a direct reflection of a deeper kindness and a deeper appreciation of yourself. People with adequate self-esteem and a high level of self-efficacy, don’t feel intimidated or inferior towards others and SEE facts more clearly than their counterparts. We view the world through the equivalent way that we view ourselves. If we hold a low opinion of ourselves, we will view the world through the eyes of that perception and if we hold a high opinion of ourselves, we will perceive the world through the eyes of confidence. Success breeds success, so the term goes. If we hold a low opinion of ourselves, we find it hard to achieve goals and a sense of fulfillment, it is not a characteristic of the wise to hold a low opinion of ourselves, it is quite the contrary. A virtuous person who has cultivated and practiced the art of self- confidence has achieved small but measurable goals. Remember when you learned to ride a bike or drive a car, you did it enough times that you embedded it into your subconscious mind and you were able to repeat it without even thinking about it. These types of goals are all stepping stones to greater goals. Overcoming your fears like public speaking, asking someone out on a date, making that sales call when you are deathly afraid is the true mark of confidence. Just as success breeds success, confidence begets confidence and the more you are equipped and prepared to face larger challenges in your life when yo are equipped with the tools to do so. Yes, it can be heart wrenching, fearful and difficult, but the more times you overcome that in yourself, the more you are equipping yourself for future successes. When we compare ourselves to false ideals and when we have a false sense of perception, we tend to murder ourselves with self-destruction. The most miserable people who are suffering are the ones who try and convince themselves that they are not who they really are. They WANT to be someone else or like someone else. How easily we forget that we are truly one-of-a-kind and no two people are alike but in our aims to be “normal” and “fit in,” we are discarding ourselves and our confidence diminishes. We play small and make small-minded decisions because our viewpoint is marred with false pretenses. (Maltz, 2002). You will always be disappointed and frustrated when you attempt to live life under a false set of ideals. When you are truly willing to accept yourself, you will give up all the pretenses and notions that you aren’t meant to be the way you are. When we really begin to strengthen ourselves, most of us are far more competent, stronger and wiser than we give ourselves credit for. You and I are somebodies. We ALL MATTER. Self-acceptance is really about adjusting that mental image we have of ourselves in a more enlightening way and to stop diminishing ourselves. Self-acceptance is far easier to digest when we realize these things belong to us but they are not us. You can make a mistake, an error or even fail at something but it doesn’t mean you are a mistake, you are an error or you are a failure. You must stop identifying yourself with your mistakes and the times when you missed the mark, it is ok to miss the mark, and fail, as long as we learn something and gain wisdom from our experience of it. True self- acceptance means coming to terms as you are now with all of your faults, your weaknesses, and your limitations, but that’s what we all face now isn’t it? But how we forget to measure our strengths, our best assets and our willingness to look outside ourselves in order to become better. Color your life with a myriad of experiences that will harness your individuality and inner strength Here are Some Easy Tips to Improve Your Confidence. - Negative chatter is just a part of life but yo can learn to ignore it, we as humans have the unique ability to observe our thoughts but choose not to listen to them, its called meta-cognition. Ignore the gremlins and empower your decision-making muscle to empower yourself. - Write down your strengths and put them somewhere you can see them everyday. - Feed your mind with positive news, media, books, audio and videos. - Appreciate the good in other people. - Write down your WINS, big, small, all of them and track your progress, if you don’t track it, you will never know how far you have really come. “You will miss 100% of the shots you don’t take.” Change and improve your own mental picture of yourself so you don’t miss the mark in your own life. You deserve a happy and confident life and YOU are going to have to choose it for yourself. Kay, K. (2014). Confidence vs Self-Esteem. [online] Available at: http://theconfidencecode.com/2014/03/confidence-vs-self-esteem/ [Accessed: 7 July, 2016 Maltz, M. (2002). The New Psychocybernetics: How to Use the Power of Self-Image Psychology for Success. Macmillon Audio. Mind Tools. (2016). Building Self Confidence. [online] Available at: Mindtools.com/selfconf.html [Accessed: 20 April 2016] Roberts, E. (2012). The Difference Between Self-Esteem and Self-Confidence. [online] Available at: http://www.healthyplace.com/blogs/buildingselfesteem/2012/05/the-difference-between-self-esteem-and-self-confidence/ [Accessed: 7 July, 2016]

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How Picture Books Play a Role in a Child’s Development. The games can also improve your ability to identify what the other person wants, develop relationships, set expectations about outcomes, identify power struggles and solve problems. of Asia (CCA). Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to describe a classroom negotiation exercise. One method for enhancing critical thinking is participation in role-playing simulation-based scenarios where students work together to resolve a potentially real situation. To address a demand to enhance participants' knowledge of negotiation and. Role-play / pretend play. Negotiation. Information for the Employee: Assume that your name is Maria and you have been employed as a training co-ordinator for this agency for a little over a year (your job description is attached). NEGOTIATION SKILLS I. For example, negotiating the price of a used car is win-lose. Challenging practice to further improve learning, playing and interacting in the Early Years Foundation Stage First published in 2010 Ref: 00113-2010BKT-EN. You can use role play and simulation within a game, or use a game within a role play or simulation. 25 Skills for Excellent Customer Service Home > Customer Service > 25 Skills for Excellent Customer Service We came across this great infographic on 25 key skills for Excellent Customer Service and just had to share it with you. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Drills, Dialogues, and Role Plays A Lesson Never Forgotten "Jambo!" is hello in Swahili. These 286 worksheets offer role playing activities of every shape and size. solving skills, and research indicates that the case method for this class is better than the lecture method. When this exercise is employed in an interview, the purpose is to place the candidate in a situation that resembles the typical conditions of the job and to see how they perform. practice their acting skills! Purpose: Conflict Resolution/Communication Supplies: Flip chart (if available) 1. through role play, may help prevent unhelpful peer relationships from forming, such as those in gangs. Negotiation Exercises. Negotiation and influencing skills are critical to getting the best deal, facilitating problem solving, gaining support and building co-operative relationships Negotiation is central to gaining agreement and exercising influence The ability to influence others and resolve conflict is at the core of successful business. of Asia (CCA). Described in this way, skills that can be said to be life skills are innumerable, and the nature and definition of life skills are likely to differ across cultures and settings. Negotiation should end in an agreement that meets your goals and your employer’s. Traditional approaches to negotiation promote competitive tactics, often resulting in unsatisfactory outcomes for one or both negotiators. By using a role play for negotiation skills, it enables participants to ask effective questions, use different negotiating styles, handle emotional situations, use active listening skills, read body language and choose words that communicate persuasively. Identify non-effective negotiation strategies and. With this in mind, salespeople shouldn't accept every single one of a prospect's demands without making some requests of their own. Learn more about the U. in the role-play. Whether you outsource your role playing or do it in-house here are some tips for making it work. Of course, this means that. Some refusal skills that a drug addict or alcoholic may be taught are: * No phrases to use. use role-play and discussion to increase their understanding of negotiation dynamics and to build practical. Get students into small groups to discuss the workplace scenario, key questions and various points of view. The purpose of the ACT Game is to solve the problem that the Super Coach gives to you. The Benefits of Pretend Play The Benefits of Pretend Play. • Scenario: The eight members of the Taitech corporate executive group meet to consider selling new entertainment products. Find a mentor who can coach you through the process and role-play scenarios. ples for effective negotiation can be taught in a classroom setting, becoming an effective negotiator requires prac-tice, usually in a role-playing situation where a teacher or mentor plays the part of one of the opposing parties in the negotiation. Part 2: for the role play: the participants sit in a circle and the counsellor (or leader) starts with the first role play. Recess promotes social and emotional learning and development for children by offering them a time to engage in peer interactions in which they practice and role play essential social skills. Data indicate that this type of manipulation of the physical environment is effective in increasing the range and amount of literacy behaviours during play. 1 Negotiation Role Play Tags: online learning, role play, negotiation, group work Method: fully online Competencies: Negotiation skills, team-building and leadership skills Technology: LMS forums, Adobe Connect for synchronous sessions DESCRIPTION An authentic. Chances are, despite your years of training, you've never had a course in how to negotiate. Surprising actors (i. Entrepreneurial negotiation Building consensus on local, state and national adaptive responses to the risks posed by climate change Strategies for encouraging greater reliance on renewable energy. Use the following role plays to help your students learn how to make compromises and negotiate with tact. A quick simple but powerful activity that shows there are two ways to get others to do what we want them to do, we can either push them and in that case we will definitely get resistance or we can pull them or in other words convince them with our point of view, explain the reasons and tell them why we want them to take this action and consequently expect lower or no resistance. That means, in a $500,000. Effective negotiation is a skill, and like any skill, it can be learned. – The negotiation activity is adapted from an actual case. 25 role plays for negotiation skills by Ira Asherman, 1995, Human Resource Development Press edition, in English. Excellent negotiation skills not only influence the outcome of individual transactions, but also relationships with suppliers and overall success. For older students more adult categories such as chemicals, animals, types of. Mastering Communication, Negotiation and Presentation Skills. Start early and teach your teenager some easy ways to manage conflict. There's a lot on the line during a negotiation with the buyer. This video is part of the Negotiation Skills session for the participants of LEAD Program (a developmental program for fast-growing business owners). Leadership (22%) A. Learn more about the U. There are various negotiation styles that can be employed. 25 Role Plays for Negotiation Skills [Ira Asherman, Sandy Asherman] on Amazon. Second, the directors state what they liked and what they would change on their next role-play. • Scenario: The eight members of the Taitech corporate executive group meet to consider selling new entertainment products. To pay for the role-plays, please send a check made out to The Negotiating Table or use the Buy Now button below to pay by credit card through PayPal. 8 Potato Game 25 Module 2 Challenges of Reconciliation 26 5. The best way for people to deal with their differences is by negotiating. In professional life role, your basic intention is to serve the society only while in a citizen role you experience culture, community and other social relationships. Developing good phone skills is clearly essential to successful collections. Play encourages adults to communicate with the children in their lives. Damage to a City Park. Play also provides a means and. Empathy, Listening Skills & Relationships By: Lawrence J. Sales and Negotiation Resources. zIdentifies areas of weakness for future training development. Generally, the size or seriousness of the negotiation. Our Role “We all need to be good listeners and learn to demonstrate our empathy and understanding of the problems, needs, and issues of others. Only then can we hope to influence their behavior in a positive way. Beyond applying learned conflict resolution skills to real-world scenarios, role play forces mediation professionals to empathize with students outside their own demographic and situation. Any less than that and it is unlikely that either party has had enough time to fairly consider the other side. Negotiation. Play can be done by a child alone, with another child, in a group or with an adult. Let's Play: Teaching Social Skills by Linda M. Role Play #1. Funding opportunities Call our toll-free number for more details at 1. They can be used to reinforce, recycle or review vocabulary and expressions that students have learnt. Sixth Graders' Conflict Resolution in Role Plays with a Peer, Parent, and Teacher. Ms A° sa Jonsson, in her then role as Health and Development Section (HDS) coordinator for the project entitled "Strengthening national HRD capabilities in poverty alleviation and conflict negotiation skills for youth", prepared the overall framework for this Module. For example, rewards, sanctions, force and the threat of force, relationship, BATNA, moral authority, and commitment power can all play a role in the Two Dollar Game. some argue that role-play makes it harder, not easier, to learn new skills. You cannot simply explain an intervention technique to students and expect them to use it. Negotiation Planning Steps Key planning questions to answer Role of power and leverage in negotiations Sources of negotiating power 3. , Burlington, NC 27215. The differences between simulations, games and role plays are s'gtllfi cant. This way, clients in recovery can get experience in saying no, which makes it easier to remember when the client is in the social situation. As their first teachers, there are six important steps to pass on this important skills to your little ones. The aim of the following negotiation role-play (sample) is to help you get more familiar with the interest-based negotiation process introduced above. It can teach multiple forms of value creation in. Mediators have an opportunity to develop and lead an. Instead of automatically playing the role of competitors - I win, you lose - create a new kind of role. Negotiation role-plays introduce participants to new negotiation and dispute resolution tools, techniques and strategies. He should be very clear about his roles and responsibilities in the team. cash credit card receipt checkout changing rooms T-shirt 1. Play the Business English Negotiations Game and test your English for negotiations. Also available in truncated form as a half-day course. How Picture Books Play a Role in a Child’s Development. Negotiation is a critical skill needed for effective management. Print/photocopy the Teamwork Skills Self Inventory handout (one per student) 20 minutes Lesson Overview In this lesson, participants will learn about the importance of teamwork on the job. Our Negotiation Skills Training course activities, materials and games are all ready for you to download now and use in your Negotiation training courses and workshops. Be careful when planning the negotiation with your counterpart. By guest blogger, Nick Rojas. This work paper examines the effect of Negotiation Role Play could have on the level of critical thinking skills of students majoring in business studies. One partner plays Sam, the other plays the team leader. Play and Games and the Development of Speech and Language The importance of play Play is absolutely vital to a child's healthy development. Creating Effective Scenarios, Case Studies, and Role Plays Printable Version (PDF) Scenarios, case studies and role plays are examples of active and collaborative teaching techniques that research confirms are effective for the deep learning needed for students to be able to remember and apply concepts once they have finished your course. After the role play, debrief as a larger group. discovered that children’s pretend play has connections to important cognitive and social skills, such as symbolic thinking, theory of mind, and counterfactual reasoning. Finally, the definition of a second generation negotiation evolves in a creative challenge for achieving long-term relationships based on proper interests, effective. Program on Negotiation The Program on Negotiation is a Harvard University consortium dedicated to developing the theory and practice of negotiation and dispute resolution. For example, rewards, sanctions, force and the threat of force, relationship, BATNA, moral authority, and commitment power can all play a role in the Two Dollar Game. One body of research in K–12 has investigated just what role preservice preparation of teachers plays in teacher quality and student achievement. Skills •Negotiation Who typically plays this role?. VAN HASSELT Nova Southeastern University MONTY T. Diamond recommends that negotiators do not only to play their own role, but also gain a. There's a lot on the line during a negotiation with the buyer. Negotiation 2. Practicing Interventions: Role Playing. skills can be used in clinical practice 3 use interpersonal skills in clinical practice. Functioning Through Play Children learn a vast array of skills during play opportunities. Should improve or at least not damage the relationship between the parties. Through this workshop participants will be able to understand the basic types of negotiations, the phases of negotiations, and the skills needed for successful negotiating. This helps students better understand the Role-Play Activities This document contains guidelines on how to struc-ture student role-plays as well as two sample role-play scripts that students can. iRubric LXW53A9: This rubric will be used to evaluate the team role-play presentation. Self-Advocacy Curriculum: Teaching Self-Advocacy to Adults with Disabilities, The Self-Advocacy Project, Alamance Community College, 224 E. Our Negotiation Skills Training course activities, materials and games are all ready for you to download now and use in your Negotiation training courses and workshops. NEW ROLE PLAYS Role plays help students develop their decision-making skills by setting up realistic business challenges that require students to use negotiation techniques to work out the best possible solutions. their life skills through role-plays. school guidance programs. 25 Role Plays to Teach Negotiation. The modern and ideal aim of negotiations - which should be reinforced in training situations - is for those involved in the. 7% of the participants, with 16. Role of the health and social care worker 1. 1 prohibits you from knowingly making a false statement of law or fact at any time during your representation of a client. In addition. Saunders and Bruce Berry, Fifth Edition (preferred) McGraw Hill. The Pharma Licensing Negotiation Course Roger Cox ACQUIRE BUSINESS-CRITICAL COMPETENCIES IN BUSDEV & LICENSING LEARN from Pharma's international top experts LEARN from interacting with your industry peers It was a well-organised course covering all aspects of License Negotiation. Your college roommate informs you that her employer is hiring for a position in the field you studied. As we break down negotiation talent into more specific type of skills, we can see that trust plays a large role in many, if not all of them. Role-Play Simulation Exercises Practice makes perfect, and role-play simulation exercises offer a powerful way for decision-makers, stakeholders, students and others to engage with problems similar to those they are wrestling with in the real world (or may face in the future). Free Play Is Essential for Normal Emotional Development Why Mother Nature motivates our children to play in emotionally exciting ways. INTRODUCTION A. Effective Communication Skills for Children. Selecting Role Players An effective role player needs a variety of skills, the most important is the ability to be in the role play and observe it at the same time - ie. Andy Wasynczuk, a former negotiator for the New England Patriots, explores the sometimes intense role that emotions can play in negotiations. The best way for people to deal with their differences is by negotiating. Peer mediation role plays are the most important part of student mediation training. Games generally have an agreed upon set of rules that limit possible final solutions or agreement. SOF have been doing some of these activities, nited Statesbut the U has only recently recognized that adversaries are exploiting the U. Success, or winning, in a game depends on adherence to a predetermined formu a. One way to establish motivation and to inject some humor into the learning process is to ask students to role play a situation in which the identified skill is lacking. Role-Play Simulation Exercises Practice makes perfect, and role-play simulation exercises offer a powerful way for decision-makers, stakeholders, students and others to engage with problems similar to those they are wrestling with in the real world (or may face in the future). This role play effectively teaches numerous soft skills especially in the areas of Assertiveness and Communication. Answer the telephone. Common role play scenarios include: handling a difficult customer or complaint, disciplining or appraising a member of staff, negotiating a contract or project delivery, and similar situations where. Negotiation Skills for Buyers Duration: One day Objective Conduct better negotiations with confidence and achieve better outcomes for your organisation. It’s packed with 50 role plays and is perfect for small or large classes. In our mind they begin to become undependable and dishonest. Using Handout 2 (or a sheet that you have made containing examples of conflict situations), discuss appro-priate and inappropriate responses to conflict situations. I created these ten roleplays to use with my students of marketing and communication. Begin your class with a quick 5-minute workplace scenario challenge. If the price is right. Through play, children learn to regulate their behavior, lay the foundations for later learning in science and mathe - matics, figure out the complex negotiations of social relationships, build a repertoire of creative problem solving skills, and so much more. Some refusal skills that a drug addict or alcoholic may be taught are: * No phrases to use. Give everyone a paperclip and ask them to spend 2 minutes individually thinking of as many creative, wacky, interesting uses for the paperclip. Make An Offer. Bookbinder, PhD Introduction, editing & additions by: Jan Johnson MA Introduction -- Empathy Defined Most individuals think of empathy as having a sense of understanding and compassion for another person, sensing what it must be like to be them. It is a child’s "job" or "occupation" to play to develop physical coordination, emotional maturity, social skills to interact with other children, and self-confidence to try new experiences and explore new environments. Workplace Scenario Cards: 5-minute icebreaker activity 1. Tell students that they need to keep in mind the various skills for assertive communication that they have learned throughout the units in order to present a role play in which an individual resolves a conflict related to substance use. 520 Exercise 17 Lives Introduction The Live8 exercise involves a negotiation between parties who have never met in per-son, and are negotiating an important transaction using e-mail. a) Engaging in problem-based learning b) Analyzing case-based scenarios c) Engaging in debates, role-play, argument mapping, thinking aloud, and simulation among others 28 The benefit of engaging students in learning experiences that utilize critical thinking skills is the public nature of their thinking. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Children can role play the characters of a story, and use story webs, KWL charts (what the child Knows, Wants to know, and has Learned about a given topic), flannel board pieces, puppets, dolls, and other props. They can be used to reinforce, recycle or review vocabulary and expressions that students have learnt. Here are our top tips for planning and executing a strategy to help you get you the pay rise. Sales and negotiation are required skills for many workplace positions. These worksheets include among others: colouring sheets, crossword and wordsearch puzzles and much more. 25 Ways Teachers Can Be Role Models. If a conflict gets stuck without resolution, you may ask new volunteers to try it, or open the scenario for a group discussion. Emphasis will be placed on the skills element of negotiation and effective mediation and practical examples and role-plays will be the main theme of the workshops. Before you enter any negotiation, clarify (to yourself ) your needs, wants and limits. Taking Telephone Messages Bridging the Employment Gap 2008 Clerical 229 Taking Telephone Messages This unit will prepare a student to answer an office phone in a professional manner, and to take a simple phone message using either a preprinted message pad or blank note paper. Class time is devoted to role plays /exercises, class discussions and lecture. Pretend play has a nonliteral. Pretend play, sometimes called symbolic play, imaginative play, dramatic play or good old make-believe, also introduces the concept that one thing can "be" another — a huge leap in your. The modern and ideal aim of negotiations - which should be reinforced in training situations - is for those involved in the. Program on Negotiation The Program on Negotiation is a Harvard University consortium dedicated to developing the theory and practice of negotiation and dispute resolution. Learning beyond Negotiation Tactics: The Sales Marketplace Seung Hwan (Mark) Lee Purpose of the Study: In the past, negotiation-based, role-play sales-assignments have involved one-to-one interaction between a buyer and a seller. People negotiate. I've always had friends ask me how I negotiated my way from 40k to 50k for my first job with only 06 months of programming experience and only having worked at Starbucks previously. Simulated role playing before a negotiation can help you prepare a strategy. By following these simple guidelines, a meeting manager can utilize the methods and lessons of meeting management in a more efficient manner. It will inherently give you flexibility, as well as a border at which you may need to stop the negotiation. Free rubric builder and assessment tools. It's a familiar practice in negotiation role-plays and training:. For professionals involved nationally and internationally in the oil and gas industry, this course offers a unique opportunity to rapidly increase your understanding of the legal issues involved in oil and gas contracts and to improve your negotiation techniques and skills in drafting a variety of related contracts. Start early and teach your teenager some easy ways to manage conflict. Click on the links, and you will see examples of papers that students have turned in for the Role Play Paper. Global competition, a growing trend in outsourcing, legal constraints, and employer sponsored forms. Hand Puppet play is a great way to role-play and teach social skills. Collaborative or interest-based negotiation aims for agreements that respond to the interest of both parties. I created these ten roleplays to use with my students of marketing and communication. SOF have been doing some of these activities, nited Statesbut the U has only recently recognized that adversaries are exploiting the U. You will play the part of a person who wants or needs something from the other person and is negotiating to get it, using the techniques outlined in this section of the Interpersonal Communication manual. This can allow an exercise to be revisited at a later. Ask for two volunteers to role play the following scenario: 3. You can also use it to spark brainstorming sessions, improve communication between team members, and see problems or situations from different perspectives. So following your team preparation and engagement role play:. It is a cold night, the time is midnight and it has just been snowing. Bending the Rules. Teaching Other Independent Living Skills. Each role model tells two interesting facts about herself and one false fact. Participants seek a solution. Chapter 11 The Neurobiological Power of Play Using the Neurosequential Model of Therapeutics to Guide Play in the Healing Process richard L. Role plays and simulation exercises help the assessors accurately assess how candidates perform in the areas central to everyday business. 3) State that the goal of the role playing exercise is to get the other party to move past his or her position, and into collaboration. Participants will discover that as well as assertiveness they will need empathy and a willingness to compromise to ensure a win-win outcome. Role of the health and social care worker 1. Here's a list of 25 cognitive behavioral therapy techniques, CBT interventions, exercises and tools. Each of these might be different, and crystallizing them in your mind will allow you to negotiate with great skill. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Negotiation is a critical skill needed for effective management. You will need to print and cut up, give one role to each student. These worksheets include among others: colouring sheets, crossword and wordsearch puzzles and much more. • Scenario: The eight members of the Taitech corporate executive group meet to consider selling new entertainment products. This lesson can be used in a wide variety of situations such as business English role plays or other advanced skills classes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 4, 289-302 (1989) Negotiation and Enactment in Social Pretend Play: ns to Social Acceptance cial Cognition Anna-Beth Doyle Concordia University Jennifer Connolly York University Pretend play with peers has been hypothesized to augment the social and social-cognitive skills of preschool children. Get students into small groups to discuss the workplace scenario, key questions and various points of view. They can be used with groups as small as 5 and as large as 25, and cover a range of offenses from "victimless crimes" to student misconduct to more serious and violent crimes. Negotiation Techniques The following general principles must be remembered and applied to negotiations for any site, service, or supplier. INFORMAL FAMILY CAREGIVERS: The family of a baby, Sam, who has been identified as having a congenital condition that. The book provides the opportunity to practice the behaviors used most frequently by successful negotiators-including questioning, clarifying, checking for understanding, summarizing and active listening. Finally, role-play can be a failure if it is not implemented properly. Engaging in the collective bargaining process as a rank-and-file activist or elected representative can provide a fertile training ground for negotiation skills, building comfort and familiarity with the process, dynamics, and stakes at hand, that can translate to enhanced individual negotiation practice. However, lack of time and high costs, classroom training is becoming less common in businesses. Equipping children with the skills to negotiate and draw boundaries, e. To pay for the role-plays, please send a check made out to The Negotiating Table or use the Buy Now button below to pay by credit card through PayPal. Each person reads confidential information about her role, the two (or more) players get together and negotiate, and then the class reconvenes to debrief the experiences. zUsed to develop team function. Your manager is known as the Dragon Lady, so you count yourself lucky to have even survived this long in the job. Each fits with a different set of teaching objectives. SKILLS TOPIC DESCRIPTIONS: K–8 Topics within Ohio’s Learning Standards for Social Studies include civic literacy, financial and economic literacy and global awareness. Agile Team Roles Product Owner & ScrumMaster Brian Adkins Rick Smith. Review the poster, “Role Play Guidelines. After all, diplomats tackle the World's big problems — trade, war, economics, culture, environment and human rights. We may broadly group them into six—authority, credibility, information, time, and emotional control and communication skills. (Game To Learn) This week I asked students once again to choose a character for themselves. Tel 020 7297 9144 Fax 020 7297 9242 enquiries@LSDA. Loading http://ojen. 520 Exercise 17 Lives Introduction The Live8 exercise involves a negotiation between parties who have never met in per-son, and are negotiating an important transaction using e-mail. Role play (and reverse role play) of situations where rules (written or unwritten) are operational e. Each student could prepare for his or her role by filling out the Character Sketch Worksheet (found on page 5 of this PDF document). Environment We play yet another role towards the surrounding that we live in. Developed by Lynn Kable April 2008. When children own the problem solving process they are more apt to follow through with the solutions later on because they will remember solutions better if they come up with them themselves. Circle Shop assistant or Customer for these sentences. Effective negotiation is a skill, and like any skill, it can be learned. A few general guidelines on negotiation are given below but note that they do not cover negotiating tactics in detail: 1. Pretend play, sometimes called symbolic play, imaginative play, dramatic play or good old make-believe, also introduces the concept that one thing can "be" another — a huge leap in your.

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A newly isolated roseophage represents a distinct member of Siphoviridae family Members of the Roseobacter lineage are a major group of marine heterotrophic bacteria because of their wide distribution, versatile lifestyles and important biogeochemical roles. Bacteriophages, the most abundant biological entities in the ocean, play important roles in shaping their hosts’ population structures and mediating genetic exchange between hosts. However, our knowledge of roseophages (bacteriophages that infect Roseobacter) is far behind that of their host counterparts, partly reflecting the need to isolate and analyze the phages associated with this ecologically important bacterial clade. vB_DshS-R4C (R4C), a novel virulent roseophage that infects Dinoroseobacter shibae DFL12T, was isolated with the double-layer agar method. The phage morphology was visualized with transmission electron microscopy. We characterized R4C in-depth with a genomic analysis and investigated the distribution of the R4C genome in different environments with a metagenomic recruitment analysis. The double-stranded DNA genome of R4C consists of 36,291 bp with a high GC content of 66.75%. It has 49 genes with low DNA and protein homologies to those of other known phages. Morphological and phylogenetic analyses suggested that R4C is a novel member of the family Siphoviridae and is most closely related to phages in the genus Cronusvirus. However, unlike the Cronusvirus phages, R4C encodes an integrase, implying its ability to establish a lysogenic life cycle. A terminal analysis shows that, like that of λ phage, the R4C genome utilize the ‘cohesive ends’ DNA-packaging mechanism. Significantly, homologues of the R4C genes are more prevalent in coastal areas than in the open ocean. Information about this newly discovered phage extends our understanding of bacteriophage diversity, evolution, and their roles in different environments. KeywordsDinoroseobacter Roseophage Siphoviridae Genome sequence Large terminase subunit Global Ocean Sampling Gene transfer agent National Center for Biotechnology Information Open reading frames Polymerase chain reaction Plaque forming unit Pacific Ocean Virome Sodium chloridemagnesium sulfate Transmission electron microscopy Bacteriophages or ‘phages’ are abundant and play important roles in shaping microbial population structures, mediating genetic exchange, and modulating biogeochemical cycling in the ocean [1, 2]. With rapid technological advances in DNA sequencing, culture-independent viral metagenomic studies have revealed that marine viruses carry extremely high, but largely uncharacterized genetic diversity [3, 4]. The large amount of unknown sequences is in great part due to the paucity of viral reference genome in the database. As an irreplaceable technique, the isolation and genomic analysis of new viruses could significantly contribute to the interpretation of overwhelming unknown sequences in the viromes [5, 6]. In addition, novel characterized phages can also provide valuable information on the biological features of viruses (such as morphology, infectious cycle, and host specificity) and extend our understanding of genome evolution, phage–host interactions, and phage ecology. The Roseobacter lineage represents a major clade of marine heterotrophic bacteria, with versatile metabolic features, high genomic plasticity, and important biogeochemical roles [7, 8, 9]. The bacteria in this clade are globally distributed throughout the surface oceans, and have emerged as an important model organism for the study of marine microbial ecology . Interestingly, many Roseobacter genomes contain intact prophages and nearly all harbor a conserved gene transfer agent (GTA) operon [10, 11], suggesting that they interact closely with phages. However, only a handful of roseophages have been isolated and characterized. Recently, Zhan et al. provided an up-to-date overview of the roseophages isolated from different lineages of Roseobacter, demonstrating the phylogenetic diversity of the roseophages and their multiple mutual effects on Roseobacter . Therefore, the roseophage–Roseobacter could offer an ideal system to gain new insights into the diversity and evolution of phages and the relationships between phages and their bacterial hosts. Dinoroseobacter shibae DFL12T is one of the most prominent and well-studied members of the Roseobacter clade . It has interesting and important metabolic traits, such as the ability to grow anaerobically and the adaption to dark-light cycles which allows the additional energy generation from light under heterotrophic and starvation conditions . So far, four phages that infect D. shibae DFL12T have been reported, three of which have a highly conserved genomic organization and belong to the N4-like genus of the family Podoviridae [15, 16, 17]. Only one D. shibae siphophage, which was isolated from an oligotrophic environment, has been sequenced and showed little similarity to known phages . In this study, we report the isolation and characterization of another novel siphophage, vB_DshS-R4C, infecting D. shibae DFL12T. Microbiological and genomic analyses provide an overview of its features and its evolutionary relationships with other previously characterized phages. We demonstrate that R4C is a distinct member of the family Siphoviridae. Phage isolation and purification The host strain D. shibae DFL12T was incubated in rich organic (RO) medium (1 M yeast extract, 1 M peptone, 1 M sodium acetate, artificial seawater, pH 7.5) at 37 °C with shaking at 180 rpm/min. The samples for virus isolation were collected from the coastal seawater of Xiamen, China, and filtered through a 0.2 μm membrane. To improve the chance of successful phage isolation, the viruses in the seawater were concentrated with tangential flow filtration through a 30-kDa cartridge (Millipore, CA, USA) and then mixed with D. shibae DFL12T using double-layer agar method . After overnight incubation at 37 °C, individual clear lytic plaques were picked, suspended in 1 mL of SM buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl [pH 7.5], 0.1 M NaCl, 8 mM MgSO4), and purified by replating at least five times to obtain a pure phage culture. The purified plaques were then eluted with SM buffer and stored at 4 °C for further usage. The lytic host range of the phage was determined by spotting dilutions onto lawns of 19 bacterial test strains, mainly from the genera Roseobacter, Erythrobacter, Citromicrobium, Roseomonas, and Silicibacter, as shown in Additional file 1: Table S1 . The bacterial cultures (1 mL) in the exponential growth phase were added to 3 mL of molten RO agar medium (0.5% w/v agar). The mixture was then poured onto a solid agar plate (1.5% w/v agar), which was placed at room temperature (approximately 25 °C) to solidify. Diluted phage lysate (10 μL) was spotted onto the surface of each plate, incubated overnight at 37 °C, and then checked for the presence of lytic plaques. To investigate the presence of lipid in R4C, the phages were incubated with 0.2, 2%, or 20% (v/v) chloroform with vibration for 1 min and then kept at room temperature for 30 min. The titers of the phage were then determined by dropping it onto D. shibae DFL12T plate to examine its sensitivity to chloroform. One-step growth curve One-step growth curve was constructed to analyze the life cycle of R4C . Briefly, the phage was added to 1 mL of log-phase D. shibae DFL12T at a multiplicity of infection of 0.01, and then incubated for 25 min at room temperature in the dark. The unabsorbed phage particles were removed by centrifugation at 10,000×g for 5 min. After resuspended in 50 mL of RO medium, the suspension was incubated at 37 °C with continuous shaking. Samples were collected every 30 min and viral abundance was quantified with a double-agar plaque assay. Preparation of high-titer phage suspensions High-titer phage suspensions for morphological observation and DNA extraction were prepared with cesium chloride (CsCl) gradient ultracentrifugation. Briefly, the phage was propagated in strain DFL12T and collected after complete bacterial lysis. The culture was centrifuged at 10,000×g for 10 min and filtered through a 0.2 μm membrane. The phage suspension was precipitated with 1 M NaCl and polyethylene glycol (PEG) 8000 (10% w/v) overnight at 4 °C. The phage particles from the PEG pellet were purified with CsCl (1.5 g/mL in SM buffer) gradient centrifugation (200,000×g, 4 °C, 24 h). The phage bands were collected and dialyzed against SM buffer at 4 °C. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) The phage morphology was investigated with TEM. In brief, 10 μL of high-titer phage concentrate was placed on formvar, carbon-coated copper electron microscopy grids (200 mesh) and allowed to adsorb for 20 min. The phage particles were negatively stained with 1% (w/v) phosphotungstic acid for 1 min. Excess stain was removed with filter paper and the grids were air dried before examination with a JEM-2100 electron microscope (accelerating voltage of 120 kV). For DNA extraction, the high-titer phage concentrate was treated with DNase I and RNase A at room temperature for 1 h to reduce host DNA contamination and then the DNase was inactivated at 65 °C for 15 min. The phage was lysed with proteinase K (50 μM), EDTA (20 mM), and sodium dodecyl sulfate (0.5% w/v) at 55 °C for 3 h. The phage DNA was extracted with the phenol/chloroform/isoamyl alcohol method and precipitated with ethanol. After quality and quantity checks with NanoDrop 2000 spectrophotometer and agarose gel electrophoresis, the genomic DNA was stored at − 80 °C until sequencing. Genome sequencing and analysis The genomic DNA was sequenced on the Illumina HiSeq 2500 platform with pair-end (PE) read sizes of 100 bp. The raw reads were quality checked with FastQC and trimmed with FASTX-Toolkit. On average, Illumina PE reads 1 and reads 2 had > 90% and > 75% of bases with a quality score of at least 30 (Q30), respectively. The sequences were assembled with the Velvet software (v1.2.03) . The phage termini and DNA-packing strategy were predicted with PhageTerm , with a mapping coverage setting of 20,000. The GeneMarkS online server and RAST (http://rast.nmpdr.org/) were used to identify putative open reading frames (ORFs), and the results were merged and checked manually. Gene annotation was performed with the algorithms of a BLAST search (National Center for Biotechnology Information, NCBI) against the nonredundant (nr) nucleotide database, with e-values of < 10− 5. The presence of tRNAs was examined with tRNAscan-SE. Comparison of genomes between R4C and other related phages were performed using BLAST. The complete genome sequence was submitted to the GenBank database under accession number MK882925. In this study, the major capsid protein, large terminase subunit (TerL), and GTA-like sequences of R4C were used to construct phylogenetic trees to analyze its evolutionary relationships. Homologues were identified with BLASTP against the NCBI nr database using the acid-amino sequences as queries. Multiple sequence alignments were constructed with ClustalW, with the default parameters. Phylogenetic trees were constructed with the maximum likelihood method, with 1000 bootstrap replicates, in the MEGA 6.0 software (http://www.megasoftware.net/). The accession numbers of the viruses used in the alignments and phylogenetic analyses are listed on the trees. Recruitment of metagenomic data To analyze the distribution of the R4C genome in different environments, homologues of the R4C ORFs were recruited from the Global Ocean Sampling (GOS) metagenomes and Pacific Ocean Virome (POV). The reads was recruited with tBLASTn using a threshold e-value of 10− 5, a bit score of > 40, and a minimum amino-acid length of 30, as previously described . Results and discussion Biological characterization of R4C A TEM analysis revealed that R4C has an isometric and icosahedral head, with an estimated diameter of 55 ± 2 nm. The phage has a long noncontractile tail, measuring 82 ± 3 nm (Fig. 1b). According to its morphological characteristics and the guidelines of the International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses, phage R4C belongs to the family Siphoviridae in the order Caudovirales (tailed phages). Until now, over 96% of the phages reported in the scientific literature belong to the order Caudovirales, and the siphoviruses comprise approximately 61% of the tailed phages . However, only 33% of the known roseophages belong to Siphoviridae, and the rest to the families Podoviridae and Microviridae . The host range of this newly isolated phage was assayed with the spot test. Among all the 19 strains tested, phage R4C can only infect D. shibae DFL12 (Additional file 1: Table S1), but other yet-to-be discovered hosts cannot be ruled out here. This result is consistent with the previous finding that roseophages seem to have narrow host ranges . The suspensions of R4C treated with three different concentrations of chloroform showed obvious lytic plaques, indicating the absence of lipids outside the capsid, which is commonly observed in phages of the order Caudovirales . Bioinformatic analysis of the genomic sequence General genomic features Genome assembly based on 3,048,949 PE reads yielded a single contig with an average coverage of 19,731×. The genome of R4C is a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) molecule consisting of 36,291 bp, with a high G + C content of 66.75%, which is very similar to the average G + C content (66.02%) of its host. The average genome size of the phages within the family Siphoviridae is estimated to be 53.70 kb . Therefore, R4C has a relatively small genome within this family, reflecting the more retrenching virion structure. The properties of the genome, such as the positions, directions, and putative functions of each gene, are summarized in Additional file 1: Table S2. In total, 49 putative ORFs were predicted in the R4C genome, with 48 ORFs on the positive strand and one ORF on the negative strand. A total of 35,145 nucleotides (96.59% of the genome) are involved in coding putative proteins. The average gene length is 715 bp, with a range of 111 to 4344 nucleotides. Only 22 predicted ORFs (44.90%) were predicted to be functional, whereas 27 were assigned to hypothetical proteins. No tRNA sequences were detected in the R4C genome with the tRNAscan-SE program, indicating that the phage is completely reliant on the host tRNA for its protein synthesis. Genome annotation with BLASTP identified different functional clusters, including those involved in DNA packaging, virion morphogenesis, DNA manipulation, and regulation. Phage DNA-packaging mechanism A termini analysis that can detect the DNA-packaging mechanisms of dsDNA phages was implemented using the PhageTerm software. Toward the end of the infection cycle, dsDNA phages generally form concatemeric DNA, which is cleaved by terminase and then encapsulated in a preformed empty prohead. Although there are several different phage DNA-packaging mechanisms, two modes are well characterized: the cohesive ends (cos) and headful (pac) packaging types. For phages with DNA cohesive ends, such as the λ-like phages, terminase recognizes the cos site and introduces a staggered cut, generating a unit-length encapsidated genome. By comparison, in the headful packaging phages (such as the T4, P22, or P1 phages), packaging starts by cleavage at a pac site and ends when the procapsid reaches its capacity. These phages encapsidate more than one unit-length of the phage genome (typically 102–110%), producing a virion DNA with a terminally redundant sequence. Analysis of the phage R4C genome identified a 14-bp 5′ protruding cohesive end region, upstream from the terminase small subunit gene, suggesting that the R4C genome utilizes the cohesive ends packaging strategy of the λ-like phages. The large terminase subunit gene is often conserved amongst the tailed bacteriophages that use either the cos- or pac-type packaging mechanisms. A phylogenetic analysis of R4C TerL, together with those of phages with known packaging mechanisms, also clustered R4C into the clade of phages that utilize λ-like DNA packaging (see below). Comparative genomic analysis Recruitment of metagenomic data Characteristics of R4C ORF homologous reads recruited from different metagenomes Proportion of ORF homologue (%) ORF coverage (%) ORF aa identity (%) In this study, a novel representative of the roseophages was characterized in terms of its microbiological characteristics, genomic organization, phylogenetic relationships, and geographic distribution. Phylogenetic and comparative genomic analyses showed that R4C is a new member of the family Siphoviridae. The integrase gene in R4C implies that the phage has a potential lysogenic cycle. Ecologically, a metagenomic analysis showed that the homologues of R4C are more prevalent in coastal areas than in the open ocean. Our comprehensive analysis of this new phage provides insights into the diversity of the tailed phages and the evolutionary relationships between the roseophages and roseobacters. The information provided should also be a useful reference for the identification of the bacterial hosts of phages retrieved from viral metagenomes. We thank Zhenqin Chen and Dingxun Wu for their help with the microscopy. We greatly appreciated the suggestions from Yongle Xu during the experiments and the data analysis. RZ and LC organized the study; LC, RZ, RM, HC, and YY performed the experiments and analyzed the data; LC, RZ, and NJ wrote the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. This work was supported by the China Ocean Mineral Resources R & D Association (DY135-E2–1-04), Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (QNLM2016ORP0303), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31570172) to R.Z.; the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41706154) and Science and Technology Program of Guangzhou, China (201904020029) to L.C.; the PhD Fellowship of the State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science at Xiamen University to R.M.. Ethics approval and consent to participate Consent for publication The authors declare that they have no competing interests. - 19.Kutter E. Phage host range and efficiency of plating. In Bacteriophages: methods And protocols. Volume 1: isolation, characterization, and interactions. 1st edition. New York: Humana Press; 2009:141–149.Google Scholar - 20.Middelboe M, Chan AM, Bertelsen SK. Isolation and life cycle characterization of lytic viruses infecting heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria. Manual of Aquatic Viral Ecology. American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, Inc., 2010:118–33.Google Scholar - 22.Garneau JR, Sekulovic O, Dupuy B, Soutourina O, Monot M, Fortier LC. High prevalence and genetic diversity of large phiCD211(phiCDIF1296T)-like prophages in Clostridioides difficile. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2018;84(3):e01264–17.Google Scholar Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

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From Quadrant Magazine, March 2009 The Great Depression, in most places, began with the share market crash in 1929 and by the end of 1933 was already receding into history. In 1936, well after the Great Depression had reached its lowest point and recovery had begun, a book was published that remains to this day the most influential economics treatise written during the whole of the twentieth century. The book was The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. The author was John Maynard Keynes. And his book overturned a tradition in economic thought that had already by then stretched back for more than a hundred years. The importance of these dates is important. The economics which Keynes’s writings had overturned is today called “classical theory”, yet it was the application of this self-same classical theory that had brought the Great Depression to its end everywhere but in the United States, where something else was tried instead. And at the centre of classical thought was a proposition that Keynes made it his ambition to see disappear absolutely from economics. It was an ambition in which he was wildly successful. Following a lead set by Keynes, this proposition is now almost invariably referred to as Say’s Law. It is a proposition that since 1936 every economist has been explicitly taught to reject as the most certain obstacle to clear thinking and sound policy. Economists have thus been taught to ignore the one principle most necessary for understanding the causes of recessions and their cures. Worse still, they have been taught to apply the very measures to remedy downturns that are most likely, from the classical perspective, to push them into an even steeper downward spiral. Keynes wrote, and economists have since then almost universally accepted, that Say’s Law meant full employment was guaranteed by the operation of the market. To accept this principle therefore meant that the models then used by economists could not be used to analyse recessions and unemployment because within these models was buried the tacit assumption of full employment. After 150 years of capitalist development, with the business cycle having been the most unmistakably visible aspect of the operation of economies everywhere, Keynes in 1936 could still write that economists in accepting Say’s Law had accepted “the proposition that there was no obstacle to full employment”. [General Theory, p 26] Keynes wrote that Say’s Law meant that “supply creates its own demand”. In his interpretation of this supposedly classical proposition, everything produced would automatically find a buyer. Aggregate demand would always equal aggregate supply. Recessions would therefore never occur and full employment was always a certainty. That economists have accepted as fact the proposition that the entire mainstream of the profession prior to 1936 had believed recessions could never occur when in fact they regularly did shows the power of authority in allowing people to believe three impossible things before breakfast. But what was important were the policy implications of Keynes’s message. These may be reduced to two. First, the problem of recessions is due to a deficiency of aggregate demand. The symptoms of recession were its actual cause. And then, second, an economy in recession cannot be expected to recover on its own, and certainly not within a reasonable time, without the assistance of high levels of public spending and the liberal use of deficit finance. The missing ingredient in classical economic theory, Keynes wrote, had been the absence of any discussion of aggregate demand. It was this missing ingredient that Keynes made it his mission to put in place. And how successful he was. Aggregate demand has since 1936 played the central role in the theory of recession. Recessions are attributed to an absence of demand, and even where they are not, overcoming recessions is seen as dependent on the restoration of demand which is the active responsibility of governments. Until 1936, no mainstream theory of recession had so much as glanced at the notion of demand deficiency as a cause of recession. It was specifically to deny the relevance of demand deficiency as a cause of recession that Say’s Law had been formulated in the first place. Accepting the possibility of demand deficiency as a cause of recession was then seen as the realm of cranks. How the world does change. This, it cannot be emphasised enough, did not mean that the possibility of recessions was denied. There were, and are, no end of potential causes of recession that have nothing to do with demand failure. Indeed, no one explains the present economic downturn, the global meltdown we are in the midst of, in terms of deficient aggregate demand. It would be an absurdity to suggest the problems now being experienced have been caused by consumers no longer wishing to buy more than they have or savings going to waste because investors have run out of new forms of capital into which to invest their funds. The Classical Theory of Recession Classical theory had taught that whatever might cause a recession to occur, it would never be a deficiency of aggregate demand. Production could never exceed the willingness to buy, and therefore treating the symptoms of a recession by trying to raise demand through increased public spending was in policy terms utterly mistaken. Governments could create value but their income was derived from taxation. Taking money from those who were productively employed and directing production towards a government’s own purposes remained acceptable so long as the level of such spending was limited and, most importantly, the government’s budget remained in surplus. These were the self-imposed restraints that Keynesian theory overturned. Public spending in combination with budget deficits, he argued, would propel an economy out of recession. It is this belief that is now accepted by a very large proportion of the economics community. Yet for all that, no recession has been brought to an end through increased levels of public spending, but many recessions have been ended by a return to sound finance and fiscal discipline. The Great Depression The history of public policy during recessionary periods has a number of lessons to teach, assuming we are capable of learning from them. In Britain, economic policy during the Great Depression saw the application of a full-scale classical approach. A policy of balancing the budget and the containment of expenditure was adopted. By 1933, the budget had been balanced and it was from 1933 onwards that Britain emerged from the downturn of the previous four years. It is worth noting that it was balancing the budget that was seen to have made the all-important difference. In rejecting deficit financing during his budget speech of 1933, the British Chancellor of the Exchequer, Neville Chamberlain, made this explicit statement: At any rate we are free from that fear which besets so many less fortunately placed, the fear that things are going to get worse. We owe our freedom from that fear largely to the fact that we have balanced our budget. The same story could be told about Australia, where the Scullin Labor government made the decision in adopting the “Premiers’ Plan” which sought a cut in public spending, a return to budget surplus and cuts to wages. In the light of later Keynesian theory, nothing would have been seen as less likely to have achieved a return to prosperity, but a return to prosperity was most assuredly the result. All this is perfectly captured by Edna Carew (The Language of Money, 1996): A strategy was adopted in June 1931 by Australia’s Scullin government to reduce interest rates and cut expenditure by 20 per cent, partly through slashing public-sector wages. The objective was to reduce Australia’s huge budget deficit problems. Australia had to get its books in order if the country was to continue to get overseas finance. Devaluation had already been forced and increased tariffs tried. The rationale behind the Premiers’ Plan was to revive business confidence. The plan was welcomed as an example of creative economic planning; Douglas Copland claimed it was “a judicious mixture of inflation and deflation”. Later it was criticised as overly deflationary. Certainly it was “later” criticised as overly deflationary after the depression had passed and Keynesian economics had become the vogue, but at the time, while the Great Depression was an actual fact of life, rather than it having been criticised, this was the consensus view of the economics profession of Australia. And it worked. Australia was amongst the first countries to recover from the Great Depression. The trough was reached in 1932 and from then on there was continuous improvement year by year. Contrast the English and Australian experience with the United States. Roosevelt’s New Deal applied a “Keynesian” prescription before Keynes had so much as published a word. From 1933 onwards, public works, increased public spending and deficit financing were the essence of economic policy. And with what results? The data in the table below show the unemployment rates in the United States, the UK and Australia between 1929, the last pre-depression year, through to 1938, the last year before England and Australia went into the war. 1929 to 1938 Year United States UK Australia 1929 3.2% 10.4% 8.0% 1930 8.7% 16.1% 12.7% 1931 15.9% 21.3% 20.1% 1932 23.6% 22.1% 23.0% 1933 24.9% 19.9% 21.0% 1934 21.7% 16.7% 17.9% 1935 20.1% 15.5% 15.5% 1936 16.9% 13.1% 12.6% 1937 14.3% 10.8% 10.9% 1938 19.0% 12.9% 8.9% Source: Australian data Withers and Pope (1993) United States data U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics UK data Garside, W.R. 1990. British Unemployment 1919-1939: s Study in Public Policy. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. None of these figures should be taken as anything more than indicative since there were no official unemployment statistics at the time. All are reconstructions based on incomplete data. But what these figures do provide is an accurate reflection of the reality experienced on the ground at the time. Although major pockets of unemployment remained, Australia and England had by the mid-1930s left the depression behind while the United States did not do so until the war finally brought recessionary conditions to an end. The Postwar Recovery By the time the war came to an end, much of the economics profession had been converted to Keynesian theory. Although there was no evidence that the theory would actually work in a peacetime economy, a high proportion of economists advocated a continuation of the deficits and high levels of public spending that had prevailed during the war. The major debate took place in the United States. Only four years before, it was pointed out, the American economy had been in deep recession. Millions of its men and women, who had served overseas or in war-related industries, were returning to the civilian economy in which the resumption of recession seemed a genuine possibility. Yet Harry Truman resisted the pressure to provide a fiscal stimulus to the American economy. In his State of the Union address in January 1946, the American President made his policy direction clear: It is good to move toward a balanced budget and a start on the retirement of the debt at a time when demand for goods is strong and the business outlook is good. These conditions prevail today. Truman, in refusing to apply a Keynesian stimulus, touched off the most sustained period of economic growth in American and world history. It has been argued that the slow development of the welfare state in the postwar period was the actual meaning of Keynesian policy. The “fine tuning” of the economy, as it was called, had in the eyes of some demonstrated the value of Keynesian policies. Whatever such fine tuning did or did not involve, at no stage in the twenty-five years after the war did Keynesian theory actually have to confront an economy in deep recession. The first serious attempt to use Keynesian theory to deal with a major downturn did not occur until the late 1960s and early 1970s. Some have argued that President Kennedy had applied a Keynesian approach to end the mild recession of the early 1960s, but he had used tax cuts to stimulate growth. As with the Reagan tax cuts two decades later, this too was not a Keynesian approach. Keynesian economics is about increased levels of public spending. Tax cuts are entirely classical in nature. They leave funds in the hands of those who have earned the income in the first place. Public spending diverts expenditure into directions of the government’s own choosing. The first is market oriented, the second is not. The first would be expected to succeed under classical principles, the second would not. The 1970s are in many ways a special case. It was a period which combined rapid growth in wages with huge increases in the cost of oil. But it also included an attempt to manufacture growth through a deficit-financed stimulus package on top of the expenditure related to the Vietnam War. The result was what has gone down in history as the “stagflation” of the 1970s. It was a period that pulled economies into a downward spiral, combining high inflation with low growth, the very outcome any classical economist would have foretold. It took well over a decade to return the world’s economies to high and sustained rates of non-inflationary growth. The Japanese Recovery Program The most recent large-scale example of an attempt to use a Keynesian deficit-financed spending program to restore growth to a depressed economy occurred in Japan during the 1990s. The end of the 1980s had seen brief recessions across the world from which most economies rapidly recovered. Only Japan attempted to hasten recovery with a series of very large spending packages. Far from achieving recovery, this expenditure drove the Japanese economy into such deep recession that even today its economy, at one time the envy of the world, remains subdued. Yet, oddly, because economic theory continues to insist that the spending could only have been a positive, the example of the Japanese disaster is a lesson no one has been prepared to absorb. Listen, however, to the following advice offered to the Japanese during the 1990s. It is the same advice offered to governments today, with the difference being that we at least now know the outcome in Japan. Stanley Fischer, who in 1998 was the First Deputy Managing Director of the IMF, was very clear on the need for the massive increases in spending. Addressing a symposium in Tokyo in April that year, he said: Japan’s economic performance is of course a matter of grave domestic concern. But given the prominent role of Japan in the world economy, and especially in Asia, it is also a legitimate matter for concern by Japan’s neighbors and by the international community. There is little disagreement about what needs to be done. There is an immediate need for a substantial fiscal expansion … On fiscal policy, the recent suggestion of a package of 16 trillion yen, about 3 per cent of GDP, would be a good starting point. But, unlike on previous occasions, the program that is implemented should be close to the starting point. The well-known reservations about increases in wasteful public spending are correct: that is why much of the package, at least half, should take the form of tax cuts. Anyone who doubts the effectiveness of tax measures need only consider the effectiveness of last year’s tax increases in curbing demand. The IMF is not famous for supporting fiscal expansions. And it is true that Japan faces a long-term demographic problem that has major fiscal implications. But after so many years of near-stagnation, fiscal policy must help get the economy moving again. There will be time to deal with the longer-term fiscal problem later. Another example of the same kind of advice is found in a February 28, 1998, editorial in the Economist under the heading, “Japan’s feeble economy needs a boost”: The [Japanese] government says it cannot afford a big stimulus because its finances are perilous. It is true that Japan’s gross public debt has risen to 87% of GDP, but net debt amounts to only 18% of GDP, the smallest among the G7 economies. The general-government budget deficit, 2½% of GDP, is smaller than its European counterparts’. Rightly, the Japanese are worried about the future pension liabilities implied by their rapidly ageing population. But now is not the time to sort the problem out. Far better to cut the budget later, when the economy has recovered its strength. Both took the view that Japan should immediately increase its spending and only afterwards clean up whatever problems were created. In Fischer’s view, “there will be time to deal with the longer-term fiscal problem later”. The Economist wrote that “now is not the time to sort the problem out. Far better to cut the budget later, when the economy has recovered its strength.” These are conclusions that come directly from a Keynesian model that concerns itself with deficient demand as the cause of recession and looks to increased spending as its cure. The Economist even added that “just now, in fact, Japan is a textbook case of a country in need of fiscal stimulus”. Whatever may have been the case then, it ought to be the textbook case now for why all such forms of economic stimulus should be avoided at all costs. Because, say what you will about the causes of the Japanese downturn and the failure to recover, all major economies experienced the same deep recession at the start of the 1990s, but only the Japanese economy has never fully recovered its previous strength. The Level of Demand versus the Structure of Demand Recessions occur because goods and services are produced that cannot be sold for prices that cover their costs. There are reams of possible reasons why and how such mistaken production decisions occur. But when all is said and done, the causes of recession are structural. They are the consequence of structural imbalances that result from errors in production decisions, not the fall in output and demand that necessarily follows. This cannot be emphasised enough. Modern macroeconomics is built around the notion of the level of demand, while prior to Keynes recessions were understood in terms of the structure of demand. The difference could not be more profound. To policy-makers today, the basic issue in analysing recessions is whether there is enough demand in total. To economists prior to Keynes, the central issue was to explain why markets had become unbalanced. In modern economic theory, rising and falling levels of spending are for all practical purposes what matters. That is why increasing public spending and adding to deficits are seen as an intrinsic part of the solution, not as the additional problem such spending actually is. Missing in modern economic debates is an understanding of the importance of structure, that the parts of the economy must fit together. What’s missing is an understanding that if the entire economic apparatus goes out of alignment, recession is the result and recession will persist until all of the parts once again begin to mesh. Think of what has caused this downturn in the first place. None of it is related to demand having suddenly evaporated for no good reason. All of the most visible causes can be brought back to distortions in decision making that led to the production of goods and services whose full costs of production cannot now be met. Look at the list: - the meltdown in the housing sector in the United States after financial institutions were encouraged to lend to borrowers who would not in normal circumstances even remotely be considered financially sound - the bundling of mortgages into financial derivatives whose value crashed with the crash in the value of housing and which has left the banking industry in a shambles - the massive American budget deficits that were allowed to continue for years on end largely because the Chinese chose to recycle the dollars received in the American money market without either allowing the value of the yuan to rise, as it most assuredly ought to have done, or using the funds received to purchase American goods and services - the phenomenal rise and subsequent fall in the price of oil which radically changed production costs in one industry after another - the instability still being created across the world’s economies over the actions that might or might not be taken to limit carbon emissions and reduce the level of greenhouse gases - the arbitrary and erratic use of monetary policy to target inflation, the results of which have been to raise interest rate settings at one moment and lower them at another depending on assessments made by central banks - the plunge in share market prices across the world, with savage effects on the value of personal savings. There have been few periods in which so many forms of financial and economic uncertainty would have confronted the average business at one and the same moment. That business confidence has evaporated and an economic downturn has gained momentum is a matter of no surprise to anyone. The fact of recession is a certainty; only the depth to which it will descend remains in question. But just as the causes of this downturn cannot be charted through a Keynesian demand-deficiency model, neither can the solution. The world’s economies are not suffering from a lack of demand, and the right policy response is not a demand stimulus. Increased public sector spending will only add to the market confusions that already exist. What is potentially catastrophic would be to try to spend our way to recovery. The recession that will follow will be deep, prolonged and potentially take years to overcome. Keynes’s Final Thoughts In an article (“The Balance of Payments of the United States”) on the balance of payments published posthumously in the Economic Journal in 1946, Keynes wrote on one last occasion about the classical economics he had done so much to undermine. The Keynesian revolution had ripped through the economics world and had by then displaced almost all previous thought on the nature and origins of the business cycle. In looking out on the monster he had created, Keynes wrote in some dismay about the importance and value of classical economics and its modes of thought. The specific issue he was addressing was international trade. The actual underlying issue was the need for free markets and decentralised decision making. Here is what Keynes wrote: I find myself moved, not for the first time, to remind contemporary economists that the classical teaching embodied some permanent truths of great significance, which we are liable to-day to overlook because we associate them with other doctrines which we cannot now accept without much qualification. There are in these matters deep undercurrents at work, natural forces, one can call them, or even the invisible hand, which are operating towards equilibrium. If it were not so, we could not have got on even so well as we have for many decades past. In looking at the anti-market policies then finding their way into public discussion, he noted just how damaging they would be in practice. He had been advocating free market solutions, the “classical medicine” of his description, but which others were reluctant to apply. Keynes wrote: We have here sincere and thoroughgoing proposals, advanced on behalf of the United States, expressly directed towards creating a system which allows the classical medicine to do its work. It shows how much modernist stuff, gone wrong and turned sour and silly, is circulating in our system, also incongruously mixed, it seems, with age-old poisons … I must not be misunderstood. I do not suppose that the classical medicine will work by itself or that we can depend on it. We need quicker and less painful aids … But in the long run these expedients will work better and we shall need them less, if the classical medicine is also at work. And if we reject the medicine from our systems altogether, we may just drift on from expedient to expedient and never get really fit again. It is this “modernist stuff, gone wrong and turned sour and silly”, these “age-old poisons” that are the economics of the present day. We are on the precipice of adopting economic policies that will drag us into a deep and ongoing recession and which will diminish our economic prospects possibly for years to come. We may, just as Keynes said, drift on from expedient to expedient and never get really fit again. These are issues of immense importance. To get them wrong may well leave our market economies in the wilderness for a generation. The question before us really is whether markets should be allowed to find their way with only minimal government direction, or whether the economic system should be directed from above by elected governments and the public service. This is not a mere matter of regulation but of actual direction and expenditure. No one disputes the importance of regulating the operation of markets. There is also a minor role that increased public sector spending might play in allowing some additional infrastructure projects to go forward while economic conditions are slack. But to believe it is possible for governments to spend our way to prosperity would be a major error in policy. There is no previous occasion in which such spending has been shown to work, while there are plenty of instances in which it has not. On every occasion that such spending has been used, the result has been a worsening of economic conditions, not an improvement. The only lasting solution also consistent with restoring prosperity, growth and full employment is to rely on markets. The repeated attack on the market economy, and the role of the private sector, is a mindset begging for trouble. Certainly there are actions that governments can take to relieve some of the problems of recession, but they are limited. Sure, this is a better time than most to build infrastructure. Absolutely, there need to be measures taken to assist the unemployed. Yes, the central bank should be lowering interest rates and ensuring the viability of the banking sector. All such steps are mandatory and largely non-controversial. But what must be explicitly understood is that recovery means recovery of the private sector. It is business and business investment that must once again take up the load of moving our economy forward. It is the banking system that must be allowed to allocate funds. To expect and depend on anything else will take this economy down deflationary pathways that will require years to reverse. The Keynesian model makes the engine of growth appear to be expenditure, irrespective of what that spending is on. And the most important element in the recovery process, according to these same models, is an increase in the government’s own level of expenditure, and again it appears to matter not much at all on what that money is actually spent. Here is a passage from page 129 of the General Theory that will give you some idea of what’s in store. If the Treasury were to fill old bottles with banknotes, bury them at suitable depths in disused coalmines which are then filled up to the surface with town rubbish, and leave it to private enterprise on well-tried principles of laissez-faire to dig the notes up again (the right to do so being obtained, of course, by tendering for leases of the note-bearing territory), there need be no more unemployment and, with the help of the repercussions, the real income of the community, and its capital wealth also, would probably become a good deal greater than it actually is. It would, indeed, be more sensible to build houses and the like; but if there are political and practical difficulties in the way of this, the above would be better than nothing. This is the earlier Keynes, the Keynes of the General Theory, the one who created and established the mindset in which policy is now devised. Productive government spending is rare and difficult to achieve. Wasteful profligate spending is easy and common as clay. There are now no end of projects coming forward, with hardly a one having been tested with any kind of rigour to ensure funds are not being drained away into unproductive fiscal swamps. The standard macroeconomic model, the model that the proposed fiscal expansion will be based upon, is a model that will endanger our future economic prospects for years on end. If the Argentine economy is your idea of utopia, this is the way to bring it about faster and with more certainty than anything else that might conceivably be tried. 1. “Classical” was the name given to the economics of his predecessors by Keynes himself. The origins of the term as applied to economics and economists dates back to Karl Marx who used it as a brush with which to tar his predecessors. Keynes, a polemicist of some genius himself, took up the term for exactly the same purpose, but extended its range to include his own contemporaries as well. 2. The term “Say’s Law” was not, it should be noted, an invention of Keynes’s nor was it classical in origin but had been introduced into economics at the start of the twentieth century by the American economist, Fred Manville Taylor. However, once the words appeared in the General Theory, they immediately entered the lexicon of the entire economics profession where they have remained embedded ever since. 3. It might be hard for non-economists to appreciate just how deeply felt the rejection of Say’s Law is. Such attitudes are, however, not universal. Schumpeter, in full knowledge of what Keynes had written, was himself still able to write “Say’s Law is obviously true…. It is neither trivial nor unimportant.” ( 1986: 617) 4. This phrase is practically the only statement from the whole of the economics literature that an economist is uniquely bound to know even if very few ever understand what it actually means or have the slightest clue as to its original source. The only other sets of words known to all economists is “the invisible hand” of Adam Smith and, again from Keynes, “in the long run we are all dead”, both of which are also well known amongst non-economists. 5. Some point to the economic conditions during the War as evidence that Keynesian policy actually works. But the war did no more than demonstrate that unemployment can be made to disappear if a large proportion of the workforce is removed from the workplace and a government-directed war economy is introduced. But the actual performance of the economy – as in the existence of an institutional apparatus that will deliver goods and services to the community at reasonable prices – was dismal. Rationing and shortages of consumer goods existed throughout the War as one would expect. Carew, Edna. 1996. The Language of Money 3. Website edition. Allen & Unwin. Website address: Clarke, Peter. 1988. The Keynesian Revolution in the Making 1924‑1936. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Stanley Fisher in a set of remarks prepared for delivery at the Asahi Shimbun symposium, “The Asian Economic Crisis and the Role of Japan”, held in Tokyo on April 8 1998. As stated in a footnote to the speech, “the views expressed are those of the author, and not necessarily of the International Monetary Fund.” Keynes, John Maynard. 1936. The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. London: Macmillan. _______ 1946. “The Balance of Payments of the United States.” The Economic Journal, Vol. 56. pp 172-187. Schumpeter, Joseph A. 1986. History of economic analysis. London: Allen and Unwin. The Economist. Editorial. 28 February 1998, p 21. Dr Steven Kates teaches economics at the RMIT University in Melbourne and will complete an appointment as a Commissioner on the Productivity Commission in April. He is editing a book titled Alternate Perspectives on the World Financial Crisis, which will contain an extended version of this article.

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Dissociative (non-epileptic) seizures are one of the three major causes of transient loss of consciousness. As such, their treatment cannot be left to superspecialised experts. In this article I draw on personal experience to suggest ways to tackle some challenges that commonly arise after diagnosing dissociative seizures, focusing on three issues: “I want to know what is wrong with me,” “I hear what you are saying but it doesn’t apply to me” and “What if I have a seizure?” The suggestions detail both actions and words that may help at a crucial point in the patient’s journey. If handled well, the process can leave the patient better equipped to understand their seizures and to engage in further treatment; if handled badly, patients may be left more traumatised, angry and with additional disability. - dissociative seizures - nonepileptic seizures Statistics from Altmetric.com Dissociative (non-epileptic) seizures superficially resemble epileptic seizures or syncope but are an involuntary behavioural and experiential response to distressing internal or external triggers, rather than visible or subjectively perceived manifestations of excessive or hypersynchronous electrical discharges in the brain. Although the diagnosis is sometimes applied to episodes associated with fully retained awareness and responsiveness, a diagnosis of dissociative seizures usually implies impaired consciousness and reduced self-control. Dissociative seizures are one of the three common disorders which, between them, account for over 90% of clinical presentations with transient loss of consciousness.1 The diagnosis of dissociative seizures is given to about one in five patients attending seizure clinics, and is the diagnosis in up to one in three patients with refractory seizure disorders referred for video electroencephalogram (EEG).2 3 In the terms of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, most dissociative seizure presentations fulfil the criteria of functional neurological symptom disorder, which is one of the three most common reasons why patients are referred to neurologists.4 Given that dissociative seizures often present to emergency services and that medical settings may expose patients with relevant vulnerabilities to potential triggers, these events are encountered by blackout experts and also by general neurologists and by clinicians working in many other medical specialties. Thus most doctors need to know something about dissociative seizures. This article draws on over two decades of personal experience in the diagnosis and treatment of dissociative seizures. I reference some relevant literature, but the main source for my suggestions is expert opinion. With this proviso, I focus particularly on three questions that often arise once the diagnosis of dissociative seizures has been made. My approach to the diagnostic process itself is described elsewhere and not reiterated here.5 6 “I want to know what is wrong with me” I usually open the encounter by asking, “What can I do for you today?” This initial enquiry makes no mention of the patient’s complaint, even if I have prior knowledge of it, for instance from a referral letter or the verbal presentation. This opening allows me to listen for how exactly patients formulate their complaint, for instance whether they focus more on their symptoms or the consequences of their neurological problem.7 The most common reply is a variant of “I want to know what is wrong with me,” that is, a complex question that may be impossible to answer quickly in a way that fulfils the patient’s needs and expectations. However, a satisfactory and credible explanation is extremely important and may make all the difference between a patient whose anxiety level falls and who engages in a treatment process and gets better, and one who is offended, feels rejected or misunderstood and continues to remain severely disabled for years to come.8 I try to optimise my understanding of what patients mean with their initial request by deferring the delivery of my diagnosis until I have learnt more about what the patient is looking for and is likely to accept. During a new patient appointment I want to hear patients describe how they first developed their problem and what other healthcare professionals have told them. Even if there is less time (or more information available from their records), I ask the patient to describe their first, their most recent, or a particularly memorable seizure before launching into any explanation. This initial phase of intensive listening is key to understanding what patients want and communicates to patients that I am taking them seriously. During this opening phase I check that I have all the information needed to communicate my understanding of the diagnosis and proposals for treatment. The opinions of others, scans I have not seen or previous test results of which I am not aware may have little bearing on my ultimate judgement. However, if they are significant in the patient’s mind, a prematurely delivered diagnostic formulation could well turn out to be a waste of time. While listening to the patient’s account I also consider whether the setting for my explanation of the diagnosis is appropriate: Is there enough time? Would it help to show a seizure recording (if available) after an admission for video EEG? Are relevant people present (for instance, family members or formal and informal carers), or might it be more effective to arrange a better-prepared conversation later? Do I have an appropriate treatment and follow-up plan? It is only after I have satisfied myself that the time is right that I begin to tell people what is ‘wrong’ with them (figure 1).8 The first part of my account tends to be a statement about certainty. This is important because (notwithstanding the preliminaries listed above) it is crucial, to discuss a possible diagnosis of dissociative seizures as soon as this disorder has entered the differential diagnosis and not only when all other possible explanations have been ‘ruled out’. For instance, rather than saying, “You have experienced a blackout, I have no idea what caused it,” I might say, “You have experienced a blackout, I can’t be certain why at this stage, but the commonest causes are fainting, an epileptic seizure or a dissociative seizure,” followed by a very short explanation of each mechanism. Mentioning a possible diagnosis of dissociative seizures early greatly facilitates a patient’s eventual acceptance of this diagnosis when it has become more certain. However, even before communicating a video EEG-‘documented’ diagnosis of dissociative seizures,9 I tend to state that it is difficult to make definitive diagnoses in patients with episodic symptoms, and that it is impossible to travel back in time to explore what exactly caused a particular event that was not captured during any physiological monitoring. This statement is intended to make it easier for patients to voice doubts about my diagnosis (so that I can address them) and to enable them to make sense of the fact that other health professionals—who probably had less information available to them or less expertise—may have previously given them different explanations. I suspect that the honesty evident in this statement ultimately makes my explanation more compelling than would a display of my level of specialisation or seniority. Giving the condition a name is already implicit in the previous part of the explanation. Some clinicians worry that labelling a phenomenon gives it a medical status. However, when dissociative seizures present to a clinician, they have already become a medical problem whether the clinician is willing to deal with it or not, and naming the condition can give patients an opportunity to start tackling the problem.10 While naming the condition is crucial in my view, I am less certain which name to use. The term ‘dissociative seizure’ is defined in the International Classification of Disease, 10th Revision and my current favourite, but it is not widely used or understood by neurologists. In future, patients and professionals may better understand the term ‘functional’ seizures, and it would link seizures more clearly to other presentations of functional neurological symptom disorder. For now, however, ‘dissociative’ has the edge over ‘psychogenic’ (which patients may misunderstand and feel offended by) or ‘non-epileptic’, which is much too vague, only says what the condition is not, and would cause confusion when a patient never thought they had epilepsy, for instance those who present to syncope services.11 In one last preliminary step, I explain how I have reached my diagnostic conclusion (for instance, through hearing the descriptions of the events, or from seeing video and EEG recordings). The purpose of this part of the conversation is to demonstrate that I have carefully considered their problem, and to demonstrate that I have not primarily reached my diagnostic conclusion because of any traumatic events or psychiatric disorders that they may have told me about, or because tests have shown no abnormalities. Dissociative seizures feel predominantly ‘physical’ to those who experience them.12 Patients often feel that doctors dismiss their concerns too rapidly, and seem to make diagnoses on the basis of their psychosocial history; patients may interpret the happy announcement of a normal scan result as meaning that they must be making up their symptoms. When I finally move on to my explanation, I first clarify that dissociative seizures are ‘real’ and not produced at will. They do not mean that the patient is going crazy. I then tell patients that dissociative seizures are an involuntary reflex with which the individual deals with triggers inside or outside of the body. I inform patients that most reflexes are quick and ‘automatic’ responses that usually protect the body. Some are present from birth, many are learnt later. The trigger ‘trips the brain up’ and makes it go into a kind of ‘safe’ mode, like a computer that has ‘frozen’ and not working normally. This reflex moves the patient from a moment of perceived threat to a place after the seizure, where they may feel exhausted, upset or embarrassed but are not acutely distressed. Given that each dissociative seizure effectively deals with the trigger (which may otherwise have caused distress), the reflex is reinforced and likely to be used again in similar situations in the future. Unfortunately, however, people lose contact with their environment in their dissociative seizure and cannot exert to control their body. They may think that they are going crazy and become very anxious about their seizures. While dissociative seizures may help the brain deal with a problem in the moment, they therefore cause problems in the longer term. Framing dissociative seizures as a reflex communicates that they are not wilfully produced, although they may be suppressed. This account is fully consistent with the integrative cognitive model of dissociative seizures,13 which was developed on the basis of a systematic review of studies examining potentially relevant psychological and psychiatric aetiological factors.14 Reflexes are generally understood to be rapid, making it more acceptable that dissociative seizures could have been triggered by emotional reactions of which the patient is unaware. The reflex model also allows clinicians to explain how reflexes can be ‘untrained’ and replaced by other responses, providing a rationale for psychotherapeutic interventions. The explanation of the diagnosis is likely to be most successful if it takes account of a patient’s particular circumstances. For instance, a study based on interviews with patients after the communication of the diagnosis suggested that patients who were aware of significant traumatic experiences in their past found it helpful if the neurologist mentioned that the development of dissociative seizures may be linked to trauma, whereas those unable to recall any traumatic events in their lives could reject the diagnosis of dissociative seizures after the neurologist had strongly linked these to previous trauma.10 Because of this observation, and acknowledging that trauma is a relevant causative factor in a large proportion of patients with dissociative seizures, I add to the end of my explanation that the development of this protective reflex is particularly common in patients who have experienced significant trauma in the past,15 although I add that the diagnosis of dissociative seizures is also made in many patients who cannot recall any such experiences. Finally, I pause and ask patients whether my explanation has made any sense to them. In order to consolidate my explanation, to optimise the patient’s comprehension and to make it easier for them to discuss my account with others, I reproduce a fairly detailed summary of my discussion, using the same words, in a letter that I send to the patient. Box 1 replicates excerpts of typical letters I may send to patients. I copy in all relevant healthcare practitioners involved in the patient’s care to provide them with the information they need to discuss my explanations in case doubt is expressed. The broad dissemination of the explanation (rather than just the diagnosis) should also reduce the risk of a rediagnosis of epilepsy or of immediate re-referral. In addition to the letter I provide patients with a leaflet explaining their disorder (the COgnitive Behavioural Therapy for Dissociative (Non-epileptic) SeizuresCODES trial website has very good leaflets to download for this purpose; www.codestrial.org/information-booklets/4579871164). Table 1 summarises some ‘dos and don’ts’ for explaining the diagnosis of dissociative seizures. Excerpts from letters to patients repeating the wording used during the clinic encounter to consolidate my explanation of the diagnosis of dissociative seizures (I address my letters to patients and copy in all relevant other health professionals). Example 1 (diagnosis not certain). “We discussed that the cause of your seizures remains uncertain. The descriptions I have heard from different people have at times been more consistent with epileptic and at other times more suggestive of dissociative (non-epileptic) seizures. We know that your minor seizures are dissociative because of the symptoms you experience in these attacks and the fact that they were not associated with epileptic discharges in the EEG. However, we have not captured one of your bigger seizures on video or EEG. It is important to be clear about the diagnosis because the treatment for epileptic and dissociative seizures is different. Dissociative seizures are an involuntary reflex that the brain can develop to deal with triggers inside or outside the body (such as physical symptoms, emotions, thoughts, memories or difficult sensations). These seizures could be treated by exploring whether you could learn to recognise seizure warnings better and by training your brain to deal differently with seizure triggers. Epileptic seizures are caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain and can be blocked by medications that stop this activity. Because of the ongoing uncertainty I have asked you to encourage your family and friends to try and video you during one of the bigger seizures. I appreciate that this will be difficult to do but it will help you get the most effective treatment for your seizures.” Example 2 (diagnosis certain). “We discussed that you have dissociative (non-epileptic) seizures. This diagnosis is based on what you and your family have told me about your seizures and on the video-EEG recording of typical seizures that I have been able to see. Dissociative seizures are an automatic response of the brain; they are not produced deliberately and do not mean that you are going crazy, and they can get better. Whereas epileptic seizures are caused by abnormal electrical activity of the brain that can be blocked with antiepileptic drugs, dissociative seizures are an involuntary reflex that the brain can develop to deal with triggers inside or outside the body. Possible inside triggers can include physical symptoms such as pain, fatigue or light-headedness but also emotions, thoughts or even memories. Outside triggers may include situations you find yourself in or things that you pick up with your eyes, ears and other senses. The triggers for dissociative seizures do not need to be truly dangerous or threatening but they may still prompt your brain to go into a “flight or fight” mode. This reflex is often so rapid that people have no recollection of what started their dissociative seizure. To them, the seizure started “out of the blue.” Once the reflex is triggered, the brain seems to get stuck—a bit like a computer which has “frozen”—when the computer screen is on but the keyboard does not work. Like a computer, the brain may have to “reboot” before it works again. The best treatment for dissociative seizures is for you to train your brain to deal differently with the triggers for your seizures and the situations in which they are likely to occur. You will hopefully be able to learn techniques allowing you to control your seizure symptoms before your brain gets “stuck” in dissociative seizure mode. It can also help to explore what experiences may have put you at risk of developing dissociative seizures: although these seizures can happen to anyone, they start more commonly in people who have experienced major traumas in their lives. This treatment is provided by psychotherapists or psychologists. To access this treatment I will refer you to… .” “I hear what you are saying but it doesn’t apply to me” My suggestions for the initial explanation of the diagnosis should reduce the number of patients who do not believe that it could account for their symptoms. Apart from the failure to engage in treatment capable of reducing their disability and distress, the adverse consequences of this may include using ineffective (and sometimes dangerous) drugs or non-drug treatments, secondary comorbidities (such as anxiety and depression), and the unending pursuit of costly and potentially harmful further tests. One strategy that is never likely to resolve this situation is ‘digging in’, by highlighting one’s own expertise and restating the same explanation more forcefully. It is better to step back and analyse what is going wrong. There are many possible reasons why patients and clinicians may end up not seeing eye-to-eye about dissociative seizures, and the most effective way to resolve this depends on the specific circumstances. Very often, patients need more time to get their head around the explanation. Many have felt dismissed or offended by other health professionals and may need weeks, months or even years to trust another clinician sufficiently to accept their diagnosis and treatment suggestions.10 16 Frequently, the communication of the diagnosis is a life-changing event, especially when it involves retracting a previous diagnosis of epilepsy.10 17 Often patients are left with questions that they may not have felt able to ask during the initial conversation, or which only come to them later, perhaps after they have talked to family or friends. This problem is so common that clinicians should set aside enough time to enable them to prompt patients to ask questions after the explanation. It is also a good idea to offer a follow-up appointment soon after the initial appointment, or to work with other staff members who know what the patient has been told and who can help patients to explore the explanation. Many patients have told me how important it was for them to receive their clinic letter from me, which reiterated my explanation in writing (see box 1 for suggested wordings). If patients have understood the explanation but are struggling with the stigma associated with it, or if their coping preferences mean that they would rather have no explanation at all, it may be useful to highlight how the ability to embrace the account offered can help people to move forward.18–20 Offering follow-up in the neurology clinic reduces the sense of rejection that patients may experience at this point and may help to alleviate patients’ concerns about the (additional) involvement of a psychiatrist, psychologist or psychotherapist. Anticipating these concerns, I tell patients what they can expect when they get to see any such professional. The psychotherapists in my department and my colleagues working mental health settings tell me that this helps them greatly to engage patients in the treatments they are able to offer. Telling patients about websites which allow them to explore the diagnosis at their own speed (eg, www.nonepilepticattacks.info or www.neurosymptoms.org), patient organisations such as FND Hope (https://fndhope.org.uk/) or FND Action (www.nonepilepticattackdisorder.org.uk/non-epileptic-attack-disorder), about the excellent documentary "dis-sociated" on YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC0h5tSMk6wq2ZiEi8FM-7xg) or a book with narratives written by over 100 patients with dissociative seizures may help by reducing their sense of isolation.16 If patients struggle to accept the reflex explanation because they have not perceived any seizure warnings and their seizures seem to occur ‘out of the blue’ whether they feel stressed or not, it can help to provide a more extensive account of the complex actions that people are capable of carrying out without ever becoming aware of: for instance, the ability to sidestep a lamp post while being engaged in animated conversation and walking along a pavement. Many patients who have experienced major trauma are aware that specific reminders of their traumatic experiences, such as smells, shapes or colours—although not inherently dangerous—can bring back explicit memories of what has happened to them. Such patients are unlikely to struggle with the idea that a similar process could trigger a defensive reflex in the brain that operates so rapidly and effectively, that the trauma reminder cannot be recalled afterwards. Although we have shown that, on the whole, carers are typically more likely than patients to accept a predominantly psychosocial/reactive/adaptive explanation of dissociative seizures,21 family members or friends sometimes enhance patients’ uncertainties about the clinician’s explanation. This is why I encourage patients to bring somebody else along when the diagnosis is explained (so I can address any evident concerns of the accompanying person). However, sometimes more work is required to ensure that relevant others do not hinder a patient’s chance of recovery: for instance I might provide joint psychoeducation to patients and carers, or include carers’ involvement in one or more psychotherapy sessions.22 Patients may express their disagreement with the suggested explanation of dissociative seizures in other ways, for instance passively, through increasingly periods of silence. It is important to be aware of this manifestation of disbelief or objection, so that it can be explored. It can be difficult to get patients to express their doubts more explicitly. One effective way of tackling this may be to ask, “How confident are you about the diagnosis on a scale of 1 to 10? Are you around a 3?” Resistance is also implicit in the other common issues captured in table 2, which patients may bring up when the neurologist is trying to explain their diagnosis to them. The table lists these issues and also proposes potentially useful actions and words. “What if I go into a seizure?” Another reason why neurologists should welcome relevant others during at least one consultation where the diagnosis is explained is that such an encounter provides an opportunity to discuss how patients as well as carers should deal with the risk of dissociative seizures and what they should do when faced with a seizure. Although dissociative seizures are rarely associated with severe injuries, they can be. The formulaic recitation of a standard text—especially one originally conceived for epilepsy and including warnings about not driving, taking baths, working at heights or with potentially dangerous machinery and calling an ambulance if seizures are continuing after 10 min—may cause more harm than good. Many patients with dissociative seizures suffer from low self-esteem and social isolation, and often more of their disability is caused by the avoidance of any activity conceivably involving any element of risk than by the seizures themselves.19 23 Rather than enhancing patients’ tendency to err on the side of caution, neurologists’ advice about living with the risks of seizures and about the acute management of dissociative seizures should encourage patients and carers always to weigh up the risks and benefits of particular choices and to think creatively about small adaptations to their way of doing things that would make them safer. It is important to highlight that not doing things which maintain a person’s independence can cause considerable harm. Confidence can whither just like an unused muscle becomes atrophic. Many employers can make small adjustments to how work is done to make a patient at least as safe at their workplace as they would be in their own home. Leisure activities can often continue with minor changes. Working out how unlikely an actual accident would be can often change the perception of risks or injury (for instance, if dissociative seizures have only happened at home or in the evening, they might never interfere with work or leisure activities). If warning symptoms precede the seizures, it may be possible to agree a course of action enabling the patient to make themselves safe. A ‘to whom it may concern’ letter from the neurologist may facilitate continuation or restoration of both work and leisure activities. Apart from reminding the readers that there is a legal duty to make reasonable adjustments to facilitate the engagement of patients disabled by dissociative seizures in work and leisure activities, such a letter can provide reassurance about the low risk of patients coming to serious harm even during prolonged dissociative seizures, and advice about how to deal with seizure risks and the seizures themselves. Patients and their carers may feel more confident about independent travel outside the home if they carry a card with their name, diagnosis and some very simple instructions telling the reader what to do in case of a seizure. Jewellery alerting finders to a medical condition and offering more information via a contact telephone number may increase patients’ confidence and ability to go out unaccompanied. If independent shopping really seems beyond a patient’s capabilities, it may be possible for the accompanying person to wait for them outside a shop rather than follow them around everywhere. Confidence may be gained with short expeditions to small shops before patients go off on their own for longer in bigger shops. Patients and carers are likely to be able to follow this sort of advice more easily if it is combined with a clear plan of action for seizures. Close attention to dissociative seizures captured by video EEG often reveals how the visible manifestations of seizures decrease or increase slightly in response to changes in the patient’s environment, such as the arrival or departure of a clinician or relative. Studies probing a patient’s consciousness during a dissociative seizure suggest that most patients retain a degree of ictal contactability.24 25 This means that seizures can be aggravated by carers who become anxious and distressed during the seizure, and who inadvertently feed these emotions back to the patient. Similarly, the actions and words of emergency care staff can aggravate dissociative seizure states. However, it also means that it is possible to communicate with the patient during the seizure in ways that can help to stop the process. I have seen many persistent dissociative seizures stop shortly after changing the atmosphere around the patient and talking to them very briefly. Having introduced myself, I typically ask everyone surrounding the patient to step back and to minimise physical contact with them. I tell the patient that they are safe but that they are experiencing a dissociative seizure. I assure them that this will stop on its own and that we can talk about it afterwards. I then step back as well and observe the patient from a little distance. I appreciate that one reason why this approach works so well for me is that my expertise allows me to be quite certain about the nature of the seizure I am witnessing and I am not at all anxious that the patient may be at risk of brain damage from a prolonged seizure, nor am I fearful that they may never come out of their dissociated state. Carers are likely to be considerably more worried. This is all the more reason to provide them with a clear plan of action best fixed in writing and addressed ‘to whom it may concern’ (see box 2). This plan is likely to work best if it is individualised and takes specific account of the patient’s particular seizures, psychiatric and medical profile, and the competence of their carers. However such plans have some common elements. The written plans I produce start with a description of the patient’s typical event. This ensures that the plan addresses the concerns raised by a particular patient’s seizures and allows the reader to recognise what situation the plan should be used for (and, hopefully, to distinguish such situations from other scenarios, such as additional epileptic seizures with different manifestations). My plans particularly emphasise that patients with dissociative seizures can usually hear and sense those around them during their seizures, even if it does not look like it at the time, and despite many patients saying that they do not remember what happens during their seizures. I advise touching the patient as little as possible. The reason for this is that I have learnt that patients may have distorted perceptions of their environment during their seizures and may, for instance, experience what seems like a flashback of a scene of abuse with someone ripping their limbs apart, when all that is happening in reality is someone gently touching their arm. Common elements of an emergency management plan for dissociative seizures (which should be individualised to particular patients’ seizures and circumstances) Address (eg, ‘To whom it may concern’/‘Emergency services’). Description of the event the plan is intended for. Clarification that dissociative seizures are an automatic response to distressing triggers and not deliberately produced. Approach XXX (the person having the seizure). Say who you are and that they are having a dissociative seizure. Talk to them calmly. Remember that most people can hear and sense those around them during their dissociative seizures. Make XXX safe (for instance by placing a cushion under their head). Remove dangerous objects. Step back and avoid touching XXX once you have made them safe. If breathing too fast, encourage XXX to slow down breathing (breathe in, count to three slowly, breathe out, count to three slowly…). Breathe deeply into your stomach. If talking causes the seizure or breathing to get worse, say you will stop talking but watch from a distance to ensure XXX is safe. There is no need to call an ambulance for dissociative seizures, even if they go on for more than 10 min. Only call an ambulance if the seizure caused an injury, or you think the seizure is different from what is described above. If emergency care services are called: tell them about the diagnosis of dissociative seizures, and show them this document. Dissociative seizures can be made worse by medications used to stop epileptic seizures (such as benzodiazepines). Try to video the seizure (if appropriate/with patient's subsequent consent to store/share recording). Write down your observations (if appropriate). Contact YYY (the author of this plan) if you have any questions about it. Another common feature in seizure plans is my advice not to call an ambulance, unless a dissociative seizure has caused an injury requiring emergency intervention. I make it very clear that dissociative seizures typically last much longer than epileptic seizures—commonly longer than 5 min—and that duration alone is no reason to call an ambulance. If a seizure-related injury means that an ambulance must be called, carers can be encouraged to show emergency care staff the written plan. This may help to minimise the risk of inappropriate interventions from emergency care staff, for instance the administration of benzodiazepines that will probably deepen the dissociative state, prolong and complicate the seizure. If there is ongoing diagnostic uncertainty—and when patients have consented to this—I also encourage carers to video the seizures, so that I can look at the recordings later. As they record the seizure, it is helpful for carers to talk to the patient to see whether this provokes any kind of response in the carer. Many carers find it extremely difficult to film dissociative seizures, a difficulty that I encounter less often with carers of patients with epilepsy. I suspect that the reason is that carers have to step back and disengage from the seizure process to produce a video recording. The emotional separation implicitly associated with this may actually help carers to provide more effective support to patients during their seizures. Video recording or (alternatively and less good) writing down detailed seizure descriptions is particularly important when patients have (or may have) dissociative seizures with additional epileptic seizures. In such patients video recordings are often not needed just to make an accurate initial diagnosis. In my experience, many patients and their carers continue to struggle greatly with distinguishing different seizure types even after the diagnosis has been made and explained. Repeated discussions of ictal video recordings often reveal that carers categorise seizures quite differently from me. This means that, in patients with mixed seizure disorders, repeated video recording of seizures (and their joint analysis with patients and carers) often continues to be an essential tool for the optimisation of treatment. Planned medical procedures are one particular scenario in which patients often (and quite rightly) worry about dissociative seizures. The risk of immediate postoperative seizures is well documented.26 Seizures can occur during dental procedures or after operations involving local or general anaesthesia. Having a dissociative seizures in front of a doctor is particularly dangerous because of the risk of iatrogenic injury or death caused by emergency interventions for erroneously diagnosed status epilepticus.27 To mitigate this risk patients can be encouraged to share their written plan for dissociative seizure emergencies with doctors planning surgical procedures. Such a written plan will particularly help a clinician if it contains the neurologist’s contact details, in case the particular intervention raises additional questions. I have drawn this article quite unapologetically from my personal experience and subjective opinion. My opinions are obviously informed by the increasing body of research, which has explored the explanation of functional disorders in general and of dissociative seizures in particular, and which is supplemented by research exploring patients’ reception of the explanations they have been given.28 29 However, there are no comparative or controlled studies proving that any one particular approach is better than another. Thus I cannot claim that my proposals represent the best possible approach, although personal experience tells me that my solutions often work. Others may have different experiences and more effective ways of managing these three scenarios. Furthermore, an article like this cannot possibly be comprehensive. My suggestions are intended to be relevant to the most common ways in which some frequently encountered clinical scenarios unfold. However, I regularly adapt and modify the approaches outlined above in my own practice. No single approach works in every case. Despite these obvious methodological shortcomings I hope that readers will find this article helpful—either because it gives them new ideas or causes them to challenge their old ones. In addition, the many evidence gaps highlighted by this article will inspire readers to set out and fill them! Many doctors need to know about dissociative seizures because they may present in different medical settings. Explaining dissociative seizures as an involuntary reflex response to triggers inside or outside the body is medically correct, widely understood and acceptable to most patients. Early discussion that symptoms may be due to dissociative seizures and a collaborative pursuit of greater certainty maximise the likelihood of patients agreeing with the diagnosis and engaging in treatment. Patients and their families are likely to benefit from a discussion of what to do if they are faced with dissociative seizures. Contributors Conceived, written and completed by the author without substantial contributions from any others. Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. Competing interests None declared. Patient consent for publication Not required. Provenance and peer review Commissioned. Externally peer reviewed by Jon Stone, Edinburgh, UK. If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

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Today is Lammas, an Anglo-Saxon harvest festival celebrated on 1st August. Its name comes from Old English hlaf, 'loaf' and mæsse, 'mass', and it may have been a day when loaves of bread made from the first corn were blessed. Much about the origins of Lammas is obscure, but it's a festival with a long, interesting, and somewhat unusual history. I said 'may have been' because we really don't know much about how Lammas might have been celebrated in Anglo-Saxon England. It's mentioned a number of times in Anglo-Saxon texts, but most of those references simply treat it as another name for August 1st, with no indication of any particular customs associated with the day. The name and the timing of the feast suggest a link to the wheat harvest and the blessing of bread, but we have no evidence to suggest what form that might have taken. However, it's often suggested that since the date of Lammas corresponds to recorded Irish and Welsh festivals, and there are no close continental parallels for a harvest festival on that date, 'Lammas' may be a Christian name given by the Anglo-Saxons to a pre-Christian festival celebrated in Britain and Ireland. This means Lammas is often said to be a pagan festival (and it has been adopted as such by Neo-Paganism, where it seems to be considered as interchangeable with Lughnasadh). Though this is a plausible supposition, there is no firm evidence to support it. Despite its possible pre-Christian origins, the name 'Lammas' is both Christian and English: the second element -mæsse ('mass') was borrowed into Old English from liturgical Latin, and is only used to refer to Christian or Jewish festivals. In the Anglo-Saxon period and long afterwards it was endlessly productive as a suffix, giving us not only names we still use, like Christmas and Candlemas, but an almost limitless variety of Christian festivals with comparable names: Childermas, Michaelmas, Martinmas, Marymas, Ellenmas, Hallowmas, Roodmas, Crouchmas, and so on. It's very unlikely that it would be used for a festival which was perceived to have a substantial non-Christian component. Similarly, our few references to Lammas are from fairly late Anglo-Saxon texts, and survive in a learned Christian context (as you would expect from the nature of the surviving sources). Lammas doesn't regularly appear in Anglo-Saxon calendars or liturgical books, where August 1st is instead the feast of St Peter ad Vincula and/or the Maccabees, but there are various intriguing references to it. The earliest may be in the Old English Martyrology, probably dating to the ninth century, which doesn't use the name Lammas but does refer to 1st August as the day of hlafsenunga, 'blessing of bread'. In this word senung, which is related to the verb segnian, 'to make the sign of the cross', is another borrowing from ecclesiastical Latin (signare), so we're no closer to finding any pre-Christian terminology here. Harvest, from an Anglo-Saxon calendar for August (BL Cotton MS Tiberius B V/1, f. 6v) The first recorded use of the word Lammas itself is probably in the Old English Orosius, which refers to 1st August in passing (while telling the story of Antony and Cleopatra) as 'the day that we call Lammas'. This text likely comes from the last decade of the ninth century, and that late date is interesting - it's already a good few centuries later than our usual authority on pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon customs, Bede (who doesn't mention Lammas). All the references to Lammas in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle - again, simply as another name for August 1st - are from the tenth, eleventh or twelfth centuries. The homilist Ælfric, usually such a helpful guide to the cycle of the church year, also only mentions Lammas as an alternative name for 1st August: he refers to it it in passing in a homily about St Peter, telling his congregation that 1st August is the day 'you [not 'we'] call Lammas'. This might suggest he thought of it as primarily a secular rather than a religious occasion (though not a pagan one, or he probably wouldn't mention it at all). Perhaps by this time it was an extra-liturgical custom, adopted and supported by the church but not incorporated into the liturgy. If it was a day when people brought loaves to church to be blessed, we don't have any record of specific blessings attached to Lammas, though there are general blessings for bread and crops which might have been used. Alternatively - though it's impossible to say for sure - it might be that by this date Lammas was for some people just a name for 'the beginning of harvest', rather than a festival with any particular customs. (Something like 'Boxing Day' in modern Britain, a name for 'the day after Christmas' which everyone knows and uses but can't really explain, and which bears no relationship to how anyone now actually spends the day.) Lammas appears just once in Old English poetry, in the beautiful calendar poem known as the Menologium. In the section for August, Weed-month, this poem describes Lammas and the coming of autumn: And þæs symle scriþ ymb seofon niht þæs sumere gebrihted Weodmonað on tun; welhwær bringeð hlafmæssan dæg. Swa þæs hærfest cymð ymbe oðer swylc butan anre wanan, wlitig, wæstmum hladen. Wela byð geywed fægere on foldan. And [after the feast of St James] after seven nights of summer's brightness Weed-month slips into the dwellings; everywhere August brings to peoples of the earth Lammas Day. So autumn comes, after that number of nights but one [i.e. on August 7], bright, laden with fruits. Plenty is revealed, beautiful upon the earth. According to the system of dating used by this tenth-century poem, the season of autumn began shortly after Lammas on August 7th - a date calculated by its position halfway between the summer solstice and the autumnal equinox. I've written about this dating system before, and I wrote about some Old English harvest poetry in a post last year. This poem unfortunately tells us nothing about Lammas except that it comes 'to peoples everywhere' (which is actually far from true, since it was such a localised festival!). But you can see how closely it coincides with the coming of harvest/autumn - the Old English name for autumn is hærfest, so they're the same thing here. The link between autumn and harvest is one thing which makes the Anglo-Saxon view of this season quite different from our modern perspective. Think of autumn and you might think of reddening leaves, dewy chilly mornings, darker shorter days - probably not of harvesters working under a blazing August sun. But in Old English, linguistically speaking at least, autumn and harvest are indistinguishable. Harvesting (BL Add. 50000, f. 4v) Our final and perhaps most interesting Anglo-Saxon reference to Lammas appears in a ritual, intended to protect harvested corn from mice and other pests: [...] lange sticcan feðerecgede 7 writ on ægðerne sticcan[...] ælcere ecge an pater noster oð ende 7 lege þone [...]an þam berene on þa flore 7 þone oðerne on [...] ofer þam oðrum sticcan. þæt þær si rode tacen on 7 nim of ðam gehalgedan hlafe þe man halgie on hlafmæssedæg feower snæda 7 gecryme on þa feower hyrna þæs berenes. þis is þeo bletsung þærto. Vt surices garbas non noceant has preces super garbas dicis et non dicto eos suspendis hierosolimam ciuitate. ubi surices nec habitent nec habent potestam. nec grana colligent. nec triticum congaudent. þis is seo oðer bletsung. Domine deus omnipotens qui fecisti celum et terram. tu benedicis fructum istum in nomine patris et spiritus sancti. amen. 7 Pater noster. [Take two] long pieces of four-edged wood, and on each piece write a Pater noster, on each side down to the end. Lay one on the floor of the barn, and lay the other across it, so that they form the sign of the cross. And take four pieces of the hallowed bread which is blessed on Lammas day, and crumble them at the four corners of the barn. This is the blessing for that; so that mice do not harm these sheaves, say prayers over the sheaves and do not cease from saying them. 'City of Jerusalem, where mice do not live they cannot have power, and cannot gather the grain, nor rejoice with the harvest.' This is the second blessing: 'Lord God Almighty, who made heaven and earth, bless these fruits in the name of the Father and the Holy Spirit.' Amen. And [then say] a Pater Noster. Quoted from Karen Louise Jolly, 'Tapping the Power of the Cross: Who and For Whom?', in The Place of the Cross in Anglo-Saxon England, ed. Catherine E. Karkov, Sarah Larratt Keefer, and Karen Louise Jolly (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press), p. 79; my translation. The manuscript from which this charm comes, British Library, Cotton Vitellius E xviii, is a psalter, written in a monastery at Winchester in the middle decades of the eleventh century. This charm survives alongside other prayers and rituals and an assorted collection of highly useful information: good and bad days for bloodletting, how to cure sick cattle and sheep, how to keep people from stealing your bees, the most lucky days for childbirth, and so on. A list can be seen here. Although to modern eyes this kind of ritual often looks like pagan folk-magic, it's part of a complex picture of popular and learned devotion in early medieval England; this particular ritual might well have been performed by a priest, and it's made up of explicitly Christian symbols and practices - the cross, the Pater Noster, and the consecrated bread. This charm suggests that there was something special about the bread blessed at Lammas, but it might plausibly refer to the Eucharist consecrated at a mass said on Lammas Day rather than to specific Lammas loaves. (If you'd like to read more about these kinds of fascinating texts and the people who used and recorded them, I refer you to the brilliant blog For the Wynn - on modern ideas about Anglo-Saxon paganism see especially this post.) Harvesting sheaves of corn (British Library, Lansdowne 383, f.6v) Well, that was an exhaustive history of the Anglo-Saxon sources! Let's skip over the next seven centuries a bit more quickly. Later in the medieval and into the early modern period Lammas seems to have retained this kind of quasi-official status, acting mostly as a fixed date for various secular customs rather than being celebrated as a festival itself. It was still commonly used as a name for August 1st and sometimes for the whole month of August; often it seems to be simply another name for 'the season of harvest'. Some later medieval writers understood the name to be 'Lamb-mass' (festum agnorum) and thought it had something to do with lambs, which suggests they didn't recognise the 'loaf' element or the connection with bread. Others treat 'Lammas' as if it were a name for the feast of St Peter in Chains, the feast more widely celebrated in medieval Europe on this day. In the fifteenth century John Lydgate, summarising the festivals of summer, includes in his poetic list 'Petrys cheynes wer brooke in prysoun, / The feeste therof callyd Lammesse', while his contemporary John Capgrave writes of 'the feest of Seynt Petyr, whech thei clepe in Latyn, 'ad vinculam', in Englisch, 'Lammesse''. Given the time of year and the huge importance of getting in the harvest, Lammas was a popular date for fairs and local feasts. It was also one of the regular dates on which rents would be paid, debts settled, contracts made, and labourers hired. Because it was associated with such payments, 'latter Lammas' became a humorous phrase for 'a day which is indefinitely delayed', or 'never', as in these wonderful OED citations (note how late the dates are!): latter Lammas, a day that will never come. at latter Lammas: humorously for ‘never’. 1567 GASCOIGNE Instruct. Making Verse Posies (1575) Many writers...draw their sentences in length, & make an ende at latter Lammas. 1576 GASCOIGNE Steele Glas. This is the cause (beleue me now my Lorde)...That courtiers thriue, at latter Lammas day. 1642 FULLER Holy State. IV. xv. 316 This your will At latter lammas wee'l fulfill. a1734 NORTH Lives of Norths (1826) I. 4 The very expectation of them puts me in mind of latter Lammas. 1805 W. TAYLOR in Ann. Rev. III. 244 This convocation was somewhat unbecomingly postponed to latter Lammas. 1857 KINGSLEY Two Years Ago vii, A treatise...which will be published probably...in the season of Latter Lammas, and the Greek Kalends. In some English towns you still find fields and meadows called 'Lammas land', areas of common land where people could pasture their animals for a fixed season running from Lammas until the following spring. Above and below are the Lammas Lands at Godalming in Surrey, looking particularly beautiful in August last year. I love those two phrases, 'latter Lammas' and 'Lammas lands' - while mundane enough in their definitions, both have an irresistibly poetic ring! And there's also the beautiful phrase 'Lammas growth' (also called 'Lammas leaves' or 'Lammas flush'), which is the name given to a renewed spurt of growth which occurs in some trees around early August - a second shoot of greenness following after the first burst of spring. A flush of fresh growth in a mature tree - isn't there a poem waiting to be written in that? This is a wonderful puzzle of a festival. On the one hand, we have abundant evidence for its history over many centuries, from the Anglo-Saxon monk who wrote the Menologium to the keen eye of the gardeners looking out for 'Lammas growth', from the witty sixteenth-century courtiers joking about 'latter Lammas' to the cherished land-rights of medieval villagers. On the other hand, we have very little evidence for the celebration of the festival itself. But however obscure its origins, it's a day which has had meaning, of many different kinds, to a variety of people and communities for more than a thousand years. It's worth concluding by emphasising that variety, because it adds some nuance to the way Lammas is often popularly presented these days. Having been almost entirely forgotten in our less agricultural society, it's now frequently characterised as a 'pagan festival' (often a 'Celtic pagan festival'), as if that were the beginning and end of its history. As with much of what's said about Eostre, this is largely the product of 19th-century scholarly speculation, much of which is based on false assumptions or an imperfect understanding of the Anglo-Saxon sources. Specialists in the period now take a different view - but since these speculations of Victorian scholars were very influential in the development 20th-century Neo-Paganism, they are repeated uncritically all over the internet and elsewhere. Here's a typical example, from the BBC's Religions subsite: Lammas, also called Lughnasadh, comes at the beginning of August. It is one of the Pagan festivals of Celtic origin which split the year into four. Celts held the festival of the Irish god Lugh at this time and later, the Anglo-Saxons marked the festival of hlaefmass - loaf mass or Lammas - at this time. For these agricultural communities this was the first day of the harvest, when the fields would be glowing with corn and reaping would begin. The harvest period would continue until Samhain when the last stores for the winter months would be put away. Although farming is not an important part of modern life, Lughnasadh is still seen as a harvest festival by Pagans and symbols connected with the reaping of corn predominate in its rites. Notice how this elides everything between early paganism and modern pagan practice (and how 'still seen' suggests an unbroken continuity of practice which isn't there; the modern version is a complete reinvention, of course). That's a huge period of time just skipped over, jumping more than a thousand years from the pre-Christian period to the twentieth century - and what's ignored is everything in the sources discussed above, including all the Anglo-Saxon sources. A purportedly historical account of a festival which ignores every single documented source for its history is... shaky, to say the least. Typically, this also treats 'Lammas' and 'Lughnasadh' as if they are interchangeable names for the same thing, which is not just an oversimplification but also culturally tone-deaf; even if they have linked origins - and that's a big if - the Irish and English festivals have very different histories, and have to be understood within their different cultural contexts. (The cynical part of me wonders if English people like to use the name 'Lammas' instead of 'Lughnasadh' just because they find it easier to pronounce and spell...) I'm very glad that there are people today who celebrate Lammas, and for whom it has a sacred significance - I don't want to disparage that at all. But from a historical point of view, we shouldn't ignore such a great swathe of recorded history just because it doesn't fit with modern black-and-white ideas of what is 'pagan' and what is 'Christian'. To modern eyes, a harvest festival somehow looks pagan - but that doesn't mean it is, and the assumption that it must be reveals more about us, and our impoverished view of the natural world, than it does about the past. I'm conscious of this danger because I write fairly often about the seasons and the natural year in medieval literature, and although many readers seem to find this subject as interesting as I do, a small minority react very oddly and aggressively to it. For me, it's fascinating to see how medieval writers thought about and wrote about the seasons, and especially to try and tease out the kinds of meaning - poetic, religious, spiritual, philosophical or scientific - which they found in seasonal cycles. This is the theme of some of the loveliest poetry in Old and Middle English, as well as some intriguing examples of medieval science. Because almost all surviving medieval English literature (my particular interest) was written down in a Christian culture, such poetry and science are often framed in explicitly Christian terms. This upsets some people very much. These people take the view that interest in natural cycles, or the natural world as a whole, is by definition solely 'pagan' (according to their understanding of that term, usually a markedly 20th-century one), and that Christian writers have no business caring about it. In their view, the Christian nature of a festival like Lammas is a kind of false shell within which a 'real' festival is somehow hiding. The nastier ones accuse me of deceitfully concealing this 'real' paganism for my own nefarious ends - they demand that I produce the secret pagan texts I'm hiding, and are never put off by the inconvenient fact that such texts simply don't exist. There is an presumption of bad faith, and they are determined to believe the worst both of me and of the medieval writers. In their imagination, someone like the Anglo-Saxon monk who wrote down the Lammas charm becomes part of some vast and wicked Catholic conspiracy, rather than a fairly ordinary product of his time, place and education. What they can never seem to accept is that much of what modern audiences view as 'pagan' - solstices, the healing power of plants, astrology, and so on - were standard parts of medieval science, religion, and medicine. They were subjects of learned as well as popular interest, which even the most orthodox Christian writers accepted without question. (Not because they were too stupid to know better, but because their view of such learning and its sources and purpose was simply different from our own.) When people object to medieval Christians 'stealing' concepts they think of as pagan, it's often because they are projecting back onto the past a very modern view of such matters, one ingrained with suspicion of the catholic (and Catholic) nature of the medieval church. I wouldn't mind this so much if it came from people who identify as pagans, but in fact it mostly comes from self-proclaimed atheists, who see it as a stick with which to beat Christianity. For them the idea that a conspiracy of Christians 'stole' seasonal feasts from paganism is a check-mate, proving that religion is a big fraud and they're the only ones smart enough to spot it. Having read a lot of Dan Brown and not much else, they wield a pub-bore armoury of 'facts', which are either very basic or entirely inaccurate (of the idiotic Ishtar/Easter variety); and my goodness, there are a lot of them about. Some of them even write for national newspapers. There's almost no point trying to talk to these people; they don't want to learn anything which might disrupt their existing prejudices, and all they want from historians is confirmation of what they already think they know. (People often ask me 'how did the Anglo-Saxons celebrate Easter?', to which the honest answer is 'well, what we know best from the surviving sources is that they went to church. Let me tell you about liturgical drama and some interesting Good Friday popular customs!' That answer, while true, isn't the one they want - they want an easy story about eggs and bunnies, and they don't much care whether it's accurate or not.) The truth is, of course, that though the roots of a festival like Lammas, or other frequently cited 'pagan festivals' like Easter, are likely to be pre-Christian, we have very little (if any) firm evidence for how they may originally have been celebrated. That doesn't mean their pre-Christian history doesn't matter - not at all - but it's important to be clear about what evidence we do and don't have, and what it does and doesn't tell us. In the case of Lammas, what we do have is evidence for a harvest festival in Christian Anglo-Saxon England, on a date which continued to be marked for many centuries after the end of the Anglo-Saxon period. Lammas lands and 'latter Lammas' are not pagan by any definition, but they're part of the history of Lammas too - not more or less important than the putative pre-Christian festival, but much better attested. It doesn't make sense to argue about what the 'real' Lammas is - it's all real. The idea that interest in the natural world is inherently pagan is one which would have made no sense at all to most medieval writers, or for that matter to most people for centuries after the end of the medieval period. It's a feature of an urban and post-industrial society to think that noticing and caring about natural cycles is an optional extra, or some esoteric magical secret - in fact, it's a modern luxury to be able to ignore them. We have light available to us, every hour of the day, at the flick of a switch, and so some people fiercely believe that only super-spiritual cosmos-attuned pagans could ever have thought to care about full moons and solstices. Go back even a hundred years and that's nonsense, of course; there was a time (and there are still many places) where solar and lunar cycles were unavoidably important, where moonlit nights were the only time it was feasible to go out in the evening and the lengthening or shortening of the days made a huge difference to the routines of daily life. Of course people knew when Midsummer was, and found ways to celebrate it - it's not exactly a mystery! It's a failure of imagination not to realise that this is one of the ways in which the past (even the quite recent past) was very different to the present, and it's a very modern kind of arrogance to think that it takes some special deep insight to notice or care how the cycle of the year works. This is especially true of the harvest and a festival like Lammas. In an agricultural society the harvest affects everyone - it's not an optional extra or a mystic observance. You don't even have to go back to the Middle Ages to become aware of this - think of Mary Crawford in Mansfield Park, oblivious that it's unreasonable to expect to hire a cart in the countryside in harvest-time because she holds 'the true London maxim, that everything is to be got with money'. Today many of us are more like than Mary Crawford than the farmers she offended; we're fortunate enough to be able to obtain food of whatever kind we like, all year round, without having to worry about scarcity or season, and that makes harvest festivals seem like nothing more than a nice decorative adornment to the calendar. But we shouldn't forget this is a modern and a privileged perspective, and we shouldn't impose it back onto the past. Everywhere you look at the moment, you see people projecting their fantasies back into history, rather than allowing the past to be different from the present. This comes from people across the political spectrum, but what they all have in common is that they only really care about history as far as it serves modern political goals. They're only interested in the past to the extent that it supports their modern prejudices, whatever those happen to be; they can't or won't face it on its own terms and by its own lights. What doesn't fit, they choose to ignore. The people who angrily object to the idea that Lammas has a Christian history as well as a pagan one have their own fantasy, of a homogeneous, 'pure' paganism, and they want me to provide for them a version of Anglo-Saxon culture with the nasty Christianity taken out - not because they care one jot for pagan beliefs or the mystery and glory of the cycles of the earth, but because they want grist to the mill of their political opinions. Of course I don't demand that such people take an interest in the later history of the festival - they can be interested in whatever they like! - but I do object to them insisting that I, in writing about medieval texts, suppress or distort what the sources actually do give us because they don't fit with a modern fantasy. The past - at any particular place and any particular moment - was very different from the world you know. Let it be different. Let it be what it was, and not what you want it to have been. If you'd asked your average Anglo-Saxon monk or medieval villager whether celebrating the harvest was a Christian or pagan thing to do, I wonder whether they would even have understood the question. It's the harvest; it matters to everyone. No one stole it from anyone, because it belongs to everyone. Of all British festivals, Lammas is perhaps simultaneously the most local and the most universal. Throughout its long history, and in its different forms, it has been a name which honours what we all need ('peoples everywhere', as the Menologium says): the fruits of the earth, and our daily bread. Harvesters, in an Anglo-Saxon calendar for August (BL Cotton Julius A VI, f. 6v)

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Users can purchase bitcoins, Ether and now Litecoin from Coinbase through a digital wallet available on Android smart phones & iPhone or through trading with other users on the company’s Global Digital Asset Exchange (GDAX) subsidiary. GDAX currently operates in countries including US, Europe, UK, Canada, Australia, and Singapore. At present, GDAX does not charge any transfer fees for moving funds from your Coinbase account to a GDAX account. The selection of tradable currencies will, however, depend on the country you live in. Pros: Good reputation, security, reasonable fees, beginner friendly, stored currency is covered by Coinbase insurance. Cons: Customer support, limited payment methods, limited countries supported, non-uniform rollout of services worldwide, GDAX suitable for technical traders only. Kraken is the largest Bitcoin exchange in Euro volume and liquidity and is a partner in the first cryptocurrency bank. Kraken allows you to buy and sell bitcoins and trade between bitcoins and Euros, US Dollars, Canadian Dollars, British Pounds and Japanese Yen. It is also possible to trade digital currencies other than Bitcoin like Ethereum, Monero, Ethereum Classic, Augur REP tokens, ICONOMI, Zcash, Litecoin, Dogecoin, Ripple and Stellar/Lumens. Kraken is recommended to be used by more experienced traders. Pros: Good reputation, decent exchange rates, low transaction fees, minimal deposit fees, feature rich, great user support, secure, supported worldwide. Cons: Limited payment methods, not suitable for beginners, intuitive user interface. Below is a table that summarizes all the best places to buy bitcoin. We have compiled everything for you to help you pick and choose which cryptocurrency exchange you should sign up for this decision will be driven by a multitude of factors including: safety and reliability, convenience, and accessibility. Now that you are more familiar with Bitcoins, let me discuss a more advanced platform for aspiring traders. Ethereum – an open software platform based on blockchain technology enables developers to build and deploy decentralized applications. It is said to be somewhat similar to Bitcoins because it is also a distributed public blockchain network. Although there are some significant technical differences between the two, the most important distinction to keep in mind is that they differ primarily in purpose and capability. Bitcoin offers one particular application of blockchain technology, a peer to peer electronic cash system that enables Bitcoin payments or transactions online. While the Bitcoin blockchain is used to track ownership of digital currency (bitcoins), the Ethereum blockchain is more focused on running the programming code of any decentralized application. In the Ethereum blockchain, instead of mining for bitcoins, traders (miners) work to earn Ether which is a type of crypto token that runs the whole network. Beyond a tradeable cryptocurrency, Ether is also used by app developers to pay for transaction fees and services on the Ethereum network. Which is the best Ethereum exchange? If you are wondering if there is a recommended exchange for ETH, you may have to do your own research to see which one is best for you based on where you live and the payment method you are more comfortable with. Some exchanges only work in specific countries, for example, so you’ll have to make sure that the exchange you have works in your country. What can Ethereum be used for? Ethereum enables developers to build and deploy decentralized applications. This decentralized application or more commonly known as Dapp serves a special purpose to users. Bitcoin, for instance, is a Dapp that provides its users with a peer to peer electronic cash system which enables online Bitcoin payments. The Dapp is not controlled by any individual or central entity because they are made up of codes that run on a blockchain network. Any services that are centralized can be decentralized through Ethereum. Even intermediary services across hundreds of different industries can be decentralized. This includes loans provided by banks, title registries, voting systems, regulatory compliance and other services you can think of. Ethereum can also be used in building Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAO) which is fully autonomous, decentralized organization with no prime leader. These are run by programming code, on a collection of smart contracts written on the Ethereum blockchain. Codes here are designed to replace the rules and structure of a traditional organization, eliminating the need for people and centralized control. DAO is owned by everyone who purchases tokens, but instead of each token equating to equity shares & ownership, tokens act as contributions that give people their voting rights. Talk about equality. Benefits of Ethereum decentralized platform Since decentralized applications run on the blockchain, they benefit from it in many ways. A third party cannot make or tamper changes to the data and since the apps are based on a network formed around the principle of consensus, it is considered safe and corruption-free. It is also very secure because apps are well protected against hackers and are guarded against any fraudulent activities or transactions. Not to mention a zero downtime on the site since apps cannot be switched off. However, just like any other systems, decentralized apps also has its limitations. All apps no matter how they are carefully programmed still has a human factor attached to it, making it somehow vulnerable to mismatch. Since smart contract code is made by humans, smart contracts are only as good as the people who made them. Code bugs or oversights can lead to unintended glitches.However, if a mistake in the code is exposed, there is always a way to reprogram it without compromising security. Developers will be able to obtain a network consensus and rewrite the underlying code. It can be quite tedious for developers to perfect the system, but this is actually something they can work on to ensure traders a very reliable platform. What apps are currently being developed on Ethereum? The Ethereum platform is being used to create applications into a broad range of services and industries. This will not only make transactions easier but will also hasten the process for all. - Weifund – provides an open platform for crowdfunding campaigns that leverages smart contracts. It enables contributions to be turned into contractually backed digital assets that can be used, traded or sold within the Ethereum trade. - Uport – provides users with a secure and convenient way to take complete control of their identity and personal information. Instead of relying on government institutions and surrendering their identities to third parties, users control who can access and use their data and personal information. - BlockApps – is looking to provide the easiest way for enterprises to build, manage and deploy blockchain applications. From the proof of concept to full production systems and integration with legacy systems, Blockapps provides all the tools necessary to create private, semi-private and public industry-specific blockchain applications. - Provenance – is using Ethereum to make opaque supply chains more transparent. By tracing the origins and histories of products, the project aims to build an open & accessible framework of information so consumers can make informed decisions when they buy products. - Augur – is an open-source prediction & forecasting market platform that allows anyone to forecast events and get rewarded for predicting them correctly. Predictions on future real world events, like who will win the next US election, are carried out by trading virtual shares. If a person buys shares in a winning prediction, they receive monetary rewards. Ethereum is moving forward and looking to a bright future. By providing a user-friendly platform that enables people to harness the power of blockchain technology, Ethereum is speeding up the decentralization of the world economy. Decentralized applications have the potential to profoundly disrupt hundreds of industries including finance, real estate, academia, insurance, healthcare and the public sector amongst many others. A future of countless possibilities for Cryptocurrencies Investors of cryptocurrency believe that this new system will soon be integrated into the everyday economy. A recent survey conducted by blockchain platform, Waves, says that 51% of the cryptocurrency investors believe that this will happen in the next coming years. The price of cryptocurrencies fluctuates a lot. In the survey, the cost of bitcoin alone increase to 19 fold in 2017. The price of Ethereum however, increased to 9,000%, exceeding $700 per coin. Because cryptocurrencies are not regulated by any central bank, it is deemed to be very volatile. Economists today believe that bitcoins remain to be a gamble. Experts advise people who are interested in this venture to invest only the amount that they are willing to lose. It is also best to make a thorough research and have a wide knowledge about this new currency including the factors that contribute to the rise and fall of its value.

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Refuting Evolution—Chapter 7 A handbook for students, parents, and teachers countering the latest arguments for evolution Table of Contents - Facts & Bias See Study Guide, Lesson 1 - Variation and Natural Selection Versus Evolution See Study Guide, Lesson 2 - The Links Are Missing See Study Guide, Lesson 3 - Bird Evolution? See Study Guide, Lesson 4 - Whale Evolution? See Study Guide, Lesson 5 - Humans: Images of God or Advanced Apes? See Study Guide, Lesson 6 See Study Guide, Lesson 7 - How Old Is the Earth? See Study Guide, Lesson 8 - Is the Design Explanation Legitimate? See Study Guide, Lesson 9 First published in Refuting Evolution, Chapter 7 It may be surprising to see a lot of material about astronomy in a book about evolution. But evolution is not just about ape-like creatures turning into humans. Evolution is a philosophy trying to explain everything without God. Thus, it must be applied to the origin of the universe and solar system. Thus, Teaching about Evolution and the Nature of Science presents the prevailing evolutionary view on astronomical origins. Also, Teaching about Evolution hopes to diffuse opposition to evolution by a misleading comparison to opposition to heliocentrism (a sun-centered solar system). This chapter critically analyzes typical evolutionary ideas about the universe and solar system, as well as the Galileo controversy. The big bang theory Teaching about Evolution, page 52, states: The origin of the universe remains one of the greatest questions in science. The big bang theory places the origin between 10 and 20 billion years ago, when the universe began in a hot dense state; according to this theory, the universe has been expanding ever since. Early in the history of the universe, matter, primarily the light atoms hydrogen and helium, clumped together by gravitational attraction to form countless trillions of stars. Billions of galaxies, each of which is a gravitationally bound cluster of billions of stars, now form most of the visible mass in the universe. Stars produce energy from nuclear reactions, primarily the fusion of hydrogen to form helium. These and other processes have led to the formation of the other elements. We should first note that even under their perspective, the authors admit that the universe had a beginning. When combined with the principle of causality, ‘everything which has a beginning has a cause,’ it logically entails that the universe has a cause.1 Many Christians support the big bang theory because it implies a beginning of the universe. However, other Christians, based on the teaching of the Bible, reject the big bang. The big bang teaches that the sun and many other stars formed before the earth, while Genesis teaches that they were made on the fourth day after the earth, and only about 6,000 years ago rather than 10–20 billion years ago. The big bang also entails millions of years of death, disease, and pain before Adam’s sin, which contradicts the clear teaching of Scripture, which is thus unacceptable to biblical Christians. Also, the big bang theory has many scientific problems as outlined in the next section, and quite a few secular astronomers reject it. Although the above quote from Teaching about Evolution rather simplistically moves from the big bang to the formation of galaxies and stars, it is not so simple. Dr James Trefil, professor of physics at George Mason University, Virginia, accepts the big bang model, but he admits that there are fundamental problems: There shouldn’t be galaxies out there at all, and even if there are galaxies, they shouldn’t be grouped together the way they are. He later continues: The problem of explaining the existence of galaxies has proved to be one of the thorniest in cosmology. By all rights, they just shouldn’t be there, yet there they sit. It’s hard to convey the depth of the frustration that this simple fact induces among scientists.2 The creationist cosmologist, Dr John Rankin, also showed mathematically in his Ph.D. thesis that galaxies would not form from the big bang.3 Stars supposedly condensed out of vast clouds of gas, and it has long been recognized that the clouds don’t spontaneously collapse and form stars, they need to be pushed somehow to be started. There have been a number of suggestions to get the process started, and almost all of them require having stars to start with [e.g. a shockwave from an exploding star causing compression of a nearby gas cloud]. This is the old chicken and egg problem; it can’t account for the origin of stars in the first place.4 Another problem is cooling a gas cloud enough for it to collapse. This requires molecules to radiate the heat away. But as Teaching about Evolution points out in the quote earlier, the big bang would produce mainly hydrogen and helium, unsuitable for making the molecules apart from H2, which would be destroyed rapidly under the ultraviolet light present, and which usually needs dust grains for its formation—and dust grains require heavier elements. The heavier elements, according to the theory, require pre-existing stars. Again, there is a chicken and egg problem of needing stars to produce stars. Abraham Loeb of Harvard’s Center for Astrophysics says: ‘The truth is that we don’t understand star formation at a fundamental level.’5 The big bang is actually based on a non-scientific assumption called the cosmological principle, which states that an observer’s view of the universe depends neither on the direction in which he looks nor on his location. That is, the earth is nowhere special. However, there are alternatives to the big bang that reject this assumption. One has been proposed in the book Starlight and Time6by Dr Russell Humphreys, a physicist working with Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico. He has developed a new cosmology which uses the same theoretical foundation as all modern cosmologies including the big-bang—Einstein’s theory of general relativity. This results in a cosmology which allows for the formation of the universe in the biblical time-frame, as well as the traveling of light to earth from stars billions of light years distant. This plausible solution to a commonly raised skeptical problem works because general relativity shows that time is different in different reference frames with different gravitational fields. So the universe could have been made in six ordinary days in earth’s reference frame, but the light had ample time to travel in an extraterrestrial reference frame. However, as with all scientific theories, we should not be too dogmatic about this model, although it seems very good. The solar system Teaching about Evolution, page 52, states: The sun, the earth and the rest of the solar system formed from a nebular cloud of dust and gas 4.5 billion years ago. As usual, the book’s authors are dogmatic about what happened, although they weren’t there. However, this nebular hypothesis has many problems. One authority summarized: ‘The clouds are too hot, too magnetic, and they rotate too rapidly.’7 One major problem can be shown by accomplished skaters spinning on ice. As skaters pull their arms in, they spin faster. This effect is due to what physicists call the Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum. Angular momentum = mass x velocity x distance from the center of mass, and always stays constant in an isolated system. When the skaters pull their arms in, the distance from the center decreases, so they spin faster or else angular momentum would not stay constant. In the alleged formation of our sun from a nebula in space, the same effect would have occurred as the gases contracted into the center to form the sun. This would have caused the sun to spin very rapidly. Actually, our sun spins very slowly, while the planets move very rapidly around the sun. In fact, although the sun has over 99 percent of the mass of the solar system, it has only 2 percent of the angular momentum. This pattern is directly opposite to the pattern predicted for the nebular hypothesis. Evolutionists have tried to solve this problem, but a well-known solar system scientist, Dr Stuart Ross Taylor, has said in a recent book, ‘The ultimate origin of the solar system’s angular momentum remains obscure.’8 Another problem with the nebular hypothesis is the formation of the gaseous planets. According to this theory, as the gas pulled together into the planets, the young sun would have passed through what is called the T-Tauri phase. In this phase, the sun would have given off an intense solar wind, far more intense than at present. This solar wind would have driven excess gas and dust out of the still-forming solar system and thus there would no longer have been enough of the light gases left to form Jupiter and the other three giant gas planets. This would leave these four gas planets smaller than we find them today.9 Heliocentrism (aka geokineticism) Science versus religion? Like much secular literature, Teaching about Evolution presents a rather simplistic and even misleading account of the Galileo controversy. It was certainly not a simple case of science versus the Church (p. 27–30).10 However, Teaching about Evolution, to its credit, does not promote the common skeptical canard that the Bible teaches that the earth is flat and that this belief was widespread in medieval times. Isaiah 40:22 refers to ‘the circle of the earth,’ or in the Italian translation, globo. The Hebrew is khûg (חוּג) = sphericity or roundness. Even if the translation ‘circle’ is adhered to, think about Neil Armstrong in space—to him, the spherical earth would have appeared circular regardless of which direction he viewed it from. Also, Jesus Christ’s prophecy about His second coming in Luke 17:34–36 implies that He knew about a round earth. He stated that different people on earth would experience night, morning, and midday at the same time. This is possible because the spheroidal earth is rotating on its axis, which allows the sun to shine on different areas at different times. But it would be an inconceivable prophecy if Christ believed in a flat earth. The idea that Columbus had to disprove that the earth was flat is a myth started by Washington Irving in his 1828 book The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus. This was a self-confessed mixture of fact and fiction. The historian J.B. Russell has documented that nearly all Christian scholars who have ever discussed the earth’s shape have assented to its roundness.11 As many historians of science have noticed, the first to oppose Galileo was the scientific establishment. The prevailing ‘scientific’ wisdom of his day was the Aristotelian/Ptolemaic theory. This was an unwieldy geocentric system; that is, with the earth at the center of the universe and other heavenly bodies in highly complex orbits around the earth. As Arthur Koestler wrote: But there existed a powerful body of men whose hostility to Galileo never abated: the Aristotelians at the Universities … . Innovation is a twofold threat to academic mediocrities: it endangers their oracular authority, and it evokes the deeper fear that their whole laboriously constructed edifice might collapse. The academic backwoods-men have been the curse of genius … it was this threat—not Bishop Dantiscus or Pope Paul III—which had cowed Canon Koppernigk [i.e., Copernicus] into silence … . The first serious attack on religious grounds came also not from clerical quarters, but from a layman—none other than delle Colombe, the leader of the [ardent Aristotelian] league … . The earthly nature of the moon, the existence of sunspots meant the abandonment of the [pagan!] Aristotelian doctrines on the perfect and unchangeable nature of the celestial spheres.12 Conversely, at first the church was open to Galileo’s discoveries. Astronomers of the Jesuit Order, ‘the intellectual spearhead of the Catholic Church,’ even improved on them. Only 50 years later, they were teaching this theory in China. They also protected Johannes Kepler, who discovered that planets move in ellipses around the sun. Even the Pope, Paul V, received Galileo in friendly audience. If there were a real proof that the Sun is in the centre of the universe, that the Earth is in the third sphere, and that the Sun does not go round the Earth but the Earth round the Sun, then we should have to proceed with great circumspection in explaining passages of Scripture which appear to teach the contrary, and we should rather have to say that we did not understand them than declare an opinion false which has been proved to be true. But I do not think there is any such proof since none has been shown to me.13 This shows people were allowed to state that the heliocentric (sun-centered) system was a superior hypothesis to the earth-centered system. Also, the leading theologian was prepared to change his understanding of Scripture, if the system were proven—i.e., to correct his misunderstanding that Scripture taught the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. The misunderstanding arose because people failed to realize that biblical passages must be understood in terms of what the author was trying to convey. As shown below, passages referring to the rising and setting sun (for example, Eccles. 1:5) were not intended to teach a particular astronomical model like Ptolemy’s. Rather, they are describing events in understandable, but still scientifically valid terms that even modern people use, so any reader will understand what is meant. Another problem was that some of the clergy supported the Ptolemaic system using verses in the Psalms. However, the Psalms are clearly poetic, not historical like Genesis.14 Thus, they were never intended to be used as a basis for a cosmological model. This can be shown by analyzing the context of Psalm 93:1: ‘The world is firmly established; it cannot be moved.’ We should understand the terms as used by the biblical authors. Let’s read the next verse, ‘[God’s] throne is established of old,’ where the same word Hebrew כּוּן (kûn) is translated ‘established’ [i.e., stable, secure, enduring, not necessarily stationary, immobile]. Also, the same Hebrew word for ‘moved’ (מוֹט môt) is used in Psalm 16:8, ‘I shall not be moved.’ Surely, even skeptics wouldn’t accuse the Bible of teaching that the Psalmist was rooted to one spot! He meant that he would not stray from the path that God had set for him. So the earth ‘cannot be moved’ can also mean that it will not stray from the precise orbital and rotational pattern God has set for it. Life on earth requires that the earth’s orbit is at just the right distance from the sun for liquid water to exist. Also, that the earth’s rotational axis is at just the right angle from the ecliptic (orbital plane) so that temperature differences are not too extreme. From a scientific point of view, Bellarmine was right to insist that the burden of proof belonged to the proposers of the new system. Certainly, the heliocentric system was more elegant, which is what appealed to Galileo and Kepler, and the geocentric system was very unwieldy. But this was not the same as proof. In fact, some of Galileo’s ‘proofs’—for example, his theory of the tides—were fallacious. Did Galileo disprove the Bible? Galileo was shocked at the thought—he accepted biblical authority more faithfully than many Christian leaders do today. It’s ironic that the four heroes of heliocentrism mentioned by Teaching about Evolution—Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton—were all young-earth creationists! But, of course, Teaching about Evolution does not tell its readers this fact! Galileo and his opponents would have avoided all trouble by realizing that all motion must be described with respect to a reference frame. Think about travelling in a car at 60 mph. What does this mean? It means that you and the car are both moving at 60 mph relative to the ground. But relative to the car, you are basically not moving—that’s why you can read the speedometer, and talk to other passengers. But imagine a head-on crash with another car moving at 60 mph in the opposite direction. As far as you’re concerned, it would be as if you were standing still and a car drove into you at 120 mph—which is why head-on collisions are the worst. Crashing into a stationary car isn’t nearly as bad. And colliding with a car in front moving at 50 mph would be like colliding with a stationary car if you were traveling at only 10 mph. In physics, one is free to choose the most convenient reference frame, and all are equally valid. Some skeptics have asserted that biblical passages such as Ecclesiastes 1:5, saying that the sun rises and sets, are errors. But the correct understanding of the Bible’s descriptions of motion is determined by the reference frame it is using. It should be obvious that the Bible is using the earth as a convenient reference frame, as we often do today. So the skeptics’ accusations are absurd—modern astronomers also refer to ‘sunset’ and ‘sunrise,’ without any suggestion of error. And when drivers see a speed limit sign of 60 mph, they know perfectly well that it means 60 mph relative to the ground, not the sun! So the Bible is more scientific than its modern critics. And although even Psalm 93:1, cited above, is not teaching about cosmology, it is actually scientifically accurate—the earth cannot be moved relative to the earth! [See also Galileo Quadricentennial: Myth vs fact] References and notes - J.D. Sarfati, If God Created the Universe, Then Who Created God? Journal of Creation 12(1)20–22, 1998. Return to text. - J. Trefil, The Dark Side of the Universe (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1988), p. 3 and 55; see also W. Gitt, What about the big bang? Creation 20(3):42–44, June–August 1998. Return to text. - J. Rankin, Protogalaxy Formation from Inhomogeneities in Cosmological Models, Ph.D. thesis, Adelaide University, May/June 1977. Return to text. - ‘He made the stars also …’ interview with creationist astronomer Danny Faulkner, Creation 19(4):42–44, September–November 1997. Return to text. - Quoted by Marcus Chown, Let There Be Light, New Scientist 157(2120):26–30, (7 February 1998). See also Stars could not have come from the big bang, sidebar, Creation 20(3):42–43, June–August 1998. Return to text. - Russell Humphreys, Starlight and Time (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, Inc., 1994). Return to text. - S.F. Dermott, editor, The Origin of the Solar System, The Origin of the Solar System, by H. Reeves (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978), p. 9. Return to text. - S.R. Taylor, Solar System Evolution: A New Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 53. Return to text. - W. Spencer, Revelations in the Solar System, Creation 19(3):26–29, June–August 1997. Return to text. - R. Grigg, The Galileo Twist, Creation 19(4):30–32, September–November 1997. Return to text. - Jeffrey Burton Russell, Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus & Modern Historians (Praeger, 1991). Prof. Russell can find only five obscure writers in the first 1500 years of the Christian era who denied that the earth was a globe. But he documents a large number of writers, including Thomas Aquinas, who affirmed the earth’s sphericity. See also Creation 14(4):21; Creation 16(2):48–49. Return to text. - A. Koestler, The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man’s Changing Vision of the Universe (London: Hutchinson, 1959), p. 427. Return to text. - Ibid., p. 447–448. Return to text. - Principles of biblical interpretation, clearly contrasting the historical Book of Genesis with the poetic Book of Psalms, are discussed in detail in R.M. Grigg, Should Genesis Be Taken Literally? Creation 16(1):38–41, December 1993–February 1994; also footnote 11. Return to text.

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|Occupations||Military officer Soldier Musician Officer Composer| |Birth||21 June 1818 (Coburg, Upper Franconia, Bavaria, Germany)| |Death||22 August 1893 (Reinhardsbrunn, Friedrichroda, Gotha, Thuringia)| |Education||University of Bonn| Ernest II (German: Ernst August Karl Johann Leopold Alexander Eduard; 21 June 1818 – 22 August 1893) was the sovereign duke of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, reigning from 1844 to his death. Ernest was born in Coburg as the elder child of Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and his wife, Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. Fourteen months later, his younger brother, Prince Albert, was born, who became consort of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. Ernest's father became Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1826 through an exchange of territories. In 1842, Ernest married Princess Alexandrine of Baden in what was to be a childless marriage. Soon after, he succeeded as duke upon the death of his father on 29 January 1844. As reigning Duke Ernest II, he supported the German Confederation in the Schleswig-Holstein Wars against Denmark, sending thousands of troops and becoming the commander of a German corps; as such, he was instrumental in the 1849 victory at the battle of Eckernförde against Danish forces. After King Otto of Greece was deposed in 1862, the British government put Ernest's name forward as a possible successor. Negotiations fell through however for various reasons, not in the least of which was that he would not give up his beloved duchies in favor of the Greek throne. A supporter of a unified Germany, Ernest watched the various political movements with great interest. While he initially was a great and outspoken proponent of the liberal movement, he surprised many by switching sides and supporting the more conservative (and eventually victorious) Prussians during the Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars and subsequent unification of Germany. His support of the conservatives came at a price however, and he was no longer viewed as the possible leader of a political movement. According to historian Charlotte Zeepvat, Ernest became "increasingly lost in a whirl of private amusements which earned only contempt from outside". Ernest's position was often linked to his brother Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria. The two boys were raised as though twins, and became closer upon the separation and divorce of their parents, as well as the eventual death of their mother. The princes' relationship experienced phases of closeness as well as minor arguments as they grew older; after Albert's death in 1861, Ernest became gradually more antagonistic to Victoria and her children, as well as increasingly bitter toward the United Kingdom, publishing anonymous pamphlets against various members of the British royal family. Despite their increasingly differing political views and opinions however, Ernest accepted his second eldest nephew Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, as his heir-presumptive. Upon Ernest's death on 22 August 1893 at Reinhardsbrunn, Alfred succeeded to the ducal throne. Ernest, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, was born at Ehrenburg Palace in Coburg on 21 June 1818. He was the elder son of Ernest III, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and his first wife Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. He was soon joined by a brother, Prince Albert, who would later become the husband of Queen Victoria. Though Duke Ernest fathered numerous children in various affairs, the two boys would have no other legitimate siblings. In 1826, their father succeeded as Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha through an exchange of territories after the death of the duke's uncle, Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. There are various accounts of Ernest's childhood. When he was fourteen months old, a servant commented that Ernest "runs around like a weasel. He is teething and as cross as a little badger from impatience and liveliness. He is not pretty now, except his beautiful black eyes." In May 1820, his mother described Ernest as "very big for his age, as well as intelligent. His big black eyes are full of spirit and vivacity." Biographer Richard Hough writes that "even from their infancy, it was plainly evident that the elder son took after his father, in character and appearance, while Albert strongly resembled his mother in most respects." Ernest and his brother often lived with their grandmother the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld until her death in 1831. He and Albert were brought up and educated together as if they were twins. Though Albert was fourteen months younger, he surpassed Ernest intellectually. According to their tutor, "they went hand-in-hand in all things, whether at work or at play. Engaging in the same pursuits, sharing the same joys and the same sorrows, they were bound to each other by no common feelings of mutual love". Perhaps the "sorrows" aforementioned related to their parents' marriage. It was not a happy one and Duke Ernest I was continually unfaithful. In 1824, Ernest I and Louise divorced; she subsequently left Coburg and was disallowed from seeing her sons again. She soon remarried to Alexander von Hanstein, Count of Pölzig and Beiersdorf, dying in 1831 at the age of thirty. The year after her death, their father married his niece Duchess Marie of Württemberg, who was his sister Antoinette's daughter. Their stepmother was thus also their first cousin. The duke and his new duchess were not close, and would produce no children; while the boys formed a happy relationship with their stepmother, Marie had little to no input in her stepsons' lives. The separation and divorce of their parents, as well as the later death of their mother left the boys scarred and in close companionship with each other. In 1836, Ernest and Albert visited their matrimonially eligible cousin Princess Victoria of Kent, spending a few weeks at Windsor. Both boys, and especially Albert were considered by his family to be a potential husband for the young princess, and they were both taught to speak competent English. Their father first thought that Ernest would make a better husband to Victoria than Albert, possibly because his sporting interests would be better received by the British public. Most others favored Albert over Ernest as a possible husband however. Temperamentally, Victoria was much more like Ernest, as both were lively and sociable with a love for dancing, gossip, and late nights; conversely, this fast pace made Albert physically ill. Victoria believed Ernest had a "most kind, honest, and intelligent expression in his countenance", while Albert "seemed full of goodness and sweetness, and very clever and intelligent." No offer of marriage was forthcoming for either brother however, and they returned home. Ernest entered military training later that year. In April 1837, Ernest and Albert and their household moved to the University of Bonn. Six weeks into their academic term, Victoria succeeded as Queen of the United Kingdom. As rumors of an impending marriage between her and Albert interfered with their studies, the two brothers left on 28 August 1837 at the close of the term to travel around Europe. They returned to Bonn in early November to continue their studies. In 1839, the brothers traveled to England again, where Victoria found her cousin Albert agreeable and soon proposed. This connection would have many implications upon Ernest in the future; for instance, he was selected as godfather for Albert's second daughter Princess Alice, and would eventually come to give her away at her wedding, only months after Albert's death. Various candidates were put forward as a possible wife for Ernest. His own father wanted him to look high-up for a wife, such as a Russian grand duchess. One possibility was Princess Clémentine of Orléans, a daughter of Louis Philippe I, whom he met while visiting the court at the Tuileries. Such a marriage would have required his conversion from Lutheranism to Roman Catholicism however, and consequently nothing came of it. She later married his cousin Prince August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Ernest was also considered by Dowager Queen Maria Christina as a possible husband for her young daughter Isabella II of Spain, and by Queen Victoria for her cousin Princess Augusta of Cambridge. In Karlsruhe on 3 May 1842, Ernest married 21-year-old Princess Alexandrine of Baden. She was the eldest daughter of Leopold, Grand Duke of Baden, and Princess Sophie of Sweden, daughter of the deposed King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden. Though he gave his consent, his father was disappointed that his first son did not do more to advance the concerns of Coburg. The marriage did not produce any issue, though Ernest apparently fathered at least three illegitimate children in later years. Ernest had suffered from a venereal disease in his late teens and early twenties, most likely as the consequence of living a wild, promiscuous lifestyle. These qualities he had inherited under the tutelage of his father, who took his sons to "sample the pleasures" of Paris and Berlin, to Albert's "horror and shame". Ernest had been so visibly deteriorating in appearance as a result that Sarah Lyttelton, a lady-in-waiting of Queen Victoria, observed at Windsor in 1839 that he was "very thin and hollow-cheeked and pale, and no likeness to his brother, nor much beauty. But he has fine dark eyes and black hair, and light figure, and a great look of spirit and eagerness". Later that year, Albert counseled his brother against finding a wife until his 'condition' was fully recovered. He further warned that continued promiscuity could leave Ernest incapable of fathering children. Some historians believe that while he himself was able to father other children, the disease rendered his young wife infertile. As the years went by with further childlessness, Ernest became more distant to his wife, and was continually unfaithful. Though Alexandrine continued to be devoted, choosing to ignore those relationships she was aware of, her loyalty became increasingly baffling to those outside her immediate family. By 1859, after seventeen years of childlessness, Ernest took no further interest in his wife. Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha On 29 January 1844, Ernest's father died in Gotha, one of the territories their family had recently acquired. Ernest consequently succeeded to the duchies of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha as Ernest II. Development of a constitution Extravagant to a great degree, Ernest had many money troubles throughout his reign. In January 1848, Ernest visited his brother in the midst of political unrest in Germany. Upon his return, he also discovered unrest in Coburg. One of the many concerns related to finances. Although Ernest had a large inheritance, he also had frequent debts. There were increasing calls to nationalize most of his property. Indeed, Albert had to intervene at one point and spare his brother the embarrassment of losing one of his Coburg properties. During the 1848 turmoil in Germany, Albert had been constructing his own liberal reform plan, under which a single monarch, chancellor, and parliament would unite the German states; in addition, each state would retain its own current ruling dynasty. As this plan pertained to his brother, Ernest was given a copy in the hope that he would develop his own liberal constitution. Ernest subsequently made a few concessions, but his position remained sound, not counting the increasing problem of his debts. A constitution was drafted and promulgated in 1849 in Gotha, though one had existed in Coburg since 1821. In 1852, both constitutions were converged into one, which converted the personal union of the two duchies into a real union; the duchies were now inseparable, with a common set of institutions. During the political turmoil, timely concessions and Ernest's popular habit of mingling with "the people in their pleasures" were instrumental in keeping him from losing his throne. Furthermore, various contemporary sources state that Ernest was an able, just and very popular ruler, which may have also helped keep him in power. From 1848 to 1864, Denmark and the German Confederation fought over control of the two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Historically, the duchies had been ruled by Denmark since medieval times, but there remained a large German majority. This majority was sparked to rebellion after Frederick VII of Denmark announced on 27 March 1848 the duchies would become an integral part of Denmark under his new liberal constitution. Prussia soon became involved, supporting the uprising and beginning the First Schleswig War. Ernest sent 8,000 men initially, adding to the army sent by the German Confederation. He also desired to be given a military job during the war, but was refused, as it was "extremely difficult to offer me a position in the army of Schleswig-Holstein corresponding to my rank", according to his memoirs. He agreed to a smaller command, coming to lead a Thuringian contingent; he commented in a letter to his brother that "I should have declined any other command of the kind, but I could not refuse this one, as, in the present condition of our States, it is important to keep the executive power in our hands". As commander of a German corps, Ernest was instrumental in winning the 5 April 1849 battle of Eckernförde against Danish forces. The first war ended in 1851, but would resume in 1864. During this interlude, Ernest fervently opposed the marriage of his nephew Albert Edward, Prince of Wales ('Bertie'), to Princess Alexandra of Denmark, a daughter of the future Christian IX of Denmark (and therefore an enemy of the German states). He believed that such a match flew in the face of German interests. Albert replied angrily "What has that got to do with you?... Vicky has racked her brains to help us to find someone, but in vain...We have no [other reasonable] choice". Albert agreed there were going to be problems with the match, but as he could find no alternative bride, he wrote to Ernest that keeping the affair a private matter (and outside the realm of government) was "the only way to prevent a break with Prussia and the only way to keep the game in our own hands, impose the conditions that we think necessary, and as far as we can, take off its political edge". Albert also warned his son of Ernest's endeavors to interfere with the match, commenting, "Your uncle...will try his hand at this work. Your best defence will be not to enter on the subject, should he broach it". Soon after writing these letters, Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861. His death helped Ernest repair his relationship with his sister-in-law, as Victoria had been becoming increasingly angrier over Ernest's objections to the Danish match. The two brothers had always been close, whatever their disagreements, and Albert's death left Ernest "wretched", noted Victoria in a letter to her eldest daughter. The death did not solve their argument however; seeing that his direct involvement had failed to persuade Victoria, Ernest tried a new tactic. He began to spread gossip about Alexandra and her family, in which her mother, Princess Louise, "had illegitimate children and Alexandra had flirtations with young officers"; he also wrote to Louise herself, warning that Bertie would be an unfortunate choice for a husband. Additionally, Ernest met with his nephew at Thebes, most likely attempting to discourage him from the match in person. In an 11 April letter, Victoria unhappily noted to her eldest daughter, "You did not tell me that Bertie had met Uncle Ernest at Thebes...I am always alarmed when I think of Uncle Ernest and Bertie being together as I know the former will do all he can to set Bertie against the marriage with Princess Alix". Despite Ernest's disapproval, Bertie was duly married to Alexandra on 10 March 1863. During the American Civil War, the Duke assigned Ernst Raven to the position of consul in the state of Texas. Raven applied to the Confederate Government for a diplomatic exequatur on 30 July 1861 and was accepted. Nomination for the Greek throne On 23 October 1862, Otto of Bavaria, King of Greece, was deposed in a bloodless coup. The Greeks were eager to have someone close to Britain and Queen Victoria replace Otto; some desired to allow Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh (her second son), succeed as King of Greece. He was elected with 95% of the vote in the Greek head of state referendum of 1862. After his ineligibility was confirmed however, the Greeks began looking for other possible candidates, which included Duke Ernest at the British government's suggestion. To their and Victoria's reasoning, if Ernest were to take the Greek throne, Alfred could immediately take up his inheritance and succeed Ernest as duke (the Prince of Wales having passed his claim to the duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha onto his younger brother). Many were in favor of his nomination, including Prime Minister Lord Palmerston and Ernest's sister-in-law. In a letter written to her uncle Leopold I of Belgium, Victoria stated her support for a new royal branch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (as Leopold had been chosen as King of the Belgians in 1831), as well as her desire for her second son, Alfred, to succeed his uncle in the duchy. As negotiations continued however, she began to lose enthusiasm for the idea. There were problems to the nomination; Ernest had no children, and thus would have had to adopt one of the princes of his house to succeed him as King of Greece. To solve this problem, Ernest suggested to Palmerston that he simply take the title Regent of Greece and hold the kingdom in trust for his chosen heir. He also stipulated that if he accepted the throne, it should be subject to certain guarantees by the other powers. The apparent deal-breaker however was the fact that Ernest wanted to acquire the Greek throne and still maintain control of his "safer" duchies. In the end, the British cabinet thought the proposed conditions unacceptable. His proposals turned down, Ernest in turn refused. In 1863, the Greek throne was accepted by another member of a royal family: the Princess of Wales' younger brother Prince William of Denmark. Ernest would later comment, "That this cup was spared me, I always regarded as a piece of good fortune". Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian Wars Ernest, like his brother, was in favor of a German unified, federal state. To best realize this goal, Ernest liked to dabble in whatever political system promised the most success. He subsequently watched the growth of liberalism in Germany with much interest and tried to build links with the movement's leaders. During Albert's lifetime, Ernest took a close interest in the movement for reform, and was perceived as a progressive within Germany. His favorable view of liberalism caused his duchy to become an asylum for political refugees from other German states. In 1863, he attended the liberal Frankfurt Conference, which was openly avoided by more conservative Prussia. Though his attendance made him no friends in Prussia, he developed such strong contacts in Austria that many looked to him as a potential leader in the mounting conflict between the northern and southern powers. He grew tired of the advice he received from Albert on the subject however; as Ernest "was by no means inclined to consent to an energetic rule such as I adopted immediately afterwards for the perfection of the constitutional system", according to Albert's letters. The Austro-Prussian War was triggered by the desire of German conservative leaders to unify, albeit on different terms than their liberal counterparts. Ernest urged Prussian leaders against the impending war, and was an active advocate of the Austrian cause. Though Ernest normally followed more liberal politics than many of his counterparts, he began switching his views to align more closely with Prussian Minister President Otto von Bismarck by the mid-1860s. Despite this change in his private political views, he still had strong publicly known Austrian ties, and no one foresaw that Ernest would immediately side with the better-equipped Prussians upon breakout of the war. His reasoning is usually understood as acting in the best interests of his duchies, and by extension, of himself. Regardless, it was seen as a betrayal of former friends; Queen Victoria commented that Ernest "might have agreed to neutrality - for that might be necessary, but to change colours I cannot think right". Ernest was fortunate in his support of victorious Prussia; many other petty German dukes, princes, and kings who had supported Austria suffered immensely at Hohenzollern hands. Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, and Nassau for instance were all annexed to Prussia at the expense of their respective rulers. Though he had only recently changed his political views, Ernest was allowed to ride at the head of his battalion during the victory parade. His eldest niece Prussian Crown Princess Victoria ("Vicky") was for one pleased with his Prussian support and commented "I am not accustomed to hearing so much praise of Coburg here. [Ernest] was not among the crushed and beaten foe, it is sad enough as it is to see so many of one's friends suffering from the effects of their miscalculations". Victoria's husband Crown Prince Frederick was also pleased with Ernest's decision, writing in his journal 28 September 1871, that the duke's "society always affords me peculiar pleasure, especially...when his heart beats so warmly for Germany". Ernest's support of the Prussians in the Austro-Prussian War and later Franco Prussian War meant he was no longer the potential leader of a political movement; although it was true that he had been able to retain his duchies, it had come at a price. According to historian Charlotte Zeepvat, Ernest "was increasingly lost in a whirl of private amusements which earned only contempt from outside". Ernest funneled his political thoughts into the private sphere, preferring to write covertly sponsored articles in the Coburg press that became increasingly embittered against England. In 1886, Ernest published Co-Regents and Foreign Influence in Germany, a pamphlet that greatly angered his family; though produced anonymously, no one doubted that it was written by Ernest. It attacked Vicky as a disloyal German that was too dependent on her mother, and declared that she had been too indiscreet in passing along confidential information during both war and peacetime. Queen Victoria was furious, writing to Vicky, "What you told me of Uncle E and that pamphlet is simply monstrous. I assure you that I felt great difficulty in writing to him for his birthday, but I wrote it as short and cool as I could consistently with civility". "Dear Uncle Ernest does us all a great deal of harm by his odd ways and uncontrollable tongue with his very lively imagination". Later in his reign, Ernest's actions managed to continually anger his sister-in-law. Though Victoria loved Ernest because he was Albert's brother, she was displeased that Ernest was writing his memoirs, worrying about their contents mainly in regard to her dead husband. Despite their disputes, Ernest still met with Victoria and her family occasionally. In 1891, they met in France; Victoria's lady-in-waiting commented "the old Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha has been here today with his wife. He is the Prince Consort's only brother and an awful looking man, the Queen dislikes him particularly. He is always writing anonymous pamphlets against the Queen and the Empress Frederick, which naturally creates a great deal of annoyance in the family". Throughout his reign, Ernest had been known for his extravagance and womanizing; as he grew older, Ernest enjoyed gossip and was "now a thoroughly disreputable old roué who enjoyed the outrage provoked by his actions", leading Vicky to declare that her uncle "was his own enemy". His behavior and manner of dress increasingly became a joke for younger generations. His great-niece Marie of Edinburgh would later describe Ernest as "an old beau, squeezed into a frock-coat too tight for his bulk and uncomfortably pinched in at the waist', sporting a top hat, lemon coloured gloves, and a rosebud in his lapel". He put on weight and though on paper his wealth was large, he was still constantly in debt. An excellent musician and amateur composer all his life, Ernest was a great patron of the arts and sciences in Coburg, often giving awards and titles to members of the artistic and scientific world, such as Paul Kalisch, a German opera singer and the English chemist William Ernest Bush. Ernest composed songs, hymns, and cantatas, as well as musical pieces for opera and the stage, including Die Gräberinsel (1842), Tony, oder die Vergeltung (1849), Casilda (1851), Santa Chiara (1854), and Zaïre, which met with success in Germany. He could also draw and play the piano. One of his operas, Diana von Solange (1858), prompted Franz Liszt the following year to write an orchestral Festmarsch nach Motiven von E. H. z. S.-C.-G., S.116 (E. H. z. S.-C.-G. was short for Ernst Herzog zu Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha). However, its production at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City in 1890 inspired dismal reviews, with one spectator commenting that its "music was simply rubbish". Ernest was also an avid hunter and sportsman; one contemporary remarked that he was "one of the foremost and keenest sportsman produced by the present century". In addition, Ernest was an enthusiastic patron of everything connected with natural history, for instance traveling to Abyssinia with the German zoologist Alfred Brehm in 1862. Ernest II died at Reinhardsbrunn on 22 August 1893 after a short illness. A lifelong sportsman, his last words were apparently "Let the drive commence!" His funeral was held in the Morizkirche in Coburg; thousands of spectators came to the funeral, including Emperor Wilhelm II and the Prince of Wales. He is buried in the ducal mausoleum in the Friedhof am Glockenberg which he himself had built in 1853–58. Ernest was succeeded by his nephew Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh. Inheritance to Saxe-Coburg and Gotha For much of Ernest's reign, the heir presumptive to Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was his only sibling Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. When it became increasingly more clear that Ernest would be childless, the possibility of a personal union between his duchies and the United Kingdom became real, a reality that was deemed undesirable. Special arrangements were made by a combination of constitutional clauses and renunciations to pass Ernest's throne to a son of Albert while preventing a personal union. Consequently, Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, his brother's second eldest son, was designated the childless Ernest's heir presumptive, when his older brother, the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII of the United Kingdom), renounced Alfred's succession rights. Issues arose over authority to control the upbringing of his heir-presumptive. As head of the Coburg family, Ernest would normally have been able to arrange Alfred's education and general upbringing unchallenged. This however was not the case. Alfred was torn between his British birth and his German inheritance. This was partly because Alfred was second-in-line to the United Kingdom until the birth of his nephew Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, in 1864. One example of the many problems of his education concerned the language he would speak. Although he grew up learning German, his native language was decided to be English. In addition, a naval career was chosen for Alfred, a common profession for a British prince but almost unheard of for a German prince. Ernest also wanted Alfred to be educated in Coburg, but his brother refused. Albert's refusal most likely stemmed from the negative British reaction that would have inevitably occurred and the fact that Albert was fearful of Alfred's moral development. Thus, despite Ernest's protests, he went unheeded in Albert's lifetime. In 1863, Ernest told Victoria that it was time for Alfred to leave the navy and enter a German university. By March of the following year, it was decided that Alfred would attend Bonn University but be left to consider his future, as he was having reservations over permanently residing outside England. The matter was eventually resolved; Alfred came to accept his inheritance, and Victoria understood and accepted that Ernest needed to be involved in the upbringing of his heir-presumptive, with a strong German element added to his education and (carefully chaperoned) visits to Coburg. Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles - 21 June 1818 – 12 November 1826: His Serene Highness The Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld - 12 November 1826 – 29 January 1844: His Highness The Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha - 29 January 1844 – 22 August 1893: His Highness The Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha - German honours - Saxe-Coburg and Gotha: - Joint Grand Master of the Order of the Ernestine House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha - Knight of St. Joachim - Master Mason, 1857 - Kingdom of Prussia: Recipient of the Iron Cross of 1870, 1st and 2nd class. - Foreign decorations - Austrian Empire: Grand Cross of the Order of St. Stephen of Hungary in 1852. - Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold in 1839. - United Kingdom: Knight of the Garter in 1844.

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"Roboticizing" and "Roboticized" redirects here. For other uses of the term, see Robodillos, subjects who have undergone roboticization. Roboticization (, also known as the ロボット化 Robottoka ) ? Robotomy Treatment, is a subject that appears in the . It is the process utilized by Sonic the Hedgehog series Dr. Eggman and his associates by which an organic creature is converted into a robotic being. This is accomplished by devices that are collectively known as Roboticizers. Physically speaking, the process of roboticization converts living tissue into machinery: body parts are transformed into mechanical equivalents. Due to the transformation, roboticized subjects typically possess increased strength and other abilities. Some roboticized subjects may also have been specially modified for combat, as in the case of what the Deadly Six intended to do with Tails. Roboticization can be carried out in different degrees: some subjects' whole body can be converted while others only have the process carried out on some parts of the body, making the subjects resemble cyborgs. No means of reversing the roboticization effect have been revealed. Roboticized subjects will lose their free will as a result of roboticization, becoming almost mindless automatons. Whether it is possible to restore the roboticized subjects' mental capabilities while the bodies remain robotic is unknown. Sonic Chronicles: The Dark Brotherhood The roboticization procedure was first mentioned in . In this game, the Sonic Chronicles: The Dark Brotherhood Robodillo enemies are animals who have undergone roboticization. Chapter 3, Tails noticed the Robodillos' condition after defeating a group of them in Mystic Ruins. Later after defeating another Robodillo group, Tails discovered an Eggman Device in the head of the leader which he deduced had roboticized the animals. Sonic Lost World Tails feigning roboticization. , roboticization was not mentioned by name. The procedure itself was taught to the Sonic Lost World Deadly Six by Dr. Eggman. Acknowledging Sonic's strength, the Deadly Six planned to enslave him with roboticization, but ended up attempting to perform it on Tails. However, Tails sabotaged his Roboticizer and donned a disguise dubbed "Robo Tails" that made him look roboticized to trick the Deadly Six. The roboticization procedure originate from the Sonic-related medias in Western territories (North America is believed to be the region of origin, with other Westerners adopting it and altering its definition) where it is used as a significant plot point in various storylines. From , it was adapted into the games. Sonic Chronicles: The Dark Brotherhood The roboticization process is based on the Sonic the Hedgehog video game series' original concept of roboticizing creatures, where an Animal is forcibly stored inside a robot shell and is used as its respective power supply. Unlike the extremely difficult process of de-roboticizing in other media, the restoration process for Animals in the games is done by merely breaking open the robot to free its captive within. In the " Come Join the Eggman Empire!" propaganda video for , Eggman details roboticization, which he refers to as his "all-inclusive Robotomy Treatment", as being a means to live in his Empire. He notes that the "perks" to the treatment are being left unable to eat, sleep, or think again. He also implies that it is necessary to survive in the resulting air pollution within his Empire. Sonic Forces Come Join the Eggman Empire!. YouTube. Sega (2 November 2017). Retrieved on 3 November 2017. ↑ Sonic Chronicles: The Dark Brotherhood ↑ Sonic Team (18 October 2013). Sonic Lost World. Wii U. Nintendo. Cutscene: Robo Tails Attack! ↑ Sonic Team (18 October 2013). Sonic Lost World. Wii U. Nintendo. " Zavok: Enjoy your last moments of free will. When we return you'll be our slave." ↑ BioWare (September 26, 2008). Sonic Chronicles: The Dark Brotherhood. Nintendo DS. Sega. Area/Level: Mystic Ruins. " Amy: Was that... / Tails: That animal seemed to be... roboticized. / Cream: Oh no! Poor thing! / Knuckles: Looks like we were right about Eggman being involved. / Cream: But the animals... Oh no... / Sonic: It's okay, Cream. We will find Eggman and stop him." ↑ BioWare (September 26, 2008). Sonic Chronicles: The Dark Brotherhood. Nintendo DS. Sega. Area/Level: Mystic Ruins. " Tails: Look, Sonic. That box on the leader's head is an Eggman device. That must be what turned these animals into robots!" ↑ Sonic Team (18 October 2013). Sonic Lost World. Wii U. " Zavok: Sonic is more formidable than I anticipated. / Master Zik: Yes, he would make a powerful slave. Eggman taught us how to make robots-- / Zavok: So we'll make the hedgehog a robot! Excellent plan, master! 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Before I started talking about inland farming, prompted by the arrival of residential lords in the form of monasteries and minsters, we’d been talking about early settlements and farms. These lay within the large multiple estates mainly owned by itinerant kings, and also of course they lay in the estates owned by resident religious institutions. Just to be clear, Inland farms formed just part of monastic estates. So we ought to talk amore about the people that lived outside inland. So today that is what we are going to talk about; we are going to start with the first AS settlers and then talk about how their lives developed and how their lives and status varied from the inhabitants of the inland farms. The first Anglo Saxon settlements, then, would often have conformed to the standard model of a northern European settlement, a kin-based group living in a small nucleated settlement surrounded by its own land. Most of the settlements might have had something like 4 or so families; the largest yet excavated in Essex, has about 12 families. Again, holding hands carefully with the responsible and extensive use of qualifiers and weasels, such as possibly, maybe perhaps and often, two types of early building seem to be standard, all built in timber. A large hall type building, and dugout, sunken featured buildings. Within these settlements you have to guess that small clusters might be not just neighbours but relatives, mixing and growing with other further off clusters, as women married into new groups and left, or arrived in the settlement with their new family. However far down the line you move from the old genocide model to the new who knows if there were more than a handful of invaders at all approach, it is in this process that Germanic and Briton became one and became English. There is no sign in the law codes of the time of a broader, clan based ownership of land, but there is a strong sense of deep connection with a specific area over generations; Waecel’s people of Watlington, and Banesa’s people of modern Benson would have put down deep roots, identified very close with their landscape and region. There is the tradition that the basic unit of family landholding would have been the hide, a unit of land sufficient to support one family. Evidence survived until quite late, of old ‘hide farms’ – farms of one hide in size, that is to say, shadowy survivals of that original tradition. One at a place called Yatton in Somerset for example survived until 18th century, but over, time settlements would have become broken up. There remains the shadow also of those old family settlements in the idea of folcland. Folcland is a form of landholding, which gradually becomes partially replaced by land given by written charter, or bookland. It’s a shadowy concept and open to all sorts of wrangling by historians, but it seems to be the oldest form of legal landholding, within which four generations of a family shred rights to a landholding; restricted to Great Grandfather, grandfather, father and son, rather than a wider model of cousins. Over time though, the model that asserts itself is of land being passed down only to sons, or to daughters if there were no sons. Partibility of land in inheritance survives much longer among the Peasantry than it did amongst the nobility, with far fewer pressures to conform to a strict model of primogeniture. It’s easy to think of primogeniture as the obvious and inevitable model, but of course it was not. In itself primogeniture took time to be adopted fully until well after the Normans arrived even in the higher reaches of society in England. And so farm holdings tended to get smaller as they were split up between children. Taken together, inheritance, culture and the pressures and demands of lordship all tended towards smaller groups exercising rights over land, and exercising those rights over smaller areas of land, but the idea of group rights and group responsibility does not disappear. Nonetheless the landscape I want you to imagine sometime around 800 or afterwards, outside the developing inland areas of the large estates, is of a patchwork of fairly small landowners, where the ownership of every bit land is well known. That means the ownership of shared rights over land as well, not just who owned the physical land itself – this was meat and drink, life and limb to people, all these types of asset essentially, were jealously guarded. One of the things Susan Oosthuizen also emphasises is just how old shared rights over land are – prehistoric in some places like highland and moorland, for example. Let us return to landscape for a moment then to illustrate the importance of how that patchwork is organised and designed. A couple of examples. I always assumed that the reason that boundaries often ended at streams was because they are instantly recognisable, and so make a clear edge to a territory; and maybe because they are defensible. And those probably do play their part. But a defining aspect of settlement was also access to water, not just for people but critically for livestock. By creating borders at streams, access to water is of course doubled. Then again, we mentioned that the arrival of the mouldboard plough had some consequences; it opened up new areas of land to arable farming. But that had an impact also; it reduced the amount of pasture available to lowland farms, until in some places it could be that farms below our Chiltern scarp, for example, had little land set aside, and the only grazing might have been the stubble, or land in rotation. And added to that problem is that you now have many more Oxen to feed, because you’ve got these whopping great teams of eight to look after to pull these whopping great ploughs. So you have a problem. Without wanting to sound as though I am digressing, one of the glories, then, of the English countryside is the network of pathways, the vast majority of them beautifully marked and mapped on easily accessible ordnance survey maps if you happen to be a walker. England may not have the wilderness other countries have but let me tell you that does not mean it is anything other than a glorious destination for walkers – there are few better ways of seeing its glory and history than just walking it, urban or rural of something in between. I am wiping my eyes with a hankie as we speak. In our south Oxfordshire vale landscape then, you will see a complex of straight trackways, the pathways themselves being land with common rights of access. These tracks lead ribbon-like up the scarp between lowland and upland. There are many reasons for these paths, but one of them is to create rights of way for peasants and farmer to take their oxen up the hills to pastures and wood pastures. Now you can see again the value of what looks at first glance like nothing more than poorer quality land in the hills; without that land the effectiveness and productivity of the arable of the vale is greatly reduced. I mentioned wood pasture also which is a term I am literally panting to explain – you might well know all of this yourself, but of the many revelations for me of folks like Rackham and Richard Muir is the way that woodland was used in the past, very differently to how it is used now and how I imagined. I don’t know about you but I had this innate belief that woodland is about tall trees, big things which when they are big enough you chop down, cut into planks and then replant. I learn from Rackham that while this is indeed a thing, it is an approach that should not be mentioned without hawking violently, making the sign of the evil eye and falling to your knees in a fit of tears while howling the words ‘modern forestry’, which are incidentally, to be used as though being tortured to utter them. Imagine Smeagol, and the screams of Baggins! Shire! Issuing from the dungeons of Barad Dur, and you’ll just about have it. Because in days medieval, big trees used for building would have been just one use for trees, and a less common and day to day occurrence than other methods. Just behemoths would have been left to the older more ancient and impenetrable woods like those on the wealds of Sussex, famously cut down to create a navy for Henry VIII, though that may be a myth, not sure. Or you would have big trees growing out of hedgerows. For the most part, medieval woodsmen used the a critical qualities of the trees that pre-dominated in England, largely deciduous trees – their ability to regenerate . Chop down a tree from near the base, and it will regenerate from the stem or from suckers to create poles, which you could leave for a number of years, depending on what kind of usage you were looking for and the size of pole you needed. You might need thin, and whippy for baskets or hurdles. Or you might need something a bit more chunky for the vertical posts of hurdles or fences, or you might be looking for wood for charcoal. Or for whatever, the point being that the use of wood was far more diverse and central to medieval life than today, with the astounding proliferation of materials available to the modern world. So you harvest poles when required at the appropriate time. And then they’d regenerate again and so on. Cutting near the base is called coppicing as you probably know, and as you walk around the Chiltern hills in particular you will see much evidence of old coppiced trees, with wide stools now heavily overgrown. You might also see, although I have to say I’ve not seen survivals near me, a gnarled, ancient old tree with an unfeasibly thick stem and relatively little top growth. Some such trees are split and hollow with age, but none the less still growing. What you might be looking at is a survival of a pollarded tree, which was driven by the need for pasture I was supposed to be describing before I went into this level 1 digression on medieval woodmanship. Pollarding and coppicing, incidentally, tend to prolong the age of trees, as far as 450 to 500 years old, and Rackham claims that England is unique in its survival of these ancient trees. I don’t know if that’s true or not, you’ll have to take that up with Oliver though he’s been dead a few years so that’ll be tricky, but anyway I am open to comment. Anyway, pollarding. So with the extra Oxen and reduced pasture I was talking about, ooh, minutes ago, solutions had to be found in the wooded uplands of the Chilterns. Obviously, trees and grass don’t really mix very well as the tree canopy deprives the grass of light, so you could cut down all the trees, but then you wouldn’t have the wood you so badly need, so that’s not good. You could coppice the trees, but then your livestock or wild animals would probably feast on the fresh shoots so that’s no good or at least would need managing. The solution was wood pasture. You’d allow the stem of your trees to grow until they are above the reach of the animals, and then you’d cut the tree there – the stem would get ticker each year, and is called the bolling, and from the top of the bolling would grow the same shoots as you get from a coppiced tree, and which you’d cut for poles before an over large canopy developed. Bingo, easy peasy, squeeze the lemon. Wood Pasture. Wood. Amd Pasture. Pasture and Wood. Simple but effective. As it happens, although pollarding was carried out in the Chilterns, the southern Oxfordshire Chilterns favoured the coppicing approach, enclosing the coppice for 7 years until the shoots were well established and then allowing grazing. The world’s your lobster essentially, and the importance again of local tradition and custom is clear. I might at this point mention, very briefly mention, the ancient and very beautiful art of hedge laying – the creating of a neat and impenetrable living fence by cutting back and training an overgrown hedge. There are multiple styles around the country, and they reflect both local tradition and the kind of agriculture carried out. The Midland Bullock for example, is a style designed to resist heavy animals pushing against them. The south of England tends to create a double layer. I really have gone off on one now, you didn’t come to the History of England to hear about hedge laying for crying out loud but look there is a Hedge Laying society if this is the sort of thing that floats your boat, so hie thee to the intertubes, hedgelaying.org.uk. The thing is, here is another way in which history, culture and landscape all so exist. Enough of this maudlin nonsense. Ok, so where were we? I was describing a landscape where land, outside inland areas, is held within the large multiple estates, by a patchwork of individual farms of varying size, but generally reducing in size over time, held by individuals with some family rights over parts of the farm. Of smallish settlements of farm buildings, in groups which you might describe as polyfocal. Actually this is quite important; we tend to think of English villages as having a focus, a centre, often near the church. That comes later, for particular reasons. Hold on to that thought, we’ll get to it, but for the moment these are just cluster of dwellings, which no particular centre of focus. Ok, it is time I think to try and define what we should call this area outside the inland of monastic estates. And naming it will incidentally help identify some of the ways in which the people who inhabited it differed from the inland farms. It’s helpful to begin at the end; because the characteristics of the late Anglo Saxon state of the 10th century and 11th century gave expression to concepts which derived from the earlier centuries. And When the Anglo Saxon state in all its glory was pulled down by the Norman invaders in 11th Century, it had a few defining characteristics. Firstly it was unusually centralised state with great landowners that held public administrative and judicial powers, which they held by delegation from the king. Those powers were public and they could be revoked; this is absolutely unlike the hereditary offices of the Norman and medieval age like Earl. England therefore developed very differently to France. In France ,after the dissolution of the 8th and 9th century Carolingian empire, central power was weak, and so magnates were able to establish autonomous power bases many of which became the almost independent states of France –Gascony, Toulouse, Poitou and so on. This did not happen in England. Secondly, this centralised power, and centralised law had preserved the right of the free peasantry. Outside inland estates, peasants and smaller landholders retained a direct relationship with the king, they did not become subject to those semi autonomous magnates. So the Anglo Saxon peasantry retained a large measure of freedom and independence. They have been described as Small statesmen…small freemen charged with public duties Thirdly, rights and public duties became associated with land rather than with personal lordship. So in one model of lordship, you are lord of a people and you have rights over them; there is no need to have any land at all, people obey your will because you are their lord. My understanding is that this is the model to which Celtic states conform. In Anglo Saxon England, it was different rights were associated with land. So, if a king had a companion, he would reward them with land. That land carried with it status, rights and obligations. The rights carried by the land are public rights – whoever you were, large landowner or small, you owed the same type of rights and obligations. There’s a famous statement which recounts that any ceorl who can muster up 5 hides of land is entitled to the rights of a Thegn – so it was land that defined status, and with that status came public responsibility as part of the free individual’s role in the community. There is a critical difference here with Inland tenants – those unfree Inland tenants acquired no public obligations or rights with the land; one sign of this was that Inland for example, did not carry an obligation to pay geld to the king. It is at this point that I can finally refer back to my Spiderman statement way back when, that with great rights came great responsibility, and look, snaps to me for managing to remember all the way back there, whoop and generally speaking, I rock, go me. Does that make any sense? So, in Anglo Saxon England it is not the fact that you are a lord that defines your rights, it is the land that you hold that defines your rights and your obligations to the broader community. We should discuss what these public obligations were, but in principle they were held together by one unifying and binding concept. All these public rights and obligations were for one purpose, embedded in the Old English word, waru, the word for defence. The rights and obligations existed to defend the land; defend the land in the broadest sense, to keep it strong and hale and free from its enemies, which is a thoroughly powerful concept and I feel my patriotic breast swelling as I speak. So, the land from which these services were due became referred to as services to utware, services in defence of the land, utware, or as you might put it, warland, which is the phrase we will use. And warland is a good word is it not, a very evocative word that smells of earth and leafmould. One of the obligations owed by Warland is the tribute owed to the king, as we discussed in the episode about life on the Scir; think back to all those tributes in Ine’s laws about the Ambers of ale being taken to the King’s Reeve at his tribute centre, ready for the kings circuit, for his appearance. But there are three common public services which Warland then owed to the community, which runs through laws and charters, and these are - Military service - Bridge repair, and - fortification repair. The inhabitants of Warland were not homogenous however; they fall into broad groups, with all the qualifications that nothing is wholly standard, everything varies according to individual and regional context. But there are broadly 3 recognisable groups –Thegns, Geneats and Ceorls. The Thegn is probably the figure you know most about and have heard of before. He is a landowner, and from the later 9th century, as land given by written charter, or bookland, becomes a clearly articulated and desirable thing, they will expect to hold that land by charter. The Thegn acquired their name and status originally from the service they performed the king – land was then given to them by the king to reward their service. Law codes from Kent as early as the late 7th century tell us that Thegns were given a value or Wergild that set them apart from peasants, or Ceorls. They were of a class that was worthy to be made into an earldorman, an Earldorman being a state regional official, almost like the governor of a shire. The extent of public obligations due from a Thegn became increasingly defined, and was based on a 5 hide unit that survives into Domesday. 11th century Law codes such as those of Aethelred are reasonably clear that a Thegn with 5 hides need to provide himself to fight, with all the armour and weapons he needed. Particular estates might also attract different kinds of military service or repair work. Here is that all- important 11th century Anglo saxon document we have used before, the Rectitudines singularum personarum, an estate management document prepared probably at Bath abbey in the early 11th century. The law of the thegn is that he should be worthy of his book-rights, and that from his land he [must] do three things: levy a company, and be liable for the building and repair of town walls, and build bridges. Also, on many estates more land-right is originated at the king’s command such as, [to maintain] the animal-hedge for the king’s estate, and [to supply] equipment for a defence ship, and to guard the coast, and [to be a] head-guard and [to perform] military watch, [to give] alms money and church tribute and many other diverse things. The gobbet makes it clear that the Thegn expected to have land granted by charter, Bookland as it was called for obvious reasons. This was probably not all the land they held – they probably expected to also hold land of their own by ancient tradition and family right, by folcland, land not given him by the king but his from time imemmoral. Little two Ronnies reference there for you. Folcland’s possibly like land called allodium in France; this is land held by ancient and inalienable rights. The king has no power to take it away or grant it out; Folcland or allodial land is the antithesis of the feudal idea that all land is owned by the king, and everybody is in end his tenant. Nonetheless, folcland of course still owed the public obligations. In Rectitudines you can see the three public obligations can’t you right there in front of you for all to see – levy a company, military service, repair town walls, fortifications, and build bridges. But then there’s other stuff peculiar to this estate. Here the thegn is required to pay ship money. Then there are obligations to give alms, just like the gebur, but unlike the gebur the Thegn has to give Church scot. The rectitudines also mentions another couple of categories. There is a Geneat, a term which does not seem to be widely used, but is a kind of lesser Thegn. They pay tax, their services are at times agricultural – like provide food for the lord, reap and mow, cut the animal-hedge, and maintain snares sometimes they are more general or military build and fence the dwellings within an enclosure, and lead newcomers to the enclosure…hold head-guard (duties) and guard horses, go on errands, either further or nearer or to wherever he is sent. You will notice the complete absence of any mention of nightsoil. As far as the Geneat is concerned, nightsoil is a dirty word, they are not at home to Mr or indeed Mrs Nightsoil. Or anything to dirty the hands. It is all honourable service. Leading newcomers to the enclosure is very much the work of a trusted companion, who can be relied on not to pick their nose at an inappropriate moment, say the right thing at the right time, and look the part. Again, honurable service. The Rectitudines also mentions a character somewhere in between the Geneat and the unfree peasant, the Kotsetlan, the Cottager. Now we are beginning to look more like a peasant, since they owe 1 day’s week-work and additional work at harvest time; but they may perform thegn’s service on the thegn’s behalf and they pay church-scot so probably still a free man. You might notice that I have not mentioned the word Ceorl, the general name for a free non noble that appears in the early laws, and probably the cottager come closest here; but ceorl by the stage of the Rectitudines had become a very general term, which might cover a very broad range of statuses. So these are the people of the warland then, Thegn, Geaneat, Kotsetlan or coerl. You might think the dues they owe look pretty heavy, and there’s agricultural and week work in there for the Kotsetlan, and they owe of course, their regular tribute to the king. So on the face of it you might conclude that it’s all nit picking, hair splitting stuff, that the difference between the workers of the Inland and the obligations of Warland is a bit ikrrelevant. But in fact the difference is fundamental; the rights between inland and Warland make a clear faultline in AS society. The first difference is the type of work required to their lord. Let’s take that agricultural commitment of the Geneat and Kotsetlan. Before I do, let me remind you of some of the dues of the Gebur we heard of last week so that we can compare and contrast. Here’s the gebur ‘He must work [for] two days in each week, [doing] such work as he is directed to, throughout the year, and to work [for] three days each week during the harvest, and for three [days each week] from Candlemas to Easter. That by the way was just the start, but I didn’t want to go overboard. Meanwhile, the Kotsetlan or The Cottager of the warland on the Bath estate was required to labour for his lord each Monday throughout the year, or for three days each week throughout the harvest. It’s interesting that the day of work is specified – the gebur just had to do what he was told when he was told, on Tuesdays the Cottager can tell his lord to go jump in a lake. But the 3 days each week throughout the harvest is the most interesting. In this obligation you can trace the life of the community of the ancient scir, working together at the heavy times of year to get the hard work done on the time the community needed it to survive and thrive – the ploughing, bringing in the harvest. This kind of obligation was often called boon work. The word boon has a Old English root, which is ben, or prayer – something prayed for, requested, needed. The sense is of the owner of the land going round to his neighbours and asking them to come together to help bring the harvest in; in return for which he will feed them and provide them with ale. There is a sense of equality. Now, in later centuries the more powerful lords and landowners put pressure on their peasantry and these dues begin to look more compulsory, and indeed they are – but there is still a quid pro quo, a favour done in return for something. There is still a sense of neighbourliness, the community together. The same applies to other boon work. Some geneats did horse work, in the sense of droving or carting; here was work to support the economic health of the estate, taking salt, lead, cattle, hides, wool to market on its behalf. Again, all of this is honourable type work, and it’s very related to the origin of all these dues – to the tribute owed to the king. So when the king came to visit the scir and stay on the estate, the warland inhabitants might be required to turn out to help the hunt, or carry out riding and messenger duties. The other key difference between the duties of gebur and geneat is the idea of public service. The Inland gebur owed work in return for livelihood to the lord, their status did not require or allow them to carry out any public service for the state at all, all the service they owed was part of a contract with their lord. The proud warlander – geneat, Thegn, Kotsetlan – all owed public service, Military, bridge and fortification work as we said. The requirement for military service would of course include the requirement to bear arms. That is of course, an utterly daft statement, I mean Duh, no really? But I make this super obvious statement because the relationship between personal freedom and arms-bearing is absolutely fundamental. So if we see a man with a spear we are looking at a freeman, and if we see a man being berated for carrying a spear when he has no right to do so, we are looking at a serf. Although there is much debate about the nature of the fyrd, it was the militia of the Anglo Saxon community, called out by the Earldorman of the shire when danger threatened. A section in Domesday for example explains that When the king goes against his enemy Each man was summoned and must serve who was So free that he has his sake and soke and can go with his land wherever he wishes Sake and Soke are another pair of words for a freeman’s right rights. The Fyrd, then, is associated with freedom. The people of warland, then, with their public obligations whatever the extent of their land, whether 5 acres or 5 hides, would take their spears and answer the personal summons of the king. The geburs and bordars of the inland estates would watch them go. There were other kinds of military service; King Alfred would organise this defence against the Vikings by requiring free men to do service at the local burgh defending the walls. Even the Kotsetlans of Bath Abbey, some with as few as 5 acres to their name [must] guard his lord’s land if one asks him [to], [and] guard the coast, and [work] at [maintaining] the king’s animal-hedge. Another two public obligations were work on repairing and maintaining those fortifications, and doing the same for bridges. This latter was skilled work – there’s a reference to the work required to maintain the Roman Bridge at Rochester for example, which makes it clear this is skilled work that would require the people that carried it out to supply valuable stock, such as Oxen to drag the heavy, 50 foot oak trunks. Inhabitants of warland were required to pay tax to the king, or geld as it was called. The association between king’s taxation and freedom went way back, and would last a long time. In twelfth century Glastonbury for example a proud peasant defended his freedom sby aying In the old days his father held this geldable yardland freely by the king’s taxation His freedom was all bound up with the land he held which was geldable and therefore warland, and the taxation meant he was free, he had a direct relationship with the king. This also meant that he was required to get involved in the business of state justice – the free ceorl had a wergild, they were law worthy. That meant they could appeal to the law’s protection and judgement; but they also had a responsibility to maintain and sustain the law and it’s delivery. One of the other interesting features of the Anglo Saxon state was the strength of the King’s justice; the lord’s justice and court, the manorial court, which was an essential part of continental practice and world become so in England after the conquest; until that point, the manorial court was rare and peripheral in the Anglo Saxon state. The law worthy ceorl was required to travel to the public courts – the local hundred court or the court of the scir or the later shires. All free males over 12 were to be in a tithing of 10 people, presided over by one of their own as the tithingman. Their obligations ignored secular or religious boundaries; they must present crimes for the court to consider, answer queries from the state, make arrangements for the collection of alms and observance of fasts. They took part in the deliberations of assemblies, the folk moot, in which custom and collective memory were important; the Ealdorman presided over the public Shire and Hundred courts, but they were not exactly judges – more presidential and executive than judicial. Every dispute or settlement was essentially confirmed by oath, by the witnesses and oath helpers who swore as to the credit and reputation of the parties involved. This was a duty and a right open only to freemen, and laws specifically stated they were obligations to Every person who wishes to be held worthy of his wergild The picture I am building here then, is of the participatory nature of the state. It’s not that mid and late Anglo Saxon England was some sort of farmer republic as might have existing in the very early days of the settlement, or you can see on the highlands and islands of Scotland around this time and indeed later – farmers who got together every so often to discuss and decide things together. Anglo Saxon England has its structure of king and ealdormen and Thegns, or hierarchy and elites. But it is deeply participatory; participatory irrespective of economic status and all the way down the social ladder – as long as you are able to maintain your status by delivering your public obligations. There we go then; we have an early and mid Anglo Saxon world where land had a big impact on your status; if you continued to hold your land as warland, you participated in a state to which you owed public obligations. The warland Ceorls were part of a class which contained both lesser landowners and small scale subsistence farmers. The warland peasant considered they owned their land as of their own right, they paid their geld and attended public courts, served in the fyrd or help pay for a soldier to go from their area, contributed to bridge and fortification work. They were obliged to turn up at the estate centre to do occasional harvesting and ploughing work, but they did that from an enduring sense of being good neighbours – boon work as good members of the community. In the later Anglo Saxon state, though, the pressures that had led to some of the peasantry giving up the rights associated with their warland status and becoming unfree, were growing stronger and broadening. The changes would have a fundamental impact not just on society and individual lives, but on England’s the very fabric, in a way that you can still see everytime you step out of the door; they will lead to the creation of manors; to the differences about how the landscape was organised. And from it will come one of the glories of the English countryside, the English village.

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We are loading the information that you are looking for... Therapies with cord blood have gotten more successful. “The outcomes of cord blood transplants have improved over the past 10 years because researchers and clinicians have learned more about dosing cord blood, picking better matches, and giving the patient better supportive care as they go through the transplant,” says Joanne Kurtzberg, M.D., director of the pediatric bone marrow and stem cell transplant program at Duke University. In some types of leukemia, the graft-versus-tumor (GVT) effect that occurs after allogeneic BMT and PBSCT is crucial to the effectiveness of the treatment. GVT occurs when white blood cells from the donor (the graft) identify the cancer cells that remain in the patient’s body after the chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy (the tumor) as foreign and attack them. Cord blood collection is a completely painless procedure that does not interfere with the birth or with mother-and-child bonding following the delivery. There is no risk to either the mother or baby. Cord blood collection rarely requires Blood Center staff to be present during the baby’s delivery. There is no cost to you for donating. Cord blood contains mesenchymal stem cells but is much more abundant in hematopoietic stem cells. Cord tissue, on the other hand, contains some hematopoietic stem cells but is much richer in mesenchymal stem cells. Cord tissue, or Wharton’s jelly, is the protective layer that covers the umbilical cord’s vein and other vessels. Its MSCs can become a host of cells including those found in the nervous system, sensory organs, circulatory tissues, skin, bone, cartilage, and more. MSCs are currently undergoing clinical trials for sports injuries, heart and kidney disease, ALS, wound healing and autoimmune disease. As with cord blood, cord tissue is easily collected at the type of birth and holds great potential in regenerative medicine. Learn more about cord tissue banking here. Umbilical cord blood is useful for research. For example, researchers are investigating ways to grow and multiply haematopoietic (blood) stem cells from cord blood so that they can be used in more types of treatments and for adult patients as well as children. Cord blood can also be donated altruistically for clinical use. Since 1989, umbilical cord blood transplants have been used to treat children who suffer from leukaemia, anaemias and other blood diseases. This is only the beginning. Newborn stem cell research is advancing, and may yield discoveries that could have important benefits for families. CBR’s mission is to support the advancement of newborn stem cell research, with the hope that the investment you are making now will be valuable to your family in the future. CBR offers a high quality newborn stem cell preservation system to protect these precious resources for future possible benefits for your family. Cord Blood Registry is headquartered in South San Francisco, California. CBR owns their 80,000 square foot laboratory located in Tucson, Arizona. CBR’s laboratory processes cord blood collections seven days a week, 365 days a year. The state-of-the-art facility has the capacity to store the stem cell samples of five million newborns. A “mini-transplant” (also called a non-myeloablative or reduced-intensity transplant) is a type of allogeneic transplant. This approach is being studied in clinical trials for the treatment of several types of cancer, including leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and other cancers of the blood. A mini-transplant uses lower, less toxic doses of chemotherapy and/or radiation to prepare the patient for an allogeneic transplant. The use of lower doses of anticancer drugs and radiation eliminates some, but not all, of the patient’s bone marrow. It also reduces the number of cancer cells and suppresses the patient’s immune system to prevent rejection of the transplant. Most cells can make copies only of themselves. For example, a skin cell only can make another skin cell. Hematopoietic stem cells, however, can mature into different types of blood cells in the body. Hematopoietic stem cells also are found in blood and bone marrow in adults and children. The second question concerns “storing” the newborn’s cord blood for the child’s future use or a family member’s future use. The American Academy of Pediatrics has issued a policy statement saying that, “Cord blood donation should be discouraged when cord blood stored in a bank is to be directed for later personal or family use.” They state: “No accurate estimates exist of the likelihood of children to need their own stored cord blood stem cells in the future. The range of available estimates is from 1 in 1000 to more than 1 in 200000.51 The potential for children needing their own cord blood stem cells for future autologous use is controversial presently.” Read the complete statement here. As most parents would like to bank their babies’ cord blood to help safeguard their families, it is often the cost of cord blood banking that is the one reason why they do not. Most cord blood banks have an upfront fee for collecting, processing and cryo-preserving the cord blood that runs between $1,000 and $2,000. This upfront fee often also includes the price of the kit provided to collect and safely transport the cord blood, the medical courier service used to expedite the kit’s safe shipment, the testing of the mother’s blood for any infectious diseases, the testing of the baby’s blood for any contamination, and the cost of the first full year of storage. There is then often a yearly fee on the baby’s birthday for continued storage that runs around $100 to $200 a year. Private cord blood banking costs $2,000 to $3,000 for the initial fee, and around another $100 per year for storage. While that may seem like a hefty price tag, many expectant parents may see it as an investment in their child’s long-term health. Banking of stem cells from cord blood began in 1994 with the foundation of the New York Blood Centre Cord Blood Bank. The field of umbilical cord blood storage has matured considerably over the last two decades. We continue to learn more about the long-term effects of cryo-preservation on the cells, which has resulted in increased storage times. The use of cord blood is determined by the treating physician and is influenced by many factors, including the patient’s medical condition, the characteristics of the sample, and whether the cord blood should come from the patient or an appropriately matched donor. Cord blood has established uses in transplant medicine; however, its use in regenerative medicine is still being researched. There is no guarantee that treatments being studied in the laboratory, clinical trials, or other experimental treatments will be available in the future. Banking your child’s cord blood really comes down your personal choice. Some people may seem the potential benefits, while others can’t justify the costs. No one debates cord blood cells being a lifesaver, and in recent years, more than 20,000 lives have been saved because of it; however, experts, such as The American Academy of Pediatrics, note that your odds of using this blood is about one in 200,000. Instead of buying into a company’s advertising scheme, be sure to do your own research and deem what’s best for your child’s future. Donating cord blood to a public cord blood bank involves talking with your doctor or midwife about your decision to donate and then calling a cord blood bank (if donation can be done at your hospital). Upon arriving at the hospital, tell the labor and delivery nurse that you are donating umbilical cord blood. Companies throughout Europe also offer commercial (private) banking of umbilical cord blood. A baby’s cord blood is stored in case they or a family member develop a condition that could be treated by a cord blood transplant. Typically, companies charge an upfront collection fee plus an annual storage fee. We’d like to extend our sincere gratitude to the thousands of obstetricians, nurses, midwives, and childbirth educators who support placenta and umbilical cord blood banking. There is no doubt that these efforts save lives. Compare costs and services for saving umbilical cord blood, cord tissue, and placenta tissue stem cells. Americord’s® highest quality cord blood banking, friendly customer service, and affordable pricing have made us a leader in the industry. Depending on the predetermined period of storage, the initial fee can range from $900 to $2100. Annual storage fees after the initial storage fee are approximately $100. It is common for storage facilities to offer prepaid plans at a discount and payment plans to help make the initial storage a more attractive option for you and your family. Umbilical cord blood stem cells are different from embryonic stem cells. Umbilical cord blood stem cells are collected by your ob-gyn or a nurse from the umbilical cord after you give birth (but before your placenta is delivered). Embryonic stem cells are collected when a human embryo is destroyed. Cord blood is collected by your obstetrician or the staff at the hospital where you give birth. Not all hospitals offer this service. Some charge a separate fee that may or may not be covered by insurance. The harvested bone marrow is then processed to remove blood and bone fragments. Harvested bone marrow can be combined with a preservative and frozen to keep the stem cells alive until they are needed. This technique is known as cryopreservation. Stem cells can be cryopreserved for many years. Current applications for newborn stem cells include treatments for certain cancers and blood, metabolic and immune disorders. Additionally, newborn stem cell preservation has a great potential to benefit the newborn’s immediate family members with stem cell samples preserved in their most pristine state. Bone marrow and similar sources often requires an invasive, surgical procedure and one’s own stem cells may already have become diseased, which means the patient will have to find matching stem cells from another family member or unrelated donor. This will increase the risk of GvHD. In addition, finding an unrelated matched donor can be difficult, and once a match is ascertained, it may take valuable weeks, even months, to retrieve. Learn more about why cord blood is preferred to the next best source, bone marrow. Why should you consider donating the cord blood to a public bank? Simply because, besides bringing a new life into the world, you could be saving an individual whose best chance at life is a stem cell transplant with your baby’s donated cord blood. This can only happen if you donate and if your baby is a close enough match for a patient in need. If you chose to reserve the cord blood for your family, then siblings who have the same parents have a 25% chance of being an exact match. Pro: It gives you that peace of mind that if anything did happen to your child, the doctors would have access to their blood. This could potentially be a great benefit, and you would have no idea what would have happened if it weren’t for this blood. Cord blood in public banks is available to unrelated patients who need haematopoietic stem cell transplants. Some banks, such as the NHS bank in the UK, also collect and store umbilical cord blood from children born into families affected by or at risk of a disease for which haematopoietic stem cell transplants may be necessary – either for the child, a sibling or a family member. It is also possible to pay to store cord blood in a private bank for use by your own family only. In an allogenic transplant, another person’s stem cells are used to treat a child’s disease. This kind of transplant is more likely to be done than an autologous transplant. In an allogenic transplant, the donor can be a relative or be unrelated to the child. For an allogenic transplant to work, there has to be a good match between donor and recipient. A donor is a good match when certain things about his or her cells and the recipient’s cells are alike. If the match is not good, the recipient’s immune system may reject the donated cells. If the cells are rejected, the transplant does not work. The choices expectant parents make today go beyond finding out the gender of their baby. They span beyond deciding whether to find out if their child, still in the womb, may potentially have a genetic disorder. Today, many parents must decide whether to store their baby’s umbilical cord blood so it will be available to heal their child if at any point in the child’s lifetime he or she becomes sick. The information on this site is not intended or implied to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. All content, including text, graphics, images, and information, contained on or available through this website is for general information purposes only. The purpose of this is to help with education and create better conversations between patients and their healthcare providers. ^ Reddi, AS; Kuppasani, K; Ende, N (December 2010). “Human umbilical cord blood as an emerging stem cell therapy for diabetes mellitus”. Current stem cell research & therapy. 5 (4): 356–61. doi:10.2174/157488810793351668. PMID 20528762. The major risk of both treatments is an increased susceptibility to infection and bleeding as a result of the high-dose cancer treatment. Doctors may give the patient antibiotics to prevent or treat infection. They may also give the patient transfusions of platelets to prevent bleeding and red blood cells to treat anemia. Patients who undergo BMT and PBSCT may experience short-term side effects such as nausea, vomiting, fatigue, loss of appetite, mouth sores, hair loss, and skin reactions. In Europe, Canada, and Australia use of cord blood is regulated as well. In the United Kingdom the NHS Cord Blood Bank was set up in 1996 to collect, process, store and supply cord blood; it is a public cord blood bank and part of the NHS. Hematopoietic stem cells can be used to treat more than 70 types of diseases, including diseases of the immune system, genetic disorders, neurologic disorders, and some forms of cancer, including leukemia and lymphoma. For some of these diseases, stem cells are the primary treatment. For others, treatment with stem cells may be used when other treatments have not worked or in experimental research programs. Sometimes, not enough cord blood can be collected. This problem can occur if the baby is preterm or if it is decided to delay clamping of the umbilical cord. It also can happen for no apparent reason. If an emergency occurs during delivery, priority is given to caring for you and your baby over collecting cord blood. Just like other blood donations, there is no cost to the donor of cord blood. If you do not choose to store your baby’s blood, please consider donating it. Your donation could make a difference in someone else’s life. There are some hospitals that have dedicated collections staff who can process mothers at the last minute when they arrive to deliver the baby. However, in the United States that is the exception to the rule. As cord blood is inter-related to cord blood banking, it is often a catch-all term used for the various cells that are stored. It may be surprising for some parents to learn that stored cord blood contains little of what people think of as “blood,” as the red blood cells (RBCs) can actually be detrimental to a cord blood treatment. (As we’ll discuss later, one of the chief goals of cord blood processing is to greatly reduce the volume of red blood cells in any cord blood collection.) CBR created the world’s only collection device designed specifically for cord blood stem cells. CBR has the highest average published cell recovery rate in the industry – 99% – resulting in the capture of 20% more of the most important cells than other common processing methods. It’s hard to ignore the ads for cord blood banks, offering a lifetime of protection for your children. If you’re an expectant mom, there’s information coming at you constantly from your doctor’s office, magazines, online, and perhaps even your yoga class. Tracey Dones of Hicksville, N.Y., paid to bank her son Anthony’s cord blood. But four months after he was born, Anthony was diagnosed with osteopetrosis, a rare disease that causes the body to produce excess bone, leads to blindness, and can be fatal if left untreated. We are genetically closest to our siblings. That’s because we inherit half of our DNA from our mother and half from our father, so the genes we inherit are based on a chance combination of our parents’. Our siblings are the only other people inheriting the same DNA. The stem cells used in BMT come from the liquid center of the bone, called the marrow. In general, the procedure for obtaining bone marrow, which is called “harvesting,” is similar for all three types of BMTs (autologous, syngeneic, and allogeneic). The donor is given either general anesthesia, which puts the person to sleep during the procedure, or regional anesthesia, which causes loss of feeling below the waist. Needles are inserted through the skin over the pelvic (hip) bone or, in rare cases, the sternum (breastbone), and into the bone marrow to draw the marrow out of the bone. Harvesting the marrow takes about an hour. ^ a b c d e f Juric, MK; et al. (9 November 2016). “Milestones of Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation – From First Human Studies to Current Developments”. Frontiers in Immunology. 7: 470. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2016.00470. PMC 5101209 . PMID 27881982. In order to preserve more types and quantity of umbilical cord stem cells and to maximize possible future health options, Cryo-Cell’s umbilical cord tissue service provides expectant families with the opportunity to cryogenically store their newborn’s umbilical cord tissue cells contained within substantially intact cord tissue. Should umbilical cord tissue cells be considered for potential utilization in a future therapeutic application, further laboratory processing may be necessary. Regarding umbilical cord tissue, all private blood banks’ activities for New York State residents are limited to collection, processing, and long-term storage of umbilical cord tissue stem cells. The possession of a New York State license for such collection, processing and long-term storage does not indicate approval or endorsement of possible future uses or future suitability of these cells. Scientists first found ways to use stem cells in bone marrow, and following this discovery, the first stem cell transplant was performed in 1956 via bone marrow between identical twins. It resulted in the complete remission of the one twin’s leukemia. To learn more about umbilical cord blood and banking please watch Banking on cord blood, Cord blood – banking and uses, Cord blood transplantation – how stem cells can assist in the treatment of cancer in our video library. If you feel that the procedure is too expensive for your child, check with the hospital to see if there are any programs and/or grants available that can assist with the procedure. Some companies do offer financial aid. At present, the odds of undergoing any stem cell transplant by age 70 stands at one in 217, but with the continued advancement of cord blood and related stem and immune cell research, the likelihood of utilizing the preserved cord blood for disease treatment will continue to grow. Read more about cord blood as a regenerative medicine here. Cord Blood Registry® (CBR®) is the world’s largest newborn stem cell company. Founded in 1992, CBR is entrusted by parents with storing samples from more than 600,000 children. CBR is dedicated to advancing the clinical application of cord blood and cord tissue stem cells by partnering with institutions to establish FDA-regulated clinical trials for conditions that have no cure today.CBR has helped more than 400 families use their cord blood stem cells for established and experimental medical treatments, more than any other family cord blood bank. CBR’s goal is to expand the potential scope of newborn stem cell therapies that may be available to patients and their families.

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National Socialism, more known as Nazism, is the ideology and practices associated with the Nazi Party – the National Socialist German Workers' Party – in Nazi Germany, of other far-right groups with similar aims. Nazism is a form of fascism and showed that ideology's disdain for liberal democracy and the parliamentary system, but incorporated fervent antisemitism, anti-communism, scientific racism, eugenics into its creed, its extreme nationalism came from Pan-Germanism and the Völkisch movement prominent in the German nationalism of the time, it was influenced by the Freikorps paramilitary groups that emerged after Germany's defeat in World War I, from which came the party's "cult of violence", "at the heart of the movement."Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying the Germans as a part of what the Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race. It aimed to overcome social divisions and create a German homogeneous society based on racial purity which represented a people's community. The Nazis aimed to unite all Germans living in German territory, as well as gain additional lands for German expansion under the doctrine of Lebensraum and exclude those who they deemed either community aliens or "inferior" races. The term "National Socialism" arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of "socialism", as an alternative to both Marxist international socialism and free market capitalism. Nazism rejected the Marxist concepts of class conflict and universal equality, opposed cosmopolitan internationalism, sought to convince all parts of the new German society to subordinate their personal interests to the "common good", accepting political interests as the main priority of economic organization; the Nazi Party's precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and antisemitic German Workers' Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s the party was renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party – to attract workers away from left-wing parties such as the Social Democrats and the Communists – and Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organization. The National Socialist Program or "25 Points" was adopted in 1920 and called for a united Greater Germany that would deny citizenship to Jews or those of Jewish descent, while supporting land reform and the nationalization of some industries. In Mein Kampf, Hitler outlined the anti-Semitism and anti-Communism at the heart of his political philosophy, as well as his disdain for representative democracy and his belief in Germany's right to territorial expansion; the Nazi Party won the greatest share of the popular vote in the two Reichstag general elections of 1932, making them the largest party in the legislature by far, but still short of an outright majority. Because none of the parties were willing or able to put together a coalition government, in 1933 Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul Von Hindenburg, through the support and connivance of traditional conservative nationalists who believed that they could control him and his party. Through the use of emergency presidential decrees by Hindenburg, a change in the Weimar Constitution which allowed the Cabinet to rule by direct decree, bypassing both Hindenburg and the Reichstag, the Nazis had soon established a one-party state. The Sturmabteilung and the Schutzstaffel functioned as the paramilitary organizations of the Nazi Party. Using the SS for the task, Hitler purged the party's more and economically radical factions in the mid-1934 Night of the Long Knives, including the leadership of the SA. After the death of President Hindenburg, political power was concentrated in Hitler's hands and he became Germany's head of state as well as the head of the government, with the title of Führer, meaning "leader". From that point, Hitler was the dictator of Nazi Germany, known as the "Third Reich", under which Jews, political opponents and other "undesirable" elements were marginalized, imprisoned or murdered. Many millions of people were exterminated in a genocide which became known as the Holocaust during World War II, including around two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe. Following Germany's defeat in World War II and the discovery of the full extent of the Holocaust, Nazi ideology became universally disgraced. It is regarded as immoral and evil, with only a few fringe racist groups referred to as neo-Nazis, describing themselves as followers of National Socialism. The full name of the party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei for which they used the acronym NSDAP; the term "Nazi" was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a backwards farmer or peasant, characterizing an awkward and clumsy person. In this sense, the word Nazi was a hypocorism of the German male name Ignatz – Ignatz being a common name at the time in Bavaria, the area from which the NSDAP emerged. In the 1920s, political opponents of the NSDAP in the German labour movement seized on this and – using the earlier abbreviated term "Sozi" for Sozialist as an example – shortened NSDAP's name, Nationalsozialistische, to the dismissive "Nazi", in order to associate them with the derogatory use of the term mentioned above; the first use of the term "Nazi" by the National Socialists occurred in 1926 in a publication by Joseph Goebbels called Der Nazi-Sozi. In Goebbels' pamphlet, the word "Nazi" only appears when linked with the word "Sozi" as an abbreviation of Integrated Authority File The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used for documentation in libraries and also by archives and museums; the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero licence; the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format; the Integrated Authority File became operational in April 2012 and integrates the content of the following authority files, which have since been discontinued: Name Authority File Corporate Bodies Authority File Subject Headings Authority File Uniform Title File of the Deutsches Musikarchiv At the time of its introduction on 5 April 2012, the GND held 9,493,860 files, including 2,650,000 personalised names. There are seven main types of GND entities: LIBRIS Virtual International Authority File Information pages about the GND from the German National Library Search via OGND Bereitstellung des ersten GND-Grundbestandes DNB, 19 April 2012 From Authority Control to Linked Authority Data Presentation given by Reinhold Heuvelmann to the ALA MARC Formats Interest Group, June 2012 Crabwalk, published in Germany in 2002 as Im Krebsgang, is a novel by Danzig-born German author Günter Grass. As in earlier works, Grass concerns himself with the effects of the past on the present. While the murder of Wilhelm Gustloff by David Frankfurter and the sinking of the ship the Wilhelm Gustloff are real events, the fictional members of the Pokriefke family bring these events into our own time; the title, defined by Grass as "scuttling backward to move forward," refers to both the necessary reference to various events, some occurring at the same time, the same events that would lead to the eventual disaster. Crabwalk might imply a more abstract backward glance at history, in order to allow a people to move forward; the protagonist's awkward relationships with his mother and his estranged son, explored via the crabbed process of scouring the wreckage of history for therapeutic insight, lends appropriateness to the title. The narrator of the novella is the journalist Paul Pokriefke, born on 30 January 1945 on the day that the Strength Through Joy ship, the Wilhelm Gustloff, was sunk. His young mother-to-be, Tulla Pokriefke, found herself among the more than 10,000 passengers on the ship and was among those saved when it went down. According to Tulla, Paul was born at the moment the ship sank, on board the torpedo boat which had rescued them, his life is influenced by these circumstances, above all because his mother Tulla continually urges him to fulfill his'duty' and to commemorate the event in writing. In the course of his research, the narrator discovers by chance that his estranged son Konrad has developed an interest in the ship as a result of Tulla's influence. On his website he explores the murder of Gustloff and the sinking of the ship, in part through a dialogue in which he adopts the role of Gustloff, that of David Frankfurter is taken by another young man, Wolfgang Stremplin; the two meet in Schwerin, Konny's and Gustloff's hometown. Wolfgang, though not Jewish, projects a Jewish persona, he spits three times on the former memorial to Gustloff. Konny shoots mirroring the shooting of Gustloff by Frankfurter. The narrator is forced to realise that his imprisoned son has himself become a new martyr, is celebrated as such by neo-Nazis on the Internet. Konrad is the son of Paul Gabi. Intelligent, he is characterised as a'loner' by his parents, he has a good relationship with Tulla, who tells him stories of the ship, with whom he goes to live. Via his website he forms a love-hate relationship with Wolfgang: divided by their political views, they are connected by similar characters and a love for table-tennis. At his trial he claims that he has nothing against Jews themselves, but that he considers their presence among Aryan populations to be a'foreign body'. Tulla is short, white-haired since the sinking of the ship, attractive to men into old age. Politically she is difficult to classify, except as an extremist: on the one hand she praises the'classless society' of the Strength Through Joy ship and supports her grandson after the murder. Tulla speaks with a strong accent, she seeks at every opportunity to put the story of the ship into the public domain, because it was the subject of silence for so long. When her attempts to persuade her son to write about the disaster fail, she turns her attention instead to her grandson. She supplies Konny with the weapon which he uses in the murder, after he is threatened by neo-Nazi skinheads; the mysterious figure of the old one stands between the narrator Paul. Belonging to the generation of those who fled west after the end of the war, he encourages Paul to write of the sinking as a substitute for his own failure to do so; the narrator refers to him as his "employer" or "boss". The possibility of identifying him with Grass serves to prevent the equation of the narrator with the author. Crabwalk. Transl. From the German by Krishna Winston. Orlando. ISBN 0-15-100764-0 Dog Years (novel) Dog Years is a novel by Günter Grass. It was first published in Germany in 1963, its English translation, by Ralph Manheim, was first published in 1965. It is the third and last volume of his Danzig Trilogy, the other two being The Tin Drum and Cat and Mouse; the novel consists from the 1920s to the 1950s. The main characters are Eduard Amsel. Walter Matern and Eduard Amsel are friends. Eduard is half Jewish and at the young age of five is a genius at making scarecrows; the narrator in Book One, the mine owner Brauxel, tells of the friendship of Walter and Eduard when they are children in the Vistula estuary, a German-Polish borderland peopled by Mennonites and Protestants. Eduard keeps a diary; the history of this country is told with cruel images of horror and violence from that past that echoes into the present, which becomes Hitler's Germany. The story in the second part of the book is narrated by Harry Liebenau, consists of letters from him addressed to his cousin Tulla; this part of the story occurs during the war period, when Amsel collects vast numbers of S. A. uniforms, dresses his scarecrows in them. He persuades his childhood friend Walter to become a member of the S. A. in order to help him obtain the uniforms. But since the confusion in this country has reached its maximum at this point in time, it is inevitable that the two friends end up on a collision course. At one point Walter hits him in the face and knocks out all of his teeth; the last part of the novel is narrated by Walter and takes place after he has found his new friend Prinz. They leave on a journey in the postwar West Germany, where they systematically attack former Nazis who are now posing as respectable officials throughout the country. Grass's style parodies Martin Heidegger's arcane philosophical syntax in Being and Time, which one of the teenage protagonists likes to poke fun at; the years from the prewar to the postwar era are presented in Dog Years through the perspective of three different narrators, a team directed by Amsel — alias Brauxel — who makes scarecrows in man's image. The solid childhood friendship of Amsel and Matern evolves into the love-hate relationship between Jew and non-Jew under the impact of Nazi ideology. When the former friends from the region of the Vistula Delta meet again in the West, the ominous Alsatian dog that followed Matern on his odyssey is left behind in Brauxel's subterranean world of scarecrows. While Dog Years, like The Tin Drum, again accounts for the past through the eyes of an artist, the artist is no longer a demonic tin-drummer in the guise of a child but the ingenious maker of a world of objects reflecting the break between the creations of nature and those of men; the narrator refers to Amsel's "keen sense of reality in all its innumerable forms." Germany the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central and Western Europe, lying between the Baltic and North Seas to the north, the Alps to the south. It borders Denmark to the north and the Czech Republic to the east and Switzerland to the south, France to the southwest, Luxembourg and the Netherlands to the west. Germany includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,386 square kilometres, has a temperate seasonal climate. With 83 million inhabitants, it is the second most populous state of Europe after Russia, the most populous state lying in Europe, as well as the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is a decentralized country, its capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while Frankfurt serves as its financial capital and has the country's busiest airport. Germany's largest urban area is the Ruhr, with its main centres of Essen; the country's other major cities are Hamburg, Cologne, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf, Dresden, Bremen and Nuremberg. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity. A region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation. After the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, the German Confederation was formed in 1815; the German revolutions of 1848–49 resulted in the Frankfurt Parliament establishing major democratic rights. In 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the revolution of 1918–19, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic; the Nazi seizure of power in 1933 led to the establishment of a dictatorship, the annexation of Austria, World War II, the Holocaust. After the end of World War II in Europe and a period of Allied occupation, Austria was re-established as an independent country and two new German states were founded: West Germany, formed from the American and French occupation zones, East Germany, formed from the Soviet occupation zone. Following the Revolutions of 1989 that ended communist rule in Central and Eastern Europe, the country was reunified on 3 October 1990. Today, the sovereign state of Germany is a federal parliamentary republic led by a chancellor, it is a great power with a strong economy. As a global leader in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the world's third-largest exporter and importer of goods; as a developed country with a high standard of living, it upholds a social security and universal health care system, environmental protection, a tuition-free university education. The Federal Republic of Germany was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1957 and the European Union in 1993, it is part of the Schengen Area and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999. Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G7, the G20, the OECD. Known for its rich cultural history, Germany has been continuously the home of influential and successful artists, musicians, film people, entrepreneurs, scientists and inventors. Germany has a large number of World Heritage sites and is among the top tourism destinations in the world. The English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine; the German term Deutschland diutisciu land is derived from deutsch, descended from Old High German diutisc "popular" used to distinguish the language of the common people from Latin and its Romance descendants. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz "popular", derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- "people", from which the word Teutons originates; the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a coal mine in Schöningen between 1994 and 1998 where eight 380,000-year-old wooden javelins of 1.82 to 2.25 m length were unearthed. The Neander Valley was the location where the first non-modern human fossil was discovered. The Neanderthal 1 fossils are known to be 40,000 years old. Evidence of modern humans dated, has been found in caves in the Swabian Jura near Ulm; the finds included 42,000-year-old bird bone and mammoth ivory flutes which are the oldest musical instruments found, the 40,000-year-old Ice Age Lion Man, the oldest uncontested figurative art discovered, the 35,000-year-old Venus of Hohle Fels, the oldest uncontested human figurative art discovered. The Nebra sky disk is a bronze artefact created during the European Bronze Age attributed to a site near Nebra, Saxony-Anhalt, it is part of UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme. The Germanic tribes are thought to date from the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From southern Scandinavia and north Germany, they expanded south and west from the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well A hardcover or hardback book is one bound with rigid protective covers. It has a sewn spine which allows the book to lie flat on a surface when opened. Following the ISBN sequence numbers, books of this type may be identified by the abbreviation Hbk. Hardcover books are printed on acid-free paper, they are much more durable than paperbacks, which have flexible damaged paper covers. Hardcover books are marginally more costly to manufacture. Hardcovers are protected by artistic dust jackets, but a "jacketless" alternative is becoming popular: these "paper-over-board" or "jacketless hardcover" bindings forgo the dust jacket in favor of printing the cover design directly onto the board binding. If brisk sales are anticipated, a hardcover edition of a book is released first, followed by a "trade" paperback edition the next year; some publishers publish paperback originals. For popular books these sales cycles may be extended, followed by a mass market paperback edition typeset in a more compact size and printed on shallower, less hardy paper. This is intended to, in part, prolong the life of the immediate buying boom that occurs for some best sellers: After the attention to the book has subsided, a lower-cost version in the paperback, is released to sell further copies. In the past the release of a paperback edition was one year after the hardback, but by the early twenty-first century paperbacks were released six months after the hardback by some publishers, it is unusual for a book, first published in paperback to be followed by a hardback. An example is the novel The Judgment of Paris by Gore Vidal, which had its revised edition of 1961 first published in paperback, in hardcover. Hardcover books are sold at higher prices than comparable paperbacks. Books for the general public are printed in hardback only for authors who are expected to be successful, or as a precursor to the paperback to predict sale levels. Hardcovers consist of a page block, two boards, a cloth or heavy paper covering; the pages are sewn together and glued onto a flexible spine between the boards, it too is covered by the cloth. A paper wrapper, or dust jacket, is put over the binding, folding over each horizontal end of the boards. Dust jackets serve to protect the underlying cover from wear. On the folded part, or flap, over the front cover is a blurb, or a summary of the book; the back flap is. Reviews are placed on the back of the jacket. Many modern bestselling hardcover books use a partial cloth cover, with cloth covered board on the spine only, only boards covering the rest of the book. Bookbinding Paperback The Adam's apple, or laryngeal prominence, is a feature of the human neck, is the lump or protrusion, formed by the angle of the thyroid cartilage surrounding the larynx seen in males. The structure of the Adam's apple forms a bump under the skin, it is larger in adult males, in whom it is clearly visible and palpable. In females, the bump is much less visible and is hardly perceived on the upper edge of the thyroid cartilage. An Adam's apple is a feature of adult males, because its size in males tends to increase during puberty. However, some women have an Adam's apple, its development is considered a secondary sexual characteristic of males that appears as a result of hormonal activity. Its level of development varies among individuals and the widening of that area in the larynx can occur suddenly and quickly; the Adam's apple, in conjunction with the thyroid cartilage which forms it, helps protect the walls and the frontal part of the larynx, including the vocal cords. Another function of the Adam's apple is related to the deepening of the voice. During adolescence, the thyroid cartilage grows together with the larynx. The laryngeal prominence grows in size in men. Together, a larger soundboard is made up in phonation apparatus and, as a result, the man gets a deeper voice note. Cosmetic surgery to reshape the Adam's apple is called chondrolaryngoplasty; the surgery is effective, such that complications tend to be few and, transient. There are two main theories as to the origin of the term "Adam's apple"; the "Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable" and the 1913 edition of Webster's Dictionary point at an ancient belief that a piece of forbidden fruit was embedded in the throat of Adam, who according to the Abrahamic religions was the first man. However, neither the Bible nor other Judeo-Christian or Islamic writings mention such a story. In fact, the biblical story does not specify the type of fruit that Adam ate. Linguist Alexander Gode claimed that the Latin phrase to designate the laryngeal prominence was probably translated incorrectly from the beginning. The phrase in Latin was "pomum Adami". This, in turn, came from the Hebrew "tappuach ha adam" meaning "apple of man"; the confusion lies in the fact that in Hebrew language the proper name "Adam" means "man", while the Hebrew word "apple" means "swollen", thus in combination: the swelling of a man. Proponents of this version contend that the subsequent phrases in Latin and other Romance languages represent a mistranslation from the start; the medical term "prominentia laryngea" was introduced by the Basle Nomina Anatomica in 1895. In the American South, goozle is used colloquially to describe the Adam's apple derived from guzzle. Hyoid bone Larynx Media related to Laryngeal prominence at Wikimedia Commons lesson11 at The Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman

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A History of the County of Middlesex: Volume 10, Hackney. Originally published by Victoria County History, London, 1995. This free content was digitised by double rekeying. All rights reserved. In 1294 the bishop of London claimed view of frankpledge, infangthief, outfangthief, the assize of bread and of ale, fugitives' goods, tumbril, pillory, gallows, and fines in Hackney, as part of his manor of Stepney. (fn. 1) Separate bailiffs accounted for Hackney and Stepney by the 1380s (fn. 2) but courts for the whole manor, sometimes with pleas for Hackney entered separately, were still held at Stepney in the 16th century. (fn. 3) The bishop was paid 16s. as the common fine from Hackney in 1349. (fn. 4) Proceedings for Hackney are recorded on Stepney court rolls for 1349, 1442, 1509, and 1581-2 and in books for Stepney for 1654-64. (fn. 5) Two officers, perhaps constables, were elected for Hackney in 1509, when two chief pledges were elected for Shacklewell and one each for Clapton and Homerton. (fn. 6) A general court baron for Hackney, held immediately after a Stepney court in December 1581, was concerned largely with copyholds which had changed hands during the previous year; it also proposed two names for the choice of bailiff or collector. (fn. 7) The next court for Hackney, after a view of frankpledge at Stepney in April 1582, chose 2 constables, 2 aletasters, and 6 chief pledges or headboroughs: one and a deputy for Clapton, 2 for Mare Street, Well Street, and Grove Street, and 2 for Kingsland, Newington, Shacklewell, and Dalston. Three common drivers were chosen two days later. (fn. 8) In 1641 the steward of Hackney, who was also steward of Stepney, summoned the copyholders to meet in Hackney (fn. 9) and in 1642 courts at Stepney were held for Hackney alone in April and October. The first dealt with ditches, the assize of bread, and the elections of a constable and 2 aletasters for the parish and of a headborough for each of 7 wards: Kingsland and Dalston, Newington and Shacklewell, Church Street and part of Clapton, Clapton, the upper end of Homerton, Mare Street, and the lower end of Homerton. (fn. 10) By 1654, although the manors still had the same lord, Hackney courts were held at Homerton; much less frequent than those for Stepney, they consisted of a general court baron in April and December and a view in April, with one special court in 1655 and three in 1656. (fn. 11) Separate courts were held for the Hackney manors of Lordshold, Kingshold, and Grumbolds, despite the acquisition of all three by the Tyssen family. Court books or draft court books exist for Lordshold for 1658-1940 (fn. 12) and for Kingshold for 1666-1936, (fn. 13) with minutes and extracts. (fn. 14) It had been claimed in 1331 that the Templars had possessed pleas and perquisites of court for what became Kingshold manor; the Hospitallers, fined in 1511 for default at the bishop's law day, had held a court at Hackney in the early 16th century, when rolls had allegedly been lost. (fn. 15) For Grumbolds there are extracts for 1486-1741; later records include a minute book to 1925. (fn. 16) In 1711 the lord received 83 quitrents for Lordshold, 21 for Kingshold, and 5 for Grumbolds. (fn. 17) Uncertainty was such that a Kingshold transaction of 1798 was wrongly entered under Lordshold. (fn. 18) The busiest court, that of Lordshold, consisted of a view of frankpledge, followed by a court baron, in April and sometimes special courts. (fn. 19) The view was held at first usually at Homerton, where the Coach and Horses was the meeting place in 1752, and later at Kingsland, at the King's Arms by 1753 (fn. 20) and at the Tyssen Arms from 1815. (fn. 21) After 1845, no longer called a view, the court met at the Manor rooms until 1885 or later; (fn. 22) enfranchisements (fn. 23) and property transactions were done in lawyers' chambers until 1924. For Kingshold a view was likewise followed by a court baron, in Church Street and perhaps from 1666 at the Green Man, named as the usual meeting place in 1723; it was held at the Cock in the late 18th century, later at the Mermaid, the Tyssen Arms, the Manor rooms, and finally in London. (fn. 24) Grumbolds courts, annual c. 1500 but later less regular, also met latterly at the Manor rooms. (fn. 25) Probably all three manors had a single steward, normally a lawyer. Stewards exploited the family's absence before and after the term of J. R. Daniel-Tyssen from 1829 until 1852: Thomas Tebbutt and his son were involved in William Rhodes's building schemes (fn. 26) and Charles Cheston, son and successor of Chester Cheston, ruined Lord Amherst of Hackney by embezzlement. (fn. 27) Until 1840 or later (fn. 28) the Lordshold court appointed 2 constables, 2 aletasters, and normally 8 headboroughs; it also suggested 2 names for the choice of a reeve and appointed 6 or 7 common drivers. A magistrate was excused serving as headborough in 1718, partly because the headborough's was an inferior office. (fn. 29) Aletasters were active in the late 17th century and continued to present the use of false weights and measures in 1740. (fn. 30) Reeves and drivers were substantial landowners and were still being appointed in 1885. (fn. 31) Kingshold courts appointed a constable, an aletaster, and 2 headboroughs until 1841 or later but no officers by 1845. (fn. 32) Manorial and parochial authority overlapped. The common drivers reported in 1605 to a large meeting of inhabitants, which then passed a resolution on the commons, as did the vestry in 1614 and later. Parishioners claimed to be upholding ancient customs, which were set out by agreement between the lord and the copyholders in 1617. (fn. 33) The vestry instructed the constables and headboroughs about the poor in 1618, before it had its own beadle, (fn. 34) and again in 1701 and, after offering payment, in 1712; it barred manorial officers from serving as beadle in 1781. (fn. 35) In addition to safeguarding the commons, the Lordshold court in its turn gave orders about the stocks and whipping post, which the parish had failed to repair, in 1744. (fn. 36) The steward denied intentional infringement of parochial privileges in 1804, after the vestry's protest at not having been informed of inclosures, and the vestry promised in 1806 to keep better records, after the court's complaint that their inadequacy made it difficult to appoint officers. The vestry disclaimed any connexion with manorial officers when asked to meet parliamentary election expenses in 1833. (fn. 37) PARISH GOVERNMENT TO 1837. Hackney, where parish meetings were recorded from 1581, (fn. 38) had an unusual dual form of government from 1613, when a select vestry was instituted by a faculty from the bishop of London. In most parishes a select vestry tolerated open meetings only to add occasional weight to its own decisions. In Hackney, perhaps because it attracted so many rich merchants, the parish officers 'and other inhabitants' continued to meet every few months and shared power with the 'gentlemen of the vestry', for whom the faculty was reissued in 1679. Both bodies were merged in an open vestry in 1833, (fn. 39) by which time they had surrendered responsibility for the poor and for lighting and watching to trustees under Acts of 1763 and 1810; separate vestries for South and West Hackney had also been created by the subdivision of the rectory in 1831. Hackney vestry's continued influence through the election of parish officers and others as trustees was diminished by the establishment of the poor-law union in 1837. (fn. 40) In 1547 Church House of c. 1520 was said to have been built for meetings on the king's, the church's, or parochial business. Presumably it was so used until taken for the free school c. 1616. (fn. 41) Officers recorded from 1554 were 2 churchwardens and 4 laici or sidesmen, (fn. 42) and 2 surveyors of the highways, 4 surveyors of the poor, and 2 collectors for the poor from 1581. One churchwarden was elected in 1583, the second one presumably being named by the vicar. (fn. 43) A steady source of income which came to form the 'unappropriated funds' was foreshadowed in 1590, when the vicar and 15 others excused Thomas Audley from parish offices in return for money towards repair of the church. (fn. 44) Inhabitants were first listed by district for the collection of church rates in 1605. (fn. 45) The faculty of 1613 was requested by the vicar and others after trouble from 'the meanest sort being greater in number'. It appointed the rector, vicar, assistant curate, churchwardens, and 32 named parishioners, or any 10 of them, to meet as vestrymen at the church. (fn. 46) Vacancies thereafter were filled by co-option. In the 1620s the vestry usually appointed annually 2 churchwardens, 4 sidesmen, 2 surveyors, and 2 collectors; later in the century overseers, rather than collectors, and 2 sidesmen were chosen. At least 4 of the original vestrymen and in 1628 both churchwardens signed with a cross. (fn. 47) There was a parish clerk before 1625, when the vicar's installation of his own nominee led to an action in King's Bench which upheld the traditional right of election claimed for the parish and exercised by the vestry. (fn. 48) In 1711 the parish clerk was also given the office of vestry clerk, apparently a new post whose duties were again defined in 1756. (fn. 49) A sexton was paid an increased salary in 1632 and one was succeeded by his wife as sextoness in 1690; (fn. 50) the office was lucrative enough to be shared in 1744 and entailed the employment of pew openers in 1759. (fn. 51) A beadle was to be appointed in 1657 'for the preventing of multiplying of the poor' and again in 1671; his duties were reviewed in 1694, when all new lodgers were to be reported. (fn. 52) Two beadles were paid in 1732-3 and again, as home and out beadles, with partly differing functions until 1771, in 1753; (fn. 53) there were three beadles by 1810. (fn. 54) Searchers, to examine corpses, were originally appointed by magistrates but from c. 1727 by the vestry until they were discontinued in 1836. (fn. 55) A verger was first appointed in 1799. (fn. 56) Most salaried offices, like those of the early schoolmasters and of lecturers and others connected with the church, (fn. 57) were renewed annually; in 1730 they were those of vestry clerk, beadle, organist, sextoness, clock minder, organ minder, organ bellows blower, churchyard keeper, and midwife. Holders of all the offices save that of organ minder were reappointed in 1760, by which date 6 bearers were also chosen. (fn. 58) Records include a summary minute book for 1581-1613, vestry minutes from 1613, (fn. 59) parishioners' meetings minutes for 1762-1824, (fn. 60) churchwardens' accounts, some with overseers' accounts, from 1732, (fn. 61) poor rate books from 1716, (fn. 62) churchwardens' rate books from 1743 and statute labour books from 1720, with gaps, (fn. 63) and lamp and watch rate books from 1764. (fn. 64) The vestry met at Easter, for appointments and audits, (fn. 65) and also irregularly: 4 times in all in 1620, 9 in 1660, 16 in 1700, 4 in 1740 and 1770, 8 in 1810, and 3 in 1820. Attendances ranged from 7 to 22 in 1660, with an average of nearly 16 which varied little thereafter. In 1712 absentees were to be asked to attend and in 1719 it was agreed that if numbers should fall below 13 a churchwarden and 4 others might prepare proposals for the next vestry; (fn. 66) nine meetings were dissolved between 1729 and 1753 for lack of a quorum. It was planned in 1732 and 1759 to summon one at least every two months and in 1790, without success, to observe fixed dates in June and August. (fn. 67) The chair was normally taken by the vicar or his curate. A suggestion that the vestry should meet at the 'parish house' (Church House) rather than its room at the church was rejected in 1781. (fn. 68) Church House, in use in 1795, was replaced in 1802 by the building later called the old town hall. (fn. 69) Wider parish meetings obtruded, as in 1723 when the vestry insisted on its right to choose a lecturer, although the general public might afterwards voice its opinion. On legal advice, the right was conceded to all who paid poor rates. (fn. 70) Such parishioners were sometimes present in the vestry, as in 1700 when 'others' were noted after the named attenders. (fn. 71) In 1725 a separate book was reserved for general meetings and in 1739 the select vestry forced several outsiders to withdraw. (fn. 72) The vicar and parish officers attended the parish meetings, of which there were 11 in 1763 and 7 in 1770. The parish meetings submitted names to the magistrates for appointment as highway surveyors and were concerned particularly with the poor, although all matters of parish interest were discussed. (fn. 73) Petitioners for an inquiry into the leasing of Lammas lands were accused of treating a session of the select vestry as a public meeting in 1804. A new local Act, to create more vestrymen, was sought in 1813. The vestry claimed that parochial rates and expenditure had always been effectually controlled by parish meetings, when it finally admitted an additional 49 inhabitants in 1833. (fn. 74) The merger resulted from legal opinions that the bishop's faculty, a copy of which had been withheld by the clerk, was an unsafe foundation for a select vestry. (fn. 75) In 1581 the collectors for the poor raised money to bring up a fatherless child and in 1598 they made 37 payments, including one to the 'poor house'. (fn. 76) Pensioners were to attend church twice a week in 1620 and were to number not more than 15 in 1628, when a separate book for poor rates was to be bought. (fn. 77) Some pensions were paid for looking after the young or the sick. (fn. 78) The poor's stock was separated in 1628 from the church stock and consisted of the income from parish lands which had been acquired through charitable gifts and which were leased out by the vestry; money in the church box was added. (fn. 79) When the magistrates decided that Hackney could afford to contribute to relief in Stepney in 1676, the vestry claimed that it was already burdened with extraordinary poor. In 1708 bread was distributed to up to 74 people, 'as was usual in this parish', whether or not the amount was covered by gifts. (fn. 80) In 1710 badging was to be strictly enforced on all paupers except Henry Rowe. (fn. 81) Responsibility by 1741 had devolved upon a workhouse committee, which fixed the poor rate and was answerable to the parish meetings rather than the vestry. (fn. 82) An Act of 1763 committed the poor to a board of trustees, being the vicar, parish officers, and anyone eligible for office, including those who had compounded; any five of them could fix the poor rate. (fn. 83) The early meetings of the trustees, rarely numbering more than 12, were held weekly in the vestry room. Separate rates were introduced, for the poor and for lighting and watching, and five collectors were appointed in 1764; an initial sum was raised by the promise of annuities secured on the rates. (fn. 84) An Act of 1810 allowed all householders rated for the poor at £40 a year to act as co-vestrymen, sharing the vestry's responsibility for relief although not in other fields. It also increased the number of trustees, who might be vestrymen or co-vestrymen, from 53 to 72, and provided for them to form 12 committees of six, which would meet weekly in rotation, and to delimit six districts: Clapton, Homerton, Church Street, Mare Street, Kingsland, and Newington. (fn. 85) The enlarged board of trustees in 1811 met 17 times at the parish house, with an average attendance of 28. (fn. 86) It was elected annually after the opening of the vestry in 1833. (fn. 87) Revenue for the poor in 1628 was £14 10s. from charities' lands and £2 10s. from £50 stock. (fn. 88) The poor rate, increasingly important as the payers multiplied, raised £120 in 1669 and £326 in 1710. (fn. 89) In 1720 nearly two thirds of expenditure was on monthly payments to 52 pensioners, some with children, a tenth was on nursing, and the rest on children's clothing. (fn. 90) The cost of maintaining the poor was £1,725 17s. 5d. in 1775-6, (fn. 91) when the rate was 2s. in the £, (fn. 92) and an average of £2,376 8s. 5d. for the three years to Easter 1785. (fn. 93) It was £5,158 in 1803, over £13,000 in 1813 and 1821, and slightly less in 1831; the rise, more uneven than that of the population, produced an expenditure per head of 15s. 8d. in 1813 and less than half of that amount in 1831. (fn. 94) Nearly £14,349 was levied but only £8,849 spent on the poor in 1834-5. (fn. 95) A workhouse where a child was to be sent in 1709 was presumably outside the parish. (fn. 96) In 1732 rented premises were repaired as a workhouse. (fn. 97) A house on the south side of Homerton's high street was leased from the Milborne family in 1741 and in 1761; the parish officers assigned the lease in 1764 to the new trustees for the poor (fn. 98) and in 1769 lent them money to buy the site. (fn. 99) The workhouse management committee met weekly in the 1740s and 1750s, (fn. 100) when the number of inmates ranged from 41 to 74. (fn. 101) At first the committee arranged quarterly contracts for supplies but the poor were farmed by 1755 and in 1764; (fn. 102) direct management was resumed in 1765. (fn. 103) One of the six overseers was to attend on every weekday at the workhouse under the Act of 1810. (fn. 104) Accommodation was for 220 in 1775-6 (fn. 105) and expensive enlargement was carried out in 1810-11 and again in 1813. (fn. 106) Stricter discipline and more profitable work were sought in 1811 but many rules were not kept by 1822. (fn. 107) The parish claimed to manage a model workhouse in 1831, when it held 102 men and 153 women, housed separately, 80 boys, and 60 girls; work was provided there and a few inmates were farmed out. In addition outdoor relief was paid to 398 pensioners and for 35 children to be nursed. (fn. 108) The buildings apparently had no special accommodation for the religious services which were held and the schooling which was recommended in 1815. (fn. 109) LOCAL GOVERNMENT AFTER 1837. Although the body of trustees continued until 1899, (fn. 110) the Poor Law Amendment Act, 1834, vested practical responsibility for the poor from 1837 in Hackney union until the London Government Act, 1929, substituted the L.C.C. in 1930. The union combined the old parishes of Hackney and Stoke Newington; (fn. 111) initially, Hackney contributed seven eighths of the annual cost (fn. 112) and elected 13 guardians (20 by 1872) to Stoke Newington's 5. (fn. 113) Weekly meetings were held at the parish house and later at the town hall and at the workhouse. (fn. 114) The old workhouse was replaced by a building begun in 1838 and finished by 1842, (fn. 115) which the trustees sold to the guardians in 1845, (fn. 116) when further building had to be done. (fn. 117) The premises in 1849 included a range along the high street, in front of women's wards and a small infirmary to the west and men's wards, with a stone yard, to the east; farther south stood a chapel of 1848 seating 500 and schools, behind which the grounds stretched to beyond the new railway line. (fn. 118) The schools were criticized in 1854, when attended by 45 boys and 79 girls, but had improved by 1857, when the numbers had risen by 50. (fn. 119) The union maintained 459 indoor and 2,034 outdoor poor, 42.6 for every 1,000 inhabitants, in 1850; the proportion fell to 28.9 for every 1,000 inhabitants in 1860 but was 55 in 1870. (fn. 120) Although some buildings were adapted and others added for the infirmary, later Hackney hospital, the workhouse continued to receive both the able bodied and the infirm and was certified for 1,090 inmates in 1885. (fn. 121) As Homerton central institution it was certified for 1,404 in 1930, when the guardians derived most of their income from Hackney M.B. as overseers and when they also had nearby branch homes, besides one for children at Ongar (Essex). (fn. 122) From 1833 the trustees and the enlarged vestry (fn. 123) were still seen as unrepresentative by the Hackney Magazine, which publicized their proceedings. (fn. 124) The vestry in 1836 set up a 20-member highways board, soon renewed under a new Act, (fn. 125) and in 1837 accepted the continuance of the trustees' lamp board. (fn. 126) It also protested at the high property qualification for election as guardian and in 1841 opposed the rates sought by the Tower Hamlets commissioners of sewers. (fn. 127) Meetings were normally chaired by the rector or a churchwarden and spent much time over repeated and rising demands to abandon church rates. A new administrative vestry, for the whole parish but with more limited responsibilities, was installed under the Metropolis Local Management Act, 1855. The Act replaced the metropolitan commissioners of sewers, successors to the Tower Hamlets commissioners, with the Hackney district of the Metropolitan Board of Works (M.B.W.); the district, which included Stoke Newington, returned one member to the M.B.W. (fn. 128) The new vestry superseded the three church vestries for all but church purposes. It met, erratically, less than once a month. In addition to the rector and churchwardens, it consisted of 119 vestrymen, of whom one third was elected annually, representing the seven wards of Stamford Hill, Homerton, Dalston, De Beauvoir Town, Hackney, South Hackney, and West Hackney. (fn. 129) It chose the district board and, after some doubts about their continued existence, the trustees of the poor. (fn. 130) Resenting the link with Stoke Newington and the division and vagueness of its own powers, the vestry criticized the bookkeeping of the former highway and lighting boards and unsuccessfully sought to control those parochial charities which had been apportioned to South and West Hackney. (fn. 131) It appointed a fire engine committee, as did the trustees, and a finance committee. (fn. 132) Through a joint committee also representing the trustees and the district board, it was responsible for building a new town hall. (fn. 133) Hackney district board, meeting weekly from 1855 at the town hall, consisted of 51 members for the eight Hackney wards and 5 for Stoke Newington. At first it was often chaired by J. R. Daniel-Tyssen and represented on the M.B.W. by George Offor, an earlier opponent of church rates. The board appointed general purposes and finance committees and superseded the highway and lighting boards. Officers included a clerk, a medical officer of health, a surveyor, and an inspector of nuisances. (fn. 134) From 1856 the trustees of the poor met twice a year to make a parish or poor trust rate, chiefly for the guardians, the Metropolitan Police, and the fire engines, and separate general, lighting, and sewers' rates for the district board of works. Many other meetings dealt with appeals against assessments. The trustees' delays in meeting financial calls forced the guardians to postpone the settling of bills in 1856. (fn. 135) The district board of works was dissolved in 1894. (fn. 136) No longer linked with Stoke Newington except in the poor-law union, Hackney was administered again by the vestry, which maintained the district board's officers and worked, as the board had done, through committees; (fn. 137) it called itself a corporate body and was quick to seek a transfer of powers from the trustees of the poor, since many vestrymen were also trustees. (fn. 138) Both vestry and trustees were superseded by Hackney metropolitan borough council under the London Government Act, 1899, which also introduced a single rate. (fn. 139) Hackney metropolitan borough council was first elected in 1900 and consisted of a mayor, 10 aldermen, and 60 councillors representing 8 wards which remained unchanged until 1936: Stamford Hill, Clapton Park, Homerton, the Downs, Kingsland, Hackney, South Hackney, and West Hackney. (fn. 140) In 1903 the town hall was the meeting place of the council twice monthly; in addition to the town clerk, treasurer, and solicitor, there were departments for the accountant, the engineer and surveyor, public health, electricity, and libraries. (fn. 141) The borough received a grant of arms in 1924. (fn. 142) From 1936 there were 8 aldermen and 48 councillors for 16 wards. Most of the wards were altered and renamed in 1955 but there were still 16 in 1965 when, under the London Government Act, 1963, the metropolitan borough was joined with those of Stoke Newington and Shoreditch to form the London Borough of Hackney. (fn. 143) The new borough had 20 wards in 1971 and 23, of which 15 lay in Hackney, by 1978. (fn. 144) The first town hall, which in 1802 had replaced Church House, (fn. 145) remained in use until 1866. Rooms were then leased to the M.B.W., the guardians, who disputed ownership with the vestry, and several provident societies, and public meetings might still be held there. (fn. 146) A plain two- storeyed block of four bays, the central two slightly projecting, it was given a stone cladding in 1900, with a pediment, balustrades, and more elaborate doorway. Part was occupied from 1899 by the London City & Midland Bank, which remained there as the Midland Bank in 1991. (fn. 147) The second town hall, begun in 1864, was opened in 1866 in the centre of the rectangular space called Hackney Grove. (fn. 148) Designed in the 'French- Italian' style by Hammack & Lambert and faced with Portland stone, it was of two storeys over a basement and consisted of a five-bayed central block, balustraded and with a Doric porch, projecting beyond single-bay wings. (fn. 149) The estimated building costs were greatly exceeded. (fn. 150) Extensive alterations by Gordon, Lowther, & Gunton, opened in 1898, included wider two-storeyed wings producing an ornate frontage of 11 bays. (fn. 151) A third town hall was begun in 1934, finished in 1936, and opened in 1937, replacing houses behind the second one, of which the site thereafter formed a garden. 'Conventional but not showy', the building was designed by Lanchester & Lodge and faced in Portland stone; it was flat-roofed and four-storeyed, with a front of nine bays, the central five slightly projecting. From 1965 it was the municipal centre of Hackney L.B. (fn. 152) The building in 1991 retained its unaltered interiors in the Art Deco style. (fn. 153) Conservatives outnumbered Liberals on the first borough council, elected in 1900. As Municipal Reformers they averted Progressive control in 1906, by allying with Independents (Ratepayers' Association), and took overall control in 1912. (fn. 154) Labour, which in 1900 had unsuccessfully run 9 candidates in Homerton, the most radical ward, narrowly took control in 1919 but lost every seat to an alliance of Municipal Reformers and Progressives in 1922 and 1925. (fn. 155) It regained a majority only in 1934 but kept it thereafter, both on the metropolitan borough council and, except in 1968, on its successor. One Communist was elected in 1945 and two were elected in 1949. (fn. 156) Apart from Springfield, all the wards in the former borough elected Labour members to Hackney L.B. in 1990. (fn. 157) The turnout in municipal elections was close to London's average until the Second World War but lower thereafter. (fn. 158) Two parliamentary seats were allotted to Hackney by the Representation of the People Act, 1867. (fn. 159) Liberals were always returned until the constituencies of North, Central, and South Hackney were created in 1885. (fn. 160) Hackney North returned a Conservative or Unionist until 1945, except in 1906. Hackney Central voted Conservative until 1900, then Liberal until 1923, Conservative again in 1924 and 1931, and Labour in 1929 and 1935. Hackney South generally returned a Liberal, with Conservatives only in 1895, 1900, at a by-election in 1922, and 1931; it was the first to vote Labour, in 1923, as it did again in 1929 and 1935. All M.P.s were elected as Labour from 1945, the boundaries being redrawn to form the two seats of Hackney Central and of Hackney North and Stoke Newington in 1955. Hackney South and Shoreditch formed a third constituency in the 1970s but Hackney Central was divided between the other two Hackney seats in the 1980s. The M.P. for Hackney South, who had joined the Social Democrat party, was defeated in 1983. (fn. 161) Members included Sir Charles Reed (d. 1881), chairman of the London school board, and his successor Henry Fawcett (d. 1884), the 'member for India', and for South Hackney Sir Charles Russell from 1885 until 1894, when he became Lord Russell of Killowen and lord chief justice. (fn. 162) The financier Horatio Bottomley (d. 1933) represented South Hackney from 1906, despite local opposition from his own party, and as an independent from 1918 until his imprisonment in 1922. (fn. 163) Herbert Stanley Morrison (d. 1965), later Lord Morrison of Lambeth, was co-opted as mayor of Hackney in 1919 and began his parliamentary career as M.P. for Hackney South in 1923. (fn. 164) From 1889 Hackney's three parliamentary seats each returned two members to the L.C.C. (fn. 165)

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Masaichi Nagata (JICA’s expert dispatched to the Department of Disaster Prevention, in the Ministry of the Interior and Justice in Venezuela and the Disaster Prevention Bureau, the Capital District of Caracas) Venezuela faces the Caribbean Sea and is located on the opposite side of the globe from Japan, with a 13-hour time difference that limits the amount of information on the country that is conveyed to Japan. Among the Japanese, Venezuela is seen as a prosperous oil producer with rich natural resources as symbolized by Table Mountain. The capital Caracas was filled with high-rise buildings in the 1970s, at which time expressways were also developed. Thereafter, Venezuela experienced several ills including explosive population growth, progressive urbanization, increasing poverty, devastation of mountain slopes, political turmoil and social disruption. Due to such difficulties, sediment-related disasters and flooding are major, immediate problems for the nation’s citizenry. In particular, disasters caused by torrential rainfalls in recent years affected many residents and were responsible for massive damage to roads and other infrastructure, which had a great impact on the entire country. The Japanese government provides assistance concerning disaster prevention techniques at the request of the Venezuelan government. As part of this program, I was dispatched to the Department of Disaster Prevention in the Ministry of the Interior and Justice in Venezuela and the Disaster Prevention Bureau in the Capital District of Caracas in August 2004, and have worked with them ever since. I would like to present here the current status of sediment-related disasters and countermeasures in Venezuela. Venezuela is located at the north end of South America, situated between 0 and 12 degrees North Latitude and between 60 and 73 degrees West Longitude, bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the north, Columbia to the southwest, Brazil to the south and Guiana to the east. The country attained independence from Spain as Gran Columbia (identifying the northern South American countries) in 1811, and became independent from them in 1830. It is officially called the “Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (República Bolivariana de Venezulea)”. The country covers an area of approximately 910,000 k m2, about 2.5 times as large as Japan (including disputed territory bordering Guiana). It has a population of about 23 million, or about 20% the size of Japan’s population. The capital of Caracas has a population of about 3 million, and about 90% of the total population is concentrated in urban areas. The country is very rich in natural resources and has staple industries such as oil and gas. In particular, oil, being key to the country, accounts for about 50% of the state revenue and about 80% of the total exports. However, the production of oil was suspended due to the general strike in 2002, which caused massive confusion in the market due to lack of resources such as food articles and gasoline. Due to oil wealth and a disregard for agricultural policies, enormous numbers of people rapidly left rural areas for cities, which caused an increase in slum areas, a shortage of housing and sanitary accommodations, confusion of social infrastructure and devastation of mountains and forests. In economic terms, industries other than oil are not being developed, forcing the country to import wheat and other foodstuff in spite of Venezuela’s vast arable land. The ratio of poor families in Latin American countries is decreasing, but the population of poor is still ion the increase in Venezuela. As a result of such policy, a huge number of people entered cities, and mainly Caracas, which created a great number of poor, forming large-scale slums (called Rancho) on slopes of urban areas and near rivers where there is a high potential for disaster. These slums are increasing. Three quarters of Caracas’ population is currently dominated by Rancho area residents. These areas receive people from rural areas, and yet have become a hotbed of crime. In addition, many people from Columbia and other neighboring countries have illegally entered Venezuela, so that millions of illegal immigrants live across the country. In ethnic composition, it is said that mixed people of Spanish descent account for about 70% of the total of Venezuelan people, with about 20% caucasian, 10% of African descent and 2% indigenous peoples. Whites of Spanish and Italian descent dominate the upper reaches of many fields such as politics and economy. Many people believe in Catholicism. Parroquia, or parish, i.e. the smallest administrative unit of the Church, was in fact turned into an organizational unit of the federal government. Fig. 1. General overview of Venezuela Fig. 2. Rainfall distribution map for Venezuela Fig. 3. Monthly average temperature and rainfall in Caracas (1964-1990) Venezuela is roughly divided into 5 regions, 1) the Northern Mountain Region, 2) the Maracaibo Lowland, 3) the Orinoco Region, 4) the Guiana Highland and 5) the Caribbean Islands, each with their own characteristic topographical features. The Northern Mountain Region is located in mountainous areas composed of the coastal mountain range running east to west along the coast of the Caribbean Sea (highest peak: Naiguata at 2,765 m) and the Andes’ lateral extension running to the west of Columbia (highest peak: Pico Bolivar at 5,007 m). The major cities, which include the capital of Caracas, Maracaibo, Valencia and Barquisimeto, are concentrated in this region. These cities stretch to the bases of steep mountains, while villages formed on alluvial fans in their suburbs. Many forests in this region were cut to use the mountain slopes for grazing and agriculture. For this reason, the devastation of catchment areas is being developed, which often causes sediment-related disasters. In order to prevent such disasters, the construction of small sabo facilities and tree planting have been implemented. In Caracas, culverts have been installed on small rivers flowing from mountains, which just increases the likelihood of disaster. The Maracaibo Lowland is a low-lying area around the Maracaibo Lake that is the largest lake in South America with an area of about 13,000 km2. This salt lake and its surroundings are one of the largest oil regions in the world. In addition, the area is often inundated for a long periods due to flooding from the upper reaches of the Andes. The Orinoco Region includes low-lying Savanna areas that stand 50-200m above sea level, called the Orinoco delta and Llanos. A sand bed, which was formed by the accumulation of erosion-susceptible soil, extends to the middle and lower reaches of the Orinoco River, and contains ultra-heavy oil called Orinoco Tar. The Guiana Highland is a hilly zone at 1,000-2,000m altitude above sea level, located in south of the Orinoco Region. The zone’s lower layer is a lava bed on which sits a sandstone bed about 2,000m thick. After the gradual erosion of the upper sandstone bed, hilly highlands called Table Mountains can be seen. Also located in this zone is Angel Fall (a drop of 979m), which boasts of the greatest head drop in the world. The Caribbean Sea is interspersed with about 70 islands such as the Margarita Islands and Los Roques Islands. Venezuela geographically belongs to the tropics, but is divided into 5 regions, which feature the climates of 1) Tropical Savanna, 2) Tropical Rainforest, 3) Dry Tropics, 4) Tropical Highland and 5) Cold, depending on sea level altitude, trade wind and topography. Most of the territory belongs to the tropical savanna climate that is divided into rainy (May to November) and dry (December to April) seasons, and has a temperature of 20 degrees Celsius or more throughout the year. The annual average rainfall in Caracas reaches 916mm, and 85% of the precipitation is brought in by the rainy season. The difference between the minimum (20.2 degrees Celsius in January) and maximum (22.7 degrees Celsius in September) of the monthly average temperature is only 2.5 degrees Celsius (Fig. 3). The tropical rainforest climate zone includes the lower reaches of the Orinoco River, the southern Amazon region, the southwest region of the Maracaibo Lake and so on, while the hot-arid zone covers coastal areas facing the Caribbean Sea. The tropical highland climate zone includes the Guiana Highlands at 1,000-3,000m of altitude above sea level and the Andes, and is characterized by warm and humid climates. The cold climate zone covers a region of the Andes at 3,000m or more altitude above sea level. The areas 4,700m or more of altitude above sea level are enshrouded in eternal snows. Looking at rainfall distribution, the northwestern area facing the Caribbean Sea is an arid zone with 600mm or less of annual rainfall. The rainfall increases as we go further southward to the inland. In the Amazon area boarding Brazil, the annual rainfall exceeds 2,400mm (Fig. 2). During the rainy season, Venezuela is assaulted by heavy downpours of relatively short duration (about 1 to 3 hours). In addition, it seldom rains all day, while raining almost locally. It was reported that a project for measures against sediment-related disasters was launched during 1940s. At the beginning of the project, the USA’s mission related to soil conservation was said to survey actual slope erosion in the Los Andes region and recommend measures against the erosion. Thereafter, the Soil and Water Conservation Department was created within the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock during the 1950s and it implemented a project for restoration of forests mainly in the Los Andes. Sabo works were conducted on a large scale after channels were constructed at the basin of the Chama River in Merida Province under the technical guidance of Australia during the 1970s. In 1977, the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources was established as a government organization that administers environment, water resource development, rivers and their basins. Sobo works are governed by the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. The ministry takes charge of erosion control works, soil conservation works and so on, in addition to sabo works, and is able to promote comprehensive sediment control for a whole basin. However, rapid progress has not been made in constructing facilities for these works due to the limitation of budgets and other resources. These facilities are often established by road administrators, electric utilities, waterworks administrators and other organizations. Only small-scale sabo dams were constructed (Picture 1). For reference, the reconstruction work for the 1999 Vargas Disaster was implemented by the Vargas Reconstruction Agency (Picture 2). Now, the government is establishing VENEHMET, a new organization that controls meteorological information for the whole country as a special department of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, and is also planning to upgrade and expand non-structural efforts such as through the establishment of information systems for disasters. Picture 1 Normal sabo dam (Branch of Guaire River) Picture 2 Concrete slit dam In December 1999, a cold front caused a heavy downpour in Vargas Province along the Caribbean Sea. According to the observations of the Miquetia International Airport, a rainfall of 920mm was recorded for three days from the 14th to the 16th, a cumulative rainfall of 1,240mm in December (annual average rainfall of 540mm). The heavy rainfall evoked debris and sediment flows, slope failures and inundation and destructed numerous houses, bridges and other structures. It was estimated that about 30,000 to 50,000 people were missing and dead in this catastrophic disaster. Individual study teams from Japan and other countries shared surveys on the reality of disasters in different areas. In the San Julian River (a catchment area of 21.92 km2) covered by the Japanese study team, an amount of soil collapsed of mountain slope and that of sediment in its alluvial fan were estimated to reach 767,000 m3 and 1,627,000 m3, respectively. The amount of sediment in the alluvial fan greatly damaged from 13 torrents reached 7,200,000 m3. The outflow of a vast amount of sediment pushed coastline forward 50-100m in many torrents (Picture 3.4). Vargas Province experienced the same disasters also in July 1948 and in February 1951. The 1951 Disaster caused about 1500 victims. The area of Vargas was developed as a coastal resort for the rich in recent years, and was promoted to the status of province in 1998. Most of the victims were the poor, such as workers for the facilities. Most of their houses were located in zones with high potential for disaster. The rapid expansion of resort development and the insufficiency of disaster prevention required by the development caused great damage to the province. Currently, the Vargas Reconstruction Agency is leading reconstruction works. In order to establish sabo facilities, the agency is focusing on the construction of gabion check dams, in consideration of the government’s budget and employment promotion (Pictures 5 and 6). The work progress is not fast, so it is difficult to say that the recommendations are fully used. This zone, as mentioned later, suffered a great disaster also in February 2005. Picture 3. Situation immediately after the disaster in the alluvial fan of the San Julian River Picture 4. Damaged buildings and deposited sediment (immediately after the disaster) Picture 5. Gabion check dam Picture 6. Construction of gabion check dam A powerful cold front that had developed in the Caribbean Sea caused a heavy rain with a total rainfall of up to 300mm on the seacoast on which the population and economic activities of the country are focused, and in a wide range of the Andes area in the west, for about a week from February 6, 2005. Cumulative rainfall during the five days from the 6th to the 10th reached 304mm at the Miquetia International Airport in Vargas Province. This heavy rain during a dry season caused wide-ranging damage to great areas of 10 provinces and the capital district, 122 deaths and missing persons, affected about 220,000 people, and damaged about 40,000 houses (data from the Ministry of Interior and Justice). In addition, it disconnected or washed away roads and broke dykes in various regions. Debris flows occurred at many torrents in Vargas Province, discharging a large amount of sediment to the coast and causing damage to about 40,000 people. In this disaster there were few collapsed mountain slopes, but sediment that had accumulated in high volume in the riverbeds due to rainfalls in 1999 and earlier seemed to be released. In particular, an alluvial fan in the lower reach of the Camuri Grande River, being located in the east of the province, received a large amount of sediment. The former river channel was blocked with the sediment, which accumulated 1-2m thick mainly on the right bank, damaging many homes. Most of the affected areas in the basin of this river experienced damage from the 1999 disaster in the same manner. In the wake of the previous great disaster, a plan for sabo works was developed, but the execution of the works was not quite finished. In the future, it is necessary to establish sabo facilities earlier in this river (Picture 7 and 8). Picture 7. Bridge filled with sediment Picture 8. Damaged house and accumulated sediment The San Jose de Galopan River, being located in the center of the province, caused the outflow of a large amount of sediment during the 1999 disaster, but sabo dams and channel works were constructed after that. Consequently, the river experienced few disasters under this heavy rain. A sabo dam at the lowest reach of the river had extra room available last October, but was filled with sand after this disaster (estimated capture of about 11,000 m3). This is a good case in which a sabo facility was seen to have had a visible effect (Picture 9). Among sabo dams constructed, it was seen that a sabo dam could not exert its capabilities due to the insufficient intrusion of its arm. For instance, small check dams that are placed along main roads of Camuri Chico discharged a large amount of sediment without capturing the sediment because its arms were both eroded. In this case, insufficient consideration seems to be given to the state of base ground and natural ground of the arms in constructing the check dams. The same erosion of sabo facilities could be confirmed at other places (Picture 10). Picture 9. San Jose de Galopan River Picture 10. Small check dam with arm eroded (Camuri Chico) Most disasters in the capital district of Caracas occurred in the large-scale Rancho slums, causing 4 deaths and missing persons and affecting 15,000 people. Cumulative rainfall in the built-up area of Caracas for the 4 days from February 7th to the 10th reached 172mm (observation by the Air Force). For this reason, the overflow of the river in the center of the area discharged sediment to an express highway and closed it. This greatly affected the urban functions of the capital. As a result of this, public schools and other facilities were closed for a week. In the zone of 19 de Abril, a large-scale landslide occurred on February 10th and almost collapsed 230 houses. The affected area was equivalent to about 10,000 m2. Here, the same disaster had occurred 20 years ago, but measures against landslides were not taken after that (Picture 11). In the zone of Antimano, a large-scale Rancho is formed on the old site of a stone pit. This heavy rainfall caused some failures and damaged 188 houses. In addition, the zone has large-scale landslide activities in the whole zone and more disasters than before (Picture 12). Most of the areas affected by this disaster have many points at which a small-scale failure and a landslide occurred more frequently than before. Numerous small failures occurred around the affected areas, so there is a significant risk that future rainfalls will expand a range of the devastated zone. Most of the affected areas belong to Rancho. In order to prevent these disasters, the establishment of a disaster forecasting and warning system for prompt evacuation is being considered. Picture 11 Zone of 19 de Abril Picture 12 Zone of Antimano In addition, many failures occurred even on the slope of an express highway, resulting in the closure of the highway. Sediment on the road was immediately removed, but each rainfall expanded the collapse of the slope, which activates landslide activities. Currently, steel pipe piles are being placed as control works for preventive measures against landslides, while a plan for the replacement of a bridge section in the road is being reviewed (Picture 13 and 14). Picture 13 Collapse of a downstream slope of the highway Picture 14 Eroded subgrade of the highway In the Andes Region, numerous hillside collapses occurred, so a debris flow fell through a village in the alluvial fan and caused great damage to the village. In addition, the Maracaibo Lowland, downstream from the region, experienced a long-term inundation. These three provinces had a total of 99 deaths and missing persons and about 130,000 victims. In Sta.Cruz de Mora of Merida Province, a debris flow fell through a village and caught buses at a bus terminal (Picture 15). Furthermore, numerous collapses occurred upstream from the Onia Dam near El Viga, so a large amount of sediment and wood flowed into the dam (Picture 16). Picture 15. Zone of Sta.Cruz de Mora Picture 16. A large amount of sediment that flowed into the Onia Dam In the upper reaches of the Escalante River running through both of Tachira and Zulia Provinces, on which many collapsed areas were concentrated, a large amount of sediment and woody debris moved downstream as a debris flow (Picture 17). In addition, in La Fia of Tachira Province, a large-scale collapse occurred, so a debris flow caused damage to this town (Picture 18). The Andes Region experienced many collapses on farmland and mountain ranches. The disaster expanded because sufficient drainage and erosion prevention measures had not been taken on sloped agricultural land. Picture 17. Collapse in the upper reaches of the Escalante River. Picture 18. Collapse in La Fia In Venezuela, post-disaster prevention measures are taken, but few preventive measures against disasters are taken. Sabo dams have been constructed, but small-scale sabo dams with a width of a few meters were mainly constructed and there was a small number of construction works. In terms of dam types, masonry and steel frame dams are often constructed, but a concrete dam is not often established due to the high price of concrete. The disaster-affected points in Caracas are focused on the environs of Rancho, where houses are heavily built on steep slopes and closely also along a torrent. Under Caracas’ municipal by-law, dwelling construction on steep slope is regulated, but houses in Rancho are illegally occupied, which cannot be effectively regulated. In addition, few drainage channels for dense houses are established, so miscellaneous wastewater from the houses erodes the slope and promotes failures and collapses. Even when a slope failure occurred closed to houses, special measures against the collapse were not taken. For this reason, the collapse is expanded every time it rains. Measures in consideration of previous landslide disasters and other disaster records and previous land use (dumpsite, quarry, etc.) were not fully taken, which increases the number of damaged points. The administrative organization conducts reconstruction efforts for disaster-affected points, but cannot afford to take disaster prevention measures such as sabo dams and landslide control and restraint. However, the organization offers a system for helping affected people in which they can move into public housing with a total collapse certificate issued by the Disaster Prevention Department when their houses are completely damaged. Affected points are sometimes specified by the administrative organization, as dwelling construction is regulated after disasters. After a few years, however, new houses are built, so the same disaster is repeated. The outskirts of the city experienced many slope failures resulting from mountain ranches and farmland, roads and other places, but insufficient drainage and erosion prevention measures are taken when using agricultural land on slope and constructing roads. Only a few forest improvement and erosion protection works for mountain farmland were implemented. The Vargas Province executed reconstruction works for the 1999 disaster, and is recently constructing more sabo facilities than other districts. After the 1999 disaster, sabo plans for many torrents were formulated with the help of various countries, but these plans for the construction of sabo facilities were not put into practice earlier. In addition, it is seen that a construction work was different from that proposed in the plan. The previous disaster was a giant stone-containing debris flow disaster. For this reason, a concrete sabo dam that is resistant to the impact force of a debris flow was predominately planned. A gabion dam, however, is often built in order to reduce construction costs and promote local employment. Unfortunately, it seems that construction works are not fully conducted in accordance with each base ground and natural ground, which causes erosion of dam arms. Currently, the central government holds the meeting of committees and their pertinent organizations, strengthens the national and local governments’ organizations and enhance measures against disasters, in order to promote disaster prevention works. In addition, the government is considering the establishment of a disaster prevention information system including the creation of a national disaster prevention center, referring to a Japanese information system for disaster prevention. In order to formulate regional disaster prevention plans, the Capital District of Caracas has been conducting the “Survey on Basic Disaster Prevention Planning in the Metropolitan Area of Caracas” (JICA’s Development Study) since 2002, preparing hazard maps, installing telemeter rain gauges and water gauges, providing disaster prevention education to local residents and so on (Fig. 4 and Picture 19). The central government now focuses on non-structural measures against sediment-related disasters, considering social and financial situations and other factors in Venezuela. Technical cooperation from Japan will become more important when establishing future non-structural measures and structural measures. Fig 4 Hazard map in the center of Caracas Picture 19 Telemeter using cellular phones Copyright © 2004 International Sabo Association. All rights reserved

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PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases ISSN / EISSN : 19352735 / 19352735 Current Publisher: Public Library of Science (PLoS) (10.1371) Total articles ≅ 7,469 Google Scholar h5-index: 78 Latest articles in this journal PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Volume 13; doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007907 Abstract:In Cambodia dengue vector control activities are focused on larviciding with temephos and pyrethroid based adulticide sprays to which Aedes have been shown to be increasingly resistant. A cluster randomized trial assessed the impact of using biological control tools (guppy fish, pyriproxyfen (PPF), and Communication for Behavioral Impact (COMBI) activities in combination), which would be used in a value comparison to traditional chemical control tools. Given these new intervention methods, a qualitative assessment was designed in order to represent the quality of understanding, acceptance, and implementation by participants. A total of 103 participants in 12 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and nine In-Depth Interviews (IDIs) were included in the study. The majority of participants in intervention villages (50 out of 80) preferred guppy fish over other vector control methods due to ease of use and rearing, quick reproduction and propensity to eat larvae. A substantial number of participants (11 out of 40) in intervention villages with PPF favored it due to long-lasting effectiveness, lack of smell and easy maintenance. Participants showed high demand for both interventions and were willing to pay between 100–500 riel (0.03–0.13 USD). Nearly all participants perceived that the interventions resulted in a reduction in Aedes mosquitos (both adults and immatures) and dengue cases. The presence of larvae in the water despite the use of PPF was a source of concern for some participants, although this was overcome in some cases with proper health education through health volunteers. Interpersonal communication through health volunteers was the most favorite method of transmitting prevention messages. The community led COMBI strategy resulted in high acceptance and perceived effectiveness of the interventions in target villages. Health volunteers are an effective and accepted channel of communication to engage communities, disseminate information and promote behavioral change at the household and community level. If shown effective through corresponding entomological surveys, the interventions should be continued and further strengthened to ensure they are accessible, available and affordable. Dengue is one of the most rapidly spreading mosquito-borne viral diseases in the world and is caused by bites of infected Aedes mosquitoes. Dengue infection is a systemic and dynamic disease with a wide clinical spectrum that includes both severe and non-severe manifestations. In some cases dengue can lead to death. Cambodia has one of the highest per-capita incidence rates. Without a cure or routinely available vaccine, dengue control relies largely on reduction and avoidance mosquitoes. In Cambodia dengue mosquito control activities are focused on larviciding with temephos and pyrethroid based adulticide sprays to which Aedes have been shown to be increasingly resistant. The current qualitative study was designed to better understand the community... PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Volume 13; doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007842 Abstract:Reduced susceptibility of mosquito vectors to currently used insecticides hampers control interventions. Recently pyriproxyfen, an insect growth regulator has been demonstrated to effectively reduce the reproductive potential in vector mosquitoes. Pyriproxyfen (PPF), in different concentrations (0.75%, 0.075%, 0.0075%, and 0.00075%) was applied on papers and Indian wild type Aedes aegypti female mosquitoes (N ≥ 20 for each treatment) were exposed onto it as per WHO guidelines, to study the reproductive disruption. PPF concentration on treated papers was quantitatively cross-determined using HPLC method. Reduction in fecundity, fertility and adult emergence in exposed female Ae. aegypti was determined. Abnormal development in ovary and eggs of exposed females was studied microscopically after different time intervals. Eggs laid, eggs hatched, pupae formed and adults emerged per female exposed in both before blood meal and after blood meal groups declined significantly from lowest to highest concentration of PPF (F ≥ 5.2; p < 0.02). Adult emergence inhibition in females exposed to PPF before and after blood meal groups ranged from 58.8% [OR = 0.18 (95% CI = 0.09–0.36)] to 79.2% [OR = 0.04 (95% CI = 0.02–0.10)] and 64.4% [OR = 0.12 (95% CI = 0.05–0.28)] to 77.2% [OR = 0.05 (95% CI = 0.02–0.14)] respectively in different concentrations. The probit model used suggested that FI50 (50% fertility inhibition) and EI50 (50% emergence inhibition) were 0.002% (p = 0.8) and 0.0001% (p = 0.99) for females exposed before blood meal, while 0.01% (p = 0.6) and <0.0001% (p = 0.98) for the females exposed after blood meal, respectively. The eggs laid by the females exposed to PPF-treated surface showed altered body organization, desegmentation and disoriented abdominal and cervical regions in the developing embryo. Quantification of PPF on impregnated papers showed that it was uniformly distributed throughout the matrix. The present study has shown that tarsal contact to PPF-treated surface for a small time drastically influenced the fecundity, fertility and adult emergence in Indian wild Ae. aegypti mosquitoes. Results suggest that a certain minimum concentration of PPF through contact exposure can reduce the abundance of vector mosquitoes to a considerable level. The formulations based on combination of PPF and other compatible insecticides may be an impactful approach where susceptible mosquitoes are killed by the insecticide component while resistant mosquitoes are sterilised by PPF. Development of resistance against insecticides has challenged mosquito control programmes globally and prompted the research of alternative options that can complement insecticides. An insect growth regulator, pyriproxyfen (PPF) usage against mosquitoes can effectively reduce the vector population. PPF mainly inhibits the metamorphosis of mosquito larvae into pupae and prevent the adult emergence, therefore it is generally applied in mosquito breeding habitats. PPF... PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Volume 13; doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007816 Abstract:Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is caused by parasitic protozoa of the genus Leishmania and is characterized by clinical manifestations such as fever, hepatosplenomegaly and anemia. Hemophagocytosis, the phenomenon of phagocytosis of blood cells by macrophages, is found in VL patients. In a previous study we established an experimental model of VL, reproducing anemia in mice for the first time, and identified hemophagocytosis by heavily infected macrophages in the spleen as a possible cause of anemia. However, the mechanism for parasite-induced hemophagocytosis or its role in parasite survival remained unclear. Here, we established an in vitro model of Leishmania-induced hemophagocytosis to explore the molecules involved in this process. In contrast to naïve RAW264.7 cells (mouse macrophage cell line) which did not uptake freshly isolated erythrocytes, RAW264.7 cells infected with L. donovani showed enhanced phagocytosis of erythrocytes. Additionally, for hemophagocytes found both in vitro and in vivo, the expression of signal regulatory protein α (SIRPα), one of the receptors responsible for the ‘don’t-eat-me’ signal was suppressed by post-transcriptional control. Furthermore, the overlapped phagocytosis of erythrocytes and Leishmania parasites within a given macrophage appeared to be beneficial to the parasites; the in vitro experiments showed a higher number of parasites within macrophages that had been induced to engulf erythrocytes. Together, these results suggest that Leishmania parasites may actively induce hemophagocytosis by manipulating the expression of SIRPα in macrophages/hemophagocytes, in order to secure their parasitism. Parasites can manipulate host immune responses to build favorable environment to them. Because this parasite-driven immune modulation is often linked to symptoms in infected individuals, not only parasiticidal compounds but also immunological interventions limiting such the parasites’ abilities will serve as treatment options. In this study, we studied the mechanism and its role of hemophagocytosis (the phenomenon whereby macrophages engulf erythrocytes) caused by Leishmania donovani, a causative agent of VL. In vitro experiments revealed parasites have ability to directly disrupt macrophage’s recognition of self-cells, and that the induced engulfment of erythrocytes by L. donovani infection is beneficial to the parasites for their intracellular survival. These results suggest that Leishmania parasites actively induce hemophagocytosis by manipulating the ‘don’t-eat-me’ signal in macrophages for their survival. Although it is still to be determined how Leishmania parasites change the ‘don’t-eat-me’ signal in macrophages, our study may facilitate development of an immunotherapy which limits the change and lead to improvement of anemia due to hemophagocytosis as well as control of parasite survival. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Volume 13; doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007464 Abstract:Tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) house a taxonomically diverse microbiota that includes environmentally acquired bacteria, maternally transmitted symbiotic bacteria, and pathogenic African trypanosomes. Sodalis glossinidius, which is a facultative symbiont that resides intra and extracellularly within multiple tsetse tissues, has been implicated as a mediator of trypanosome infection establishment in the fly’s gut. Tsetse’s gut-associated population of Sodalis are subjected to marked temperature fluctuations each time their ectothermic fly host imbibes vertebrate blood. The molecular mechanisms that Sodalis employs to deal with this heat stress are unknown. In this study, we examined the thermal tolerance and heat shock response of Sodalis. When grown on BHI agar plates, the bacterium exhibited the most prolific growth at 25oC, and did not grow at temperatures above 30oC. Growth on BHI agar plates at 31°C was dependent on either the addition of blood to the agar or reduction in oxygen levels. Sodalis was viable in liquid cultures for 24 hours at 30oC, but began to die upon further exposure. The rate of death increased with increased temperature. Similarly, Sodalis was able to survive for 48 hours within tsetse flies housed at 30oC, while a higher temperature (37oC) was lethal. Sodalis’ genome contains homologues of the heat shock chaperone protein-encoding genes dnaK, dnaJ, and grpE, and their expression was up-regulated in thermally stressed Sodalis, both in vitro and in vivo within tsetse fly midguts. Arrested growth of E. coli dnaK, dnaJ, or grpE mutants under thermal stress was reversed when the cells were transformed with a low copy plasmid that encoded the Sodalis homologues of these genes. The information contained in this study provides insight into how arthropod vector enteric commensals, many of which mediate their host’s ability to transmit pathogens, mitigate heat shock associated with the ingestion of a blood meal. Microorganisms associated with insects must cope with fluctuating temperatures. Because symbiotic bacteria influence the biology of their host, how they respond to temperature changes will have an impact on the host and other microorganisms in the host. The tsetse fly and its symbionts represent an important model system for studying thermal tolerance because the fly feeds exclusively on vertebrate blood and is thus exposed to dramatic temperature shifts. Tsetse flies house a microbial community that can consist of symbiotic and environmentally acquired bacteria, viruses, and parasitic African trypanosomes. This work, which makes use of tsetse’s commensal endosymbiont, Sodalis glossinidius, is significance because it represents the only examination of thermal tolerance mechanisms in a bacterium that resides indigenously within an arthropod disease vector. A better understanding of the biology of thermal tolerance in Sodalis provides insight into thermal stress survival in other insect symbionts and may... PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Volume 13; doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007894 Abstract:Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral infection that has spread globally in recent years. Around half of the world’s population, especially in the tropics and subtropics, is at risk of infection. Every year, 50–100 million clinical cases are reported, and more than 500,000 patients develop the symptoms of severe dengue infection: dengue haemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome, which threaten life in Asia and Latin America. No antiviral drug for dengue is available. The dengue virus (DENV) non-structural protein 5 (NS5), which possesses the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) activity and is responsible for viral replication and transcription, is an attractive target for anti-dengue drug development. In the present study, 16,240 small-molecule compounds in a fragment library were screened for their capabilities to inhibit the DENV type 2 (DENV2) RdRp activities in vitro. Based on in cellulo antiviral and cytotoxity assays, we selected the compound RK-0404678 with the EC50 value of 6.0 μM for DENV2. Crystallographic analyses revealed two unique binding sites for RK-0404678 within the RdRp, which are conserved in flavivirus NS5 proteins. No resistant viruses emerged after nine rounds of serial passage of DENV2 in the presence of RK-0404678, suggesting the high genetic barrier of this compound to the emergence of a resistant virus. Collectively, RK-0404678 and its binding sites provide a new framework for antiviral drug development. Dengue is a mosquito-borne infection caused by dengue viruses (DENV), and is currently a major public health concern worldwide. No antiviral drug for dengue is available. To develop a potent inhibitor of the DENV NS5 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), we performed a high-throughput screening of a fragment library. We identified RK-0404678 as a potent inhibitor of the DENV RdRp. Interestingly, we found that RK-0404678 binds to two distinct sites in the DENV RdRp domains. Site 1 lies in the thumb domain, which is distant from the active site, and Site 2 is located in the active site of the RdRp domain. RK-0404678 binding to Site 2 induces a conformational change around the Tyr607 residue. These are unique features among the known RdRp inhibitors. In addition, our adaptation experiment demonstrated that this compound imposed a high genetic barrier to the emergence of an RK-0404678-resistant virus. These characteristics of RK-0404678 suggest that this inhibitor is a promising lead compound for the development of anti-dengue therapeutics. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Volume 13; doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007818 Abstract:In insects, the voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC) is the primary target site of pyrethroid insecticides. Various amino acid substitutions in the VGSC protein, which are selected under insecticide pressure, are known to confer insecticide resistance. In the genome, the VGSC gene consists of more than 30 exons sparsely distributed across a large genomic region, which often exceeds 100 kbp. Due to this complex genomic structure, it is often challenging to genotype full coding nucleotide sequences (CDSs) of VGSC from individual genomic DNA (gDNA). In this study, we designed biotinylated oligonucleotide probes from CDSs of VGSC of Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus. The probe set effectively concentrated (>80,000-fold) all targeted regions of gene VGSC from pooled barcoded Illumina libraries each constructed from individual A. albopictus gDNAs. The probe set also captured all orthologous VGSC CDSs, except some tiny exons, from the gDNA of other Culicinae mosquitos, A. aegypti and Culex pipiens complex, with comparable efficiency as a result of the high nucleotide-level conservation of VGSC. To improve efficiency of the downstream bioinformatic process, we developed an automated pipeline—MoNaS (Mosquito Na+ channel mutation Search)—which calls amino acid substitutions in the VGSC from NGS reads and compares those to known resistance mutations. The proposed method and our bioinformatic tool should facilitate the discovery of novel amino acid variants conferring insecticide resistance on VGSC and population genetic studies on resistance alleles (with respect to the origin, selection, and migration etc.) in both clinically and agriculturally important insect pests. The Voltage Gated Sodium Channel (VGSC) in insect is targeted by pyrethroid insecticides and genetic variations in the protein are known to confer pyrethroid resistance. Since the VGSC gene in genome consists of many exons and long introns, there is no simple method to genotype whole of coding regions from the genomic DNA of insect. Here, we designed hybridization capture probe set to concentrate VGSC coding exons in NGS library from individual genomic DNA of the arbovirus vector mosquito Aedes albopictus. The probe set we designed was able to capture VGSC exons not only from A. albopictus genomic DNA but also from genomic DNA of two other mosquito species belonging to the same subfamily only with slight decrease of efficiency. The technology will allow unbiased analysis of the VGSC gene in multiple mosquito species with relatively low sequencing cost and enhance discovery of new resistance mutations. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Volume 13; doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007812 Abstract:Genetic diversity analyses were performed by sero-genotyping and multi-locus sequence typing on 252 cryptococcal isolates from 13 HIV-positive Ivorian patients followed-up for cryptococcal meningitis. Antifungal susceptibility analyses were performed according to the CLSI M27A3 method. The majority (67.8%) of the isolates belonged to the Cryptococcus neoformans (serotype A) species complex, with 91.9% being VNI and 7.1% being VNII. Cryptococcus deuterogattii VGII (serotype B) represented 16.7% of the strains, while C. neoformans/C. deneoformans VNIII (serotype AD) hybrids accounted for 15.1% of the strains. One strain (0.4%) was not identifiable. Nine different sequence types (STs 5, 6, 23, 40, 93, 207, 311, and a new ST; 555) were identified in the C. neoformans population, while the C. deuterogattii population comprised the single ST 173. The distribution of the strains showed that, while the majority of patients (9/13) harboured a single sequence type, 4 patients showed mixed infections. These patients experienced up to 4 shifts in strain content either at the species and/or ST level during their follow-up. This evolution of diversity over time led to the co-existence of up to 3 different Cryptococcus species and 4 different ST within the same individual during the course of infection. Susceptibility testing showed that all strains were susceptible to amphotericin B while 3.6% of them had a none-wild type phenotype to 5-flucytosine. Concerning fluconazole, 2.9% of C.neoformans serotype A strains and 2.4% of C. deuterogattii had also respectively a none-wild type phenotype to this molecule. All C. neoformans x C. deneoformans serotype AD hybrids had however a wild type phenotype to fluconazole. The present study showed that mixed infections exist and could be of particular importance for care outcomes. Indeed, (i) the different Cryptococcus species are known to exhibit different virulence and different susceptibility patterns to antifungal drugs and (ii) the strains genetic diversity within the samples may influence the susceptibility to antifungal treatment. Cryptococcal meningitis is a neglected fungal disease responsible for 181 000 deaths worldwide in 2014, with 75% of deaths occurring in sub-Saharan Africa. Cryptococcal meningitis is caused by environmental yeasts belonging to the Cryptococcus neoformans/Cryptococcus gattii species complexes. The evolution of the diversity of the yeast populations within the patients and during the course of treatment is poorly understood. Indeed, it was believed for a long time that infections were of a single strain type. It was only recently that the complexity of the yeast diversity during infection began to be assessed. Here, the researchers evaluated the diversity of the Cryptococcus population within Ivoirian patients. The purpose was to generate data about the overall diversity of such yeast in Western Africa where the data are scarce and to better understand the evolution of the pathogen... PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Volume 13; doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007868 Abstract:With the rise in fluoroquinolone-resistant Salmonella Typhi and the recent emergence of ceftriaxone resistance, azithromycin is one of the last oral drugs available against typhoid for which resistance is uncommon. Its increasing use, specifically in light of the ongoing outbreak of extensively drug-resistant (XDR) Salmonella Typhi (resistant to chloramphenicol, ampicillin, cotrimoxazole, streptomycin, fluoroquinolones and third-generation cephalosporins) in Pakistan, places selective pressure for the emergence and spread of azithromycin-resistant isolates. However, little is known about azithromycin resistance in Salmonella, and no molecular data are available on its mechanism. We conducted typhoid surveillance in the two largest pediatric hospitals of Bangladesh from 2009–2016. All typhoidal Salmonella strains were screened for azithromycin resistance using disc diffusion and resistance was confirmed using E-tests. In total, we identified 1,082 Salmonella Typhi and Paratyphi A strains; among these, 13 strains (12 Typhi, 1 Paratyphi A) were azithromycin-resistant (MIC range: 32–64 μg/ml) with the first case observed in 2013. We sequenced the resistant strains, but no molecular basis of macrolide resistance was identified by the currently available antimicrobial resistance prediction tools. A whole genome SNP tree, made using RAxML, showed that the 12 Typhi resistant strains clustered together within the 220.127.116.11 sub-clade (H58 lineage 1). We found a non-synonymous single-point mutation exclusively in these 12 strains in the gene encoding AcrB, an efflux pump that removes small molecules from bacterial cells. The mutation changed the conserved amino acid arginine (R) at position 717 to a glutamine (Q). To test the role of R717Q present in azithromycin-resistant strains, we cloned acrB from azithromycin-resistant and sensitive strains, expressed them in E. coli, Typhi and Paratyphi A strains and tested their azithromycin susceptibility. Expression of AcrB-R717Q in E. coli and Typhi strains increased the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for azithromycin by 11- and 3-fold respectively. The azithromycin-resistant Paratyphi A strain also contained a mutation at R717 (R717L), whose introduction in E. coli and Paratyphi A strains increased MIC by 7- and 3-fold respectively, confirming the role of R717 mutations in conferring azithromycin resistance. This report confirms 12 azithromycin-resistant Salmonella Typhi strains and one Paratyphi A strain. The molecular basis of this resistance is one mutation in the AcrB protein at position 717. This is the first report demonstrating the impact of this non-synonymous mutation in conferring macrolide resistance in a clinical setting. With increasing azithromycin use, strains with R717 mutations may spread and be acquired by XDR strains. An azithromycin-resistant XDR strain would shift enteric fever treatment from outpatient departments, where patients are currently treated with oral azithromycin,... PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Volume 13; doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007792 Abstract:Acute febrile illness (AFI), a common reason for people seeking medical care globally, represents a spectrum of infectious disease etiologies with important variations geographically and by population. There is no standardized approach to conducting AFI etiologic investigations, limiting interpretation of data in a global context. We conducted a scoping review to characterize current AFI research methodologies, identify global research gaps, and provide methodological research standardization recommendations. Using pre-defined terms, we searched Medline, Embase, and Global Health, for publications from January 1, 2005–December 31, 2017. Publications cited in previously published systematic reviews and an online study repository of non-malarial febrile illness etiologies were also included. We screened abstracts for publications reporting on human infectious disease, aimed at determining AFI etiology using laboratory diagnostics. One-hundred ninety publications underwent full-text review, using a standardized tool to collect data on study characteristics, methodology, and laboratory diagnostics. AFI case definitions between publications varied: use of self-reported fever as part of case definitions (28%, 53/190), fever cut-off value (38·0°C most commonly used: 45%, 85/190), and fever measurement site (axillary most commonly used: 19%, 36/190). Eighty-nine publications (47%) did not include exclusion criteria, and inclusion criteria in 13% (24/190) of publications did not include age group. No publications included study settings in Southern Africa, Micronesia & Polynesia, or Central Asia. We summarized standardized reporting practices, specific to AFI etiologic investigations that would increase inter-study comparability. Wider implementation of standardized AFI reporting methods, with multi-pathogen disease detection, could improve comparability of study findings, knowledge of the range of AFI etiologies, and their contributions to the global AFI burden. These steps can guide resource allocation, strengthen outbreak detection and response, target prevention efforts, and improve clinical care, especially in resource-limited settings where disease control often relies on empiric treatment. PROSPERO: CRD42016035666. Acute febrile illness (AFI) is a common reason for people seeking medical care globally with potentially serious infectious etiologies. However, AFI has no current consensus standardized approach when considered as a syndromic case definition for public health surveillance or research, especially in global settings where AFI treatment is performed with limited diagnostic availability. Therefore, the aim of this review was to describe current methodologies in AFI research, identify gaps in research, and provide recommendations for standardization of AFI research. We screened abstracts and completed full-text reviews on publications found through an extensive search. A total of 190 publications were included in the final review,... PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Volume 13; doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007850 Abstract:Plasmodium ovale accounts for a disproportionate number of travel-related malaria cases. This parasite is understudied since there is a reliance on clinical samples. We collected a P. ovale curtisi parasite isolate from a clinical case in western Thailand and performed RNA-seq analysis on the blood stage transcriptomes. Using both de novo assembly and alignment-based methods, we detected the transcripts for 6628 out of 7280 annotated genes. For those lacking evidence of expression, the vast majority belonged to the PIR and STP1 gene families. We identified new splicing patterns for over 2500 genes, and mapped at least one untranslated region for over half of all annotated genes. Our analysis also detected a notable presence of anti-sense transcripts for over 10% of P. ovale curtisi genes. This transcriptomic analysis provides new insights into the blood-stage biology of this neglected parasite. Ovale malaria can be caused by one of two Plasmodium parasites, P. ovale curtisi and P. ovale wallikeri. P. ovale parasites are especially adept at evading prophylactic antimalarial drugs and traveling internationally, which makes them interesting from a global health perspective. Due to the lack of a continuous culture system for these parasites, research on P. ovale parasites has lagged behind and relies on clinical samples. Recent genome sequencing of a few P. ovale clinical isolates provides the blueprint of the parasite genome and in silico prediction of parasite genes. However, confirmation of the annotated genes and proof of their expression are needed. Here we obtained a P. ovale curtisi clinical isolate from western Thailand and performed RNA-seq analysis on the blood-stage parasites. High-quality RNA-seq data has enabled us to identify transcripts for 6628 of the 7280 annotated genes. Consistent with the blood stage development, housekeeping genes such as those involved in translation and metabolism are highly expressed. Prediction of the UTRs as well as detection of anti-sense transcripts and potential splicing patterns suggests the presence of complex gene regulation mechanisms for this parasite. This transcriptome dataset will serve as a useful resource for future studies of P. ovale.

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6.1 Issues in Resource Allocation¶ Resource allocation and congestion control are complex issues that have been the subject of much study ever since the first network was designed. They are still active areas of research. One factor that makes these issues complex is that they are not isolated to one single level of a protocol hierarchy. Resource allocation is partially implemented in the routers, switches, and links inside the network and partially in the transport protocol running on the end hosts. End systems may use signalling protocols to convey their resource requirements to network nodes, which respond with information about resource availability. One of the main goals of this chapter is to define a framework in which these mechanisms can be understood, as well as to give the relevant details about a representative sample of mechanisms. We should clarify our terminology before going any further. By resource allocation, we mean the process by which network elements try to meet the competing demands that applications have for network resources—primarily link bandwidth and buffer space in routers or switches. Of course, it will often not be possible to meet all the demands, meaning that some users or applications may receive fewer network resources than they want. Part of the resource allocation problem is deciding when to say no and to whom. We use the term congestion control to describe the efforts made by network nodes to prevent or respond to overload conditions. Since congestion is generally bad for everyone, the first order of business is making congestion subside, or preventing it in the first place. This might be achieved simply by persuading a few hosts to stop sending, thus improving the situation for everyone else. However, it is more common for congestion-control mechanisms to have some aspect of fairness—that is, they try to share the pain among all users, rather than causing great pain to a few. Thus, we see that many congestion-control mechanisms have some sort of resource allocation built into them. It is also important to understand the difference between flow control and congestion control. Flow control involves keeping a fast sender from overrunning a slow receiver. Congestion control, by contrast, is intended to keep a set of senders from sending too much data into the network because of lack of resources at some point. These two concepts are often confused; as we will see, they also share some mechanisms. We begin by defining three salient features of the network architecture. For the most part, this is a summary of material presented in the previous chapters that is relevant to the problem of resource allocation. We consider resource allocation in a packet-switched network (or internet) consisting of multiple links and switches (or routers). Since most of the mechanisms described in this chapter were designed for use on the Internet, and therefore were originally defined in terms of routers rather than switches, we use the term router throughout our discussion. The problem is essentially the same, whether on a network or an internetwork. In such an environment, a given source may have more than enough capacity on the immediate outgoing link to send a packet, but somewhere in the middle of a network its packets encounter a link that is being used by many different traffic sources. Figure 152 illustrates this situation—two high-speed links are feeding a low-speed link. This is in contrast to shared-access networks like Ethernet and wireless networks, where the source can directly observe the traffic on the network and decide accordingly whether or not to send a packet. We have already seen the algorithms used to allocate bandwidth on shared-access networks (e.g., Ethernet and Wi-Fi). These access-control algorithms are, in some sense, analogous to congestion-control algorithms in a switched network. Note that congestion control is a different problem than routing. While it is true that a congested link could be assigned a large edge weight by the routing protocol, and, as a consequence, routers would route around it, “routing around” a congested link does not generally solve the congestion problem. To see this, we need look no further than the simple network depicted in Figure 152, where all traffic has to flow through the same router to reach the destination. Although this is an extreme example, it is common to have a certain router that it is not possible to route around. This router can become congested, and there is nothing the routing mechanism can do about it. This congested router is sometimes called the bottleneck router. [Next] For much of our discussion, we assume that the network is essentially connectionless, with any connection-oriented service implemented in the transport protocol that is running on the end hosts. (We explain the qualification “essentially” in a moment.) This is precisely the model of the Internet, where IP provides a connectionless datagram delivery service and TCP implements an end-to-end connection abstraction. Note that this assumption does not hold in virtual circuit networks such as ATM and X.25. In such networks, a connection setup message traverses the network when a circuit is established. This setup message reserves a set of buffers for the connection at each router, thereby providing a form of congestion control—a connection is established only if enough buffers can be allocated to it at each router. The major shortcoming of this approach is that it leads to an underutilization of resources—buffers reserved for a particular circuit are not available for use by other traffic even if they were not currently being used by that circuit. The focus of this chapter is on resource allocation approaches that apply in an internetwork, and thus we focus mainly on connectionless networks. We need to qualify the term connectionless because our classification of networks as being either connectionless or connection oriented is a bit too restrictive; there is a gray area in between. In particular, the assumption that all datagrams are completely independent in a connectionless network is too strong. The datagrams are certainly switched independently, but it is usually the case that a stream of datagrams between a particular pair of hosts flows through a particular set of routers. This idea of a flow—a sequence of packets sent between a source/destination pair and following the same route through the network—is an important abstraction in the context of resource allocation; it is one that we will use in this chapter. One of the powers of the flow abstraction is that flows can be defined at different granularities. For example, a flow can be host-to-host (i.e., have the same source/destination host addresses) or process-to-process (i.e., have the same source/destination host/port pairs). In the latter case, a flow is essentially the same as a channel, as we have been using that term throughout this book. The reason we introduce a new term is that a flow is visible to the routers inside the network, whereas a channel is an end-to-end abstraction. Figure 153 illustrates several flows passing through a series of routers. Because multiple related packets flow through each router, it sometimes makes sense to maintain some state information for each flow, information that can be used to make resource allocation decisions about the packets that belong to the flow. This state is sometimes called soft state. The main difference between soft state and hard state is that soft state need not always be explicitly created and removed by signalling. Soft state represents a middle ground between a purely connectionless network that maintains no state at the routers and a purely connection-oriented network that maintains hard state at the routers. In general, the correct operation of the network does not depend on soft state being present (each packet is still routed correctly without regard to this state), but when a packet happens to belong to a flow for which the router is currently maintaining soft state, then the router is better able to handle the packet. Note that a flow can be either implicitly defined or explicitly established. In the former case, each router watches for packets that happen to be traveling between the same source/destination pair—the router does this by inspecting the addresses in the header—and treats these packets as belonging to the same flow for the purpose of congestion control. In the latter case, the source sends a flow setup message across the network, declaring that a flow of packets is about to start. While explicit flows are arguably no different than a connection across a connection-oriented network, we call attention to this case because, even when explicitly established, a flow does not imply any end-to-end semantics and, in particular, does not imply the reliable and ordered delivery of a virtual circuit. It simply exists for the purpose of resource allocation. We will see examples of both implicit and explicit flows in this chapter. In the early part of this chapter, we will focus on mechanisms that assume the best-effort service model of the Internet. With best-effort service, all packets are given essentially equal treatment, with end hosts given no opportunity to ask the network that some packets or flows be given certain guarantees or preferential service. Defining a service model that supports some kind of preferred service or guarantee—for example, guaranteeing the bandwidth needed for a video stream—is the subject of a later section. Such a service model is said to provide multiple qualities of service (QoS). As we will see, there is actually a spectrum of possibilities, ranging from a purely best-effort service model to one in which individual flows receive quantitative guarantees of QoS. One of the greatest challenges is to define a service model that meets the needs of a wide range of applications and even allows for the applications that will be invented in the future. There are countless ways in which resource allocation mechanisms differ, so creating a thorough taxonomy is a difficult proposition. For now, we describe three dimensions along which resource allocation mechanisms can be characterized; more subtle distinctions will be called out during the course of this chapter. Router-Centric versus Host-Centric¶ Resource allocation mechanisms can be classified into two broad groups: those that address the problem from inside the network (i.e., at the routers or switches) and those that address it from the edges of the network (i.e., in the hosts, perhaps inside the transport protocol). Since it is the case that both the routers inside the network and the hosts at the edges of the network participate in resource allocation, the real issue is where the majority of the burden falls. In a router-centric design, each router takes responsibility for deciding when packets are forwarded and selecting which packets are to be dropped, as well as for informing the hosts that are generating the network traffic how many packets they are allowed to send. In a host-centric design, the end hosts observe the network conditions (e.g., how many packets they are successfully getting through the network) and adjust their behavior accordingly. Note that these two groups are not mutually exclusive. For example, a network that places the primary burden for managing congestion on routers still expects the end hosts to adhere to any advisory messages the routers send, while the routers in networks that use end-to-end congestion control still have some policy, no matter how simple, for deciding which packets to drop when their queues do overflow. Reservation-Based versus Feedback-Based¶ A second way that resource allocation mechanisms are sometimes classified is according to whether they use reservations or feedback. In a reservation-based system, some entity (e.g., the end host) asks the network for a certain amount of capacity to be allocated for a flow. Each router then allocates enough resources (buffers and/or percentage of the link’s bandwidth) to satisfy this request. If the request cannot be satisfied at some router, because doing so would overcommit its resources, then the router rejects the reservation. This is analogous to getting a busy signal when trying to make a phone call. In a feedback-based approach, the end hosts begin sending data without first reserving any capacity and then adjust their sending rate according to the feedback they receive. This feedback can be either explicit (i.e., a congested router sends a “please slow down” message to the host) or implicit (i.e., the end host adjusts its sending rate according to the externally observable behavior of the network, such as packet losses). Note that a reservation-based system always implies a router-centric resource allocation mechanism. This is because each router is responsible for keeping track of how much of its capacity is currently available and deciding whether new reservations can be admitted. Routers may also have to make sure each host lives within the reservation it made. If a host sends data faster than it claimed it would when it made the reservation, then that host’s packets are good candidates for discarding, should the router become congested. On the other hand, a feedback-based system can imply either a router- or host-centric mechanism. Typically, if the feedback is explicit, then the router is involved, to at least some degree, in the resource allocation scheme. If the feedback is implicit, then almost all of the burden falls to the end host; the routers silently drop packets when they become congested. Reservations do not have to be made by end hosts. It is possible for a network administrator to allocate resources to flows or to larger aggregates of traffic, as we will see in a later section. Window Based versus Rate Based¶ A third way to characterize resource allocation mechanisms is according to whether they are window based or rate based. This is one of the areas, noted above, where similar mechanisms and terminology are used for both flow control and congestion control. Both flow-control and resource allocation mechanisms need a way to express, to the sender, how much data it is allowed to transmit. There are two general ways of doing this: with a window or with a rate. We have already seen window-based transport protocols, such as TCP, in which the receiver advertises a window to the sender. This window corresponds to how much buffer space the receiver has, and it limits how much data the sender can transmit; that is, it supports flow control. A similar mechanism—window advertisement—can be used within the network to reserve buffer space (i.e., to support resource allocation). TCP’s congestion-control mechanisms are window based. It is also possible to control a sender’s behavior using a rate—that is, how many bits per second the receiver or network is able to absorb. Rate-based control makes sense for many multimedia applications, which tend to generate data at some average rate and which need at least some minimum throughput to be useful. For example, a video codec might generate video at an average rate of 1 Mbps with a peak rate of 2 Mbps. As we will see later in this chapter, rate-based characterization of flows is a logical choice in a reservation-based system that supports different qualities of service—the sender makes a reservation for so many bits per second, and each router along the path determines if it can support that rate, given the other flows it has made commitments to. Summary of Resource Allocation Taxonomy¶ Classifying resource allocation approaches at two different points along each of three dimensions, as we have just done, would seem to suggest up to eight unique strategies. While eight different approaches are certainly possible, we note that in practice two general strategies seem to be most prevalent; these two strategies are tied to the underlying service model of the network. On the one hand, a best-effort service model usually implies that feedback is being used, since such a model does not allow users to reserve network capacity. This, in turn, means that most of the responsibility for congestion control falls to the end hosts, perhaps with some assistance from the routers. In practice, such networks use window-based information. This is the general strategy adopted in the Internet. On the other hand, a QoS-based service model probably implies some form of reservation. Support for these reservations is likely to require significant router involvement, such as queuing packets differently depending on the level of reserved resources they require. Moreover, it is natural to express such reservations in terms of rate, since windows are only indirectly related to how much bandwidth a user needs from the network. We discuss this topic in a later section. The final issue is one of knowing whether a resource allocation mechanism is good or not. Recall that in the problem statement at the start of this chapter we posed the question of how a network effectively and fairly allocates its resources. This suggests at least two broad measures by which a resource allocation scheme can be evaluated. We consider each in turn. Effective Resource Allocation¶ A good starting point for evaluating the effectiveness of a resource allocation scheme is to consider the two principal metrics of networking: throughput and delay. Clearly, we want as much throughput and as little delay as possible. Unfortunately, these goals are often somewhat at odds with each other. One sure way for a resource allocation algorithm to increase throughput is to allow as many packets into the network as possible, so as to drive the utilization of all the links up to 100%. We would do this to avoid the possibility of a link becoming idle because an idle link necessarily hurts throughput. The problem with this strategy is that increasing the number of packets in the network also increases the length of the queues at each router. Longer queues, in turn, mean packets are delayed longer in the network. To describe this relationship, some network designers have proposed using the ratio of throughput to delay as a metric for evaluating the effectiveness of a resource allocation scheme. This ratio is sometimes referred to as the power of the network: Power = Throughput / Delay Note that it is not obvious that power is the right metric for judging resource allocation effectiveness. For one thing, the theory behind power is based on an M/M/1 queuing network that assumes infinite queues; real networks have finite buffers and sometimes have to drop packets. For another, power is typically defined relative to a single connection (flow); it is not clear how it extends to multiple, competing connections. Despite these rather severe limitations, however, no alternatives have gained wide acceptance, and so power continues to be used. |||Since this is not a queuing theory book, we provide only this brief description of an M/M/1 queue. The 1 means it has a single server, and the Ms mean that the distribution of both packet arrival and service times is Markovian, that is, exponential.| The objective is to maximize this ratio, which is a function of how much load you place on the network. The load, in turn, is set by the resource allocation mechanism. Figure 154 gives a representative power curve, where, ideally, the resource allocation mechanism would operate at the peak of this curve. To the left of the peak, the mechanism is being too conservative; that is, it is not allowing enough packets to be sent to keep the links busy. To the right of the peak, so many packets are being allowed into the network that increases in delay due to queuing are starting to dominate any small gains in throughput. Interestingly, this power curve looks very much like the system throughput curve in a timesharing computer system. System throughput improves as more jobs are admitted into the system, until it reaches a point when there are so many jobs running that the system begins to thrash (spends all of its time swapping memory pages) and the throughput begins to drop. As we will see in later sections of this chapter, many congestion-control schemes are able to control load in only very crude ways; that is, it is simply not possible to turn the “knob” a little and allow only a small number of additional packets into the network. As a consequence, network designers need to be concerned about what happens even when the system is operating under extremely heavy load—that is, at the rightmost end of the curve in Figure 154. Ideally, we would like to avoid the situation in which the system throughput goes to zero because the system is thrashing. In networking terminology, we want a system that is stable—where packets continue to get through the network even when the network is operating under heavy load. If a mechanism is not stable, the network may experience congestion collapse. Fair Resource Allocation¶ The effective utilization of network resources is not the only criterion for judging a resource allocation scheme. We must also consider the issue of fairness. However, we quickly get into murky waters when we try to define what exactly constitutes fair resource allocation. For example, a reservation-based resource allocation scheme provides an explicit way to create controlled unfairness. With such a scheme, we might use reservations to enable a video stream to receive 1 Mbps across some link while a file transfer receives only 10 kbps over the same link. In the absence of explicit information to the contrary, when several flows share a particular link, we would like for each flow to receive an equal share of the bandwidth. This definition presumes that a fair share of bandwidth means an equal share of bandwidth. But, even in the absence of reservations, equal shares may not equate to fair shares. Should we also consider the length of the paths being compared? For example, as illustrated in Figure 155, what is fair when one four-hop flow is competing with three one-hop flows? Assuming that fair implies equal and that all paths are of equal length, networking researcher Raj Jain proposed a metric that can be used to quantify the fairness of a congestion-control mechanism. Jain’s fairness index is defined as follows. Given a set of flow throughputs (measured in consistent units such as bits/second), the following function assigns a fairness index to the flows: The fairness index always results in a number between 0 and 1, with 1 representing greatest fairness. To understand the intuition behind this metric, consider the case where all n flows receive a throughput of 1 unit of data per second. We can see that the fairness index in this case is Now, suppose one flow receives a throughput of \(1 + \Delta\). Now the fairness index is Note that the denominator exceeds the numerator by \((n-1)\Delta^2\). Thus, whether the odd flow out was getting more or less than all the other flows (positive or negative \(\Delta\)), the fairness index has now dropped below one. Another simple case to consider is where only k of the n flows receive equal throughput, and the remaining n-k users receive zero throughput, in which case the fairness index drops to k/n.

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Heat illnesses are of major concern. More and more high school, college, and professional athletes are suffering from and/or dying from heat related illnesses. With all of the knowledge that medical professionals have in this day-in-age, there should be fewer instances of heat illnesses. Parents, coaches, and athletes also need to be aware of prevention and treatment procedures in case an emergency occurs. Heat stroke, the most serious heat illness, is a life threatening emergency and needs to be treated immediately. Ice water immersion is the best method for lowering the body temperature quickly and effectively. **Key Words:** heat illness, heat stroke, heat index, prevention, treatment After working on a sports medicine team for the last two years, exertional heat illnesses (EHI) were brought to my attention. I never knew how often they occurred or how life-threatening they could be. The purpose of this paper is to spread awareness to athletes, parents, and coaches, of the dangers of heat illnesses as well as how to prevent, treat, and return-to-play after an episode of heat illness. Heat illness-related deaths are on the rise, and I am curious to know why athletes are dying from heat injuries, such as heat stroke. In 2004, Coris et al. (4) stated, “the recent high-profile deaths of a collegiate athlete and a professional athlete in Florida and a professional athlete in Minnesota have the sports medicine and family medicine communities in a state of ‘high alert’ and searching for the most efficacious methods of preventing such tragedies.” In 2007, heat stroke was “the third leading cause of death in U.S. high school athletes.” (Coris, Walz, Konin, & Pescasio, 2007). Now, in 2010, “exertional heat stroke is the second leading cause of death among athletes, followed only by sudden cardiac death.” (Mazerolle, Scruggs, Casa, Burton, & McDermott, 2010). There are several different heat illnesses, ranging from mild to life threatening. Heat edema, heat rash, heat syncope, and heat cramps are the milder heat illnesses while heat exhaustion and heat stroke are more serious. Sunburns can also be considered a heat illness, ranging from mild to severe (1st degree to 3rd degree burns). Heat edema is swelling of the extremities, often found in people who are not used to activity, heat, or a combination of the two. Heat rash is a specific area of skin that has been irritated. It is often, red, inflamed, itchy, and tingly. Heat cramps are painful, involuntary muscle spasms, most often occurring in the abdomen or calf. Heat syncope is defined as an orthostatic dizziness which is a result of a sudden pooling of the blood in the extremities, commonly seen in marathon runners after they cross the finish line and abruptly stop running. Heat exhaustion occurs when an athlete has become dehydrated and has a core body temperature of approximately 102°F. This athlete will often feel dizzy, and present as pale, warm, and diaphoretic. They may also present with a rapid pulse and could be hyperventilating. Heat stroke is a life threatening emergency and care needs to be provided immediately. An athlete suffering from heat stroke will usually suddenly collapse. The athlete will have hot and dry skin, a rapid pulse, and a core body temperature above 104°F. Athletes, coaches, and medical staff will benefit the most from this paper as I provide information on how to prevent and treat heat illnesses, learn how to identify and modify risk factors, as well as considering communication and special circumstances. However, parents, family and friends of athletes can also benefit from this article in learning about ways to help if need be. ### Levels of Care One of the best methods for preventing heat illnesses, if done correctly, is the preparticipation physical exam (PPE). The PPE is used to find any intrinsic risk factors that an athlete may have. It could be anything from low blood pressure, to heart problems, from asthma to obesity, and everything in between. “Several intrinsic risk factors that increase susceptibility to EHI have been identified, but information about their relative contributions is limited. These risk factors include (a) previous history of EHI, (b) poor cardiovascular (CV) fitness, (c) obesity, (d) inadequate heat acclimatization, (e) dehydration or electrolyte imbalance, (f) recent febrile illness, (g) sleep deprivation, (h) a ‘never give up’ or ‘warrior’ mentality (high level of motivation or zealousness), and (i) use of questionable drugs, herbs, or supplements.” (Eberman, & Cleary, 2009). Each of these risk factors needs to be considered so that appropriate actions can be taken to provide the safest situation possible for the athlete at risk. An athlete with any of the previously mentioned risk factors is at a higher risk for experiencing a heat illness. Not only do members of the sports medicine team need to be educated, but athletes, coaches, and parents should also be informed about the risks, signs and symptoms, and treatments of heat illnesses. If an athlete is suffering from heat stroke, it is essential to provide immediate treatment, and with more people being educated properly, faster treatment may be more readily accessible. Hydration is one of the most important factors in preventing heat illness. It is important to educate athletes and coaches on proper hydration techniques. In some instances, mostly seen in football, coaches have withheld water breaks as a form of punishment or as a motivation technique. The coaches may or may not have known that withholding water could be dangerous and life threatening in long durations. It seems that football players are more susceptible to heat illnesses because they have “double days” usually during the hottest part of the year. The double days often take place in the beginning of summer after a long summer break where athletes have not been practicing and have lost any acclimatization to exercise and heat that they had before. Therefore, the athletes are more likely to suffer from some form of heat illness during the first few weeks of practice. “During prolonged work periods in the heat, the maintenance of high sweat rates leads to progressive dehydration, which may be accompanied by impairment of mental and physical performance and of heat dissipation.” (Bates, & Miller, 2008). The combination of water and sports drinks seem to offer the best hydration. The sports drinks replenish sodium and other electrolytes that water does not have. However, only drinking sports drinks can provide too much salt and therefore, drinking water becomes necessary as well. “Ingestion of non-caffeinated sports drinks containing vital nutrients such as water, electrolytes and carbohydrates during exercise may help maintain physiological homeostasis, resulting in enhanced performance and/or reduced physiological stress on an athlete’s cardiovascular, central nervous and muscular systems. Both the volume of the rehydration fluid and its composition are critical in maintaining whole body fluid homeostasis.” (Snell, Ward, Kandaswami, & Stohs, 2010). Proper clothing, equipment, and preparation are also key factors in preventing heat illness. “Heat production during exercise is 15 to 20 times greater than at rest, and is sufficient to raise a person’s core body temperature 1°C every five minutes, if there were no inherent regulatory mechanisms.” (Miners, 2010). It is important to drink fluids, monitor oneself and others and wear proper clothing. Players should be aware of how much fluid they drink and take note if they start to cramp or feel lightheaded. Players and coaches need to be sure to wear sunscreen and to reapply it accordingly. Lightweight, breathable clothing should be worn in order to allow air to flow and dissipate heat. Light-colored clothing should be worn when possible as the light colors reflect the sun’s rays where as darker colors such as black absorb the rays and thus intensifies the heat that the body is absorbing. Shorts and short-sleeved shirts should also be worn when possible to allow for as much breeze to flow to skin contact. This is the idea behind the recommendation of the National Athletic Trainer’s Association (NATA) and American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) to acclimatize to the heat. It is especially important for football players in the early summer months to follow this safety guideline. It can take up to 14 days to acclimatize the body to the heat. So, it is important to start off with shorter practices during the early morning or later evenings. The players should start practices in shorts and short-sleeved shirts and build up to pads, then full pads, and then finally full pads with full uniform. It is also important to slowly increase the length of time the players practice and to modify which part of the day they are practicing in. Not only do the athletes need their proper equipment to help prevent heat illness, but the coaches and sports medicine team need their proper equipment as well. Ice water immersion has been identified as the best way to cool a person’s body rapidly and so a small pool-like container is needed on the sidelines of every sporting event. Coolers of ice and others with water should be kept next to the pool with the intent to use it only for the need of an emergency. Other coolers should be provided for drinking water. In some cases where a small pool-like container is not available, ice water buckets and towels should be available to cool an athlete. The sports medicine team should also supply a few tents to allow a place for athletes to escape from the sun. Although it may be an uncomfortable situation for the athlete and/or the athletic trainer, rectal temperature is the best way to determine core body temperature. Oral, tympanic, or other methods of reading a temperature are just not sufficient enough. They do not read a true core body temperature. Ingestible pills that read the body’s temperature are a great way to find out the athlete’s temperature for a few days, however, they are costly. The pills can be used to track an athlete’s body temperature, which is especially important for those who are susceptible to heat illnesses. Some of the things listed above in prevention techniques are also found in the modifiable risks category. Acclimatization to heat, dehydration, humidity, and high heat are all risks that can be modified, and thus, prevented. With proper education and planning, a heat acclimatization process can be initiated, proper hydration methods can be provided, and practices and games can be modified accordingly whether high heat, humidity, or other environmental factors occur. As mentioned above, the ACSM has set recommendations for acclimatization to heat but they also include information on hydration, humidity, and heat. “These recommendations consist of guidelines that measure heat stress and define the severity of heat stress by a Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) Index. Based on the WBGT at the time of the event, the ACSM also has recommendations regarding the type, durations, and frequency of exercise regimes for a particular day, the frequency of hydration and rest breaks, and whether or not the activity should be moved to a different time of day or cancelled altogether.” (Cooper, Jr, Ferrara, & Broglio, 2006). Each sports medicine team should make their own policy based on these recommendations. Each employee should receive a copy and should sign a form acknowledging receipt and cooperation. The WBGT Index has become widely recognized and used as one of the best methods to determine whether it is safe to engage in physical activity outside or not. “WBGT is not air temperature, but is measuring the relative heat and humidity. It indicates web bulb globe temperature, an index of climatic heat stress that can be on the field by the use of a psychrometer…High WBGT indicates extreme risk of heat-related problems and appears to be one of the best predictors of heat illness.” (Cleary, 2007). Another way to help determine whether it is safe to participate in physical exercise outside is by using one of the many heat index charts available to the public. A new one in particular, the Kleiner Exertional Heat Illness Scale (KEHIS), eliminates the many traditional categories of heat edema, heat cramps, heat, syncope, heat exhaustion and heat stroke and combines them to set three categories: mild, moderate, and severe. This scale is similar to the Glasgow Coma Scale in that it uses a points system to help determine which category the person falls into. Since not every person will have each sign or symptom found in the traditional categories, Kleiner felt this method of a point system would help identify the seriousness of the illness the athlete is suffering from. The points range from zero to 25. “A need exists for a universal scale that can objectively quantify the severity of heat-related illness. The KEHIS has been designed to fill that void. A KEHIS score of 12 is different than a KEHIS score of 15, and a score of 15 on one patient has the same level of urgency as a score of 15 in another. There is no disagreement about the level of severity.” (Kleiner, 2002). So, the WBGT and other heat index charts are used to determine whether it is safe to begin play and the KEHIS is used to determine which level of heat illness a person is experiencing. It is important to identify which level the athlete is experiencing because a severe, or heat stroke illness, is life threatening and needs to be treated immediately. It is also important to determine if an athlete is experiencing a mild or moderate heat illness. Heat illnesses are a continuum and one level can progress to the next very quickly. Communication between medical team members is crucial when dealing with an emergency. The Certified Athletic Trainer (ATC) is usually the only medical personnel on the sideline for athletic events. In some cases a physician, physical therapist, and/or Emergency Medical Services (EMS) may also be present. One of the best ways for a medical team to effectively communicate during a medical emergency is by having an Emergency Action Plan (EAP) in place. Practice of the EAP is essential so that every person knows exactly what their job is in order to help eliminate confusion and chaos during the actual emergency. The EAP should specifically list every member of the medical team, their title, and contact information. Each venue; baseball field, soccer field, gymnasium, tennis courts, pool, etc., will need their own specific EAP established. Things included should be where to locate the ATC and emergency equipment such as Automated External Defibrillator (AED), splints, crutches, spine board, and bandages, to name a few. Communication lines such as cell phone, land lines, or 2-way radio with frequency and channel information, should also be noted. Also included in the venue section are directions for EMS to reach the specific facility. Details on who will call 911 and who will meet the ambulance when it arrives should also be included. This section should also have a list of all the area hospitals and directions so that they may be given to family members of those being transported. Other things to consider are environmental concerns such as thunderstorms, lightening, hail, hurricane, tornados, etc. For each of these situations, there needs to be a specific “safe location” for people to evacuate. Instructions for athletes to drop any metal equipment (bats, rackets, clubs, etc.) and for anyone to avoid metal stadium seating or tall trees are of utmost importance. The ATC will be in direct communication with the head coaches and officials and can suspend the game for safety reasons at any point. With specific regards to heat illness injury, communication is crucial between members of the medical team. From the time the athlete suffers an attack, the ATC must put the EAP into action. After the athlete is released from the hospital, communication needs to be present between the athlete, athletic trainer, physician, coach, and in the case of a minor, the parents or guardians. Communication is crucial in order to provide the best care possible for the athlete. Currently, there is no one set of standards for returning-to-play (RTP) after suffering a heat illness attack. Some commonly found suggestions include: 1) athlete suffered from heat cramps can RTP after hydrating until the cramps are gone, 2) athlete who suffered heat exhaustion should not RTP for 24 hours or more, and 3) athlete who suffered from heat stroke should stay out of activity for at least one week and must be cleared by a physician. “Recovery from EHI is typically determined by normalization of serum electrolytes, CK, creatinine, liver function tests, and normal mental status. When EHI victims meet these conditions, they can resume light to moderate exercise for 15 minutes daily. Maximal efforts, such as competitive running, and competitive sports, such as football, should not be permitted until recovery is complete. . . If the victim does not exhibit heat tolerance after three months post EHI episode, recommendations can be modified to an unrestricted exercise/workload, but maximal exertion, particularly during significant heat load conditions, should avoided.” (Muldoon, Deuster, Voelkel, Capacchione, & Bunger, 2008). Even though there are no set standards of returning an athlete to play, it seems wise to assure proper hydration and clear mental status as well as being cleared by a physician before allowing the athlete to compete. The timeline of RTP widely varies depending on the type of heat illness suffered and varies from athlete-to-athlete. As far as I, a medical professional, am concerned, we need to establish a professional standard for returning athletes back to practice and competition. There are many special circumstances to consider when dealing with heat illnesses. Amateur athletes, older athletes, and “weekend warriors” are of major concern themselves. These athletes tend to be out of shape or far less active than the collegiate or professional athlete, and yet many expect to go out and perform just as well. They push themselves too far and often experience a myriad of injuries and illnesses as a result. “Amateur participants may not have a complete understanding of recommended strategies for handling outdoor extreme conditions like heat and humidity. Thus, heat-related illnesses like heat stress and eventually heat stroke become increasingly possible, with susceptibility increasing with age, vulnerability factors like co-morbidity (e.g., chronic diseases), and various health-related behaviors (e.g., nutrition, hydrations, and sleep or rest).” (Shendell, Alexander, Lorentzon, & McCarty, 2010). When thinking of athletes, many think of sports that take place on land. However, athletes who compete in or on the water are also of concern. Just because the athlete is in or on the water does not mean that they should be treated any differently than the land athlete. With regards to those athletes on the water, “paddlers should be encouraged to drink to thirst and replace electrolytes during long distance races and frequently be assessed for signs and symptoms of heat illness to prevent life threatening increases in body temperature and heat stroke. Paddlers should aggressively seek sun protection and have lacerations and skin injuries properly cleaned and evaluated by medical personnel if there are signs of infection.” (Haley, & Nichols, 2009). On the other end of the spectrum are those who may have other health issues, thus, making them even more susceptible to exertional heat illnesses. Some researchers believe that there may be a link between exertional heat illness with those who have exertional rhabdomyolysis (ER), malignant hyperthermia (MH), and/or menstrual cycles. While exertional heat illness can be described as someone who has extreme high core body temperature, impaired mental status, and possible musculoskeletal or organ damage, a person with malignant hyperthermia does as well. Both EHI and MH are also both found in otherwise healthy people. Some of the people, who suffered from what appeared to be EHI, were later found to actually have been malignant hyperthermia. In contradiction, ER can also occur in warm or cool environments. However, like EHI and MH, “ER also is a hypermetabolic state wherein the skeletal cell membrane is severely compromised and serum CK values are markedly increased.” (Muldoon, et al, 2008). The recovery process of each of these seems to be very similar in that it calls for normalization of CK, serum electrolytes, creatinine, and liver functions. As of 2008, there are no biochemical tests, genetic tests, or functional bioassay tests available to determine the differences between the three. Further research is needed in order to be able to identify the similarities, differences, and treatments for each. In addition, Muldoon mentioned that females are more susceptible to heat illnesses than males. While searching through other articles I ran across an article researching the physiological responses to the menstrual cycle. In this article it was shown that females had a longer time to exhaustion than expected but was thought that by extending their time to exhaustion they become more susceptible to injury or illness. “Given the difficulty in conducting clinical research into the development of heat illness, obtaining evidence of the theoretical increased susceptibility to heat illness during the luteal phase in females remains elusive; however, it is an area that warrants further investigation.” (Marsh, & Jenkins, 2002). The last special circumstance to consider is that of actually warming up before an activity while wearing an ice vest. The ice vest warm up was used on runners in a long distance race. The results showed that although heart rates varied, a lower body temperature was a consistent result. “The ice vest slowed the increase in core temperature throughout cross-country warm-up and racing among the participants of this study. With the reduced thermal strain, greater blood flow may be available for transport of oxygen to muscle. Sweat rate will likely be decreased during performance when the ice vest is used during the warm-up, and with a decreased sweat rate, blood volume should be better maintained, improving oxygen delivery to muscles. The greater blood flow and blood volume should lead to a better performance.” (Hunter, Hopkins, & Casa, 2006). While it is a fairly new idea, the ice vest warm up seems to provide impressive results. If we can decrease the core body temperature before an athletic event, it will theoretically, take longer for an athlete’s core body temperature to rise to a dangerous level. I found this article of interest because I am an athletic trainer in southern California where heat illnesses seem to be on the rise. In conclusion, the hope of this paper was to provide insight to how serious heat illnesses can be and how easy it is to prevent them. Currently, it seems that not enough people are knowledgeable of heat illnesses and the danger they possess. I urge everyone to take the time to learn about the prevention, treatments, and possible outcomes of heat illnesses. Learning this information could save a life. Even after years of education and research on heat illness, more and more athletes are suffering and dying from heat stroke. It is currently the second most leading cause of death in high school athletes and I find that totally unacceptable. The research and information on heat illness is out there for the public, however, they seem unaware of it. Medical professionals need to find a way to educate the public about heat illnesses, whether it is for the athlete or just a regular person. ### Applications in Sport The mild versions of heat illness include: heat edema, heat rash, heat syncope, and heat cramps while heat exhaustion and heat stroke are much more serious and can lead to death. Parents and athletes need to be educated about the risks of playing sports, including environmental factors such as heat and humidity. Athletes also need to be aware of proper hydration methods to keep themselves healthy. The parents, athletes, coaches, and sports medicine team need to be on the same page with regards to the athletes’ safety and well being. Things like acclimatizing to the heat over a period of at least two weeks, proper hydration techniques, wearing proper, light-colored, breathable clothing, and identifying any underlying health issues before the start of the season are all important factors in helping to prevent heat illnesses. The sports medicine team is ultimately responsible for the safety of the athletes and must provide proper equipment, like a small pool with coolers of ice and water, for use of an ice water-immersion in the event of a heat related emergency. Communication between athletes, coaches, parents, and the sports medicine team are a necessity. An emergency action plan needs to be in place and implemented should an emergency arise. The timeline of when an athlete can return to play is unclear, however, the participant should be properly hydrated, have a clear mental status and should be cleared by a physician before returning to competition. There are always athletes with special circumstances or underlying health issues and it is important to try to identify these before the sport season begins so appropriate planning can be done regarding those issues. Further research is needed in the distinction between exertional heat illness, exertional rhabdomyolysis, and malignant hyperthermia. Additional information is also sought for those with menstrual cycles and the effect of possible heat illnesses. Warming up with an ice-vest also seems like it could be beneficial to the athlete, however, I believe additional research is still needed. 1. Bates, G.P., & Miller, V.S. (2008). Sweat rate and sodium loss during work in the heat. _Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology_, 3(4), Retrieved from http://www.occup-med.com/content/3/1/4 doi: 10.1186/1745-6673-3-4 2. Cleary, M.A. (2007). Predisposing risk factors on susceptibility to exertional heat illness: clinical decision-making considerations. _Journal of Sport Rehabilitation_, 16, 204-214. 3. Cooper, Jr, E.R., Ferrara, M.S., & Broglio, S.P. (2006). Exertional heat illness and environmental conditions during a single football season in the southeast. _Journal of Athletic Training_, 41(3), 332-336. 4. Coris, E.E., Ramirez, A.M., & Van Durme, D.J. (2004). Heat illness in athletes. _Sports Medicine_, 34(1), 9-16. 5. Coris, E.E., Walz, S., Konin, J., & Pescasio, M. (2007). Return to activity considerations in a football player predisposed to exertional heat illness: a case study. _Journal of Sport Rehabilitation_, 16, 260-270. 6. Eberman, L.E., & Cleary, M.A. (2009). Preparticipation physical exam to identify at-risk athletes for exertional heat illness. _Athletic Therapy Today_, 14(4), 4-7. 7. Haley, A., & Nichols, A. (2009). A survey of injuries and medical conditions affecting competitive adult outrigger canoe paddlers on Oahu. _Hawaii Medical Journal_, 68(7), 162-165. 8. Hunter, I., Hopkins, J.T., & Casa, D.J. (2006). Warming up with an ice vest: core body temperature before and after cross-country racing. _Journal of Athletic Training_, 41(4), 371-374. 9. Kleiner, D.M. (2002). A new exertional heat illness scale. _Athletic Therapy Today_, 7(6), 65-70. 10. Marsh, S.A., & Jenkins, D.G. (2002). Physiological responses to the menstrual cycle. _Sports Medicine_, 32(10), 601-614. 11. Mazerolle, S.M., Scruggs, I.C., Casa, D.J., Burton, L.J., & McDermott, B.P. (2010). Current knowledge, attitudes, and practices of certified athletic trainers regarding recognition and treatment of exertional heat stroke. _Journal of Athletic Training_, 45(2), 170-180. 12. McDermott, B.P., Casa, D.J., Ganio, M.S., Lopez, R.M., & Yeargin, S.W. (2009). Acute whole-body cooling for exercise-induced hyperthermia: a systematic review. _Journal of Athletic Training_, 44(1), 84-93. 13. Miners, A.L. (2010). The diagnosis and emergency care of heat related illness and sunburn in athletes: a retrospective case series. _J Can Chiro Assoc_, 54(2), 107-117. 14. Muldoon, S., Deuster, P., Voelkel, M., Capacchione, J., & Bunger, R. (2008). Exertional heat illness, exertional rhabdomyolysis, and malignant hyperthermia: is there a link? _Current Sports Medicine Report_s, 7(2), 74-80. 15. Shendell, D.G., Alexander, M.S., Lorentzon, L., & McCarty, F.A. (2010). Knowledge and awareness of heat-related morbidity among adult recreational endurance athletes. +Int J Biometeorol_, 54, 441-448. 16. Snell, P.G., Ward, R., Kandaswami, C., & Stohs, S.J. (2010). Comparative effects of selected non-caffeinated rehydration sports drinks on short-term performance following moderate hydration. _Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition_, 7(28), Retrieved from http://www.jissn.com/content/7/1/28 doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-7-28 17. Spain, J.K., Liotta, C., Terrell, T., & Branoff, R. (2010). Heat-related illness in athletes: recognition and treatment. _Athletic Training & Sports Health Care_, 2(4), 152-154. 18. Spann, T. (2007). Avoiding heat illness. _Hughston Health Alert_, 19(3), 5-6.

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Armenia (// (listen); Armenian: ????????, translit. Hayastan, IPA: [h?j?s?t?n]), officially the Republic of Armenia (Armenian: ????????? ???????????????, translit. Hayastani Hanrapetut'yun, IPA: [h?j?st??ni h?n??p?tut??jun]), is a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located in Western Asia on the Armenian Highlands, it is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia to the north, the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh and Azerbaijan to the east, and Iran and Azerbaijan's exclave of Nakhchivan to the south. Armenia is a unitary, multi-party, democratic nation-state with an ancient cultural heritage. Urartu was established in 860 BC and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia. The Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great in the 1st century BC and became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official religion in the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. The official date of state adoption of Christianity is 301. The ancient Armenian kingdom was split between the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires around the early 5th century. Under the Bagratuni dynasty, the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia was restored in the 9th century. Declining due to the wars against the Byzantines, the kingdom fell in 1045 and Armenia was soon after invaded by the Seljuk Turks. An Armenian principality and later a kingdom Cilician Armenia was located on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea between the 11th and 14th centuries. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the traditional Armenian homeland composed of Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia came under the rule of the Ottoman and Iranian empires, repeatedly ruled by either of the two over the centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire, while most of the western parts of the traditional Armenian homeland remained under Ottoman rule. During World War I, Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated in the Armenian Genocide. In 1918, following the Russian Revolution, all non-Russian countries declared their independence after the Russian Empire ceased to exist, leading to the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and in 1922 became a founding member of the Soviet Union. In 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, into full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Armenia recognises the Armenian Apostolic Church, the world's oldest national church, as the country's primary religious establishment. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots in 405 AD. Armenia is a member of the Eurasian Economic Union, the Council of Europe and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia supports the de facto independent Artsakh, which was proclaimed in 1991. The original native Armenian name for the country was ???? (Hayk’), however it is currently rarely used. The contemporary name ???????? (Hayastan) became popular in the Middle Ages by addition of the Persian suffix -stan (place).. However the origins of the name Hayastan trace back to much earlier dates and were first attested in circa 5th century in the works of Agathangelos, Faustus of Byzantium, Ghazar Parpetsi, Koryun, and Sebeos. The name has traditionally been derived from Hayk (????), the legendary patriarch of the Armenians and a great-great-grandson of Noah, who, according to the 5th-century AD author Moses of Chorene, defeated the Babylonian king Bel in 2492 BC and established his nation in the Ararat region. The further origin of the name is uncertain. It is also further postulated that the name Hay comes from one of the two confederated, Hittite vassal states?the ?aya?a-Azzi (1600-1200 BC). The exonym Armenia is attested in the Old Persian Behistun Inscription (515 BC) as Armina ( ). The Ancient Greek terms ?ρμεν?α (Armenia) and ?ρμ?νιοι(Armenioi, "Armenians") are first mentioned by Hecataeus of Miletus (c. 550 BC - c. 476 BC). Xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BC. He relates that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians. According to the histories of both Moses of Chorene and Michael Chamchian, Armenia derives from the name of Aram, a lineal descendant of Hayk. The Table of Nations lists Aram as the son of Shem, to whom the Book of Jubilees attests, Jubilees 8:21 also apportions the Mountains of Ararat to Shem, which Jubilees 9:5 expounds to be apportioned to Aram. The historian Flavius Josephus also states in his Antiquities of the Jews, Armenia lies in the highlands surrounding the mountains of Ararat. There is evidence of an early civilisation in Armenia in the Bronze Age and earlier, dating to about 4000 BC. Archaeological surveys in 2010 and 2011 at the Areni-1 cave complex have resulted in the discovery of the world's earliest known leather shoe, skirt, and wine-producing facility. According to the story of Hayk, the legendary founder of Armenia, around 2107 BC Hayk fought against Belus, the Babylonian God of War, at Cavu?tepe along the Engil river to establish the very first Armenian state. Historically, this event coincides with the destruction of Akkad by the Gutian dynasty of Sumer in 2115 BC, a time when Hayk may’ve left with the “more than 300 members of his household” as told in the legend, and also during the beginning of when a Mesopotamian Dark Age was occurring due to the fall of the Akkadian Empire in 2154 BC which may’ve acted as a backdrop for the events in the legend making him leave Mesopotamia. Several Bronze Age states flourished in the area of Greater Armenia, including the Hittites (at the height of their power), Mitanni (southwestern historical Armenia), and Hayasa-Azzi (1500-1200 BC). The Nairi people (12th to 9th centuries BC) and Urartu (1000-600 BC) successively established their sovereignty over the Armenian Highlands. Each of the aforementioned nations and tribes participated in the ethnogenesis of the Armenians. A large cuneiform lapidary inscription found in Yerevan established that the modern capital of Armenia was founded in the summer of 782 BC by King Argishti I. Yerevan is the world's oldest city to have documented the exact date of its foundation. During the late 6th century BC, the first geographical entity that was called Armenia by neighbouring populations was established under the Orontid Dynastywithin the Achaemenid Empire, as part of the latters' territories. The kingdom became fully sovereign from the sphere of influence of the Seleucid Empire in 190 BC under King Artaxias I and begun the rule of the Artaxiad dynasty. Armenia reached its height between 95 and 66 BC under Tigranes the Great, becoming the most powerful kingdom of its time east of the Roman Republic. In the next centuries, Armenia was in the Persian Empire's sphere of influence during the reign of Tiridates I, the founder of the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia, which itself was a branch of the Parthian Empire. Throughout its history, the kingdom of Armenia enjoyed both periods of independence and periods of autonomy subject to contemporary empires. Its strategic location between two continents has subjected it to invasions by many peoples, including Assyria(under Ashurbanipal, at around 669-627 BC, the boundaries of Assyria reached as far as Armenia and the Caucasus Mountains), Medes, Achaemenid Empire, Greeks, Parthians, Romans, Sasanian Empire, Byzantine Empire, Arabs, Seljuk Empire, Mongols, Ottoman Empire, the successive Safavid, Afsharid, and Qajar dynasties of Iran, and the Russians. Religion in ancient Armenia was historically related to a set of beliefs that, in Persia, led to the emergence of Zoroastrianism. It particularly focused on the worship of Mithra and also included a pantheon of gods such as Aramazd, Vahagn, Anahit, and Astghik. The country used the solar Armenian calendar, which consisted of 12 months. Christianity spread into the country as early as AD 40. Tiridates III of Armenia (238-314) made Christianity the state religion in 301, partly, in defiance of the Sasanian Empire, it seems, becoming the first officially Christian state, ten years before the Roman Empire granted Christianity an official toleration under Galerius, and 36 years before Constantine the Great was baptised. Prior to this, during the latter part of the Parthian period, Armenia was a predominantly Zoroastrian country. After the fall of the Kingdom of Armenia in 428, most of Armenia was incorporated as a marzpanate within the Sasanian Empire. Following the Battle of Avarayr in 451, Christian Armenians maintained their religion and Armenia gained autonomy. After the Sasanian period (428-636), Armenia emerged as Arminiya, an autonomous principality under the Umayyad Caliphate, reuniting Armenian lands previously taken by the Byzantine Empire as well. The principality was ruled by the Prince of Armenia, and recognised by the Caliph and the Byzantine Emperor. It was part of the administrative division/emirate Arminiya created by the Arabs, which also included parts of Georgia and Caucasian Albania, and had its centre in the Armenian city, Dvin. Arminiya lasted until 884, when it regained its independence from the weakened Abbasid Caliphate under Ashot I of Armenia. The reemergent Armenian kingdom was ruled by the Bagratuni dynasty and lasted until 1045. In time, several areas of the Bagratid Armenia separated as independent kingdoms and principalities such as the Kingdom of Vaspurakan ruled by the House of Artsruni in the south, Kingdom of Syunik in the east, or Kingdom of Artsakh on the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh, while still recognising the supremacy of the Bagratid kings. In 1045, the Byzantine Empire conquered Bagratid Armenia. Soon, the other Armenian states fell under Byzantine control as well. The Byzantine rule was short lived, as in 1071 the Seljuk Empire defeated the Byzantines and conquered Armenia at the Battle of Manzikert, establishing the Seljuk Empire. To escape death or servitude at the hands of those who had assassinated his relative, Gagik II of Armenia, King of Ani, an Armenian named Ruben I, Prince of Armenia, went with some of his countrymen into the gorges of the Taurus Mountains and then into Tarsus of Cilicia. The Byzantine governor of the palace gave them shelter where the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was eventually established on 6 January 1198 under Leo I, King of Armenia, a descendant of Prince Ruben. Cilicia was a strong ally of the European Crusaders, and saw itself as a bastion of Christendom in the East. Cilicia's significance in Armenian history and statehood is also attested by the transfer of the seat of the Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church, the spiritual leader of the Armenian people, to the region. The Seljuk Empire soon started to collapse. In the early 12th century, Armenian princes of the Zakarid family drove out the Seljuk Turks and established a semi-independent principality in northern and eastern Armenia known as Zakarid Armenia, which lasted under the patronage of the Georgian Kingdom. The Orbelian Dynasty shared control with the Zakarids in various parts of the country, especially in Syunik and Vayots Dzor, while the House of Hasan-Jalalyan controlled provinces of Artsakh and Utik as the Kingdom of Artsakh. Early Modern era During the 1230s, the Mongol Empire conquered Zakarid Armenia and then the remainder of Armenia. The Mongolian invasions were soon followed by those of other Central Asian tribes, such as the Kara Koyunlu, Timurid dynasty and A? Qoyunlu, which continued from the 13th century until the 15th century. After incessant invasions, each bringing destruction to the country, with time Armenia became weakened. In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid dynasty of Iran divided Armenia. From the early 16th century, both Western Armenia and Eastern Armenia fell to the Safavid Empire. Owing to the century long Turco-Iranian geopolitical rivalry that would last in Western Asia, significant parts of the region were frequently fought over between the two rivalling empires. From the mid 16th century with the Peace of Amasya, and decisively from the first half of the 17th century with the Treaty of Zuhab until the first half of the 19th century, Eastern Armenia was ruled by the successive Safavid, Afsharid and Qajar empires, while Western Armenia remained under Ottoman rule. From 1604, Abbas I of Iran implemented a "scorched earth" policy in the region to protect his north-western frontier against any invading Ottoman forces, a policy that involved a forced resettlement of masses of Armenians outside of their homelands. In the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan and the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay, following the Russo-Persian War (1804-13) and the Russo-Persian War (1826-28), respectively, the Qajar dynasty of Iran was forced to irrevocably cede Eastern Armenia, consisting of the Erivan and Karabakh Khanates, to Imperial Russia. While Western Armenia still remained under Ottoman rule, the Armenians were granted considerable autonomy within their own enclaves and lived in relative harmony with other groups in the empire (including the ruling Turks). However, as Christians under a strict Muslim social structure, Armenians faced pervasive discrimination. When they began pushing for more rights within the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, in response, organised state-sponsored massacres against the Armenians between 1894 and 1896, resulting in an estimated death toll of 80,000 to 300,000 people. The Hamidian massacres, as they came to be known, gave Hamid international infamy as the "Red Sultan" or "Bloody Sultan". This period is known as Russian Armenia. During the 1890s, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, commonly known as Dashnaktsutyun, became active within the Ottoman Empire with the aim of unifying the various small groups in the empire that were advocating for reform and defending Armenian villages from massacres that were widespread in some of the Armenian-populated areas of the empire. Dashnaktsutyun members also formed Armenian fedayi groups that defended Armenian civilians through armed resistance. The Dashnaks also worked for the wider goal of creating a "free, independent and unified" Armenia, although they sometimes set aside this goal in favour of a more realistic approach, such as advocating autonomy. The Ottoman Empire began to collapse, and in 1908, the Young Turk Revolution overthrew the government of Sultan Hamid. In April 1909, the Adana massacre occurred in the Adana Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire resulting in the deaths of as many as 20,000-30,000 Armenians. The Armenians living in the empire hoped that the Committee of Union and Progress would change their second-class status. Armenian reform package (1914) was presented as a solution by appointing an inspector general over Armenian issues. World War I and the Armenian Genocide The outbreak of World War I led to confrontation between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire in the Caucasus and Persian Campaigns. The new government in Istanbulbegan to look on the Armenians with distrust and suspicion, because the Imperial Russian Army contained a contingent of Armenian volunteers. On 24 April 1915, Armenian intellectuals were arrested by Ottoman authorities and, with the Tehcir Law (29 May 1915), eventually a large proportion of Armenians living in Anatolia perished in what has become known as the Armenian Genocide. The genocide was implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre. There was local Armenian resistance in the region, developed against the activities of the Ottoman Empire. The events of 1915 to 1917 are regarded by Armenians and the vast majority of Western historians to have been state-sponsored mass killings, or genocide. Turkish authorities deny the genocide took place to this day. The Armenian Genocide is acknowledged to have been one of the first modern genocides. According to the research conducted by Arnold J. Toynbee, an estimated 600,000 Armenians died during deportation from 1915-16. This figure, however, accounts for solely the first year of the Genocide and does not take into account those who died or were killed after the report was compiled on 24 May 1916. The International Association of Genocide Scholars places the death toll at "more than a million". The total number of people killed has been most widely estimated at between 1 and 1.5 million. Armenia and the Armenian diaspora have been campaigning for official recognition of the events as genocide for over 30 years. These events are traditionally commemorated yearly on 24 April, the Armenian Martyr Day, or the Day of the Armenian Genocide. source : Wikipedia |스리랑카에 존재하는 1만년 한국역사 (펌)||02/21/2016| |한국교회 망신 시키는 슈퍼 3형제 (펌)||07/23/2015| |대륙조선은 어떻게 사라졌는가?||03/06/2015| |"그들은 미쳤다, 한국인들"…프랑스인 눈에 비친 한국 기업 (펌)||03/12/2015| |박근혜, 대통령 자격 없다 (펌)||05/07/2014| |징기스칸은 고구려 발해 왕가의 후손이다. (펌)||08/14/2015| |제가 요즈음 중앙블로그에 뜸한 이유는 ...||03/05/2014| |유신독재 찬양자는 종북세력이다||11/02/2013| |놀라운 대조선의 비밀 1000 가지 (1-30) (펌)||08/27/2017| |누가 진보이고 누가 보수인가?||02/03/2015|

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CHAPTER THREE ALIENATION I ANITA DESAI'S NOVELS INDIAN CONTEXT After discussing the views of Western thinkers on the concept of alienation in the Second Chapter, an attempt is made in the present chapter to discuss this concept in the Indian context in general and in the context of Anita Desai's novels in particular. When alienation is to be discussed in the Indian context, a view put forward by some sociologists needs some attention. It is argued that the family structure in Indian society is wellknit and that the unit functions generally in a homogeneous manner. As a consequence, members of such a joint family are closely bound to one another and relations try to create a sense of unity and unification. In such circumstances, isolation of individuals and the resultant feeling of alienation is unlikely to creep in. Not only do we notice husband-wife and parent-children bound to each other, but even distant relatives come together to create a strong sense of togetherness. Though this view is generally acceptable, the joint family as a unit has crumbled down over the years. It existed in the pre- independence period when the joint family system was well-rooted and commonly respected in Indian society. But during the post independence period the family, alongwith its social and cultural context, has undergone a remarkable change. The Western influence, coming through liberal education, forced new values and norms of life upon Indian family and social systems. Young men and women became socially and psychologically conscious. This consciousness led them to reject some old traditions and customs and adopt new ways and attitude to life. They demanded more freedom from the old generation. Consequently, the gap between the old generation and new generation became wider and deeper in the Indian family, social and cultural setup. Women who were traditionally treated as secondary to men realised their pitiable condition. Through liberal education, they acquired anew vision and got inspirations for their mental and intellectual development. They demanded freedom. They no longer remained the dumb creature they were earlier. They tried to come out of the tyranny of the family and social evils. The existing hostile family, social and cultural circumstances forced them to fight against their families and the Indian social and cultural setup for their rights. Promilla Kapur, a sociologist, analyses the change: With a change in women's personal status and social status has come a change in her way of thinking and feelings and the past half century has witnessed great changes in attitudes towards sex, love and marriage. As a result, the traditional family values and social norms in the Indian setup have undergone a remarkable change. Industrialisation which spread rapidly in the post-independence period brought evils of materialism which affected Indian family values and social norms. As a result, family and social unification and togetherness gradually disintegrated. 27 In this context, the position of women in Indian society has to be considered. It maybe noted that the attitude to women in I j Indian social setup is ambivalent. On the one hand, the woman is respected as mother an embodiment of love and sacrifice on the other hand, she is treated as a commodity owned by the male-dominated world. In the joint family, a woman finds herself hemmed in the scores of relatives that family comprises of. She feels claustrophobic at the total lack of privacy. She is bound to serve her husband and the other family members who rarely recognise her dedication and sacrifices. She is expected to be more cautious and careful in performing her duties towards her mother-in-law and sisters-in-law, because the relationship between daughter-in-law and her in-laws is tender and complex in the Indian situation. Generally, a daughter-in-law is not treated as a respectable member of the family in the Indian family set up. She is always made to feel that she is obliged to her husband and the family members. When she needs support and understanding from her husband and in-laws, she is treated as an outcast. Her individuality is denied and she is forced to bend before the elders. Her primary duty is to bear children, look after them and do the endless repetitive daily chores of the household. Near and distant relatives force themselves on the housewife and the poor woman gets submerged like a slave in the service of the guests, thereby losing her independence and individuality. Family life and the work pattern convey the idea that the woman should be subordinate to and dependent on man. Her position in the family as well as in society kept on changing all through the ages and is 28 almost invariably an inferior one. She is hardly given any freedom. The subordination is still continued in our society. The relief from dependency is still out of the reach of most women. They face many obstacles. That is why, though surrounded by her husband, children and in-laws, she feels lonely and alienated. / In spite of the Western influence, the family has as not changed much. Though there has been a lot of legal protection to women, their lot has not changed much. In spite of educational opportunities and economic independence, women are surrounded by domestic and social injustices and the crude customs of our society. They are ultimately forced to adjust themselves to the reality. Consequently, they become victims trapped in the conventions created by our society. Shantha Krishnaswamy, explaining the position of woman in our society, points out: 29 She is a creature who as a child is sold off to strangers fora bridal price, or when she grows up, serves as a supplier of dowry for her husband's family, or who as widow, in a final act of obliteration immolates herself on her dead husband's funeral pyre to be acclaimed as 'Sati- Savitri' as an immortal. This reveals woman's pitible condition in the Indian setup. Her existence as an independent individual is never accepted. She is equated with a commodity to be exploited at various levels. As a result, the lot of women has remained unchanged. This is true not only of uneducated women in rural India, but also of educated women in urban areas. The next point to be considered is the importance of marriage as an institution. Compared to its influence on the social structure in west, marriage has dominated the Indian social structure. Now, the hold of this ancient institution is crumbling in the west, as individualism and liberation of women has become dominant. But in India, marriage has its own framework of rituals, restrictions and moral bindings. The Indian woman is conventionally bound to them. The life of educated woman in Urban area is also not satisfactory. Since her sense of individuality has matured by the introduction of education, she does not want to lead a passive married life of a sacrificial and shadowy creature. She expects a measure of satisfaction. But she is not free from adverse family, social and cultural forces. Today, she has become more conscious of her misery. Her thoughts render it impossible for her to bear the burden of convention. Yet she cannot free herself from them. As a result, she feels insecure and psychologically restless. The condition of an uneducated woman in the Indian setup is miserable. Her dependence on others, her inability to be individualistic and her conventionally accepted predicament make her life almost unbearable. The next point about alienation in the Indian context concern the feeling of togetherness encouraged by neighbours. Although it is generally believed that neighbourly relations area great force to minimise alienation in Indian society, it is not true, especially in the urban world. A passage from Anita Desai's novel entitled, Baumgartner's Bombay, aptly illustrates 30 31 neighbourly relations in our society He found a crowd of onlookers already gathered there, watching the man beating his wife with his fists and then kick her down, grab her by her hair and drag her up the street, swearing. What is happen' asked the concerned Baumgartner of the watchman at the door...but some of the onlookers tured round with amused looks and explained,'Drunk man saying his wife behaving badly with other men, so he is beating her. ' He is killing her, Baumgartner bleated, wondering at their nonchalance. We better call police. But no one moved. BB p.8) This expresses neighbours' indifferent attitude towards the helpless, unprotected woman who is being inhumanly beaten by her drunken husband. It also unmistakably reveals dehumanisation of a woman in an economically poor family in our society. At this stage, it could be said that alienation is universal and is possible in the Indian context. Moreover, it is more likely that women are alienated in Indian society. Woman's position in the family as well as in society kept on changing all through the ages and is invariably an inferior one. Indian society is still patriarchal and male-dominated. The subordination is still continued. The condition of an uneducated women is miserable. The educated women are caught in a conflict of conventionality and unconventionality. Their survival needs are met but they are confronted with other problems like loneliness, lack of communication and communality which cause mental crises in their life and make them feel alienated. Masculine and institutional pressures add to exacerbate them further. Thus, alienation is possible in the Indian context. This is illustrated by pictures of alienated characters in the fiction written by Indian writers. Among the Indian novelists in English Mulk Raj Anand and Kamala Markandaya have touched upon the theme of alienation to some extent. It is dealt with extensively in the novels of Arun Joshi and Shashi Deshpande. Arun Joshi’s novels deal with the self and bring into a central focus the way in which the self tries to assess its involvement in the alienation from the family and society. The theme of alienation and loneliness in his novel, entitled, The Last Labyrinth is repeatedly suggested by the frequent use of the word "void. Sindi Oberai, the protagonist- narrator of his novel entitled, The Foreigner, though not a foreigner feels rootless because of his feeling of not-belonging to anyplace or anything in this world. Shashi Deshpande has very explicitly highlighted the inner struggle and suffering of anew class of Indian woman through her characters. Indus life in her novel entitled. Roots and Shadows portrays the predicament of a woman who faces the pull of the forces of the society that expects a woman to conform to its norms. She is a restless woman who longs for the expression of her true self. Shashi Deshpande has tried to project a realistic picture of the middle-class educated women who are financially independent. Women in her novels are initially unconventional. Family traditions, social norms, moral and cultural values create problems and complications in their actual lives and finally make them submit to traditions. Death is not the way out for them. Though economically independent, they 32 are emotionally dependent on their husbands and relatives. They are caught in a conflict of emotion and reason which is internal and complex. Their alienation, to put in Sidney Finkelstein's words, is a psychological alienation. Anita Desai has tried to project a realistic picture of the woman of nineteen fifties and sixties. All her women protagonists are not economically independent. They are brilliant, highly sensitive and extraordinarily aware of the hostile circumstances around them. They have emotional and psychological quest for love and meaningful life and feel suffocated, frustrated and alienated in the hostile family and social situations. Some of them reject unquestioning acceptance of the traditional female role. The point of their happiness and agony are inscrutable. They are surrowful persons burning themselves on the path of estrangement. To use Anita Desai's words, her characters are made to stand against the general current. who fight that current and struggle 3 against it. She portrays a deeply felt and suffered rebellion against the entire system of social relationship. There is a quest towards the concept of "real love. Anita Desai has pointed out that she is interested in individuals and not in social issues. However, social issues intrude into her novels because, they affect her characters. The factors responsible for the feeling of alienation of Anita Desai's characters are varied and complex. She believes that the world is full of insecurities, fears and tremblings keeping man away from attaining his goal. Her earlier novels 33 like, Cry, the Peacock, Voices in the City, Fire on the Mountain and Where Shall We Go This Summer ? are illustrative of these points. At the same time, she is fully aware of the supremacy and potentiality of man. Her Clear Light of Day and Baumgartner's Bombay are illustrative of this point of view. Despite an incessant suffering in Baumgartner's life he does not think ill of his oppressors. On the contrary, he gives shelter and food to an inhuman drug-addict Kurt, who finally murders him fora piece of silver. If one compares the feeling of alienation in Anita Desai's characters with that of Albert Camus' Meursault, one notices that the outsider in Meursault is the making of the post world war experience shared by the individual. As no much impact of Existential philosophy and the concept of the Absurd was ever experienced in India, the Indians are bound to feel alienation of a different quality. The feeling of alienation experienced by the Indians is comparatively less poignant. They experience different forms of alienation such as powerlessness, meaninglessness, isolation and self-estrangement given by an American thinker, Melvin Seeman indifferent situations. This alienation could be universal and common to people allover the world. Family, social, psychological, biological and cultural forces have their sharing in moulding Anita Desai's characters. Being highly sensitive, they are extraordinarily aware of their own actions and the hostile family, social and cultural situations existing around them. We notice a touch of neurosis in the behaviours of her some women characters. We also observe the symptoms of schizophrenia through the actions and movements of her 34 35 some women protagonists. In an unpublished M.Phil dissertation, Mr SR. Borole observes, " Anita Desai's all women characters are schizoid personalities. This observation is not acceptable because it seems an exaggeration. The symptoms of schizophrenia are traceable in the behaviours of Maya, Monisha and Sarah only and not in the behaviours of Anita Desai's all women characters. Moreover, the signs and symptoms of neurosis and schizophrenia in their cases are not of sever kind. Anita Desai successfully convinces us by giving us substantial reasons such as incessant physical and mental torturing, humiliation and anguish which become responsible for their neurotic and schizophrenic 'N actions. As, Borole is concerned with Anita Desai's earlier two novels- Cry, the Peacock and Where Shall Me Go This Summer ?, for his dissertation, he cannot have a comprehensive view in this context. Some of Anita Desai's novels evidently reveal that her characters turn neurotic and schizophrenic. Inner struggles and discordant family, social and cultural forces produce neurotic and schizophrenic situations. These adverse forces make these women experience a terror of despair, loneliness and frustration and further cause mental crises in their lives. In Cry, the Peacock We realise the causes and consequences of the cruel family and social forces through the loss of Maya's mental balance and her act of pushing Gautama down from the terrace and committing suicide at the end. In Voices in the City, we notice how the hostilities in Jiban's family force the lonely Monisha to close herself from all and reach the decision of annihilating herself. In Where Shall We Go This Summer ?, adverse forces create emotional stresses and mental conflicts in Sita's mind leading heron neurotic ways like smoking openly and speaking agitatedly. In this critical study, Anita Desai's characters are grouped into three categories according to the causes and consequences of their feeling of alienation. The first category is of those women who are physically disturbed by the hostile family and social situations and find it difficult to come out of their alienated situation and finally annihilate themselves. The characters are Maya, Monisha, Nanda K a u l , Raka and Ila Das. The second category is of those individuals who are basically alienated but they direct themselves from a negative viewpoint to a positive viewpoint and move from alienation to self-realisation to reach a mental stage of dealienation through a variety of means like free communication, mutual love and respect, a sense of understanding and compromise. The characters are Sita, Bim, Deven Sharma, Hari and Nirode. The third group consists of characters who belong to the cultural alienation. Their alienation is caused by the problems of rootlessness, a sense of not-belonging and the issues involved in the conflicting cultures as they live on a foreign soil. The characters are Dev, Adit, Sarah, Hugo Baumgartner, Lotte and Julius Roth. Anita Desai's characters are human beings full of weaknesses as well as personalities. They are caught in the web of their own compulsions. When understood psychologically, we begin to 3 6 visualise their aims and ambitions, disappointments and loneliness. They react to their troubles with tragic intensity. Their troubles are not superficial but ingrained in them since their childhood. As Karen Horney , in her book entitled Neurosis and Human Growth points out, Anita Desai also believes that adverse and painful experiences from childhood determine conditions for neurosis, but they are not the only causes of their troubles. In this context Anita Desai says: 37 I agree the experiences of childhood are the most vivid and lasting ones. But I'm quite sure that even adult life contains many traumatic experiences, for instance fighting in a war maybe a traumatic experience fora soldier. Anita Desai does not fully expose the childhood of her characters, but whatever flashbacks are provided are enough to understand them. Her characters tend to forego their vital "self" somewhere during their journey from childhood to adulthood. Her grownup as well as middle-aged men and women are disturbed by hostile family, social, cultural and psychological forces, which are beyond their comprehensions. Psychologists like Karen Horney Abraham Maslow, Erich Fromm argue that a child undergoes traumatic exp>eriences if it is made to feel rejected or uncared for. He suffers a psychic death. It is a srcret process, but it arrests his growth into a wholesome personality. Sita struggles to 6 "connect" herself with the adverse and powerful stream of life. Nirode rejects everything, because the childhood images have taught him negation. Bim, Nanda Kaul and Raka wish to forget their past traumatic experiences. These characters try hard to find out substitutes for their Lost selves. Everybody wants to guard his identity, so that he remains meaningful to himself and is able to make himself significant. The inner urge of her every character is to lift himself above others, to guard himself from the hostile and desperate atmosphere perpetuated by a harmful childhood climate. It maybe concluded that alienation is a universal phenomenon and that it is noticeable in a remarkable degree in the Indian context. As the structure of society and culture have changed during the sands the feeling of alienation has resulted inevitably both in the lives of men and women. It is explained how hostile family, social, cultural and psychological forces become responsible for the feeling of alienation irrespective of time and place. Of course, we find a difference between the intensity and the level of torturing of the feeling of alienation experienced by the men and women in the Western context and the intensity and the level of torturing of the feeling of alienation experienced by Anita Desai's characters. This difference is realised because of different family, social and cultural milieus. Efforts are made to explain Anita Desai's handling of the theme of alienation in her novels. Her characters are grouped into three categories on the basis of the causes and consequences of their feeling of alienation. They are -- i) those who find it difficult to come out of their alienated situation and finally annihilate themselves, ii) those who are basically alienated but they direct themselves to reach a positive point of 38 view and iii) those who experience cultural alienation as they live on a foreign land. An attempt is also made to bring out how Anita Desai's novels reveal that free communication within and outside, mutual love and respect, clear understanding of life, awareness of hostile forces within and around oneself and a sense of belonging lead human being to a process of mental stage that could be called dealienation which enables human being to see things clearly and think positively and comprehensively. The relevance of the theme of alienation will be illustrated by discussing Anita Desai's individual characters in the subsequent chapters giving different levels and kinds of the feeling of alienation. 39 40 ■fc= Footnotes i Chapter III : 1 Promilla Kapur, The Changing Status of the Working Women in India. (Delhi : Vikas Publication, The women in Indian Fiction in English New Delhi : Ashish Publication, 1984). Shantha Krishnaswamy, Atma Ram, S. R. Borole Jasbir Jain, E. M. Forster An Interview with Anita Desai World n Litera xre Written in English, Vol, 16 No.l November, 1977), pp. 95-104. " The Theme of Alienation in Anita Desai's Cry the Peacock and Where Shall We Go This Summer ? " Unpublished M. Phil, dissertation submitted to the University of Poona, Poona, (1989), p" An Interview with Anita Deasi "Ra i asthan University Studies in English, Vol. XII, (1979) , pp. 61-69. Howard's End London ; Penguin Books, 1976), p. 188.

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Addiction, Biological Psychiatry and the Disease Model (Part 2) Challenging the disease model of addiction should not be viewed as just another interesting scientific and philosophical debate. Calling addiction a “disease” is not only wrong from a scientific perspective, but the promotion of this model of treatment can actually be harmful to some people trying to understand and recover from this life damaging and life threatening problem. If people believe it is a “disease” they may end up looking in the wrong places for the necessary solutions to their problem and limiting themselves to only specific forms of poorly designed treatment options, including possibly receiving prescriptions for potentially dangerous medications. Biological Psychiatry along with some medical doctors push several different drugs that they believe can treat this disease and/or provide some type of drug maintenance protocol for managing major symptoms. They rarely, if ever, talk about a cure or a state of permanent abstinence, even though millions of people have actually achieved this goal on their own or with other kinds of help. As stated in Part 1, many psychiatrists see addiction as a set of symptoms related to an underlying psychiatric diagnosis such as depression, anxiety, or Bipolar Disorder, and because these so-called symptoms usually accompany most major drug addiction problems they will end up prescribing antidepressants, Benzos, mood stabilizers, and more recently antipsychotic medications as their treatment solution. Psychiatrists also frequently combine these particular drugs with various sleep medications (sleep problems also come with the territory of most addictions). We now know that all these medications carry with them a whole other set of their own problems (both negative side effects and main effects), including the potential for addiction and/or major withdrawal problems when people try to taper down or stop their use. Quite often all the above mentioned psychological symptoms are the direct result of an underlying addiction problem in and of itself; unfortunately this is either denied and/or ignored by both the addict and their doctor. The medicalization of addiction, with all it overmedication abuses, only further complicates an overstressed brain that has already been temporarily altered by the chemical effects of legal and illegal drugs. And because we already live in a culture of addiction (opportunistically seized upon and made worse by Biological Psychiatry) people with these problems have been conditioned (and even promised) that their problems can be solved with the external solution of another pill or injection. This is why people with addictions often flock to psychiatrists; they are so ripe to become preyed upon and ultimately fooled into being used by Biological Psychiatry as a new source of patients and for more drug experimentation. And many patients who are addicts also know all too well that psych meds are mind altering by themselves or in combination with other substances, and they can now self-justify their use because they are legally promoted and prescribed to them by a licensed doctor. Look at all the psych meds, such as Benzos, Lyrica, and even antipsychotics such as Seroquel, that are today frequently sold in the streets. In the end all this just tends to make people even more vulnerable and overall dependent on mind altering substance use, thus making recovery a much more difficult struggle, if not totally impossible. If the standard psychiatric meds do not become part of the mix, there are some newer drugs like Revia (naltrexone) and Campral (acomposate) which are advertised as pills or injections that will reduce cravings and/or block the desired effects of certain illicit drugs or alcohol. My experience tells me that these medications are over hyped (what’s new) and have very little long term success in overcoming major addictions. Addiction rates are definitely not going down and we are not reading any glowing studies showing any huge success rate with these particular meds stemming the high tide of addiction. It is interesting to note that when Revia first came out, if you carefully read the drug company studies used for FDA approval, they ever so conveniently took the liberty to redefine the concepts of abstinence and relapse. Most people believe that a relapse means a return to drinking any amount of alcohol, but with their studies, they redefined relapse to mean consuming more than 4 drinks per week. Therefore they could claim a false abstinence and/or efficacy of the drug if people in the studies were still drinking, though perhaps less than before they started the medication. Given the high rates of addiction in our society if these above mentioned medications had any outcomes with even mild to somewhat moderate success they would have already received a huge amount of publicity; this is just not the case. Psychiatrists will often throw these meds into the mix just to cover their ass and hope something good happens. Who cares that they may have raised false hopes in treating this so-called addiction “disease” or added a whole new set of drug interactions into the patient’s body. And then there is the old standard drug for alcoholism called Antabuse; this was quite popular many years ago but is not currently used that much these days. This drug makes people violently sick if they consume any alcohol while it still circulates in their blood stream. In some cases “violently sick” could be very dangerous for people with certain medical problems or if they are in very fragile health; so this drug is not without risk. Antabuse can benefit some people who have been totally unsuccessful at getting started on even a short period of abstinence. Of course there is always the ultimate downside, in that if someone really wants to drink alcohol again they will just choose to stop taking the drug. All of this tends to delay the alcoholic’s inevitable and necessary big decision to finally quit once and for all; a decision that people in the end need to make, both by and for themselves, in order to successfully achieve permanent recovery from their addiction. Finally, when it comes to specific medications directly used for treating addiction, I must mention the widespread use of methadone and suboxone for opiate addiction. I plan to address this issue in greater detail in a future blog, but I will make a few brief comments now. I stated in Part 1 that within the disease model these drugs are equated with the use of insulin for a diabetic; clearly a totally unscientific and bogus claim. Several hundred thousand people throughout this country are prescribed these drugs every day in programs that are openly called “maintenance” programs. Methadone, in particular, has often been nefariously referred to as the “orange handcuffs.” This reference is made because of the higher rates of crime connected to people needing to find illegal means to support their daily opiate drug habit. Methadone has essentially become a drug used effectively for the social control of a feared section of the population. It is an especially dangerous drug in certain situations, and is associated with a significant number of overdose deaths in this country. These methadone/suboxone programs cost the federal and state governments hundreds of millions of dollars every year and are very financially lucrative to certain “for profit” mental health organizations, and of course, the pharmaceutical corporations also find them very profitable. Full recovery from addiction is rarely discussed at all in these programs and it is quite common, and totally acceptable for treatment providers to say that many people (if not most of their patients) may have to remain on these drugs for their entire lifetime. For many reasons opiate addiction has become a major epidemic in recent years and may be the most difficult drug problem to successfully treat. However there are millions of examples of permanent recovery from these drugs and it is not the huge mystery that the recovery establishment makes it out to be. Right now this disease model that dominates addiction treatment has become just one more obstacle standing in the way of higher success rates for recovery, and dare I say, with better models of treatment operating (most importantly) in a dramatically different world environment, the virtual elimination of major addiction problems on a broad societal scale, is not out of the realm of possibility (more on this point in a future blog). It is accurate to say that at this time in history there are no medical/drug solutions for addiction, and calling it a “disease” certainly misdirects our focus and does not bring us any closer to finding an answer for this tragic human epidemic. (I would not rule out the possibility that in the future some medications could be developed to help with addiction problems in a more secondary role, especially with lessening drug cravings and withdrawal symptoms). So therefore according to the proponents of the disease model of addiction, outside of a medical solution, the only other successfully developed method that can provide a state of continuous management (not a cure) of this “disease” is a personal transformation in the so-called “spiritual” realm of one’s life. This is where Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, Cocaine Anonymous, Al-Non and other groups employing the Twelve Step philosophy enters the picture of the modern day recovery movement; and they all have a particular history that goes back to the 1930s. The United States was supposedly founded upon the principles of a definitive separation of church and state, especially when it comes to the nature of government, public education, and of course, most assuredly the practice of modern science, including the practice of medicine. So how did it come about over 70 years ago, that when the phenomena of human addiction problems presented itself at the doorsteps of hospitals and the offices of common medical doctors, that these followers of the so-called scientific method would end up sending desperately distressed patients to essentially a religious organization hoping for what they referred to as a “medical miracle” to magically take place? In the late 1930s addiction issues, such as alcoholism, were commonly viewed as a serious moral defect and a problem related to the absence of individual will power. Medical doctors could not fully comprehend addiction and had a terrible time trying to convince their patients to stop drinking; they simply had no effective answers for these problems. So out of shear frustration and ignorance they had no other recourse but to send their patients for a last resort “spiritual conversion” at the newly founded organization called Alcoholics Anonymous. And their decision was made somewhat easier by the fact that one of the group’s founders, himself a serious alcoholic, was also a medical doctor. In addition to this fact, a few very significant AA recovery success stories had recently received major national publicity in certain magazines and newspapers in that same time period. AA has its origins in the Oxford Group; a small religious sect from the 1930’s that was rooted in a form of Lutheran religious fundamentalism. The original founders of AA, Bill Wilson and Dr. Bob Smith, were eventually thrown out of the Oxford Group for their over devotion to curing alcoholics and their deviation from the group’s strict adherence to the principles of the “Four Absolutes”, which was their version of the one true road to religious salvation. While AA, from its very inception, always welcomed any person needing help for their drinking problem, including atheists and agnostics, its founding members never abandoned their belief that recovery from alcoholism required a religious type spiritual conversion. An excellent brief history of the founding of AA and its religious underpinnings can be accessed at the following website: www.positiveatheism.org/rw/revealed.htm. Alcoholics Anonymous and all the other twelve step programs that have historically followed in its footsteps may actually comprise the largest peer driven movement the world has ever seen. But it needs to be clearly stated that if a peer led human service movement or organization no matter how well intentioned, follows the wrong theory, it will end up with a poorly developed program and its real world practice will limit the numbers of people it can help and turn others away from potential recovery, and in some cases it may even harm people. The value of Twelve Step programs clearly divides into two. Their group meetings are accessible on an almost daily basis in most parts of the United States and in many other countries in the world. Over the past seventy years these programs have clearly helped many people, if not from the shear fact that it was basically the only organized group option out there for people with addiction problems. And to those people for whom it was the only help available at a time of extreme desperation, many will naturally attribute their own recovery as being a truly lifesaving event, and therefore view the Twelve Step programs as not only extremely precious, but almost above criticism. This powerful allegiance may be completely understandable given that these individuals usually have no other recovery experience to compare with their own. But what if there were other recovery choices widely available with a more accurate scientific theory and a related program that contained no ideological or programmatic barriers to keep people from attending its meetings or from eventually being turned away by some overly religious and, at times, rigidly followed practices? How many more millions of addicts would have been helped or would have avoided the tragic end results of chronic addiction problems? For this question we will never know the final answer. Today Twelve Step programs and the disease model dominates over 90% of all treatment facilities from detox/rehab centers to halfway houses and other residential programs in the United States. Unfortunately this domination leaves a significant segment of the addicted population with very few other viable options for finding compatible treatment. Many people struggling to obtain sobriety have already been exposed to the Twelve Step approach and have not been helped by it and are, in fact, turned off and away from recovery because of certain conflicts with its overly religious underpinnings and a rigid one road/continuous recovery approach to ending addiction. This even includes people who are themselves quite religious but reject the Twelve Step version of spirituality being an essential part of their decision to stop a particular substance abuse pattern. People who end up seeking alternative recovery approaches are sometimes ridiculed or viewed as a potential threat to the Twelve Step program; they frequently are warned by some members that they are destined to relapse for deviating from the one and only accepted road to recovery. Over the years certain clichéd sayings that may not all appear in official Twelve Step literature have taken on a life of its own and have become accepted dogma that is repeated on a daily basis at Twelve Step meetings throughout this country and in different parts of the world. It might be helpful to take a brief look at the Twelve Steps themselves, as well as, a few of these commonly accepted sayings to see how the disease model is actually presented, and also examine the possible negative effects it has had on some people seeking a desperate recovery from addiction. The religious component of Twelve Step programs is frequently downplayed and minimized by its members, this is especially true when they are defending it against the criticism that it is essentially a religious based organization. But looking at the actual content of the steps themselves and how they are presented at meetings, its religious presence cannot be mistaken. Seven out of the Twelve Steps either make a specific reference to God or a clear religious/spiritual word connection. And then of course there is the often recited “Serenity Prayer” and the much repeated phrase “Let go and Let God.” However even beyond the question of religion being a potential barrier for some people seeking recovery, let’s examine other programmatic or philosophical problems that addicts confront when introduced to Twelve Step programs at a very vulnerable time in their life. The first step which contains the phrase, “We admitted we were powerless over alcohol,” needs to be critically evaluated in light of the fact that there are a high percentage of trauma victims who end up in the halls of Twelve Step meetings. In this society having a trauma history often leads many people to addictive substances as a coping mechanism. In addition other categories of people, such as women, minorities, and mental health patients labeled as “dual diagnosis,” who are already marginalized or treated as second class citizens, are also prone to seek out desperate ways to cope with all the intense stress or psychological pain that this society dishes out on a daily basis. Is it really helpful to tell an oppressed person who already feels powerless that they are once again powerless over something else in this world? Not only is it not helpful to tell people that they are powerless over alcohol (or powerless over changing the material world around them) but it is not actually true in the real world. Yes, an addicted person may never again be able to safely drink alcohol or use cocaine or heroin etc., but they definitely have the power to make the necessary decision to stop their substance use once and for all, and that decision and subsequent action is, indeed, very empowering and life changing when it finally happens. And yes, certain social groups of people, including friends and family may become critically important and empowering as a part of this recovery process. In a similar vein, should we be telling people that in order for them to end their addiction they must “make a decision to turn their (our) will and lives over to the care of God” or some “Higher Power” as stated in Step Three? Many victims of addiction already believe their “will” has been controlled and violated by other people or institutions in this society, so are we not encouraging passivity and submissiveness by adding one more master along with additional feelings of dominance and inferiority? Leaving aside the question of whether or not there really is a “Higher Power,” it can be stated that having a strong “will”, or “will power,” is an important and necessary ingredient for anyone attempting to change themselves and the world around them. This “will” and related determination ultimately leads people to seek out an ideology and the social means to achieve a successful recovery or any other goal that is important to them. “Addiction is the disease, AA/NA is THE medicine; if you stop taking your medicine then you will relapse.” Another often repeated phrase that not only promotes the unscientific disease model, but also attempts to scare vulnerable people from seeking other recovery methods, or threatens them that if they leave “The Program” they will fail miserably at abstinence and end up relapsing or, even worse, dying from their addiction. Once again a much better and more accurate phrase would be, “One journey; many roads.” In reality, millions of people have recovered from addiction using many other types of individual or group skills and techniques, and many of these people have never turned up at detox/rehab facilities, doctor’s or therapist’s offices, or Twelve Step meetings. And if they did receive help from Twelve Step groups they may have done so on a time limited basis and eventually got on with their lives without either long term or lifelong membership. Taking this a step further, many people participating in Twelve Step programs have been taught to believe that relapse is almost inevitable, or it is waiting just around the corner ready to strike when they least expect it. For some people this can become almost like a “self-fulfilling prophesy.” They end up using their Twelve Step meetings almost like attending a church, in that when they ultimately relapse by engaging in “sin” (drinking or drugging) during the week; they quickly follow this up with attendance at a Twelve Step meeting on Sunday where they humbly ask for forgiveness and then the congregation (members of the group) forgives them (welcomes them back at the meetings) and then at different points in the future they end up repeating the whole process over and over again. For these so-called chronic relapsers true recovery becomes just an elusive dream. In certain ways this presentation of the disease concept has actually discouraged them from believing that permanent abstinence is an achievable goal; they end up believing that they will forever be stuck on a precipice of an impending relapse, never knowing when it might befall them and only hoping that Twelve Step attendance will keep the “germ” of their addiction “disease” at bay. “Shut up and get stupid; your best thinking got you here.” How much truth is contained in this frequently repeated Twelve Step mantra? Isn’t this actually an example of “turning reality on its head?” Of course it is true that addictive thought patterns (or the more common AA phrase, “stinkin’ thinkin’”) plays a decisive role in preceding anyone’s choice to pick up a drink or drug and thus continue one’s addiction. But is it helpful to make a principle out of ignorance or make a complete mystery out of the addictive process? Isn’t it more accurate to tell someone that it was their “worst thinking” that led them to addiction or, in fact, now keeps them stuck in it? Don’t people really need to “get smarter,” and isn’t more talking about thoughts and feelings also part of the learning process as well as listening and learning? These are all rhetorical questions for which the answers should be obvious. Unfortunately, aspects of the Twelve Step philosophy tend to promote a certain amount of blind obedience to dogma while discouraging critical thinking skills, just the opposite of what is necessary for anyone seeking the truth and finding liberating solutions to complex problems. These are just a few criticisms of the Twelve Step philosophy and its programmatic approaches to recovery. While I have stated that Twelve Step programs have helped many people by virtue of its overall dominating presence, I also believe it can be harmful to some people attempting to conquer major addiction problems. Some vocal critics of Twelve Step programs refer to it as a cult. While it is true that some members function in the organization in a cult like fashion, I believe its huge membership is extremely diverse and the character of meetings can vary from city to city. As a person who is a critic of the disease model and at the same time counsels people with major addiction problems, I have never discouraged people from attending AA or NA meetings. People in the throes of a devastating life of addiction often desperately need social/group support, especially from people who have some understanding and/or experience with this life threatening problem. A once a week counseling session can fall way short of the support necessary for successful recovery. There is one other commonly repeated saying in the halls of AA and NA that does make a great deal of sense for those people attending Twelve Step meetings, “Take what you need and leave the rest.” I find myself repeating this phrase quite often when people I work with are attending recovery meetings in my area. People need to find as many tools as possible in their search for recovery. There are no easy or simple solutions to our pervasive culture of addiction with all the damage it does on a daily basis. The search for the miracle cure has clearly come up empty; we should not be surprised. In the past, people in Twelve Step programs use to put up spontaneous resistance to Biological Psychiatry and their proliferation of psychiatric meds flooding our society. Group members would often be very critical of people in recovery who claimed abstinence while taking these legally prescribed drugs. More recently an approach of accommodation with Biological Psychiatry seems to have won out in Twelve Step groups. This is also not a surprise given the power of psychiatric institutions and the similarities of both groups’ presentation of the disease model. Until some positive new approaches to treating addiction begin to take hold on a broad scale throughout this country and beyond, we will be stuck with both the dominance and limitations of Twelve Step programs and its disease model of addiction. However this reality should not deter any of us from being critical thinkers and seeking out revolutionary alternatives in the coming period. Part 3 of this blog will be titled “Confronting the Addiction Voice on the Road to Recovery.” This will explore some of the newer and more alternative treatment options that are now available. Although quite small in number and in size these newer options pose a direct challenge to the dominance of the disease model. Disclaimer: The above views are based on my study and summation of over 20 years of direct and indirect experience working as a counselor in the mental health field. In no way does this represent a specific criticism of any human service organization or detox/rehab facility. I work with many dedicated professionals who, under difficult conditions, do great service for people experiencing many different forms of extreme states of psychological distress.

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Assassinating satirical poets: The historical facts are laid out point by point, victim by victim. Before laying out the evidence, the larger historical context of these assassinations must be taken into account. First, in seventh-century Arabia, poetry was taken seriously; even poetry contests were held, with declared winners. It was a powerful way to communicate a message. Second, in March 624, in the Battle of Badr, Muhammad, living in Medina, won a surprising victory against a much-larger Meccan army of polytheists (c. 320 Muslims v. 1000 Meccans). Muhammad’s standing in Medina was insecure before the battle, but afterwards his position became strong, and he used his new strength to eliminate some enemies. Though more assassinations are carried out than the ten analyzed in this article (omitted because they involve leaders raising armies against or attempting assassinations of Muhammad), here follow the stories of assassinations or near-assassinations of lesser victims. This post updates the earlier one offsite and written by yours truly: Muhammad’s Dead Poet’s Society. 1. March 624: Al-Nadr bin al-Harith Before Muhammad’s Hijrah (Emigration from Mecca to Medina in 622), he used to sit in the assembly and invite the Meccans to Allah, citing the Quran and warning them of God’s punishment for mocking his prophets. Al-Nadr would then follow him and speak about heroes and kings of Persia, saying, “By God, Muhammad cannot tell a better story than I, and his talk is only of old fables which he has copied as I have.” Al-Nadr is referring to legends and opaque histories about Arabs of long ago and possibly to Bible stories about such figures as Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, which Muhammad told, but according to his own inaccurate versions. On other days al-Nadr would interrupt Muhammad until the prophet silenced him. In reply to al-Nadir’s harassment, it is possible (scholars sometimes have difficulties matching up Quranic verses with historical events) that Allah sent down these verses to Muhammad concerning him or certainly other mockers in Mecca, according to the account of Ibn Abbas, Muhammad’s cousin, who is considered a reliable transmitter of traditions: 25:6 Say [Prophet], “It was sent down by Him who knows the secrets of the heavens and earth. He is all forgiving and merciful.” (MAS Abdel Haleem, The Qur’an, Oxford UP, 2004) 83:13 … [W]hen Our revelations are recited to him, he says, “Ancient fables!” 14 No indeed! Their hearts are encrusted with what they have done. 15 No indeed! On that day they will be screened off from their Lord, 16 they will burn in Hell, 17 and they will be told, “This is what you call a lie.” (Abdel Haleem) Muhammad did not take revenge on him—not yet—even though the verses in Sura 83 promise a dismal eternal future for mockers. Muhammad’s revenge was not long coming. It was al-Nadir’s bad fortune to join Mecca’s army, riding north to protect their caravan, which Muhammad attacked at the Battle of Badr in AD 624. The story-telling polytheist was captured, and on Muhammad’s return journey back to Medina, Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, at Muhammad’s order, beheaded him, instead of getting some possible ransom money. He was one of two prisoners who were executed and not allowed to be ransomed by their clans—all because they wrote poems and told stories critiquing Muhammad. Source: Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, trans. A. Guillaume, (Oxford UP, 1955, 2004), pp. 136 (Arabic pages 191-92); 163 / 236; 181 / 262; 308 / 458. Reputable historians today consider Ibn Ishaq to be a good source of early Islam, though they may disagree on his chronology and miraculous elements. 2. March 624: Uqba bin Abu Muayt A similar story as that of al-Nadir can be told about Uqba. He too harassed and mocked Muhammad in Mecca and wrote derogatory verses about him. He too was captured during the Battle of Badr, and Muhammad ordered him to be executed. “But who will look after my children, O Muhammad?” Uqba cried with anguish. “Hell,” retorted the prophet coldly. Then the sword of one of his followers cut through Uqba’s neck. Source: Bukhari, vol. 4, no. 2934; Muslim, vol. 3, nos. 4422, 4424; Ibn Ishaq, p. 308 / 458. Bukhari and Muslim are reliable collectors and editors of the hadith (words and deeds of Muhammad outside of the Quran). These three passages from the hadith depict Muhammad calling on Allah for revenge on this poet. 3. March 624: Asma bint Marwan Asma was a poetess who belonged to a tribe of Medinan pagans, and whose husband was named Yazid b. Zayd. She composed a poem blaming the Medinan pagans for obeying a stranger (Muhammad) and for not taking the initiative to attack him by surprise. When the Allah-inspired prophet heard what she had said, he asked, “Who will rid me of Marwan’s daughter?” A member of her husband’s tribe volunteered and crept into her house that night. She had five children, and the youngest was sleeping at her breast. The assassin gently removed the child, drew his sword, and plunged it into her, killing her in her sleep. The following morning, the assassin defied anyone to take revenge. No one took him up on his challenge, not even her husband. In fact, Islam became powerful among his tribe. Previously, some members who had kept their conversion secret now became Muslims openly, “because they saw the power of Islam,” conjectures Ibn Ishaq. Source: Ibn Ishaq, pp. 675-76 / 995-96. 4. April 624: Abu Afak Abu Afak, an centenarian elder of Medina, belonging to a group of clans who were associated with the god Manat (though another account has him as a Jew), wrote a derogatory poem about Muhammad, extolling the ancestors of his tribe who were strong enough to overthrow mountains and to resist submitting to an outsider (Muhammad) who divides two large Medinan tribes with religious commands like “permitted” and “forbidden.” That is, the poet is referring to Muhammad’s legal decrees about things that are forbidden (e.g. pork and alcohol) and permitted (e.g. other meats like beef and camel). Before the Battle of Badr, Muhammad let him live. After the battle, the prophet queried, “Who will deal with this rascal for me?” That night, Salim b. Umayr “went forth and killed him.” One of the Muslims wrote a poem in reply: “A hanif [monotheist or Muslim] gave you a thrust in the night saying / ‘Take that Abu Afak in spite of your age!’” Muhammad eliminated him, which shows religious violence. Islam is not the religion of peace. Source: Ibn Ishaq p. 675 / 995. 5. September 624: Kab bin al-Ashraf Kab b. al-Ashraf had a mixed ancestry. His father came from a nomadic Arab, but his mother was a Jewess from the powerful al-Nadr tribe in Medina. He lived as a member of his mother’s tribe. He heard about the Muslim victory at the battle of Badr, and he was disgusted, for he thought Muhammad the newcomer to Medina was a trouble-maker and divisive. Kab had the gift of poetry, and after the Battle of Badr he traveled down to Mecca, apparently stopping by Badr, since it was near a major trade route to Mecca, witnessing the aftermath. Arriving in Mecca, he wrote a widely circulated poem, a hostile lament, over the dead of Mecca. It is important to include most of the political lament to show whether the poem is a serious offence, meriting assassination, as Muslim apologists (defenders of Islam) argue. … At events like Badr you should weep and cry. The best of its people were slain round cisterns, Don’t think it strange that the princes were left lying. How many noble handsome men, The refuge of the homeless were slain. Some people whose anger pleases me say, “Kab b. al-Ashraf is utterly dejected.” They are right. O that the earth when they were killed Had split asunder and engulfed its people, That he who spread the report had been thrust through Or lived cowering blind and deaf. I was told that al-Harith ibn Hisham [a Meccan] Is doing well and gathering troops To visit Yathrib [pre-Islamic name of Medina] with armies, For only the noble, handsome man protects the loftiest reputation. (Translated by Guillaume, p. 365) To us today this poem does not seem excessive, and other Arab poetry was worse, such as the poem celebrating the assassination of Abu Afak, cited above (no. 4). It seems to be a genuine lament that invokes the Arab concept of revenge. Also, the last four lines is not an explicit plea for the Meccans to exact vengeance because that was a foregone conclusion. Arab custom demanded a riposte against the humiliation of defeat. Rather, the lines seem to reflect reality. A Meccan leader is said to be gathering an army; Kab is not ordering him to do so. Pro-Muslim poets answered Kab’s poem with ones of their own, and that was enough for his hosts in Mecca to turn him out. He returned to Medina, writing some amatory verses about Muslim women, a mistake compounded on a mistake, given the tense climate in Medina and Muhammad’s victory at Badr. For example, right after the battle Muhammad assembled a Jewish tribe, the Qaynuqa, and warned them as follows: “O Jews, beware lest God bring upon you the vengeance that He brought upon Quraysh [large Meccan tribe at Badr], and become Muslims.” … In late spring (April-June) Muhammad then expelled the Jewish tribe. Angered by the poems and now able to strike back after Badr and the exile, Muhammad had had enough. He asked, “Who would rid me of [Kab]?” Five Muslims volunteered, one of whom was Kab’s foster-brother named Abu Naila. They informed him, “O apostle of God [Muhammad], we shall have to tell lies.” He answered, “Say what you like, for you are free in the matter.” They set upon a clever plan. Abu Naila and another conspirator visited Kab, and they cited poetry together, the three appreciating the art, and chatted leisurely, so the two would not raise suspicions of their conspiracy. Then, after a long time, Abu-Naila lied just as he said he would. He said he was tired of Muhammad because “he was a very great trial for us.” Muhammad provoked the hostility of the Arabs, and they were all in league against the Medinans. Abu Naila complained that the roads had become impassable and trade was hampered, so that their families were in want, privation, and great distress. Kab, in effect, said to his foster brother, “I told you so.” Then the foster-brother asked him for a loan of a camel load or two of food. Kab agreed, but only on the collateral of Abu-Naila’s sons. The foster-brother refused, and Kab asked for his women, but he again refused. Finally, Abu Naila offered his and his conspirators’ weapons. That arrangement provided the cover they needed to carry weapons right into Kab’s presence without alarm. Kab agreed, “Weapons are a good pledge.” The two visitors departed, stopped by the other three, and told them of the plan. Not long afterwards, gathering their weapons, they went to Muhammad, who sent them off with this wish: “Go in God’s name; O God, help them.” They set out under a moonlit night until they made it to a fortress, one of several that the Jewish tribe had built in the rough environment of Arabia. In fact, the ruin of the fortress where Kab resided can be seen even today near Medina. They called out to him. Kab had recently married, and his wife, hearing their yells, said, “You are at war, and those who are at war do not go out at this hour … I hear evil [or blood] in his voice.” But the custom of hospitality in the Arab world was strong. Her husband told her that they were only his foster-brother and his foster-brother’s partners, adding that “a generous man should respond to a call at night, even if invited to be killed.” Kab came down and greeted them. Abu Naila suggested they go for a walk. The signal to kill was as follows: Abu Naila would run his hand through Kab’s hair, complimenting him on his perfume, three times. This he did, yelling, “Smite the enemy of God!” Kab mounted a strong defense, so their swords were ineffective. Finally, one of the conspirators remembered his dagger, stabbed Kab in the belly, and then bore it down until it reached Kab’s genitals, killing him. They made it back to Muhammad, but only after difficulty, since in the dark they had wounded one of their own. They saluted the prophet as he stood praying, and he came out to them. They told him that the mission was accomplished. He spat on their comrade’s wound, and they returned to their families. Their attack on Kab sent shock waves into the Jewish community, so that “there was no Jew in Medina who did not fear for his life,” reports Ibn Ishaq. Muslim historian Tabari reports that the five Muslim thugs severed Kab’s head and brought it to Muhammad. How can the terrorists who are also thrilled to sever heads not be inspired by early Islam? Sources: Bukhari vol. 5, no. 4037; Muslim vol. 3, no. 4436; Ibn Ishaq 364-69 / 548-53; Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, Vol. VII, trans. W. Montgomery Watt (SUNYP, 1987), pp. 94-98 / 1368-73. Reputable historians today consider Tabari to be a good source of data on early Islam, though they may not agree on his chronology or miraculous elements. 6. September (?) 624: Ibn Sunayna It is on the heels of this assassination that Ibn Sunayna, a Jewish merchant, was assassinated. With the success of the five conspirators, Muhammad said, “Kill any Jew that falls into your power.” Shortly afterwards, Muhayyisa b. Masud leapt upon and killed Ibn Sunayna, with whom Muhayyisa had some social and business relations. However, Muhayyisa’s elder brother, not a Muslim at the time, beat the assassin, the younger brother, saying, “You enemy of God, did you kill him when much of the fat on your belly comes from his wealth?” Muhayyisa retorted that if Muhammad had ordered even the elder brother’s assassination, he would have carried it out. The elder was impressed: “By God, a religion which can bring you to this is marvelous!” And he became a Muslim. That is, the elder brother implies that Muhammad must be a great leader and worthy of devotion if he commands such lethal reverence and deadly obedience from his followers. Then Muhayyisa wrote a poem that celebrates such obedience. “I would smite his [the elder brother’s] neck with a sharp sword, / A blade as white as salt from polishing. / My downward stroke never misses its mark.” Advancing religious violence, these lines in the poem show how deadly poetry could be, and they match the Muslim’s poem against Abu Afak (no. 4, above): “a hanif gave you a thrust in the night.” Kab’s poem, it should be recalled, was far milder. These poems that a Westerner reads in the early Islamic source are jarring. It seems the early Muslim authors of the documents relish inserting them into their books. Source: Ibn Ishaq p. 369 / 534. 7. July-August 625: A One-eyed Bedouin In revenge for an ambush on some Muslim missionaries, Muhammad sent Amr bin Umayya and a companion to assassinate Abu Sufyan, a leader of the Meccans. This shows that the prophet could get caught up in the cycle of violence that went on endlessly in seventh-century Arab culture. Umayyah failed in his attempt, and he had to flee under pursuit, hiding in a cave, murdering a man named Ibn Malik along the way. As the pursuit was dying down, a tall, one-eyed, unnamed Bedouin entered the cave, driving some sheep. Umayyah and the Bedouin introduced each other. After they settled down, the shepherd sang a simple two-line song in defiance of Muslims and Islam: I will not be a Muslim as long as I live, And will not believe in the faith of the Muslims. (Watt) Another translation reads: I won’t be a Muslim as long as I live, Nor heed to their religion give. (Guillaume) Unfortunately for this Bedouin, he was in the cave with a radical Muslim, who said: “You will soon see!” The Bedouin fell asleep, snoring. Umayyah recounts what he did: … “I went to him and killed him in the most dreadful way that anybody has ever been killed. I leaned over him, stuck the end of my bow into his good eye, and thrust it down until it came out of the back of his neck.” He fled back to Muhammad, who said, “Well done!” The account ends: The prophet “prayed for me [Umayyah] to be blessed.” This poor shepherd’s only sin was to compose a little two-line ditty against Islam. Therefore, he was assassinated, with the blessing of Muhammad—the prophet did not arrest the assassin or even scold him for killing a man who had nothing to do with the ambush. Source: Tabari, vol. 7, pp. 149-50 / 1440-41; A later editor incorporated some of Tabari’s account into Ibn Ishaq’s biography, pp. 674-75. 8. After January 630: close call for Abdullah bin Sad Before 10,000 Muslim warriors entered Mecca in January 630, Muhammad ordered that they should kill only those who resisted, except a small number who should be hunted down even if they hid under the curtain of the Kabah stone. One of them was Abdullah, an original Emigrant with the prophet in 622. He had the high privilege of writing down some verses of the Quran, after Muhammad received them by revelation. Doubting, Abdullah on occasion would change the words around to see if Muhammad had noticed the changes, but he did not. W. Montgomery Watt provides an example: “When Muhammad dictated a phrase of the Quran such as sami‘ ‘alim, ‘Hearing, Knowing’ (with reference to God), he had written, for example, ‘alim hakim ‘Knowing, Wise,’ and Muhammad had not noticed the change” … (Muhammad at Medina, Oxford UP, 1956, p. 68). Abdullah therefore disbelieved Muhammad’s inspiration and apostatized (left Islam) and returned to Mecca a polytheist. However, his foster-brother was Uthman b. Affan, one of Muhammad’s Companions, who hid Abdullah until calm settled on conquered Mecca and who interceded for Abdullah, in the presence of Muhammad. The prophet waited a long time before he granted the repentant apostate immunity. After Uthman left, Muhammad said to those sitting around him: “I kept silent so that one of you might get up and strike off his head!” One of them asked why Muhammad did not give them a signal. He answered that a prophet does not kill by pointing. Though Abdullah escaped with his life, this story is included because it reveals Muhammad’s attitude toward apostates, because of the doubt of one of Muhammad’s followers—a literate scholar who was involved in writing down the revelations, and because Muhammad’s anger could be assuaged under the right conditions. Source: Ibn Ishaq, p. 550 / 818. 9. After January 630: One of Abdullah bin Katal’s two singing-girls On the list of those excluded from amnesty after the conquest of Mecca was not only Abdullah b. Katal, collector of legal alms, who had killed his slave for incompetence, apostatized, and took the money back to Mecca, but also his two singing-girls who sang satirical verses about Muhammad, which Abdullah had composed. He was killed, even though he was clinging to the curtain of the Kabah shrine. And one of the girls was also killed, but the other ran away until she asked for pardon from Muhammad, who forgave her. Source: Bukhari vol. 4, 3044; Ibn Ishaq, pp. 550-51 / 819. 10. After February 630: close call for Kab bin Zuhayr Confident with the victory over Mecca, Muhammad returned to Medina a hero and firmly in charge of the southwest of the Arabian Peninsula. In this context we come to another poet who satirized Muhammad and the Muslims, Kab bin Zuhayr (called Zuhayr to distinguish him from Kab bin al-Ashraf, above, no. 5). Zuhayr’s brother wrote him that Muhammad had killed a number of satirical poets during his conquest of Mecca, but that the prophet would forgive a poet who came to him in repentance, which really means becoming a Muslim. His brother told him that the poets who were left had fled in all directions. “If you have any use for your life, then come to the apostle [Muhammad] quickly, for he does not kill anyone who comes to him in repentance,” wrote the brother, continuing: “if you do not do that, then get to a safe place.” However, Zuhayr responded with a poem that says their fathers and father had never held Islam dear, so why should he change? His brother replied with a poem of warning of his own; if he would not repent, then Zuhayr will be guilty on Judgment Day. Poetry penetrated deeply in Arab culture, and, receiving the letter, Zuhayr was distressed until finally he gave in. Finding no way out, he wrote a letter extolling Muhammad. Soon afterwards, he traveled up to Medina to ask for security as a Muslim. Muhammad was saying his morning prayers, and a friend took Zuhayr into Muhammad’s presence. “Would you accept him as such if he came to you?” his friend asked. The prophet said he would. One of the Ansars (or helpers: native Medinans who offered help to Muhammad after his Hijrah) leaped upon Zuhayr and asked the prophet if he could behead the enemy of God, for some of Zuhayr’s verses mocked the Ansars, too. The apostle said to leave him alone, for Zuhayr was breaking free from his past. The implication is clear: if Muhammad had caught Zuhayr before his repentance, Muhammad would have allowed him to be beheaded. Either he converts or he dies—for writing derogatory poetry. What is remarkable about the anecdote is how the morning prayer provides the setting for a Muslim leaping on a poet and threatening to cut his head off, as if this is an ordinary day and act. Source: Ibn Ishaq, pp. 597-602 / 887-93. To contrast Christianity and the Torah (first five books of the Bible) with Islam, click on Muhammad’s Critics and Their Deaths and scroll down to the right section (offsite and written by yours truly).

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REVENGE AT THE SERVICE OF SOCIAL JUSTICE: AN AFROCENTRIC VIEW African cosmology is basically communal. In traditional African societies, individuals are born with their lives, plans and aspirations built within the framework of the community. The community as a superstructure with a supra-sensible prowess has a central role to play in the lives of individuals and groups within the community. In the traditional African society nothing essentially happens without necessary connection with the community. This stretches to even small details as a child’s insubordination. Revenge is generally seen as a negative response to injury or harm; whether intended or accidental. It may come with one or more of the following reasons: the desire to get even, retaliation for injury, loss, or humiliation, an attempt to transform shame into pride, seeking symmetrical injury, harm, or loss. In traditional African societies where the community transcends the individual, revenge becomes a viable socio-cultural arsenal when the life of the society is at stake. This seemingly primitive approach to adverse reciprocity of actions forms a strong basis for social justice in most communities Sub-Sahara Africa. In this section, the author employs the rich ingredients of African studies to evaluate in broad lines the benefits of revenge in certain African societies when its occurrence adds value to the life of the immediate community. This expository study addresses revenge as a phenomenon with strong socio-cultural and religious relevance. Revenge is seen as having some contributive values to social justice when it is appropriately applied to appease the vertical and horizontal lines of relationship evident in the community. This afro-centric assessment of revenge is instructive while initiating scholarly discussions. Key Words: Revenge, Afro-centric, Community, Religion, Morality, Cosmology, Africanity, Societies. Afro-centric studies and committed reflections on traditional African value systems are topical in our day and age. Scholars within and without the African continent have continued to explore the rich African traditional landscape in view of readdressing and re-evaluating those socio-cultural and religious attributes that are typically African and thus contributive to authentic “Africanity”. Revenge as an action of paying back hurt or harm is not unknown in African communities. It is not only factual; it is also recommended especially when the peace and well being of the community in question is threatened. This paper has the task of exploring and establishing when revenge is justifiable considering the prerequisites of social justice. To address this important and indeed very sensitive act, our insight goes through a deeper understanding of African traditional cosmology, revenge generally and particularly as it seen in African communities. This further goes into the relationship that exists between revenge and social justice. For Alyward Shorter (1998), one cannot speak and write about Africa as if it were a single, homogeneous society, or even a series of isolated, ethnic groups, all basically similar or comparable, instead there is (and was) social and cultural fragmentations. In the first place, there are diverse physical environments to which the various human groups in African communities have been adapted to both economically and socially. Furthermore, there has been no uniformity in these adaptations, but a variety of independent traditions and inventions even in similar environments. The different traditional systems have also been modified in different ways, according to the effect of historic personalities and the significant contact among ethnic groups. Consequently there is a huge variety of social and political systems, of languages, cultures and religions.1 In the midst of this pluralism it is possible to discover certain regularities. This is particularly because of the notable flexibility and absorbability of traditional African societies, which exchanged ideas and practices over wide areas without the need for great movements of peoples, conquests or reforms. Local cultures accepted ideal on their own terms, integrating them into their own systems of thought and symbolism. The consequence of all this is that, while there is no single concept of social justice which can be called universally African, there are a number of differing experiences which have a relatively wide currency. These experiences relate to different social levels: the family community and the political structure; and to the different styles of life dictated by the various environments and cultural traditions. Considering the foregoing the research and presentation have particular focus on the worldview of Sub-Sahara African. 1.1 Understanding African Cosmology African cosmology simply refers to the peculiar way the African understands the world and operates within it. For the African the world is made up of two inter-penetrating and inseparable, yet distinguishable, parts namely, the world of spirits and the physical world. These two realms are in active dialogue. For Uzodimma Nwala (1985) “there is no sharp line separating the two. The spirits are involved in the day to day affairs of men”.2 Within the aforementioned realms we have some identifiable hierarchy. In the spiritual realm there are as Parrinder (1962) would denote fourfold classification of categories, namely, the Supreme God, divinities or gods, ancestors, and charms or amulets. On the other hand the human realm is made up of human beings, animals, plants and other realities. These are however involved in a progressive interaction.3 There are basically in the strict sense no inanimate realities as even animals and plants are involved the cosmic dialogue. Some African folktales explain this very well. One will notice the interaction with among the various entities in both realms. A deeper appreciation of African cosmology can be seen in the African concept of religion. 1.2 African Concept of Religion African traditional religion has proved to be very difficult to define. There is no single simple and precise definition to describe it. Unfortunately, many writers have misunderstood ATR by trying to define it under misleading terminologies such as animism, fetishism, magic, superstitions, primitive religion, ancestor worship, paganism etc.4 Actually the difficulty to define ATR seems to come from the fact that its propagation is carried out by living it other than by preaching it. Its followers are more preoccupied with its practice than with its theory. In ATR, dogmas and doctrines have a very little role to play in the life of its followers. Its definition becomes even more difficulty because of its integral / holistic character. There is no separation between the religious (sacred) and the profane. Its influence covers all aspects of life, from before the birth of a person to long after s/he has died. It is a way of life and life is at its centre. It is concerned with life and how to protect it and augment it. Hence the remark such as: For the African, religion is literally life and life is religion. The sense of religion is the most significant of all the values that are pertinent to Africans. J.S Mbiti (1975) was right to remark that in African traditional societies there are no atheists.5 In a more obtrusive way, he maintained that the African is notoriously religious. This view point is plausible judging from the fact that every activity undertaken by the African has a direct or indirect connection with his or her religious creed. Giving reason for this Oliver Onwubiko (1991), remarked that: Religion in the indigenous African culture, was not an independent institution. It is an integral and inseparable part of the entire culture. Religion in the African sense was practical. One’s entire action is reflective of one’s religious concept and practice as seen in the ordering of society.6 Africa traditional religion is not limited to beliefs in supernatural beings [God and spirits] or to ritual acts of worship, but affects all aspects of life, from farming to hunting, from travel to courtship. Like most religious systems [including Christianity, Islam, Judaism] African religion focuses on the eternal questions of what it means to be human: what is the meaning of life, and what are the correct relations among humans, between humans and spiritual powers, and with the natural world? African religious systems [also] seek to explain the persistence of evil and suffering, and they seek to portray the world as operating with some degree of order and predictability. They uphold certain types of ethical behavior. These ideas are expressed in sacred oral [and written] traditions, handed down from generation to generation through the performance of ritual [dance and music] and through intensive periods of education, including rites of passage. From the forgoing we understand that religion pervades all aspects of the life of an African. In this direction everything happens under an anticipated religious ambient because of the continuous intervention and obtrusion of the spiritual realm on the physical. We shall be looking at revenge from the point of view of morality. 1.0 The Phenomenon of Revenge in African Morality Revenge generally and from the African point of view implies but not strictly restricted to the following: - The desire to get even, - Retaliation for injury, loss, or humiliation, - An attempt to transform shame into pride. - Seeking symmetrical injury, harm, or loss Morality in Africa in Africa on the other hand has to do with what is right and what is wrong in human actions and relations. Joseph Ilori (1994) sees it as compliance with a code of conduct covering a broader field. In his estimation: A moral person is one who does what is right, according to approved standards. Or more frequently, he is identified as one who does no wrong. To be moral, for example, a person must not be dishonest, must not steal, and must not hurt other people.7 Notably morality has a lot to do with the religious creed. In fact morality derives its force and mandate from religion. From the viewpoint of T.N Quarcoopome, In West African Traditional Religion morality is the fruit of religion. This means that in the traditional context there is no such distinction between morality and religion because there is close relationship between religion and the moral life. The social and moral ordinances are the injunctions of God, who had himself, instituted them.8 The consideration of revenge as a negative reciprocal action is based on the fact that it seeks to address an anomie. It seeks to redress some misapplication of justice and fairness; revenge is sought for as a necessary compliance with the ethical prerequisite of the community. In Africa the community is a very important entity. To be is to be a member of a given community. For Oliver Onwubiko (1991) the community is the custodian of the individual, hence he must go where the community goes. The community thus owns the individual.9 It is actually on the basis of what the community says that revenge is applied and used. 2.0 Revenge at the Service of Social Justice The definition of Social Justice as a concept is notoriously hard. This is on account of the fact that societies and communities differ on many grounds on what is socially just. However we understand in essence that social justice is concerned with equal justice, in all aspects of society. This concept demands that people have equal rights and opportunities; everyone, from the poorest person on the margins of society to the wealthiest deserves an even playing field. Social justice as a term was the original thought of the Jesuit Luigi Taparelli (1840) based on the teachings of St. Thomas Aquinas.10 It was given further exposure in 1848 by Antonio Rosmini-Serbati.11 The idea was further elaborated by the moral theologian John A. Ryan,12 who initiated the concept of a living wage. Father Coughlin also used the term in his publications in the 1930s and the 1940s. Religiously it is a part of Catholic social teaching and the Social Gospel of Episcopalians. Politically it is one of the Four Pillars of the Green Party upheld by green parties worldwide. By the late twentieth century, it became more of a secular concept influenced primarily by philosopher John Rawls. Many critics are of the view that social justice is a figment of imagination; nay an Eldorado. They adopt this viewpoint on the grounds that equality and solidarity among the diverse elements of a given society are naturally unattainable. In this paper, social justice is seen as productive of peace and social harmony. This is actually the purpose of justice in African communities. We have so far presented revenge as a payback action for an injury or hurt. In Africa it is not every offense that calls for revenge. In fact a distinction should be made between revenge and punishment. Punishment is a penalty given for a fault or an offense. In the case of punishment the retribution is known to a reasonable degree. Revenge on the other hand is a step above punishment. The offender gets a penalty not basically on account of the offense in question but more on the perceived consequences it brings to the offended. Hence revenge is only supported when the injury or hurt in question counter balances or is capable of counter balancing peace and harmony in the society. When an act it is capable of aggravating the anger of the spirits and unleashing disaster for the community revenge is necessarily sought. For instance wilful murder of an innocent person is immediately avenged because the blood of the person in question will appeal to the spirits for some form of retribution that can cause cataclysmic distortion of harmony. The spirits are in constant contact with the humans such that human activities receive their infallible approval or disapproval. Ultimately revenge is sought based on some reasonable grounds which primarily include (but may not be restricted to) the following: 1 For Justice: This appears to be the foremost reason for revenge. It bears on giving each person his or her due. It functions in restoring lost dignity and respect occasioned by the injury or hurt. The Igbos of southeast Nigeria would say: “egbe bere ugo bere nke si ebe ya ebela nku kwakwa ya!” That means “let kite and the eagle perch anyone that says the other will not perch let its wings twist”. 2 For Deterrence: This is a dispassionate response calculated to change the other’s behavior in an on-going relationship or negotiation by imposing a negative consequence (punishment) for their decision. Here revenge functions in precluding a possible reoccurrence of the hurt. The Igbos of southeast Nigeria would say: “onye anu agbara na atu okporokporo ijiji ujo!” “Anyone bitten by a bee fear large fly”. 3 For Reprisal is a retaliation for an injury with the intent of inflicting at least as much injury in return. 4 For Retribution: a measured or restrained reprisal; a proportional response intended to communicate a message: for instance “this is how wrong your actions were”. 5 For Reparation: This has to do with payments intended to compensate a victim for a loss. While these may be largely effective in repairing the damages resulting from loss or theft of material goods, it is impossible to restore a lost life, a physical injury, loss of health, destruction of unique objects or those with sentimental value, or a missed opportunity such as a successful career or time spent with a loved one. It is also difficult to restore lost pride. The goal of reparations is to keep promises and restore a damaged community. 6 Eliciting Remorse: Remorse is feeling genuinely bad about the hurt I have caused and taking responsibility for the hurtful choices made. The idea is to make the offender enter into the state of the offended and feel the hurt or injury 7 For Atonement: Atonement is seen as remorse followed by reparations. It is similar to apology but not apology. 8 For Retaliation: This is the idea of fair payback, often expressed as “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth” and is captured in many primitive traditions. The concept is to cause as much pain to the aggressor as he has caused the offended to suffer. Unfortunately the magnitude gap—the fact that pain felt is more intense than pain inflicted—often causes the violence of the retaliation to exceed that of the original offense. Unending escalation, destruction, and violence often results. Also, because many losses cannot be restored or undone, the retaliation does not provide satisfying reparations to the victim. 9 As a Precondition for Reconciliation: In some situation revenge in terms of paying back a hurt done to someone serves as a veritable ground for reconciliation. If an offense is not revenged, the offended often feel humiliated even after peace talk has been made. Moral actions in Africa are connected with religious creed. Religion itself forms the basis of African life. Life cannot be lived by the African without reference to spirits. Hence there is a connection between the physical and the metaphysical, the human and the spiritual. Human actions are thus under the surveillance of the spiritual being. Based on the afro-stated, human actions are continuously directed in such a way that they will be accepted and acceptable to the spiritual segment of the African cosmology. Revenge is one of those actions that are speedily applied to certain offensive actions in view of not disrupting the social harmony in the community and at the same time instituting social justice and peace. 1Shorter, Alyward. “Concepts of Social Justice in Traditional Africa” in Pro Dialogo Bulletin, 1977, p.32. 2Nwala, Uzodimma. Igbo Philosophy. Lagos: Literamed Publications, 1985,p.57. 3 Parrinder, Edward. African Traditional Religion. London: Sheldon Press, 1962, p.17. 4Quarcoopome, Theophilus West African Traditional Religion. Ibadan: African University Press. 1987, p.5. 5 Mbiti, John ,African Religions and Philosophy. London: Heinemann. 1975, p.262. 6 Onwubiko, O. A. African Thought, Religion and Culture.Enugu: Snaap Press. 1991, p.24. 7 Ilori, Joseph. Moral Philosophy in African Context. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University press. 1994,p.4. 8 Quarcoopome, Theophilus. Ibid. p.160. 9Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) says, “Justice is a certain rectitude of mind whereby a man does what he ought to do in the circumstances confronting him.” 11 John Ryan was a theologian of create repute and thoroughly orthodox. He is also know as the prophet of Social Justice. Bujo, Benneth. Foundations od an African Ethic: Beyond th Universal Claims of Western Morality..Kenya: Pauline Publications in Africa. 2003. Elechi, Amadi. Ethics in Nigerian Culture. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books.1982. Ilo, Stan. The Face of Africa: Looking Beyond the Shadows:Bloomington: AurthorHouse. 2006. Ilori, Joseph. . Moral Philosophy in African Context. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University press. 1994. Mbiti, John. African Religions and Philosophy. London: Heinemann. 1975. Nwala, Uzodimma.. Igbo Philosophy, Lagos: Literamed Publications, 1985. Onwubiko, Oliver. African Thought, Religion and Culture.Enugu: Snaap Press. 1991. Quarcoopome, Theophilus. West African Traditional Religion. Ibadan: African University Press. 1987. Shorter, Aylward “Concepts of Social Justice in Traditional Africa” in Pro Dialogo Bulletin, 1977. Boniface Anusiem PhD is the Chief Media Consultant of Trinity Media Consults Abuja, Nigeria. He is a motivational speaker, writer, and human development enthusiast. He has interest in effective media use in human development and African cultural studies. He has authored five books and a good number of articles in magazines, newspapers, and journals. He intends to bring Inter-disciplinary.net to Africa.

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Otters are carnivorous mammals in the subfamily Lutrinae. The 13 extant otter species are all semiaquatic, aquatic or marine, with diets based on fish and invertebrates. Lutrinae is a branch of the weasel family Mustelidae, which includes badgers, honey badgers, minks and wolverines; the word otter derives from the Old English word oter. This, cognate words in other Indo-European languages stem from the Proto-Indo-European language root *wódr̥, which gave rise to the English word "water". An otter's den is called a couch. Male otters are called dogs or boars, females are called bitches or sows, their offspring are called pups; the collective nouns for otters are bevy, lodge, romp or, when in water, raft. The feces of otters are identified by their distinctive aroma, the smell of, described as ranging from freshly mown hay to putrefied fish; the gestation period in otters is about 60 to 86 days. The newborn pup is cared for by the bitch and older offspring. Bitch otters reach sexual maturity at two years of age and males at three years. The holt is built under a rocky cairn, more common in Scotland. It is lined with moss and grass. After one month, the pup can leave the holt and after two months, it is able to swim; the pup lives with its family for one year. Otters live up to 16 years, its usual source of food is fish, further downriver, but it may sample frogs and birds. Otters have long, slim bodies and short limbs, their most striking anatomical features are the powerful webbed feet used to swim, their seal-like abilities holding breath underwater. Most have sharp claws on their feet and all except the sea otter have long, muscular tails; the 13 species range in adult size from 0.6 to 1 to 45 kg in weight. The Asian small-clawed otter is the smallest otter species and the giant otter and sea otter are the largest, they have soft, insulated underfur, protected by an outer layer of long guard hairs. This traps a layer of air which keeps them dry and somewhat buoyant under water. Several otter species have high metabolic rates to help keep them warm. European otters must eat 15% of their body weight each day, sea otters 20 to 25%, depending on the temperature. In water as warm as 10 °C, an otter needs to catch 100 g of fish per hour to survive. Most species hunt for three to nursing mothers up to eight hours each day. For most otters, fish is the staple of their diet; this is supplemented by frogs and crabs. Some otters are experts at opening shellfish, others will feed on available small mammals or birds. Prey-dependence leaves otters vulnerable to prey depletion. Sea otters are hunters of sea urchins and other shelled creatures, they are notable for their ability to use stones to break open shellfish on their stomachs. This skill must be learned by the young. Otters are active hunters, chasing prey in the water or searching the beds of rivers, lakes or the seas. Most species live beside water, but river otters enter it only to hunt or travel, otherwise spending much of their time on land to prevent their fur becoming waterlogged. Sea otters are more aquatic and live in the ocean for most of their lives. Otters are playful animals and appear to engage in various behaviors for sheer enjoyment, such as making waterslides and sliding on them into the water. They may find and play with small stones. Different species vary in their social structure, with some being solitary, while others live in groups – in a few species these groups may be large. Genus Lutra Eurasian otter Hairy-nosed otter Japanese otter† Lutra euxena† Lutra castiglionis† Lutra simplicidens† Lutra trinacriae†Genus Hydrictis Spotted-necked otter Genus Lutrogale Smooth-coated otter Lutrogale robusta†Genus Lontra North American river otter Southern river otter Neotropical river otter Marine otter Genus Pteronura Giant otter Genus Amblonyx Asian small-clawed otter Genus Aonyx African clawless otter Genus Enhydra Sea otter Enhydra reevei†Genus †Megalenhydris Genus †Sardolutra Genus †Algarolutra Genus †Cyrnaonyx Genus †Teruelictis Genus †Enhydriodon Genus †Enhydritherium Genus †Teruelictis Genus †Limnonyx Genus †Lutravus Genus †Sivaonyx Genus †Torolutra Genus †Tyrrhenolutra Genus †Vishnuonyx Genus †Siamogale The European otter called the Eurasian otter, inhabits Europe, most of Asia and parts of North Africa. In the British Isles, they were common as as the 1950s, but became rare in many areas due to the use of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, habitat loss and water pollution. Population levels are now recovering strongly; the UK Biodiversity Action Plan envisages the re-establishment of otters by 2010 in all the UK rivers and coastal areas they inhabited in 1960. Roadkill deaths have become one of the significant threats to the success of their re-establishment; the North American river otter became one of the major animals hunted and trapped for fur in North America after European contact. River otters eat a variety of fish and shellfish, as well as birds. They A leat is the name, common in the south and west of England and in Wales, for an artificial watercourse or aqueduct dug into the ground one supplying water to a watermill or its mill pond. Other common uses for leats include delivery of water for mineral washing and concentration, for irrigation, to serve a dye works or other industrial plant, provision of drinking water to a farm or household or as a catchment cut-off to improve the yield of a reservoir. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, leat is cognate with let in the sense of "allow to pass through". Other names for the same thing include fleam. In parts of northern England, for example around Sheffield, the equivalent word is goit. In southern England, a leat used to supply water for water-meadow irrigation is called a carrier, top carrier, or main. Leats start some distance above the mill or other destination, where an offtake or sluice gate diverts a proportion of the water from a river or stream. A weir in the source stream serves to provide a reservoir of water adequate for diversion. The leat runs along the edge or side of the valley, at a shallower slope than the main stream. The gradient determines the flow rate together with the quality of the wetted surface of the leat; the flow rate may be calculated using the Manning formula. By the time it arrives at the water mill the difference in levels between the leat and the main stream is great enough to provide a useful head of water – several metres for a watermill, or a metre or less for the controlled irrigation of a water-meadow. Leats are used to increase the yield of a reservoir by trapping streams in nearby catchments by means of a contour leat; this transports it along the contour to the reservoir. Such leats are common around reservoirs in the uplands of Wales. Leats were built to work lead and silver ores in mining areas of Wales, Devon, the Pennines and the Leadhills/Wanlockhead area of Southern Scotland from the 17th century onwards, they were used to supply water for washing ore and powering mills. Leats were used extensively by the Romans, can still be seen at many sites, such as the Dolaucothi goldmines. They used the aqueducts to prospect for ores by sluicing away the overburden of soil to reveal the bedrock in a method known as hushing. They could attack the ore veins by fire-setting, quench with water from a tank above the workings, remove the debris with waves of water, a method still used in hydraulic mining; the water supply could be used for washing the ore after crushing by simple machines driven by water. The Romans used them for supplying water to the bath-houses or thermae and to drive vertical water-wheels. There are many leats on Dartmoor constructed to provide power for mining activities, although some were sources of drinking water; the courses of many Dartmoor leats may still be followed. Many such leats on the moor are marked on the 1⁄50000 and 1⁄25000 Ordnance Survey maps, such as that serving the now-defunct Vitifer mine near the Warren House Inn. Drake's Leat, constructed in 1591 under the management of Sir Francis Drake, as an agent of the Corporation of Plymouth, to carry water from Dartmoor to Plymouth. Devonport Leat constructed in the late 18th century to carry water to the expanding naval dockyard at Devonport. Acequia Aqueduct Flume Kunstgraben Roman aqueduct Roman engineering Roman mining A footbridge is a bridge designed for pedestrians. While the primary meaning for a bridge is a structure which links "two points at a height above the ground", a footbridge can be a lower structure, such as a boardwalk, that enables pedestrians to cross wet, fragile, or mashy land. Bridges range from stepping stones–possibly the earliest man-made structure to "bridge" water–to elaborate steel structures. Another early bridge would have been a fallen tree. In some cases a footbridge can be both functional and a beautiful work of art. For rural communities in the developing world, a footbridge may be a community's only access to medical clinics, schools and markets. Simple suspension bridge designs have been developed to be sustainable and constructed in such areas using only local materials and labor. An enclosed footbridge between two buildings is sometimes known as a skyway. Bridges providing for both pedestrians and cyclists are referred to as greenbridges and form an important part of a sustainable transport system. Footbridges are situated to allow pedestrians to cross water or railways in areas where there are no nearby roads. They are located across roads to let pedestrians cross safely without slowing traffic; the latter is a type of pedestrian separation structure, examples of which are found near schools. The simplest type of a bridge is stepping stones, so this may have been one of the earliest types of footbridge. Neolithic people built a form of a boardwalk across marshes, of which the Sweet Track, the Post Track are examples from England, that are around 6000 years old. Undoubtedly ancient peoples would have used log bridges; some of the first man-made bridges with significant span were intentionally felled trees. Among the oldest timber bridges is the Holzbrücke Rapperswil-Hurden crossing upper Lake Zürich in Switzerland. C; the first wooden footbridge led across Lake Zürich, followed by several reconstructions at least until the late 2nd century AD, when the Roman Empire built a 6-metre-wide wooden bridge. Between 1358 and 1360, Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, built a'new' wooden bridge across the lake, used to 1878 – measuring 1,450 metres in length and 4 metres wide. On April 6, 2001, the reconstructed wooden footbridge was opened, being the longest wooden bridge in Switzerland. A clapper bridge is an ancient form of bridge found on the moors of Devon and in other upland areas of the United Kingdom including Snowdonia and Anglesey, Cumbria and Lancashire, it is formed by large flat slabs of stone granite or schist, supported on stone piers, or resting on the banks of streams. Although credited with prehistoric origin, most were erected in medieval times, some in centuries. A famous example is found in the village of Postbridge. First recorded in the 14th century, the bridge is believed to have been built in the 13th century to enable pack horses to cross the river. Nowadays clapper bridges are only used as footbridges; the Kapellbrücke is a 204-metre-long footbridge crossing the River Reuss in the city of Lucerne in Switzerland. It is the oldest wooden covered bridge in Europe, one of Switzerland's main tourist attractions. The bridge was built c. 1365 as part of Lucerne's fortifications. An early example of a skyway is the Vasari Corridor, an elevated, enclosed passageway in Florence, central Italy, which connects the Palazzo Vecchio with the Palazzo Pitti. Beginning on the south side of the Palazzo Vecchio, it joins the Uffizi Gallery and leaves on its south side, crossing the Lungarno dei Archibusieri and following the north bank of the River Arno until it crosses the river at Ponte Vecchio, it was built in five months by order of Duke Cosimo I de' Medici in 1565, to the design of Giorgio Vasari. Bank Bridge is a famous 25 metre long pedestrian bridge crossing the Griboedov Canal in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Like other bridges across the canal, the existing structure dates from 1826; the special popularity of the bridge was gained through angular sculptures of four winged lions crowning the abutments. They were designed by sculptor Pavel Sokolov, who contributed lions for Bridge of Lions. Design of footbridges follows the same principles as for other bridges. However, because they are significantly lighter than vehicular bridges, they are more vulnerable to vibration and therefore dynamics effects are given more attention in design. International attention has been drawn to this issue in recent years by problems on the Pont de Solférino in Paris and the Millennium Bridge in London. To ensure footbridges are accessible to disabled and other mobility-impaired people, careful consideration is nowadays given to provision of access lifts or ramps, as required by relevant legislation; some old bridges in Venice are now equipped with a stairlift so that residents with a disability can cross them. Types of footbridges include: Beam Bridge Boardwalk Clapper bridge Duckboards, Timber trackway, Plank road, Corduroy road Moon bridge Simple suspension bridge Simple truss Stepping stones Zig-zag bridgeThe residential-scale footbridges all span a short distance and can be used for a broad range of applications. Complicated engineering is not needed and the footbridges are built with available materials and basic tools. Different types of design footbridges incl The Oxford University Parks referred to locally as the University Parks, the Uni Parks or just The Parks, is a large parkland area northeast of the city centre in Oxford, England. The park is bounded to the east by the River Cherwell, though a small plot of land called Mesopotamia sits between the upper and lower levels of the river. To the north of the parks is Norham Gardens and Lady Margaret Hall, to the west the Parks Road, the Science Area on South Parks Road to the south; the park is open to the public during the day, has gardens, large sports fields, exotic plants. It includes a cricket ground used by Oxford University Cricket Club. Part of the land on which the Parks is located had been used for recreation for a long time, it formed part of the University Walks said to have been used by Charles II to walk his dog in 1685; the land belonged to Merton College, in 1853/1854, the University of Oxford purchased 20 acres from Merton College to build the parks. Over an eleven-year period a total of 91 acres of land was acquired. A portion of this land was set aside for the University Museum, built between 1855 and 1860. Between 1912 and early 1950s, a further portion was used to build the Science Area, so the current site measures around 74 acres; the Parks was laid out in 1864, the work supervised by William Baxter, appointed the first superintendent of the parks in 1866. Parts of the Parks were designated to be used for recreational purposes. 25 acres of the land had been set aside as the University Cricket Grounds, the cricket pavilion was built in 1881. The Parks is used for other sports such as rugby football, lacrosse and croquet; the rest of The Parks was designed as an arboretum, the first trees were planted in 1865. A number of other features have been added over the years. Walter Sawyer has been superintendent of the Parks since 1991; the Parks has been the home ground of Oxford University Cricket Club since 1881. The cricket ground at The Parks was secured through the Master of Pembroke, Evan Evans obtaining a lease on 10 acres of land there in 1881. The pavilion was designed by Thomas G. Jackson, architect of many nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Oxford buildings, including the University's Examination Schools; the building has three gables, the central one containing the clock, is topped by a cupola'of absurd height' and weather-vane. The pavilion contains a Long Room. Before moving to The Parks, the University Cricket Club had played on the Magdalen Ground and Bullingdon Green; the Magdalen Ground was used from the University Cricket Club's first match in 1829 to 1880 while Bullingdon Green was used for two matches in 1843. The cricket ground is the only first-class cricket ground in the UK where spectators can watch free of charge as admission cannot be charged for entry into the Parks; the club has therefore taken major matches to three other grounds in Oxford. The most used is the Christ Church Ground, which hosted 37 matches between 1878 and 1961. Twenty-one of these matches were against the Australians, played between 1882 and 1961. The club used New College Ground for two matches in 1906 and 1907 against Yorkshire and the South Africans respectively. One match in 1912 against the South Africans was played at the Magdalen Ground; the club has played certain minor matches at the Merton College Ground, the St Edward's School Ground and the St Catherine's College Ground. The Parks has been, since 2000, home to the established ECB Oxford University Centre of Cricketing Excellence, a partnership between the University of Oxford, Oxford Brookes University and the England and Wales Cricket Board. Prior to the 2010 season the UCCE has been rebranded as Oxford Marylebone Cricket Club University; the University Match against Cambridge is the only one in which a true Oxford University Cricket Club team takes part: i.e. composed of current Oxford students. The Parks has, since 2002, hosted the first-class Varsity Match in even-numbered years; the Parks hosted two List A matches for the club and twenty-two matches for the Combined Universities in the Benson & Hedges Cup between 1973 and 1998. The following features of the Parks are of special interest: Cricket pavilion — the pavilion was designed by Sir Thomas Jackson. The cricket ground and pavilion are used by the Oxford University Cricket Club; the two ends of the pitch are the Norham Gardens End. Seven large giant sequoias planted in about 1888. A duck pond with water lilies and a small island, constructed in 1925. High Bridge, built in 1923–24 as a relief project for the unemployed, it is called Rainbow Bridge, because of its shape. Genetic Garden — an experimental garden established by Professor Cyril Darlington to demonstrate evolutionary processes. Styphnolobium japonicum, known as the Japanese Pagoda Tree. Planted in 1888. Coronation Clump, a clump of trees planted to commemorate the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. Parson's Pleasure, once now closed and part of the park. Dame's Delight Norham Manor estate Fenner's, where first-class cricket is played in Cambridge Oxford University Parks website Cricket in the Parks website View of University Park Looking Towards New College, Oxford by William Turner in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City University of Oxford The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university in Oxford, England. There is evidence of teaching as early as 1096, making it the oldest university in the English-speaking world and the world's second-oldest university in continuous operation, it grew from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge; the two'ancient universities' are jointly called'Oxbridge'. The history and influence of the University of Oxford has made it one of the most prestigious universities in the world; the university is made up of 38 constituent colleges, a range of academic departments, which are organised into four divisions. All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities, it does not have a main campus, its buildings and facilities are scattered throughout the city centre. Undergraduate teaching at Oxford is organised around weekly tutorials at the colleges and halls, supported by classes, lectures and laboratory work provided by university faculties and departments. It operates the world's oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system nationwide. In the fiscal year ending 31 July 2018, the university had a total income of £2.237 billion, of which £579.1 million was from research grants and contracts. The university is ranked first globally by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings as of 2019 and is ranked as among the world's top ten universities, it is ranked second in all major national league tables, behind Cambridge. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 27 prime ministers of the United Kingdom and many heads of state and government around the world; as of 2019, 69 Nobel Prize winners, 3 Fields Medalists, 6 Turing Award winners have studied, worked, or held visiting fellowships at the University of Oxford, while its alumni have won 160 Olympic medals. Oxford is the home of numerous scholarships, including the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the oldest international graduate scholarship programmes. The University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in some form as early as 1096, but it is unclear when a university came into being, it grew from 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris. The historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190; the head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the masters were recognised as a universitas or corporation in 1231. The university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge forming the University of Cambridge; the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two'nations', representing the North and the South. In centuries, geographical origins continued to influence many students' affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. In addition, members of many religious orders, including Dominicans, Franciscans and Augustinians, settled in Oxford in the mid-13th century, gained influence and maintained houses or halls for students. At about the same time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, John Balliol, father of a future King of Scots. Another founder, Walter de Merton, a Lord Chancellor of England and afterwards Bishop of Rochester, devised a series of regulations for college life. Thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England in London. The new learning of the Renaissance influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, settling at the University of Douai; the method of teaching at Oxford was transformed from the medieval scholastic method to Renaissance education, although institutions associated with the university suffered losses of land and revenues. As a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxford's reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment. In 1636 William Laud, the chancellor and Archbishop of Canterbury, codified the university's statutes. These, to a large extent, remained its gove A trail is a path, track or unpaved lane or road. In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland path or footpath is the preferred term for a walking trail; the term is applied, in North America, to routes along rivers, sometimes to highways. In the US, the term was used for a route into or through wild territory used by emigrants. In the USA "trace" is a synonym for trail, as in Natchez Trace; some trails are single use and can only be used for walking, horse riding and cross-country skiing. There are unpaved trails used by dirt bikes and other off-road vehicles and in some places, like the Alps, trails are used for moving cattle and other livestock. In Australia, the term track can be used interchangeably with trail, can refer to anything from a dirt road to an unpaved pedestrian path. In New Zealand, the terms track or walkway are used exclusively except in reference to cross-country skiing: "walkways vary enormously in nature, from short urban strolls, to moderate coastal locations, to challenging tramps in the high country ". Walkway is used in St. John's, Canada, where the "Grand Concourse", is an integrated walkway system. In the United Kingdom, the term trail is in common usage. Longer distance walking routes, government-promoted long distance paths, collectively known as National Trails, are frequently called ways; the term footpath is preferred for pedestrian routes, including long distance trails, is used for urban paths and sometimes in place of pavement. Track is used for wider paths used for hiking; the terms bridleway, restricted byway are all recognised legal terms and to a greater or lesser extent in general usage. The increased popularity of mountain biking has led to a proliferation of mountain bike trails in many countries; these will be grouped to form larger complexes, known as trail centers. In the early years of the 20th century, the term auto trail was used for a marked highway route, trail is now used to designate routes, including highway routes, designated for tourist interest like the Cabot Trail, Nova Scotia and the Quilt Trails in the US. The term trail has been used by developers and urban planners for a variety of modern paved roads and boulevards, in these countries, some highways continue to be called a trail, such as the Susquehanna Trail in Pennsylvania, a designation that varies from a two-lane road to a four-lane freeway. A unusual use of the term is in the Canadian province of Alberta, which has multi-lane freeways called trails. Trail segregation, the practice of designating certain trails as having a specific preferred or exclusive use, is common and diverse. For example, bike trails are used not only on roads open to motor vehicles, but in trail systems open to other trail users; some trails are segregated for use by both equestrians and mountain bikes, or by equestrians only, or by mountain bikes only. Designated "wilderness area" trails may be segregated for non-wheeled use. Trail segregation for a particular use is accompanied by prohibitions against that use on other trails within the trail system. Trail segregation may be supported by signage, trail design and construction, by separation between parallel treads. Separation may be achieved by "natural" barriers including distance, banking and vegetation, by "artificial" barriers including fencing and walls. Bicycle trails encompass a wide variety of trail types, including shared-use paths used for commuting, off-road cross country trails and downhill mountain bike trails; the number of off-road cycle trails has increased along with the popularity of mountain bikes. Off-road bicycle trails are function-specific and most waymarked along their route, they may form part of larger complexes, known as trail centres. Off-road trails incorporate a mix of challenging terrain, smooth fireroads, paved paths. Trails with an easy or moderate technical complexity are deemed cross-country trails, while trails difficult to experienced riders are more dubbed all-mountain, freeride, or downhill. Downhilling is popular at ski resorts such as Mammoth Mountain in California or Whistler Blackcomb in British Columbia, where ski lifts are used to get bikes and riders to the top of the mountain. EuroVelo bicycle routes are a network of long-distance cycling routes criss-crossing Europe in various stages of completion, more than 45,000 km was in place by 2013. It is envisaged that the network will be complete by 2020 and when finished, the EuroVelo network's total length will exceed 70,000 km. EuroVelo is a project of the European Cyclists' Federation. EuroVelo routes can be used for bicycle touring across the continent, as well as by local people making short journeys; the routes are made of both existing national bike routes, such as the Dutch LF-Routes, the German D-Routes, the British National Cycle Network, existing general purpose roads, together with new stretches of cycle routes to connect them. Off-road cycling can cause soil erosion and habitat destruction if not carried out on established trails; this is so when trails are wet, overall though, cycling may have only as mu Duck is the common name for a large number of species in the waterfowl family Anatidae which includes swans and geese. Ducks are divided among several subfamilies in the family Anatidae. Ducks are aquatic birds smaller than the swans and geese, may be found in both fresh water and sea water. Ducks are sometimes confused with several types of unrelated water birds with similar forms, such as loons or divers, grebes and coots; the word duck comes from Old English *dūce "diver", a derivative of the verb *dūcan "to duck, bend down low as if to get under something, or dive", because of the way many species in the dabbling duck group feed by upending. This word replaced Old English ened/ænid "duck" to avoid confusion with other Old English words, like ende "end" with similar forms. Other Germanic languages still have similar words for "duck", for example, Dutch eend "duck", German Ente "duck" and Norwegian and "duck"; the word ened/ænid was inherited from Proto-Indo-European. A duckling is a young duck in downy plumage or baby duck, but in the food trade a young domestic duck which has just reached adult size and bulk and its meat is still tender, is sometimes labelled as a duckling. A male duck is called a drake and the female is called a duck, or in ornithology a hen. The overall body plan of ducks is elongated and broad, the ducks are relatively long-necked, albeit not as long-necked as the geese and swans; the body shape of diving ducks varies somewhat from this in being more rounded. The bill is broad and contains serrated lamellae, which are well defined in the filter-feeding species. In the case of some fishing species the bill is long and serrated; the scaled legs are strong and well developed, set far back on the body, more so in the aquatic species. The wings are strong and are short and pointed, the flight of ducks requires fast continuous strokes, requiring in turn strong wing muscles. Three species of steamer duck are flightless, however. Many species of duck are temporarily flightless; this moult precedes migration. The drakes of northern species have extravagant plumage, but, moulted in summer to give a more female-like appearance, the "eclipse" plumage. Southern resident species show less sexual dimorphism, although there are exceptions like the paradise shelduck of New Zealand, both strikingly sexually dimorphic and where the female's plumage is brighter than that of the male. The plumage of juvenile birds resembles that of the female. Over the course of evolution, female ducks have evolved to have a corkscrew shaped vagina to prevent rape. Ducks eat a variety of food sources such as grasses, aquatic plants, insects, small amphibians and small molluscs. Dabbling ducks feed on the surface of water or on land, or as deep as they can reach by up-ending without submerging. Along the edge of the beak, there is a comb-like structure called a pecten; this strains the water squirting from traps any food. The pecten is used to preen feathers and to hold slippery food items. Diving ducks and sea ducks forage deep underwater. To be able to submerge more the diving ducks are heavier than dabbling ducks, therefore have more difficulty taking off to fly. A few specialized species such as the mergansers are adapted to swallow large fish; the others have the characteristic wide flat beak adapted to dredging-type jobs such as pulling up waterweed, pulling worms and small molluscs out of mud, searching for insect larvae, bulk jobs such as dredging out, turning head first, swallowing a squirming frog. To avoid injury when digging into sediment it has no cere, but the nostrils come out through hard horn. The Guardian published an article advising that ducks should not be fed with bread because it damages the health of the ducks and pollutes waterways. Ducks are monogamous, although these bonds last only a single year. Larger species and the more sedentary species tend to have pair-bonds that last numerous years. Most duck species breed once a year. Ducks tend to make a nest before breeding, after hatching, lead their ducklings to water. Mother ducks are caring and protective of their young, but may abandon some of their ducklings if they are physically stuck in an area they cannot get out of or are not prospering due to genetic defects or sickness brought about by hypothermia, starvation, or disease. Ducklings can be orphaned by inconsistent late hatching where a few eggs hatch after the mother has abandoned the nest and led her ducklings to water. Most domestic ducks neglect their eggs and ducklings, their eggs must be hatched under a broody hen or artificially. Female mallard ducks make the classic "quack" sound while males make a similar but raspier sound, sometimes written as "breeeeze", but despite widespread misconceptions, most species of duck do not "quack". In general, ducks make a wide range of calls, ranging from whistles, cooing and grunts. For example, the scaup – which are diving ducks – make a noise like "scaup" (hence

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Opposite Words A To ZThere is no better way of boosting your word power. You might find that a dictionary helps if you are not sure of the words meaning. Project antonyms. Find all numbers that are multiples of their reversals. ==> digits/palindrome (arithmetic/part1) <==. opposite word synonyms, opposite word pronunciation, opposite word translation, English dictionary definition of opposite word. Linking Words! Learn extensive list of linking words and phrases in English with video and ESL printable worksheet to improve your English writing skills. Rhyme also helps them learn about language. You can go about it in a variety of ways: organise an event and charge. Male —— Female. LEARNER'S WORD OF THE DAY foliage : the leaves of a plant or of many plants. A rise in the value of an asset and the opposite of depreciation. ’ Like most swear words, it did originate from a sexual reference, which is still how it’s used today. You can only upload files of type PNG, JPG or JPEG. Antonyms List H -Q. equivocate - to use ambiguous words and expressions in order to deceive: "I will do what I can for you," the lawyer reminded his client, "but I cannot and will not equivocate. It is a part of speech. There is a major problem with parking in London. Letter B This section has a variety of letter recognition worksheets, tracing activities, and printing/handwriting pages for the Letter B. bury one’s head in the sand 13. Words for Cats. 100 opposite words. Over 100,000 German translations of English words and phrases. A ray starts at a given point and goes off in a certain direction forever, to infinity. ” Music shows. Health Department Forms. Positive Words. List of Opposites in the English language in alphabetical order - M - R. This is a quick introduction to get you started on secret codes for Scout and Cub meetings. Opposite/contrast: underline the two words or phrases in contrast to one another, then make a guess. So, let us have them: A. Full Phonics Listing. com, a free online English kannada Picture dictionary. This is for my future reference as well as for fellow readers who want to speak,write or read kannada. That was a long one with lots to remember! Make sure you check out these lessons on French words: French swear words (R18!) and common French travel words and phrases. The words are up/down, narrow/wide, happy/sad, empty/full, day/night, first/last, over/under, less/more, push/pull, near/far. So, let us have them: A. Understanding the meanings of the most common prefixes can help us deduce the definition of new words that we run across in our reading, especially knowing that they can make a word mean its opposite, such as the difference between possible and impossible. (noun) - is a name word. You can copy and paste this list in a word or excel document, number the words, and print the list. post to WordPress whenever you post to Blogger. Physics Phenomena "Physics is Fun" (Feimer's Physics Page) Physics Dictionary. This page may interest people looking for the opposite of smooth and smooth opposite. blowup, or a noun and non-noun, e. aggregate a. The word for opposite terms used together is an oxymoron. The DOMA definitions of “marriage” and “spouse” applied to the FMLA, and therefore FMLA leave for a spouse could only be taken to care for a spouse of the opposite sex. The official Collins English Dictionary online. ) are not listed here. If you have a word selected, Shift+F7 looks up that word in the thesaurus. We focus on two high-profile cases of gun violence: the state-deemed justifiable homicide of Trayvon. However, many words - especially nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs - also have an emotional side. List all words by word length, browse all words in the list, explore all combinations of letters or find all adjectives starting with a letter. III,127; Vin. Right click on a white space and choose print. Scrabble®, Words With Friends®, Word Cookies, Word Chums®, 4Pics1Word® & Jumble® are the property of their respective trademark owners. Synonyms and opposites are helpful in this sense. txt) or view presentation slides online. The Wisdom of Peter Drucker from A to Z. Vocabulary word lists and various games and puzzles to help you study them. SSC English Idioms and Phrases A to Z. The usefulness of an adjective comes from it's ability to characterize a noun, giving more detailed and imaginative information about the object of discussion. Let’s find out in today’s blog that explores some of the craziest words in our living language. Here is a list of opposites arranged. birds of a feather 3. 30 opposite words in English from a to z Ask for details The following are the 30 opposite words in Write a persuasive essay on misleading advertisements in. What are Antonym of ugly in English? Here get opposite word Ugly. Our large database of English to Tagalog and Tagalog to English translation is 100% free. What are opposites? Students have the opportunity to learn about opposite words in this book with supportive photographs. This would, primarily, be for metrical reasons. One way of mastering a language involves learning its vocabulary. Concept (nonfiction), 28 words, Level A (Grade K), Lexile BR100L. Find and save ideas about Opposite words on Pinterest. What are opposites? Students have the opportunity to learn about opposite words in this book with supportive photographs. E : A to Z : Learning English Alphabet is the first step to master English. If what is rolled is not a word, it is written under the “Not a Word” column. And then we can take that z-score and use the mean and the standard deviation to come up with an actual value. Read on to discover the importance of antonyms. a story intended to teach a basic truth or moral about life Synonyms: allegory, apologue, parable…. Larger and less common words A formal sentence you might see in an economic report: The economy is currently quite robust; nevertheless, some specialists predict an imminent recession. Other interesting lessons and exercises to learn. Words are listed in alphabetical order. Learning new vocabulary often requires "hooks" - memory devices that help students remember the words they have learned. Opposites formed by prefixes (dis-, ex-, im-, in-, irr-, un- etc. Students can practice letter formation for both uppercase and lowercase letters, as well as numbers 0 to 10. What are Antonym of help in English? Here get opposite word Help. Spell checker can help in avoiding common mistakes. Riddle: Two camels were facing in opposite directions. My fav is "que te den por culo" makes you feel fine when u're angry or makes a situation funny when u're being pissed by sb. This page may interest people looking for the opposite of smooth and smooth opposite. If a word is made, the word is written under the “Word” column. The opposite trend is observed for chromatin-modifying genes. inverse operations (opposite operations) inverse property of addition. "Two games can be played with portmanteau words. ” Music shows. Enjoy the videos and music you love, upload original content, and share it all with friends, family, and the world on YouTube. Speaking Perfume : A-Z of Common Fragrance Descriptions The inability of our language to fully capture the nuances of scents can be very frustrating. 9 Letters PQR Letters S to Z Begin Blends A Pronouns 2 Reflexive Expository Organizers Expository Organizers 10 Letters STU Words S to Z CVC Begin Blends B Passage Comp 3A Passage Comp 4A Passage Comp 5A 11 Letters VWX Sentences S to Z Sight Words 2A Commas 2 Multi-Syllable Words Multi-Syllable Words. Worksheet For Class 2 2nd Grade Worksheets Vocabulary Worksheets Grammar Activities Teacher Worksheets Kindergarten Worksheets Coping Skills Worksheets Preschool Number Worksheets Printable Math Worksheets. a story intended to teach a basic truth or moral about life Synonyms: allegory, apologue, parable…. This is the last word that someone with kakorrhaphiophobia would want to encounter in a spelling bee. Techniques > Use of language > Figures of speech > Full list. OPPOSITE WORD meaning in kannada, OPPOSITE WORD pictures, OPPOSITE WORD pronunciation, OPPOSITE WORD translation,OPPOSITE WORD definition are included in the result of OPPOSITE WORD meaning in kannada at kitkatwords. Their accounting records take the form of a collection of funds,. Only - Together. So enjoy this list and then get around for preparing your own list of Synonyms and Antonyms. Words beginning with other letters are found on their respective antonyms list pages. Its opposite is the comparative of "good", in other words "better". Reading Charlie Munger’s speeches on Mental Models, I realized I was right. Place 2 pictures on the floor in front of the child. The Buddha said that an enlightened person is `skilled in the words and their interpretation' (niruttipadakovido, Dhp. Don't assume a trans person is gay. The Opposites Song ~ Antonyms ~ 110 words ~ Learn English Vocabulary - Duration: 4:00. Download high quality royalty free Exercise Words clip art from our collection of 41,940,205 royalty free clip art graphics. Only - Together. The technique only became possible in Europe when biscuit firing was introduced for fine earthenwares and porcelain (see B is for biscuit). An example is the word “right” which when referring to an angle has a very specific mathematical meaning. as ininside out. Kidsfront has developed online study material of Class 1 English Words in a sentence lesson, available for free. What are opposites? Students have the opportunity to learn about opposite words in this book with supportive photographs. Arts & Entertainment. Small intestine is the major site where most of the nutrients are absorbed. Here is a list of common words with silent letters from A to Z. Our Word Finder has gone through 2 versions and supports Words With Friends so it is a Word Finder and Words with Friends Finder and SCRABBLE®. A handy set of matching cards containing a range of opposites. The list is far from complete, but I am adding to it all the time. Most apps these days provide multiple undo which allows you to undo the last few actions - how many depends on the app, but it is not usually that many since too many undo steps are typically expensive to implement in terms of memory. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z. Z-patterns apply to other sorts of pages, like ads or websites, where information is not necessarily presented in block paragraphs. A good way to learn new vocabulary is learn about 20 words a week from a dictionary and understand what they mean. Replacing words with antonyms worksheets antonymssynonyms worksheets. Synonym of words help in knowing similar words and antonym of words help in knowing opposite meanings. Try our adjective word search puzzle and have fun finding a range of different adjectives such as fast, cold, pretty, small and new. as inthoroughly. Not just letters and sounds but whole words can be repeated in the English language to create different effects. Sitting on a BA plane headed towards South Africa from Edinburgh, while painstakingly waiting for the take-off to finally end so I can take out my laptop, I start to think about where I’m heading…. Codes make great games for Scouts and Cubs of all ages, and they're not too difficult to learn. ' 'Marvin was sitting opposite me on the other side of the fire. Speaking Perfume : A-Z of Common Fragrance Descriptions The inability of our language to fully capture the nuances of scents can be very frustrating. Free thesaurus definition of general words relating to jobs and work from the Macmillan English Dictionary - a free English dictionary online with thesaurus and with pronunciation from Macmillan Education. Lucas likes to snipe as he proved in the last meeting, catching the Force defence napping to nip though a hole and score. Compound Word List #1: lifetime : elsewhere: upside: grandmother: cannot baseball: fireworks: passport: together: become: became: sunflower: crosswalk. Prefixes ( 1) - English Many prefixes give a word a meaning which is the opposite or negative of the original. We focus on two high-profile cases of gun violence: the state-deemed justifiable homicide of Trayvon. At times it was even needful to take out the loads and, wading knee-deep in the ice-cold waters, drag the boats across the many shoals. If you're absent more than five times, you fail the course. Each time you learn a new German word, try to find out its antonyms. Search horizontally, vertically and diagonally for all 20 words, put your skills to the test and see how many you can find!. Half way down that page begins a list of words including their synonyms and antonyms. All words, pictures, and opinions are my own. That bash behaviour is also different from the [A-Z] range matching in other GNU tools like in GNU regular expressions (as in grep/sed) or fnmatch() as in find -name. I did this with my students, and they called it “The 100 Book” because each page spread has 100 items. Unless you're opposed to the idea, we suggest that you don't not learn these words. antonym blindside out-of-the-box thinking grapple marketplace allot comply audacious brainstorm skittish myriad unison instigate tether prodigious telugu imagery good potential filipino for-the-first-time words autumn looked bittersweet sea-eagle survivor evaluate out-of-the-box-thinking village demographic. What are some opposite words for A to Z?. To listen to the pronunciation of the French adjectives in each list, click the speaker icon at the bottom of the list. When used with an English verb to make a new word, it works as a negative. Want to do something. If you have z scores on opposite sides, see: Area Between Two Z Values on Opposite Sides of the Mean. For example, we can use the prefixes dis or un:. But this is a shockingly empty film, with the entire cast desperately ‘acting away’, and not one sentiment that feels real. Antonyms for from A to Z. This is the opposite of subtract. Word classes are the categories to which words belong according to the part they play in a sentence, e. from A to Z. Matching Opposite Words Worksheet - Free to print (PDF file) for kindergarten and first grade students. An Apple a Day Keeps The Doctor Away Eating an apple (or fruits and vegetables) daily can help to keep the doctor away. It has nothing to do with the kind of people they have romantic feelings toward. Or go to the answers. An oxymoron term is a literary figure of speech in which opposite or contradictory words, phrases, terms or ideas are combined to create a rhetorical effect by paradoxical means. If you're trying to get the effect of mirrored words, flipped words or upside down words and text, then this is it. txt) or view presentation slides online. Let's look at these different types of language. English Vocabulary Word Lists with Games, Puzzles and Quizzes English Vocabulary Word List Ogden's Basic English Word List - Things - Picturable Words (200 Words). Within this criteria, you can still come up with some really hard words. What is the opposite of the word 'to'? An opposite of the word "to" is from. A synonym is a similar word. (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, or pronoun). Challenge Can you find two antonyms or opposites for these words. Hope the above listing of antonyms for smooth is useful. The word has two parts: anti and onym. completely different: 2. Opposite the leader is the group’s youngest member, known as the “maknae. Ctrl+ Moves to the end of the paragraph. The Opposite of Hoarding For some, the need to shed possessions is a life-consuming illness—but the cultural embrace of decluttering can make it hard to seek help. inverse property of multiplication. Browse english words that start with c and view definitions. import-export. Opposite emotions = four petals apart = Anticipation ∉ Surprise There are also triads, emotions formed from 3 primary emotions. Adjective. Example: a° and b° are vertically opposite angles. accusatory-charging of wrong doing. The word "Antonym" means a word that is opposite in meaning to another given word. Above is help antonym in Engish. Also called part of speech. Synonyms for from A to Z at Thesaurus. Many idioms are explained via examples. adverb: in the opposite direction. A to Z of soccer terms. The Word Explorer is like a map built into your dictionary that allows you to find and explore interesting paths through the dictionary. imaginary-real 4. Online Dictionary for Kids with Pictures - Browse by category: Animals Appliances Body Parts Clothing Food Event House Numbers School Sports Things Place. " about above across after against along among around at before behind below beneath beside between by down during except for from in in front of inside instead of into like near of off on onto on top of out of. This is a quick introduction to get you started on secret codes for Scout and Cub meetings. Using spatial demonstratives (words like this and that) as an online linguistic index of representations of proximal space, A modulation in the opposite direction is observed for P2, who. com, a free online English kannada Picture dictionary. Find descriptive alternatives for opposite. are used, the meaning and frequency of the words greatly Tamil was the most common native English word) and pseudo-words (a-z, but derived. Synonyms: list of 250+ synonym words from A to Z with example sentences. WORD LIST: PREPOSITIONS A preposition is a word that relates a noun or pronoun to another word in a sentence. Let's look at these different types of language. So let us start on a journey through the basic words every visitor to Ireland should know. Animal Corner Discover the many amazing animals that live on our planet. Positive Words. We focus on two high-profile cases of gun violence: the state-deemed justifiable homicide of Trayvon. Synonym of words help in knowing similar words and antonym of words help in knowing opposite meanings. What is the opposite of from A to Z? Need antonyms for from A to Z? Here's a list of opposite words from our thesaurus that you can use instead. My laptop is from Switzerland, the letters Z and Y are on opposite sides, what should I do to switch them? Why does Ron Paul tell us that sex is immoral, that is not a Libertarian position, in fact it is the opposite?. This blog is a collection of the notes taken in my kannada class. piroutté: “Whirl or spin”. Find descriptive alternatives for opposites. cynical-questions the basic sincerity and goodness of people. Here you will find a table of words and their opposites. Teaching simple action words for pre-K children is useful because they lay the groundwork for other important lessons in the future. The word for opposite terms used together is an oxymoron. Dig into our list of all 2943 things that start with A, then apply abundantly for admirable aftermath. The names of specific phobias are often formed as nonce words, or words coined for a single occasion only. There aren’t many adjectives in English that do this, however – not like in Spanish. Here’s the wikipedia mathematics definition. Words of opposite meaning are deliberately combined. Secondary 1 Math. com, a free online English kannada Picture dictionary. This list of the adjectives starting with Z also have definitions, simply click on any adjective to view the definition. However, many words - especially nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs - also have an emotional side. I did this with my students, and they called it “The 100 Book” because each page spread has 100 items. Opposite words-English Recommended lessons to learn English: 1. Z-scores can be found in a table, but using a TI-84 Plus calculator is easier and more accurate. Opposites are words that have contrary meanings. How to Decorate a Christmas Tree. If you draw a ray with a pencil, examination with a microscope would show that the pencil mark has a measurable width. com with free online thesaurus, antonyms, and definitions. Opposites are also called antonyms. Read as 'normal words' they often break normal rules of grammar, but can be nevertheless understood They are common in poetry and eloquent speech. If Jeter's signature defensive play was the jump throw, then his signature offensive play was a single or double to rightfield courtesy of his famous inside-out swing. ESL Flashcards provides FREE flashcards for teaching languages for educators, parents, and caregivers. Spies vocabulary, Spies word list - www. Small intestine is the major site where most of the nutrients are absorbed. Learn more. As a bonus, site members have access to a banner-ad-free version of the site, with print-friendly pages. Certain words of affirmation can be used to make us feel good and take action. Order of a Differential Equation. This page may interest people looking for the opposite of bright and bright opposite. These names themselves are often formed by taking a Greek prefix that represents the fear object and adding the -phobia suffix. Find another word for fable. The \Z anchor itself actually does match the position right before the final eol terminator, but the regular expression as a whole does not match, because, as a whole, it needs to match the entire text being matched, and nothing matches the terminator. Start studying vocabulary words, definitions, and antonyms and synonyms. Verbs with opposite meanings * Lesson*, lili73, 23739, 88/100, Club. Antonyms: list of 300+ opposite words from A to Z with ESL pictures. Nonsense Words Phobias Pretenders and Dabblers Rhetorical Devices Sciences and Studies Scientific Instruments Sesquipedalian Words Signs, Symbols, and Accents Stones and Rocks Styles of Speech Three-Letter Rare Words Units of Measurement Unusual Animals Words about Words Words of Wisdom. , extremely average, bitter sweet, gentle giant. If you use them in your speech and writing it can make them both more interesting. Lists of opposites arranged in alphabetical order. The final result? A Christmas card you can send to anyone, made with simple MS Word, and printable on practically any desktop printer. Look it up now!. The list below gives you the 1000 most frequently used English words in alphabetical order. So let us start on a journey through the basic words every visitor to Ireland should know. Class 1 students can learn & practice free online Words in a sentence exercise of English subject. This word is not used often in mainstream English but its vestiges are still seen in the sciences. ==> digits/palintiples (arithmetic/part1) <==. When writing affirmations, the important thing to remember is to keep these words in mind because Practicing daily affirmations is all about the feeling, rather than just the words of affirmation. Kidsfront has developed online study material of Class 1 English Words in a sentence lesson, available for free. Working your arse off and saving like crazy is all very well, but there are other ways to make money. Letter B This section has a variety of letter recognition worksheets, tracing activities, and printing/handwriting pages for the Letter B. Definition of antidote a medicine taken or given to counteract a particular poison. Find new stories to read with your children every week. An oxymoron term is a literary figure of speech in which opposite or contradictory words, phrases, terms or ideas are combined to create a rhetorical effect by paradoxical means. An antonym word list (word bank), listing common opposites. In the first game, one player thinks of a portmanteau word and asks the next player to say which words are blended to create it. EnchantedLearning. (Edith Bertha), b. In selecting terms for the list, I have deliberately avoided any word which apply ism to a personal name, so that Marxism doesn't count although it is otherwise an ideal candidate for the list. Please update your bookmarks accordingly. A penalty try took them into double figures but New Zealand had to have the final word through Jordie Barrett with the final move of a game that showed the holders will take some toppling. You can also refer to the Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors for advice on hyphenation. The Word/Not A Word activity is a fun center activity using word families. Additional Resources. Reading A-Z Ranked #1 by Teachers. VIDEO: Twitter erupts as Jeremy Corbyn ignores Boris Johnson in steely Queen's Speech snub. New words from A to C. An antonym word list (word bank), listing common opposites. What are opposite words of From A to Z? Partially, incompletely, partly. • Global temperatures have flat-lined for almost 18 years according to satellite data, and the peer-reviewed literature is now scaling. Word or phrase with the opposite meaning to another e. What is the opposite of A to Z? Need antonyms for A to Z?Here's a list of opposite words from our thesaurus that you can use instead. Important Antonyms List PDF (English Vocabulary Words and their Opposite Meanings) for SSC CGL, CHSL, IBPS and RRB PO, Clerks, SBI PO and Clerks, RBI Grade B Officers and Office Assistants and other Competitive Exams - Free Download. adverb: in the opposite direction. In other words, people usually talk about being in a good mood or a bad mood. The words are generous/greedy, happy/sad, brave/cowardly, shy. leave high frequency words and return to Glossary. Expression means, "Don't worry so much about a problem, whatever it is. Silent letters from A to Z list and examples for each letter Silent letters English lesson. Visit The Economist e-store and you'll find a range. List of opposites. Below is the complete Common Words word list containing 1,000 individual words. The z score transformation is especially useful when seeking to compare the relative standings of items from distributions with different means and/or different standard deviations. Naming a dog for some people can be a process of getting to know him and finding something that suits his personality. nice mean sweet wild hot dirty old buy front back lead find good new empty strong tame sour lose rich ugly cold poor night. Learn English > English exercises & lessons > Opposite words Other English exercises about the same topic: Opposite words [ Choose another topic ] Please check our guides. birds of a feather 3. Opposite words for Everywhere. Spear & Sons Limited of Maidenhead, Berkshire, England, a subsidiary of Mattel Inc. idle-busy 2. Words with all letters different - Letter pairs and double letters - Hook Word Lists. It is characterized by the ease and grace of the positions and connections, and builds the dancer's control and endurance. BORIS JOHNSON and his Labour Party opposite, Jeremy Corbyn, found themselves in an awkward situation during the Queen's Speech ceremony that Twitter …. Names Candidates will be expected to recognise and write the following names. ” Music shows. Opposite words-English Recommended lessons to learn English: 1. Antonyms for from A to Z. – a martian nudist. Please update your bookmarks accordingly. I just worry that our store's sales will go into. In other words, people usually talk about being in a good mood or a bad mood. Adjectives used to describe cities, towns and countries, with clear example sentences using words like beautiful, charming. Working your arse off and saving like crazy is all very well, but there are other ways to make money. What are opposite words of From A to Z? Partially, incompletely, partly. 23 From A to Z antonyms. In previous examples, we started with the z-score and were looking for the percentage. Click on a letter to see the abbreviations beginning with that letter. Man —— Woman. A ray is one-dimensional. EnchantedLearning. This word is not used often in mainstream English but its vestiges are still seen in the sciences. Secondary 1 CCSS Vocabulary Word List Vocabulary Cards Secondary 1 A thru L Vocabulary Cards Secondary 1 M thru Z Secondary 1 Student Glossary. Word Search Puzzles which include all the Dolch sight words. “standard distribution” of values about a mean of zero (0). " You can make this an independent or group activity and you can make it into a contest. Ctrl+ Moves to the end of the paragraph. A synonym has the same or similar meaning to a given word. idle-busy 2. The phonics worksheets on this page have three-letter words that follow the consonant-vowel-consonant, or CVC, pattern. The screenshot below is the opening screen for Microsoft Word 2003. • Global temperatures have flat-lined for almost 18 years according to satellite data, and the peer-reviewed literature is now scaling. Find and save ideas about Opposite words on Pinterest. What are some descriptive words for Spring season ? Here is a list of Spring words that describe the Spring season. Words that start with U. ==> digits/palintiples (arithmetic/part1) <==. Look it up now!. opposite word synonyms, opposite word pronunciation, opposite word translation, English dictionary definition of opposite word. Attempt ONLINE TEST on Class 1,English,Alphabet A to Z in Academics section after completing this Alphabet A to Z Question Answer Exercise. Words to say Thank-you. Contextual translation of "kind opposite words" into Kannada. What are opposite words of From A to Z? Partially, incompletely, partly. If you draw a ray with a pencil, examination with a microscope would show that the pencil mark has a measurable width. You can copy and paste this list in a word or excel document, number the words, and print the list.

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1. WE LEARN HOW GOD DRAWS US TO HIMSELF A) The NATURE of God's Call: Genesis 12:1-3 records God's calling of Abram to leave kin and country for the land that God would show him. There are both commands and promises in the call of Abram. We see the COMMANDS in 12:1: “Now the Lord said to Abram, 'Go forth from your country, and from your relatives and from your father's house. . .” God is calling Abram to leave: 1) his country (land); 2) his relatives (people); and 3) his father's house, which probably signifies both his father's authority and his family heritage; as he is being called to submit to a new authority and obtain a new heritage. But along with the commands God gives Abram to leave his country, relatives and father's house, the Lord also gives him PROMISES. We see seven promises in verses 2-3:1 1) And I will make you a great nation: In Genesis 17:4-5, the Lord expands this promise from one great nation to “a multitude of nations.” From Abram would come forth entire physical nations—not only the Israelites (from Jacob), but also the Ishmaelites (from Ishmael), the Edomites (from Esau). But there was also much more meant by this promise than physical nations. The New Testament in referring back to these promises, tells us that they extended not only to those who were the physical descendants of Abraham, but also to those who would “follow in the steps of the faith of our father Abraham” from among the Gentiles (Romans 4:16-17). In other words, this promise has its ultimate fulfillment in the church. The great nation and multitude of nations that the Lord was promising Abraham was ultimately the people of God—those who with Abraham would call upon the God of Abraham; a great multitude indeed gathered from every tribe, tongue, and nation under heaven.2 2) And I will bless you: The blessing isn't specified here, but it becomes clear later. We'll be talking about it in more detail ahead, but for now we can simply note that this same blessing rests on all of God's people, for the New Testament tells us that “those who are of faith are blessed with Abraham, the believer” (Galatians 3:9). It's the blessing that David would write about years later: “How blessed is he whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin is covered! How blessed is the man to whom the Lord does not impute iniquity” (Psalm 32:1-2). It's the blessing that our Savior would speak of in the Sermon on the Mount: “Blessed are the poor in spirit. . .” (Matthew 5:1-12). And it's the blessing that Paul would reflect on when he wrote: “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places in Christ. . .” (Ephesians 1:3). 3) And [I will] make your name great: This points us back again to the story of the tower of Babel. If you remember, the reason those men were building the tower was to make a name for themselves. God is telling Abraham: Don't waste your time trying to make a name for yourself. Seek after Me, and I will make you a name that will endure forever. We're told in Genesis 10:8-10 that the founder of Babel was Nimrod, and that he “became a mighty one on the earth.” So, Nimrod was “a mighty one” on the earth. . .but who has ever heard his name? Nobody knows who he is. We have to be told that he used to be big-time back in the day to even know who in the world he is!3 Not so with Abraham. You don't have to tell anyone who Abraham is. Why? God made his name great. 4) And so you shall be a blessing: Earlier in verse 2, God had promised to bless Abraham; but here, God is promising to bless others through him. In other words, God's blessing would not only come to Abraham (v2b), but it would also flow through him (v2d). God wouldn't just bless him, He would make him an instrument of blessing in the lives of those around him. What an amazing thing! The blessing of God didn't just mean deliverance from sins' punishment—it also meant fruitfulness for God's glory. God's blessing wasn't just about salvation in the next life—it was about significance in this life. And doesn't God promise us the same thing in Christ? Paul says, “But thanks be to God, who always leads us in triumph in Christ, and manifests through us the sweet aroma of the knowledge of Him in every place.” (2 Corinthians 2:14). And our Savior cried out in John 7:38-39, “He who believes in Me, as the Scripture said, 'From his innermost being will flow rivers of living water.'” Just like Abraham, God has promised to make us instruments of His blessing in this life for eternity.4 5) And I will bless those who bless you: What does this mean? We can understand this clause by recalling Noah's prophecy in Genesis 9:26-27, where he says, “May God enlarge Japheth, and let him dwell in the tents of Shem. . .” What's Noah saying? He's saying that the descendants of Japheth would be blessed as they dwelt in the tents of Shem. Why? Because the Messiah would come from Shem, and the blessing is in the Messiah. So if you're dwelling with Shem, ultimately, you're dwelling with the Messiah who would come from Shem. If you're at peace with Shem, you're at peace with the Messiah who would come from Shem, and God's blessing is upon you. So again, for Japheth, to dwell with Shem meant to dwell with the Messiah who would come from Shem. And it's the same thing here: To bless Abram meant to bless the Messiah who would come from Abram. Those who bless Abram in the truest sense are those who bless the Savior who would come forth from him.5 6) And the one who curses you I will curse: This clause isn't as pleasant but it's no less important. Abraham won't just be the door for a blessing—but also for a curse. If those who bless Abram are by implication blessing the Messiah, then those who curse him are by implication cursing the Messiah. As Simeon held the baby Jesus in his arms at the temple, he declared to Mary: “Behold, this child is appointed for the fall and rise of many in Israel, and for a sign to be opposed. . .” (Luke 2:34). Many would rise to life and blessing through faith in the Messiah, but many would also stumble and fall on account of Him. It's the same truth that Paul wrote of when he said in 2 Corinthians 2:15-16, “For we are a fragrance of Christ to God among those who are being saved and among those who are perishing; to the one an aroma from death to death, to the other an aroma from life to life.” There is no neutral response to Jesus: To receive Him is to be blessed, but to reject Him is to be cursed.6 7) And in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed: Blessing is promised over and over again to Abram in these two short verses (12:2-3). But each time it's mentioned, the meaning is distinct. In verse 2b, blessing would come to him; in verse 2d, blessing would flow through him; and now here in verse 3c, blessing would spring from him. This clause is incredibly significant. We're going to deal with it in depth later, and show why it is that, in Galatians 3:8, Paul actually refers to this clause as the gospel. But for now, I want us to just notice the language that the Lord chooses to use here in His promise to Abram; that in him “all the families of the earth shall be blessed.” God's plan from the beginning was never just to bless Abram, but in him to bless all peoples. His desire has always been to draw every tribe and tongue and nation to himself. Christian missions started long before Matthew 28! In fact, God's promise here in Genesis 12:3 is actually the basis for the Great Commission: God sends us to the nations with hope because He's promised to extend His blessing to them as well.7 Aside from these seven promises in verses 2-3, the Lord gives Abram another promise in verse 7, where after Abram had come into the land of Canaan, we read: “The Lord appeared to Abram and said, 'To your descendants I will give this land.'” So, the Lord makes several promises to Abram here in Genesis 12. Really, we could condense them all down to three promises that equate exactly to the commands God had given to him: The Lord is telling Abram: 1) leave your land (country), 2) your people (relatives), 3) and your heritage (father's house); because: 1) I am going to give you a new land, 2) I'm going to make you into a new people, and 3) I'm going to give you a new heritage: LAND PEOPLE HERITAGE What Abram Left: His country (12:1) His relatives (12:1) His father's house (12:1) What God Promised: Possess a new land (vv1,7) Father a new people (v2) Gain a new heritage (vv2-3) So, there's both commands and promises in God's calling of Abram. There were commands: This wasn't just a suggestion for Abram—to leave everything he knew and go to the land that God would show him—it was a command; so there were commands. But there were also promises: God doesn't tell Abram to leave everything just because; just for the sake of sacrifice. God tells him to leave these things behind because He has something infinitely better in store for him (Genesis 12:2-3). And this is meant to highlight for us the way that God calls us as believers to himself in the gospel, in the Covenant of Grace. The way that God calls Abram to the land of Canaan is exactly the same way that He calls us home to himself in the gospel. There are commands. God called Abram to leave everything and follow Him; and it's no different for us. Jesus said to the rugged fisherman, “Follow Me” (Mark 1:17). Christ was calling His disciples to walk away from everything they knew for a new life. This is how it is in the Covenant of Grace. Abram had to count the cost, and so do we. There are commands, but there are also promises. God tells Abram to leave his land, his people, and his inheritance for something much, much greater: he will inherit an infinitely better land, he will father an innumerable people, and he will gain an everlasting inheritance. It's a pretty good trade. Losing the world in order to gain Christ is no sacrifice. Jesus describes it this way: “The kingdom of heaven is like a treasure hidden in the field, which a man found and hid again; and from joy over it he goes and sells all that he has and buys that field” (Matthew 13:44). Jim Elliot, missionary to Ecuador, put it this way, “He is no fool who gives what he cannot keep to gain what he cannot lose.” B) The POWER of God's Call: How did Abram respond to God's call? Genesis 12:4 says, “So Abram went forth as the Lord had spoken to him. . .” But that wasn't exactly the whole story. We know this because of what Scripture records in Acts 7:2-3. In making his defense to the Sanhedrin, Stephen begins by saying, “Hear me, brethren and fathers! The God of glory appeared to our father Abraham when he was in Mesopotamia, before he lived in Haran, and said to him, 'Leave your country and your relatives, and come into the land that I will show you.' ” It seems that Abram had lived in Haran a long time (cf. 12:5). And Acts tells us that God spoke to Abram the words recorded in Genesis 12:1-3 before Abram even lived in Haran; which means that Abram did obey, but only years after God had first appeared to him. Abram followed God's call, but it took him a long time. Well, what happened? How did Abram finally come to his senses in Haran and make the rest of the journey to Canaan? Stephen tells us in the next verse, in verse 4: “after his father died, God removed him from there [Haran] into this land in which you are now living” (ESV). What happened? “God removed him.” And by the way, the Greek word used here (Gr. metoikizo) is only used twice in Scripture; once here and then later in verse 43, where Stephen quotes from a passage in Amos that describes how God would send Israel into exile for their sins: “I will remove you beyond Babylon.” That's a violent removal. And yet that's the same word that's being used here for how it was that God brought Abram into Canaan! Ultimately, God did it—God caused Abram to leave Haran and come into the land of promise. God didn't just call Abram to the land of promise—He drew Abram to the land of promise.8 There was a command, but in the Covenant of Grace, all that God requires, He also provides. This was more than a call—it was an effectual call; it was a call that Abram couldn't resist, because God himself would cause him to obey. And it's no different with us; with God's calling us to turn from our sins and believe upon Christ. If you are a believer in Jesus, you need to know that the reason you left all to follow Christ wasn't because you made a decision—it was because God made a decision. It wasn't because you chose Him but because He chose you. What we see here with Abram is the same truth Jesus spoke of in the gospels: “Many are called, but few are chosen.”9 2. WE LEARN WHO GOD'S PEOPLE ARE: In Genesis 12:1-3, we learned about the call of God. Through the rest of the chapter (Genesis 12:4-20), we learn about the children of God: who are God's redeemed people? What do their lives look like? What are the characteristics that mark their lives? What sort of people are they? And in answering these questions from the rest of Genesis 12 (verses 4-20), we can say two things. First: A) God's people are NEW CREATURES: We see this in Genesis 12:4-9. Abram follows God's call to the land of Canaan, going forth “as the Lord had spoken to him” (v4). As he travels through the land, we're told twice that he builds altars to the Lord; one in Shechem (v6), and then again near Bethel, where we're told, “he built an altar to the Lord and called upon the name of the Lord” (v8). These verses are describing for us Abram's relationship with the Lord. He's now a man who calls upon the name of the Lord. He's a man of prayer. A man of worship. A man who loves the Lord. A man with new desires, a new Lord, and a new life.10 Abram is a new creature in Christ. These verses also describe for us Abram's relationship towards the world. When Abram get's to Canaan, he doesn't settle down in one place. He goes from Shechem, to Bethel, then further south. This is to show us that Abram was a stranger and an exile on the earth (Hebrews 11:13), even as he lived in Canaan. Even in the land of promise, Abram was a pilgrim; this world was never his home. B) God's people are STRUGGLING SINNERS: The first half of Genesis 12 (vv1-9) is filled with glory and wonder; the second half (vv10-20) is filled with shame and defeat. We're a little shocked as we read through verses 10-20; but we shouldn't be. We see here in Abraham's life a truth we're all too familiar with: There are both highs and lows in the Christian life; there are incredible mountain-tops, but there are also dark valleys. If Genesis 12:4-9 teaches us that Christians are new creatures in Christ; Genesis 12:10-20 teaches us that Christians are still a people who struggle with sin. Abram and his family head down to Egypt because there is a famine in the land. And along the way, Abram asks his wife Sarai to pretend she is his sister and not his wife. He does this because Sarai is so beautiful that Abram's afraid the Egyptians would kill him to take her. When they arrive, Pharaoh hears about Sarai, as Abram predicted, and takes her into his harem. Abram uses his own wife as a shield to protect himself. He gives Sarai into the arms of a pagan king to have free access to do to her as he wished.11 Praise God, that wasn't the end of the story. Abram failed God, but God didn't fail Sarai. The Lord rescued her from the harem and gave her back into the arms of Abram. What does this dark passage teach us? For one thing, it teaches us that there are no “heroes in the faith;” there are no “great men of God.” That's even an understatement. What Abram did was so bad, that he was sternly rebuked by a pagan king for his moral behavior (vv18-19) — and then promptly deported from the country (v20)! A lot of Christian biographies nowadays make Christian men and women out to be heroes. But the truth is, there are no Christian heroes. Even the greatest in God's kingdom are sinners who are ever prone to wander—ever in need of God's grace. One way we can see Christ in the pages of the Old Testament is by observing how God's people fail to exemplify their Savior. In the account recorded in the second half of Genesis 12, Abram's actions are actually diametrically opposed to those of Christ. Genesis 12:13 tells us that the reason Abram told Sarai to lie was that it would go well with him because of her, and that he would live on account of her. Well, the reason Christ went to the cross was exactly the opposite: that it would go well with us on account of him, and that we would live on account of him. Abram put his bride in harm's way in order to protect himself; but Jesus put himself in harm's way in order to protect his bride. 1 Traditionally, the various promises made to Abraham have been classified in different ways. Perhaps the most simply way to classify the promises are the communicable versus the incommunicable. This same language is also used as it relates to the doctrine of God: which attributes we also reflect (communicable) versus which are His alone (incommunicable). But the same terminology can also be used with respect to the promises to Abraham. Many of the promises to Abraham are communicable to us; that is, we have a share in them just as much as Abraham did. For instance, Paul writes in Galatians 3:9 that “those who are of faith are blessed with Abraham, the believer.” But some of the promises to Abraham are incommunicable to us; that is, they were made to him alone and we have no share in them. For instance, speaking of the promise to Abraham that the Lord would make him into a great nation, Goodwin notes that, “as we all know, [this] is to us incommunicable” (Children in the Covenant, Works V9, p428ff). Witsius puts it this way: “The promises annexed to the stipulation are of various kinds; some are spiritual, others corporal. The spiritual, are either general and common to all believers, or special and peculiar to Abraham.” (V2, p146). Others have been even more specific. For instance, Roberts divides up the promises into as much as five different groups: “1) Some of these covenant privileges tend to, and terminate in Jesus Christ alone the Head of the covenant, as only accomplishable in him. As, those promises: 'In thee shall all families of the earth be blessed.' 'All the nations of the earth shall be blessed in him.' 'And in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed.' These promises were directed to Abraham, but only fulfilled in Abraham's primary seed, Jesus Christ, as the New Testament abundantly witnesses. 2) Some of these covenant privileges seem peculiarly applicable to Abraham. As, the eminency and greatness of his name; that he should be a blessing; that he should be a father of many nations, etc. 3) Some of these privileges belonged more especially to Abraham's Jewish seed, and not to his Christian seed. As, the inheritance of Canaan; the token of circumcision. 4) Some of these privileges belonged both to Abraham, and to Abraham's Jewish and Christian seed. As, all the temporals of common concernment; divine benediction, protection, remuneration, etc. And all the spirituals, as the Lord's being a God to them; the blessing in Jesus Christ, etc. 5) Finally, the outside, the visible advantage only of the covenant state, covenant promises, covenant inauguration, and other covenant administrations, belong to the mere visible seed of Abraham, that are his merely by profession; but the inside, the invisible advantages and saving efficacy of all these, as well as the outside, belong to the true believing and gracious seed of Abraham, whether Jewish, or Christian, respectively.” (Roberts, pp319-20). 2 See Revelation 7:9. This is also confirmed in the Old Testament itself by the fact that God promises, not only Abraham, but also Jacob, that a company of nations would come forth from him (Genesis 35:11). Though someone might argue that the multitude of nations from Abraham were the three physical nations mentioned above, it would only be one nation that would come forth from Jacob (the Israelites)—and yet God also promises that a company of nations would come forth from him. Ainsworth notes on Genesis 12:2: “But under this promised nation, was implied also a spiritual seed, of faithful people, Romans 4:11-12; Galatians 3:7.” And Roberts likewise writes: “'A father of many nations have I made thee; Thou shalt be a father of multitudes of nations.' That is, not only of the Jews, which was but one nation; but also of the Gentiles.” (p306). 3 Actually, in the English language, his name is even used as slang for “idiot.” 4 And how sweet is it that fruitfulness is a promise for believers. In the garden it was a command. In Genesis 1:28, God said to Adam, “Be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth. . .” But here with Abram, God does so much more than command him to be fruitful and multiply. What God had given to Adam in the garden as a command—He now gives to Abram as a promise. Ligon Duncan in his audio series on Covenant Theology notes that it's debatable whether this clause in v2d is an indicative promise (the way we've taken it) or an imperative command (IE, “and so be a blessing”). He goes on to say that however we take the clause here, both things are true: God both promises to make us instruments of blessing as well as commands us to be so. I take it as a promise, since it would seem strange to include a single exhortation in the middle of verses 2-3 that are otherwise an exclusive list of promises alone (the exhortations were in verse 1). Another thing Duncan notes here is that Abram had to come out from the world in order to be a blessing to the world. He had to be set apart from the nations in order to be a blessing to the nations. And this is exactly what Christ is calling us to when He calls us to be salt and light, a city on a hill. The reason we're to be in the world but not of the world is in order to reach the world. Christians tend to have a hard time holding these two truths in tension: either we live too much like the world or we despise the world. But Scripture calls us to come out from the world and be set apart from the world—but to do so in order to be a blessing to the world. 5 Insight again gleaned from Ligon Duncan's Covenant Theology course. The Spirit of the Reformation Study Bible notes on this clause: “Those who bless. That is, those who acknowledge Abraham and his offspring as God's agent of blessing.” 6 Still, it's also true: “God's greater intention was to bless, not curse. This is indicated in the Hebrew text by switching from a form indicating resolve ('I will bless') to a simple statement of fact ('I will curse') and by switching from the plural ('those who bless') to the singular ('whoever curses').” (Spirit of the Reformation Study Bible; cf. also Waltke on Genesis 12:3, p206). 7 Ibid Duncan. Thomas Goodwin sees another truth in that phrase, families of the earth; namely, that God's covenant blessing is not limited to a believing individual, but also extends to the children of believers and their household, or family: “The promise (Genesis 12:3) runs in these terms, 'In thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed;' as elsewhere, [in] Genesis 18:18, and 22:18, it runs in these terms, 'All the nations of the earth shall be blessed.' These expressions are both used; the one to show, the seed should be of all nations and people, yet so as withal the covenant was to run by families in those nations. Therefore the New Testament quotes it in both senses: Galatians 3:8 says, panta ta ethne', all nations, or, heathens, because some of all nations shall be converted; but Peter, when he makes mention of the covenant, [in] Acts 3:25, though chiefly for the end to show the Jews were the first children of the covenant, yet he expounds these words spoken to Abraham, 'In thy seed shall the families of the earth be blessed'. . .” (Works, V9, pp431-32). We'll speak more of this later. 8 God declares this truth himself in Genesis 15:7, “I am the Lord who brought you out of Ur of the Chaldeans, to give you this land to possess it;” and we hear of the same truth from Abraham's own lips later in Genesis 20:13 as he begins to explain to Abimelech why he called Sarah his sister: “it came about, when God caused me to wander from my father's house. . .” 9 Matthew 22:14. We see the same truth later with Isaac instead of Ishmael and Jacob instead of Esau (see Romans 9:6-13). 10 We could clarify that he has a new life because he has new desires for a new Lord: he's now a man of prayer and worship because he has a new heart that longs for God. There are two distinct doctrines here: regeneration and sanctification. Christians are a people who are being sanctified because they are a people who have been regenerated. Throughout Genesis, we see the Spirit's sanctifying power in the lives of His people, changing them more and more into His image. Another example is Jacob in Genesis 33. Though some take Jacob here as playing the role of a winsome diplomat, I believe this interaction with his brother Esau powerfully puts on display the grace of God that had been so deeply at work in his life. In this passage we see that Jacob had moved: 1) from deceiving his family to defending them: for in the past he was known for his deception, but now he not only makes himself a shield to protect his family from any harm at the hands of Esau (vv1-3), but refuses to let any harm come to them by driving them on too quickly (vv13-14); 2) from ruling others to serving them: for in the past, Jacob did whatever he had to, “by hook or crook,” to ensure that he would never be the one serving or bowing down to his brother, but now we see him intentionally doing just that, bowing down in v3 (cf.27:29!) and either calling himself Esau's servant or Esau his lord no less than seven times (vv4,8,13-15; cf.27:29!); 3) from stealing blessings to giving them: for before he had stolen the blessing from Esau, but in verse 11 he's giving blessings away (the Heb. word here for gift is lit. blessing). 11 This would happen again in Genesis 20.

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Going west from Missouri, the average annual precipitation declines by half in 400 miles, the evaporation rate begins to exceed the precipitation rate, and streamflow is responsive primarily to snowmelt in the Rocky Mountains as local rainfall becomes generally insignificant. The western boundary of Missouri roughly corresponds to the divide between that part of North America where the supply of water from precipitation and inflowing streams has seemed ample. That the driest portion of Kansas and Oklahoma is underlain by the magnificent Ogallala aquifer is a geographic irony that gave rise to great agricultural opportunity, providing some of the impetus for each state’s necessity to regulate groundwater withdrawals. In addition to the demands of irrigation for crops and water for livestock, the oil and gas industry’s need for freshwater meant that the legislatures would craft regulatory systems that accommodated the desires of farmers, ranchers and oil and gas producers. At the same time, larger municipalities in much of Kansas and Oklahoma began developing surface water reservoirs for their needs, rather than relying heavily on alluvial aquifers and bedrock aquifers. The history of water supplies in Kansas and Oklahoma is instructive. Under different conditions, state water law in Missouri has followed the traditions of wetter places, while the water law of the western states has been created and evolved to address issues of scarcity. As the supply of usable water in Missouri becomes scarce, Missourians should look at how the legislators and courts of its western neighbors have confronted the scarcity they have always accepted. The water law of the wetter states is often said to be the law of riparian rights, while the law of the arid states is said to be prior appropriation, or “first in time, first in right.” However, these labels are too general to be helpful. - “Riparian rights” simply means the rights of owners of land to use of water in adjacent streams and lakes, with conflicts being resolved on a case-by-case basis, with no real application to groundwater. - “Prior appropriation”—usually defined as “first in time, first in right—in practice includes the application of several other principles to a complex set of regulations for allocating surface water and groundwater in Kansas and Oklahoma and other western states. The law of prior appropriation has roots in federal laws regarding the perfection of mining claims, but is now implemented through allocation systems administered by state agencies, usually called water resources boards or something similar. The system of regulation of groundwater withdrawals shares many aspects of regulation of oil and gas production through well-spacing and mandatory reporting of well data, and limiting production. The states of the United States (other than Louisiana) chose to subject themselves to the common law, which means that courts would apply rules of law that have been fashioned by judges in England and the United States under various principles, such as “stare decisis,” a doctrine which holds that a rule of law applied to a set of facts would be applied similarly to similar facts. These legal rules were often found in treatises compiled first in England and later in America, in which the authors summarized written decisions of courts, identifying rules of law applied and developed under the facts of each case. Louisiana followed the civil law tradition, which essentially means rules of law that evolved in continental Europe, which was sometimes assembled into codes, which are something like statutes. The rules of common law and civil law are often analogous, so that the distinction is often not important. In Missouri, Kansas and Oklahoma, water law arrived the same way that other laws arrived. The territorial governments adopted the common law and enacted statutes similar to those of eastern states. The common law version of water law, with no allocation system and each case being decided on its own facts, became impractical decades ago in parts of Kansas and Oklahoma, and the principles of riparian rights have been supplanted, though not totally eliminated, particularly with respect to streams. The withdrawals of groundwater in western portions of Oklahoma and Kansas for irrigation are of a volume that dwarfs municipal and industrial uses of groundwater, even in the more populous parts of these states. Withdrawal rates of 50 to 100 million gallons per day occur in some counties, primarily for sprinkler irrigation. This overview primarily looks at the right to divert stream water and the right to use groundwater under legal rules applicable in Missouri, Kansas and Oklahoma. The laws relating to rights to take water from streams will receive less emphasis. Interstate water compacts and federal reservoirs are not addressed. Missouri and Reasonable Use Missouri’s Right to Divert Water Missouri law distinguishes the right to divert surface water (rainwater not in channels) from the right to divert water in natural watercourses. A person who causes flooding by obstructing a natural watercourse is strictly liable for damages, regardless of intent or lack of negligence, while the liability of a person who diverts stormwater runoff is determined by application of a rule of reasonableness, which means nobody knows what is permitted; only a judge or jury can determine that, after the fact. Klokkenga v. Carolan, 200 SW3d 144 (Mo.WD 2006), contains a thorough discussion of whether a watercourse is natural. A natural watercourse is a stream in a defined channel, though it may flow only intermittently. The reasonable use rule was adopted by the Missouri Supreme Court in Heins Implement Company v. Missouri Highway & Transportation Commission, 859 SW2d 681 (1993), with the express purpose of getting rid of the common enemy doctrine and the modified common enemy doctrines, which had limited the liability of persons who diverted surface waters to protect their own interests, regardless of the downstream effects. The court summarized the rule as follows: Perhaps the rule can be stated most simply to impose a duty upon any landowner in the use of his or her land not to needlessly or negligently injure by surface water adjoining lands owned by others, or in the breach thereof to pay for the resulting damages. The greatest virtue of the reasonable use standard is its ability to adapt to any set of circumstances while remaining firmly focused on the equities of the situation. Right to take surface water and groundwater The word “riparian” is simply an adjective that refers to ownership of land adjacent to a watercourse or body of water. Missouri’s riparian owners may withdraw water from streams for irrigation or other uses, subject only to the doctrine of reasonable use, which holds that one riparian owner’s use is limited at the point that it unreasonably interferes with the rights of other riparian owners. Reasonableness is a fact question for courts. Section 393.030 RSMo allows withdrawal from non-navigable streams for the purpose of supplying water to any city, town or village. Riparian rights do not apply to groundwater. Missouri law recognizes that the ownership of land includes the ownership of groundwater that may be extracted from a well on the land, as though water were any other mineral. This idea is called “ownership in place,” as distinguished from the “rule of capture,” which gives the landowner the right to take whatever is on his land, such as a wild animal. The rule of capture is applied in some states (e. g., Texas) to minerals that move, such as oil and gas, rather than those which don’t, such as coal and iron ore. In reality, Missouri law relating to groundwater is essentially undeveloped. Riparian uses that have been recognized by Missouri courts include household use, irrigation of crops, livestock watering, and industrial uses, and the key factor applied by courts is whether the use is reasonable. I am not aware of any Missouri appellate opinions regarding groundwater that use the term “riparian rights.” A rancher v. sodbuster dispute, Ripka v. Wansing, 589 SW2d 333 (Mo.SD 1979) gave the Southern District of the Missouri Court of Appeals a chance to refer to the factors mentioned in the Restatement of Torts, Second §§ 850-850A, to be considered in determining the reasonableness of riparian uses, as follows: (a) the purpose of the use, (b) the suitability of the use to the watercourse or lake, (c) the economic value of the use, (d) the social value of the use, (e) the extent and amount of the harm it causes, (f) the practicality of avoiding the harm by adjusting the use or method of use of one proprietor or the other, (g) the practicality of adjusting the quantity of water used by each proprietor (riparian owner), (h) the protection of existing values of water uses, land, investments and enterprises, and (i) the justice of requiring the user causing harm to bear the loss. The State of Missouri does not allocate surface water or groundwater, but makes a small effort to monitor the amount of water withdrawn from streams, lakes and underground. In 1983, the legislature created the classification of “major water user,” requiring such users to report their usage to DNR. The definition is found in § 256.400 RSMo, and applies to “any person, firm, corporation or the state of Missouri, its agencies or corporations and any other political subdivision of this state, their agencies or corporations, with a water source and equipment necessary to withdraw or divert one hundred thousand gallons or more per day from any stream, river, lake, well, spring or other water source.” DNR’s Missouri Water Resources Center in Rolla (573 368-2175) collects the reports, though the rate of compliance with the reporting requirements is fairly low. Until the Missouri General Assembly takes on the allocation of surface water and groundwater, large quantities of good water will continue to be wasted. Any dispute will be subject to the expensive and uncertain process of litigation, with no statutory guidance. As we look at the regulatory systems for allocating surface water and groundwater in Kansas and Oklahoma, we can see that the divergent interests of municipal water suppliers, rural water districts, irrigators, users of process water, recreational users and hydroelectric generators will be in direct conflict. The Missouri legislature, in the not-too-distant future, will have to ask strong lobbies to compromise. Key concepts in Kansas and Oklahoma water laws In 1945, the Kansas legislature enacted the Water Appropriation Act, recognizing vested rights properly preserved, but requiring an appropriation process for creation of any right to groundwater or surface water other than domestic use. Similarly, Oklahoma’s legislature created an appropriation system for groundwater and surface water in 1957, also making an exception for domestic use. In 1973, the Oklahoma legislature modified its prior appropriation system for groundwater to an allocation system giving surface owners a right based on acreage owned in a particular basin. In a 1993 decision, the Oklahoma Supreme Court held that Oklahoma’s allocation system did not completely replace riparian rights to stream water. The allocation systems of Kansas and Oklahoma cannot be understood without defining key concepts. The following discussion relies heavily on online publications of the Kansas Division of Water Resources and the Oklahoma Water Resources Board and others. Here are good sites for beginning research: - Kansas: http://www.ksda.gov/includes/document_center/dwr/Publications/KansasWaterResources.pdf - Oklahoma: http://www.owrb.ok.gov/; see especially http://www.owrb.ok.gov/supply/ocwp/pdf_ocwp/WaterPlanUpdate/joint_committee/WATER%20LAW_MANAGEMENT%20IN%20OKLAHOMA.pdf, for a helpful discussion of Oklahoma water law evolution. - Oklahoma Water Law blog (www.oklahomawaterlaw.com) by James Milton, who is a Tulsa attorney. Jim does a great job following hot issues in water law relating to municipal supplies, federal-state conflicts, and rural water districts, among other issues, and not just in Oklahoma. |Appropriation right. A right granted to take water for a beneficial use, according to a priority system based on the date of the permit. In droughts, later priority appropriators may get nothing.||Diversion of water in Kansas purely under a prior appropriation system now implemented in a regulatory system.However, other riparian rights are recognized, such as the right of riparian owners to keep recreational canoeists off of streams, other than the Kansas, the Arkansas and the Missouri Rivers.||For reasonable uses from streams by riparian owners, appropriation is not required, since Oklahoma Supreme Court decision in 1993 affirmed that allocation system did not displace riparian rights.Oklahoma’s allocation system adopted in 1973 has moved considerably away from prior appropriation, since it also involves proportional reductions in case of short supply regardless of permit date; see discussion under “basin.”| |Basin. Whether for a stream or aquifer, the basin defines the quantity of water that may be allocated. The state water plans of Kansas and Oklahoma are basin-specific.||The chief engineer of the Division of Water Resources may institute a procedure to define an “Intensive Groundwater Use Control Area,” if it appears that withdrawals are unsustainable or other threats emerge.Kansas also has groundwater management districts which may assist permit holders and applicants.||Groundwater allocation applications require identification of the basin or subbasin from which the groundwater will be drawn, which underlies the applicant’s land.The OWRB determines the maximum annual yield (MAY) of each basin, so that the allocations under permits are for an equal proportionate share (EPS) of the MAY.A 2003 law allowed for designations of “sensitive sole source groundwater basins,” which may not be impaired by permits. Permits for transfers out of basins are tightly restricted. Exports out of state are prohibited. |Beneficial use. If a water right is not applied to a beneficial use within a specified period, it is lost.||Beneficial uses are defined as domestic use, stockwatering, municipal, irrigation, industrial, recreation, waterpower, artificial recharge, hydraulic dredging, contamination remediation, dewatering, fire protection, thermal exchange, and sediment control in a reservoir. If no use is made for three successive years, owners and tenants are given two years to use or lose the right, after notice and hearing.||Agriculture, irrigation, public water supply, power generation, navigation, recreations, propagation of fish and wildlife.Allocation of stream water is forfeited if not used for seven consecutive years.Grand River system water may not be allocated by OWRB; statute gave complete control to GRDA.| |Consumptive use. Refers to actual “shrinkage” in volume during beneficial use.||Changes in permits require a showing that the change will not substantially increase consumptive use, such as by evaporation, evapotranspiration, conversion to wastewater. Contrast a cooling tower with generating hydropower.| |Diversion. The point of diversion works with the first- in-time in time concept, to protect the prior right of a downstream diverter. It has other implications.||The Kansas Water Transfer Act restricts transportation of water (at least 1,000 acre-ft. per year) more than 10 miles from the point of diversion. Applies to water in streams, groundwater, and in reservoirs under reservation rights.||Oklahoma prohibits the use of anything but “excess water” outside of its “area of origin.”| |Domestic use, which is not subject to the allocation system||Domestic use means the water is used by a person or by a family unit or household for household purposes, or for watering livestock, poultry, farm and domestic animals used to operate a farm, and to irrigate two acres or less to grow a garden, orchard or lawn.||Water used by individuals, families or household for household purposes, including water for animals as long as the number of grazing animals does not exceed the grazing capacity of the acreage (i. e., not feedlots); irrigation use is limited to three acres. Other minor uses may not exceed 5 acre-feet per year.| |Impairment. Holders of water rights can adversely affect other holders by the manner of use. A consideration in new applications and applications for transfers or changes in permits.||Regulations restrict or tightly regulate well operation that changes static water level and dense well spacing. For streams, impairment may be from changing water levels, point of diversion, and type of use.||Applications for new appropriations or changes in permits must show that the request will not interfere with existing domestic uses or other appropriations.| |Public interest. What is seen as important may change.||A catch-all term for policy considerations not reflected in statutes, such as economic development, the public trust doctrine, or ecological values or just politics.||State engineer’s ability to assert public interest rationale in particular cases has been taken away; however, federal public trust doctrine remains significant with respect to Indian tribes, navigation and endangered species.| |Reporting requirement. Because of the possibility of losing the right with non-use, reporting is mandatory||Annual reporting required.||Annual reporting required. Failure to report can result in cancellation of permit.| |Stream water||Kansas regulations determine whether a watercourse is a stream on the basis of area drained, in three zones, from west to east, 640 acres, 320 acres or 240 acres.||If in a defined watercourse, stream water is owned by the public and subject to allocation, whether or not intermittent. Surface water belongs to the landowner. Stream water allocations may not impair domestic uses.Water in lakes and ponds is “stream water” for regulatory purposes.| |Surface water||Kansas does not distinguish between sheet flow and streams.||Oklahoma landowners own the water falling on their land or in sheet flow. Oklahoma law is similar to Missouri law, applying a test of reasonableness with respect to diversions.| |Use it or lose it. This is the important corollary of the beneficial use concept.||To avoid loss of a right because of non-use, the holder can state that water was not available due to drought, rainfall was adequate, land was enrolled in conservation program, etc.||Forfeiture is automatic with respect to portions of allocation not used.| |Vested rights are rights existing when the allocation system took effect||Rights documented on June 28, 1945 are vested unless later adjudicated. Vested rights applications could not be filed after 1980.||Vested rights determinations were complicated because of statutory changes, though all vested rights should have been determined by 1980.| |Waste. Kansas and Oklahoma prohibit waste of water, even domestic water. In Missouri, there are no restrictions against wasting water, except to the extent that it unreasonably deprives another riparian owner of water; polluting water is, of course, illegal.| The challenge for Missourians In western Missouri and in the Bootheel of Southeast Missouri, localized scarcity of water is becoming a reality. Kansas and Oklahoma grappled with these issues when their populations were much smaller and when the legislators were subjected to only a few powerful special interests, primarily municipalities, oil and gas, ranchers and farmers. Crafting solutions for assuring ample clean water will require that legislators have faith in science, that scientists respect the daunting responsibilities of legislators, that executive branch officials refrain from naming villains and embracing victims, and that lobbyists work together for common solutions, not just competitive advantage.

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The birth of British broadcasting, 1920 to 1922 Britain's first live public broadcast was made from the factory of Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company in Chelmsford in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mail's Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian soprano Dame Nellie Melba. The Melba broadcast caught the people's imagination and marked a turning point in the British public's attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office (GPO), was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests and moved to rescind its ban in the wake of a petition by 63 wireless societies with over 3,000 members. Anxious to avoid the same chaotic expansion experienced in the United States, the GPO proposed that it would issue a single broadcasting licence to a company jointly owned by a consortium of leading wireless receiver manufactures, to be known as the British Broadcasting Company Ltd. John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. L. Stanton Jefferies was its first Director of Music. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved domestic manufacturers. To this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to "inform, educate and entertain". From private company towards public service corporation, 1923 to 1926 The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate. Set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee. The Committee recommended a short term reorganisation of licence fees with improved enforcement in order to address the BBC's immediate financial distress, and an increased share of the licence revenue split between it and the GPO. This was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBC's broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, as was the prohibition on advertising. The BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19:00 and was required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee. By now, the BBC, under Reith's leadership, had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified (monopoly) broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a public service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production, and with restrictions on news bulletins waived, the BBC suddenly became the primary source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position. On one hand Reith was acutely aware that the government might exercise its right to commandeer the BBC at any time as a mouthpiece of the government if the BBC were to step out of line, but on the other he was anxious to maintain public trust by appearing to be acting independently. The government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PM's own. Thus the BBC was granted sufficient leeway to pursue the government's objectives largely in a manner of its own choosing. The resulting coverage of both striker and government viewpoints impressed millions of listeners who were unaware that the PM had broadcast to the nation from Reith's home, using one of Reith's sound bites inserted at the last moment, or that the BBC had banned broadcasts from the Labour Party and delayed a peace appeal by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Supporters of the strike nicknamed the BBC the BFC for British Falsehood Company. Reith personally announced the end of the strike which he marked by reciting from Blake's "Jerusalem" signifying that England had been saved. While the BBC tends to characterise its coverage of the general strike by emphasising the positive impression created by its balanced coverage of the views of government and strikers, Jean Seaton, Professor of Media History and the Official BBC Historian, has characterised the episode as the invention of "modern propaganda in its British form". Reith argued that trust gained by 'authentic impartial news' could then be used. Impartial news was not necessarily an end in itself. The BBC did well out of the crisis, which cemented a national audience for its broadcasting, and it was followed by the Government's acceptance of the recommendation made by the Crawford Committee (1925–26) that the British Broadcasting Company be replaced by a non-commercial, Crown-chartered organisation: the British Broadcasting Corporation. 1927 to 1939 Masthead from the edition of 25 December 1931 of the Radio Times , including the BBC motto "Nation shall speak peace unto Nation" The British Broadcasting Corporation came into existence on 1 January 1927, and Reith – newly knighted – was appointed its first Director General. To represent its purpose and (stated) values, the new corporation adopted the coat of arms, including the motto "Nation shall speak peace unto Nation". British radio audiences had little choice apart from the upscale programming of the BBC. Reith, an intensely moralistic executive, was in full charge. His goal was to broadcast "All that is best in every department of human knowledge, endeavour and achievement.... The preservation of a high moral tone is obviously of paramount importance." Reith succeeded in building a high wall against an American-style free-for-all in radio in which the goal was to attract the largest audiences and thereby secure the greatest advertising revenue. There was no paid advertising on the BBC; all the revenue came from a tax on receiving sets. Highbrow audiences, however, greatly enjoyed it. At a time when American, Australian and Canadian stations were drawing huge audiences cheering for their local teams with the broadcast of baseball, rugby and hockey, the BBC emphasized service for a national, rather than a regional audience. Boat races were well covered along with tennis and horse racing, but the BBC was reluctant to spend its severely limited air time on long football or cricket games, regardless of their popularity. The BBC's radio studio in Birmingham, from the BBC Hand Book 1928, which described it as "Europe's largest studio". John Reith and the BBC, with support from the Crown, determined the universal needs of the people of Britain and broadcast content according to these perceived standards. Reith effectively censored anything that he felt would be harmful, directly or indirectly. While recounting his time with the BBC in 1935, Raymond Postgate claims that BBC broadcasters were made to submit a draft of their potential broadcast for approval. It was expected that they tailored their content to accommodate the modest, church-going elderly or a member of the Clergy. Until 1928, entertainers broadcasting on the BBC, both singers and "talkers" were expected to avoid biblical quotations, Clerical impersonations and references, references to drink or Prohibition in America, vulgar and doubtful matter and political allusions. The BBC excluded popular foreign music and musicians from its broadcasts, while promoting British alternatives. On 5 March 1928, Stanley Baldwin, the Prime Minister, maintained the censorship of editorial opinions on public policy, but allowed the BBC to address matters of religious, political or industrial controversy. The resulting political "talk series", designed to inform England on political issues, were criticized by Members of Parliament, including Winston Churchill, David Lloyd George and Sir Austen Chamberlain. Those who opposed these chats claimed that they silence the opinions of those in Parliament who are not nominated by Party Leaders or Party Whips, thus stifling independent, non-official views. In October 1932, the policemen of the Metropolitan Police Federation marched in protest of a proposed pay cut. Fearing dissent within the police force and public support for the movement, the BBC censored its coverage of the events, only broadcasting official statements from the government. Throughout the 1930s, political broadcasts had been closely monitored by the BBC. In 1935, the BBC censored the broadcasts of Oswald Mosley and Harry Pollitt. Mosley was a leader of the British Union of Fascists, and Pollitt a leader of the Communist Party of Great Britain. They had been contracted to provide a series of five broadcasts on their party's politics. The BBC, in conjunction with The Foreign Office of Britain, first suspended this series and ultimately cancelled it without the notice of the public. Less radical politicians faced similar censorship. In 1938, Winston Churchill proposed a series of talks regarding British domestic and foreign politics and affairs but was similarly censored. The censorship of political discourse by the BBC was a precursor to the total shutdown of political debate that manifested over the BBC's wartime airwaves. The Foreign Office maintained that the public should not be aware of their role in the censorship. From 1935 to 1939, the BBC also attempted to unite the British Empire's radio waves, sending staff to Egypt, Palestine, Newfoundland, Jamaica, India, Canada and South Africa. Reith personally visited South Africa, lobbying for state run radio programs which was accepted by South African Parliament in 1936. A similar program was adopted in Canada. Through collaboration with these state run broadcasting centers, Reith left a legacy of cultural influence across the empire of Great Britain with his departure from the Corporation in 1938. BBC versus other media The success of broadcasting provoked animosities between the BBC and well established media such as theatres, concert halls and the recording industry. By 1929, the BBC complained that the agents of many comedians refused to sign contracts for broadcasting, because they feared it harmed the artist "by making his material stale" and that it "reduces the value of the artist as a visible music-hall performer". On the other hand, the BBC was "keenly interested" in a cooperation with the recording companies who "in recent years ... have not been slow to make records of singers, orchestras, dance bands, etc. who have already proved their power to achieve popularity by wireless." Radio plays were so popular that the BBC had received 6,000 manuscripts by 1929, most of them written for stage and of little value for broadcasting: "Day in and day out, manuscripts come in, and nearly all go out again through the post, with a note saying 'We regret, etc.'" In the 1930s music broadcasts also enjoyed great popularity, for example the friendly and wide-ranging organ broadcasts at St George's Hall, Langham Place, by Reginald Foort, who held the official role of BBC Staff Theatre Organist from 1936 to 1938; Foort continued to work for the BBC as a freelance into the 1940s and enjoyed a nationwide following. Experimental television broadcasts were started in 1930, using an electromechanical 30-line system developed by John Logie Baird. Limited regular broadcasts using this system began in 1934, and an expanded service (now named the BBC Television Service) started from Alexandra Palace in 1936, alternating between an improved Baird mechanical 240 line system and the all electronic 405 line Marconi-EMI system. The superiority of the electronic system saw the mechanical system dropped early the following year. 1939 to 2001 Television broadcasting was suspended from 1 September 1939 to 7 June 1946, during the Second World War, and it was left to BBC Radio broadcasters such as Reginald Foort to keep the nation's spirits up. The BBC moved much of its radio operations out of London, initially to Bristol, and then to Bedford. Concerts were broadcast from the Corn Exchange; the Trinity Chapel in St Paul's Church, Bedford was the studio for the daily service from 1941 to 1945, and, in the darkest days of the war in 1941, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York came to St Paul's to broadcast to the UK and all parts of the world on the National Day of Prayer. BBC employees during the war included George Orwell who spent two years with the broadcaster. During his role as Prime Minister during the Second World War, Winston Churchill would deliver 33 major wartime speeches by radio, all of which were carried by the BBC within the UK. On 18 June 1940, French general Charles de Gaulle, in exile in London as the leader of the Free French, made a speech, broadcast by the BBC, urging the French people not to capitulate to the Nazis. In 1938, John Reith and the British government, specifically the Ministry of Information which had been set up for WWII, designed a censorship apparatus for the inevitability of war. Due to the BBC's advancements in shortwave radio technology, the Corporation could broadcast across the world during World War II. Within Europe, the BBC European Service would gather intelligence and information regarding the current events of the war in English. Regional BBC workers, based on their regional geo-political climate, would then further censor the material their broadcasts would cover. Nothing was to be added outside of the preordained news items. For example, the BBC Polish Service was heavily censored due to fears of jeopardizing relations with the Soviet Union. Controversial topics, i.e. the contested Polish and Soviet border, the deportation of Polish citizens, the arrests of Polish Home Army members and the Katyn massacre, were not included in Polish broadcasts. American radio broadcasts were broadcast across Europe on BBC channels. This material also passed through the BBC's censorship office, which surveilled and edited American coverage of British affairs. By 1940, across all BBC broadcasts, music by composers from enemy nations was censored. In total, 99 German, 38 Austrian and 38 Italian composers were censored. The BBC argued that like the Italian or German languages, listeners would be irritated by the inclusion of enemy composers. Any potential broadcaster said to have pacifist, communist or fascist ideologies were not allowed on the BBC's airwaves. There was a widely reported urban myth that, upon resumption of the BBC television service after the war, announcer Leslie Mitchell started by saying, "As I was saying before we were so rudely interrupted ..." In fact, the first person to appear when transmission resumed was Jasmine Bligh and the words said were "Good afternoon, everybody. How are you? Do you remember me, Jasmine Bligh ... ?" The European Broadcasting Union was formed on 12 February 1950, in Torquay with the BBC among the 23 founding broadcasting organisations. Competition to the BBC was introduced in 1955, with the commercial and independently operated television network of ITV. However, the BBC monopoly on radio services would persist until 8 October 1973 when under the control of the newly renamed Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA), the UK's first Independent local radio station, LBC came on-air in the London area. As a result of the Pilkington Committee report of 1962, in which the BBC was praised for the quality and range of its output, and ITV was very heavily criticised for not providing enough quality programming, the decision was taken to award the BBC a second television channel, BBC2, in 1964, renaming the existing service BBC1. BBC2 used the higher resolution 625 line standard which had been standardised across Europe. BBC2 was broadcast in colour from 1 July 1967, and was joined by BBC1 and ITV on 15 November 1969. The 405 line VHF transmissions of BBC1 (and ITV) were continued for compatibility with older television receivers until 1985. Starting in 1964, a series of pirate radio stations (starting with Radio Caroline) came on the air and forced the British government finally to regulate radio services to permit nationally based advertising-financed services. In response, the BBC reorganised and renamed their radio channels. On 30 September 1967, the Light Programme was split into Radio 1 offering continuous "Popular" music and Radio 2 more "Easy Listening". The "Third" programme became Radio 3 offering classical music and cultural programming. The Home Service became Radio 4 offering news, and non-musical content such as quiz shows, readings, dramas and plays. As well as the four national channels, a series of local BBC radio stations were established in 1967, including Radio London. In 1969, the BBC Enterprises department was formed to exploit BBC brands and programmes for commercial spin-off products. In 1979, it became a wholly owned limited company, BBC Enterprises Ltd. In 1974, the BBC's teletext service, Ceefax, was introduced, created initially to provide subtitling, but developed into a news and information service. In 1978, BBC staff went on strike just before the Christmas of that year, thus blocking out the transmission of both channels and amalgamating all four radio stations into one. Since the deregulation of the UK television and radio market in the 1980s, the BBC has faced increased competition from the commercial sector (and from the advertiser-funded public service broadcaster Channel 4), especially on satellite television, cable television, and digital television services. In the late 1980s, the BBC began a process of divestment by spinning off and selling parts of its organisation. In 1988, it sold off the Hulton Press Library, a photographic archive which had been acquired from the Picture Post magazine by the BBC in 1957. The archive was sold to Brian Deutsch and is now owned by Getty Images. During the 1990s, this process continued with the separation of certain operational arms of the corporation into autonomous but wholly owned subsidiaries of the BBC, with the aim of generating additional revenue for programme-making. BBC Enterprises was reorganised and relaunched in 1995, as BBC Worldwide Ltd. In 1998, BBC studios, outside broadcasts, post production, design, costumes and wigs were spun off into BBC Resources Ltd. The BBC Research Department has played a major part in the development of broadcasting and recording techniques. The BBC was also responsible for the development of the NICAM stereo standard. In recent decades, a number of additional channels and radio stations have been launched: Radio 5 was launched in 1990, as a sports and educational station, but was replaced in 1994, with Radio 5 Live to become a live radio station, following the success of the Radio 4 service to cover the 1991 Gulf War. The new station would be a news and sport station. In 1997, BBC News 24, a rolling news channel, launched on digital television services and the following year, BBC Choice launched as the third general entertainment channel from the BBC. The BBC also purchased The Parliamentary Channel, which was renamed BBC Parliament. In 1999, BBC Knowledge launched as a multi media channel, with services available on the newly launched BBC Text digital teletext service, and on BBC Online. The channel had an educational aim, which was modified later on in its life to offer documentaries. 2000 to 2011 In 2002, several television and radio channels were reorganised. BBC Knowledge was replaced by BBC Four and became the BBC's arts and documentaries channel. CBBC, which had been a programming strand as Children's BBC since 1985, was split into CBBC and CBeebies, for younger children, with both new services getting a digital channel: the CBBC Channel and CBeebies Channel. In addition to the television channels, new digital radio stations were created: 1Xtra, 6 Music and . BBC 1Xtra was a sister station to Radio 1 and specialised in modern black music, BBC 6 Music specialised in alternative music genres and specialised in archive, speech and children's programming. The following few years resulted in repositioning of some of the channels to conform to a larger brand: in 2003, BBC Choice was replaced by BBC Three, with programming for younger generations and shocking real life documentaries, BBC News 24 became the BBC News Channel in 2008, and BBC Radio 7 became in 2011, with new programmes to supplement those broadcast on Radio 4. In 2008, another channel was launched, BBC Alba, a Scottish Gaelic service. During this decade, the corporation began to sell off a number of its operational divisions to private owners; BBC Broadcast was spun off as a separate company in 2002, and in 2005. it was sold off to Australian-based Macquarie Capital Alliance Group and Macquarie Bank Limited and rebranded Red Bee Media. The BBC's IT, telephony and broadcast technology were brought together as BBC Technology Ltd in 2001, and the division was later sold to the German company Siemens IT Solutions and Services (SIS). SIS was subsequently acquired from Siemens by the French company Atos. Further divestments included BBC Books (sold to Random House in 2006); BBC Outside Broadcasts Ltd (sold in 2008. to Satellite Information Services); Costumes and Wigs (stock sold in 2008 to Angels The Costumiers); and BBC Magazines (sold to Immediate Media Company in 2011). After the sales of OBs and costumes, the remainder of BBC Resources was reorganised as BBC Studios and Post Production, which continues today as a wholly owned subsidiary of the BBC. The 2004 Hutton Inquiry and the subsequent Report raised questions about the BBC's journalistic standards and its impartiality. This led to resignations of senior management members at the time including the then Director General, Greg Dyke. In January 2007, the BBC released minutes of the board meeting which led to Greg Dyke's resignation. Unlike the other departments of the BBC, the BBC World Service was funded by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office, more commonly known as the Foreign Office or the FCO, is the British government department responsible for promoting the interests of the United Kingdom abroad. In 2006, BBC HD launched as an experimental service, and became official in December 2007. The channel broadcast HD simulcasts of programmes on BBC One, BBC Two, BBC Three and BBC Four as well as repeats of some older programmes in HD. In 2010, an HD simulcast of BBC One launched: BBC One HD. The channel uses HD versions of BBC One's schedule and uses upscaled versions of programmes not currently produced in HD. The BBC HD channel closed in March 2013 and was replaced by BBC2 HD in the same month. On 18 October 2007, BBC Director General Mark Thompson announced a controversial plan to make major cuts and reduce the size of the BBC as an organisation. The plans included a reduction in posts of 2,500; including 1,800 redundancies, consolidating news operations, reducing programming output by 10% and selling off the flagship Television Centre building in London. These plans have been fiercely opposed by unions, who have threatened a series of strikes; however, the BBC have stated that the cuts are essential to move the organisation forward and concentrate on increasing the quality of programming. On 20 October 2010, the Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne announced that the television licence fee would be frozen at its current level until the end of the current charter in 2016. The same announcement revealed that the BBC would take on the full cost of running the BBC World Service and the BBC Monitoring service from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and partially finance the Welsh broadcaster S4C. 2011 to present BBC New Broadcasting House, London which came into use during 2012–13 Further cuts were announced on 6 October 2011, so the BBC could reach a total reduction in their budget of 20%, following the licence fee freeze in October 2010, which included cutting staff by 2,000 and sending a further 1,000 to the MediaCityUK development in Salford, with BBC Three moving online only in 2016, the sharing of more programmes between stations and channels, sharing of radio news bulletins, more repeats in schedules, including the whole of BBC Two daytime and for some original programming to be reduced. BBC HD was closed on 26 March 2013, and replaced with an HD simulcast of BBC Two; however, flagship programmes, other channels and full funding for CBBC and CBeebies would be retained. Numerous BBC facilities have been sold off, including New Broadcasting House on Oxford Road in Manchester. Many major departments have been relocated to Broadcasting House and MediaCityUK, particularly since the closure of BBC Television Centre in March 2013. On 16 February 2016, the BBC Three television service was discontinued and replaced by a digital outlet under the same name, targeting its young adult audience with web series and other content. Under the new royal charter instituted 2017, the corporation must publish an annual report to Ofcom, outlining its plans and public service obligations for the next year. In its 2017–18 report, released July 2017, the BBC announced plans to "re-invent" its output to better compete against commercial streaming services such as Netflix. These plans included increasing the diversity of its content on television and radio, a major increase in investments towards digital children's content, and plans to make larger investments in other nations of the United Kingdom besides England to "rise to the challenge of better reflecting and representing a changing UK."

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The IUD is a safe, effective form of contraception, whose widespread use could decrease the high rate of unintended pregnancy in the United States. Forty-nine percent of pregnancies in the United States are unintended, the highest proportion in any industrialized country.1 Lack of an ideal reversible contraceptive, the methods women choose and the effectiveness with which they use their chosen method are among the factors that contribute to this high level of unintendedness. The two most commonly used reversible contraceptives in the United States are the pill and condoms.2 Both methods are highly user-dependent and have large differences between perfect and typical effectiveness.3 Navajo women have rates of unintended pregnancy that are at least as high as those in the general U.S. population. The majority of Navajo women receive their care from Indian Health Service (IHS) facilities, and a central Navajo Area IHS maternal and child health committee periodically reviews prenatal records to assess the proportion of women who said that their pregnancy was unplanned. Estimates from these reviews indicate that 50% of pregnancies among Navajo women are unplanned.4 Moreover, because women who elect pregnancy termination are not included, these reviews underestimate the unintended pregnancy rate. Records from the tribally operated Navajo Family Resource Network, an agency that contracts with the Navajo Area IHS to provide family planning services at IHS facilities, show that the predominant reversible contraceptive choices among Navajo women are oral contraceptives and hormonal injectables.5 Although both methods offer reliable contraceptive protection, unintended pregnancy remains common, pointing to the need for other methods. The IUD, which requires a single act of motivation, offers cost-effective long-term protection6 and once enjoyed wide popularity in the Navajo community, could help fill this gap. The IUD became available to Navajo women through the IHS in 1962 and rapidly became their preferred method of reversible contraception. Forty percent of Navajo women of reproductive age who practiced contraception in the 1970s and early 1980s used the IUD.7 A unique combination of factors led to a heavy dependence among Navajo women on the IUD: Cultural attitudes favored this method for women who wished to use some contraceptive; access to health care was limited because of long distances to providers and unavailability of transportation; and a single health care delivery system, the IHS, served the community. The critical mass of Navajo women using IUDs most likely helped perpetuate the method's predominance by advocating its use to friends and family members. Although the full range of contraceptive choices—including sterilization, oral contraceptives, condoms and the diaphragm—was available to Navajo women, the IUD maintained a favored position. However, in the wake of litigation involving the Dalkon Shield, all IUDs except the Progestasert were removed from the U.S. market in 1986 amid concerns about an association between IUD use and pelvic inflammatory disease. The Navajo Area IHS had never offered the Progestasert because it was more expensive than other IUDs; therefore, IUDs ceased to be a choice for Navajo women. A 1993 publication suggested that the Navajo birthrate increased by 4-5% following the cessation of IUD placement.8 The TCu 380A, an IUD with an excellent efficacy and safety record, has been available to Navajo women through the IHS since 1993; nevertheless, IUD use among Navajo women remains low, and the number of IUDs inserted yearly has declined over the last decade. According to the Gallup Regional Supply Service Center, a centralized storehouse through which all IUDs are purchased for Navajo IHS units, the number of IUDs distributed to the service units in 2000, the year our study was conducted, was 550; this was the smallest number of IUDs purchased since the method was reintroduced to the IHS in 1993.9 Additionally, the Navajo Family Health Resource Network reports that IUDs are rarely used.10 The population of Navajo women aged 15-44, however, has grown over this time period and is estimated at 47,200.11 A number of barriers may limit expanded use of the IUD; while some of these relate to women, others relate to providers. For example, providers' practices with regard to recommending and inserting IUDs may affect use. Removing such barriers could increase IUD use and thereby substantially decrease the unacceptably high unintended pregnancy rates among Navajo women. This study examined factors related to providers, by examining their IUD-related knowledge and current practice, and their attitudes toward recommending or inserting the IUD. We included several types of providers, as a variety of providers counsel about and prescribe contraception in the IHS. The Navajo Area IHS provides care for approximately 225,000 people in five full-service hospitals (Gallup, Chinle, Fort Defiance, Northern Navajo and Tuba City Medical Centers), as well as a number of smaller community hospitals and outpatient clinics. All full-service hospitals include women's health providers—those who have received training specifically and exclusively directed toward women (obstetrician-gynecologists and certified nurse-midwives). The community hospitals and outpatient clinics, where a sizable proportion of women requesting family planning services seek care, are often staffed by other types of pro-viders—those whose training includes women's health but whose practice is more general (e.g., family practice physicians and certified nurse practitioners). Two of the authors worked for six years as staff obstetrician-gynecologists at one of the full-service hospitals and served as consultants to three smaller facilities; their perception was that "other providers" had less training and experience with IUDs than women's health providers, were more restrictive with regard to recommending IUD use and were less comfortable inserting IUDs. We distinguished women's health providers from other providers to test the hypothesis that the former have better knowledge about, more experience with and more favorable attitudes toward the IUD than other providers who offer family planning counseling and services. Using mailing lists of active staff at all Navajo IHS facilities, supplied by the clinical director of each service unit, we identified 153 providers who would most likely include contraceptive counseling in their practice. These providers were selected as follows: At the full-service hospitals, all providers in the obstetrics and gynecology, family medicine and urgent care departments were included. At the community hospitals and outpatient clinics, all providers were included, since most perform all aspects of health care in these smaller, more remote facilities. A 38-question survey instrument was developed to assess providers' knowledge, practices and attitudes related to the TCu 380A. The questionnaire was based on one used in a similar study of San Diego physicians,12 and was modified on the basis of concerns expressed by the authors of that study and results of pretesting with 52 providers from a different area of the IHS. The study received institutional review board approval from the Navajo Nation, the University of New Mexico and the University of Washington. The questionnaire was mailed to the selected providers in August 2000; a second questionnaire was mailed to nonrespondents after approximately three weeks. Eight questionnaires were returned because the providers no longer worked at the facilities, leaving 145 possible respondents; of these, 109 returned a survey, for a response rate of 75%. From the original lists of providers, we could identify the specialties of 25 of the 36 nonrespondents; the distribution of these providers by specialty was the same as that for respondents. Since the survey was intended for providers who performed contraceptive counseling, the first question asked providers whether they offered this service. Two percent of respondents did not provide family planning counseling, and their responses were therefore excluded from the analysis. In addition, respondents who did not answer particular questions were omitted from the relevant analyses. The final sample consisted of 107 providers—42 women's health providers and 65 other provider types. All data were entered into an electronic database without personal identifiers, to maintain confidentiality. We assessed knowledge through multiple-choice questions about the pregnancy rate associated with use of the TCu 380A (which is 1% or less) and the approved duration of continuous use (10 years). Additional questions asked providers whether they considered themselves knowledgeable enough to counsel about and insert the IUD. Practice was assessed with questions about the number of IUDs providers had inserted during their career and within the last year. With regard to current practice, we asked providers to indicate whether they "recommend [the IUD] to no one," "recommend to selected patients and refer for insertion," or "recommend to selected patients and insert." The questionnaire included several types of questions assessing attitudes. A number of questions asked whether providers considered women with various characteristics appropriate candidates for IUD use. For example, it asked, "Assuming no contraindications for use of an IUD and all other factors are favorable for use, would you recommend the CuT380A to a patient who is 20-29 years old?" Other questions used a Likert scale to determine providers' attitudes toward recommending the IUD in certain clinical situations—for example, "Do you recommend the IUD for women who desire more children in the future?" Possible responses, scored on a scale of 1-3, were "recommend routinely," "recommend only if other methods are unacceptable" and "never recommend"; providers who responded that they recommend routinely were considered to have favorable attitudes, and all others were considered to have unfavorable attitudes. Finally, providers were given a list of factors (for example, "concerns about medical safety, including the risk of [pelvic inflammatory disease] and infertility," and "concern about side effects such as excessive bleeding and increased uterine cramping") and were asked to check those that negatively influenced their attitudes about recommending or inserting an IUD. We used SAS 8.0213 for all analyses. We first compared women's health providers and other types of providers on basic demographic parameters (gender, age and years in practice), using a simple chi-square statistic to calculate the p-value. We then used the Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel method to test for associations between provider type and outcome variables while controlling for gender, the only demographic variable on which the two provider groups were statistically different. In addition, for dichotomous outcome variables, we calculated adjusted probability ratios, with confidence intervals, as a measure of association between provider type and outcome variable, again using the Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel method. Family practitioners made up the largest proportion of the sample (36%). These were followed by nurse-midwives (21%) and obstetrician-gynecologists (18%); a variety of other types of providers accounted for 24% of participants. A small number of respondents (1-3) did not provide various demographic data. Of those who did, the great majority (74%) were female (reflecting the large contribution of nurse-midwives to the provider mix); 44% were younger than 40, and 53% had been in practice for five or fewer years. Women's health and other providers had generally similar background profiles; the exception was that 88% of women's health providers were women, compared with 63% of other providers—a statistically significant difference. • Knowledge. Providers' knowledge about the IUD was generally good (Table 1). The majority of all respondents gave correct answers to factual questions about the effectiveness of the TCu 380A (69%) and its duration of effectiveness (64%). Seventy percent of all providers reported having sufficient experience to insert IUDs, and 78% said that they had adequate information to counsel women about the method. Women's health providers were significantly more likely than other provider types to say that they had sufficient experience to insert IUDs and adequate information to counsel women about them (probability ratios, 1.8 and 1.4, respectively). • Practice. Sixty-five percent of providers had inserted an IUD within the last year, but only 17% had inserted more than 10. The proportions who had done any insertions and more than 10 were larger among women's health providers (88% and 36%, respectively) than among others (50% and 5%). Similarly, while most providers had inserted an IUD at some point in their career, and half had inserted 15 or more, women's health providers reported having inserted more IUDs than other providers. Eight percent of providers—none of them women's health providers—reported that they recommended the IUD to no one. Twenty-six percent of all respondents reported that they recommended the method to selected patients but referred for insertion, and 66% said that they recommended and inserted the IUD. Nine in 10 women's health providers said that they inserted IUDs, compared with half of other providers. • Attitudes. In several clinical situations, the two provider groups had similar attitudes regarding appropriate candidates for IUDs. Overall and in each group, fewer than four in 10 respondents had favorable attitudes about IUDs for nulliparous women, but the great majority had favorable attitudes about IUDs for parous women. Similarly, virtually all providers were favorable toward IUD use by monogamous women, whereas fewer than one in 10 favored the method's use by women with multiple partners. About one in five respondents, regardless of provider type, perceived previous ectopic pregnancy to preclude routine recommendation for the IUD. In other clinical situations, however, attitudes regarding appropriate candidates for the IUD varied by provider type. Women's health providers were significantly more likely than other providers to have a favorable attitude toward IUD use by women younger than 20 (probability ratio, 2.2), women who desired future fertility (1.7) and women with a history of abortion (1.7). Two main factors deterred providers from recommending or inserting IUDs: concern about the safety of the IUD (69% cited this as a deterrent) and about its side effects (44%). No significant differences between specialties were found in safety and side effect concerns. Few providers cited concerns about legal liability (11%) or expense (5%) as deterrents. Overall, Navajo Area providers had good factual knowledge about the IUD's duration of use and effectiveness. The majority also reported adequate knowledge to counsel women about the IUD and to insert it. Many held favorable attitudes toward IUD use by women in a variety of clinical situations. However, current practice—both self-reported by respondents and as reflected by pharmacy records from the IHS showing progressively smaller numbers of IUDs purchased yearly—involves the insertion of few IUDs relative to the population served. IUD insertions over the past year were low in both provider groups, particularly the group not specifically trained in women's health. In marked contrast to a 1990 survey finding that 40% of physicians recommended the IUD to no one,14 only 8% of providers in our survey recommended the IUD to no one. Though a substantial proportion of providers had inserted at least one IUD in the last year, few had inserted more than 10. Women's health providers were more likely to have inserted more than 10 IUDs, but even among this group, the proportion was only 36%. A discrepancy between favorable attitudes of providers and infrequent insertions was also evident in Stanwood and colleagues' 2000 national survey of practicing obstetrician-gynecologists' attitudes about IUDs.15 Barriers to recommending and inserting the IUD may partly relate to exaggerated concerns about the IUD's safety and side effect profile. Apprehension about risks has plagued the reputation of the IUD since the Dalkon Shield controversy, but several prospective studies have confirmed the safety of the IUD.16 Despite these data, the majority of providers still appear concerned that the IUD causes pelvic infection and infertility. This unease may be the most important factor preventing providers from more strongly recommending IUD use. Almost half of respondents noted the side effect profile as a factor that negatively influenced their decision to recommend an IUD. The most common side effects of the TCu 380A, increased menstrual bleeding and cramping, are often alleviated by use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Furthermore, survey data indicate that women who use IUDs report very high levels of satisfaction with their method,17 and continuation of IUD use at one year is high;18 these findings may indicate that side effects are well tolerated overall. Providers' concerns about side effects appear to be out of proportion to users' actual experience and may needlessly present a barrier to more widespread IUD use among Navajo women. Some factors that may deter providers from recommending or inserting IUDs for women in the general population are less likely to account for low use in the Navajo Area IHS facilities. Survey respondents seldom cited expense as an important factor in decision-making. Because the IHS makes IUDs available to all eligible patients, insurance coverage is not the significant barrier that affects many women in the general population. Similarly, fear of litigation was minimal, most likely reflecting the relative immunity felt by government providers, who are covered under the Federal Tort Claims Act.* Our survey revealed significant discrepancy in knowledge and experience between women's health providers and other providers; this disparity is important, because many women receive counseling and services from these primary care providers. Clearly, changing obstetrician-gynecologists' attitudes and practice alone will not remove all the barriers to expanded IUD use in this population (or, in all likelihood, in others). Our findings suggest that education and training about IUDs must specifically target the many primary care providers who deliver women's health services both in the IHS and to the broader population of U.S. women. This survey has several limitations. The questionnaire was adapted from one used in a previous study, but it has not been assessed for internal validity. Another limitation is that some providers who offer contraceptive counseling or IUD insertion may have been overlooked because of the method we used to select providers. And although the overall response rate was high, nonrespondents may have given different answers from respondents. In addition, since the survey was limited to Navajo Area IHS providers, the results may not be generalizable to other health care providers. Whereas providers obtain ongoing education from journals, conferences and exposure to other health care professionals, patients have limited access to medical information. Patients often report friends, relatives and media as primary sources of information and opinions.19 Women of reproductive age in the 1970s and 1980s, when negative publicity about IUDs was pervasive, are now mothers and grandmothers of women of reproductive age. They may be a source of negative information to these young women. A survey of attitudes and knowledge of Navajo women of reproductive age might help explain why IUD use remains low. Patient attitudes may present as great a barrier to widespread IUD usage as provider attitudes. Our findings are consistent with those of Stanwood and colleagues:20 The most important barriers for clinicians are lack of experience and knowledge, combined with misperceptions that too narrowly define appropriate candidates for IUD use. Additionally, providers such as family physicians and nurse practitioners, who are important providers of contraceptive counseling and services, have less experience and knowledge than obstetrician-gynecologists and nurse-midwives. In 2001, 45 international experts developed a consensus statement about the IUD, which emphasized the relative underutilization of this very effective long-term contraceptive method and proposed a comprehensive set of recommendations to decrease barriers to IUD use.21 Providing educational opportunities for providers through workshops and mentoring may liberalize their attitudes about appropriate candidates for IUD use as well as improve their technical competence; more liberal attitudes and greater competence, in turn, could stimulate providers to include IUDs more frequently in their counseling of patients and thereby increase demand for the method. Efforts to expand IUD use may be particularly well suited to Navajo women, among whom this method was previously so popular. We conclude that providers should receive education and training that emphasize the medical safety and high acceptability of current IUDs. Inaccurate perceptions, such as the perception of a causal relationship between IUD use and pelvic inflammatory disease or of an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy associated with IUD use, should be specifically addressed in evidence-based education and training sessions. Accurate information and adequate training must target not only obstetrics and gynecology residents and nurse-midwife students, but also other providers who offer contraceptive counseling and may insert IUDs.

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There are two forms of diabetes in dogs: diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus. Diabetes insipidus is sometimes called “drinking diabetes” and diabetes mellitus is also known as “sugar diabetes.” Diabetes insipidus is a very rare disorder that results in failure to regulate body water content. Diabetes mellitus is more common in dogs, and is frequently diagnosed in dogs five years of age or older. This is also known as Type II or adult-onset diabetes. There is a congenital form that occurs in puppies called Type I or juvenile diabetes, but this is rare in dogs. Pancreas AnatomyDiabetes mellitus is a disease of the pancreas. This is a small but vital organ located near the stomach. It has two significant populations of cells. One group of cells produces the enzymes necessary for proper digestion. The other group, called beta-cells, produces the hormone insulin. Simply put, diabetes mellitus is a failure of the pancreatic beta cells to regulate blood sugar. Some people with diabetes take insulin shots, and others take oral medication. Is this true for dogs? In humans, two types of diabetes mellitus have been discovered. Both types are similar in that there is a failure to regulate blood sugar, but the basic mechanisms of disease differ somewhat between the two groups. Most dogs with diabetes mellitus will require daily insulin injections to regulate their blood glucose. Type I or Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus, results from total or near-complete destruction of the beta-cells. This is the most common type of diabetes in dogs. As the name implies, dogs with this type of diabetes require insulin injections to stabilize blood sugar. Type II or Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus, is different because some insulin-producing cells remain. However, the amount produced is insufficient, there is a delayed response in secreting it, or the tissues of the dog’s body are relatively resistant to it. Type II diabetes most commonly occurs in older obese dogs. People with this form may be treated with an oral drug that stimulates the remaining functional cells to produce or release insulin in an adequate amount to normalize blood sugar. Unfortunately, dogs do not respond well to these oral medications. The role of insulin is much like that of a gatekeeper: in effect, it stands at the surface of body cells and opens the door, allowing glucose to leave the blood stream and pass inside the cells. Glucose is a vital substance that provides much of the energy needed for life, and it must work inside the cells. Without an adequate amount of insulin, glucose is unable to get into the cells. It accumulates in the blood, setting in motion a series of events that can ultimately prove fatal. Daibetes - Increased Thirst When insulin is deficient, the cells become starved for a source of energy. In response to this, the body starts breaking down stores of fat and protein to use as alternative energy sources. As a consequence, the dog eats more; thus, we have weight loss in a dog with a ravenous appetite. The body tries to eliminate the excess glucose by excreting it in the urine. However, glucose (blood sugar) attracts water resulting in the production of a large amount of urine. To avoid dehydration, the dog drinks more and more water. Thus, we have the four classical signs of diabetes: 1. Weight loss 2. Increased water consumption 3. Increased appetite 4. Increased urination The diagnosis of diabetes mellitus is based on three criteria: the four classical clinical signs, the presence of a persistently high level of glucose in the blood stream, and the presence of glucose in the urine. The normal level of glucose in the blood is 80-120 mg/dl (4.4-6.6 mmol/L). It may rise to 250-300 mg/dl (13.6-16.5 mmol/L) following a meal. However, diabetes is the only common disease that will cause the blood glucose level to rise above 400 mg/dl (22 mmol/L). Some diabetic dogs will have a glucose level as high as 800 mg/dl (44 mmol/L), although most will be in the range of 400-600 mg/dl (22-33 mmol/L). To keep the body from losing glucose, the kidneys do not allow glucose to be filtered out of the blood stream until an excessive level is reached. This means that dogs with a normal blood glucose level will not have glucose in the urine. Diabetic dogs, however, have excessive amounts of glucose in the blood, so it will be present in the urine. For the diabetic dog, one reality exists: blood glucose cannot be normalized without treatment. Although the dog can go a day or so without treatment and not have a crisis, treatment should be looked upon as part of the dog’s daily routine. Treatment almost always requires some dietary changes and administration of insulin. As for you, the owner, there are two implications: financial commitment and personal commitment. When your dog is well regulated, the maintenance costs are minimal. The special diet, insulin, and syringes are not expensive. However, the financial commitment may be significant during the initial regulation process and if complications arise. Initially, your dog will be hospitalized for a few days to deal with the immediate crisis and to begin the regulation process. The “immediate crisis” is only great if your dog is so sick that it has quit eating and drinking for several days. Dogs in this state, called ketoacidosis, may require a week or more of hospitalization with quite a bit of laboratory testing. Otherwise, the initial hospitalization may be only for a day or two for basic tests and to begin treatment. At that point, your dog goes home for you to administer medication. At first, return visits are required every three to seven days to monitor progress. It may take a month or more to achieve good regulation. The financial commitment may again be significant if complications arise. Your veterinarian will work with you to try and achieve consistent regulation, but some dogs are difficult to keep regulated. It is important that you pay close attention to all instructions related to administration of medication, diet, and home monitoring. Another complication that can arise is hypoglycemia, or low blood sugar, which can be fatal. This may occur due to inconsistencies in treatment. This will be explained in subsequent paragraphs. Your personal commitment to treating your dog is very important in maintaining regulation and preventing crises. Most diabetic dogs require insulin injections once or twice daily. They must be fed the same food in the same amount on the same schedule every day. If you are out of town, your dog must receive proper treatment while you are gone. These factors should be considered carefully when your pet has been diagnosed with diabetes mellitus. Consistency is vital to proper management of the diabetic dog. Your dog needs consistent administration of medication, consistent feeding, and a stable, stress-free lifestyle. To best achieve this, it is preferred that your dog live indoors most of the time. Although that is not essential, indoor living removes many uncontrollable variables that can disrupt regulation. The first step in treatment is to alter your dog’s diet. Diabetes mellitus is known as a “fiber-responsive disease”. Diets high in fiber are preferred because they are generally lower in sugar and slower to be digested. This means that the dog does not have to process a large amount of sugar at one time. Additionally, the fiber may help stimulate insulin secretion in Type II diabetes. Your veterinarian will discuss specific diet recommendations for your pet’s needs. Your dog’s feeding routine is also important. Some dogs prefer to eat several times per day. This means that food is left in the bowl at all times for free choice feeding. However, this is not the best way to feed a diabetic dog. The preferred way is to feed twice daily, just before each insulin injection. If your dog is currently eating on a free choice basis, it is important to try and make the change. If a two-meals-per-day feeding routine will not work for you, it is still important to find some way to accurately measure the amount of food that is consumed. The foundation for regulating blood glucose is the administration of insulin by injection. Many people are initially fearful of giving insulin injections. If this is your initial reaction, consider these points: 1. Insulin does not cause pain when it is injected. 2. The injections are made with very tiny needles that your dog hardly feels. The injections are given just under the skin in areas in which it is almost impossible to cause damage to any vital organ. Please do not decide not to treat your dog with insulin until we have demonstrated the injection technique. You may be pleasantly surprised at how easy it is and how well your dog tolerates the injections. Insulin comes in an airtight bottle that is labeled with the insulin type and the concentration. It is important to make sure you match the insulin concentration with the proper insulin needles. Insulin needles show their measurement in “units per ml”, which must correspond to the concentration of the insulin you are using. Before using the insulin, mix the contents. Be sure to roll it gently between your hands, not shake it. The reason for this is to prevent foam formation, which will make accurate measuring difficult. Some types of insulin used in dogs have a strong tendency to settle out of suspension. If it is not shaken properly, it will not mix well and dosing will be inaccurate. Therefore, the trick is to shake it vigorously enough to mix it without creating foam. When you have finished mixing the insulin, turn the bottle upside down to see if any white powder adheres to the bottom of the bottle. If so, more mixing is needed. Insulin is a hormone that will lose its effectiveness if exposed to direct sunlight or high temperatures. It should be kept in the refrigerator, but it should not be frozen. If you have any doubt about your pet’s insulin and how it was stored, it is safer to replacing it instead of risking using ineffective insulin. Insulin is safe as long as it is used as directed, but it should be kept out of the reach of children. Have the needle and syringe, insulin bottle, and dog ready. Then, follow these steps: 1. Remove the cap from the needle, and draw back the plunger to the appropriate dose level. 2. Carefully insert the needle into the insulin bottle. 3. Inject air into the bottle. This prevents a vacuum from forming within the bottle. 4. Withdraw the correct amount of insulin into the syringe. Before injecting your dog with the insulin, check that there are no air bubbles in the syringe. If you get an air bubble draw twice as much insulin into the syringe as you need. Then withdraw the needle from the insulin bottle and tap the barrel of the syringe with your fingernail to make the air bubble rise to the tip of the syringe. Gently and slowly expel the air bubble by moving the plunger upward. When this has been done, check that you have the correct amount of insulin in the syringe. The correct dose of insulin can be assured if you measure from the needle end, or “0” on the syringe barrel, to the end of the plunger nearest the needle. The steps to follow for injecting insulin are: Hold the syringe in your right hand (switch hands if you are left-handed). Have someone hold your dog while you pick up a fold of skin from somewhere along your dog’s back in the “scruff” region with your free hand. Try to pick up a slightly different spot each day. Quickly push the very sharp, very thin needle through your dog’s skin. This should be easy and painless. However, take care to push the needle through only one layer of skin and not into your finger or through two layers of skin. The latter will result in injecting the insulin onto your dog’s haircoat or onto the floor. The needle should be directed parallel to the backbone or angled slightly downward. To inject the insulin, place your thumb on the plunger and push it all the way into the syringe barrel. Withdraw the needle from your dog’s skin. Immediately place the needle guard over the needle and discard the needle and syringe. Stroke and praise your dog to reward it for sitting quietly. Be aware that some communities have strict rules about disposal of medical waste material so don’t throw the needle and syringe into the trash until you know if this is permissible. It is usually preferable to take the used needles and syringes to your veterinary clinic or local pharmacy for disposal. It is neither necessary nor desirable to swab the skin with alcohol to “sterilize” it. There are four reasons: 1. Due to the nature of the thick hair coat and the type of bacteria that live near the skin of dogs, brief swabbing with alcohol or any other antiseptic is not effective. 2. Because a small amount of alcohol can be carried through the skin by the needle, it may actually carry bacteria with it into the skin. 3. The sting caused by the alcohol can make your dog dislike the injections. 4. If you have accidentally injected the insulin on the surface of the skin, you will not know it. If you do not use alcohol and the skin or hair is wet following an injection, the injection was not done properly. Although the above procedures may at first seem complicated and somewhat overwhelming, they will very quickly become second nature. Your dog will soon learn that once or twice each day it has to sit still for a few minutes. In most cases, a reward of stroking results in a fully cooperative dog that eventually may not even need to be held. It is necessary that your dog’s progress be checked on a regular basis. Monitoring is a joint project on which owners and veterinarians must work together. Your part in the monitoring process involves monitoring. You need to be constantly aware of your dog’s appetite, weight, water consumption, and urine output. You should be feeding a consistent amount of food each day, which will allow you to be aware of days that your dog does not eat all of it or is unusually hungry after the feeding. You should weigh your dog at least monthly. It is best to use the same scale each time. You should develop a way to measure water consumption. The average dog should drink no more than 7 1/2 oz. (225 ml) of water per 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of body weight per 24 hours. Since this is highly variable from one dog to another, keeping a record of your dog’s water consumption for a few weeks will allow you to establish what is normal for your dog. Another way to measure water consumption is based on the number of times it drinks each day. When properly regulated, it should drink no more than six times per day. If this is exceeded, you should take steps to make an actual measurement. Any significant change in your dog’s food intake, weight, water intake, or urine output is an indicator that the diabetes is not well controlled. We should see your dog at that time for blood testing. Monitoring of Blood Glucose: There are two blood tests that can be used to monitor your dog, the blood glucose test and the fructosamine test. One of these should be performed every three to four months if your dog seems to be well regulated. Testing should also be done at any time the clinical signs. Determining the level of glucose in the blood is the most valuable. Timing is important when the blood glucose is determined. Since eating will elevate the blood sugar for several hours, it is best to test the blood at least six hours after eating. When testing the blood we want to know the highest and lowest glucose readings for the day. The highest blood sugar reading should occur just before an injection of insulin is given. The lowest should occur at the time of peak insulin effect. This is usually five to eight hours after an insulin injection, but it should have been determined during the initial regulation process. Therefore, the proper procedure is as follows: Feed your dog its normal morning meal and insulin then bring it to the hospital immediately. Blood samples will be obtained every 2-3 hours to determine the peak insulin effect. It is possible to test blood sugar at home. If you are interested in home monitoring, we will discuss the options with you. The alternative test is called a fructosamine test. This test is an average of the blood glucose levels for the last two weeks. It is less influenced by stress and inconsistencies in diet and exercise. For some dogs, this is the preferred test. It does not require fasting and can be performed at any time of the day. Hypoglycemia means low blood sugar. If it is below 40 mg/dl, it can be life threatening. Hypoglycemia generally occurs under two conditions: If the insulin dose is too high. Although most dogs will require the same dose of insulin for long periods of time, it is possible for the dog’s insulin requirements to change. However, the most common causes for change are a reduction in food intake and an increase in exercise or activity. The dog should eat before giving the insulin injection, because once the insulin is administered it can’t be removed from the body. If your dog does not eat, skip that dose of insulin. If only half of the food is eaten just give a half dose of insulin. Always remember that it is better in the short term for the blood sugar to be too high than too low. If too much insulin is given. This can occur because the insulin was not properly measured in the syringe or because two doses were given. You may forget that you gave it and repeat it, or two people in the family may each give a dose. A chart to record insulin administration will help to prevent the dog being treated twice. The most likely time that a dog will become hypoglycemic is the time of peak insulin effect (5-8 hours after an insulin injection). When the blood glucose is only mildly low, the dog will act very tired and unresponsive. You may call it and get no response. Within a few hours, the blood glucose will rise, and your dog will return to normal. Since many dogs sleep a lot during the day, this important sign is easily missed. Watch for any subtle signs of hypoglycemia. It is the first sign of impending problems. If you see it, please bring your dog in for blood glucose testing. If your dog is slow to recover from this period of lethargy, you should give it corn syrup (one tablespoon by mouth). If there is no response within fifteen minutes repeat administration of the corn syrup. If there is still no response, contact your veterinarian immediately for further instructions. If severe hypoglycemia occurs, a dog may have seizures or lose consciousness. Ultimately, untreated hypoglycemia will lead to coma and death. This is an emergency that can only be reversed with intravenous administration of glucose. If it occurs during office hours, take your dog to the veterinarian’s office immediately. If it occurs at night or on the weekend, call your veterinarian’s emergency phone number for instructions. This client information sheet is based on material written by Ernest Ward, DVM. © Copyright 2005 Lifelearn Inc. Used with permission under license. February 24, 2012. Updated September 2, 2012. Glucometer image courtesy of Shutterstock Images LLC and Photodictionary.com

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BREAST FEEDING FOR RAISING HEALTHY CHILDREN by Lawrence Wilson, MD © February 2012, The Center For Development. Breastfeeding is the single most important item needed after birth to produce a healthy child. Mother’s milk is uniquely suited for the growth of a human child. No other milk or food is nearly as good if one wants one’s child to be in the best of health throughout life. Mother’s milk is a rich source of many, many nutrients, antibodies and much more. Calcium and vitamin D in mother’s milk, for example, create a strong and properly calcified skeleton and a properly functioning nervous system. Amino acids build body proteins. Fatty acids, such as DHA, in particular, and many others as well, create brain tissue and are needed for cell membranes and many other body tissues as well. Other nutrients in mother’s milk include all the vitamins, minerals and even some that are not yet catalogued by nutritionists and scientists. Mother’s milk also is just the right temperature and a consistency that is not too watery, yet not too thick or difficult to eat. It is also generally free of harmful bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms that can be in tap water used to make formula. Many other reasons for breastfeeding exist, including the psychological benefits for both mother and child. It is a shame this is not taken for granted. Colostrum. This is the first milk that comes when the baby is born. It is the finest milk in the sense that it contains special immunoglobins and other substances that help prepare the intestinal tract of the baby to receive all food items in the future. Recall that until a baby begins to feed, the intestinal tract is not in use, since all nutrition and development depends on the blood that flows from the placenta to the baby through its naval or bellybutton area. Thus the intestinal tract must be primed, so to speak, with bacteria and other flora in order for it to work correctly. For this reason, the horrible practice of starting a newborn on formula in the hospital if the mother cannot begin to breastfeed immediately is a totally insane practice that causes lots of illnesses in babies, mainly food-related allergies and others. Every effort should be made to assist a baby to obtain colostrum immediately when he or she want to begin feeding. There is no reason to force this process, as the baby may require rest or sleep for hours after a difficult delivery, or any birth, for that matter. Every effort should also be made to assist the mother to start breast feeding, since the colostrum is the finest product for the baby. If the mother cannot breastfeed and the baby is calling for milk, another woman should be found to offer some milk, preferably, before resorting to formula. This may sound unclean, but it is far healthier in most cases than formula of any kind and would result in far healthier babies. In many nations formula is given out to hospitals and birthing centers at no charge by companies that want to “hook” the babies on the taste of formula. Then they will never want to breastfeed. This supports the formula company, but does nothing beneficial for the child or the mother. The mother is left with engorged breasts and a colicky child in most instances. We can only hope that the practice of giving formula in the hospital to newborns will be abandoned sometime soon, though I doubt it as it is “convenient” and inexpensive. Here is a chart borrowed from www.mercola.com: HOW LONG SHOULD ONE BREASTFEED? Breastfeeding should continue for between two and three years, and ideally even longer if the baby will take it. This is different advice than that given by almost all pediatricians and other doctors. However, that is the time that most primitive cultures breastfeed their children for optimum health. The reason for this is the child’s digestive system is extremely delicate. Although a child can start with food after a few days to a few months, the benefits of mother’s milk are many, as explained above. It is also sufficient for nourishing most children for several years. There is no reason to introduce food, particularly meat and grains, until the child is at least one year old. Some children will ask for more than breast milk at a certain point, and some will outright stop breastfeeding at a certain age. However, this is often because the mother’s milk is not sufficient in nutrients. This can often be remedied by a change in the mother’s diet or health status via a nutritional balancing program. However, it is late to begin such a program once one is breastfeeding. It is certainly possible, but it is preferable to begin a healing program before one gets pregnant or during pregnancy. Other reasons for continuing to breastfeed for several years are the bonding that occurs between mother and child and other subtle benefits for both mother and child. I realize this may be inconvenient for modern-day mothers who may need to work. However, methods exist and are discussed below to allow the child to have the benefits of breast milk even if the mother cannot always be present. PUMPING THE BREASTS If you must be away from your child, important bonding with the child will not occur as well. However, breast milk can be pumped out and saved, using a breast pump. Refrigerate it if and only if it will be used more than an hour or two after it is pumped. It will have to be heated a little, or the child will usually vomit. Also, if mother is very upset at feeding time, using a breast pump may also be best. A baby is very sensitive to the vibrations of the mother. If the mother cannot relax, pumping the milk and then handing it the child in a cradle may actually be better than holding a baby in an agitated state and believing the child can assimilate the milk properly. Children must be relaxed, as with adults, to feed properly. Children, however, will often vomit if they are uncomfortable, whereas adults usually will just develop bloating, gas and other problems by eating when upset, anxious, in a hurry or not chewing or resting while eating. WHAT IF A BABY WILL NOT BREASTFEED? At times, for various reasons, a child will not feed at the breast. Let us examine some of the most common reasons and what can be done about it. However, this short article is not intended as a breastfeeding manual. For this, and other information, I refer the reader to groups such as La Leche League International (www.LLLi.org). Let us look at a few reasons for breastfeeding problems. Problems in the baby. These must be checked by a doctor, preferably soon after birth. An important problem is tongue-tie. Many times it is missed by doctors, but it definitely can cause breastfeeding problems. To read about it, readTongue-Tie on this site. More and more children are also born today with digestive defects or developmental delays that prevent normal feeding. The sucking reflex must be developed sufficiently, for example. Other are the inability to grip the breast or to signal when to eat and swallow in coordination. These must be dealt with by a competent physician. Problems in the mother. A second group of reasons has to do with the mother. More and more mothers are unable to breastfeed today. The cause is usually nutritional depletion. Mothers must literally “eat for two” while breastfeeding, although admittedly, the youngster does not consume anywhere near the amount the mother does in terms of calories or any other measure, simply because of his size. However, nutritional difficulties leading to breastfeeding problems are rampant. The nipples may not function as needed. They may become very sore and not respond to standard treatments such as lubricating gels. One of the best products for sore or inflamed is called Bag Balm. Mastitis or breast infections are another common problem. These can be handled often with colloidal silver, applied topically as well as taken by mouth. This is much less toxic for the mother and child than using antibiotics. The baby may throw up the milk or become colicky, the mother may become ill or depressed, and many other variations. Most of these causes can be dealt with at home by a suitable nutritional balancing program. This is discussed in other articles on this website. For many breastfeeding problems, I strongly recommend calling La Leche League, as they often know a lot more about breastfeeding than most doctors or nurses. Preparing for breastfeeding. In fact, pregnancy is such a stressful experience, and a thrilling one, that preparation must begin early. In fact, the earlier the better. Grade school would be a good time to separate out the girls and explain that childbearing is both a great honor as well as a burden and responsibility for women. Do it well and you will feel wonderful. Create defective children and you will feel so guilty that it destroys some mothers, as many know. Wise indigenous cultures that value child-raising much more than we do start preparing girls for child birth very young. Western cultures seem far more interested in their daughter’s good looks, whom she marries and other things that are important, but do not produce the best children. If the culture cared about children a little more, young women would be prepared, starting in grade school, for the most important task of their lives – that of bearing the children for the future of the race. Instead, they are treated to junk food in the cafeterias and at home, late nights, insane pleasures and distractions such as movies, computer games and others, and a moral code that degrades women to a degree that is just sad to see. The new moral code is called “women’s liberation” but it is nothing of the sort. It often involves literally deadly birth control pills and patches, and exposes the girls to sexually-transmitted diseases that affect many for the rest of their lives. This is not liberation, but a new form of tyranny and bondage. Wet Nurses. If a child will not breastfeed and the cause is the mother, an ancient method to handle this situation is the use of a wet nurse. Any woman will do who has milk. Some women have too much milk and would welcome the opportunity to get rid of it. This will come about more as women learn more about their unique role as wet nurses and the great service it provides to themselves and society. Now let us discuss what else can be done if breastfeeding is not to occur. Milk banks. If a mother cannot breastfeed, and a wet nurse is not available, there exist in America and elsewheremilk banks. These are groups of women who are happy to express some of their breast milk and send it to families who need it. Milk banks, and how to get in touch with them, are described on the La Leche League International website, LLLi.org. COW’S MILK AND OTHER MILKS Cows and other animals have been used for feeding babies for thousands of years. Today, this is still the case. Animal milks are good, but none come close to breast milk. Each of the others has its problems. A common problem to many, however, is hybridization. For example, cows today are bred to provide five or six times as much milk as those of 100 years ago. While this increases production drastically, the quality is lower. The cow simply cannot eat enough grass, hay or other food, unfortunately, to produce as good a milk in such quantity. As a result, except for organic milk, which is a little better, all animal milks are now suspect. Pasteurizing and homogenizing makes them much worse. Raw Milks. Until 50 years ago or so, most well-informed doctors recommended only certified raw milk for children. This is milk from cows that have been rigorously inspected for disease by government authorities and must meet very high standards of cleanliness. This is a very safe product. This excellent food is outlawed in most states for political reasons. The dairy lobby wants their contaminated milk to be sold as equal to certified raw milk, which it is not. Their method of ‘competing’ with the raw milk producers was simply to outlaw their product, claiming it causes illness when this is not so. The standard milk is pasteurized to control its bacteria count, but this damages the milk quite a lot. Let us discuss this horrible practice Pasteurization. This is the practice of heating milk, usually by splashing it over very hot rollers, for 10 minutes or more. While it may have had some value 100 years ago to prevent some disease, this harmful sterilization method unfortunately allows milk from sick cows to be sold on the open market. It also permits lax standards of cleanliness on a few huge dairy farms that supply large areas of America. In addition, cooking the milk renders its calcium less biologically available to the body. It also damages the protein in the milk to a degree, making it much harder to digest. Homogenization is another insult to milk. Vigorous shaking breaks up the fat particles so they stay in solution instead of rising to the top. However, the small particles are absorbed directly into the blood stream instead of being digested properly. This renders the milk much less healthful as well. Goat, sheep or other milks. Goat milk is less damaged by pasteurization, for which reason it is preferable, though goats are also hybridized to a large degree, today, which renders the milk less ideal than previously. Sheep milk is very good, but not very available. Other animals may be used as well, although none is as good as a wet nurse or the mother of the child. Soy, rice and almond milks. These are not worthy of the name “milk”. Almond milk is a bit better, but not that much. These drinks, and that is what they are, should be reserved as a substitute for water. They do not contain nearly the nutrition needed for a growing child, even if they say “fortified” or “enriched” on the label. The exception is if one makes them at home, with fresh ingredients, and adds many more nutrients so that a truly soy-based or almond-based baby formula is the result. Once again, consult books on this subject for the details. Home made meat and milk-based formulas. If milk from a woman or a healthy animal is not available or does not work due to allergies or other reasons, a meat-based formula, properly prepared, is often by far the best substitute. It is far better than commercial formula, most nut or seed or grain milks and often very non-allergenic for the child. Two formula recipes are given in the book, Nourishing Traditions by Sally Fallon, New Trends Publishing, Washington, DC, 1999 and 2001. These are far better than commercial formula, but still falls short of breast milk, when available. The milk-based formula is probably best if a child will tolerate it. For simpler preparation of these formulas, and my comments, see the article on this site, entitled Baby Formula You Make At Home. Commercial Formula. This is nothing but a euphemism for poor quality, deficient milk. I expect it will be banned from use once medical scientists discover the harm it produces. Please do not give it to babies, or anyone else for that matter. Most brands are based on milk sugar that has been altered by heat and chemicals. The manufacturers add synthetic vitamins, and often many chemical additives as well. This is not a food, but a phony concoction that should be labeled as a drug, not a food. This is how harmful it is for the delicate, balanced chemistry of the young child – and adults as well. It interferes with proper development, which is every child’s birthright. Thus it is one of the worst products for growing children. It is also used for the elderly in a slightly different form, such as Ensure and other trademarked products. This, too, is harmful. However, at least in the elderly the person has lived his or her life, so the damage is minimal by comparison. SODA POP AND JUICES FOR BABIES Never feed babies or children any fruit juices, lemonade, soda pop or sweetened beverages at all for optimum health. This merit a more detailed discussion because companies that produce juices and sodas, often target children and young mother’s due to their “convenience”. These are not food for children, however, or even most adults. Therapeutic use of carrot and green vegetable juices in limited quantities are one thing. Drinking sweet fruit or even sweet vegetable juices or worse, soda pop, is a horror for all people. The fact that sodas are still sold in schools, along with fruit juices, should make parents remove the children from this environment. However, this level of awareness is a long way off. Reasons to avoid all fruit juices and soda pop, sweet teas and other sweetened beverages are: 1) Very Little calcium. Soda pop and juices supply little if any calcium, even if “enriched”. If calcium is added, it is usually a cheap form of supplemental calcium. Orange juice has some calcium, but even this product is not healthful for anyone, in our opinion, due to its high sugar content and other reasons today. Citrus juices, such as grapefruit, are better, but only if made with ripe fruit, which is rarely available since the fruit is usually picked green. Even fresh grapefruit juice is extremely yin and should be strictly limited, in my view, to a small glass once in a great while. 2) Fruit acids or phosphoric acid. Sodas, in particular, and orange juice, too, are quite acidic foods. This means they contain fruit acids or, in the case of sodas, phosphoric acid is added to the soda pop. These are hard to digest, no matter what the ‘health authorities’ say. Grapefruit is somewhat better because it has so little sugar. However, the fruit acids are not always converted correctly and are often harmful to the body, especially in children. 3) Calcium versus phosphoric acid and fruit acids. Phosphoric acid, used in most soda drinks to provide a “kick”, binds and absorbs calcium in the intestinal tract. When it binds to calcium, it forms low-solubility calcium phosphates. This prevents the bound calcium from being absorbed properly into the child’s body. It is silly to believe you will get much calcium from a food or beverage that has phosphoric acid added for “fizz” or some other reason. Fruit acids, which include phosphoric, malic and others, can also do the same thing. This is one reason that people who consume a lot of fruit have decayed teeth. It is not just the surface effects of fruit acids on the dentine of the teeth. It is also the absorption and binding of calcium by fruit acids, rendering them less absorbable This is not to be confused with the fact that absorption of calcium requires an acid medium in the stomach. This is the truth. However, the proper acid is hydrochloric acid. This enables calcium, if it is unbound, to be mixed with amino acids and thereby chelated. This word means to be bound to a mineral transporter, such as the amino acid glutamate or others. This, in fact, permits greater calcium absorption. However, binding calcium with other materials, such as phosphorus, creates insoluble compounds that are poorly absorbed. This is why one should not buy a calcium phosphate product in the health store. This will not be as well absorbed as a calcium chelate product in most cases. Phosphoric acid and fruit acids may also bind other minerals such as magnesium and zinc. 4) Sugars to saturation. The many problems of consuming sugar, especially for children, are discussed in other articles. Simple carbohydrates are a very damaging food for children, unless combined as in natural milks, especially mother’s milk. They upset calcium metabolism more than any other single factor in many instances. Melvin Page, DDS wrote extensively about this in his book, Degeneration, Regeneration, Nutritional Development, FL, 1949,1980. and in his other books. Many other excellent books about sugar have also been published. 5) Too much liquid. This is another problem with feeding babies sodas, soymilk, juices and other dilute beverages. The nutrient density of these beverages is so low the baby must drink too much liquid to get any nutrition at all. This causes stomach upsets and more problems. It is a subtle problem with formula and all substitutes for mother’s milk, in most cases. 6) Low in essential fatty acids. One of the great benefits of most mother’s milk is the fatty acid content. This is absolutely essential for childhood development of the nervous system. One contributor to conditions such as attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and many other developmental delays and learning problems stem from inadequate or the improper balance of fatty acids in the body. It is not easy to obtain the needed ones from modern food. Also, children fed exclusively formula are all deficient in fatty acids and other nutrients, some of which have not been discovered and will not be so for some years. This applies even when vitamins and other nutrients are added to the milk formula. The body needs a wide range of fatty acids for its development. Fish oils can supply most of these. Today’s food is deficient in many of them, however, some of which are known and many are not known. 7) Unknown Needs. A hidden reason for using breast milk is that we have not discovered all the nutrients needed for life. In particular, more amino acids are needed than are recognized. An example is L-taurine. This very essential nutrient is missing from many commercial formulas and not too abundant in many nut and seed milks. 8) Caffeine And Many Chemicals. These are common in almost all beverages except simple herb teas, which may be given to children in small quantities. Otherwise, however, one is feeding the child a chemical cocktail and that is pretty much all they are. Sugar substitutes, especially aspartame (Equal or Nutrasweet) are even worse than sugars for many children. The other fake sweeteners are less harmful, but not too much better in most cases. They upset the delicate taste detection mechanism in children, leading to obesity, cravings, addictions and other problems of metabolism, as well as psychological problems in a few cases. 9) Tap water toxins. Some forget that tap water is not a healthful product, with its added chlorides, fluorides, aluminum (used in most every municipal water system), copper in some areas, and much more. For example, most urban water supplies have some degree of contamination with medical drugs. Your baby gets a dose of antibiotics, sleeping pills and much, much more with each bottle of formula mixed with tap water. No wonder so many are sick. 10) Radiation and even more toxins. Breast milk is also purer in terms of bacteria, parasites, viruses and other harmful microorganisms. Babies are also exposed to radiation poisoning through the municipal water used in many nations. Only a foolish mother would dilute formula with this kind of water, but for many mothers this is one of the only alternatives to breastfeeding, and it is an important “profit center” for the food companies. If you care about your child, breast feed, use a wet nurse or only add distilled or spring water, if possible, to any formula. Carbon filtered water is also okay, though not as good as it does not remove toxic metals, another common problem with American and foreign tap waters. Boiling water does remove chlorine and kills some germs, but does not remove all chemicals or any of the toxic metals. If possible, breastfeed your child for at least three years. If problems arise, do not give up easily, even if your doctor tells you to forget breastfeeding. Consult La Leche League International first. Do as they say, as they are far more knowledgeable than 99% of doctors. The smart doctors refer the women directly to this or similar groups.

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Hypereides or Hyperides was an Athenian logographer. He was one of the ten Attic orators included in the "Alexandrian Canon" compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace in the third century BCE, he was a leader of the Athenian resistance to King Philip II of Alexander the Great. He was associated with Demosthenes in exposing pro-Macedonian sympathies, he is known for prosecuting Philippides of Paiania for his pro-Macedonian measures and his decree in honoring Alexander the Great. Little is known about his early life except that he was the son of Glaucippus, of the deme of Collytus and that he studied logography under Isocrates. In 360 BCE he prosecuted Autocles for treason. During the Social War he accused Aristophon one of the most influential men at Athens, of malpractices, impeached Philocrates for high treason. Although Hypereides supported Demosthenes in the struggle against Philip II of Macedon. After Demosthenes' exile Hypereides became the head of the patriotic party. After the death of Alexander the Great, Hypereides was one of the chief promoters of war against Macedonian rule. His speeches are believed to have led to the outbreak of the Lamian War in which Athens and Thessaly revolted against Macedonian rule. After the decisive defeat at Crannon in which Athens and her allies lost their independence and the other orators were captured by Archias of Thurii and condemned to death by the Athenian supporters of Macedon. Hypereides fled to Aegina only to be captured at the temple of Poseidon. After being put to death, his body was taken to Cleonae and shown to the Macedonian general Antipater before being returned to Athens for burial. Hypereides was an ardent pursuer of "the beautiful," which in his time meant pleasure and luxury, he was unwavering in public his hostility to Macedon. He was a well-known epicure given to fine food and women, he engaged in countless affairs with prostitutes. His temper was humorous. Though in his development of the periodic sentence he followed Isocrates, the essential tendencies of his style are those of Lysias. His diction was plain, though he indulged in long compound words borrowed from Middle Comedy. His composition was simple, he was distinguished for subtlety of expression and wit. Hypereides is known to have owned at least two or three pieces of property: an estate in Eleusis, a house in Athens,and a house in Piraeus, where he kept one of his many women. In around 340 B. C. he is known to have performed only two public services, as Chorus producer. It is said he had received money from the Persian King, alarmed at Macedon's expansion. Hypereides's speech in trial against Philippides lasted over thirty minutes. In the first speech against Philippides he attacked King Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great. In the second part of the papyrus, he attacks Philippides and his associates and states: Each one of them was a traitor, one in Thebes, another in Tangara, another in Eleutherae, doing everything in the service of the Macedonians, he pleaded Philip's cause and campaigned with him against our country, his most serious offense. Hypereides detested Philippides pro-Macedonian sympathies. Hypereides exposed Philippides, known as saying in the Assembly: We must honor Alexander for all those that died at his hand. Seventy-seven speeches have been attributed to Hypereides, of which twenty-five were regarded as spurious by his contemporaries, it is said that a manuscript of most of the speeches survived as late as the 15th century in the library of Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, but was destroyed after the capture of Buda by the Turks in the 16th century. Only a few fragments were known until recent times. In 1847, large fragments of his speeches, Against Demosthenes and For Lycophron and the whole of For Euxenippus, were found in a tomb at Thebes in Egypt. In 1856 a considerable portion of a logos epitaphios, a Funeral Oration over Leosthenes and his comrades who had fallen in the Lamian war was discovered; this is the best surviving example of epideictic oratory. Towards the end of the nineteenth century further discoveries were made including the conclusion of the speech Against Philippides, of the whole of Against Athenogenes. In 2002 Natalie Tchernetska of Trinity College, Cambridge discovered fragments of two speeches of Hypereides, considered lost, in the Archimedes Palimpsest. These were from the Against Timandros and Against Diondas. Tchernetska's discovery led to a publication on the subject in the Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik; this prompted the establishment of a working group under the auspices of the British Academy, which includes scholars from the UK, Hungary and the US. In 2006, the Archimedes Palimpsest project together with imagers at Stanford University used powerful X-ray fluorescence imaging to read the final pages of the Palimpsest, which contained the material by Hypereides; these w The public domain consists of all the creative works to which no exclusive intellectual property rights apply. Those rights may have been forfeited, expressly waived, or may be inapplicable; the works of William Shakespeare and Beethoven, most early silent films, are in the public domain either by virtue of their having been created before copyright existed, or by their copyright term having expired. Some works are not covered by copyright, are therefore in the public domain—among them the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes, all computer software created prior to 1974. Other works are dedicated by their authors to the public domain; the term public domain is not applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, in which case use of the work is referred to as "under license" or "with permission". As rights vary by country and jurisdiction, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another; some rights depend on registrations on a country-by-country basis, the absence of registration in a particular country, if required, gives rise to public-domain status for a work in that country. The term public domain may be interchangeably used with other imprecise or undefined terms such as the "public sphere" or "commons", including concepts such as the "commons of the mind", the "intellectual commons", the "information commons". Although the term "domain" did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the concept "can be traced back to the ancient Roman Law, as a preset system included in the property right system." The Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined "many things that cannot be owned" as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as things not yet appropriated; the term res communes was defined as "things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air and ocean." The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, the term res universitatis meant things that were owned by the municipalities of Rome. When looking at it from a historical perspective, one could say the construction of the idea of "public domain" sprouted from the concepts of res communes, res publicae, res universitatis in early Roman law. When the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by French jurists in the 18th century. Instead of "public domain", they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law; the phrase "fall in the public domain" can be traced to mid-19th century France to describe the end of copyright term. The French poet Alfred de Vigny equated the expiration of copyright with a work falling "into the sink hole of public domain" and if the public domain receives any attention from intellectual property lawyers it is still treated as little more than that, left when intellectual property rights, such as copyright and trademarks, expire or are abandoned. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a, "little coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain." Copyright law differs by country, the American legal scholar Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being "different sizes at different times in different countries". Definitions of the boundaries of the public domain in relation to copyright, or intellectual property more regard the public domain as a negative space. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the term public domain and equates the public domain to public property and works in copyright to private property. However, the usage of the term public domain can be more granular, including for example uses of works in copyright permitted by copyright exceptions; such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair-use rights and limitation on ownership. A conceptual definition comes from Lange, who focused on what the public domain should be: "it should be a place of sanctuary for individual creative expression, a sanctuary conferring affirmative protection against the forces of private appropriation that threatened such expression". Patterson and Lindberg described the public domain not as a "territory", but rather as a concept: "here are certain materials – the air we breathe, rain, life, thoughts, ideas, numbers – not subject to private ownership. The materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival." The term public domain may be interchangeably used with other imprecise or undefined terms such as the "public sphere" or "commons", including concepts such as the "commons of the mind", the "intellectual commons", the "information commons". A public-domain book is a book with no copyright, a book, created without a license, or a book where its copyrights expired or have been forfeited. In most countries the term of protection of copyright lasts until January first, 70 years after the death of the latest living author; the longest copyright term is in Mexico, which has life plus 100 years for all deaths since July 1928. A notable exception is the United States, where every book and tale published prior to 1924 is in the public domain. Aristides was an ancient Athenian statesman. Nicknamed "the Just", he flourished in the early quarter of Athens' Classical period and is remembered for his generalship in the Persian War; the ancient historian Herodotus cited him as "the best and most honourable man in Athens", he received reverent treatment in Plato's Socratic dialogues. Aristides was the son of Lysimachus, a member of a family of moderate fortune. Of his early life, it is only told that he became a follower of the statesman Cleisthenes and sided with the aristocratic party in Athenian politics, he first came to notice as strategos in command of his native tribe Antiochis at the Battle of Marathon, it was no doubt in consequence of the distinction which he achieved that he was elected archon eponymos for the ensuing year. Pursuing a conservative policy to maintain Athens as a land power, he was one of the chief opponents of the naval policy proposed by Themistocles. According to Plutarch, the rivalry between Aristides and Themistocles began in their youth, when they competed for the love of a beautiful boy called Stesilaüs from Ceos. The conflict between the two leaders ended in the ostracism of Aristides at a date variously given between 485 and 482. It is said that, on this occasion, an illiterate voter who did not recognise Aristides approached the statesman and requested that he write the name of Aristides on his voting shard to ostracize him; the latter asked. "No," was the reply, "and I do not know him, but it irritates me to hear him everywhere called'the Just'." Aristides wrote his own name on the ballot. Early in 480, Aristides profited by the decree recalling exiles to help in the defence of Athens against Persian invaders, was elected strategos for the year 480–479. In the Battle of Salamis, he gave loyal support to Themistocles, crowned the victory by landing Athenian infantry on the island of Psyttaleia and annihilating the Persian garrison stationed there. In 479, he was re-elected strategos, given special powers as commander of the Athenian forces at the Battle of Plataea, he so won the confidence of the Ionian allies that, after revolting from the Spartan admiral Pausanias, they gave him the chief command and left him with absolute discretion in fixing the contributions of the newly formed confederacy, the Delian League. His assessment was universally accepted as equitable, continued as the basis of taxation for the greater part of the league's duration. He continued to hold a predominant position in Athens. At first he seems to have remained on good terms with Themistocles, whom he is said to have helped in outwitting the Spartans over the rebuilding of the walls of Athens, he is said by some authorities to have died at Athens, by others on a journey to the Black Sea. The date of his death is given by Nepos as 468, he lived to witness the ostracism of Themistocles, towards whom he always displayed generosity, but he died before the rise of Pericles. His estate seems to have suffered from the Persian invasions, for he did not leave enough money to defray the expenses of his burial, it is known that his descendants in the 4th century received state pensions. Herodotus is not the only trustworthy authority on Aristides' life, he is the subject of one of Plutarch's Parallel Lives, though writing during the Roman Empire, had at his disposal a range of historical sources that no longer survive, he was a conscientious scholar who weighed his evidence carefully. Aristides is praised by Socrates in Plato's dialogues Gorgias and Meno as an exceptional instance of good leadership. In Plato's dialogue Theaetetus, Socrates refers to Aristides, the grandson of the famous Aristides, less positively, bringing him as an example of a student who leaves his care too soon and realizes that he is a fool Miltiades known as Miltiades the Younger, was an Athenian citizen known for his role in the Battle of Marathon, as well as for his downfall afterwards. He was the son of Cimon Coalemos, a renowned Olympic chariot-racer, the father of Cimon, the noted Athenian statesman. Miltiades was a well-born Athenian, considered himself a member of the Aeacidae, as well as a member of the prominent Philaid clan, he came of age during the tyranny of the Peisistratids. His family was due in good part to their success with Olympic chariot-racing. Plutarch claimed that Cimon, Miltiades' father, was known as "Coalemos", meaning "simpleton", because he had a reputation for being rough around the edges, but whose three successive chariot-racing victories at the Olympics made him popular, so popular in fact that, Herodotus claims, the sons of Peisistratos murdered him out of jealousy. Miltiades was named after his father's maternal half-brother, Miltiades the Elder, a victor at Olympic chariot-racing. Miltiades's son Cimon was a major Athenian figure of the 470s and 460s BC. His daughter Elpinice is remembered for her confrontations with Pericles. Around 555 BC, Miltiades the Elder left Athens to establish a colony on the Thracian Chersonese, setting himself up as a semi-autonomous tyrant under the protection of Athens. Meanwhile, contrary to what one would expect from a man whose father was rumoured to have been murdered by the city leaders, Miltiades the Younger rose through the ranks of Athens to become eponymous archon under the rule of the Peisistratid tyrant Hippias in 524/23 BC. Miltiades the Elder was childless, so when he died around 520 BC, his nephew, Miltiades the Younger's brother, inherited the tyranny of the Chersonese. Four years Stesagoras met his death by an axe to the head, so the tyrant Hippias sent Miltiades the Younger to claim his brother's lands. Stesagoras' reign had been full of war and revolt. Wishing to achieve stronger control over his lands than his brother had, Miltiades feigned mourning for his brother's death; when the men of rank from the Chersonese came to console him, he imprisoned them. He ensured his power by employing 500 troops. He made an alliance with King Olorus of Thrace by marrying his daughter, Hegesipyle. In around 513 BC, Darius I, the king of Persia, led a large army into the area, forcing the Thracian Chersonese into submission and making Miltiades a vassal of Persian rule. Miltiades joined Darius' northern expedition against the Scythians, was left with other Greek officers to guard a bridge across the Danube, which Darius had used to cross into Scythia. Miltiades claimed that he had tried to convince the other officers to destroy the bridge and leave Darius and his forces to die, but the others were afraid, Darius was able to recross, though some historians are skeptical of this claim; when the king heard of the planned sabotage, Miltiades' rule became a perilous affair and he had to flee around 511/510 BC. Miltiades joined the Ionian Revolt of 499 BC against Persian rule, returning to the Chersonese around 496 BC, he established friendly relations with Athens by capturing the islands of Lemnos and Imbros and ceding them to Athens, which had ancient claims to these lands. The Ionian Revolt collapsed in 494 BC, in 492 BC Miltiades and his family fled to Athens in five ships to escape a retaliatory Persian invasion. The Athens to which Miltiades returned was no longer a tyranny, but had overthrown the Peisistratids and become a democracy 15 years earlier. Thus, Miltiades faced a hostile reception for his tyrannical rule in the Thracian Chersonese, his trial was further complicated by the politics of his aristocratic rivals and the general Athenian mistrust of a man accustomed to unfettered authority. However, Miltiades presented himself as a defender of Greek freedoms against Persian despotism, he promoted the fact that he had been a first-hand witness to Persian tactics, useful knowledge considering the Persians were bent on destroying the city. Thus, Miltiades was allowed to rejoin his old countrymen, it was by Miltiades' advice that the Persian heralds who came to Athens to demand earth and water as tokens of submission were put to death. Miltiades is credited with devising the tactics that defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon. Miltiades was elected to serve as one of the ten generals for 490 BC. In addition to the ten generals, there was one'war-ruler', who had to decide—with the ten generals evenly split, five to five—whether to attack the Persians who had landed at Marathon under the command of Datis, or wait to fight them closer to Athens. Miltiades, the one with the most experience in fighting the Persians, was firm in insisting that the Persians be fought as a siege of Athens would lead to its destruction, he convinced Callimachus to use his decisive vote in favor of a swift attack. He is quoted as saying "I believe that, provided the Gods will give fair play and no favour, we are able to get the best of it in the engagement."Miltiades convinced the other generals of the necessity of not using the customary tactics of using hoplites arrayed in an evenly distributed phalanx armed with shields and spears, tactics otherwise not deviated from for 100 years, until the time of Epaminondas. Miltiades feared the cavalry of the Persians attacking the flanks, asked for more hoplites to be stationed there than in the centre. He ordered the two tribes in the centre, the Leontis tribe led by Themistocles and the Antiochis tribe led by Aristides Theramenes was an Athenian statesman, prominent in the final decade of the Peloponnesian War. He was active during the two periods of oligarchic government at Athens, as well as in the trial of the generals who had commanded at Arginusae in 406 BC. A moderate oligarch, he found himself caught between the democrats on the one hand and the extremist oligarchs on the other. Successful in replacing a narrow oligarchy with a broader one in 411 BC, he failed to achieve the same end in 404 BC, was executed by the extremists whose policies he had opposed. Theramenes was a central figure in four major episodes of Athenian history, he appeared on the scene in 411 BC as one of the leaders of an oligarchic coup, but, as his views and those of the coup's other leaders diverged, he began to oppose their dictates and took the lead in replacing the narrow oligarchy they had imposed with a more broadly based one. He served as a general for several years after this, but was not reelected to that office in 407 BC. After the Battle of Arginusae, in which he served as a trierarch, he was assigned to rescue Athenian sailors from sinking ships, but was prevented from doing so by a storm. That incident prompted a massive furore at Athens, in which Theramenes had to exonerate himself from responsibility for the failed rescue. After the Athenian defeat at Aegospotami in 405 BC, Theramenes arranged the terms by which Athens surrendered to Sparta, he became a member of the narrow oligarchic government, known as the Thirty Tyrants, that Sparta imposed on its defeated rival. As he had in 411 BC, Theramenes soon came into conflict with the more extreme members of that government. Theramenes remained a controversial figure after his death. Modern historical assessments have shifted over time; some historians have found in others a principled moderate. The details of his actions, his motivations, his character continue to be debated down to the present day. No ancient biographies of Theramenes are known, but his life and actions are well documented, due to the extensive treatment given him in several surviving works. The Attic orator Lysias deals with him at length in several of his speeches, albeit in a hostile manner. Theramenes appears in several ancient narrative histories: Thucydides' account includes the beginnings of Theramenes' career, Xenophon, picking up where Thucydides left off, gives a detailed account of several episodes from Theramenes career. Theramenes appears in several other sources, although they do not provide as many narrative details, have been used to illuminate the political disputes which surrounded Theramenes' life and memory. Only the barest outlines of Theramenes' life outside the public sphere have been preserved in the historical record, his father, Hagnon had played a significant role in Athenian public life in the decades before Theramenes' appearance on the scene. He had commanded the group of Greek colonists who founded Amphipolis in 437–6 BC, had served as a general on several occasions before and during the Peloponnesian War, was one of the signers of the Peace of Nicias. Hagnon's career overlapped with his son's when he served as one of the ten commissioners appointed by the government of the 400 to draft a new constitution in 411 BC. Theramenes' first appearance in the historical record comes with his involvement in the oligarchic coup of 411 BC. In the wake of the Athenian defeat in Sicily, revolts began to break out among Athens' subject states in the Aegean Sea and the Peace of Nicias fell apart. In this context, a number of Athenian aristocrats, led by Peisander and with Theramenes prominent among their ranks, began to conspire to overthrow the city's democratic government; this intrigue was initiated by the exiled nobleman Alcibiades, at that time acting as an assistant to the Persian satrap Tissaphernes. Claiming that he had great influence with Tissaphernes, Alcibiades promised to return to Athens, bringing Persian support with him, if the democracy that had exiled him were replaced with an oligarchy. Accordingly, a number of trierarchs and other leaders of the Athenian army at Samos began planning the overthrow of the democracy. They dispatched Peisander to Athens, where, by promising that the return of Alcibiades and an alliance with Persia would follow if the Athenians would replace their democracy with an oligarchy, he persuaded the Athenian ecclesia to send him as an emissary to Alcibiades, authorized to make whatever arrangements were necessary. Alcibiades, did not succeed in persuading the satrap to ally with the Athenians, and, to hide this fact, demanded greater and greater concessions of them until they refused to comply. Disenchanted with Alcibiades but still determined to overthrow the democracy and his companions returned to Samos, where t The city of Athens during the classical period of Ancient Greece was the major urban center of the notable polis of the same name, located in Attica, leading the Delian League in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta and the Peloponnesian League. Athenian democracy was established in 508 BC under Cleisthenes following the tyranny of Isagoras; this system remained remarkably stable, with a few brief interruptions remained in place for 180 years, until 322 BC. The peak of Athenian hegemony was achieved in the 440s to 430s BC, known as the Age of Pericles. In the classical period, Athens was a center for the arts and philosophy, home of Plato's Akademia and Aristotle's Lyceum, Athens was the birthplace of Socrates, Pericles, Aristophanes and many other prominent philosophers and politicians of the ancient world, it is referred to as the cradle of Western Civilization, the birthplace of democracy due to the impact of its cultural and political achievements during the 5th and 4th centuries BC on the rest of the then-known European continent. Hippias, son of Peisistratus, had ruled Athens jointly with his brother, from the death of Peisistratus c527. Following the assassination of Hipparchus c514, Hippias took on sole rule, in response to the loss of his brother, became a worse leader and disliked. Hippias exiled 700 of the Athenian noble families, amongst them Cleisthenes' family, the Alchmaeonids. Upon their exile, they went to Delphi, Herodotus says they bribed the Pythia to always tell visiting Spartans that they should invade Attica and overthrow Hippias; this worked after a number of times, Cleomenes led a Spartan force to overthrow Hippias, which succeeded, instated an oligarchy. Cleisthenes disliked the Spartan rule, along with many other Athenians, so made his own bid for power; the result of this was democracy in Athens, but considering Cleisthenes' motivation for using the people to gain power, as without their support, he would have been defeated, so Athenian democracy may be tinted by the fact its creation served the man who created it. The reforms of Cleisthenes replaced the traditional four Ionic "tribes" with ten new ones, named after legendary heroes of Greece and having no class basis, which acted as electorates. Each tribe was in turn divided into three trittyes, while each trittys had one or more demes – depending on their population – which became the basis of local government; the tribes each selected fifty members by lot for the Boule, the council which governed Athens on a day-to-day basis. The public opinion of voters could be influenced by the political satires written by the comic poets and performed in the city theaters; the Assembly or Ecclesia was open to all full citizens and was both a legislature and a supreme court, except in murder cases and religious matters, which became the only remaining functions of the Areopagus. Most offices were filled by lot. Prior to the rise of Athens, Sparta, a city-state with a militaristic culture, considered itself the leader of the Greeks, enforced a hegemony; the silver mines of Laurion contributed to the development of Athens in the 5th century BC, when the Athenians learned to prospect and refine the ore and used the proceeds to build a massive fleet, at the instigation of Themistocles. In 499 BC Athens sent troops to aid the Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor, who were rebelling against the Persian Empire. This provoked two Persian invasions of Greece, both of which were repelled under the leadership of the soldier-statesmen Miltiades and Themistocles. In 490 the Athenians, led by Miltiades, prevented the first invasion of the Persians, guided by king Darius I, at the Battle of Marathon. In 480 the Persians returned under a new ruler, Xerxes I; the Hellenic League led by the Spartan King Leonidas led 7,000 men to hold the narrow passageway of Thermopylae against the 100,000–250,000 army of Xerxes, during which time Leonidas and 300 other Spartan elites were killed. The Athenians led an indecisive naval battle off Artemisium. However, this delaying action was not enough to discourage the Persian advance which soon marched through Boeotia, setting up Thebes as their base of operations, entered southern Greece; this forced the Athenians to evacuate Athens, taken by the Persians, seek the protection of their fleet. Subsequently, the Athenians and their allies, led by Themistocles, defeated the Persian navy at sea in the Battle of Salamis. Xerxes had built himself a throne on the coast. Instead, the Persians were routed. Sparta's hegemony was passing to Athens, it was Athens that took the war to Asia Minor; these victories enabled it to bring most of the Aegean and many other parts of Greece together in the Delian League, an Athenian-dominated alliance. Pericles – an Athenian general and orator – distinguished himself above the other personalities of the era, men who excelled in politics, architecture, sculpture and literature, he fostered arts and literature and gave to Athens a splendor which would never return throughout its history. He improved the life of the citizens. Hence, he gave his name to the Athenian Golden Age. Silver mined in Laurium in southeastern Attica contributed to the prosperity of this "Golden" Age of A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology is an encyclopedia/biographical dictionary. Edited by William Smith, the dictionary spans 3,700 pages, it is a classic work of 19th-century lexicography. The work is a companion to Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities and Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography; the work lists thirty-five authors in addition to the editor, an author for some definitions and articles. The authors were classical scholars from Oxford, Rugby School, the University of Bonn, but some were from other institutions. Many of the mythological entries were the work of the German expatriate Leonhard Schmitz, who helped to popularise German classical scholarship in Britain. With respect to biographies, Smith intended to be comprehensive. In the preface, he writes:The biographical articles in this work include the names of all persons of any importance which occur in the Greek and Roman writers, from the earliest times down to the extinction of the Western Empire in the year 476 of our era, to the extinction of the Eastern Empire by the capture of Constantinople by the turks in the year 1453. Samuel Sharpe thought Edward Bunbury had plagiarised his work, as he wrote of in his diary entry on 3 September 1850: I felt mortified on reading the articles on the Ptolemies in Dr. Smith's "Dictionary of Classical Biography." They were all written by E. H. Bunbury with the help of my "History of Egypt," and with-out any acknowledgment, though he borrowed the volume from my brother Dan for the purpose. Many of the Dictionary's definitions and articles have been referred to in more recent works, Robert Graves has been accused of "lifting his impressive-looking source references straight, unchecked" from it when writing The Greek Myths; the work is now in the public domain, is available in several places on the Internet. While still accurate, much is missing more recent discoveries and epigraphic material. More the context in which ancient evidence is viewed has changed in the intervening century and a half. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. I online at University of Michigan Library. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. II online at University of Michigan Library. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. III online at University of Michigan Library; the Internet Archive has a derivative work: Smith, William. A new classical dictionary of biography and geography based on the "Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology.". London: Murray. Anthon, Charles. A new classical dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and geography: based upon the Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology by William Smith. New York: Harper and Brothers

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BUS101 Practice Test 2 Which business constituents analyze their competitive environments and plan, organize, direct, and control the operations of their organizations? Which description defines the planning function of the management process? determining what an organization needs to do and how best to get it done. Hewlett-Packard decides to move toward a more centralized structure. This is an example of which function in the management process? Comparing actual performance against standards is an example of which function of the management process? Steve motivates employees by rewarding them with additional vacation when standards are achieved. This is an example of which function in the management process? Which level of management sets general policies, formulates strategies, approves all significant decisions, and represents the company in dealings with other firms and with government bodies? The titles supervisor, office manager, and group leader are examples of which level of management? Which of the following are responsible for production and quality control? Which of the following managers are directly responsible for getting products from producers to consumers? Who is responsible for designing and implementing systems to gather, organize, and distribute facts and data essential for the running of the company? An accountant’s ability to audit a company’s records is an example of what type of skills? Camille Graham is a manager who works well with people and makes them feel excited about their work. What type of skills is she illustrating? human relations skills. Which of the following managers depend most on conceptual skills? What activity do company managers undertake so that they can later measure success or failure at every organizational level? Which of the following BEST describes a mission? an organization’s statement of how it will achieve its purpose in the environment in which it conducts business. Sometimes a corporation buys and operates multiple businesses in compatible industries as part of its corporate strategy. This is an example of what type of strategy? Which of the following BEST describes functional strategy? a strategy by which managers in specific areas decide how best to achieve corporate goals through productivity. Doreen Madison has been tracking product sales for McCoy Industries. She notices that sales of surgical supplies have fallen off in the past six months and she is considering strategies to reverse this trend. This is an example of what function of the management process? CFO and controller are titles associated with what type of manager? Starbucks has established itself as the premier marketer of the finest coffee in the world while maintaining its uncompromising principles and continuing to grow. This statement illustrates what aspect of Starbucks’ organization? Carlos wants to complete his M.B.A. in three years. This is an example of what kind of goal? Increasing sales by 4 percent in the next eight months is an example of what kind of goal? The marketing manager wants to increase regional sales by 2 percent each quarter over the next year. This is an example of what kind of goal? Which of the following is the BEST example of unrelated diversification? Northwest Airlines merging with Procter & Gamble. The first step in the planning process is determining goals. What is the next step? developing a comprehensive strategy. Which variable of SWOT analysis identifies changing consumer tastes, hostile takeover offers, and new government regulations? When conducting a SWOT analysis of an organization, which question can help management brainstorm for the strengths section of the analysis? What does the organization offer that makes it stand out from other organizations? When conducting a SWOT analysis of an organization, which question can help management brainstorm for the weaknesses section of the analysis? What necessary skills do the organization’s employees currently lack? Which of the following would be classified as opportunities for an organization? stronger demand for the organization’s services. Marty uses computer forecasts to determine possible outcomes of an intended change in his division. What element of management is Marty utilizing? Which factor plays a key role in determining an organization’s structure? mission and strategy. What do managers do when the “job” of a firm is broken down into smaller jobs? specialize the job. At Chaparral Steel, some employees transport scrap steel while others operate shredding equipment. What does this example demonstrate? Which of the following is a natural part of organizational growth? Determining how people performing certain tasks can best be grouped together is called what? What type of departmentalization does Kraft Foods use by having separate divisions for different types of foods? Vlasic has separate departments to transform cucumbers into fresh-packed pickles, pickles cured in brine, and relishes. What is this an example of? What is dividing a store into a men’s department, a women’s department, and a luggage department an example of? A snack food firm has one division for the United States, one for Europe, and another for Asia. How is this firm departmentalized? In what type of organization do most lower-level decisions need to be approved by upper management before they can be implemented? In what type of organization is decision-making authority delegated to levels of management at various points below the top? What kind of organization becomes more responsive to its environment by breaking the company into more manageable units? With relatively few layers of managers, what do decentralized organizations tend to reflect? flat organizational structure. With its many organizational layers, what type of organizational structure does the U.S. Army demonstrate? What is the preferred span of control when jobs are more diversified or prone to change? Which of the following begins when a manager assigns responsibility to a subordinate? After responsibility for a task is assigned, which of the following comes next? the granting of authority. Which of the following BEST describes responsibility? the duty to perform an assigned task. Which of the following BEST describes authority? the power to make the decisions necessary to complete a task. Which of the following BEST describes accountability? the obligation employees have to their manager for the successful completion of an assigned task. What authority is based on special expertise and usually involves counseling and advising? Which term describes groups of operating employees who are empowered to plan and organize their tasks and to perform those tasks with a minimum of supervision? Which form of organization is used by most small to medium-sized firms? What are departments called that resemble separate businesses in that they produce and market their own products? What style of organization relies almost entirely on employees working on a common project, with little or no underlying functional hierarchy? What structure does an organization with little or no formal structure and with only a handful of permanent employees use? What type of organization seeks to integrate continuous improvements with continuous employee development? Which of the following organizational systems is the part that can be seen and represented in chart form? What has Rubbermaid used to create and maintain the innovation and flexibility of a small business environment within the large, bureaucratic structure? Which of the following is an advantage of job specialization? Workers can develop expertise in their jobs. When a company makes products available where they are convenient for consumers, it creates which type of utility? In a business, whose job is it to draw up plans to transform resources into products and bring together basic resources, such as knowledge, physical materials, equipment, and labor? Which term describes services that cannot be produced ahead of time? Which of the following would be considered a low-contact service? Correct Answer: A) electric power. B) massage. C) surgery. D) piano lesson. E) haircut. B) massage. C) surgery. D) piano lesson. E) haircut. The check-processing operations at your bank would be considered to be which type of system? Which of the following would be considered a high-contact system? A) electric company. B) lawn care company. Correct Answer :C) barber shop. D) gas company. E) postal delivery. Correct Answer :C) barber shop. D) gas company. E) postal delivery. Save-A-Lot grocery stores use which type of strategy for attracting customers? 3M uses which strategy for attracting customers? Machine, woodworking, and dry cleaning shops typically use which type of layout? Which type of layout is designed to move resources through a smooth, fixed sequence of steps? Which term is defined as the combination of “characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs”? Performance refers to which of the following? how well the product does what it is supposed to do. Consistency refers to which of the following? the sameness of product quality from unit to unit. Managers can work to reduce waste, inefficiency, and poor performance by examining procedures on a step-by-step basis. Which term describes this process? Logan Aluminum makes coils of aluminum that it supplies to customer companies that use it to make beverage cans. Logan uses a schedule that specifies how many tons of each type of coil will be produced each week. What is this schedule called? master production schedule. In operations control, production managers monitor production performance by which method? comparing results with detailed plans and schedules. What is the name for a production system in which all the needed materials and parts arrive at the precise moment they are required for each production stage? Which of the following is greatly reduced in a just-in-time production system? goods in process. Which of the following is a component of materials management? Which of the following BEST describes total quality management? the sum of all activities involved in getting high-quality products into the marketplace. Which of the following BEST describes quality ownership? the principle that quality belongs to each person who creates it while performing a job. Which of the following BEST describes competitive product analysis? the process by which a company analyzes a different company’s products to identify desirable improvements. When a worker at Toshiba takes apart a Xerox copier and tests each component, the worker is engaging in which activity? competitive product analysis. Which of the following BEST describes value-added analysis? the process of evaluating all work activities, materials flows, and paperwork to determine the value that they create for customers. Which term refers to collaborative groups of employees from various work areas who meet regularly to define, analyze, and solve common production problems? quality improvement teams. Which of the following BEST describes ISO 9000? a program certifying that a factory, laboratory, or office has met the quality management standards of the International Organization for Standardization. Which program certifies improvements in environmental performance? Receiving and storing materials, billing patients for treatment, and filling customer orders from Internet sales are examples of which kind of activity? Which term refers to the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of a business activity to achieve dramatic improvements in performance? business process reengineering. Which of the following BEST describes supply chain management? the principle of looking at the supply chain as a whole in order to improve the overall flow through the system. Which of the following BEST describes scientific management? a theory of motivation holding that managers should analyze jobs to find the most efficient methods and use money as a primary motivator. Which of the following helps explain why some people do not work as hard as they can when their salaries are based purely on seniority? Tina is the most productive employee in her department. When her manager retires, Tina doesn’t apply for the job, in spite of her excellent record and the pay and prestige associated with the job. She believes that the job will go to someone who has more seniority. Based on expectancy theory, which would explain why Tina doesn’t apply for the job? the performance-reward issue. Sue works very hard and is the most productive worker on her day shift. When a position opens on the evening shift, Sue is encouraged to apply, but does not; she has children and wants to be home in the evening. Based on expectancy theory, which explains why Sue doesn’t apply for the job? the rewards-personal goals issue. Kent wants to motivate the maintenance staff to be more productive. He starts by providing training and assures employees that high productivity will be rewarded. Employees are asked to identify the rewards that would mean the most to them. Kent likely subscribes to which theory of motivation? Terry generally likes her job and works hard. However, Terry’s level of effort has declined recently. Terry became aware that a new employee, with far less experience, was hired at Terry’s current salary. Terry’s lack of motivation can best be described by which theory of motivation? Which would an employee who is productive but refuses to help others or the organization be lacking in? What does turnover refer to? people quitting their jobs. Which of these is one of the “big five” personality traits? What is emotionality? the degree to which someone tends to be positive or negative. Which of the following might you, as a manager, expect to see in an employee who has a low degree of conscientiousness? a tendency to be unprepared at meetings. You need to assign a task to one of your employees. The task involves a high level of detail. To whom should you assign the task? Winston, who exhibits high conscientiousness and low extraversion. The extent to which people are self-aware is an aspect of which of the following? An employee with a low level of social skills would be unlikely to do which of the following? circulate a get-well card. Which of the following is the set of expectations held by employees and the organization regarding what the employee will contribute and what he or she will receive? Which of the following aspects of the psychological contract is provided by the organization? Which of the following aspects of the psychological contract is provided by the employee? Michelle has been working at AdCo for five years. The company recently hired a new college graduate to work in a position very similar to Michelle’s position. In a casual conversation with the new hire, Michelle discovers that the new employee is making $4,000 more annually than she is. What might Michelle’s reaction be? Michelle may feel that the psychological contract has been broken. Because job permanence is less likely in today’s economy, which of the following are some companies offering in order to keep the psychological contract in balance? What is the term for the extent to which a person’s contributions and the organization’s inducements match? If an employee needs to feel that she is a part of a team and yet her position involves working alone, which of the following may not be right? the person-job fit. Jane is a very conscientious worker, but she has poor social skills. Which of the following jobs might be best for her? working independently on spreadsheets. Brooke was excited to take a job at Film, Inc. She was looking forward to working with Robert, the man who had hired her, because of his experience and status within the industry. Eight months after her hire, Robert retired. Which aspect of the psychological contract might Brooke feel has been violated? What is the Hawthorne effect? the conclusion that workers are more productive if management pays attention to them. What is MOST useful about Theory X and Theory Y? They shed light on managers’ attitudes toward employees. According to Maslow’s model, a set of needs will be a motivator until which of the following occurs? The needs are satisfied. Which of the following lists Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs in order, starting with the most basic? physiological, security, social, esteem, self-actualization. Douglas believes that his employees are self-motivated and growth-oriented. He is what type of manager? According to which theory are employees given a voice in how they do their jobs and how the company is managed? participative management and empowerment. What is telecommuting an example of? modified work scheduling. What was a major problem with the trait approach to leadership? The results were too inconsistent and thus not very practical. Which of the following describes one of the primary concerns associated with charismatic leadership due to severe devotion to a particular leader? the potential lapse of ethical practices. Which of the following accurately describes a primary characteristic of charismatic leaders? They tend to set high expectations for themselves and energize others. Bob, Joe, and Larry can all perform their jobs well without supervision. What does this indicate? presence of a leadership substitute. The norms of the engineering group at Acme Incorporated are so strong that there is nothing the new company leader can do to change things. What does this illustrate? Anne bought stock in ABC Company in hopes of making a profit. Although the stock’s price steadily continued to drop, she refused to sell her stock. What does this illustrate? escalation of commitment. Which of the following do organizations need in order to be effective? both leadership and management. In interviews with two leadership applicants, Ben tried to determine each person’s knowledge of the industry, level of energy, and level of self-esteem. With which of the following concepts of leadership is Ben MOST concerned here? Which of the following statements BEST describes the assumptions made by researchers of the behavioral approach to leadership? Behaviors of effective leaders are the same in all situations. A company leader who often uses the phrase “that was then and this is now” to explain his decisions most likely follows which model of leadership? According to the situational approach to leadership, the extent to which a leader or subordinate is involved in decision making depends on characteristics of which aspects of an organization? the leader, the followers, and the situation. What are group effectiveness, worker disposition, and the type of organization examples of? situational characteristics that may affect a leader’s decision making. Which of the following is an example of an approach to leadership as seen through the eyes of followers? Which of the following may describe charismatic leadership? an approach to leadership emphasizing the perspectives of the followers. GDB Technologies has had lackluster performance for the past few years. Choi is hired in an attempt to give new life to the company’s prospects and give it new direction away from its current situation. Which of the following BEST describes Choi’s leadership role? Carol took over a stagnant firm three years ago. At that time, she clearly laid out her vision of where the firm should go and since that time has worked to energize the employees of the firm toward these goals. Which of the following BEST describes Carol’s leadership role? At Nordic Enterprises, Johann is most effective in carrying out the management of daily tasks that must be performed. Which of the following BEST describes Johann’s leadership role? Which of following describes the activities MOST involved with transactional leadership? the implementation of routine activities. Which of the following is a fundamental element of charismatic leadership? Steven learned that the cohesiveness among his employees was so strong that there was nothing he could do to change things. Which of the following BEST describes this cohesiveness? According to current theories of gender roles in leadership, which of the following BEST describes the differences in decision making? Males tend to be more autocratic than females in making decisions. As ABC Enterprises has grown during the past few years, more and more workers have been hired from the local Ethiopian population. A number of incidents at the firm have arisen during this time regarding certain customs prevalent among these new workers. Which of the following forms of leadership does the management of this firm need to utilize in order to most harmonize this situation? Which states the correct definition of collectivism? a greater focus on the group than on the individual. Which states the correct definition of individualism? a greater focus on the individual than on the group. In exercising strategic leadership, what is a leader MOST likely to do? align the company with its environment. An inward belief about something, often without conscious consideration, is frequently referred to as what? Bill decides to study a foreign language. All of his friends said it will be easy. After the third week, he realizes the language is very difficult for him to grasp. He continues his studies, hoping that it will eventually get easier. What does this illustrate? escalation of commitment. Leadership researchers in the late 1940s believed that leaders should engage in which of the following behaviors? both employee-focused leader behavior and task-focused leader behavior in equal amounts. Which of the following dispositions is typical for leaders with a high degree of risk propensity? reliance on intuition. What is a prime ingredient in fostering different levels of risk propensity within an organization?

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Original Urdu published in Al Fazl on 12 June 1928 Before Islam, the conduct of the world towards this one half of mankind is still preserved in the pages of the history. Pondering over the history of various nations, traditions of different faiths and religious doctrines, this reality becomes evident that not a single nation or religion established such a status for women which they deserved and it was only established by the pure teachings of the Holy Prophetsa. Today, when a period of more than 13 centuries have passed since the spread of the teachings of the Holy Prophetsa in the world, followers of different faiths, while existing side by side with Muslims, have observed the Islamic mode of life and culture. Every religion in its own circle claims to be the bestower of supreme status to the women and actively tries hard to do it, but the reality remains that all these efforts were inspired by the teachings of the Holy Prophetsa of Arabia, who supported this vulnerable and oppressed being 1,300 years ago. Otherwise, their own religious books have no mention of these teachings. Although, I have to mention the favours of the greatest benefactor, my beloved Prophet Muhammadsa on this occasion, in order to shed more light on the attributes of his blessed teachings, I present some teachings of various other religions as a sample: Status of women in Arabia What was the condition of women in Arabia before Islam? In response, it should suffice to say that as a wife, she was like a property to the husband, which was transferred as inheritance. A single man could marry as many women as he desired. The bond of marriage was so weak that divorce was given on trivial issues. As a daughter, she was worthy of being buried alive. Status of women in Christianity Although Christianity is famous for its kindness and compassion, it has not done any favours towards womankind. It is said that Jesusas gave precedence to celibacy over marriage and in fact hailed it as the means for entering into the heavenly empire and it is said that he himself remained single. Moreover, it is indicated from the Gospels that his behaviour towards his mother was also not very good. It is for this reason that Christian noblemen always saw this oppressed class with disdain. Even today [in 1928], after a lot of reformation, women have no permanent status in Christian countries. Immediately after marriage, all of her property becomes the possession of her husband and she herself is left emptyhanded. Furthermore, she has no share in her father’s estate along with her brother. In fact, even if a single heir exists, she gets nothing from the inheritance. Apart from this, religiously, she was considered the first sinner and the root cause of evil. It was because of her that mankind was rendered sinful. This is that belief which is the basis of hatred and scorn towards womankind by holy and staunch Christian noblemen. Status of women in Hinduism The condition of Hinduism is much worse, as it considers this vulnerable being to be absolutely unworthy of trust, who can never be trusted. The steadfastness of Rani Kausalya and the maxim of Sita Ji’s loyalty did not prove enough to minimise the untrustworthiness. According to the doctrines of Hindus, marriage is the name of kanyadaan, i.e. giving charity and its acceptance. The wife is considered such a thing that is granted to the husband as a charity. Therefore, it is his lawful possession. Her status is that of a servant of the husband in the house. Her obligation is to serve the husband and his family, but she has no special rights. If the husband passes away, then the wife should be burnt alive alongside him because her own life has no purpose. A woman is one of those things that has been created in the universe to fulfill the necessities and to serve for the comfort and well-being of mankind. A Hindu woman has no share in inheritance as well. Regardless of being born in the era of progression and development, Arya Samajists consider wives to be such a possession of the husband that whenever he wills, wherever he desires and for as many days as he wishes, he can transfer it. According to the belief of Arya Samaj, a woman always possesses a sinful soul in her body because, as per the concept of reincarnation, the soul is given the medium of woman as a punishment of certain sins. Hence, neither any religion nor any reformer made an effort to eradicate cruelty and unfair domination of the oppressed class of women and to liberate them from the oppression to which they were subjected. There was only for the one and only holy personality, who was sent by God as “Rahmatun-lil-Alamin”, i.e. he was sent in the world as an absolute mercy for all mankind. His blessed personage was the sheer grace of God. His compassion and kindness rescued this creation from the pit of disgrace in which the mankind had thrown them. Their urusped rights were reinstated and their dignity and status, bestowed to them by their Creator, were re-established. Status of women in Islam The Holy Prophetsa made it clear that a woman is also a creation of God Almighty as is a man. They have the same status in humanity as that of men. They can also attain the delight of God Almighty and His nearness by following the same conditions set out for men. Their virtuous deeds are equally worthy of acceptance as that of men. The Holy Prophetsa said: المراۃ اذا صلت خمسھا، وصامت شھرھا، واحصنت فرجھا۔ واطاعت بعلھا، فلتدخل من ای ابواب الجنۃ شاءت۔ A faithful chaste woman who abides by the commandments of the Shariah [divine law] can enter the paradise from whichever gate she pleases. It means that there is no specified rank for God Almighty’s nearness and spiritual advancement limited to men. According to their deeds, women can also achieve every rank. The Holy Quran states: وَ مَنۡ یَّعۡمَلۡ مِنَ الصّٰلِحٰتِ مِنۡ ذَکَرٍ اَوۡ اُنۡثٰی وَ ہُوَ مُؤۡمِنٌ فَاُولٰٓئِکَ یَدۡخُلُوۡنَ الۡجَنَّۃَ وَ لَا یُظۡلَمُوۡنَ نَقِیۡرًا “And whoso does good works, whether male or female, and is a believer, such shall enter Heaven, and shall not be wronged even as much as the little hollow in the back of a date stone.” (Surah al-Nisa, Ch.4: V.125) In clear words, this verse gives glad tiding of equivalent reward to both men and women as a result of virtuous deeds. Islam has not established any distinction between men and women in matters of faith. The real purpose of a person’s life, i.e. the door of attaining God Almighty’s nearness and delight, is equally open to both. The instructions laid down towards men for performing particular good deeds and prayers are equally directed to women as well. Those wrong deeds from which the men are prohibited, women are also barred from them. Neither are women deprived of any virtue or prayer, nor are men freed from any restrictions. Both of them are promised equal reward on virtuous deeds. In fact, in certain situations, considering the natural vulnerability of women, some relief has been given in the commandments, which cannot be elaborated in detail on this occasion. Women as mothers Almost every nation gives respect to women as mothers. However, the saying of the Holy Prophetsa in this regard stands out as well. The Holy Prophetsa said, “Paradise lies under the feet of mothers.” The obedience and service towards the mother brings about Allah Almighty’s pleasure and draws a person near paradise. On the other hand, God is displeased if someone acts disrespectfully towards the mother and the person strays away from the rewards of God Almighty, even though his other deeds are good. The Holy Quran draws the attention of mankind towards the rights of parents in the following words: وَ بِالۡوَالِدَیۡنِ اِحۡسَانًا ؕ اِمَّا یَبۡلُغَنَّ عِنۡدَکَ الۡکِبَرَ اَحَدُہُمَاۤ اَوۡ کِلٰہُمَا فَلَا تَقُلۡ لَّہُمَاۤ اُفٍّ وَّ لَا تَنۡہَرۡہُمَا وَ قُلۡ لَّہُمَا قَوۡلًا کَرِیۡمًا۔ وَ اخۡفِضۡ لَہُمَا جَنَاحَ الذُّلِّ مِنَ الرَّحۡمَۃِ وَ قُلۡ رَّبِّ ارۡحَمۡہُمَا کَمَا رَبَّیٰنِیۡ صَغِیۡرًا “And show kindness to parents. If one of them attain old age with thee or both of them, never say unto them any word expressive of disgust nor reproach them, but always address them with excellent speech. And lower to them the wing of humility out of tenderness. And say, ‘My Lord, have mercy on them even as they nourished me in my childhood.’” (Surah Bani Israil, Ch.17: V.24-25) How pure a teaching it is! Not only should you treat your aged parents with kindness, but you should also pray before Allah Almighty to shower mercy upon them. Here, if the rights of the mother are not more, then they are no less than the father as well. The instruction to pray for the parents before God Almighty is an attribute which is only peculiar to Islam. Women as wives The most important, yet the most oppressed state of women is that which is called by the name of “wife”. It is for this reason that the greatest benefactor of womankind, the Holy Prophetsa had to lay special emphasis on kind treatment towards wives. The Holy Prophetsa said: خيركم خيركم لأھله، وأنا خيركم لأھلی “The best of you is the one whose treatment towards his wife is the best and my conduct towards my wives is the best from among you.” The saying is captivating and encourages kind treatment. It is a great truth which manifests the status and dignity of wives in its entirety. Acting kindly towards one’s wife is declared a standard of virtue. When somebody enquired about the rights of a wife from the Holy Prophetsa, he said, “Whatever you eat, you should give her to eat as well. When you wear new clothes, make them for her as well. Never hit her on the face. Never say a bad word to her. Never separate from her.” Indeed, he explained that the way husband stays within the house, it is necessary to keep the wife in the same condition. It is not permissible for one to live in a good condition and keep their wife in a bad state. One should not insult and humiliate her. If, owing to calm a situation or for any other settlement, you have to separate, then you can do that while staying within the four walls of the house. So that no harm is done to the overall love and affection in the household, separation for reconciliation does not become the source of hatred. Regarding the rights of the wife, the Holy Quran states: وَ لَہُنَّ مِثۡلُ الَّذِیۡ عَلَیۡہِنَّ بِالۡمَعۡرُوۡفِ “And they [the wives] have rights similar to those [of husbands] over them in equity.” (Surah al-Baqarah, Ch.2: V.229) All religions have emphasised over the rights of husbands, but the rights of wives are thrown behind their backs. It is only Islam which states that it is not only that husbands have rights over the wives, but wives also have rights over husbands. As you expect the fulfilment of your rights, their rights should be fulfilled also. Then, the Holy Quran states about the relationship of a husband and wife: وَ جَعَلَ بَیۡنَکُمۡ مَّوَدَّۃً وَّ رَحۡمَۃً “He has put love and tenderness between you” (Surah al-Rum, Ch.30: V.22). This means that there should be a connection of love and affection between husband and wife. At another place, the Holy Quran states: وَ عَاشِرُوۡہُنَّ بِالۡمَعۡرُوۡفِ ۚ فَاِنۡ کَرِہۡتُمُوۡہُنَّ فَعَسٰۤی اَنۡ تَکۡرَہُوۡا شَیۡئًا وَّ یَجۡعَلَ اللّٰہُ فِیۡہِ خَیۡرًا کَثِیۡرًا “And consort with them in kindness; and if you dislike them, it may be that you dislike a thing wherein Allah has placed much good.” (Surah al-Nisa, Ch.4: V.20) Glory be to God! How beautifully has the emphasis been laid on kind social conduct! It is quite possible that you dislike your wife for a certain reason, but even in these circumstances, you should not act unkindly towards her. Who knows the underlying philosophies of God Almighty’s wisdom? What do you know? It is possible that there are many positives hidden in it. Have faith in the graciousness and blessings of Allah Almighty and under His directions, behave kindly, even if you dislike a thing. If you do so, Allah Almighty shall place goodness and blessings in it. Is there any other religious book in the whole world which emphasises such kind treatment towards wives? The Holy Prophetsa was so concerned about the rights of women that in the last sermon which he delivered on the occasion of Hajj at Arafat, he addressed the Muslims in the following manner: “O people! Some rights of yours are due upon women and some rights of theirs are due upon you. Act mercifully towards your wives. You have married them believing in God to be Omnipresent and Omniscient, and they have been made lawful for you under the directions of God Almighty. Hence, you have offered them protection under the obligation of God Almighty.” Even in his last will, our beneficent Prophetsa was concerned about our prosperity and progress. He drew attention towards the rights of women in the best possible way and stressed upon behaving kindly towards them. O Allah, shower peace, blessings and bounties upon Muhammadsa. Women as daughters Not only did the Holy Prophetsa declare the cruel practice of burying daughters alive forbidden, he laid emphasis on behaving compassionately and affectionately towards daughters also. Hence, he said, “Should I not tell you that there is no better charity than looking after your daughter when she comes to you and no other person in the world cares for her except you.” How beautifully has the Holy Prophetsa highlighted that if your daughter becomes worthy of help, you must assist her. Aiding her in this condition is the best of virtues. On one occasion, the Holy Prophetsa said, “The person who is blessed with daughters and treats them kindly, the same daughters will veil them from the fire of hell.” Furthermore, he said, “Whosoever looks after his daughters, he and I will be like this in the Hereafter”, and he joined two of his fingers, meaning that the Prophetsa and such a person would be together. In the present age, conditions have changed a lot, but the person who ponders over the circumstances 13 centuries ago can very easily realise the significance of the Holy Prophet’ssa instructions. The being who was considered a calamity by her mother and a disgrace by her father, the Prophetsa established her love in the hearts of parents. Moreover, he expressed that daughters equally deserves our kindness and affection as sons do. General rights of women The Holy Prophetsa said, “Fear God Almighty with respect to [the rights] of women and orphans.” As both are weak classes [of society], therefore he put emphasis not to deprive them from their rights owing to their weakness and whilst fearing God, their due rights should be given. If one fails to do so, God Almighty shall hold them accountable. All nations deprived women from the rights of inheritance. It was only Islam that recognised the right of inheritance for women. Allah the Almighty states: لِلرِّجَالِ نَصِیۡبٌ مِّمَّا تَرَکَ الۡوَالِدٰنِ وَ الۡاَقۡرَبُوۡنَ ۪ وَ لِلنِّسَآءِ نَصِیۡبٌ مِّمَّا تَرَکَ الۡوَالِدٰنِ وَ الۡاَقۡرَبُوۡنَ مِمَّا قَلَّ مِنۡہُ اَوۡ کَثُرَ ؕ نَصِیۡبًا مَّفۡرُوۡضًا “For men is a share of that which parents and near relations leave; and for women is a share of that which parents and near relations leave, whether it be little or much a determined share.” (Surah al-Nisa, Ch.4: V.8) A Muslim woman is heir to the estate of her parents and relatives, similar to that of a man. Moreover, she is the owner of her own property, upon which neither her husband, nor any other relative has any right of possession. Hence, Allah the Almighty states: یٰۤاَیُّہَا الَّذِیۡنَ اٰمَنُوۡا لَا یَحِلُّ لَکُمۡ اَنۡ تَرِثُوا النِّسَآءَ کَرۡہًا “O ye who believe! it is not lawful for you to inherit women against their will.” (Surah al-Nisa, Ch.4: V.20) A wife can buy and sell her property in accordance with her wishes and she has absolute control over the gains received. Another right of a Muslim woman is the dowry, which is settled on the occasion of Nikah, according to the status of the husband. Its dispensation is incumbent on the husband. This is the protection of women’s rights and it is for those needs of women which are not compulsory for the husband to fulfill. Ponder over all the rights of women which have been presented as a model. Has any other religion or any other guide and reformer supported this being in this way? Have they granted such high worldly and religious status and honour? Has any other human being stressed and strived for protecting her lawful rights? Certainly not! It was only the blessed personage of Rahmatun-lil-Alamin who yearned for the prosperity and progress of women and who endeavoured for them to the fullest possible extent. Hence, how much worthy of respect, honour and love is that holy personality who is our greatest benefactor beneath the skies! Peace, blessings and bounties of Allah be upon him.

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Nigersaurus is a genus of rebbachisaurid sauropod dinosaur that lived during the middle Cretaceous period, about 115 to 105 million years ago. It was discovered in the Elrhaz Formation in an area called Gadoufaoua, in the Republic of Niger. Fossils of this dinosaur were first described in 1976, but it was only named Nigersaurus taqueti in 1999, after further and more complete remains were found and described. The genus name means "Niger reptile", and the specific name honours the palaeontologist Philippe Taquet, who discovered the first remains. |Reconstructed skeleton in Japan| Sereno et al., 1999 Sereno et al., 1999 Small for a sauropod, Nigersaurus was about 9 metres (30 feet) long, and had a short neck. It weighed around four tonnes, comparable to a modern elephant. Its skeleton was highly pneumatised (filled with air spaces connected to air sacs), but the limbs were robustly built. Its skull was very specialised for feeding, with large fenestrae and thin bones. It had a wide muzzle filled with more than 500 teeth, which were replaced at a rapid rate: around every 14 days. The jaws may have borne a keratinous sheath. Unlike other tetrapods, the tooth-bearing bones of its jaws were rotated transversely relative to the rest of the skull, so that all of its teeth were located far to the front. Nigersaurus and its closest relatives are grouped within the subfamily Rebbachisaurinae (formerly thought to be grouped in the eponymous Nigersaurinae) of the family Rebbachisauridae, which is part of the sauropod superfamily Diplodocoidea. Nigersaurus was probably a browser, and fed with its head close to the ground. The region of its brain that detected smell was underdeveloped, although its brain size was comparable to that of other dinosaurs. There has been debate on whether its head was habitually held downwards, or horizontally like other sauropods. It lived in a riparian habitat, and its diet probably consisted of soft plants, such as ferns, horsetails, and angiosperms. It is one of the most common fossil vertebrates found in the area, and shared its habitat with other dinosaurian megaherbivores, as well as large theropods and crocodylomorphs. History of discovery Remains thought to belong to Nigersaurus were first discovered during a 1965–72 expedition to the Republic of Niger led by French paleontologist Philippe Taquet, and first mentioned in a paper published in 1976. Although a common genus, the dinosaur had been poorly known until more material of other individuals was discovered during expeditions led by American palaeontologist Paul Sereno in 1997 and 2000. The limited understanding of the genus was the result of poor preservation of its remains, which arises from the delicate and highly pneumatic construction of the skull and skeleton, in turn causing disarticulation of the fossils. Some of the skull fossils were so thin that a strong light beam was visible through them. Therefore, no intact skulls or articulated skeletons have been found, and these specimens represent the most complete known rebbachisaurid remains. Nigersaurus was named and described in more detail by Sereno and colleagues only in 1999, based on remains of newly found individuals. The same article also named Jobaria, another sauropod from Niger. The genus name Nigersaurus ("Niger reptile") is a reference to the country where it was discovered, and the specific name taqueti honours Taquet, who was the first to organise large-scale palaeontological expeditions to Niger. The holotype specimen (MNN GAD512) consists of a partial skull and neck. Limb material and a scapula found nearby were also referred to the same specimen. These fossils are housed at the National Museum of Niger. Sereno and the American palaeontologist Jeffrey A. Wilson provided the first detailed description of the skull and feeding adaptations in 2005. In 2007, a more detailed description of the skeleton was published by Sereno ad colleagues, based on a specimen discovered ten years earlier. The fossils, along with a reconstructed skeleton mount and a plastic model of the head and neck, were subsequently presented at the National Geographic Society in Washington. Nigersaurus was dubbed a "Mesozoic cow" in the press, and Sereno stressed that it was the most unusual dinosaur he had ever seen. He likened its physical appearance to Darth Vader and a vacuum cleaner, and compared its tooth shear with a conveyor belt and sharpened piano keys. Numerous Nigersaurus specimens collected by French and American expeditions remain to be described. Teeth similar to those of Nigersaurus have been found on the Isle of Wight and in Brazil, but it is unknown whether they belonged to relatives of this taxon, or to titanosaurs, whose remains have been found in the vicinity. A lower jaw assigned to the titanosaur Antarctosaurus is likewise similar to that of Nigersaurus, but may have evolved convergently. Like all sauropods, Nigersaurus was a quadruped with a small head, thick hind legs, and a prominent tail. Among that clade, Nigersaurus was fairly small, with a body length of only 9 m (30 ft) and a femur reaching only 1 m (3 ft 3 in). It may have weighed around four tonnes, comparable to a modern elephant. It had a short neck for a sauropod, with thirteen cervical vertebrae. Nearly all rebbachisaurids had relatively short necks and a length of 10 m (33 ft) or less. The only member of the family that reached the size of larger sauropods was Rebbachisaurus. The presacral vertebrae (vertebrae before the sacrum) were heavily pneumatised to the point where the column consisted of a series of hollow "shells", each divided by a thin septum in the middle. It had little to no cancellous bone, making the centra thin bone plates filled with air spaces. The vertebral arches were so heavily pierced by extensions of the external air sacs that of their side walls little remained but 2 mm (0.08 in) thick intersecting laminae, the ridges between the pneumatic openings. The vertebrae of the tail, however, did have solid centra. The pelvic and pectoral girdle bones were very thin also, often only several millimetres thick. Like other sauropods, its limbs were robust, contrasting with the extremely lightweight construction of the rest of the skeleton. The limbs were not as specialised as the rest of the skeleton, and the front legs of Nigersaurus were about two-thirds the length of the back legs, as in most diplodocoids. The skull of Nigersaurus was delicate, with the four side fenestrae (openings in the skull) larger than in other sauropodomorphs. The total area of bone connecting the muzzle to the back of the skull was only 1.0 cm2 (0.16 sq in). These connecting struts of bones were usually less than 2 mm (0.08 in) thick. Despite this, the skull was resistant to the sustained shearing of the teeth. Another unique trait it had among sauropodomorphs was a closed supratemporal fenestra. The nasal openings, the bony nostrils, were elongated. Though the nasal bones are not completely known, it appears the front margin of the bony nostril was closer to the snout than in other diplodocoids. The snout was also proportionately shorter, and the tooth row was not at all prognathous, the snout tip not protruding relative to the remainder of the tooth series. The maxillary tooth row was in its entirety transversely rotated, its normal rear 90° everted towards the front. This was matched by an identical rotation of the dentary of the lower jaw. As a result, no other tetrapod had all of its teeth located as far to the front as Nigersaurus. The slender teeth had slightly curved crowns, which were oval in cross-section. The teeth in the lower jaw may have been 20–30% smaller than those in the upper jaw, but few are known, and they are of uncertain maturity. Apart from this, the teeth were identical. Under each active tooth there was a column of nine replacement teeth within the jaw. With 68 columns in the upper jaws and 60 columns in the lower jaws, these so-called dental batteries (also present in hadrosaurs and ceratopsians) comprised a total of more than 500 active and replacement teeth. Dental batteries erupted in unison, not each column individually. The enamel on the teeth of Nigersaurus was highly asymmetrical, ten times thicker on the outwards facing side than on the inner side. This condition is otherwise known only in advanced ornithischians. Nigersaurus did not exhibit the same modifications seen in the jaws of other dinosaurs with dental batteries, or mammals with elaborate chewing functions. The lower jaw was S-shaped and divided into the subcylindrical transverse ramus, which contained the teeth, and the back ramus, which was more lightweight and was the location for most of the muscle attachments. The jaws also contained several fenestrae, including three that are not present in other sauropods. The front ends of the jaws had grooves that indicate the presence of a keratinous (horny) sheath. Nigersaurus is the only known tetrapod animal to have had jaws wider than the skull and teeth that extended laterally across the front. The snout was even broader than those of the "duck-billed" hadrosaurs. The remains of Nigersaurus were initially described by Taquet in 1976 as belonging to a dicraeosaurid, but in 1999 Sereno and colleagues reclassified it as a rebbachisaurid diplodocoid. These researchers speculated that since short necks and small size was known among basal diplodocoids, it may indicate these were ancestral features of the group. Rebbachisauridae is the basalmost family within the superfamily Diplodocoidea, which also contains the long-necked diplodocids and the short-necked dicraeosaurids. The eponymous subfamily Nigersaurinae, which includes Nigersaurus and closely related genera, was named by the American palaeontologist John A. Whitlock in 2011. The closely related genus Demandasaurus from Spain was described by the Spanish palaeontologist Fidel Torcida Fernández-Baldor and colleagues in 2011, and along with other animal groups that span the Cretaceous of Africa and Europe, this indicates that carbonate platforms connected these landmasses across the Tethys Sea. This was supported in 2013 by the Italian palaeontologist Federico Fanti and colleagues in their description of the nigersaurine Tataouinea from Tunisia, which was more related to the European form than to Nigersaurus, despite being from Africa, then part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Pneumatisation of the rebbachisaurid skeleton evolved progressively, culminating in the nigersaurines. A 2015 cladistic study by Wilsona and the French palaeontologist Ronan Allain found Rebbachisaurus itself to group with the nigersaurines, and the authors suggested that Nigersaurinae was therefore a junior synonym of Rebbachisaurinae (since that name would have priority). The same year, Fanti and colleagues supported the use of Rebbachisaurinae over Nigersaurinae, and found Nigersaurus to be the basalmost member of this "Euro-African" subclade. In 2019, Mannion and colleagues pointed out that since Nigersaurus was found to be the sister taxon of all other nigersaurines in some studies, a Rebbachisaurinae clade may not necessarily include Nigersaurus itself (as well as the fact that the position of Rebbachisaurus could change in future analyses), and supported the continued use of the name Nigersaurinae over Rebbachisaurinae for all rebbachisaurids more closely related to Nigersaurus than to Limaysaurus. They found that nigersaurines were restricted to North Africa and Europe, and that Limaysaurinae was strictyly known from Argentina. The same year, the Brazilian palaeontologist Rafael Matos Lindoso and colleagues used the name Nigersaurinae following Mannion's recommendation, and found Itapeuasaurus from Brazil to group with the nigersaurines, thereby expanding this lineage more widely (making palaeobiogeographic hypotheses for this group less reliable). Though it had large nostrils and a fleshy snout, Sereno and colleagues found that Nigersaurus had an underdeveloped olfactory region of its brain and thus did not have an advanced sense of smell. Its brain-to-body-mass ratio was average for a reptile, and smaller than those of ornithischians and non-coelurosaurian theropods. The cerebrum comprised about 30% of the brain volume, as in many other dinosaurs. In 2017, the Argentinian palaeontologist Lucio M. Ibiricu and colleagues examined the postcranial skeletal pneumacity in the skeletons of rebbachisaurids, and suggested that it was an adapttion for lowering the density of the skeleton, and that this could have decreased the muscle energy needed to move the body, as well as the heat generated in the process. Since several rebbachisaurids inhabited latitudes that would have been tropical to subtropical in the Middle Cretaceous, this pneumacity may have helped the animals cope with the very high temperatures. According to Ibiricu and colleagues, this adaptation may be a reason why rebbachisaurids were the only group of diplodocoids that survived into the Late Cretaceous. Diet and feeding Nigersaurus was suggested by Sereno and colleagues to be a ground-level, non-selective browser. The width of the muzzle and lateral orientation of the tooth row show that the sauropod could gather much food and crop it close to the ground, within one metre of the surface. This is further supported by facets on the labial (externally facing) side of the upper teeth, similar to Dicraeosaurus and Diplodocus, which are evidence that food or substrate wore the animal's teeth as it fed. Nigersaurus also bears signs of low-angle tooth-to-tooth wear on the inside of the maxillary crowns, which suggests that jaw movement was limited to precise up-and-down motions. Worn teeth from the lower jaw have not yet been discovered, but they are expected to show opposing tooth-to-tooth wear. The ability to raise their heads well above the ground does not necessarily mean they browsed on items there, and the short neck of Nigersaurus would have restricted the browsing range compared to other diplodocoids. The adductor muscle of the jaw appears to have attached to the quadrate instead of the supratemporal fenestra. Both this and the other mastication muscles were likely weak, and Nigersaurus is estimated to have had one of the weakest bites of the sauropods. In addition, according to Whitlock and colleagues in 2011, the small, nearly parallel nature of the tooth scratches and pits (caused by grit, which would not be obtained as often by high-browsers) indicate that it ate relatively soft, herbaceous plants such as low-growing ferns. Because of the lateral orientation of the teeth, it probably would not have been able to chew. Nigersaurus wore its tooth crowns down faster than other dinosaurian herbivores, and its tooth replacement rate was the highest of any known dinosaur. Each tooth was replaced once every 14 days; the rate had previously been estimated lower. In contrast to Nigersaurus, sauropods with lower tooth replacement rates and broader tooth crowns are thought to have been canopy browsers. On the basis of microtomography scans of skull elements of the holotype specimen, Sereno and colleagues created a "prototype" Nigersaurus skull they could examine. They also made an endocast of the brain and scanned the semicircular canals of its inner ear, which they found to be oriented horizontally. In their 2007 study, they stated that the structure of the occiput and cervical vertebrae would have limited the upward and downward movement of the neck and the rotation of the skull. Based on this biomechanical analysis, the team concluded that the head and muzzle were habitually oriented 67° downwards and close to ground level, as an adaptation for ground-level browsing. This is unlike the way other sauropods have been restored, with their heads held more horizontally. A 2009 study by the British palaeontologist Mike P. Taylor and colleagues agreed that Nigersaurus was able to feed with the downturned head and neck posture proposed by the 2007 study, but contested that this was the habitual posture of the animal. The study noted that the "neutral" head and neck posture of modern animals does not necessarily correspond to their habitual head posture. It further argued that the orientation of the semicircular canals varies significantly within modern species, and is therefore not reliable for determining head posture. This was supported by the Spanish palaeontologist Jesús Marugán-Lobón and colleagues in a 2013 study that suggested the methods used by Sereno's team were imprecise, and that Nigersaurus habitually held its head like other sauropods. Nigersaurus is known from the Elrhaz Formation of the Tegama Group in an area called Gadoufaoua, located in Niger. It is one of the most commonly found vertebrates in the formation. The Elrhaz Formation consists mainly of fluvial sandstones with low relief, much of which is obscured by sand dunes. The sediments are coarse- to medium-grained, with almost no fine-grained horizons. Nigersaurus lived in what is now Niger about 115 to 105 million years ago, during the Aptian and Albian ages of the mid-Cretaceous. It likely lived in habitats dominated by inland floodplains (a riparian zone). After the iguanodontian Lurdusaurus, Nigersaurus was the most numerous megaherbivore. Other herbivores from the same formation include Ouranosaurus, Elrhazosaurus, and an unnamed titanosaur. It also lived alongside the theropods Kryptops, Suchomimus, and Eocarcharia, and a yet-unnamed noasaurid. Crocodylomorphs like Sarcosuchus, Anatosuchus, Araripesuchus, and Stolokrosuchus also lived there. In addition, remains of a pterosaur, chelonians, fish, a hybodont shark, and freshwater bivalves have been found. Grass did not evolve until the late Cretaceous, making ferns, horsetails, and angiosperms (which had evolved by the middle Cretaceous) potential food for Nigersaurus. It is unlikely the dinosaur fed on conifers, cycads, or aquatic vegetation, due respectively to their height, hard and stiff structure, and lack of appropriate habitat. - Wilson, J. A.; Sereno, P. C. (2005). "Structure and evolution of a sauropod tooth battery". In Curry Rogers, K.; Wilson, J.A (eds.). The Sauropods: Evolution and Paleobiology (PDF). University of California Press. pp. 157–177. ISBN 978-0-520-24623-2. - Taquet, P. (1976). "Géologie et paléontologie du gisement de Gadoufaoua. (Aptien du Niger)" (PDF). Cahiers de Paléontologie (in French). Paris: 53. ISBN 978-2-222-02018-9. - Sereno, P. C.; Wilson, J. A.; Witmer, L. M.; Whitlock, J. A.; Maga, A.; Ide, O.; Rowe, T. A. (2007). "Structural extremes in a Cretaceous dinosaur". PLoS ONE. 2 (11): e1230. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2.1230S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001230. PMC 2077925. PMID 18030355.. - Sereno, P. C.; Beck, A. L.; Dutheil, D. B.; Larsson, H. C.; Lyon, G. H.; Moussa, B.; Sadleir, R. W.; Sidor, C. A.; Varricchio, D. J.; Wilson, G. P.; Wilson, J. A. (1999). "Cretaceous sauropods from the Sahara and the uneven rate of skeletal evolution among dinosaurs". Science. 286 (5443): 1342–1347. doi:10.1126/science.286.5443.1342. PMID 10558986. - Ross-Flanigan, N. (2007). "U-M researchers study toothy, ground-feeding dinosaur". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on October 12, 2013. Retrieved 2013-12-19. - Joyce, C. (2013-11-25). "'Mesozoic Cow' Rises from the Sahara Desert". NPR. Retrieved 2007-11-16. - Wilson, J. A.; Allain, R. (2015). "Osteology of Rebbachisaurus garasbae Lavocat, 1954, a diplodocoid (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) from the early Late Cretaceous–aged Kem Kem beds of southeastern Morocco". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 35 (4): e1000701. doi:10.1080/02724634.2014.1000701. - D’Emic, M. D.; Whitlock, J. A.; Smith, K. M.; Fisher, D. C.; Wilson, J. A. (2013). Evans, A. R. (ed.). "Evolution of high tooth replacement rates in sauropod dinosaurs". PLoS ONE. 8 (7): e69235. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...869235D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069235. PMC 3714237. PMID 23874921. - Whitlock, J. A. (2011). Farke, A. A. (ed.). "Inferences of diplodocoid (Sauropoda: Dinosauria) feeding behavior from snout shape and microwear snalyses". PLoS ONE. 6 (4): e18304. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...618304W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018304. PMC 3071828. PMID 21494685. - Whitlock, J. A. (2011). "A phylogenetic analysis of Diplodocoidea (Saurischia: Sauropoda)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 161 (4): 872–915. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2010.00665.x. - Fernández-Baldor, F. T.; Canudo, J. I.; Huerta, P.; Montero, D.; Suberbiola, X. P.; Salgado, L. (2011). "Demandasaurus darwini, a New Rebbachisaurid Sauropod from the Early Cretaceous of the Iberian Peninsula". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 56 (3): 535–552. doi:10.4202/app.2010.0003. - Fanti, F.; Cau, A.; Hassine, M.; Contessi, M. (2013). "A new sauropod dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of Tunisia with extreme avian-like pneumatization". Nature Communications. 4: 2080. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.2080F. doi:10.1038/ncomms3080. PMID 23836048. - Fanti, F.; Cau, A.; Cantelli, L.; Hassine, M.; Auditore, M. (2015). "New information on Tataouinea hannibalis from the Early Cretaceous of Tunisia and implications for the tempo and mode of rebbachisaurid sauropod evolution". PLoS ONE. 10 (4): e0123475. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0123475. PMC 4414570. PMID 25923211. - Mannion, P. D.; Upchurch, P.; Schwarz, D.; Wings, O. (2019). "Taxonomic affinities of the putative titanosaurs from the Late Jurassic Tendaguru Formation of Tanzania: phylogenetic and biogeographic implications for eusauropod dinosaur evolution". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 185 (3): 784–909. doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zly068. - Lindoso, R. M.; Medeiros, M. A. A.; Carvalho, I. d. S.; Pereira, A. A.; Mendes, I. D.; Iori, Fabiano Vidoi; Sousa, E. P.; Souza Arcanjo, S. H.; Madeira Silva, T. C. (2019). "A new rebbachisaurid (Sauropoda: Diplodocoidea) from the middle Cretaceous of northern Brazil". Cretaceous Research: 104191. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2019.104191. - Ibiricu, L.; Lamanna, M.; Martinez, R.; Casal, G.; Cerda, I.; Martinez, G.; Salgado, L. (2017). "A novel form of postcranial skeletal pneumaticity in a sauropod dinosaur: implications for the paleobiology of Rebbachisauridae". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 62. doi:10.4202/app.00316.2016. - Taylor, M. P.; Wedel, M. J.; Naish, D. (2009). "Head and neck posture in sauropod dinosaurs inferred from extant animals". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 54 (2): 213–220. doi:10.4202/app.2009.0007. - Marugán-Lobón, J. S.; Chiappe, L. M.; Farke, A. A. (2013). "The variability of inner ear orientation in saurischian dinosaurs: Testing the use of semicircular canals as a reference system for comparative anatomy". PeerJ. 1: e124. doi:10.7717/peerj.124. PMC 3740149. PMID 23940837. - Sereno, P. C.; Brusatte, S. L. (2008). "Basal abelisaurid and carcharodontosaurid theropods from the Lower Cretaceous Elrhaz Formation of Niger". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 53 (1): 15–46. doi:10.4202/app.2008.0102.

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Episode 18: Learn About Travel in Space Listen as host Randy Ellefson talks about travel in space. This includes the different types of engines, what to include inside a ship, and why we have a lot of freedom to decide how long it really takes to get anywhere. In This Episode You’ll Learn: - The different engine types we can use, how they differ, and consequences of each - How the distance between locations impacts travel in space in ways unique to space - What we must consider about the external structure of our ships - What to include on the inside of ships and pitfalls to watch out for Thanks so much for listening this week. Want to subscribe to The Art of World Building Podcast? Have some feedback you’d like to share? A review would be greatly appreciated! Episode 18 Transcript Hello and welcome to The Art of World Building Podcast, episode number eighteen. Today’s topic is travel in space. This includes the different types of engines, what to include inside a ship, and why we have a lot of freedom to decide how long it really takes to get anywhere This material and more is discussed in chapter 5 of Creating Places, volume 2 in The Art of World Building book series. Do you want practical advice on how to build better worlds faster and have more fun doing it? The Art of World Building book series, website, blog, and podcast will make your worlds beat the competition. This is your host, Randy Ellefson, and I have 30 years of world building advice, tips, and tricks to share. Follow along now at artofworldbuilding.com. It’s fair to say that most of us have no experience traveling in space. The result is a need to do research on what this is really like. We can also rely on TV shows that we’ve seen, whether those are fictional in nature – and movies – or we can rely on TV shows that are more informational. Now, as it turns out, I work at NASA, but I am not a rocket scientist. But I do have access to people who are rocket scientists and I have run some of what I’m going to tell you by them to get their buy-off on this. The first thing we want to talk about is propulsion because there are different kinds of engines that are used in space or in an atmosphere. Some of these are real and some are fictional. One thing I’ve noticed that’s interesting is that if an engine type is real, authors don’t typically spend the time explaining how it works, but if it’s fictional, we do. However, we don’t really need to do that if we don’t want to. I suspect one reason this happens is that authors have as little interest as the average person in explaining how an actual technology works, but when we’ve made up something interesting, we’re trying to attract the attention of the audience as well and say, “Hey, wouldn’t it be cool if this thing existed and it could do this? Here are some ideas on how that might work.” And it’s all speculative. Some science fiction makes a lot of mention of this, like in Star Trek, but others don’t make any mention of it at all. So, you have a choice here. If you don’t want to write a bunch of techno babble that you typically hear in Star Trek, then don’t. So, the first kind of engine we’ll talk about are the air-breathing ones. These are obviously designed for when there is an atmosphere. In other words, this is not in space where, obviously, there is no atmosphere. So, in an episode about travel in space, why am I talking about this? Well, because your ships might still have such engines. Now, with real technology, I don’t explain in this podcast any more than in a story of mine how it actually works for the reasons I just mentioned. So, I’m not going to cover all the different types of air-breathing engines. We just need to decide if our spaceship has these. Why would they? Well, arguably, space engines are designed for space. Therefore, they may have attributes that don’t make them work quite as well in an atmosphere. Therefore, our ship may be able to alternate between these. When I watch certain science fiction shows and movies, I sometimes hear the pilot say something like, “Switching to so-and-so power,” as they are changing from one type of maneuvering to another. Sometimes that means when they’re going from space to an atmosphere or the opposite. This is a detail we can add to our ship to make it more believable. Now, if we like the idea that we have ships that don’t need this, we can still do that because, in any science fiction setting, just as today, we have different technology. Some of it is old and some of it is newer. So, we could have our characters on a ship that is old and, therefore, they have to do this kind of switching back and forth between air-breathing engines and space engines. We can have a character remark that he’s making this change and say that this spaceship is a bit of a clunker because they still have to do this, and he prefers the one he doesn’t have to make this kind of switch. Obviously, this is just subtle detail and not something critical to the plot, but such little details can make things more believable. Besides, why have all of your ships be the same? This and other issues with their vessel could be the reason why they’re on the lookout to acquire something better, which is certainly something that would add to your plot. They might want to steal something or buy something and not have the funds to do so, or someone might have stolen their ship and now the best they can do is afford this clunker. This issue of having to switch back and forth between engine types could be one of the things that this adds. Another issue with multiple types of engines is that they’re probably going to have different fuel sources and, therefore, they could run out of fuel for one type of engine but not the other. Let’s talk about space engines. Space engines are divided into two categories: Those that allow faster-than-light speeds (or FTL) and those that do not, which are known as slower-than-light (or STL). Only the slower-than-light ones are real. Everything else is fictional. For slower-than-light engines, the propulsion is at least a little bit similar to atmospheric engines in that something is being ejected, usually from the rear of the vessel. This is, of course, what propels the ship forward. This is one reason why these types of engines could be used in atmospheric conditions instead of something that is specifically designed for atmospheric conditions. Some STL engines could propel the ship fast enough that this can cause time dilation. This is when two observers experience a difference in how much time has passed. We sometimes see this in science fiction where the captain tells the pilot to travel at a certain speed but not to go beyond a certain threshold because that’s going to cause this time dilation. They may say, “Go up to speed eight, but no faster.” Sometimes the captain will explain why, but really the pilot’s going to understand already. So, sometimes, that kind of exposition is only being said for the sake of the audience. One solution to that sort of scenario is to have an ignorant character standing there and ask the question, “Captain, if we’re in such a hurry, why don’t we go up to speed nine or ten when the ship can do that?” And have the captain explain why. We’re so used to that kind of thing that we accept it, but if you stop and think about it, it’s not that believable because anyone who lives in a society that has space travel is going to understand time dilation. Here on Earth we do have space travel, but so few of us do that that most of us are only dimly aware of this. The only reason we’ve heard of it at all is from watching science fiction. But using the Star Trek example, in that sort of future where there is so much space travel going on, people are going to know this. We may need another solution, such as instead of the ignorant character, have someone else say, “Not in the mood for any time dilation today, Captain?” or something to that effect. Let’s take a look at some fictional faster-than-light drives, all of which are public domain, which means we can use these ideas. One of them is called “jump drive.” As the name implies, the ship can simply jump from one place to another one like it’s being teleported there. As you can imagine, this is pretty convenient. What if you had a personal version of this right now and you could simply jump from home to work and back? While this is pretty cool, the problem that this creates for us as storytellers is that it pretty much eliminates all drama, tensions and problems that come with having to travel from one place to another. We’re not going to run into enemy ships that are going to bother us unless we run into them when we arrive. We’re not going to run across a distressed ship that needs help. In space, we don’t really deal with monsters typically, but there’s this issue of when you’re traveling, stuff happens. Well, that’s not going to happen in this scenario. In that sense, there could be a lack of tension and, therefore, a lack of drama. And that’s not necessarily a good thing. If you have this sort of drive, I would suggest using it sparingly in your setting so that this is something rare. It’s also a little too easy for characters to get out of trouble with this if they’re doing something and then enemy ships show up, they can simply jump right out of there. They’re not going to have to fight unless the jump drive is malfunctioning or something. As you might expect, since there is no actual travel, a ship that has a jump drive is not going to experience time dilation when they use it. Another type of drive is the hyperdrive, which is a drive that moves a ship into hyperspace. This is a fictional, separate dimension that is adjacent to normal space. Storytellers often use this idea that a ship that’s in hyperspace has difficulty or it’s not even possible to interact with a ship that’s in normal space. One reason we do this is that hyperspace has some advantages and, therefore, we should also give it some disadvantages. The greatest advantage is the speed with which it allows a ship to travel great distances. This type of drive also experiences no time dilation when people return to normal space. That brings us to the last space engine, and that is warp drive. This is probably associated with Star Trek for many of us, but this is a public domain idea. There’s this idea that there are different levels of warp, such as warp five being slower than warp six. The instantaneous travel, like jump drive, is not possible with warp. There is also no time dilation, but one of the issues here is that the ship is remaining in normal space. One thing that I don’t see mentioned typically is that there are plenty of objects with which a ship can collide. Despite the word “space,” there is a lot of stuff out there. It’s just that it is fairly well spaced out. My big point here is that a ship is not going to be traveling this fast unless it has some sort of shield to protect itself from that kind of debris. So, a believable detail we can add is that there’s been some sort of battle and, as a result, the ship’s shields are down and someone says, “Hey, we need to get out of here at warp drive,” and someone else says, “Well, no. We can’t do that because we could hit something.” Having to leave that scene of the battle at a slower speed could also pose problems for them. If you’re looking for more world building resources, Artofworldbuilding.com has most of what you need. This includes more podcasts like this one, and free transcripts if you’d prefer to read an episode. You can also find more information on all three volumes of The Art of World Building series, which is available in eBook, print, and audiobook formats. Much of the content of those books is available on the website for free. Sign up today to get your free content and take your world building to the next level. Now we’re going to look at distance. One of the realities of space is that any two locations are not going to be a fixed distance from each other. Everything is orbiting something. Moons orbit planets, planets orbit suns, and even the sun orbits the galaxy. All of that this means is that the distance between two places is always changing. In a previous episode about land travel, I talked about writing the words “not drawn to scale” on our map. Well, if we’ve created a map of a star system, we don’t even need to do that because it’s not going to be relevant. There’s also the caveat that no one can show up and tell us that our fictional star system has things that are a different distance from each other than they really are. One impact of all of this is that two objects, like two planets, might be on the same side of the sun, or on opposite sides, or somewhere in between. As you can imagine, this could significantly change the amount of time it takes to travel from one to the other. In some science fiction, authors make no mention of this, but in other stories, they do. The way we would typically want to do this is to basically say that the characters need to get from where they are now to another place, but maybe they don’t have enough fuel to make the journey, given how far away that other location is at the moment. Maybe they have to wait a week or a month to do this. Or they could leave right now, but one of the issues is that it’s going to take a month to get there when they need to get there in only two weeks, maybe because there is an event taking place on that location in two weeks. Someone could remark, “It’s too bad that this didn’t happen several months ago when the planets were closer.” This is also the sort of situation where if someone had a jump drive, it would be very advantageous because it wouldn’t really matter. On the other hand, if they don’t have it, then maybe they have to use hyperspace. Maybe they need to use slower-than-light travel, but they need to go beyond that threshold that’s going to avoid time dilation. They’re going to go so fast that they will cause time dilation and there’s just no choice. They’ve got to do it. Mentioning this sort of detail or putting it into your storyline is one way to make things more believable. One good thing about all of this is that it gives us flexibility to inject this sort of problem into our story. At times, we might want to make it suddenly very easy for the characters. Like two planets or locations happen to be relatively close and they’re happy about that. Other times, we may want to make it more difficult. Try not to imagine that everything just works out magically and that there is no problem, ever. Also bear in mind that when a ship is traveling to meet a planet, for example, it’s not traveling to where that planet is now, but where that planet is going to be. Naturally, this sort of thing involves computers figuring out some of this math for us, but what if the computers are down? Can we have a character who is pretty good at this sort of thing doing it manually? They can at least start their journey based on the manual calculation. Then, if someone gets the computer working, they can input the fixes later. This is another way to be more believable. One of the problems we could face is trying to figure out should we first create engines that can travel a certain speed and, therefore, cover a certain distance in a certain amount of time, and then base our story around that, or should we create our story idea first and then figure out what kind of engines we want to make available? That includes coming up with engines that don’t quite do everything that our characters need. This is also one way to force them into a situation where they have a ship that doesn’t do the job, but if they had a different ship, well, then that would take care of the problem, such as a ship that has jump drive. I would say that we should invent a propulsion system first and then alter how far away locations in our story are based on the needs. For those of you who support crowdfunding, I am on the patreon site and would appreciate any support you can lend. It can be just $1 a month. Higher levels of support get you increasingly cool things, such as PDF transcripts, mp3s of my music, which you hear in these episodes, free eBooks and short stories, book marks, and even signed copies of books and CDs of my music. Many of these are unavailable to the public. Your support can help me cover the expenses of producing the show. Even better, you can help me promote it and make it more successful. Without you, there’s no point in doing this. Are you benefitting from this free podcast? If so, just go to www.artofworldbuilding.com and click the big icon for patreon. Thanks for your support! External Ship Structure One question we may face as world builders is what is the internal structure of our spacecraft? In a visual medium like television and film, we’re also going to worry about the external view because we’re going to have depictions of this on-screen. Now, most likely, if we are working in that sort of medium, we are going to have somebody who has designed that spacecraft for us, but for all I know you are the sort of person who depicts that spacecraft. When it comes to the exterior of a ship, there is a tendency to draw something that is aerodynamic looking, even if it’s designed to be in space. One notable exception to that is the Borg Cube from Star Trek. When it comes to these more aerodynamic ships, one of the reasons we do this is that this ship may have to operate within an atmosphere. Now, we may decide that the ship is never, under any circumstances, going to operate within an atmosphere, and therefore we can get away with something that is not aerodynamic. Otherwise, if we think there’s any possibility it can enter an atmosphere and operate there, then we should make it aerodynamic. Any character who sees such a non-aerodynamic vessel is going to automatically assume it can’t operate in an atmosphere. But just because something is aerodynamic looking doesn’t mean that it is designed for atmospheres. So, why would it still look that way? Well, just because we expect it. There is still the matter of slower-than-light propulsion ejecting matter, which is sometimes on the sides, but it could also, most likely, be on the rear. And then there’s the reality of needing to look forward through a window, for example, at the space that you are traveling through. Both of these lend themselves to that similar ship shape. However, when it comes to that window, we could dispense with the actual window and use a series of view screens instead. There are other issues like this that we can consider, but basically it doesn’t have to be that way. It just can be. If we present it that way, the audience is never going to shrug and say, “Why in the world does it look like that?” We basically accept that without even thinking about it. We may also want to consider where the ship can be loaded. On Earth, when you’re getting on a cruise ship or anything else on the water, the cargo typically goes on the bottom, regardless of whether it’s loaded from the back or the side. The reason for this is that we don’t want to make the ship top-heavy so that it doesn’t topple over. In space, we obviously don’t have to worry about that. Unless there is artificial gravity, the cargo is not going to weigh anything. That kind of brings up another point. Why don’t we ever see a cargo hold on a science fiction vessel where everything is basically floating? It’s always shown as it is pulled down. It’s just sitting there. The obvious answer for this is that it’s easier for the film crew to film it that way rather than using special effects to show everything floating all the time. But it seems plausible that you would not want artificial gravity in the cargo hold. Of course, this is going to depend on how the ship is generating that artificial gravity. If it’s one of the more believable rotating vessels, then obviously everything has gravity and there’s only so much you can do about that. However, on that note, if you do have a rotating vessel, there’s going to be more gravity on the farthest reaches of that vessel than towards the center where there’s still going to be almost none. Once again, this is something that is sometimes overlooked. It’s a nice detail we can add for believability. Most of the living space would obviously be on the farthest reaches of that so it has the maximum gravity that they’ve intended for people to have. But there might be maintenance things that are happening towards the center of that vessel where those people have to float. Now, if we don’t have to worry about that cargo having a weight to it, we could assume, “Hey, it can be loaded anywhere.” Well, what if people have done that and they’ve loaded all the cargo on, say, the left side of the ship, and then this space-faring vessel enters an atmosphere? Suddenly, it’s going to have gravity and all that weight is going to be on one side. The next thing you know, our ship is lopsided and it might crash. Naturally, this is one scenario where maybe they do have artificial gravity in the cargo hold all the time so that they don’t have to worry about this. But it could also be a situation where as they are preparing to enter an atmosphere, they have to go and turn on more artificial gravity there, or something to that effect. Maybe they also have to move the cargo around prior to this. If the cargo was loaded in space, maybe they didn’t worry about this, but if the cargo was loaded on the ground where there is gravity, then they would have worried about this. But then, maybe once they’re into space, they rearrange things. There are some other considerations like where the weapons are located and where the engines really are, but we can basically make up a lot of that. The big thing we need to worry about there is that we don’t want guns that can accidentally shoot into the ship. By the same token, we obviously don’t want engines that are going to burn up part of the ship. What this really means is that the slower-than-light engines that are ejecting matter to cause propulsion are probably going to be on the sides or in the back, but really the faster-than-light engines with these fictional ways of getting around, we can pretty much put that anywhere. We might have a ship design where the slower-than-light engines are on a typical location that we would see on an atmospheric engine, but the faster-than-light ones, we could just decide to put that wherever we want. We could put that further inside the ship so that it is more protected from enemy fire. So let’s talk about how to subscribe to this podcast. A podcast is a free, downloadable audio show that enables you to learn while you’re on the go. To subscribe to my podcast for free, you’ll need an app to listen to the show from. For iPhone, iPad, and iPod listeners, grab your phone or device and go to the iTunes Store and search for The Art of World Building. This will help you to download the free podcast app, which is produced by Apple, and then subscribe to the show from within that app. Every time I produce a new episode, you’ll get it downloaded right onto your device. For Android listeners, you can download the Stitcher radio app, which is free, and search for The Art of World Building. This only needs to be done once and at that point, you will never miss an episode. Internal Ship Structure Let’s talk about the internal structure of our ship. If our ship is really small, so much so that only two people can fit inside it, for example, then the internal structure doesn’t really matter because it’s probably a single room. But if we’re talking about something like the Enterprise from Star Trek, then the structure of the ship does matter. One reason is that characters need to move between locations, like the bridge, the cargo, the engine room, and their quarters. We may have active scenes such as aliens breaching the ship at a certain place in the hull, and it might be five minutes for our characters to get there at a full run, but they need to get there in two minutes because, otherwise, the aliens are going to destroy something. To some extent, we could just make up scenarios like that, but if we’re going to use the ship repeatedly, we may want to have a sense of this so we can be consistent. We don’t want it to take five minutes to make that trip in one story and then two minutes in another and then ten minutes in a different one. Having planned out our ship to some degree helps us think of scenarios like this to start with. We can organize our vessel to avoid one problem, but we’re probably going to set up another one. So, no ship is foolproof and any scenario could come up where it just causes a problem. There are certain realities that are going to exist on a ship, such as the living quarters being somewhere near the dining areas. Now, that said, if you’ve ever been on a cruise ship, they do have the main dining area, but they have all sorts of smaller restaurants spread throughout the vessel. Such a scenario will also be true on a large spacecraft. Similarly, there will also be things like lounges in different locations so people can relax regardless of where they are. Things like propulsion and cargo are typically located towards the rear of a vessel. More importantly, they are farther away from the living quarters because most people don’t want to be near that, partly because that area tends to be a little bit on the dirty side. If you’re creating a passenger ship, this is something to keep in mind. The cheaper rooms are going to be in such an area, or at least near that area. If we do plan out our ship, I would suggest not going overly detailed unless it’s really going to matter to your story. For example, you may want to say that engineering is on deck six towards the rear of the vessel, and it’s on the port side, for example. You can just leave it at that. You don’t have to say that adjacent to that is some other area. You can basically decide a certain deck and one side of the ship has a certain number of things, and not actually figure out exactly what is right across from each other or next to each other until it matters in your story. Being a little more generic and general about the location of these things gives us some flexibility if we need to change things later. As for what we’re going to include in our ship, we obviously need a bridge, which is the command center where all the decisions are being made and where a lot of the senior officers are during the important scenes. We’re obviously also going to need to living quarters. Now, one thing that we may want to do there is have the officers have better quarters than the regular crew. Whether our ship is a passenger vessel or not, it’s going to have a certain amount of entertainment. It’s just that the number and type of those are going to vary. Even on a military ship, we’re still going to have shops because people need to buy supplies. On a passenger ship, many of those shops are going to be concentrated in a mall-like area. Any vessel could also have a jail, which is also called the brig. A military vessel is almost certainly going to have something like this, but even the passenger ones may have one. We may also want to plan out where the escape pods are if these are going to be used in our story. These are typically going to be mostly near the living quarters, but some of them are also going to be spaced throughout the ship so that those who are working the ship and controlling it when it needs to be evacuated still have somewhere to get to relatively quickly rather than having to go all the way back to their living quarters. If you’re enjoying the podcast, please rate and review the show at artofworldbuilding.com/review. Reviews really are critical to encouraging more people to listen to a show haven’t heard of before, and it can also help the show rank better, allowing more people to discover it. Again, that URL is artofworldbuilding.com/review. Where to Start Finally, let’s talk about where to start with space travel. The first decision we should really make when planning a vessel is to decide where it’s going to operate: only in space or both in space and in atmospheric conditions? Another early decision: Is this a cargo ship, a passenger ship or a war vessel? In some cases, it could’ve started this life out as one thing and have been converted into another. We should also decide whether the purpose of our ship is local travel near the planet where it originated from or is it intended to go in between solar systems or even stars? This will determine what sort of engines are needed. If the local solar system is relatively peaceful, then it may also determine how many weapons it has. We should also figure out what kind of events we want to take place on this ship and what kind of vulnerabilities it might have which can be exploited by the way we layout the ship. These are just suggestions. You can do things in whatever order you decide. One of the general recommendations I always make is if you have an idea for something, just work on that first. The best point of origin is an idea. All of this show’s music is actually courtesy of yours truly, as I’m also a musician. The theme song is the title track from my Some Things are Better Left Unsaid album, but now we’re closing out today’s show with a song from my album The Lost Art called “Loeillet de Gant, Sonata No. 1, Second Movement.” You can hear more at RandyEllefson.com. Check out artofworldbuilding.com for free templates to help with your world building. And please rate and review the show in iTunes. Thanks for listening!

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Perhaps no illnesses cross the spectrum of medical and behavioral health more than the eating disorders. Anorexia nervosa alone has the highest mortality rate of any mental health diagnosis and most of these deaths are due to medical complications.1 Although bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder are less lethal, they too commonly result in significant medical complications. Emotional symptom overlay from comorbid psychiatric illness often confounds the medical diagnostic picture. The fear and shame associated with food intake and body image may manifest in physical symptoms that make assessment and treatment more challenging. In addition, the contemporary medical issues of food allergies and gluten enteropathy, among others, continue to complicate the treatment of eating disorders requiring a careful and methodical diagnostic regimen and accuracy in evaluation given the lifelong impact they have on a person's nutrition, particularly when an eating disorder is present. Furthermore, primary care and specialty providers are often not educated extensively about eating disorders so what may seem clear to one provider treating one facet of a traditional medical illness may involve a more complex issue requiring specialty care in eating disorders to diagnose and treat these illnesses in the most efficacious and cost-effective manner. Exhaustive testing for physical symptoms is not always needed when it is clear that the patient is manifesting an eating disorder.1 Medical complications of eating disorders range from minor and annoying to severe and life-threatening. Many medical complications can be predicted by eating disorder behaviors and the relative time spent engaging in each of the behaviors (Table 1). For example, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder may all involve food restriction, yet the metabolic changes manifested as a result are dependent on the frequency and severity of restriction as offset by bingeing or as impacted by the compensatory behaviors of purging. Simply manifesting the behavior infrequently may not produce significant medical or laboratory findings, whereas severe daily restricting, particularly with weight loss, will usually result in an adaptive metabolic response that lowers metabolism by involving the hypothalamic neuroendocrine axis.2 This adaptive change decreases metabolic demand and thus results in fewer calories being needed to sustain life.3 Eating Disorder Symptoms and Associated Potential Medical Complications An important concept to understand is that end weight does not necessarily reflect the severity of the metabolic impact of an eating disorder. The reduction in metabolism and subsequent impact is similar in people at higher weights that drop to a normal body weight in a relatively short period as compared to a person with anorexia nervosa who drops from a low body weight to a lower weight. Likewise, associated symptoms such as irregular menses or amenorrhea may occur in someone who appears to be at a normal weight that may be low relative to her lifetime high weight. A patient's condition takes on new seriousness and becomes particularly dangerous once vital signs are impacted. This may occur at any body weight. The reduction in metabolic rate in many cases is responsible for a significant change in vital signs with serious clinical impact. Hypothermia is common, given the extensive caloric requirement to maintain a normal body temperature.1 As the hypothermia and metabolic change progresses, the patient becomes increasingly symptomatic, withdrawn, and isolating. They may appear depressed, yet if related to physiologic changes, the cognitive changes improve dramatically with refeeding in a relatively short period.1 Bradycardia (heart rate <60 bpm) and hypotension (systolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure <50 mm Hg) are frequently found in patients with anorexia nervosa.3 In fact, a relative tachycardia (70–100 bpm) in a patient with moderate to severe anorexia nervosa may be an ominous sign of impending cardiac failure.4 Admission with telemetry monitoring should be considered for adults with a heart rate <40 bpm and children and adolescents with a heart rate near 40 bpm.5 A history of compulsive exercise with increased vagal tone may exacerbate the bradycardia of metabolic reduction. Restricting may cause significant medical complications primarily involving changes in the hypothalamic neuroendocrine axis. The actual metabolic change results from a shift in iodination of the most metabolically active thyroid hormone T3 (triiodothyronine) to reverse T3, which is less metabolically active.3 There is a concomitant reduction in noradrenergic activity in the central and peripheral nervous system, which may lead to hypothermia, bradycardia, and hypotension. The autonomic instability resulting from these changes causes orthostasis with significant changes in supine and standing blood pressure and pulse.4 The extent to which they are impaired is indicative of the severity of the restricting impact on the individual. Orthostatic vital signs are recorded regularly during treatment to monitor the response to refeeding but may take some time to normalize. Some people may be diagnosed by professionals who do not specialize in eating disoders as having manifesting postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome, which is often inaccurate. An inaccurate diagnosis is particularly problematic if the patient is started on oral steroids to counter the metabolic impact. The steroids may have an adverse effect on bone health, which is problematic for many people with eating disorders. Fluid Restricting and Fluid Loading Some people with eating disorders may inadvertently or intentionally dehydrate themselves by excessively restricting fluids. They may indicate that they prefer that “washed out” feeling of dehydration and some have even reported that their skin “feels less tight.” Some may water load, drinking copious amounts of water attempting to maintain satiety with zero calories, whereas others fear their weigh-in appointments and drink excessive fluids trying to influence their weight and avoid further meal plan calorie increases. Fluid restricting can lead to serious dehydration, which then causes changes in the angiotensin-renin system with an increase in serum aldosterone thus affecting fluid retention. If fluid intake is suddenly normalized without compensatory purging, which occurs in intensive eating disorder treatment, a pseudo-Bartter syndrome can develop, resulting in significant fluid retention and edema.1 Voluntary vomiting, depending on frequency and timing with meal consumption, can result in weight loss and dehydration. People who vomit may induce it with their finger, toothbrush, or spoon. Eventually many learn to vomit spontaneously with little effort. The lower esophageal sphincter may become lax and contribute to the development of significant gastroesophageal reflux disease. This is associated with a risk of chronic inflammation of the esophagus with resultant metaplastic changes to the epithelial lining causing Barrett's esophagus, a premalignant condition requiring careful surveillance and treatment.3 Recurrent vomiting may also cause hypertrophy of the salivary glands, dental caries, and loss of dental enamel. Infrequently, chronic vomiting can cause a Mallory-Weiss tear of the stomach with potential for significant loss of blood. A full or microperforation of the esophagus3 is also possible with a risk of mediastinitis and sepsis. Loss of fluids with excessive vomiting can lead to dehydration, which can exacerbate the hypotension and orthostasis seen with metabolic changes and autonomic insufficiency. Electrolyte imbalances, particularly hypokalemia, can cause potentially lethal arrhythmias.6 Laxatives may be used in an attempt to “push” the food through the colon to avoid absorption, although it is ineffective for that use. Laxative misuse has the potential to permanently alter normal bowel function and cause dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Dosing of over-the-counter stimulant laxatives often escalates due to tolerance. Diuretic abuse is typically due to a sensation of “bloating” or a belief that one is “swollen” from fluid. This is often related directly to body image issues and can cause dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Diet pill abuse can cause diastolic hypertension, palpitations, and tremor. The potential for arrhythmias including those that are potentially lethal is always a risk. Ephedra products have been particularly worrisome as a potential cause for lethal arrhythmias and are banned by the US Food and Drug Administration, although they are available on the Internet internationally.4 Ipecac has long been used to induce vomiting; however, it is highly myotoxic and particularly cardiotoxic with a risk of cardiomyopathy with continued use. Ipecac has been taken off store shelves and its use appears to have become less frequent.4 Binge eating is seen in some cases of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. Restricting post-binge episode is not uncommon, and it is the relative time in bingeing versus restricting that determines weight. Typically, the more frequent the binge episodes, the higher the body weight. The impact of binge-eating disorder with weight gain is usually consistent with the physical impact of obesity including hypertension, hyperlipidemia, metabolic syndrome or type 2 diabetes, and joint deterioration.7 Physical Impact of Eating Disorders by Organ Systems Eating disorders affect almost every organ in the body. Involution of some organs from malnutrition conserves calories. Some organs such as the heart, uterus, ovaries, and testicles return to normal size with normalization of nutrition and return to a healthier body weight.6 Of particular interest is the brain, which manifests volume loss with prolonged starvation.8 It is unclear as to whether or not full brain volume restoration is possible with long-term nutritional and weight restoration. The skin shows numerous changes, particularly with anorexia nervosa. Lanugo hair on the extremities is a classic finding in anorexia nervosa. With metabolic changes of malnutrition at any weight, hair loss can be problematic with hair follicles prematurely entering a dormant phase. This is one finding that can cause great alarm for patients and may encourage them to seek medical attention. Both conditions resolve with attainment of normal nutrition and weight.3 Cardiovascular impact is of great concern and cardiac failure, electrolyte imbalances, and subsequent fatal arrhythmias are key factors in many deaths from eating disorders.1 Of particular concern is the development of a prolonged QT interval. This can lead to torsades de pointes and subsequent ventricular fibrillation and death.1 Often severe hypokalemia or hypomagnesemia are implicated from vomiting, laxative, or diuretic abuse. More recently QT dispersion or the interlead variation in the QT-segment length has taken on new interest as a predictor for arrhythmias.9 Patients with anorexia nervosa may have a 2-fold or greater increase in QT dispersion that correlates with the severity of their weight loss and reduced metabolic rate.9 The QTc and QT dispersion both normalize with refeeding. Anatomic changes in the heart have also been noted with prolonged starvation.1,4 There is lowered physiologic demand due to metabolic reduction to conserve on caloric expenditure. The left ventricle is particularly impacted, and a loss of up to 25% of the volume of the left ventricle has been noted in anorexia nervosa.4 The heart valves may be affected with the structural changes of the heart. This can lead to valvular incompetence and mitral valve prolapse. This may manifest with chest pain or palpitations and be quite concerning. Cardiac changes in general, including anatomic changes, normalize with full weight restoration and proper nutrition.4 The impact of the eating disorder on the oral cavity includes dental caries and glandular hypertrophy from vomiting.4 Chronic vomiting can also cause esophagitis and gastritis. Occasionally hematemesis occurs with vomiting which may result from a small superficial laceration of the mouth or throat or may occur from inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract or even a Mallory-Weiss tear with subsequent hemorrhage. Gastroparesis from metabolic changes are problematic and present as abdominal pain and bloating upon refeeding. Constipation and hemorrhoids from constant straining of the stool are extremely common. Symptomatic treatment is routinely used acutely, however, the symptoms typically slowly resolve with full weight and metabolic restoration. Chronic laxative use may cause a cathartic colon from nerve plexus damage necessitating continued nonstimulant laxative use or a subtotal colectomy in rare cases.10 Secondary amenorrhea in adults or primary amenorrhea in adolescents is found in anorexia nervosa and to some extent in bulimia nervosa, although irregular menses is more common.3 In some patients, the menstrual irregularity may precede the onset of weight loss. These symptoms are related to an energy imbalance resulting in a “hypothalamic amenorrhea syndrome” with variable reduction in pulsatile hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone signaling the pituitary gland, resulting in a failure of ovulation.4 Although some patients come to eating disorder treatment having been started on hormone therapy (eg, estrogen plus progestin) to induce menses, there is little evidence to show any benefit.4 In the short-term, it may be more beneficial to observe the resumption of normal menses with weight restoration. In general, resumption of menses requires attaining 90% to 100% of ideal body weight, and it may take as many as 1 to 6 months after reaching and maintaining a healthy weight before regular menstruation resumes.3 Although reproductive function is severely impacted by anorexia nervosa, outcome studies suggest that with full recovery, fertility may not be impaired.4 With severe malnutrition and weight loss there is significant loss of muscle mass and function, yet muscle is very responsive to refeeding. Dyspnea is not uncommon and often related to the direct physiologic impact on the muscles of respiration, yet they are often the first to recover with refeeding and the dyspnea resolves. Bone health can be severely impacted by malnutrition, low body weight, and amenorrhea and is not readily reversible. Osteopenia is common in anorexia nervosa occurring in up to 92% of women with the disorder, whereas osteoporosis is present in almost 40%.11,12 Significant demineralization of bone has been found in adolescents with even a brief course of anorexia nervosa.11 Osteoporosis is estimated to occur in more than one-half of adolescent and young adult females with eating disorders. Patients with anorexia nervosa have a fracture rate 7 times higher than women without eating disorders.4 Full weight restoration and nutritional restoration along with resumption of menses is key to preventing further bone loss. Supplemental vitamin D and calcium should be given, and weight-bearing exercise should be avoided unless it is carefully monitored during the weight restoration process. If there is a likelihood of bone loss continuing or fracture risk is particularly high, physiologic transdermal estrogen plus oral progesterone, bisphosphonates (alendronate or risedronate), or teriparatide could be considered.11 Other agents, such as denosumab and testosterone in men, have not been tested in populations of people with eating disorders. Eating Disorders and Gluten Enteropathy and Food Allergies People with eating disorders claiming to have gluten enteropathy and food allergies have become increasingly common given the widespread reporting of these illnesses in contemporary medical news reports.13 Although the rate of patients with eating disorders with gluten enteropathy is unknown, the incidence of true non-Celiac gluten sensitivity is estimated at 1% to 13% of the population in the United States.14 Given the lifelong nature of gluten sensitivity and food allergies, patients coming to eating disorder treatment should have a thorough evaluation to root out potential gluten sensitivity and food allergies to verify the existence of these long-term illnesses affecting nutritional intake. Eating Disorders and Diabetes Mellitus Insulin withholding for weight loss in people with type 1 diabetes, known as eating disorder diabetes mellitus type 1 (EDDMT1),15 has been reported more in recent years. The physical impact of EDDMT1 in people with type 1 diabetes and anorexia nervosa is severe, and the crude mortality rate is up to 35%.4 The risk of diabetic ketoacidosis is substantial and indeed life-threatening. The risk of retinopathy and nephropathy is markedly increased with this dual-diagnosis illness. Patients with infrequent symptoms and minimal weight loss may show no laboratory evidence of impairment from an eating disorder. Likewise, patients with weight loss that occurs slowly over a longer period of time may also show no abnormalities. Otherwise, common findings include leukopenia, anemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, hypophosphatemia, and liver function elevations with hepatic injury from malnutrition. Refeeding itself can cause liver function elevations with refeeding hepatitis and hypophosphatemia. Decreased hepatic glycogen stores in the liver may cause hypoglycemia (blood sugar <60 mg/dL), which can be particularly dangerous and requires careful monitoring. Thyroid function abnormalities consistent with euthyroid sick syndrome include normal to mildly elevated thyroid-stimulating hormone levels with slightly decreased T3 and T4 levels. As mentioned previously, hyponatremia is common in people who water load. The multisystem impact of eating disorders on medical stability and long-term medical morbidity necessitate comprehensive medical care simultaneously coordinated with the mental health component of treatment. At times the separation of emotionally based physical complaints and those with a true underlying medical etiology is blurred. A comprehensive medical evaluation is of prime importance in management of the eating disorder with careful consideration of medical concerns that heighten the risk of premature death or serious medical morbidity. - Mehler P, Andersen A, ed. Eating Disorders, A Guide to Medical Care and Complications. 3rd ed. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press; 2017. - Steinglass JE, Walsh BT. Neurobiological model of the persistence of anorexia nervosa [published online ahead of print May 18, 2016]. J Eat Disord. doi:10.1186/s40337-016-0106-2 [CrossRef]. - Mehler PS, Birmingham CL, Crow SJ, Jahraus JP. Medical complications of eating disorders. In: Grilo CM, Mitchell JE, eds. The Treatment of Eating Disorders–A Clinical Handbook. 1st ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2011:66–80 - Devlin M, Jahraus J, DiMarco I. Eating disorders. In: Levenson J, ed. Psychosomatic Medicine. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2010:305–333. - Yager J, Devlin MJ, Halmi KA, et al. Practive guideline for the treatment of patients with eating disorders. 3rd ed. https://psychiatryonline.org/pb/assets/raw/sitewide/practice_guidelines/guidelines/eatingdisorders.pdf. - Academy for Eating Disorders. Eating Disorders, A Guide to Medical Care, Critical Points for Early Recognition & Medical Risk Management in the Care of Individuals with Eating Disorders. 3rd ed. Reston, VA: Academy for Eating Disorders; 2016. - Thornton LM, Watson HJ, Jangmo A, et al. Binge-eating disorder in the Swedish national registers: somatic comorbidity. Int J Eat Disord. 2017;50(1):58–65. doi:. doi:10.1002/eat.22624 [CrossRef] - Roberto CA, Mayer LE, Brickman AM, et al. Brain tissue volume changes following weight gain in adults with anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 2011;44(5):406–411. doi:. doi:10.1002/eat.20840 [CrossRef] - Sachs KV, Harnke B, Mehler PS, Krantz MJ. Cardiovascular complications of anorexia nervosa: a systematic review. Int J Eat Disord. 2016;49(3):238–248. doi:. doi:10.1002/eat.22481 [CrossRef] - Mascolo M, Geer B, Feuerstein J, Mehler PS. Gastrointestinal comorbidities which complicate the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Eat Disord. 2017;25(2):122–133. doi:. doi:10.1080/10640266.2016.1255108 [CrossRef] - Misra M, Golden NH, Katzman DK. State of the art systematic review of bone disease in anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 2016;49(3):276–292. doi:. doi:10.1002/eat.22451 [CrossRef] - Drabkin A, Rothman MS, Wassenaar E, Mascolo M, Mehler PS. Assessment and clinical management of bone disease in adults with eating disorders: a review. J Eat Disord. 2017;5:42. doi:. doi:10.1186/s40337-017-0172-0 [CrossRef] - NIAID-Sponsored Expert Panel Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of food allergy in the United States: report of the NIAID-sponsored expert panel. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;126:S1–S58. doi:. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2010.10.007 [CrossRef] - Riddle MS, Murray JA, Porter CK. The incidence and risk of celiac disease in a healthy US adult population. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107(8):1248–1255. doi:. doi:10.1038/ajg.2012.130 [CrossRef] - Criego A, Jahraus J. Eating disorders and diabetes. Diabetes Spectr. 2009;22(3):135–162. doi:. doi:10.2337/diaspect.22.3.135 [CrossRef] Eating Disorder Symptoms and Associated Potential Medical Complications ||Altered metabolism with hypothermia, cognitive impairment, dizziness, hypotension, bradycardia, orthostasis, amenorrhea, edema, fatigue ||Obesity, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, insulin resistance, joint deterioration, dyspnea, sleep apnea, gallbladder disease ||Electrolyte imbalance (hypokalemia), arrhythmias, esophagitis/gastritis, gastroesophageal reflux disease, dental caries, dehydration, alkalosis, parotid/submandibular gland hypertrophy ||Cathartic colon, dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, metabolic acidosis, alkalosis ||Dehydration, electrolyte imbalance |Appetite suppressant abuse ||Hypertension, tremor, arrhythmias ||Hyponatremia, headache, nausea, dizziness, seizure ||Severe bradycardia, joint deterioration, stress fractures, overuse syndromes

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How does a geothermal heating and cooling system work? Outdoor temperatures fluctuate with the changing seasons but underground temperatures don't. Four to six feet below the earth's surface, temperatures remain relatively constant year-round. A geothermal system, which typically consists of an indoor unit and a buried earth loop, capitalizes on these constant temperatures to provide "free" energy. In winter, fluid circulating through the system's earth loop absorbs stored heat and carries it indoors. The indoor unit compresses the heat to a higher temperature and distributes it throughout the building. In summer, the system reverses, pulling heat from the building, carrying it through the earth loop and depositing it in the cooler earth. What makes a geothermal system different from ordinary systems? Unlike ordinary systems, geothermal systems do not burn fossil fuel to generate heat; they simply transfer heat to and from the earth to provide a more efficient, affordable and environmentally friendly method of heating and cooling. Typically, electric power is used only to operate the unit's fan, compressor and pump. What are the components of a geothermal system? The three main parts consist of the heat-pump unit, the liquid heat-exchange medium (open or closed loop), and the air-delivery system (ductwork). How efficient is a geothermal system? A geothermal system is three to four times more efficient than the most efficient ordinary system. Because geothermal systems do not burn fossil fuels to make heat, they provide three to four units of energy for every one unit used to power the system. Is the efficiency rating actual or just a manufacturer's average? All heating and cooling systems have a rated efficiency from a U.S. governmental agency. Fossil fuel furnaces have a percentage efficiency rating. Natural gas, propane and fuel oil furnaces have efficiency ratings based on laboratory conditions. To get an accurate installed efficiency rating, factors such as flue gas heat losses and cycling losses caused by oversizing, blower fan electrical usage, etc., must be included. Geothermal heat pumps, as well as all other types of heat pumps, have efficiencies rated according to their coefficient of performance or COP. It's a scientific way of determining how much energy the system produces versus how much it uses. Most geothermal heat pump systems have COPs of 3-4.5 (WaterFurnace's E Series is rated up to 4.7). That means for every unit of energy used to power the system, 3-4.5 units are supplied as heat. Where a fossil fuel furnace may be 78-90 percent efficient, a geothermal heat pump is about 400 percent efficient. Some geothermal heat pump manufacturers and electric utilities use computers to accurately determine the operating efficiency of a system for your home or building. Do geothermal systems require much maintenance? No. Geothermal systems are virtually maintenance free. When installed properly, the buried loop will last for generations. And the other half of the operation—the unit's fan, compressor and pump—is housed indoors, protected from the harsh weather conditions. Usually, periodic checks and filter changes are the only required maintenance. (Note: WaterFurnace has developed a geothermal unit—the ES Split—that is so rugged and quiet, it can be placed outdoors when that's the best solution). What does geothermal mean for the environment? Geothermal systems work with nature, not against it. They emit no greenhouse gases, which have been linked to global warming, acid rain and other environmental hazards. WaterFurnace provides an earth-loop antifreeze which will not harm the environment in the unlikely event of a leak. And much of the WaterFurnace product line uses R-410A, a performance-enhancing refrigerant that will not harm the earth's ozone layer. Are all geothermal heat pumps alike? No. There are different kinds of geothermal heat pumps designed for specific applications. Many geothermal heat pumps, for example, are intended for use only with higher temperature ground water encountered in open-loop systems. Others will operate at entering water temperatures as low as 25° F , which are possible in closed-loop systems. Most geothermal heat pumps provide summer air conditioning, but a few brands are designed only for winter heating. Geothermal heat pumps also can differ in the way they are designed. Self-contained units combine the blower, compressor, heat exchanger and coil in a single cabinet. Split systems (such as the WaterFurnace ES Split) allow the coil to be added to a forced-air furnace and utilize the existing blower. How does a geothermal heat pump work? Anyone with a refrigerator or an air conditioner has witnessed the operation of a heat pump, even though the term heat pump may be unfamiliar. All of these machines, rather than making heat, take existing heat and move it from a lower-temperature location to a higher-temperature location. Refrigerators and air conditioners are heat pumps that remove heat from colder interior spaces to warmer exterior spaces for cooling purposes. Heat pumps also move heat from a low-temperature source to a high-temperature space for heating. An air-source heat pump, for example, extracts heat from outdoor air and pumps it indoors. A geothermal heat pump works the same way, except that its heat source is the warmth of the earth. The process of elevating low-temperature heat to over 100° F and transferring it indoors involves a cycle of evaporation, compression, condensation and expansion. A refrigerant is used as the heat-transfer medium which circulates within the heat pump. The cycle starts as the cold liquid refrigerant passes through a heat exchanger (evaporator) and absorbs heat from the low-temperature source (fluid from the ground loop). The refrigerant evaporates as heat is absorbed. The gaseous refrigerant then passes through a compressor where the refrigerant is pressurized, raising its temperature to more than 180° F . The hot gas then circulates through a refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger where heat is removed and pumped into the building at about 100° F . When it loses the heat, the refrigerant changes back to a liquid. The liquid is cooled as it passes through an expansion valve and begins the process again. To work as an air conditioner, the system's flow is reversed. Does a geothermal system heat and cool? One thing that makes a geothermal heat pump so versatile is its ability to be a heating and cooling system in one. With a simple flick of a switch on your indoor thermostat, you can change from one mode to another. In the cooling mode, a geothermal heat pump takes heat from indoors and transfers it to the cooler earth through either groundwater or an underground earth loop system. In the heating mode, the process is reversed. Will the minimum entering water temperature affect which geothermal heat pump I buy? Yes. If you have an open loop system, your entering water temperatures (EWTs) may range from the 70s in the southern United States to the 40s in Canada. All heat pumps can handle temperatures in the moderate-to-warm range. A closed loop system, on the other hand, may encounter EWTs below freezing. Not all geothermal heat pumps will operate efficiently at those temperatures. It's important to know what EWTs at which your heat pump will operate most efficiently. Can a geothermal system also heat water? Yes. Some geothermal heat pumps can provide all of your hot water needs on demand at the same high efficiencies as the heating/cooling cycles. An option called a desuperheater can be added to most heat pumps. It will provide significant savings by heating water before it enters your hot water tank. Do I need separate earth loops for heating and cooling? No. The same loop works for both. To switch heating to cooling, or vice versa, the flow of heat is simply reversed. Does the underground pipe system really work? The buried pipe, or earth loop, was an important technical advancement in heat pump technology. The idea of burying pipe in the ground to gather heat energy originated in the 1940s. New heat pump designs and more durable pipe materials have been combined to make geothermal heat pumps the most efficient heating and cooling systems available. What types of loops are available? There are two main types: open and closed. What is an open loop system? An open loop system uses groundwater from an ordinary well as a heat source. The groundwater is pumped into the heat pump unit, where heat is extracted and the water is disposed of in an environmentally safe manner. Because groundwater is a relatively constant temperature year-round, wells are an excellent heat source. How much groundwater does an open loop system require? The water requirement of a specific model is usually expressed in gallons per minute (g.p.m.) and is listed in the unit's specifications. Generally, the average system will use 1.5 g.p.m. per ton of capacity while operating, but the amount of water required depends on the size of the unit and the manufacturer's specifications. Your contractor should be able to provide this information. Your well and pump combination should be large enough to supply the water needed by the heat pump in addition to your domestic water requirements. You probably will need to enlarge your pressure tank or modify your plumbing to supply adequate water to the heat pump. What do I do with the discharge water? There are a number of ways to dispose of water after it has passed through the heat pump. The open discharge method is the easiest and least expensive. Open discharge simply involves releasing the water into a stream, river, lake, pond, ditch or drainage tile. Obviously, one of these alternatives must be readily available and have the capacity to accept the amount of water used by the heat pump before open discharge is feasible. A second means of water discharge is the return well. A return well is a second well bore that returns the water to the ground aquifer. A return well must have enough capacity to dispose of the water passed through the heat pump. A new return well should be installed by a qualified well driller. Likewise, a professional should test the capacity of an existing well before it is used as a return. Are there any laws that apply to open loop installations? All or part of the installation may be subject to local ordinances, codes, covenants or licensing requirements. Check with local authorities to determine if any restrictions apply in your area. Does an open loop system cause environmental damage? No. The system is pollution-free. The heat pump merely removes or adds heat to the water. No pollutants are added. The only change in the water returned to the environment is a slight increase or decrease in temperature. Can I reclaim heat from my septic system disposal field? No. An earth loop will reach temperatures below freezing during extreme conditions and may freeze your septic system. Such usage is banned in many areas. What problems can be caused by poor water quality? Poor water quality can cause serious problems in open loop systems. Your water should be tested for hardness, acidity and iron content before a heat pump is installed. Your contractor or equipment manufacturer can tell you what level of water is acceptable. Mineral deposits can build up inside the heat pump's heat exchanger. Sometimes a periodic cleaning with a mild acid solution is all that's needed to remove the build-up. Impurities, particularly iron, can eventually clog a return well. If your water has high iron content, make sure that the discharge water is not aerated before it's injected into a return well. What is a closed loop system? A closed loop system uses a continuous loop of buried polyethylene pipe. The pipe is connected to the indoor heat pump to form a sealed, underground loop through which an environmentally friendly antifreeze-and-water solution is circulated. A closed loop system constantly re-circulates its heat-transferring solution in pressurized pipe, unlike an open loop system that consumes water from a well. Most closed loops are trenched horizontally in areas adjacent to the building. However, where adequate land is not available, loops are vertically bored. Any area near a home or business with appropriate soil conditions and adequate square footage will work. What if I don't have room for a horizontal loop? Closed loop systems also can be vertical. Holes are bored up to 250 feet per ton of heat pump capacity, depending on where you live. U-shaped loops of pipe are inserted in the holes. The holes are then backfilled with a sealing solution. How long will the loop pipe last? Closed loop systems should be installed using only high-density polyethylene pipe. Properly installed, these pipes will last for many decades. They are inert to chemicals normally found in soil and have good heat conducting properties. PVC pipe should never be used. How deep and long will my trenches be? Trenches are normally four to six feet deep and up to 400 feet long, depending on the number of pipes in a trench. One advantage of a horizontal loop system is being able to lay the trenches according to the shape of the land. As a rule of thumb, 500-600 feet of pipe is required per ton of system capacity. A well-insulated 2,000-square-foot home would need about a three-ton system with 1,500-1,800 feet of pipe. How are the pipe sections of the loop joined? Pipe sections are joined by thermal fusion. Thermal fusion involves heating the pipe connections and then fusing them together to form a joint that's stronger than the original pipe. This technique creates a secure connection to protect from leakage and contamination. Will an earth loop affect my lawn or landscape? No. Research has proven that loops have no adverse effect on grass, trees, or shrubs. Most horizontal loop installations use trenches about 24 inches wide. This, of course, will initially leave temporary bare areas, but they can easily be restored with grass seed or sod. Vertical loops require little space and result in minimal lawn damage. I have a pond nearby. Can I put a loop in it? Yes, if it's deep enough and large enough. A minimum of six feet in depth at its lowest level during the year is needed for a pond to be considered. The amount of surface area required depends on the heating and cooling load of the structure. You should not use water from a spring, pond, lake or river as a source for your heat pump system unless it's proven to be free of excessive particles and organic matter. They can clog a heat pump system and make it inoperable in a short time. Can I install an earth loop myself? It's not recommended. Good earth-to-coil contact is very important for successful loop operation. Nonprofessional installations may result in less-than-optimal system performance. How do I know if the dealer and loop installers are qualified? Don't be afraid to ask for references from dealers. A reputable dealer or loop installer won't hesitate to give you names and numbers to call to confirm his capabilities. Can a geothermal heat pump be added to my fossil fuel furnace? Split systems easily can be added to existing furnaces for those wishing to have a dual-fuel heating system. Dual-fuel systems use the heat pump as the main heating source and a fossil fuel furnace as a supplement in extremely cold weather if additional heat is needed. Is a geothermal heat pump difficult to install? Most units are easy to install, particularly when they replace another forced-air system. They can be installed in areas unsuitable for fossil fuel furnaces because there is no combustion, thus no need to vent exhaust gases. Ductwork must be installed in homes that don't have an existing air distribution system. The difficulty of installing ductwork will vary and should be assessed by a contractor. Another popular way to use geothermal technology is with in-floor radiant heating, in which hot water circulating through pipes under the floor heats the room. I have ductwork, but will it work with this system? In all probability, yes. Your installing contractor should be able to determine ductwork requirements and any minor modifications if needed. If a home has ceiling cable heat or baseboard heat, do air ducts need to be installed? Not always. It may be desirable to install geothermal heat pump room units. For some small homes, a one-room unit would handle the heating and cooling needs. Ceiling cable or baseboard units could be used for supplemental heat if desired. Do I need to increase the size of my electric service? Geothermal heat pumps don't use large amounts of resistance heat so your existing service may be adequate. Generally, a 200-amp service will have enough capacity and smaller amp services may be large enough in some cases. Your electric utility or contractor can determine your service needs. What is the BTU size of the furnace that's being proposed? Furnaces are designed to provide specific amounts of heat energy per hour. The term "BTUH" refers to how much heat can be produced by the unit in an hour. Before you can determine what size furnace you'll need, you must have a heat loss/heat gain calculation done on the structure. From that, an accurate determination can be made of the size of the system you'll need. Most fossil fuel furnaces are substantially oversized for heating requirements, resulting in increased operating cost and unpleasant temperature swings. Should I buy a geothermal heat pump large enough to heat with no supplemental heat? Your contractor should provide a heating and cooling load calculation (heat loss, heat gain) to guide your equipment selection. Geothermal heat pumps typically are sized to meet your cooling requirements. Depending on your heating needs, a geothermal heat pump will supply 80-100 percent of your design heating load. Sizing the heat pump to handle your entire heating needs may result in slightly lower heating costs, but the savings may not offset the added cost of the larger heat pump unit and larger loop installation. Also, an oversized unit can cause dehumidification problems in the cooling mode, resulting in a loss of summer comfort. How long is the payback period for a geothermal system? To figure this accurately, you must know how much you'll save each year in energy costs with a geothermal system as well as the price difference between it and an ordinary heating system and central air conditioner. As an example: If you'll save $700 per year with a geothermal system and the price difference is $2,000, your payback will be less than three years. If you install a geothermal system in a new home, the monthly savings in operating costs generally will offset the additional monthly cost in the mortgage, resulting in an immediate positive cash flow. Glossary of Terms BTU (British Thermal Unit) The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. BTU is used to signify the heating and cooling capacity of a system and the heat losses and gains of buildings and homes. The number of BTUs produced in one hour. Closed-loop heat-pump system A heat-pump system that uses a loop of buried plastic pipe as a heat exchanger. Loops can be horizontal or vertical. COP (Coefficient of Performance) The ratio of heating or cooling provided by a heat pump (or other refrigeration machine) to the energy consumed by the system under designated operating conditions. The higher the COP, the more efficient the system. The central part of a heat pump system. The compressor increases the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant and simultaneously reduces its volume while causing the refrigerant to move through the system. A heat exchanger in which hot, pressurized (gaseous) refrigerant is condensed by transferring heat to cooler surrounding air, water or earth. The actual efficiency of a heating or cooling system is reduced because of start-up and shut-down losses. Oversizing a heating or cooling system increases cycling losses. A device for recovering superheat from the compressor discharge gas of a heat pump or central air conditioner for use in heating or preheating water. Any of several types of combustible fuels formed from the decomposition of organic matter. Examples are natural gas, propane, fuel oil, oil and coal. Geothermal heat pump A heat pump that uses the earth as a heat source and heat sink. A device designed to transfer heat between two physically separated fluids or mediums of different temperatures. A mechanical device used for heating and cooling, which operates by pumping heat from a cooler to a warmer location. Heat pumps can extract heat from air, water or the earth. They are classified as either air-source or geothermal units. The medium—air, water or earth—which receives heat rejected from a heat pump. The medium—air, water or earth—from which heat is extracted by a heat pump. A method of calculating how long it will take to recover the difference in cost between two different heating and cooling systems by using the energy and maintenance-cost savings from the more efficient system. A heating system used during extremely cold weather, when additional heat is needed to moderate indoor temperatures. May be in the form of fossil fuel or electric resistance.

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In 1876 the American public was introduced to an astonishing and controversial figure by the name of Madame Loreta Janeta Velazquez. Like so many others, she wrote a Civil War memoir, The Woman in Battle: A Narrative of the Exploits, Adventures, and Travels of Madame Loreta Janeta Velazquez, Otherwise Known as Lieutenant Harry T. Buford, Confederate States Army. Needless to say this was no ordinary war story, for Madame Velazquez claimed to have so fervently supported the Southern cause that she donned the Confederate uniform as Lieutenant Harry Buford and fought at the battles of First Bull Run, Fort Donelson, and Shiloh. When she wrote her book, Madame Velazquez realized that her disclosures would shock her contemporaries, so she made every attempt to legitimatize her behavior by establishing a notable past and a claim to respectability. She claimed to have descended from an ‘ancient Castilian’ background and to have as her ancestors both Don Diego Velazquez, the governor of Cuba, and Don Diego Rodriguez Velazquez, the Spanish artist. At the same time, despite her unladylike behavior, she laid claim to genteel sensibilities by maintaining that she was thoroughly shocked by the behavior and language of the soldiers with whom she came in contact. She further protested that although she had posed as a man, she had carefully maintained her ‘womanly reputation unblemished by even a suspicion of impropriety.’ Having thus refuted the possible charge of being a camp follower rather than a brave soldier, at least in her own mind, she proceeded with her tale. Madame Velazquez maintained that she had always wished for the privileges and status granted to men and denied to women. Comparing herself to Deborah of the Hebrews and Joan of Arc, she explained her desire for martial adventures by asserting the her girlhood was spent ‘haunted with the idea of being a man.’ She demonstrated unusual independence for an antebellum adolescent when, at the age of 14, she ran away from her school in New Orleans to marry an American soldier named William. Four years later in 1860 they were in St. Louis mourning the death of their three children. Madame Velazquez was only 18. When William’s state seceded from the Union, he resigned his commission and joined the Confederate Army. At that point Madame Velazquez again fell victim to her old desire to be a man. Unable to persuade her husband to let her fight for the Confederacy, she simply waited for him to leave, adopted the name Lieutenant Harry T. Buford, was measured for two uniforms by a tailor in Memphis, and proceeded to Arkansas to raise a battalion for the Southern cause. She claimed that she enrolled 236 men in four days and shipped them to Pensacola, Florida, where she presented them to her astonished husband as his to command. Unfortunately he was killed a few days later demonstrating a weapon to his troops. The bereaved widow turned the men over to a friend and proceeded to search for military adventure at the front. Claiming that she was serving the Confederate Army as an ‘independent,’ she crossed the South from Virginia to Tennessee searching for a suitable opportunity to display her military talents. After the First Battle of Bull Run she grew weary of camp life and borrowed female attire from a farmer’s wife so that she could go to Washington, D.C., to gather intelligence for the Southern cause. While in the Capital the soldier-turned-spy claimed to have arranged meetings with Secretary of War Simon Cameron and President Abraham Lincoln. She finally returned to the South, where she was rewarded for her services by being assigned to the detective corps. But again she grew weary of her assignment and left her duties to go fight in Tennessee. She arrived at Fort Donelson just in time to see it surrendered. After Fort Donelson she was forced to face the possibility that someone would discover her disguise when she was wounded in the foot and examined by an army doctor. Apparently she escaped detection but decided to flee to New Orleans, where ironically she was arrested on suspicion of being a woman in disguise. Once she was released, she said, she enlisted in order to escape from the city. However, Madame Velazquez had no love for the life of a common soldier, so after showing her commission to her commanding officer, she was granted a transfer to the army in east Tennessee. Surprisingly enough her social life did not suffer from her dual identity. Proudly she said: All these months that, in a guise of a man, I had been breaking young ladies’ hearts by my fascinating figure and manner, my own woman’s heart had an object upon which its affections were bestowed, and I was engaged to be married to a truly noble officer of the Confederate army, who knew me, both as a man and as a woman, but who little suspected that Lieutenant Harry T. Buford, and his intended wife, were one and the same person. And so the charade continued until April 1862 and the Battle of Shiloh, the scene of her greatest military triumph. Here she found the battalion she had raised in Arkansas and joined them for the fight: We had not been long engaged before the second lieutenant of the company fell. I immediately stepped into his place, and assumed the command of his men. This action was greeted by a hearty cheer from the entire company, all the veterans of which, knew me, and I took the greeting as an evidence that they were glad to see their original commander with them once more. This cheer from the men was an immense inspiration to me; and the knowledge that not my lover only, but the company which I had myself recruited and thousands of others of the brave boys of our Southern army were watching my actions approvingly, encouraged me to dare everything, and to shrink from nothing to render myself deserving of their praises. Having fought gallantly the first day, she decided that night to again gather intelligence. Hidden away in the brush she claimed to have spotted General Ulysses S. Grant and to have been close enough to have shot him. But she decided against it. ‘It was too much like murder,’ she said. She was wounded by a shell while burying the dead after the battle, and an army doctor discovered her identity. She fled again to New Orleans and was there when Major General Benjamin F. Butler took command of the city in May 1862. Believing that her military career was at an end because too many people now knew her true identity, she gave up her uniform. She bought a British passport from an acquaintance and began her second war career as a drug smuggler, blockade runner, and double agent. She claimed to have been hired by the authorities in Richmond to serve in the secret service corps and began to travel freely throughout the North as well as the war torn South, pausing only long enough to marry her beloved, Captain Thomas DeCaulp. Widowed shortly after the wedding when her new husband died in a Chattanooga hospital, she traveled north, gained the confidence of Northern officials and was hired by them to search for herself. During her search she continued to serve the Southern cause by trying to organize a rebellion of Confederate prisoners held in Ohio and Indiana. She also claimed to have stolen electrotype impressions of Northern bond and note plates so that the Confederates could make forgeries. During the last months of the war she claimed to have traveled to Ohio, Canada, London, and Paris. She arrived back in New York City the day after Lee’s surrender. She spent a number of months after the war traveling through Europe and the South. She also married for the third time. She and her new husband, a Major Wasson, left the United States as immigrants to Venezuela. But when her husband died in Caracas, she returned to America to convince her friends that immigration was a mistake. Again she began to travel, this time through the West, stopping long enough in Salt Lake City to have a baby and meet Brigham Young. In Nevada she claimed to have married again for the fourth time to an unnamed gentleman. Then she was off again. ‘With my little baby boy in my arms, I started on a long journey through Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas, hoping, perhaps, but scarcely expecting, to find the opportunities which I had failed to find in Utah, Nevada and California.’ Her story ends at this point. Her final plea was that the public would buy her book so that she could support her child. She was not ashamed of her behavior and hoped that her conduct would be judged with ‘impartiality and candor’ and that credit would be given her for ‘integrity of purpose.’ She offered no apologies for her conduct. ‘I did what I thought to be right,’ she said, ‘and, while anxious for the good opinion of all honorable and right thinking people, a consciousness of the purity of my motives will be an ample protection against the censure of those who may be disposed to be censorious.’ The historical validity of the Velazquez claims remains to be determined. Historians themselves are divided on the issue. Mary Massey in the Bonnet Brigades takes note of the ‘incredible’ Velazquez claims but maintains that while they are not provable, she could have done some of the things she claimed. Ella Lonn in her book on foreigners in the Confederacy describes Velazquez as’strange and romantic’ and appears to accept her story as true while at the same time admitting that the only evidence which exists in the matter is The Woman in Battle. Katherine Jones includes an except from the Velazquez book in her two-volume Heroines of Dixie along with unquestionably legitimate memoirs and in that sense leaves the impression that the Velazquez story is as much a historical record as that of Kate Cumming or Mary Boykin Chestnut. At least one of Madame Velazquez’ contemporaries challenged her story. In the winter of 1877-78 Lieutenant General Jubal A. Early, who was then in New Orleans happened upon The Woman in Battle. After a cursory examination he satisfied himself that ‘the writer of that book, whether man or woman, had never had the adventures therein narrated.’ Some time later at his hotel he met a man from Richmond who told him that he had met Madame Velazquez on a train and was so intrigued by her story that he had bought her book. Recognizing the book that the man showed to him, Early protested that’she could not be what she pretended to be.’ He then pointed out’several inconsistencies, absurdities, and impossibilities’ in her narrative in order to prove his point. Subsequently Early had a brief interview with Velazquez after which he was even more convinced that her story was untrue. In May of 1878 General Early received a letter signed by Madame Velazquez protesting his alleged attempt to injure her book by publicly questioning the truthfulness of her story. She maintained that her view of the war could never be the same as his because they were never in the same position to observe, nor did they ever have access to the same information. ‘I do not pretend,’ she said in her letter, ‘to know even one truth that transpired upon any one battlefield I served upon. I only endeaver [sic] to give the most important facts that came under my immediate observation.’ One of Early’s objections to her story was that she had failed to identify many of the people she talked about, thus making it impossible to check her story. In her letter she explained that she had left out the names in order to condense her manuscript and also had wanted to protect the families of men she claimed were defrauding the government. She then gave as personal references the names of Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, ex-Governor John C. Brown of Tennessee, and Congressman John M. Glover of Missouri, and sent the letter through Congressman William H. Slemons of Tennessee. Apparently Early did not quite know how to react to her letter. On one hand he was tempted to ignore her and the book as not worthy of comment. But on the other hand he felt that her book was so full of inaccuracies that he had a duty to expose it. So on May 22 he sat down to answer her letter. Directing his comments to Congressmen Slemons, he proceeded to point out inconsistencies in her story page by page. He was incredulous at her recruiting expedition. ‘This battalion has been raised without the instrumentality of the Governor of Arkansas, or of the President of the Confederacy, or without her saying to either as much as, ‘by your leave,’ and carried just where she thought proper, all the expenses being paid out of her own pocket; though where the money came from is an unsolved mystery. . . .’ Later in the letter he says, ‘Her statements about her flitting from one army in the Confederacy to anotherof her being employed as a secret agent, and going on missions for the government to Washington, New York, Havanna [sic], Canada, and always having abundant means provided for her, and of her being in the secret service of the United States at the same time she was in that of the Confederacy are simply incredible.’ After exposing a number of other improbabilities, he concluded that the book was untrue and that it could not even be considered good fiction since it libeled Confederate officers as ‘drunken, gasconading brutes’ and pictured the flower of Southern womanhood as ‘ready to throw themselves into the arms of the dashing ‘Lieutenant Harry T. Buford,’ and surrender without waiting to be asked, all that is dear to women of virtue.’ He apologized for any injury his opinion of the book may have done to Madame Velazquez or her child but added, ‘I cherish most devotedly the character and fame of the Confederate armies, and of the people of the South, especially of the women of the South, and when a book affecting all these is sought to be palmed on the public as true, and bears on its face the evidence of its want of authenticity, then I have the right to speak my opinion and will speak it, whether the author be a man or woman.’ Early finished the letter but did not immediately send it to Slemons. He still had not convinced himself that he should answer Velazquez but feared that if he failed to respond, she could say that she had silenced his criticism. After considerable thought Early sought the advice of a friend and sent a copy of the Velazquez letter along with his answer to John R. Tucker, a congressman from Virginia. He asked Tucker to consider his problem and advise him whether or not he should mail his letter to Slemons. Early’s response to Madame Velazquez was never sent and all three letters reside in the Tucker family papers in the Southern Historical Collection at Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Two other of her contemporaries believed her story. Her editor, C. J. Worthington, understandably wrote that he had complete confidence in her veracity. There are thousands of officers and soldiers who fought in the Confederate armies who can bear testimony, not only to the valor she displayed in battle…but to her integrity, her energy, her ability, and her unblemished reputation. . . that it is a true story in every particular, there are abundant witnesses whose testimony will not be disputed. Unfortunately for the researcher trying to determine the truth, the value of his testimony as well as his judgment becomes questionable when a few sentences later he described Madame Velazquez as a ‘typical Southern woman of the war period.’ Anyone who reads her book can clearly see that there was nothing typical about Loreta Velazquez. A third contemporary source whose testimony is available was a reporter for the New Orleans daily Picayune. His story about her appeared in January of 1867. At that time she had just arrived in New Orleans to serve as an agent for the Venezuelan Emigration Company and was using the name Mary DeCaulp. The article described her adventurous life in some detail, must of it inaccurate if one accepts the story she published nine years later as true. For example, the article asserted that she was a first lieutenant in a Texas cavalry company and mentions nothing about her espionage activities. The reporter also mentioned that he remembered having seen her in New Orleans during the war ‘dressed in a rough gray jacket and pants, the suit rather the worse for wear, with her hair cut short, and supporting a bandaged foot with a crutch of the most primitive pattern.’ A few sentences later, however, his identification of her became less conclusive when he admitted that Madame Velazquez looked considerably different from the soldier who came to New Orleans during the war. Contemporaries as well as historians disagree about the truthfulness of the Velazquez story. If they are to base their judgment on the information that can be confirmed we still do not come up with an entirely verifiable story. First of all, her book contains very little factual information. True, she put the right generals at the right place in the right battles, but this kind of information was easily accessible. Even the charges that she made concerning corruption and profiteering are not specific. She included no complete names and spoke only in vague generalities. Most of the individuals in her book have only a first or a last name. Even though she married four times, she provided us with the full name of only one of her husbands! One of the few times she gave enough information to allow the researcher to check her story is when she claimed to have enlisted in Captain B. Moses’ company of the 21st Louisiana Regiment in order to escape from New Orleans after her arrest. This is the only time in her military career that she mentioned serving as something other than an ‘independent’ who served on her/his own authority and paid most of her own expenses. The National Archives shows no record of such an enlistment. And Dr. Arthur W. Bergeron, Jr., of the Archives and Records Service in Baton Rouge has indicated that although Captain B. Moses did command the McClellan Guards of the 21st Louisiana units of the Civil War, Dr. Bergeron also analyzed various references which Madame Velazquez made concerning troops from that state. He found some of her information to be inaccurate. For example, she maintained that the 5th and 8th Louisiana regiments fought at Bull Run. Bergeron points out that the 6th and 8th fought together there. Her assertion about the 5th, which was at the time stationed near Yorktown and Williamsburg, is an obvious error, but the mistake could be attributed to bad memory since she claimed to have written the book without her papers, which had been lost. Yet her book in some cases contains just enough information to justify Massey’s contention that she could have done some of the things she claimed. Velazquez revealed, for example, that one of the names she used in her espionage activities was ‘Mrs. Williams.’ Massey found evidence that a Mrs. Alice Williams was arrested in Richmond but released after her identity was established and that papers in Richmond lauded her work as a soldier and nurse. Massey also found evidence that a reporter from the New York Herald knew Mrs. Williams as a prisoner in Richmond and wrote about her in an article which appeared in October 1863. We may conclude from this evidence that someone who called herself Alice Williams existed. The War of the Rebellion contains another reference to a Miss Alice Williams ‘who was commissioned in the rebel army as a lieutenant under the name of Buford.’ Such evidence appears to confirm this claim at least, even this documentation is suspect, however. The letter in The War of the Rebellion was written by Sanford Conover, later revealed as a perjurer and forger. The war memoir written by Madame Velazquez was certainly more bizarre than most, and at times she tended to stretch her credibility by claiming too much. For example, although officials during the Civil War were far more accessible to the general public than is the case today, she maintained that within the span of four years and in the middle of a bloody war she had personal access to such Southern and Northern officials as Leroy P. Walker and Secretary of War Simon Cameron, Jefferson Davis and Abraham Lincoln, a host of generals such as Stonewall Jackson, Leonidas Polk, William Hardee, Benjamin Butler, John Winder, James Longstreet, and William Rosecrans, as well as the governors of Ohio and Indiana and financier James Fisk. This, combined with her claimed astonishing ability to travel throughout the North as well as the South with little or no difficulty, using charm and guile as her most effective passport, is incredible. One final factor that should be considered is her personal motivation for writing her book. One cannot read it without concluding that she was at the very least an opportunist. She admitted that her reasons for writing the book were pecuniary rather than patriotic, educational, or literary. Certainly the character she revealed in her book was capable of taking advantage of a reading public inclined to buy romantic literature. She made no attempt to hide her ability to tell a convincing lie and even defended it by saying that ‘lying was as necessary as fighting in warfare.’ As a double agent her very life depended on her ability to tell a believable lie. Thus she was quite capable of using her wits and the gullibility of her readers in order to support herself and her child. In the end we will probably never know conclusively if Madame Loreta Janeta Velazquez was a brave soldier and spy or merely a literary opportunist–or both. If we assume that all of her claims must be confirmed by other evidence in order to be judged true, then we must conclude that much of her story is untrue simply because there is not enough evidence available to substantiate it. And since in every lie there is usually a seed of truth, we may definitely assume that Madame Velazquez has expanded on that seed. This article was written by Sylvia D. Hoffert and originally appeared in the August 1999 issue of Civil War Times magazine. For more great articles, be sure to subscribe to Civil War Times magazine today!

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Art and Culture Art in ancient Greece The Charioteer of Delphi, Delphi Archaeological Museum. One of the greatest surviving works of Greek sculpture, dating from about 470 B.C. The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times until the present, particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture. In the West, the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models. In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Greco-Buddhist art, with ramifications as far as Japan. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the western world. The art of Ancient Greece is usually divided stylistically into four periods: the Geometric, the Archaic, the Classical and the Hellenistic. As noted above, the Geometric age is usually dated from about 1000 BC, although in reality little is known about art in Greece during the preceding 200 years (traditionally known as the Dark Ages), the period of the 7th century BC witnessed the slow development of the Archaic style as exemplified by the black-figure style of vase painting. The onset of the Persian Wars (480 BC to 448 BC) is usually taken as the dividing line between the Archaic and the Classical periods, and the reign of Alexander the Great (336 BC to 323 BC) is taken as separating the Classical from the Hellenistic periods. In reality, there was no sharp transition from one period to another. Forms of art developed at different speeds in different parts of the Greek world, and as in any age some artists worked in more innovative styles than others. Strong local traditions, conservative in character, and the requirements of local cults, enable historians to locate the origins even of displaced works of art. Ancient Greek art has survived most successfully in the forms of sculpture and architecture, as well as in such minor arts as coin design, pottery and gem engraving. From the Archaic period a great deal of painted pottery survives, but these remnants give a misleading impression of the range of Greek artistic expression. The Greeks, like most European cultures, regarded painting as the highest form of art. The painter Polygnotus of Thasos, who worked in the mid 5th century BC, was regarded by later Greeks in much the same way that people today regard Leonardo or Michelangelo, and his works were still being admired 600 years after his death. Today none survive, even as copies. Vanished Wonder of the World: a randomly reassembled column marks the site of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. Greek painters worked mainly on wooden panels, and these perished rapidly after the 4th century AD, when they were no longer actively protected. Today nothing survives of Greek painting, except some examples of painted terra cotta and a few paintings on the walls of tombs, mostly in Macedonia and Italy. Of the masterpieces of Greek painting we have only a few copies from Roman times, and most are of inferior quality. Painting on pottery, of which a great deal survives, gives some sense of the aesthetics of Greek painting. The techniques involved, however, were very different from those used in large-format painting. Even in the fields of sculpture and architecture, only a fragment of the total output of Greek artists survives. Many sculptures of pagan gods were destroyed during the early Christian era. Unfortunately, when marble is burned, lime is produced, and that was the fate of the great bulk of Greek marble statuary during the Middle Ages. Likewise, the acute shortage of metal during the Middle Ages led to the majority of Greek bronze statues being melted down. Those statues which survived did so primarily because they were buried and forgotten, or in the case of bronzes, lost at sea. The great majority of Greek buildings have not survived: they were either pillaged in war, looted for building materials or destroyed in Greece's many earthquakes. Only a handful of temples, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, have been spared. Of the four Wonders of the World created by the Greeks (the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the Colossus of Rhodes and Lighthouse of Alexandria), nothing whatever survives. From the Archaic period of Greek art, painted pottery and sculpture are almost the only forms of art which have survived in any quantity. Painting was in its infancy during this period, and no examples of it have survived. Although coins were invented in the mid 7th century BC, they were not common in most of Greece until the 5th century. Krater (mixing bowl), 12th century BC, National Archaeological Museum, Athens The Ancient Greeks made pottery for everyday use, not for display; the trophies won at games, such as the Panathenaic Amphorae (wine decanters), are the exception. Most surviving pottery consists of drinking vessels such as amphorae, kraters (bowls for mixing wine and water), hydria (water jars), libation bowls, jugs and cups. Painted funeral urns have also been found. Miniatures were also produced in large numbers, mainly for use as offerings at temples. In the Hellenistic period a wider range of pottery was produced, but most of it is of little artistic importance. At the end of the Geometric phased, the Orientalizing phase of vase painting, saw the abstract geometric designs replaced by the more rounded, realistic forms of Eastern motifs, such as the lotus, palmette, lion, and sphinx. Ornament increased in amount and intricacy. In earlier periods even quite small Greek cities produced pottery for their own locale. These varied widely in style and standards. Distinctive pottery that ranks as art was produced on some of the Aegean islands, in Crete, and in the wealthy Greek colonies of southern Italy and Sicily. By the later Archaic and early Classical period, however, the two great commercial powers, Corinth and Athens, came to dominate. Their pottery was exported all over the Greek world, driving out the local varieties. Pots from Corinth and Athens are found as far afield as Spain and Ukraine, and are so common in Italy that they were first collected in the 18th century as "Etruscan vases". Many of these pots are mass-produced products of low quality. In fact, by the 5th century BC, pottery had become an industry and pottery painting ceased to be an important art form. Red-figure kylix by Euerdiges (circa 500 BC) in the British Museum, London. The history of Ancient Greek pottery is divided stylistically into periods: the Protogeometric from about 1050 BC; the Geometric from about 900 BC; the Late Geometric or Archaic from about 750 BC; the Black Figure from the early 7th century BC; and the Red Figure from about 530 BC. The range of colours which could be used on pots was restricted by the technology of firing: black, white, red, and yellow were the most common. In the three earlier periods, the pots were left their natural light colour, and were decorated with slip that turned black in the kiln. The fully mature black-figure technique, with added red and white details and incising for outlines and details, originated in Corinth during the early 7th century BC and was introduced into Attica about a generation later; it flourished until the end of the 6th century BC. The red-figure technique, invented in about 530 BC, reversed this tradition, with the pots being painted black and the figures painted in red. Red-figure vases slowly replaced the black-figure style. Sometimes larger vessels were engraved as well as painted. |Oenochoe,Late Corinthian style, ca.425-400 BC. Found in Chorsiai, Boeotia. |Pear-shaped jar from the Greek island Milos (formerly known as Melos). Terracotta, Late Helladic IIIB (1325-1200 BC). |Four-handled pithos, Early Minoan II (ca. 1500 BC). Found in Knossos,Crete. During the Protogeometric and Geometric periods, Greek pottery was decorated with abstract designs. In later periods, as the aesthetic shifted and the technical proficiency of potters improved, decorations took the form of human figures, usually representing the gods or the heroes of Greek history and mythology. Battle and hunting scenes were also popular, since they allowed the depiction of the horse, which the Greeks held in high esteem. In later periods erotic themes, both heterosexual and male homosexual, became common. Greek pottery is frequently signed, sometimes by the potter or the master of the pottery, but only occasionally by the painter. Hundreds of painters are, however, identifiable by their artistic personalities: where their signatures haven't survived they are named for their subject choices, as "the Achilles Painter", by the potter they worked for, such as the Late Archaic "Kleophrades Painter", or even by their modern locations, such as the Late Archaic "Berlin Painter". Bell Idol, Theban workshop, 7th C. BCE, Louvre. Clay is a material frequently used for the making of votive statuettes or idols, since Minoan civilization until the Hellenistic era. During the 8th century BCE., in Boeotia, one finds manufactured "Bell Idols", female statuettes with mobile legs: the head, small compared to the remainder of the body, is perched at the end of a long neck, while the body is very full, in the shape of bell. At the beginning of 8th century BCE., tombs known as "hero's" receive hundreds, even thousands of small figurines, with rudimentary figuration, generally representing characters with the raised arms, i.e. gods in apotheosis. In later periods the terracotta figurines lose their religious nature, representing from then on characters from everyday life. With 4th and 3rd centuries BCE., figurines known as Tanagra show a refined art. At the same time, cities like Alexandria, Smyrna or Tarsus produced an abundance of grotesque figurines, representing individuals with deformed members, eyes bulging and contorting themselves. These figurines were also made out of bronze. Terracotta was rarely employed, however, for large statuary. The best known exception to this is a statue of Zeus carrying Ganyme'de to Olympus, executed around 470 BCE. In this case, the terracotta is painted. Kouros of the Archaic period, c. 530 B.C, Thebes. Held at the National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Sculpture is by far the most important surviving form of Ancient Greek art, although only a small fragment of Greek sculptural output has survived. Greek sculpture, often in the form of Roman copies, was immensely influential during the Italian Renaissance, and remained the "classic" model for European sculpture until the advent of modernism in the late 19th century. Inspired by the monumental stone sculpture of Egypt and Mesopotamia, during the Archaic period the Greeks began again to carve in stone. Free-standing figures share the solidity and frontal stance characteristic of Eastern models, but their forms are more dynamic than those of Egyptian sculpture, as for example the Lady of Auxerre and Torso of Hera (Early Archaic period, c. 660-580 bc, both in the Louvre, Paris). After about 575 BCE, figures, such as these, both male and female, wear the so-called archaic smile. This expression, which has no specific appropriateness to the person or situation depicted, may have been a device to give the figures a distinctive human characteristic. Three types of figures prevailed - the standing nude youth (kouros), the standing draped girl (kore), and the seated woman. All emphasize and generalize the essential features of the human figure and show an increasingly accurate comprehension of human anatomy. The youths were either sepulchral or votive statues. Examples are Apollo (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), an early work; the Strangford Apollo from Limnos (British Museum, London), a much later work; and the Anavyssos Kouros (National Archaeological Museum, Athens). More of the musculature and skeletal structure is visible in this statue than in earlier works. The standing, draped girls have a wide range of expression, as in the sculptures in the Acropolis Museum, Athens. Their drapery is carved and painted with the delicacy and meticulousness common in the details of sculpture of this period. The Greeks thus decided very early on that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour. Seeing their gods as having human form, there was no distinction between the sacred and the secular in art - the human body was both secular and sacred. A male nude could just as easily be Apollo or Herakles or that year's Olympic boxing champion. In the Archaic Period the most important sculptural form was the kouros (plural kouroi), the standing male nude. The kore (plural korai), or standing clothed female figure, was also common, but since Greek society did not permit the public display of female nudity until the 4th century BC, the kore is considered to be of less importance in the development of sculpture. As with pottery, the Greeks did not produce sculpture merely for artistic display. Statues were commissioned either by aristocratic individuals or by the state, and used for public memorials, as offerings to temples, oracles and sanctuaries (as is frequently shown by inscriptions on the statues), or as markers for graves. Statues in the Archaic period were not all intended to represent specific individuals. They were depictions of an ideal - beauty, piety, honour or sacrifice. These were always depictions of young men, ranging in age from adolescence to early maturity, even when placed on the graves of (presumably) elderly citizens. Kouroi were all stylistically similar. Gradations in the social stature of the person commissioning the statue were indicated by size rather than artistic innovation. Bronze Sculpture, thought to be either Poseidon or Zeus, c. 460 B.C, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. This masterpiece of classical sculpture was found by fishermen in their nets off the coast of Cape Artemisium in 1928. The figure is more than 2 m in height. In the Classical period there was a revolution in Greek statuary, usually associated with the introduction of democracy and the end of the aristocratic culture associated with the kouroi. The Classical period saw changes in the style and function of sculpture. Poses became more naturalistic, and the technical skill of Greek sculptors in depicting the human form in a variety of poses greatly increased. From about 500 BC statues began to depict real people. The statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton set up in Athens to mark the overthrow of the tyranny were said to be the first public monuments to actual people. At the same time sculpture and statues were put to wider uses. The great temples of the Classical era such as the Parthenon in Athens, and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, required relief sculpture for decorative friezes, and sculpture in the round to fill the triangular fields of the pediments. The difficult aesthetic and technical challenge stimulated much in the way of sculptural innovation. Unfortunately these works survive only in fragments, the most famous of which are the Parthenon Marbles, half of which are in the British Museum. Funeral statuary evolved during this period from the rigid and impersonal kouros of the Archaic period to the highly personal family groups of the Classical period. These monuments are commonly found in the suburbs of Athens, which in ancient times were cemeteries on the outskirts of the city. Although some of them depict "ideal" types - the mourning mother, the dutiful son - they increasingly depicted real people, typically showing the departed taking his dignified leave from his family. They are among the most intimate and affecting remains of the Ancient Greeks. Family group on a grave marker from Athens, National Archaeological Museum, Athens In the Classical period for the first time we know the names of individual sculptors. Phidias oversaw the design and building of the Parthenon. Praxiteles made the female nude respectable for the first time in the Late Classical period (mid 4th century): his Aphrodite of Knidos, which survives in copies, was said by Pliny to be the greatest statue in the world. The greatest works of the Classical period, the Statue of Zeus at Olympia and the Statue of Athena Parthenos (both executed by Phidias or under his direction), are lost, although smaller copies and good descriptions of both still exist. Their size and magnificence prompted emperors to seize them in the Byzantine period, and both were removed to Constantinople, where they were later destroyed in fire. |The Winged Victory of Samothrace (Hellenistic), The Louvre, Paris. |Laocoön and his Sons (Late Hellenistic), Vatican Museum. |Head of Antinous (Roman Hellenistic), Delphi Archaeological Museum. The transition from the Classical to the Hellenistic period occurred during the 4th century BC. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great (336 BC to 323 BC), Greek culture spread as far as India, as revealed by the excavations of Ai-Khanoum in eastern Afghanistan, and the civilization of the Greco-Bactrians and the Indo-Greeks. Greco-Buddhist art represented a syncretism between Greek art and the visual expression of Buddhism. Greco-Buddhist frieze of Gandhara with devotees, holding plantain leaves, in Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian columns, 1st-2nd century CE. Buner, Swat, Pakistan. Victoria and Albert Museum. Thus Greek art became more diverse and more influenced by the cultures of the peoples drawn into the Greek orbit. In the view of most art historians, it also declined in quality and originality; this, however, is a subjective judgement which artists and art-lovers of the time would not have shared. New centres of Greek culture, particularly in sculpture, developed in Alexandria, Antioch, Pergamum, and other cities. By the 2nd century the rising power of Rome had also absorbed much of the Greek tradition and an increasing proportion of its products as well. During this period sculpture became more and more naturalistic. Common people, women, children, animals and domestic scenes became acceptable subjects for sculpture, which was commissioned by wealthy families for the adornment of their homes and gardens. Realistic portraits of men and women of all ages were produced, and sculptors no longer felt obliged to depict people as ideals of beauty or physical perfection. At the same time, the new Hellenistic cities springing up all over Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia required statues depicting the gods and heroes of Greece for their temples and public places. This made sculpture, like pottery, an industry, with the consequent standardisation and some lowering of quality. For these reasons many more Hellenistic statues have survived than is the case with the Classical period. Some of the best known Hellenistic sculptures are the Winged Victory of Samothrace (2nd or 1st century BC), the statue of Aphrodite from the island of Melos known as the Venus de Milo (mid 2nd century BC), the Dying Gaul (about 230 BC), and the monumental group Laocoön and his Sons (late 1st century BC). All these statues depict Classical themes, but their treatment is far more sensuous and emotional than the austere taste of the Classical period would have allowed or its technical skills permitted. Discoveries made since the end of the 19th century surrounding the (now submerged) ancient Egyptian city of Heracleum include a 4th century BC, unusually sensual, detailed and feministic (as opposed to deified) depiction of Isis, marking a combination of Egyptian and Hellenistic forms beginning around the time of Egypt's conquest by Alexander the Great. Hellenistic sculpture was also marked by an increase in scale, which culminated in the Colossus of Rhodes (late 3rd century), which was the same size as the Statue of Liberty. The combined effect of earthquakes and looting have destroyed this as well as other very large works of this period. The restored Stoa of Attalus, Athens Architecture (building executed to an aesthetically considered design) was extinct in Greece from the end of the Mycenaean period (about 1200 BC) until the 7th century, when urban life and prosperity recovered to a point where public building could be undertaken. But since most Greek buildings in the Archaic and Early Classical periods were made of wood or mud-brick, nothing remains of them except a few ground-plans, and there are almost no written sources on early architecture or descriptions of buildings. Most of our knowledge of Greek architecture comes from the few surviving buildings of the Classical, Hellenistic and Roman periods (since Roman architecture heavily copied Greek), and from late written sources such as Vitruvius (1st century AD). This means that there is a strong bias towards temples, the only buildings which survive in any number. The standard format of Greek public buildings is well known from surviving examples such as the Parthenon, and even more so from Roman buildings built partly on the Greek model, such as the Pantheon in Rome. The building was usually either a cube or a rectangle made from limestone, of which Greece has an abundance, and which was cut into large blocks and dressed. Marble was an expensive building material in Greece: high quality marble came only from Mt Pentelus in Attica and from a few islands such as Paros, and its transportation in large blocks was difficult. It was used mainly for sculptural decoration, not structurally, except in the very grandest buildings of the Classical period such as the Parthenon. There were two main styles (or "orders") of Greek architecture, the Doric and the Ionic. These names were used by the Greeks themselves, and reflected their belief that the styles descended from the Dorian and Ionian Greeks of the Dark Ages, but this is unlikely to be true. The Doric style was used in mainland Greece and spread from there to the Greek colonies in Italy. The Ionic style was used in the cities of Ionia (now the west coast of Turkey) and some of the Aegean islands. The Doric style was more formal and austere, the Ionic more relaxed and decorative. The more ornate Corinthian style was a later development of the Ionic. These styles are best known through the three orders of column capitals, but there are differences in most points of design and decoration between the orders. Most of the best known surviving Greek buildings, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, are Doric. The Erechtheum, next to the Parthenon, however, is Ionic. The Ionic order became dominant in the Hellenistic period, since its more decorative style suited the aesthetic of the period better than the more restrained Doric. Some of the best surviving Hellenistic buildings, such as the Library of Celsus, can be seen in Turkey, at cities such as Ephesus and Pergamum. But in the greatest of Hellenistic cities, Alexandria in Egypt, almost nothing survives. Coins were invented in Lydia in the 7th century, but they were first extensively used by the Greeks, and the Greeks set the canon of coin design which has been followed ever since. Coin design today still recognisably follows patterns descended from Ancient Greece. The Greeks did not see coin design as a major art form, but the durability and abundance of coins have made them one of the most important sources of knowledge about Greek aesthetics. Greek coins are, incidentally, the only art form from the ancient Greek world which can still be bought and owned by private collectors of modest means. Greek designers began the practice of putting a profile portrait on the obverse of coins. This was initially a symbolic portrait of the patron god or goddess of the city issuing the coin: Athena for Athens, Apollo at Corinth, Demeter at Thebes and so on. Later, heads of heroes of Greek mythology were used. Greek cities in Italy such as Syracuse began to put the heads of real people on coins in the 4th century BC, and the Hellenistic kings of Egypt and Syria were soon putting their own heads on their coins. On the reverse of their coins the Greek cities often put a symbol of the city: an owl for Athens, a dolphin for Syracuse and so on. The placing of inscriptions on coins also began in Greek times. All these customs were later refined and developed by the Romans.

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The passage of the National Flood Insurance Act in 1968 and the establishment of the NFIP marked what can be considered the official shift in the United States from a principal focus on flood control to a focus on flood damage reduction with greater consideration of nonstructural measures and insurance, paired with structural measures, to manage flood risk. The movement toward flood risk management continued and was emphasized, for example, in the wake of Hurricane Katrina with the application of tools associated with risk management in other sectors to flood risk management. This movement is changing the manner in which the nation addresses its floodplain management issues and is requiring agencies to make, or begin to make, significant changes in the manner in which they carry out their programs. These changes are seen in FEMA’s management of the NFIP and will be affecting their approach in the years immediately ahead. It is not a question of if, but when, the transition to risk-based approaches will be completed across all relevant parties. The principal responsibility for NFIP-related actions is assigned by the National Flood Insurance Act to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) (originally assigned to the Department of Housing and Urban Development or HUD). FEMA also has organic authorities to “lead the Nation’s efforts to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from, and mitigate the risk of natural disasters, acts of terrorism, and other man-made disasters, including catastrophic incidents” (Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006). Other federal agencies, states, and local communities are assigned responsibilities by the National Flood Insurance Act and Executive Order 11988 (1977) to support these goals in collaboration with FEMA. The National Flood Insurance Act specifically encourages states and local governments to make appropriate land-use adjustments to reduce the exposure of communities to flooding. The National Flood Insurance Act also establishes the requirement for the development of a Unified National Program (UNP) for floodplain management. The initial UNP document was created by the Water Resources Council in 1976 and followed by a second in 1979. Updated plans were prepared by an interagency task forces operating under FEMA oversight in 1986 and 1994 and reflected agency consensus. The UNP urged cooperative efforts among the federal government, states, and the private sector as well as within the federal government itself. Other federal agencies play important roles in managing the nation’s flood risk. Since the early part of the 20th century, USACE has been assigned responsibility under various flood control and water resources development acts for the construction and, in some cases, operation of flood control works. In 2006, USACE, in coordination with FEMA, established the National Flood Risk Management Program in support of an effort to move the nation from a flood control approach to a flood risk management approach.1 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), and U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) also have legislated responsibilities that directly or indirectly involve flood risk management.2 State, tribal, and local governments have responsibilities that are also critical to managing the nation’s flood risk in general and behind levees in particular. For example, local and to a lesser degree, state governments control land use and exposure to risk. Local government plays an important role in levee-related risk communication (Chapter 7). The various roles and responsibilities at all levels highlight the need for a coordinated, national approach that shares responsibility across federal, state, and local government and other entities in managing flood risk. In this chapter, challenges and opportunities related to a shared national strategy for levee-related flood risk and management are explored. Many federal agencies have responsibilities that involve management of flood risk and levee-related flood risk, in particular. Their roles are dictated by their legislated authorities and responsibilities as well as by presidential guidance. Because of the large number of agencies and complexity of legislation, coordination challenges exist that are manifested in many ways—from ensuring consistency in flood risk communication to compilation of a national levee inventory. USACE and FEMA: Different Approaches to Levee-Related Risk Analysis When HUD and FEMA initially began to develop procedural guidelines for levees in the NFIP, they relied heavily on the resources and advice of the USACE. When Title 44, Section 65.10, of the Code of Federal Regulations (44 CFR §65.10) was developed, it included references to USACE technical publications as measures of good practice in engineering. Although the USACE technical approaches have evolved over time, reference to these older documents remain in 44 CFR §65.10. In 1996, when USACE began to move to a risk-based approach to analysis of flood hydrology and hydraulics and other aspects of flood system integrity determination, FEMA continued with its existing approach. In 2006, the Interagency Levee Policy Review Committee recommended that FEMA shift to a risk-based analysis procedure over the following 10-year period (ILPRC, 2006). In Chapter 3, this report recommends that FEMA move to use of a risk-based levee analysis approach. As noted in Chapter 2, the 2012 Biggert-Waters Act requires coordination between FEMA and USACE in the assessment of levees that exist in both programs: “information and data collected by or for the USACE under the Inspection of Completed Works Program is sufficient to satisfy the flood protection structure accreditation requirements.” Since it appears that approximately 65 percent of NFIP-accredited and PAL levees are also in one of the USACE programs and subject to USACE risk-based inspections, it would not be efficient to establish two separate evaluation methodologies for ensuring the integrity of those levees. If FEMA chooses to continue its present approach for the analysis of other NFIP-accredited levees not in the USACE programs, levee owners and their engineers will be faced with two or more different approaches to analysis of levee integrity and risk. The technical and programmatic differences between FEMA and USACE as they relate to the evaluation of flood hazards and levee systems have been and continue to be an issue that compromises interagency communica- 2 A Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force, established in 1975, promotes programs and policies that reduce flood losses and protect the environment. See http://www.fema.gov/national-flood-insurance-program-1/federal-interagency-floodplain-management-task-force. tion and causes confusion and frustration in the local communities that work with the agencies and the public that is being served. Furthermore, the benefits of a more modern risk-based approach to assessing risk behind levees have been made clear. Both the complexities of coordinating the programs of multiple government entities and the benefits of conducting risk-based analyses and acquisition of the data needed to conduct these analyses are illustrated in recent events involving the City of Dallas, Texas (Box 8-1). FEMA and USACE should jointly develop a common, risk-based approach to levee assessment in a timely manner and apply this approach to all levees assessed by the two agencies. This includes a joint methodology, procedure, and where feasible, the sharing of models and other risk analysis tools. To achieve this goal, FEMA and USACE could craft a memorandum of understanding. Furthermore, it would be useful for other federal agencies with interest in risk-based assessment of levees and floodwalls to be invited to participate in the process. Other Coordination Challenges Between FEMA and USACE When accredited levees are found deficient by either FEMA and/or USACE, levee owners in affected communities attempt to take action to remediate the deficiency. Where the level of protection provided by the levee is acknowledged to be the same by both USACE and FEMA, coordination problems are minimized and the com- Dallas Levees: Working to Determine the True Risk The Dallas Levee System in Dallas, Texas, includes over 20 miles of levees that protect downtown Dallas and thousands of citizens against a 0.0125 percent (8,800-year) annual chance flood. In 2009, USACE conducted a periodic inspection of the levee system and informed the city and FEMA that the levees would not performed as designed and rated these levees unacceptable. This jeopardized the city’s levee system accreditation status and FEMA began to remap the areas behind the levees, designating them as being in the Special Flood Hazard Area. In response, the City of Dallas spent more than $25 million dollars studying the integrity of the levee system and devising a plan to remediate known deficiencies in the levee system. The city also completed an Emergency Action Plan and identified 150 million dollars of levee improvements and began to correct 198 maintenance deficiencies previously identified in the system and those identified by the city’s engineering study. Given the potential consequences of levee deaccreditation and in keeping with an agencywide effort to conduct risk-based analyses, USACE applied a new risk assessment process to the Dallas levee system. After an intensive study of the levees, made possible in part by the engineering investigations funded by the City of Dallas, USACE concluded that: • The frequency of major floods was rarer than had been originally determined. A flood event that could overtop the levees was rated at 0.01 to 0.02 percent annual chance (1,000-year to 5,000-year). • The duration of floods that might occur is much shorter than once thought. Peak flooding lasts hours and days, not months. As a result, the levees would be less likely to become saturated and fail. • While levee slope slides have occurred over the years, the detailed analysis indicates that “these slides do not represent an unacceptable risk” (USACE, 2012). The City of Dallas is continuing efforts to remediate levee deficiencies; however, as a result of USACE’s modern risk analysis approach, the extent and cost to the city of remediation will be decreased. The City of Dallas expects to complete repairs in 2013 and intends to submit levee certification to FEMA so that the remapping of the area behind the levees reflects the new conditions and supports accreditation. The city plans to work with USACE to remove the unacceptable rating under the USACE periodic inspection program. munity can attempt to remediate against a common standard. When, on the other hand, the levee was built by USACE to a higher standard than was necessary for entry into the NFIP, USACE may require the levee owner to remediate the deficiency not to the NFIP base flood elevation but to the original level of protection provided by USACE. When the community can only find resources to accomplish the mitigation to the lower level, USACE may determine that it will not permit work to move forward because that work would not bring the levee into USACE compliance and might make it more difficult to eventually achieve the higher USACE standard (Box 5-7). Another potential issue arises when an accredited levee (granting the areas behind the levee exemption from the mandatory flood insurance purchase requirement), owned and maintained by USACE, is no longer certified by USACE. USACE may not permit local governments to accomplish the remediation, leaving the local governments with no way to bring the levees back to an accredited status. In both of these cases, the agencies are operating within their regulatory authorities. However, the community is caught in the middle and faces the consequences. The utility of a joint FEMA-USACE procedure allowing quick attention to levee-related situations where regulatory authority creates intractable situations for the affected community is clear. Levee Construction and Repair The 1994 Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee (IFMRC) report on the 1993 Mississippi River flood identified that federal agencies other than USACE were providing funds to communities to build or reconstruct damaged levees following flood events (e.g., the HUD and the Department of Commerce’s Economic Development Administration). The IFMRC report recommended that having multiple agencies fund the construction or reconstruction of such levees created challenges later. If not built to certification standards, the levee would not be accredited or possibly ineligible for participation in the Flood Control and Coastal Emergency Act (P.L. 84-99) program despite the fact that it was built by a federal agency. As a solution, the IFMRC report recommended that USACE be designated as the federal agency responsible for the oversight and construction of levees by federal agencies. The consolidation of construction responsibility for levees that receive federal funding promotes consistent construction outcomes that align with USACE and FEMA standards. A National Levee Inventory Currently, the location and condition of levees in the United States is unclear—where they are, what they are protecting (assets and lives), and their condition (Chapter 6). This represents a significant gap in addressing the challenge of flood risk management behind levees: How can the problem be addressed if the extent and location of the problem is unclear? Although the long-term plan of both USACE and FEMA is to develop a single database for covering the levees that operate under the oversight of the two agencies, this consolidation effort, which was initially recommended in the 2006 National Levee Policy Study, is proceeding slowly because of resource constraints (FEMA, 2006). The National Levee Database (NLD) operated by USACE, which will be the eventual single database, is limited in information concerning NFIP and other non-USACE levee systems. Eventually USACE may be able to bring into the database information about state, local, and individually operated levees that do not fall into either of the federal agency programs. However, at present, there is a significant need for completion of the consolidation of the federal levee inventories so that levees in the two federal programs can be identified and overlaps eliminated. The maintenance today of two databases is inefficient and creates a potential for disinformation at times when information about levees is badly needed. The transfer of information about levees that are not part of the NFIP but are a part of FEMA’s MLI database into USACE’s National Levee Database is needed. (As indicated in Chapter 7, in areas covered by its Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs), FEMA has identified approximately 29,800 miles of levees, only 5,100 of which are part of the NFIP.) These non-NFIP levees, along with several thousand other levees may eventually be entered into the database. The addition of these nonfederal program levees will require the close cooperation of the states and local entities. In 2006 the Association of State Floodplain Managers (ASFPM) and the National Association of Flood and Stormwater Management Agencies (NAFSMA) jointly sponsored a National Flood Risk Summit, convening federal, state, and local flood experts and selected members of the public at Wye Island, Maryland. Flood risk communication was a key topic during discussions. The principal challenge identified regarding risk communication was the multiplicity of uncoordinated messages developed and communicated by federal agencies. The collective opinion of those in the Wye Island meeting was the need for increased coordination of this messaging. Discussion with relevant stakeholders during information-gathering efforts of this committee corroborate this opinion and indicate that the problem continues to exist. Given the multiple entities that have either regulatory authority or considerable interest in levees, it is no surprise that inconsistent messaging from multiple sources exists and leads to confusion and misunderstanding. Inconsistent messaging is directly related to the lack of collaboration and coordination among entities in communicating risk to local stakeholders. Inconsistent messaging can involve definitions, for example, what defines a levee, what the appropriate definition of risk is, and concepts such as the reality of residual risk behind a levee. Simplicity of messaging is also important in communicating risk (Paveglio et al., 2009; Ballard et al., 2012) and becomes a challenge in the case of, for example, communicating an explanation of the one percent annual chance flood. Flood inundation and other specialty maps for flood-prone areas are being prepared by multiple agencies to cover the same land area (FEMA, NRCS, FWS, USGS, USACE, and NOAA). Some of the overlap among these maps is a result of research and development activities being conducted by the agencies. In other cases, the overlap results from the necessity of supporting an agency mission. Furthermore, other messaging products prepared by federal agencies addressing the challenge of floodplain management or flood risk reduction are not always coordinated with a consistent message (Chapter 7). There is no one agency that has the responsibility to provide oversight and coordination of federal flood risk mapping products and other communication products. Similarly, there is little to no coordination of the collection of underlying data, such as with Lidar, by these agencies. The utility of levee-related flood risk communication developed and presented at the federal level is challenged by uncoordinated messaging. One federal message using consistent terminology, transparent data, and open discussion and decisions about the determination of flood risk is critical to inform the affected communities who, in turn, communicate and manage risk at the local level. FEMA should assume a leadership role in providing direction for research, development, and release of flood risk communication products and maps. This role might include FEMA constituting a central leadership group or some type of coordinating body. FEMA should communicate flood risk through a collaborative approach that works with and provides strong support to local communities. This additional emphasis entails local involvement (from individuals, communities, and states) in all phases of the risk communication process. This requires that FEMA interact with preestablished collaborative decision-making networks at the local level. Success lies in providing risk information to the local level where local governments and citizens have the responsibility to drive behavioral changes to reduce risk. USACE and FEMA share responsibility for oversight of the conditions of levees that are part of both programs and ensuring that the integrity of the structures means necessary standards to ensure the safety of those behind levees. It has been difficult for FEMA and USACE to develop a comprehensive approach to reducing flood damages across the nation, and in the case of levees, to ensure that levees are given proper oversight by those responsible for them, the levee owners, and operators. However, promising coordination efforts between the two agencies exist, including three joint “task force” initiatives that promote better interagency cooperation and collaboration, including improving the results of levee-related activities in both agencies, and better aligning data collected in USACE levee inspection with requirements for accreditation purposes (FEMA, 2012a,b). This collaboration permits FEMA and USACE to work together to deal with joint challenges such as development of policies for vegetation on levees (USACE, 2009). In most cases, states play a minimal role in dealing with the flood challenges facing communities in their states. Less than five states have inventories of the levees within their boundaries.3 Few states have permitting or land-use regulations governing the construction of levees. Even though the National Flood Insurance Act strongly encouraged state participation in the program in support of its goals, most states defer action to FEMA and their communities. State-focused nongovernmental organizations such as the ASFPM and NAFSMA play a critical role in promoting the shared responsibility of the states. Since flooding does not fall neatly into geographical borders, “communities” cannot be defined solely by jurisdictional boundaries (NRC, 2011). Regional bodies conducting risk communication to achieve common commitment to sustainable mitigation, can play an important role. For example, the cooperative decision-making frameworks built by metropolitan planning organizations4 have been in place for several decades, and many have built networks of trust and credibility in communities. The last Unified National Program for Floodplain Management was published by the Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force in 1994. It identified, as did the 1994 Sharing the Challenge report on the 1993 Mississippi River floods (IFMRC, 1994), the need for action by the federal government to bring together all parties involved in development and implementation of national floodplain management programs to better define the responsibilities of each group and to develop a roadmap dealing with these challenges in the future. No action has been taken on recommendations of either effort. The Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force is a useful vehicle to promote the need for better definition of the shared responsibilities for floodplain management among all the parties. Individuals and communities also share in the responsibility for taking those steps necessary to manage flood risks. The deaccreditation of thousands of miles of NFIP and USACE levees in the wake of map modernization indicates that community leaders were not monitoring the condition of the structures protecting their communities and not understanding their responsibility for ensuring that these levee systems were meeting accreditation requirements. However, it is reasonable to conclude that the deaccreditation of levees has countered this notion in NFIP communities around the nation. Use of modern risk methodology will provide more accurate information on risks, especially behind levees, information that will be useful at the community level. Communication of the flood risk behind levees can be most effectively accomplished by local governments (Chapter 7), but will require the active engagement of these officials, not only for the actual communication of the risk messages, but also for the implementation of land-use and building code regulations needed to deal with the residual risks that will be described by the use of new risk-based tools. Once properly informed by local governments of the risks they face behind levees, the property owners are responsible for the actions necessary to physically mitigate potential losses and transfer risk, for example, through the use of risk-based insurance. This report provides advice on the current treatment of levees within the NFIP (Box 8-2). Key to this advice is the transition of FEMA to a modern, risk-based approach to flood risk analysis. This transition will, no doubt, be challenging. New or revised regulations, procedures, and training systems will need to be established, and clear, consistent messaging to those affected by the new procedures is critical. Legal challenges, as there are today, will most likely arise. The appropriate balance between public and private investment will continually be considered. Despite these challenges, it is clear that a national move toward floodplain management anchored in a modern risk-based analysis is imperative. This is increasingly recognized in the floodplain management community and 3 This statement is based on information in the Interagency Levee Policy Review Committee report (ILPRC, 2006) and inquiries to states during committee deliberations. 4 Metro areas with a population of more than 50,000 are required by federal law (23 U.S.C. §134, Metropolitan transportation planning) to establish a metropolitan planning organization (MPO) to represent local, regional, and national interests in the transportation planning process (AMPO, 2009). The nation’s 385 MPOs represent areas ranging from 50,000 to 19 million people totaling roughly 84 percent of the population, and with about half administered by a regional council (AMPO, 2009). MPOs are governed by democratically elected officials accountable to local and regional constituencies. These regional leaders and the staffs of the MPOs routinely work with representatives and officials responsible for other planning activities including land use, economic development, environmental protection, and more (AMPO, 2009). Improving NFIP Policies and Practices: Conclusions and Recommendations The committee identified multiple conclusions and recommendations to improve the policies and practices of the treatment of levees within FEMA’s NFIP, spanning risk analysis, flood insurance, risk reduction, and risk communication. Advice falls within the central theme of the report—the need for a national move to flood risk management. Conclusions and recommendations are found throughout the report and consolidated here. Recommendations to improve NFIP’s flood risk analysis, the analytical piece of flood risk management, including advice on FEMA’s Levee Analysis and Mapping Procedure, include: • Recommendation 1: The NFIP should move to a modern risk analysis that makes use of modern methods and computational mapping capacity to produce state-of-the-art risk estimates for all areas that are vulnerable to flooding. • Recommendation 2: FEMA should move directly to a modern risk-based analysis for dealing with areas behind levees and not implement the Levee Analysis and Mapping Procedure (LAMP). Should the decision be made not to implement LAMP, Chapter 4 contains recommendations to pursue interim steps pending development and completion of a modern risk-based analysis. Conclusions and recommendations related to flood insurance including flood insurance pricing behind levees and the mandatory flood insurance purchase requirement, both in the context of a modern-risk based analysis, include: • Conclusion 1: The method used to calculate the average historical loss year ensures that in the long run there will be inadequate premiums collected to cover costs in significant flood years. • Conclusion 2: The NFIP is constructed using an actuarially sound formulaic approach for the full-risk classes of policies, but is financially unsound in the aggregate because of constraints (i.e., legislative mandates) that go beyond actuarial considerations. • Recommendation 3: Rate setting for properties behind levees, accredited or not accredited, should be improved by using the modern risk analysis method employing advances in hydrology, meteorology, and geotechnical engineering to more precisely calculate the probability of water inundation levels and the associated damage estimates throughout the area behind the levee in a graduated fashion. • Recommendation 4: To the extent possible to better achieve fiscal soundness, the properties that have been grandfathered into the NFIP or that receive discounts due to statutory considerations should have their pricing moved to the actuarially based prices using the detailed probability-of-inundation estimates and detailed economic damage models. • Conclusion 3: The current policy of mandatory flood insurance purchase appears to be ineffective in achieving widespread purchase of NFIP flood insurance policies. • Conclusion 4: The rate of compliance with the mandatory purchase requirement indicates challenges with lender enforcement and federal oversight of this lending. • Conclusion 5: Mandatory purchase requirements have led many property owners to perceive that if they are not mandated to have insurance, then they are not susceptible to damage from floods. • Conclusion 6: At this time, there is no sound reason to institute mandatory purchase of flood insurance in areas behind accredited levees. • Conclusion 7: A modern risk-based analysis has the potential to impact the purchase of flood insurance, diversify the NFIP’s exposure to flood risk, and generate a more fiscally sound program. • Recommendation 5: Once the risk-based approach has been put in place and matures, FEMA should review and study the necessity of the mandatory purchase requirement, behind levees and throughout the Special Flood Hazard Areas. Conclusions and recommendations related to implementing flood risk management strategies, exploring all available structural, nonstructural, and risk transfer mechanisms such as insurance, include: • Conclusion 8: There is a clear need for a comprehensive, tailored approach to risk management behind levees that (1) is designed and implemented at the local level; (2) involves federal and state agencies, communities, and households; (3) takes into account possible future conditions; and (4) relies on an effective portfolio of structural measures, nonstructural measures, and insurance to reduce the risk to those behind levees. • Recommendation 6: To reduce the flood risk to those behind levees, FEMA should encourage communities to develop and implement multimeasure risk management strategies for areas behind accredited levees. Recommendations related to understanding and communicating flood risk behind levees, an integral part of flood risk management, include: • Recommendation 7: FEMA and others involved in risk communication at all levels should incorporate contemporary risk communication principles in the development of flood risk communication strategies and implementation efforts. • Recommendation 8: FEMA should support evaluation of the success of risk communication efforts, including at the community level when appropriate, that are informed by appropriate assessment tools such as baseline information and predefined metrics. Moving to flood risk management is a shared responsibility at all levels: federal, state, and local government, private citizens, communities, and all other entities dealing with flood risk. Related conclusions and recommendations include: • Recommendation 9: FEMA and USACE should jointly develop a common, risk-based approach to levee assessment in a timely manner and apply this approach to all levees assessed by the two agencies. This includes a joint methodology, procedure, and where feasible, the sharing of models and other risk analysis tools. • Conclusion 9: One federal message using consistent terminology, transparent data, and open discussion and decisions about the determination of flood risk is critical to inform the affected communities who, in turn, communicate and manage risk at the local level. • Recommendation 10: FEMA should assume a leadership role in providing direction for research, development, and release of flood risk communication products and maps. • Recommendation 11: FEMA should communicate flood risk through a collaborative approach that works with and provides strong support to local communities. • Conclusion 10: The Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force (FIFMTF) is a useful vehicle to promote the need for better definition of the shared responsibilities for floodplain management among all the parties. is well illustrated by USACE. Indeed, FEMA can learn from the experience of USACE in moving to a modern risk-based analytical approach. Specifically, USACE has converted its hydrologic and hydraulic analyses to a risk-based approach and instituted a nationwide risk management program to provide risk-based evaluations of levees as part of USACE’s periodic inspection programs. In the NFIP, some analyses will be carried out by private engineering firms, many of which are already involved with USACE implementation of these new approaches. The intersection between FEMA and USACE is only one piece of the necessary collaborative and coordinated approach to levee-related flood risk. Currently, these efforts at all levels are not as robust as they could be. Increased coordination and cooperation among and between governmental agencies, state and local entities as well as the public at large, would result in increased effectiveness of the NFIP, improved efficiency within the NFIP, and improve the nation’s approach to floodplain management and treatment of levees. Promising developments do exist, as discussed above, but, more progress is necessary. A coordinated, national approach that shares responsibility across federal, state, and local entities is necessary to appropriately manage the nation’s flood risk behind levees. AMPO (Association of Metropolitan Planning Organizations). 2009. Issue Brief. Washington, DC: AMPO. Ballard, H. L., E. Evans, V. E. Sturtevant, and P. Jakes. 2012. The Evolution of Smokey Bear: Environmental Education About Wildfire for Youth. Journal of Environmental Education 43(4): 227-240. FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency). 2006. The National Levee Challenge: Levees and the FEMA Flood Map Modernization Initiative. Washington, DC: FEMA. FEMA. 2012a. Continued Coordination between FEMA and USACE, Fiscal Year 2012. Washington, DC: FEMA. FEMA. 2012b. FEMA-USACE Levee Task Force. Draft Briefing Sheet, September 25, 2012. Washington, DC: FEMA. IFMRC (Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee). 1994. Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain Management into the 21st Century. Report of the Interagency Floodplain Administration Floodplain Management Task Force. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. ILPRC (Interagency Levee Policy Review Committee). 2006. Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain Management into the 21st Century. Washington, DC: ILPRC. NRC (National Research Council). 2011. Building Community Disaster Resilience Through Private-Public Collaboration. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Paveglio, T., M. S. Carroll, J. D. Absher, and T. Norton. 2009. Just Blowing Smoke? Residents’ Social Construction of Communication About Wildfire. Environmental Communication 3(1): 76-94. USACE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). 2009. Guidelines for Landscape Planting and Vegetation Management at Levees, Floodwalls, Embankment Dams, and Appurtenant Structures. ETL 1110-2-571. Washington, DC: USACE. USACE. 2012. Talking Points on the Dallas Floodway System—DF & DFE, Southwest Division. Washington, DC: USACE.

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The use of DNA sequence data is vital for a wide variety of research in evolutionary biology and ecology. Molecular phylogenies, which rely on DNA sequences for their construction, are extremely prevalent in biological research. Whether being used to correct for shared ancestry among organisms (Felsenstein, 1985), or to test hypotheses related phylogeography (Avise et al., 1987), diversification (Hey, 1992; Maddison, 2006), and trait evolution (Hansen, 1997; Bollback, 2006), phylogenies are required. Additionally, the use of phylogenies is important in community ecology to place systems into an evolutionary framework (Webb et al., 2002; Cavender-Bares et al., 2009). The construction of molecular phylogenies for systematic purposes is also a popular tool for taxonomists to identify new taxa and classify organisms (De Queiroz & Gauthier, 1994; Tautz et al., 2003). Some DNA sequences, like the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI), have utility as a method to identify and catalog species using DNA barcoding (Hebert et al., 2003; Ratnasingham & Hebert, 2007, 2013). Sequence databases like GenBank provide a valuable resource for using DNA sequence data to test evolutionary and ecological hypotheses. With the reduction in cost of DNA sequencing and the advancement of methods to analyze sequence data, the amount of sequence data available for use is growing at a rapid pace. Given that GenBank has over one-trillion sequences from over 370,000 species (Benson et al., 2017) and recent advances in methods to create massive phylogenies using either super-matrix (Driskell et al., 2004; Ciccarelli et al., 2006) or mega-phylogeny approaches (Smith, Beaulieu & Donoghue, 2009; Izquierdo-Carrasco et al., 2014), the ability to generate large DNA sequence data sets for comparative analyses has become fairly common (Leslie et al., 2012; Rabosky et al., 2013; Spriggs, Christin & Edwards, 2014; Zanne et al., 2014; Shi & Rabosky, 2015). Additionally, sequence retrieval with command line utilities like National Center for Biotechnology Information’s eutils (NCBI Resource Coordinators, 2017) as well as within common scripting environments for biological analyses, like R (R Development Core Team, 2018), Perl (Perl Development Team, 2017), and Python (Python Software Foundation, 2016), are made possible with packages like ape (Paradis, Claude & Strimmer, 2004), rentrez (Winter, 2016), reutils (Schofl, 2015), seqinr (Charif & Lobry, 2007), Bioperl (Stajich et al., 2002), and Biopython (Chapman & Chang, 2000). While GenBank provides a wealth of sequence data for researchers to use, some of it is rather difficult to manipulate into a useful form. For example, some sequences may be concatenated together, or the only gene sequence available for a species for the locus of interest may be within a mitochondrial or chloroplast genome. At the time of writing, GenBank has 70,048 complete or partial mitochondrial genomes, and 4,698 chloroplast genomes; and a simple search for sequences containing concatenated coding sequences and tRNAs resulted in 286,538 additional sequences exclusive of the previously mentioned sequences. Although GenBank’s annotation system provides a means to see where a locus of interest is in a genome or concatenated sequence and provides the ability to download it manually, this is extremely time-consuming when many accessions are involved, and not a feasible way to extract mass amounts of sequence data for use in research. While alternative sequence databases exist, especially for popular loci utilized for DNA barcoding and microbial community identification (ex. COI, 16S, etc.), these databases typically are extremely focused on just a few loci (DeSantis et al., 2006; Ratnasingham & Hebert, 2007; Cole et al., 2013). While these databases typically house data from GenBank, they may not have complete overlap with sequence data on GenBank, such as those from complete organelle sequences (ex. GenBank KR150862.1 for the mitochondrial genome of Bujurquina mariae, which is a species not included in the Barcode of Life Database even though the GenBank accession has a record for COI). Another major challenge to obtaining large amounts of sequence data is the highly variable nomenclature of gene names. Most genes have several alternative names and symbols that are present in sequence databases. Among distant taxa, it is common for homologous genes to vary considerably in nomenclature (Tuason et al., 2003). Even within a group of closely related taxa or within a single taxon itself, how genes are annotated may differ substantially from record to record and a wide variety of alternative gene names may be found for a single gene (Morgan et al., 2004; Fundel & Zimmer, 2006). This poses serious problems when searching through databases for molecular sequence data (Mitchell, McCray & Bodenreider, 2003; Tamames & Valencia, 2006). Here, we present the R package AnnotationBustR to address the issues discussed above. AnnotationBustR reads GenBank annotations in R and pulls out the gene(s) of interest given a set of search terms and a vector of taxon accession numbers supplied by the user. It then writes the sequence for the gene(s) of interest to FASTA formatted files for each locus that users can then use in further analyses. For a more in-depth introduction to using AnnotationBustR users should consult the vignette in R through vignette(“AnnotationBustR-vignette”), which provides instructions on how to use the different functions and their respective options. Other details about the package can be accessed through the documentation via help (“AnnotationBustR”). AnnotationBustR is written in R (R Development Core Team, 2018), a popular language for analyzing biological data, and requires R version 3.4 or higher. It uses the existing R packages ape (Paradis, Claude & Strimmer, 2004) and seqinr (Charif & Lobry, 2007). AnnotationBustR uses seqinr’s interface to the online ACNUC database to extract gene regions of interest from concatenated gene sequences or genomes (Gouy et al., 1985; Gouy & Delmotte, 2008). ACNUC is a database and retrieval system for molecular sequence data maintained by the Pôle Bio-Informatique Lyonnais, which provides access to GenBank data and allows for easy access and manipulation of complex sequences, such as trans-spliced genes that may be on opposite strands of DNA. A list of the currently implemented commands is given in Table 1 and a flow chart of function usage is shown in Fig. 1. |AnnotationBust||Writes found subsequences for loci of interest to a FASTA file for a vector of GenBank accessions and writes a corresponding accession table.| |data(cpDNAterms)||Loads a data frame of search terms for chloroplast genes.| |data(mtDNAterms)||Loads a data frame of search terms for animal mitochondrial genes.| |data(mtDNAtermsPlants)||Loads a data frame of search terms for plant mitochondrial genes.| |data(rDNAterms)||Loads a data frame of search terms for ribosomal DNA genes and spacers.| |FindLongestSeq||Finds the longest sequence for each species in a set of GenBank accession numbers.| |MergeSearchTerms||Merges two or more data frames containing search terms of features to extract into a single data frame.| The main function of AnnotationBustR, AnnotationBust, takes a vector of accession numbers and a data frame of synonym search terms to extract loci of interest and writes them to a FASTA formatted file. This function also returns an accession table of all the loci of interest and the corresponding accession numbers the loci were extracted from for each species that can then be written to a csv file. Users can specify that duplicate genes should be extracted as well. If extracting coding sequences, users can also specify if they would like to translate the sequence into the corresponding peptides by specifying the appropriate GenBank numerical translation code. We have included pre-made data frames with search terms in AnnotationBustR for animal and plant mitochondrial genomes, chloroplast genomes, and rDNA. These can be used to easily extract DNA barcodes, like COI for animals in mitochondrial genomes (Hebert et al., 2003), the internal transcribed spacers (ITS) in rDNA for fungi and plants (Kress et al., 2005; Schoch et al., 2012), and maturase K and ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase genes in the chloroplast genome of plants (Hollingsworth et al., 2009). These pre-made data frames consist of three columns with the column Locus containing the output file name, Type containing the type of sequence it is (i.e., CDS, tRNA, rRNA, misc_RNA, D-loop, etc.), and the third column, Name, containing a possible synonym of the loci to search for. For example, for COI, GenBank includes gene names of COI, CO1, COX1, cox1, COXI, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, and COX-I. An additional column, IntronExonNumber, is used to specify the intron or exon number for extracting introns and exons. These search terms can be loaded into the workspace using the data() function. Annotation files for each accession are read in through seqinr and regular expressions matching of the synonyms provided by the user to the feature annotations are performed to identify the subsequence to extract. As certain loci may have numerous synonymous listings in GenBank feature tables that may not be included in the pre-made data frames of search terms, AnnotationBustR has the function MergeSearchTerms which allows users to add additional search terms to a pre-existing data frame of search terms if users follow the basic column formatting stated above. An additional feature of AnnotationBustR is the function FindLongestSeq which finds the longest sequence for each species in a set of GenBank accessions. To demonstrate the performance of AnnotationBustR, we timed how long it took to extract 13 popular coding sequences from 100 chloroplast genomes, the 13 coding sequences from 100 metazoan mitochondrial genomes, and the three ribosomal RNA genes and ITS 1 and 2 from 100 metazoan rDNA sequences (Fig. 2, see code in Data S1). Timings were performed for each accession number starting with the extraction of a single locus and progressively adding an additional locus until all targeted loci were extracted for that accession. Timing trials were performed on a Windows desktop with a 3.8 GHz Intel Core i7 processor and 64 GB of RAM. For each accession, we timed how long it took to extract one through the full number of subsequences sought. Our timings indicate that AnnotationBustR can efficiently extract these loci into FASTA files and that performance scales well as the number of loci to extract increases. Our timings also scale well in terms of sequence input size, as there is over variation in mean input sequence size between the rDNA (1,140 bp), mtDNA (16,560 bp), and cpDNA (149,971 bp) sequences. From profiling the code, it appears that the variation in the mean times to extract sequences is related to speed of the ACNUC server in returning responses to requests. While we did perform timing trials on a machine with a decent amount of RAM, AnnotationBustR is not very taxing on memory. The peak RAM usage of the AnnotationBust function during extraction for the largest dataset, the chloroplast genomes (average size of 149,971 bp), was only 87.35 megabytes when profiled using the R package peakRAM (Quinn, 2017). AnnotationBustR is available through CRAN (https://cran.r-project.org/package=AnnotationBustR) and is developed on GitHub (https://github.com/sborstein/AnnotationBustR). New extensions in development and fixes can be seen under the issues section on the packages GitHub page. Active lists of synonyms to be implemented in the next version are available on our github site in the issues section, as we gather more from users. While ACNUC currently only provides access to RefSeq virus sequences from the RefSeq database, we plan to add compatibility in the future for RefSeq accessions if access to other RefSeq databases is made available in seqinr. We provide an example of the utility of sequences obtained using AnnotationBustR relative to single sequences on GenBank in North American leuciscine minnows. This group was chosen as they have been widely sequenced, both for whole mitochondrial genomes as well as single mitochondrial genes. Specifically, we extracted 12S rRNA, 16S rRNA, COI, CYTB, and ND2 genes from 60 species of leuciscine minnows and one outgroup, the zebrafish (Danio rerio). These five genes were chosen as individual gene sequences have also been regularly sequenced in this clade for phylogenetic studies (Bufalino & Mayden, 2010; April et al., 2011; Schoenhuth et al., 2012). We used PHLAWD v. 3.3 (Smith, Beaulieu & Donoghue, 2009) to identify GenBank accessions to download for single genes that had the best coverage and identity for each species. PHLAWD uses BLAST (Altschul et al., 1990) restricted to a specified clade of interest to identify the best sequence in terms of coverage and identity for each species relative to a set of known bait sequences. We specified sequences had to have at minimum of at least 20 percent identity and coverage to be kept in the dataset of sequences accessed from GenBank on April 16, 2018. Multiple sequence alignment of sequences obtained from mitochondrial genomes using AnnotationBustR and of individual GenBank genes was performed using MAFFT v. 7.402 (Katoh & Standley, 2013). Phylogenetic reconstruction and bootstrap analysis was performed in RAxML v. 8.2 under the GTRGAMMA model of sequence evolution with the alignment partitioned by gene (Stamatakis, 2014) (Data S1). The alignment constructed using sequences extracted from mitochondrial genomes using AnnotationBustR was 6,537 bp and slightly longer than the 6,508 bp alignment constructed from individual GenBank sequences. The total number of sequences was 305 (extracted from the 61 mitogenomes) and 198, in the AnnotationBustR and GenBank alignments respectively. The most notable difference between the two alignments is the amount of missing data. The GenBank alignment was only 37.72% complete relative to the 97.59% complete AnnotationBustR alignment. The disparity in number of sequences and completeness of alignments is due to some species only having sequence data for a locus within a mitochondrial genome or other concatenated sequence and not as a single sequence on GenBank. While we do recover slightly different topologies between the datasets, we find that the phylogeny reconstructed from the AnnotationBustR extracted sequences has higher bootstrap support among shared bipartitions relative to the tree constructed from individual GenBank sequences, with shared bipartitions amongst the phylogenies having an average of 93.69% and 81.56% bootstrap support in the AnnotationBustR and GenBank trees respectively (Fig. 3). Both tree topologies are similar to those recovered in other phylogenetic studies of leuciscine minnows (Bufalino & Mayden, 2010; Hollingsworth et al., 2013; Martin & Bonett, 2015). Our results may not necessarily reflect any aspect of quality of sequence data used, but rather quantity. For example, all the sequences extracted using AnnotationBustR are the complete sequence for that gene. This is not necessarily true of the single gene sequences obtained from GenBank, where some species only have a partial sequence for a gene. Additionally, some species only have sequence data for certain genes as a mitochondrial genome accession and not necessarily have any other accession for that gene. AnnotationBustR provides a way for users to extract subsequences from concatenated sequences, plastid, and mitochondrial genomes where gene names for subsequences may vary substantially. The major limitation to the functionality of AnnotationBustR is that it is only as good as the annotations in the features table it is using for extraction. For instance, some concatenated sequences do not have the individual gene positions annotated for the record and just state that it contains the genes, therefore making it impossible to extract a gene from it (ex. GenBank KM260685.1. GenBank KT216295.1). Additionally, some loci may be present in the sequence yet missing from the features table completely (ex. mitochondrial D-loop missing in GenBank KU308536.1). Another limitation is that some popular loci such as intergenic spacers and some introns are not always annotated in the features table, making them impossible to extract. A good example of this is the trnH–psbA intergenic spacer, a proposed locus for plant DNA barcodes (Kress et al., 2005). As AnnotationBustR will extract all sequences within the annotations it finds that fit the supplied search terms, it is not a guarantee that these sequences are properly annotated, as annotation errors in sequence data are a known problem (Ben-Shitrit et al., 2012). Users will have to use due diligence on the sequences to check for incorrect annotations, mislabeled taxa, paralogs, chimeric sequences, and so forth. Alternative methods for extracting concatenated sequences could involve aligning them to known bait sequences of interest using a program like BLAST (Altschul et al., 1990). This can be automated by writing scripts to use BLAST locally or through NCBI. This represents a different approach from ours, relying on sequence similarity rather than annotations (PHLAWD builds on this but adds additional checks). While this can be useful, it potentially could be problematic as sequences could potentially align to non-orthologous sequences, which may cause issues with downstream analyses (Lassmann & Sonnhammer, 2005). At large phylogenetic scales, bait sequences may blast to paralogous copies rather than to orthologous sequences of more distantly related taxa in the clade. Nonetheless, BLAST and tools building on it represent historically useful approaches for creating a matrix of sequences that may be quite complementary to use of AnnotationBustR as another quality control check in the curation of large molecular sequence datasets. While eutils and packages in popular programming language can provide access to sequence data, and in some cases access to subsequences, they require complex query language. The R package we have developed provides a simple way for users to extract subsequences that have variable annotations by supplying a vector of accessions and search terms, either the ones included in the package or their own curated set. While R may not be as widely used as Python or Perl as a bioinformatics platform, it is a widely popular scripting language and we feel that this package fills a need in the R community. Researchers publishing a paper that has used AnnotationBustR should cite this article and indicate the version of the package they are using. Package citation information can be obtained using citation (“AnnotationBustR”).

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Fetal hemoglobin, or foetal haemoglobin, is the main oxygen transport protein in the human fetus during the last seven months of development in the uterus and persists in the newborn until 2-4 months old. Functionally, fetal hemoglobin differs most from adult hemoglobin in that it is able to bind oxygen with greater affinity than the adult form, giving the developing fetus better access to oxygen from the mother's bloodstream. In newborns, fetal hemoglobin is nearly replaced by adult hemoglobin by 6 months postnatally, except in a few thalassemia cases in which there may be a delay in cessation of HbF production until 3–5 years of age. In adults, fetal hemoglobin production can be reactivated pharmacologically, useful in the treatment of diseases such as sickle-cell disease. Oxygenated blood is delivered to the fetus via the umbilical vein from the placenta, anchored to the wall of the mother's uterus; the chorion acts as a barrier between the maternal and fetal circulation so that there is no admixture of maternal and fetal blood. Blood in the maternal circulation is delivered via open ended arterioles to the intervillous space of the chorionic plate, where it bathes the chorionic villi that carry umbilical capillary beds, thereby allowing gas exchange to occur between the maternal and fetal circulation. Deoxygenated maternal blood drains into open ended intervillous venules to return to maternal circulation. Due to the admixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, maternal blood in the intervillous space is lower in oxygen than arterial blood; as such, fetal hemoglobin must be able to bind oxygen with greater affinity than adult hemoglobin in order to compensate for the lower oxygen tension of the maternal blood supplying the chorion. Fetal hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen is greater than that of adult hemoglobin. Notably, the P50 value for fetal hemoglobin is lower than adult hemoglobin; the P50 of fetal hemoglobin is 19 mmHg, whereas adult hemoglobin is 26.8 mmHg. As a result, the "oxygen saturation curve", which plots percent saturation vs. pO2, is left-shifted for fetal hemoglobin as compared to adult hemoglobin. This greater affinity for oxygen is explained by the lack of fetal hemoglobin's interaction with 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate. In adult red blood cells, this substance decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. 2,3-BPG is present in fetal red blood cells, but interacts less efficiently with fetal hemoglobin than adult hemoglobin. This is due to a change in a single amino acid found in the 2,3-BPG'binding pocket': from histidine to serine, which gives rise to the greater oxygen affinity. Whereas histidine is positively charged and interacts well with the negative charges found on the surface of 2,3-BPG, Serine has a neutrally charged side chain at physiological pH, interacts less well; this change results in less binding of 2,3-BPG to fetal Hb, as a result oxygen will bind to it with higher affinity than adult hemoglobin. For mothers to deliver oxygen to a fetus, it is necessary for the fetal hemoglobin to extract oxygen from the maternal oxygenated hemoglobin across the placenta; the higher oxygen affinity required for fetal hemoglobin is achieved by the protein subunit γ, instead of the β subunit. Because the γ subunit has fewer positive charges than the β subunit, 2,3-BPG is less electrostatically bound to fetal hemoglobin compared to adult hemoglobin. This lowered affinity allows for adult hemoglobin to transfer its oxygen to the fetal bloodstream. After the first 10 to 12 weeks of development, the fetus' primary form of hemoglobin switches from embryonic hemoglobin to fetal hemoglobin. At birth, fetal hemoglobin comprises 50-95% of the infant's hemoglobin; these levels decline after six months as adult hemoglobin synthesis is activated while fetal hemoglobin synthesis is deactivated. Soon after, adult hemoglobin takes over as the predominant form of hemoglobin in normal children; however HbF has been traced in adults' blood. Certain genetic abnormalities can cause the switch to adult hemoglobin synthesis to fail, resulting in a condition known as hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin. Most types of normal hemoglobin, including hemoglobin A, hemoglobin A2, as well as hemoglobin F, are tetramers composed of four protein subunits and four heme prosthetic groups. Whereas adult hemoglobin is composed of two α and two β subunits, fetal hemoglobin is composed of two α subunits and two γ subunits, is denoted as α2γ2. Because of its presence in fetal hemoglobin, the γ subunit is called the "fetal" hemoglobin subunit. In humans, the gamma subunit is encoded on chromosome 11. There are two similar copies of the gamma subunit gene: γG which has a glycine at position 136, γA which has an alanine; the gene that codes for the alpha subunit is located on chromosome 16 and is present in duplicate. When fetal hemoglobin production is switched off after birth, normal children begin producing adult hemoglobin. Children with sickle-cell disease instead begin producing a defective form of hemoglobin called hemoglobin S which aggregates together and forms filaments that cause red blood cells to change their shape from round to sickle-shaped; these defective red blood cells have a greater tendency to stack on top of one another and block blood vessels. These invariably lead to so-called painful vaso-occlusive episodes, which are a hallmark of the disease. If fetal hemoglobin remains the pred Chromosome 11 is one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans. Humans have two copies of this chromosome. Chromosome 11 spans about 135 million base pairs and represents between 4 and 4.5 percent of the total DNA in cells. The shorter arm is termed 11p. At about 21.5 genes per megabase, chromosome 11 is one of the most gene-rich, disease-rich, chromosomes in the human genome. More than 40% of the 856 olfactory receptor genes in the human genome are located in 28 single-gene and multi-gene clusters along the chromosome; the following are some of the gene count estimates of human chromosome 11. Because researchers use different approaches to genome annotation their predictions of the number of genes on each chromosome varies. Among various projects, the collaborative consensus coding sequence project takes an conservative strategy. So CCDS's gene number prediction represents a lower bound on the total number of human protein-coding genes; the following is a partial list of genes on human chromosome 11. For complete list, see the link in the infobox on the right. The following diseases and disorders are some of those related to genes on chromosome 11: National Institutes of Health. "Chromosome 11". Genetics Home Reference. Retrieved 2017-05-06. "Chromosome 11". Human Genome Project Information Archive 1990–2003. Retrieved 2017-05-06 Methemoglobin is a form of metalloprotein hemoglobin, in which the iron in the heme group is in the Fe3+ state, not the Fe2+ of normal hemoglobin. Methemoglobin can not bind oxygen, it is bluish chocolate-brown in color. In human blood a trace amount of methemoglobin is produced spontaneously, but when present in excess the blood becomes abnormally dark bluish brown; the NADH-dependent enzyme methemoglobin reductase is responsible for converting methemoglobin back to hemoglobin. One to two percent of a person's hemoglobin is methemoglobin. A higher level of methemoglobin will tend to cause a pulse oximeter to read closer to 85% regardless of the true level of oxygen saturation. An abnormal increase of methemoglobin will increase the oxygen binding affinity of normal hemoglobin, resulting in a decreased unloading of oxygen to the tissues. Reduced cellular defense mechanisms Children younger than 4 months exposed to various environmental agents Pregnant women are considered vulnerable to exposure of high levels of nitrates in drinking water Cytochrome b5 reductase deficiency G6PD deficiency Hemoglobin M disease Pyruvate kinase deficiency Various pharmaceutical compounds Local anesthetic agents prilocaine and benzocaine. Amyl nitrite, dapsone, nitrites, nitroprusside, phenazopyridine, primaquine and sulfonamides Environmental agents Aromatic amines Arsine Chlorobenzene Chromates Nitrates/nitrites Inherited disorders Some family members of the Fughate family in Kentucky, due to a recessive gene, had blue skin from an excess of methemoglobin. In cats Ingestion of Paracetamol Amyl nitrite is administered to treat cyanide poisoning, it works by converting hemoglobin to methemoglobin, which allows for the binding of cyanide and the formation of cyanomethemoglobin. The immediate goal of forming this cyanide adduct is to prevent the binding of free cyanide to the cytochrome a3 group in cytochrome c oxidase. Methemoglobin saturation is expressed as the percentage of hemoglobin in the methemoglobin state. 1-2% Normal Less than 10% metHb - No symptoms 10-20% metHb - Skin discoloration only 20-30% metHb - Anxiety, dyspnea on exertion 30-50% metHb - Fatigue, dizziness, palpitations 50-70% metHb - Coma, arrhythmias, acidosis Greater than 70% metHb - High risk of death Increased levels of methemoglobin are found in blood stains. Upon exiting the body, bloodstains transit from bright red to dark brown, attributed to oxidation of oxy-hemoglobin to methemoglobin and hemichrome. Methemoglobinemia Blue baby syndrome Methemoglobin at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings MetHb Formation The Blue people of Troublesome Creek Myoglobin is an iron- and oxygen-binding protein found in the muscle tissue of vertebrates in general and in all mammals. It is distantly related to hemoglobin, the iron- and oxygen-binding protein in blood in the red blood cells. In humans, myoglobin is only found in the bloodstream after muscle injury, it is an abnormal finding, can be diagnostically relevant when found in blood. Myoglobin is the primary oxygen-carrying pigment of muscle tissues. High concentrations of myoglobin in muscle cells allow organisms to hold their breath for a longer period of time. Diving mammals such as whales and seals have muscles with high abundance of myoglobin. Myoglobin is found in Type I muscle, Type II A and Type II B, but most texts consider myoglobin not to be found in smooth muscle. Myoglobin was the first protein to have its three-dimensional structure revealed by X-ray crystallography; this achievement was reported in 1958 by associates. For this discovery, John Kendrew shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in chemistry with Max Perutz. Despite being one of the most studied proteins in biology, its physiological function is not yet conclusively established: mice genetically engineered to lack myoglobin can be viable and fertile but show many cellular and physiological adaptations to overcome the loss. Through observing these changes in myoglobin-deplete mice, it is hypothesised that myoglobin function relates to increased oxygen transport to muscle, oxygen storage and as a scavenger of reactive oxygen species. In humans myoglobin is encoded by the MB gene. Myoglobin can take the forms oxymyoglobin and metmyoglobin, analogously to hemoglobin taking the forms oxyhemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin, methemoglobin. Like hemoglobin, myoglobin is a cytoplasmic protein, it harbors only one heme group. Although its heme group is identical to those in Hb, Mb has a higher affinity for oxygen than does hemoglobin; this difference is related to its different role: whereas hemoglobin transports oxygen, myoglobin's function is to store oxygen. Myoglobin contains hemes, pigments responsible for the colour of red meat. The colour that meat takes is determined by the degree of oxidation of the myoglobin. In fresh meat the iron atom is in the ferrous oxidation state bound to an oxygen molecule. Meat cooked well done is brown because the iron atom is now in the ferric oxidation state, having lost an electron. If meat has been exposed to nitrites, it will remain pink because the iron atom is bound to NO, nitric oxide. Grilled meats can take on a pink "smoke ring" that comes from the iron binding to a molecule of carbon monoxide. Raw meat packed in a carbon monoxide atmosphere shows this same pink "smoke ring" due to the same principles. Notably, the surface of this raw meat displays the pink color, associated in consumers' minds with fresh meat; this artificially induced pink color can persist up to one year. Hormel and Cargill are both reported to use this meat-packing process, meat treated this way has been in the consumer market since 2003. Myoglobin is released from damaged muscle tissue, which has high concentrations of myoglobin. The released myoglobin is filtered by the kidneys but is toxic to the renal tubular epithelium and so may cause acute kidney injury. It is not the myoglobin itself, toxic but the ferrihemate portion, dissociated from myoglobin in acidic environments. Myoglobin is a sensitive marker for muscle injury, making it a potential marker for heart attack in patients with chest pain. However, elevated myoglobin has low specificity for acute myocardial infarction and thus CK-MB, cardiac Troponin, ECG, clinical signs should be taken into account to make the diagnosis. Myoglobin belongs to the globin superfamily of proteins, as with other globins, consists of eight alpha helices connected by loops. Myoglobin contains 154 amino acids. Myoglobin contains a porphyrin ring with an iron at its center. A proximal histidine group is attached directly to iron, a distal histidine group hovers near the opposite face; the distal imidazole is not bonded to the iron but is available to interact with the substrate O2. This interaction encourages the binding of O2, but not carbon monoxide, which still binds about 240× more than O2. The binding of O2 causes substantial structural change at the Fe center, which shrinks in radius and moves into the center of N4 pocket. O2-binding induces "spin-pairing": the five-coordinate ferrous deoxy form is high spin and the six coordinate oxy form is low spin and diamagnetic. Many models of myoglobin have been synthesized as part of a broad interest in transition metal dioxygen complexes. A well known example is the picket fence porphyrin, which consists of a ferrous complex of a sterically bulky derivative of tetraphenylporphyrin. In the presence of an imidazole ligand, this ferrous complex reversibly binds O2; the O2 substrate adopts a bent geometry. A key property of this model is the slow formation of the μ-oxo dimer, an inactive diferric state. In nature, such deactivation pathways are suppressed by protein matrix that prevents close approach of the Fe-porphyrin assemblies. Cytoglobin Hemoglobin Hemoprotein Neuroglobin Phytoglobin Myoglobinuria - The presence of myoglobin in the urine Ischemia-reperfusion injury of the appendicular musculoskeletal system Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man 160000 human genetics The Myoglobin Protein Protein Database featured mole Zygosity is the degree of similarity of the alleles for a trait in an organism. Most eukaryotes have two matching sets of chromosomes. Diploid organisms have the same loci on each of their two sets of homologous chromosomes except that the sequences at these loci may differ between the two chromosomes in a matching pair and that a few chromosomes may be mismatched as part of a chromosomal sex-determination system. If both alleles of a diploid organism are the same, the organism is homozygous at that locus. If they are different, the organism is heterozygous at that locus. If one allele is missing, it is hemizygous; the DNA sequence of a gene varies from one individual to another. Those variations are called alleles. While some genes have only one allele because there is low variation, others have only one allele because deviation from that allele can be harmful or fatal, but most genes have two or more alleles. The frequency of different alleles varies throughout the population; some genes may have two alleles with equal distribution. For other genes, one allele may be common, another allele may be rare. Sometimes, one allele is a disease-causing variation. Sometimes, the different variations in the alleles make no difference at all in the function of the organism. In diploid organisms, one allele is inherited from one from the female parent. Zygosity is a description of whether those two alleles have different DNA sequences. In some cases the term "zygosity" is used in the context of a single chromosome; the words homozygous and hemizygous are used to describe the genotype of a diploid organism at a single locus on the DNA. Homozygous describes a genotype consisting of two identical alleles at a given locus, heterozygous describes a genotype consisting of two different alleles at a locus, hemizygous describes a genotype consisting of only a single copy of a particular gene in an otherwise diploid organism, nullizygous refers to an otherwise-diploid organism in which both copies of the gene are missing. A cell is said to be homozygous for a particular gene when identical alleles of the gene are present on both homologous chromosomes. The cell or organism in question is called a homozygote. True breeding organisms are always homozygous for the traits. An individual, homozygous-dominant for a particular trait carries two copies of the allele that codes for the dominant trait; this allele called the "dominant allele", is represented by a capital letter. When an organism is homozygous-dominant for a particular trait, the genotype is represented by a doubling of the symbol for that trait, such as "PP". An individual, homozygous-recessive for a particular trait carries two copies of the allele that codes for the recessive trait; this allele called the "recessive allele", is represented by the lowercase form of the letter used for the corresponding dominant trait. The genotype of an organism, homozygous-recessive for a particular trait is represented by a doubling of the appropriate letter, such as "pp". A diploid organism is heterozygous at a gene locus when its cells contain two different alleles of a gene; the cell or organism is called a heterozygote for the allele in question, therefore, heterozygosity refers to a specific genotype. Heterozygous genotypes are represented by a capital letter and a lowercase letter, such as "Rr" or "Ss". Alternatively, a heterozygote for gene "R" is assumed to be "Rr"; the capital letter is written first. If the trait in question is determined by simple dominance, a heterozygote will express only the trait coded by the dominant allele, the trait coded by the recessive allele will not be present. In more complex dominance schemes the results of heterozygosity can be more complex. A heterozygous genotype can have a higher relative fitness than either the homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive genotype - this is called a heterozygote advantage. A chromosome in a diploid organism is hemizygous; the cell or organism is called a hemizygote. Hemizygosity is observed when one copy of a gene is deleted, or, in the heterogametic sex, when a gene is located on a sex chromosome. Hemizygosity must not be confused with haploinsufficiency, which describes a mechanism for producing a phenotype. For organisms in which the male is heterogametic, such as humans all X-linked genes are hemizygous in males with normal chromosomes, because they have only one X chromosome and few of the same genes are on the Y chromosome. Transgenic mice generated through exogenous DNA microinjection of an embryo's pronucleus are considered to be hemizygous, because the introduced allele is expected to be incorporated into only one copy of any locus. A transgenic individual can be bred to homozygosity and maintained as an inbred line to reduce the need to confirm the genotype of each individual. In cultured mammalian cells, such as the Chinese hamster ovary cell line, a number of genetic loci are present in a functional hemizygous state, due to mutations or deletions in the other alleles. A nullizygous organism carries two mutant alleles for the same gene; the mutant alleles are both complete loss-of-function or'null' alleles, so homozygous null and n Hemoglobin or haemoglobin, abbreviated Hb or Hgb, is the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells of all vertebrates as well as the tissues of some invertebrates. Haemoglobin in the blood carries oxygen from the gills to the rest of the body. There it releases the oxygen to permit aerobic respiration to provide energy to power the functions of the organism in the process called metabolism. A healthy individual has 12 to 16 grams of haemoglobin in every 100 ml of blood. In mammals, the protein makes up about 96% of the red blood cells' dry content, around 35% of the total content. Haemoglobin has an oxygen-binding capacity of 1.34 mL O2 per gram, which increases the total blood oxygen capacity seventy-fold compared to dissolved oxygen in blood. The mammalian hemoglobin molecule can bind up to four oxygen molecules. Hemoglobin is involved in the transport of other gases: It carries some of the body's respiratory carbon dioxide as carbaminohemoglobin, in which CO2 is bound to the heme protein. The molecule carries the important regulatory molecule nitric oxide bound to a globin protein thiol group, releasing it at the same time as oxygen. Haemoglobin is found outside red blood cells and their progenitor lines. Other cells that contain haemoglobin include the A9 dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, alveolar cells, retinal pigment epithelium, mesangial cells in the kidney, endometrial cells, cervical cells and vaginal epithelial cells. In these tissues, haemoglobin has a non-oxygen-carrying function as an antioxidant and a regulator of iron metabolism. Haemoglobin and haemoglobin-like molecules are found in many invertebrates and plants. In these organisms, haemoglobins may carry oxygen, or they may act to transport and regulate other small molecules and ions such as carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, hydrogen sulfide and sulfide. A variant of the molecule, called leghaemoglobin, is used to scavenge oxygen away from anaerobic systems, such as the nitrogen-fixing nodules of leguminous plants, before the oxygen can poison the system. In 1825 J. F. Engelhard discovered that the ratio of iron to protein is identical in the hemoglobins of several species. From the known atomic mass of iron he calculated the molecular mass of hemoglobin to n × 16000, the first determination of a protein's molecular mass; this "hasty conclusion" drew a lot of ridicule at the time from scientists who could not believe that any molecule could be that big. Gilbert Smithson Adair confirmed Engelhard's results in 1925 by measuring the osmotic pressure of hemoglobin solutions; the oxygen-carrying property of hemoglobin was discovered by Hünefeld in 1840. In 1851, German physiologist Otto Funke published a series of articles in which he described growing hemoglobin crystals by successively diluting red blood cells with a solvent such as pure water, alcohol or ether, followed by slow evaporation of the solvent from the resulting protein solution. Hemoglobin's reversible oxygenation was described a few years by Felix Hoppe-Seyler. In 1959, Max Perutz determined the molecular structure of hemoglobin by X-ray crystallography. This work resulted in his sharing with John Kendrew the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their studies of the structures of globular proteins. The role of hemoglobin in the blood was elucidated by French physiologist Claude Bernard; the name hemoglobin is derived from the words heme and globin, reflecting the fact that each subunit of hemoglobin is a globular protein with an embedded heme group. Each heme group contains one iron atom, that can bind one oxygen molecule through ion-induced dipole forces; the most common type of hemoglobin in mammals contains four such subunits. Hemoglobin consists of protein subunits, these proteins, in turn, are folded chains of a large number of different amino acids called polypeptides; the amino acid sequence of any polypeptide created by a cell is in turn determined by the stretches of DNA called genes. In all proteins, it is the amino acid sequence that determines the protein's chemical properties and function. There is more than one hemoglobin gene: in humans, hemoglobin A is coded for by the genes, HBA1, HBA2, HBB. The amino acid sequences of the globin proteins in hemoglobins differ between species. These differences grow with evolutionary distance between species. For example, the most common hemoglobin sequences in humans and chimpanzees are nearly identical, differing by only one amino acid in both the alpha and the beta globin protein chains; these differences grow larger between less related species. Within a species, different variants of hemoglobin always exist, although one sequence is a "most common" one in each species. Mutations in the genes for the hemoglobin protein in a species result in hemoglobin variants. Many of these mutant forms of hemoglobin cause no disease; some of these mutant forms of hemoglobin, cause a group of hereditary diseases termed the hemoglobinopathies. The best known hemoglobinopathy is sickle-cell disease, the first human disease whose mechanism was understood at the molecular level. A separate set of diseases called thalassemias involves underproduction of normal and sometimes abnormal hemoglobins, through problems and mutations in globin gene regulation. All these diseases produce anemia. Variations in hemoglobin amino acid sequences, as with other proteins, may be adaptive. For example, hemoglobin has been found to adapt in different ways to Cytochromes P450 are proteins of the superfamily containing heme as a cofactor and, are hemeproteins. CYPs use a variety of large molecules as substrates in enzymatic reactions, they are, in general, the terminal oxidase enzymes in electron transfer chains, broadly categorized as P450-containing systems. The term "P450" is derived from the spectrophotometric peak at the wavelength of the absorption maximum of the enzyme when it is in the reduced state and complexed with carbon monoxide. CYP enzymes have been identified in all kingdoms of life: animals, fungi, bacteria, in viruses. However, they are not omnipresent. More than 50,000 distinct CYP proteins are known. Most CYPs require a protein partner to deliver one or more electrons to reduce the iron. Based on the nature of the electron transfer proteins, CYPs can be classified into several groups: Microsomal P450 systems, in which electrons are transferred from NADPH via cytochrome P450 reductase. Cytochrome b5 can contribute reducing power to this system after being reduced by cytochrome b5 reductase. Mitochondrial P450 systems, which employ adrenodoxin reductase and adrenodoxin to transfer electrons from NADPH to P450. Bacterial P450 systems, which employ a ferredoxin reductase and a ferredoxin to transfer electrons to P450. CYB5R/cyb5/P450 systems, in which both electrons required by the CYP come from cytochrome b5. FMN/Fd/P450 systems found in Rhodococcus species, in which a FMN-domain-containing reductase is fused to the CYP. P450 only systems, which do not require external reducing power. Notable ones include thromboxane synthase, prostacyclin synthase, CYP74A; the most common reaction catalyzed by cytochromes P450 is a monooxygenase reaction, e.g. insertion of one atom of oxygen into the aliphatic position of an organic substrate while the other oxygen atom is reduced to water: RH + O2 + NADPH + H+ → ROH + H2O + NADP+ Many hydroxylation reactions use CYP enzymes. Genes encoding CYP enzymes, the enzymes themselves, are designated with the root symbol CYP for the superfamily, followed by a number indicating the gene family, a capital letter indicating the subfamily, another numeral for the individual gene. The convention is to italicise the name. For example, CYP2E1 is the gene that encodes the enzyme CYP2E1—one of the enzymes involved in paracetamol metabolism; the CYP nomenclature is the official naming convention, although CYP450 or CYP450 is used synonymously. However, some gene or enzyme names for CYPs may differ from this nomenclature, denoting the catalytic activity and the name of the compound used as substrate. Examples include CYP5A1, thromboxane A2 synthase, abbreviated to TBXAS1, CYP51A1, lanosterol 14-α-demethylase, sometimes unofficially abbreviated to LDM according to its substrate and activity; the current nomenclature guidelines suggest that members of new CYP families share at least 40% amino acid identity, while members of subfamilies must share at least 55% amino acid identity. There are nomenclature committees that track both base gene names and allele names; the active site of cytochrome P450 contains a heme-iron center. The iron is tethered to the protein via a cysteine thiolate ligand. This cysteine and several flanking residues are conserved in known CYPs and have the formal PROSITE signature consensus pattern - - x - - - - - C - -. Because of the vast variety of reactions catalyzed by CYPs, the activities and properties of the many CYPs differ in many aspects. In general, the P450 catalytic cycle proceeds as follows: Substrate binds in proximity to the heme group, on the side opposite to the axial thiolate. Substrate binding induces a change in the conformation of the active site displacing a water molecule from the distal axial coordination position of the heme iron, changing the state of the heme iron from low-spin to high-spin. Substrate binding induces electron transfer from NADH via cytochrome P450 reductase or another associated reductase. Molecular oxygen binds to the resulting ferrous heme center at the distal axial coordination position giving a dioxygen adduct not unlike oxy-myoglobin. A second electron is transferred, from either cytochrome P450 reductase, ferredoxins, or cytochrome b5, reducing the Fe-O2 adduct to give a short-lived peroxo state. The peroxo group formed in step 4 is protonated twice, releasing one molecule of water and forming the reactive species referred to as P450 Compound 1. This reactive intermediate was isolated in 2010, P450 Compound 1 is an iron oxo species with an additional oxidizing equivalent delocalized over the porphyrin and thiolate ligands. Evidence for the alternative perferryl iron-oxo is lacking. Depending on the substrate and enzyme involved, P450 enzymes can catalyze any of a wide variety of reactions. A hypothetical hydroxylation is shown in this illustration. After the product has been released from the active site, the enzyme returns to its original state, with a water molecule returning to occupy the distal coordination position of the iron nucleus. An alternative route for mono-oxygenation is via the "peroxide shunt"; this pathway entails oxidation of the ferric-substrate complex with oxygen-atom donors such as peroxides and hypochlorites. A hypothetical peroxide "XOOH" is shown in the di

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Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803—1882) In his lifetime, Ralph Waldo Emerson became the most widely known man of letters in America, establishing himself as a prolific poet, essayist, popular lecturer, and an advocate of social reforms who was nevertheless suspicious of reform and reformers. Emerson achieved some reputation with his verse, corresponded with many of the leading intellectual and artistic figures of his day, and during an off and on again career as a Unitarian minister, delivered and later published a number of controversial sermons. Emerson’s enduring reputation, however, is as a philosopher, an aphoristic writer (like Friedrich Nietzsche) and a quintessentially American thinker whose championing of the American Transcendental movement and influence on Walt Whitman, Henry David Thoreau, William James, and others would alone secure him a prominent place in American cultural history. Transcendentalism in America, of which Emerson was the leading figure, resembled British Romanticism in its precept that a fundamental continuity exists between man, nature, and God, or the divine. What is beyond nature is revealed through nature; nature is itself a symbol, or an indication of a deeper reality, in Emerson’s philosophy. Matter and spirit are not opposed but reflect a critical unity of experience. Emerson is often characterized as an idealist philosopher and indeed used the term himself of his philosophy, explaining it simply as a recognition that plan always precedes action. For Emerson, all things exist in a ceaseless flow of change, and “being” is the subject of constant metamorphosis. Later developments in his thinking shifted the emphasis from unity to the balance of opposites: power and form, identity and variety, intellect and fate. Emerson remained throughout his lifetime the champion of the individual and a believer in the primacy of the individual’s experience. In the individual can be discovered all truths, all experience. For the individual, the religious experience must be direct and unmediated by texts, traditions, or personality. Central to defining Emerson’s contribution to American thought is his emphasis on non-conformity that had so profound an effect on Thoreau. Self-reliance and independence of thought are fundamental to Emerson’s perspective in that they are the practical expressions of the central relation between the self and the infinite. To trust oneself and follow our inner promptings corresponds to the highest degree of consciousness. Emerson concurred with the German poet and philosopher Johann Wolfgang von Goethe that originality was essentially a matter of reassembling elements drawn from other sources. Not surprisingly, some of Emerson’s key ideas are popularizations of both European as well as Eastern thought. From Goethe, Emerson also drew the notion of “bildung,” or development, calling it the central purpose of human existence. From the English Romantic poet and critic Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Emerson borrowed his conception of “Reason,” which consists of acts of perception, insight, recognition, and cognition. The concepts of “unity” and “flux” that are critical to his early thought and never fully depart from his philosophy are basic to Buddhism: indeed, Emerson said, perhaps ironically, that “the Buddhist . . . is a Transcendentalist.” From his friend the social philosopher Margaret Fuller, Emerson acquired the perspective that ideas are in fact ideas of particular persons, an observation he would expand into his more general—and more famous—contention that history is biography. On the other hand, Emerson’s work possesses deep original strains that influenced other major philosophers of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche read Emerson in German translations and his developing philosophy of the great man is clearly influenced and confirmed by the contact. Writing about the Greek philosopher Plato, Emerson asserted that “Every book is a quotation . . . and every man is a quotation,” a perspective that foreshadows the work of French Structuralist philosopher Roland Barthes. Emerson also anticipates the key Poststructuralist concept of différance found in the work of Jacques Derrida and Jacques Lacan—“It is the same among men and women, as among the silent trees; always a referred existence, an absence, never a presence and satisfaction.” While not progressive on the subject of race by modern standards, Emerson observed that the differences among a particular race are greater than the differences between the races, a view compatible with the social constructivist theory of race found in the work of contemporary philosophers like Kwame Appiah. Table of Contents Ralph Waldo Emerson was born on May 25, 1803, in Boston to Ruth Haskins Emerson and William Emerson, pastor of Boston's First Church. The cultural milieu of Boston at the turn of the nineteenth century would increasingly be marked by the conflict between its older conservative values and the radical reform movements and social idealists that emerged in the decades leading up through the 1840s. Emerson was one of five surviving sons who formed a supportive brotherhood, the financial and emotional leadership of which he was increasingly forced to assume over the years. "Waldo," as Emerson was called, entered Harvard at age fourteen, taught in the summer, waited tables, and with his brother Edward, wrote papers for other students to pay his expenses. Graduating in the middle of his class, Emerson taught in his brother William's school until 1825 when he entered the Divinity School at Harvard. The pattern of Emerson's intellectual life was shaped in these early years by the range and depth of his extracurricular reading in history, literature, philosophy, and religion, the extent of which took a severe toll on his eyesight and health. Equally important to his intellectual development was the influence of his paternal aunt Mary Moody Emerson. Though she wrote primarily on religious subjects, Mary Moody Emerson set an example for Emerson and his brothers with her wide reading in every branch of knowledge and her stubborn insistence that they form opinions on all of the issues of the day. Mary Moody Emerson was at the same time passionately orthodox in religion and a lover of controversy, an original thinker tending to a mysticism that was a precursor to her nephew's more radical beliefs. His aunt's influence waned as he developed away from her strict orthodoxy, but her relentless intellectual energy and combative individualism left a permanent stamp on Emerson as a thinker. In 1829, he accepted a call to serve as junior pastor at Boston's Second Church, serving only until 1832 when he resigned at least in part over his objections to the validity of the Lord's Supper. Emerson would in 1835 refuse a call as minister to East Lexington Church but did preach there regularly until 1839. In 1830, Emerson married Ellen Tucker who died the following year of tuberculosis. Emerson married again in 1835 to Lydia Jackson. Together they had four children, the eldest of whom, Waldo, died at the age of five, an event that left deep scars on the couple and altered Emerson's outlook on the redemptive value of suffering. Emerson’s first book Nature was published anonymously in 1836 and at Emerson's own expense. In 1837 Emerson delivered his famous "American Scholar" lecture as the Phi Beta Kappa address at Harvard, but his controversial Harvard Divinity School address, delivered in 1838, was the occasion of a twenty-nine year breach with the university and signaled his divergence from even the liberal theological currents of Cambridge. Compelled by financial necessity to undertake a career on the lecture circuit, Emerson began lecturing in earnest in 1839 and kept a demanding public schedule until 1872. While providing Emerson's growing family and array of dependents with a steady income, the lecture tours heightened public awareness of Emerson's ideas and work. From 1840-1844, Emerson edited The Dial with Margaret Fuller. Essays: First Series was published in 1841, followed by Essays: Second Series in 1844, the two volumes most responsible for Emerson's reputation as a philosopher. In 1844, Emerson also purchased the land on the shore of Walden Pond where he was to allow the naturalist and philosopher Henry David Thoreau to build a cabin the following year. While sympathetic to the experimental collective at Brook Farm, Emerson declined urgent appeals to join the group and maintained his own household in Concord with Lydia and their growing family. Emerson attempted to create his own community of kindred spirits, however, assembling in the neighborhood of Concord a group of writers including Thoreau, Nathaniel Hawthorne, the social thinker Margaret Fuller, the reformer Bronson Alcott, and the poet Ellery Channing. English Traits was inspired by a trip to Britain during 1847-1848. By the 1850s, Emerson was an outspoken advocate of abolition in lectures across New England and the Midwest and continued lecturing widely on a number of different topics—eighty lectures in 1867 alone. Emerson spent the final years of his life peacefully but without full use of his faculties. He died of pneumonia in 1882 at his home in Concord. As a philosopher, Emerson primarily makes use of two forms, the essay and the public address or lecture. His career began, however, with a short book, Nature, published anonymously in 1836. Nature touches on many of the ideas to which he would return to again and again over his lifetime, most significantly the perspective that nature serves as an intermediary between human experience and what lies beyond nature. Emerson expresses a similar idea in his claim that spirit puts forth nature through us, exemplary of which is the famous "transparent eye-ball" passage, in which he writes that on a particular evening, while “crossing a bare common . . . the currents of Universal Being circulate through me." On the strength this passage alone, Nature has been widely viewed as a defining text of Transcendentalism, praised and satirized for the same qualities. Emerson invokes the "transparent eye-ball" to describe the loss of individuation in the experience of nature, where there is no seer, only seeing: "I am nothing; I see all." This immersion in nature compensates us in our most difficult adversity and provides a sanctification of experience profoundly religious —the direct religious experience that Emerson was to call for all his life. While Emerson characterizes traversing the common with mystical language, it is also importantly a matter of knowledge. The fundamental knowledge of nature that circulates through him is the basis of all human knowledge but cannot be distinguished, in Emerson's thought, from divine understanding. The unity of nature is the unity of variety, and "each particle is a microcosm." There is, Emerson writes “a universal soul” that, influenced by Coleridge, he named "reason." Nature is by turns exhortative and pessimistic, like the work of the English Romantics, portraying man as a creature fallen away from a primordial connection with nature. Man ought to live in a original relation to the universe, an assault on convention he repeats in various formulas throughout his life; however, "man is the dwarf of himself . . . is disunited with himself . . . is a god in ruins." Nature concludes with a version of Emerson's permanent program, the admonition to conform your life to the "pure idea in your mind," a prescription for living he never abandons. "The American Scholar" and “The Divinity School Address” are generally held to be representative statements of Emerson's early period. "The American Scholar," delivered as the Phi Beta Kappa oration at Harvard in 1837, repeats a call for a distinctively American scholarly life and a break with European influences and models—a not original appeal in the 1830s. Emerson begins with a familiar critique of American and particularly New England culture by asserting that Americans were "a people too busy to give to letters any more." What must have surprised the audience was his anti-scholarly theme, that "Books are for the scholar's idle times," an idea that aligns the prodigiously learned and widely read Emerson with the critique of excessive bookishness found in Wordsworth and English Romanticism. Continuing in this theme, Emerson argues against book knowledge entirely and in favor of lived experience: "Only so much do I know, as I have lived." Nature is the most important influence on the mind, he told his listeners, and it is the same mind, one mind, that writes and reads. Emerson calls for both creative writing and "creative reading," individual development being essential for the encounter with mind found in books. The object of scholarly culture is not the bookworm but "Man Thinking," Emerson's figure for an active, self-reliant intellectual life that thus puts mind in touch with Mind and the "Divine Soul." Through this approach to the study of letters, Emerson predicts that in America "A nation of men will for the first time exist." "The Divinity School Address," also delivered at Harvard in 1838, was considerably more controversial and marked in earnest the beginning of Emerson's opposition to the climate of organized religion in his day, even the relatively liberal theology of Cambridge and the Unitarian Church. Emerson set out defiantly to insist on the divinity of all men rather than one single historical personage, a position at odds with Christian orthodoxy but one central to his entire system of thought. The original relation to nature Emerson insisted upon ensures an original relation to the divine, not copied from the religious experience of others, even Jesus of Nazareth. Emerson observes that in the universe there is a "justice" operative in the form of compensation: “He who does a good deed is instantly ennobled." This theme he would develop powerfully into a full essay, "Compensation” (1841). Whether Emerson characterized it as compensation, retribution, balance, or unity, the principle of an automatic response to all human action, good or ill, was a permanent fixture of his thought. "Good is positive," he argued to the vexation of many in the audience, “evil merely privative, not absolute." Emerson concludes his address with a subversive call to rely on one's self, to "go alone; to refuse the good models.” Two of Emerson's first non-occasional public lectures from this early period contain especially important expressions of his thought. Always suspicious of reform and reformers, Emerson was yet an advocate of reform causes. In "Man the Reformer" (1841), Emerson expresses this ambivalence by speculating that if we were to "Let our affection flow out to our fellows; it would operate in a day the greatest of all revolutions." In an early and partial formulation of his theory that all people, times, and places are essentially alike, he writes in "Lecture on the Times" (1841) that “The Times . . . have their root in an invisible spiritual reality;" then more fully in "The Transcendentalist” (1842): “new views . . . are not new, but the very oldest of thoughts cast into the mould of these new times." Such ideas, while quintessential Emerson, are nevertheless positions that he would qualify and complicate over the next twenty years. Emerson brought out his Essays: First Series, in 1841, which contain perhaps his single most influential work, "Self-Reliance." Emerson's style as an essayist, not unlike the form of his public lectures, operates best at the level of the individual sentence. His essays are bound together neither by their stated theme nor the progression of argument, but instead by the systematic coherence of his thought alone. Indeed, the various titles of Emerson's do not limit the subject matter of the essays but repeatedly bear out the abiding concerns of his philosophy. Another feature of his rhetorical style involves exploring the contrary poles of a particular idea, similar to a poetic antithesis. As a philosopher-poet, Emerson employs a highly figurative style, while his poetry is remarkable as a poetry of ideas. The language of the essays is sufficiently poetical that Thoreau felt compelled to say critically of the essays—"they were not written exactly at the right crisis [to be poetry] though inconceivably near it." In “History” Emerson attempts to demonstrate the unity of experience of men of all ages: "What Plato has thought, he may think; what a saint has felt, he may feel; what at any time has befallen any man, he may understand." Interestingly, for an idealist philosopher, he describes man as "a bundle of relations." The experience of the individual self is of such importance in Emerson's conception of history that it comes to stand for history: "there is properly no history; only biography." Working back from this thought, Emerson connects his understanding of this essential unity to his fundamental premise about the relation of man and nature: "the mind is one, and that nature is correlative." By correlative, Emerson means that mind and nature are themselves representative, symbolic, and consequently correlate to spiritual facts. In the wide-ranging style of his essays, he returns to the subject of nature, suggesting that nature is itself a repetition of a very few laws, and thus implying that history repeats itself consistently with a few recognizable situations. Like the Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard, Emerson disavowed nineteenth century notions of progress, arguing in the next essay of the book, "Society never advances . . . For everything that is given, something is taken." "Self-Reliance" is justly famous as a statement of Emerson's credo, found in the title and perhaps uniquely among his essays, consistently and without serious digression throughout the work. The emphasis on the unity of experience is the same: "what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men." Emerson rests his abiding faith in the individual—"Trust thyself”—on the fundamental link between each man and the divine reality, or nature, that works through him. Emerson wove this explicit theme of self-trust throughout his work, writing in "Heroism" (1841), “Self-trust is the essence of heroism.” The apostle of self-reliance perceived that the impulses that move us may not be benign, that advocacy of self-trust carried certain social risks. No less a friend of Emerson's than Herman Melville parodied excessive faith in the individual through the portrait of Captain Ahab in his classic American novel, Moby-Dick. Nevertheless, Emerson argued that if our promptings are bad they come from our inmost being. If we are made thus we have little choice in any case but to be what we are. Translating this precept into the social realm, Emerson famously declares, "Whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist"—a point of view developed at length in both the life and work of Thoreau. Equally memorable and influential on Walt Whitman is Emerson's idea that "a foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of small minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines." In Leaves of Grass, Whitman made of his contradictions a virtue by claiming for himself a vastness of character that encompassed the vastness of the American experience. Emerson opposes on principle the reliance on social structures (civil, religious) precisely because through them the individual approaches the divine second hand, mediated by the once original experience of a genius from another age: "An institution," as he explains, “is the lengthened shadow of one man." To achieve this original relation one must "Insist on one's self; never imitate” for if the relationship is secondary the connection is lost. "Nothing," Emerson concludes, “can bring you peace but the triumph of principles,” a statement that both in tone and content illustrates the vocational drive of the former minister to speak directly to a wide audience and preach a practical philosophy of living. Three years later in 1844 Emerson published his Essays: Second Series, eight essays and one public lecture, the titles indicating the range of his interests: "The Poet," “Experience,” “Character,” “Manners,” “Gifts,” “Nature,” “Politics,” “Nominalist and Realist," and "New England Reformers.” “The Poet” contains the most comprehensive statement on Emerson's aesthetics and art. This philosophy of art has its premise in the Transcendental notion that the power of nature operates through all being, that it is being: "For we are not pans and barrows . . . but children of the fire, made of it, and only the same divinity transmuted." Art and the products of art of every kind—poetry, sculpture, painting, and architecture—flow from the same unity at the root of all human experience. Emerson's aesthetics stress not the object of art but the force that creates the art object, or as he characterizes this process in relation to poetry: "it is not metres, but a metre-making argument that makes a poem." “The Poet” repeats anew the Emersonian dictum that nature is itself a symbol, and thus nature admits of being used symbolically in art. While Emerson does not accept in principle social progress as such, his philosophy emphasizes the progress of spirit, particularly when understood as development. This process he allies with the process of art: "Nature has a higher end . . . ascension, or the passage of the soul into higher forms." The realm of art, ultimately for Emerson, is only an intermediary function, not an end itself: "Art is the path of the creator to his work." On this and every subject, Emerson reveals the humanism at the core of his philosophy, his human centric perspective that posits the creative principle above the created thing. "There is a higher work for Art than the arts," he argues in the essay "Art," and that work is the full creative expression of human being. Nature too has this “humanism,” to speak figuratively, in its creative process, as he writes in "The Method of Nature:" “The universe does not attract us until housed in an individual.” Most notable in "The Poet" is Emerson's call for an expressly American poetry and poet to do justice to the fact that “America is a poem in our eyes." What is required is a "genius . . . with tyrannous eye, which knew the value of our incomparable materials” and can make use of the "barbarism and materialism of the times." Emerson would not meet Whitman for another decade, only after Whitman had sent him anonymously a copy of the first edition of Leaves of Grass, in which—indicative of Emerson's influence—Whitman self-consciously assumes the role of the required poet of America and asserts, like his unacknowledged mentor, that America herself is indeed a poem. "Experience" remains one of Emerson's best-known and often-anthologized essays. It is also an essay written out of the devastating grief that struck the Emerson household after the death of their five-year-old son, Waldo. He wrote, whether out of conviction or helplessness, "I grieve that grief can teach me nothing." Emerson goes on, rocking back and forth between resignation and affirmation, establishing along the way a number of key points. In "Experience" he defines “spirit” as “matter reduced to an extreme thinness." In keeping with the gradual shift in his philosophy from an emphasis on the explanatory model of "unity” to images suggesting balance, he describes "human life" as consisting of “two elements, power and form, and the proportion must be invariably kept." Among his more quotable aphorisms is "The years teach us much which the days never know,” a memorable argument for the idea that experience cannot be reduced to the smallest observable events, then added back up again to constitute a life; that there is, on the contrary, an irreducible whole present in a life and at work through us. "Experience" concludes with Emerson's hallmark optimism, a faith in human events grounded in his sense of the total penetration of the divine in all matter. "Every day," he writes, and "every act betrays the ill-concealed deity," a determined expression of his lifelong principle that the divine radiates through all being. The early 1850s saw the publication of a number of distinctively American texts: Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter (1850); Melville's Moby-Dick (1851); Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852); and Whitman’s Leaves of Grass (1855). Emerson's Representative Men (1850) failed to anticipate this flowering of a uniquely American literature in at least one respect: none of his representative characters were American—nevertheless, each biography yields an insight into some aspect of Emerson's thought he finds in the man or in his work, so that Representative Men reads as the history of Emerson’s precursors in other times and places. Emerson structures the book around portraits of Plato, the Swedish mystic Emmanuel Swedenborg, the French essayist Montaigne, the poet William Shakespeare, the statesman Napoleon Bonaparte, and the writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Each man stands in for a type, for example, Montaigne represents the "skeptic," Napoleon the “man of the world.” Humanity, for Emerson, consisted of recognizable but overlapping personality types, types discoverable in every age and nation, but all sharing in a common humanity that has its source in divine being. Each portrait balances the particular feature of the representative man that illustrates the general laws inhabiting humanity along with an assessment of the great man's shortcomings. Like Nietzsche, Emerson did not believe that great men were ends in themselves but served particular functions, notably for Emerson their capacity to "clear our eyes of egotism, and enable us to see other people in their works." Emerson's representative men are "great,” but “exist that there may be greater men." As a gesture toward self-criticism about an entire book on great men by the champion of American individualism, Emerson concedes, "there are no common men," and his biographical sketches ultimately balance both the limitations of each man with his—to use an oxymoron—distinctive universality, or in other words, the impact he has had on Emerson's thought. While Plato receives credit for establishing the "cardinal facts . . . the one and the two.—1. Unity, or Identity; and, 2. Variety," Emerson concedes that through Plato we have had no success in "explaining existence." It was Swedenborg, according to Emerson, who discovered that the smallest particles in nature are merely replicated and repeated in larger organizations, and that the physical world is symbolic of the spiritual. But although he approves of the religion Swedenborg urged, a spirituality of each and every moment, Emerson complains the mystic lacks the "liberality of universal wisdom." Instead, we are “always in a church.” From Montaigne, Emerson gained a heightened sense of the universal mind as he read the French philosophers' Essays, for "It seemed to me as if I had myself written the book"—as well as an enduring imperative of style: "Cut these words, and they would bleed.” The “skeptic” Montaigne, however, lacks belief, which "consists in accepting the affirmations of the soul." From Shakespeare, Emerson received confirmation that originality was a reassembly of existing ideas. The English poet possessed the rare capacity of greatness in that he allowed the spirit of his age to achieve representation through him. Nevertheless the world waits on "a poet-priest" who can see, speak, and act, with equal inspiration." Reflection on Napoleon's life teaches the value of concentration, one of Emerson’s chief virtues. In The Conduct of Life, Emerson describes "concentration," or bringing to bear all of one's powers on a single object, as the "chief prudence." Likewise, Napoleon's shrewdness consisted in allowing events to take their natural course and become representative of the forces of his time. The defect of the "man of the world" was that he possessed “the powers of intellect without conscience" and was doomed to fail. Emerson's moral summary of Napoleon’s sounds a great deal like Whitman: "Only that good profits, which we can taste with all doors open, and which serves all men." Goethe, "the writer,” like Napoleon, represents the countervailing force of nature against Emerson's lifelong opponent, what he called "the morgue of convention." Goethe is also exemplary of the man of culture whose sphere of knowledge, as Emerson himself tried to emulate with his wide and systematic reading, knows no limits or categorical boundaries. Yet, "the lawgiver of art is not an artist," and repeating a call for an original relation to the infinite, foregoing even the venerable authority of Goethe, Emerson concludes, "We too must write Bibles." English Traits was published in 1856 but represented almost a decade of reflections on an invited lecture tour Emerson made in 1847-48 to Great Britain. English Traits presents an unusually conservative set of perspectives on a rather limited subject, that of a single nation and "race," in place of human civilization and humanity as a whole. English Traits contains an advanced understanding of race, namely, that the differences among the members of a race are greater than the differences between races, but in general introduces few new ideas. The work is highly "occasional," shaped by his travels and visits, and bore evidence of what seemed to be an erosion of energy and originality in his thought. The Conduct of Life (1860), however, proved to be a work of startling vigor and insight and is Emerson's last important work published in his lifetime. "Fate" is arguably the central essay in the book. The subject of fate, which Emerson defines as “An expense of means to end," along with the relation of fate to freedom and the primacy of man's vocation, come to be the chief subjects of the final years of his career. Some of Emerson's finest poetry can be found in his essays. In "Fate" he writes: “A man’s power is hooped in by a necessity, which, by many experiments, he touches on every side, until he learns its arc." Fate is balanced in the essay by intellect: "So far as a man thinks, he is free." Emerson's advice for the conduct of life is to learn to swim with the tide, to "trim your bark" (that is, sails) to catch the prevailing wind. He refines and redefines his conception of history as the interaction between "Nature and thought." Emerson further refines his conception of the great man by describing him as the “impressionable” man, or the man who most perfectly captures the spirit of his time in his thought and action. Varying a biblical proverb to his own thought, Emerson argues that what we seek we will find because it is our fate to seek what is our own. Always a moderating voice in politics, Emerson writes in "Power" that the “evils of popular government appear greater than they are”—at best a lukewarm recommendation of democracy. On the subject of politics, Emerson consistently posited a faith in balance, the tendencies toward chaos and order, change and conservation always correcting each other. His late aesthetics reinforce this political stance as he veers in "Beauty" onto the subject of women's suffrage: “Thus the circumstances may be easily imagined, in which woman may speak, vote, argue causes, legislate, and drive a coach, and all the most naturally in the world, if only it come by degrees." In his early work, Emerson emphasized the operation of nature through the individual man. The Conduct of Life uncovers the same consideration only now understood in terms of work or vocation. Emerson argued with increasing regularity throughout his career that each man is made for some work, and to ally himself with that is to render himself immune from harm: "the conviction that his work is dear to God and cannot be spared, defends him." One step above simple concentration of force in Emerson's scale of values we find his sense of dedication: "Nothing is beneath you, if it is in the direction of your life." While in favor of many of the social and political reform movements of his time, Emerson never ventured far into a critique of laissez-faire economics. In "Wealth" we find the balanced perspective, one might say contradiction, to be found in all the late work. Emerson argues that to be a "whole man" one must be able to find a "blameless living," and yet this same essay acknowledges an unsentimental definition of wealth: “He is the richest man who knows how to draw a benefit from the labors of the greatest numbers of men." In the final essay of the book, "Illusions," Emerson uses a metaphor—“the sun borrows his beams”—to reassert his pervasive humanism, the idea that we endow nature with its beauty, and that man is at the center of creation. Man is at the center, and the center will hold: "There is no chance, and no anarchy, in the universe." Emerson remains the major American philosopher of the nineteenth century and in some respects the central figure of American thought since the colonial period. Perhaps due to his highly quotable style, Emerson wields a celebrity unknown to subsequent American philosophers. The general reading public knows Emerson's work primarily through his aphorisms, which appear throughout popular culture on calendars and poster, on boxes of tea and breath mints, and of course through his individual essays. Generations of readers continue to encounter the more famous essays under the rubric of "literature" as well as philosophy, and indeed the essays, less so his poetry, stand undiminished as major works in the American literary tradition. Emerson's emphasis on self-reliance and nonconformity, his championing of an authentic American literature, his insistence on each individual's original relation to God, and finally his relentless optimism, that "life is a boundless privilege," remain his chief legacies. - Baker, Carlos. Emerson Among the Eccentrics: A Group Portrait. New York: Penguin, 1997. - Emerson, Ralph Waldo: Essays and Lectures. Ed. Joel Porte. New York: Library of America, 1983. - Essays and Poems. Ed. Joel Porte et al. New York: Library of American, 1996. - The Complete Sermons of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Vol. 4. Ed Wesley T. Mott et al. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1992. - The Selected Letters of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Ed. Joel Myerson. New York: Columbia, 1997. - The Heart of Emerson's Journals. Ed. Bliss Perry. Minneola, NY: Dover Press, 1995. - Field, Peter. S. Ralph Waldo Emerson: The Making of a Democratic Intellectual. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002. - Porte, Joel. Representative Man: Ralph Waldo Emerson in His Time. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. - Porte, Joel and Morris, Saundra. The Cambridge Companion to Ralph Waldo Emerson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. - Richardson, Robert D. Jr. Emerson: The Mind on Fire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995 University of North Alabama U. S. A.

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Driving our learning forward in PE I have completed an invasion games formative assessment task in all of my grade 2 classes this week. My main objectives at this point in the unit were to assess what my students know and how to use this information to springboard their learning forward. I was also interested in digging into the feelings and emotions they experience while playing invasion games against their peers in class. I want to address the reasons for students experiencing common emotions such as anger and frustration while playing games and come up with strategies that we can use to help better deal with emotions such as this. My goal was to have the students engaged in maximum participation type modified invasion games that gave them an opportunity to put into action several different physical skills that we had worked on in the previous lessons leading up to this class. Each game lasted about 5 minutes at the most. In between each game, we had a chance to have a quick discussion about what was going well and what needed more attention. As most students were going full out during these games, the short rest was well-needed. To open the lesson, I had a keynote (powerpoint) ready to go and we began with a 4-5 minute general discussion first related to invasion games before moving into the activities that I had planned for them. During the last 5-7 minutes of the class, the students completed the assessment sheet that you see below. I haven't looked at all of the assessment sheets yet, but will do so this weekend. Once I have a look through all of their assessment sheets, I will be able to design the next steps needed in the invasion games unit in order to push my students' learning forward. My ultimate aim is to get the students to select an area of growth for the remainder of the unit. Perhaps some will want to explore basketball or soccer more deeply. Others may want to play more capture the flag invasion type games. What's most important is to now give the students an opportunity to narrow their focus into one specific area and better develop their skills related to this area. We will hopefully be able to achieve this through further exploration and play that will not only enhance their physical skills but also better develop their sense of space. You can check out examples of completed student assessment below, as well see a 3-minute video that will give you a better picture into how I structured this lesson. There are snippets of each of the games played. Feel free to use this assessment task and if you do, let me know how it goes for you and your students. I have attached a PDF of the assessment template for your use at the bottom of this blog post. Making every moment matter I came across this quote on Twitter today and had to take a screen shot of it. There are days when motivation is low and when being at our peak is a very difficult thing to do. Teachers are human, they have ups and downs like everyone else. Having our maximum impact as a teacher requires us to stay motivated, even on difficult days. The smallest of actions can have such a profound impact on our students for they, too, have tough days. Our actions can have a profound impact on our students when we least expect it. How many opportunities slip through our grasp, especially on our tough days? The quote that I came across today reminded me of this very important fact. How have you made a difference today? Thanks for reading. Grade 5 students being as creative as they want I started up my movement composition unit with my grade 5 students a couple of weeks ago. We are in the immersion phase of this unit which means the students are being exposed to a variety of different types of movement composition possibilities from Stomp performances to skipping and dance routines. My main aim is to get them to understand that movement composition comes in a variety of forms. However, regardless of the movement composition avenue they ultimately journey down in this unit, the success criteria and student learning outcomes are the same. This allows them to bring their own creativity into the summative assessment task, but to be sure that they strive to meet the important student learning outcomes in the unit. This past weekend I was planning for my upcoming movement composition lessons and was trying to come up with something funky to try out with the students. My wife showed me an old 80s Soul Train type dance video that a friend had posted on Facebook. Some massively funky dancing very much unique and creative in style, so perfect for my grade 5 lesson. I decided to run with it. In today's lesson their were 8 phases the students went through with the last phase being the final routine itself. Here's a breakdown of the lesson. We reviewed important success criteria that we had uncovered so far in the movement composition unit which were timing, pattern, and teamwork. We discussed what each means in regards to movement composition. To get the students warmed up and engaged in some dancing, I used the following Just Dance video to get them moving and jiving. Once we were done dancing to the Just Dance video above, I showed the students the Soul Train video and asked them to identify what was unique about it. They loved seeing the old 80s style dancing. Some very classic dancing styles indeed. Check out the video below. Once we discussed the Soul Train video seen above, I told the students that we would be creating a similar dance line by the end of the class. The students went off in pairs for a 10-minute exploration of possible moves that they can use in this dance. They did not have to decide what moves to use but explore and narrow down possibilities at this point. In the fifth phase of the lesson, the students were given another ten minutes to decide on which moves they would use for sure and to practice these moves as much as possible over the allotted timeframe they had been given. The emphasis here was to work on timing and pattern. In this important part of the lesson, they had only 5 minutes to give and receive feedback. They had to seek out other groups to get feedback from but also to give feedback related to their dance moves. We came together to have a trial run of the dance and gave feedback as a group, worked out some kinks and talk about how to make it better. This lasted about 3-4 minutes. The final product in action. See video below. A great effort given by all, even the shy students who don't like dance that much. A fun and engaging lesson to be a part of. Try this lesson out and let me know how it goes! How do we know our students are learning? I'd like to share an idea that I have been thinking about for the last couple of weeks. It has to do with learning more about just how much my students are actually learning in my PE program. Although I'm confident that my students are having a very good experience in my classes and that they are quite engaged, the depth to which they are learning is most important to me to understand. So, even though I can see that my students are learning, I would like to put to the test the depth to which this is actually taking place. Ensuring that my students are fully aware of the expected learning outcomes in a unit is a must and much of what I do is geared toward ensuring this happens. However, understanding what these learning outcomes are and being able to practically apply them is a different story. Our PE network on Twitter has been instrumental in helping me to deepen my own practice and to bounce ideas out there via my blog. The PEPLC initiative that I kick started a year and a half ago, with the help of Nathan Horne and Kelly Ann Parry, was very rewarding to be a part of as it brought teachers together to set professional growth goals and be teamed up with other educators to help journey toward these goals. Our network has so many dedicated and passionate physical educators and I am looking to team up with a few to trial out something that I think will be extremely useful in truly assessing the student learning taking place in our programs. Here is how I see it working... Essentially what I am proposing is that we call in on Skype to each other's PE classes from time to time to interview students about what they are learning. For example, right now I am doing a net games unit in grade 4 PE. The learning outcomes have been made explicit and the students have set goals that they are working on. What I would like to set up is having a fellow teacher from our PE network Skype into my grade 4 class. This teacher would randomly select 5-6 students and interview them. The goal of these interviews would be to ask my students a few questions that would allow them to opportunity to share their learning with this person. The interviewer would record the information then provide feedback to me about the learning that is taking place. Is this a perfectly reliable measure of the learning taking place in my PE program? Not quite, but the information gathered is still very valuable in the process of me learning about the learning taking place in my program. Having an outsider interview my students would provide me with some valuable insight from a different perspective. I would then of course do the same for the teacher who Skyped into my class. A list of questions could be agreed on ahead of time to help the process run more efficiently. If you are interested in being a part of this initiative, please click on the Google Form link below. If I see that a number of teachers are interested, I will connect people together to begin this process. Thanks. Hoping that a few of you will take me up on this idea! Devote some time to trying this out Reflection plays a very important role in my life both personally and professionally. I'm always open to new ideas that will make me dig a little deeper and challenge me to continue to learn and grow. My wife, Neila Steele, is very passionate about mindfulness and yoga, as well as teaching at the elementary level. This week she threw out something completely new to me when we were chatting before going to sleep. She said that she came across a great reflective practice article in her mindfulness studies and shared the details with me. So simple in nature yet so complex. It is about thinking about the following three questions and honestly answering them. Who made a difference to you or helped you out today? Who did you make a difference to or help out today? Who did you burden today? It took some time to answer these 3 questions, but I did it and have done it every day since. Answering these questions helps me to appreciate what I have to offer, makes me aware of those who have taken their valuable time and energy to help me, and who I may have unnecessarily/necessarily burdened. I'm sure that you can answer these questions and encourage you to do so. Keep fighting the good fight, come on PE teachers! Just this week, I was engaged in a Twitter chat with Dr. Doug Gleddie and I'm Sporticus (this is his Twitter handle, click on his name to connect). I'm Sporticus holds a director of sport position in education in the UK and blogs at http://drowningintheshallow.wordpress.com/. I'm Sporticus ( I think his name is Alex), wrote up a very thought provoking blog post that focused on the stigma attached to PE. To get an idea of his message, here is a short excerpt taken directly from his blog post. I highly suggest you read the blog post to get a clear perspective on the powerful message he wrote about. I feel the message being sent at the moment tells children this; mind at the top, and body at the bottom. That success in life is equated to a career and this in turn is only possible by studying Maths, Science, Engineering and Technology. The study of a subject for enjoyments sake is no longer important. It distracts from the pursuit of grades and even has the potential to corrupt your ability to achieve this, as my academic colleagues insist when they require pupils to no longer attend extra-curricular clubs but join them in ‘interventions’. This gives the impression that work and education is solely of the mind. That a professional life is one that is chiefly a mental and not a physical one. That success is due to the character of the mind and that our bodies contribution to that success is diminished. A bunch of teachers got involved in the chat to express their opinions about I'm Sporticus' blog post which was good to see. It left me thinking about our subject area and what needs to be done, here and now, to begin to put a huge dent in the negative perceptions that so many people hold about PE. To continue this story forward, just last night my 9-year old son, Tai, came up to me at home and said, "Hey Pops, what is the name of that PE network that you belong to? ". I asked him why he is asking me this and he said that in the book he is reading Lunch Lady, there are a bunch of really bad PE teachers. He then goes on to say how many of the characters in the book hate PE because of bad experiences they have had. A bit curious and intrigued, I asked my son to show me those parts in the book which he immediately did. As I read the parts of the book that were hammering PE, I explained to my son that many people have had bad experiences in PE in the past. I then told him that myself and lots of other PE teachers/researchers on Twitter are working really hard to change people's thinking about PE. I told him that one of the main reasons I blog and share my work is that I want people to know how much I love teaching PE and that when I train PE teachers to be better at what they do, it is all about giving students the best experiences possible. It's about helping them to understand that being physically active is not only a joy, but can enhance their learning, increase their confidence, and bring them so many other benefits in their lives. Have a look at a few of the pages from his book below. Although meant to be humorous in nature, there is a very negative message about PE which is being delivered to young people. If the subject area that we are all so passionate about is being ripped apart in children's books, it is just another sign that we need to continue to step up our games and be the change makers needed to force decision makers to see the great stuff that is happening out there. How are we going to ensure that our quality work in PE is reaching the right people? What else can we do besides blogging and being active on Twitter? I am so proud to lead workshops and give presentations that show how much I care about physical education and its rightful place in a school's curriculum. One of my favorite things is to work with schools one on one getting to know their PE team and helping them make already good programs better. It is my firm belief that teaching is the greatest job in the world because we impact the future. When I look at all of the amazing practice of teachers in the PE network that I belong to, it is truly inspiring, but I am left wondering how we are going to keep spreading our message in order to have maximum impact. Twitter has helped to showcase the quality work taking place in physical education. There is no doubt about it. However, we have all seen PE teachers who have no idea what quality learning is about. We have heard stories of these teachers and may even know a few. It's easy to tip toe around these teachers and not address how shit they are, but in tip toeing, we are ultimately doing an injustice to the students under their care. I have a friend who works at another international school that once told me the PE teacher he works with in elementary essentially plays two different games in class. He either has the kids play dodgeball or when in a good mood, he will bring them out to the field and kick rugby balls non-stop, one after the other, and have them chase and retrieve them. What a thoughtful and caring guy!! I was seriously shocked when I heard this. I know this is an extreme example of horrendous teaching and am not implying that this happens on a routine basis in schools. However, I am sure that there are similar versions of these types of stories taking place in many schools albeit on a smaller scale. Are there ways to proactively address situations like this in an effort to create long lasting positive change in our subject area? What ideas do you have? Instead of throwing our hands up in the air and saying there is nothing that can be done, let's hear your ideas. Let's collectively act on these ideas in order to have the greatest impact possible. To any researchers/lecturers reading this blog post, your input is absolutely essential! Please comment! For other teachers reading, your comments have equal importance. As for me, I know I am doing my share, but there is still so much I can be doing and I will. Continued formative assessment for learning in PE I have taught the grade 1 Health Related Activities unit in PE at Nanjing International School for the past 4 years. I can honestly say that although the student learning outcomes have remained the same, the learning experiences I have offered the students have changed quite a bit each year. These changes are a result of ongoing reflection in my own practice, but also driven by the learning of the students themselves. Although learning about the respiratory and muscular systems is part of this unit, going more in-depth with the circulatory system is my main focus with the kids. I want them to be able to understand heart rate zones at varying levels of physical exertion. As well, I expect that they will be able to find their own heartbeat (pulse) and to determine how many times a minute it beats. Using a simple 6-second formula that I explained in my last blog post, I have the students calculate how many times their hearts beat in one minute. After much practice and lots of mistakes, through inquiry I had them zoom in on the minimum and maximum range that their hearts should beat while at rest and while physically active at various levels of intensity. See the visual below to understand how I addressed patterns in heart rate. Prior to creating this visual and designing learning activities aimed at understanding heart rate zones, I had the students explore what an active heart might sound like at various levels of physical exertion then had the students begin to make connections to actual heart rate zones. See the visual below to understand what this learning engagement looked like in my classes. To assess where my students were at with the understanding of heart rates zones and to determine whether or not they are able to take their own heart rate, I designed a lesson that would put these important expectations to the test in a fun way. At this point, I know that some students are still struggling with these expectations, but today's class was an important step in narrowing down the focus to ensure that I can help all students be successful in this unit. The goal of today's class was to get the students to record their own heart rate (beats per minute) 4 different times; A) when they first came into class, B) after an initial tag game, C) after doing some simple tennis activities and lastly D) after sprinting around jumping over tennis rackets and balls left on gym floor from previous activity. Each activity lasted about 3-4 minutes with about 2 minutes transition time in between activities to record their beats per minute and the corresponding sound of their heart beats while in action. They were super active today, definitely had some fun, and hopefully made further connections between physical activity and heart rate. Moving forward I will be able to ensure that all students are able to accurately take their own heart rate and to understand the range of heart rate zones while exercising and playing in PE. My ultimate aim is to get them to understand that there are so many different ways that we can stay active both in and out of PE class. The last part of the unit, we will dig deeper and hopefully address why exercise is good for us from a learning point of view and a fitness point of view. Check out 3 examples of student work below. Getting young ones to understand different heart rate zones in PE We are now in the third week of our Health Related Activities unit in grade 1. The students have been engaged in a number of different types of physical activity with the aim being to be able to describe how their bodies change while exercising and playing. They know and understand the big changes that take place, but over the past 2 weeks, I have narrowed things down so that they are focusing exclusively on heart rate. In order to get them to understand the different heart rate zones, we came up with words to describe what the heart might sound like while being physically active at different levels of intensity. Check out the visual below. To break things down further, I have had them busy at work being super active, but every few minutes I get them to stop, find their heart beat by placing their fingers on the carotid artery on the side of the windpipe, and count the number of heart beats in 6 seconds. I use a stop watch to time this by saying "Ready, Steady, Count" and after 6 seconds "Stop Counting". I have shown them that they must include a zero at the end of the number giving them the number of heart beats in one minute. For example, if the student counts 14 beats in 6 seconds then add the zero to the end of this, they come up with the number 140. It took some practice, but most are able to understand this math place value concept. I have explained to them what doctors want to know is how many times their patients hearts beat in one minute, so my young ones now know that this is what I want them to know in regards to their own heart rates. But, instead of giving them the answers, over the past couple of classes, I decided to create another visual that would allow me to plot their heart beats on a chart. See this visual below. My goal was to continually plot their heart rates over 2 classes in order to establish a pattern for them to see. As the classes progressed the chart got more and more filled up in the proper areas. If students said a number that was way too high, instead of saying "You've made a mistake", I still plotted it into the plus 240 BPM section at the far right. Over time, the students began to see a trend and were able to understand that perhaps they had been counting wrong and needed help. At the end of today's PE class, I added in the heart rate zones according to the sound visual that we created a few classes ago (the visual you see at the top of this blog post (Dub Dub, Thud Thud, Thump Thump, and Boom Boom). I drew an an image of the heart on fire in today's class in the visual below to represent heart rates that are higher than the zones that we want them to be in. The students walked away from today's class hopefully knowing that the zone that they should be in when they are active in PE is between 140-200 beats per minute. Most students seemed to grasp this, so for the one's that are still struggling I can work more specifically with them over the next couple of classes. Choosing our words carefully As we end the school week, my thought of the day is devoted to thinking about the language that we use with our students. The messages that we send our students about learning are critical. Carol Dweck, a prominent professor of psychology from Stanford University, sums it up nicely in this quote below: Every word and action can send a message. It tells children or students how to think about themselves. It can be a fixed-mindset message that says: You have permanent traits and I am judging them. Or it can be a growth-mindset message that says: You are a developing person and I am interested in your development. It is remarkable how sensitive children are to these messages. When I read this quote this morning, I immediately reflected on how I speak with my students. Although I know I do a relatively good job and instilling a growth-mindset type environment in my classes, there is definite room for improvement in the way I send important messages about learning to my students. Today I will devote myself to being very aware of my teacher talk and the interactions that I have with my learners. What are your thoughts related to this topic? Three valuable commodities within our control as teachers and learners My blog post today is devoted to sharing 3 strategies that I try to put into my practice as an educator and a lifelong learner. I must admit that these strategies are much easier said than done, but making them a part of who I am and what I do is essential in my life. There are times I make loads of progress and other moments when I feel like I am back at square one, but for the most part, I can say that over the long haul, I continue to make steady improvements in these areas over time which has had only positive effects on both my personal and professional life. As an educator, sharing these strategies with my students is a must as I believe that they are essential life skills that can and will lead to success when consciously worked on. From a PE and sport perspective these three strategies can also have a profound impact on our performance if we learn to employ them properly. By no means am I claiming to have invented these strategies as they have been around for centuries and the focus of thousands of books. However, reading about them is one thing, consciously putting them into action is another thing. I choose to put them into action in my personal and professional life. I have good friends who also embrace these skills and have practiced them with great success over the years. I can honestly say that they have helped me overcome some very difficult challenges that I have encountered in my life. I totally expect to face failure and setbacks along the way, but slow and steady progress over time is all that I can ask for. I hope you find use in this blog post.

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A will is a legal document that determines what happens to your property after your death. A will states who receives property and in what amounts. Property distributed under the terms of the will become the “probate” estate. Making a will is a responsibility, as well as a right that is protected by law. In addition to distributing or transferring property, a will may have other functions. It may be used to name a guardian for any minor children or to create a trust and designate a trustee to handle an estate (property left after death) on behalf of children or others. A will may also be used to name a personal representative or “executor” to handle a decedent’s (the person who died) property and affairs from the time of death until an estate is settled. Planning a Will. A person does not need to have a large estate to plan and prepare a will. Anyone who owns property, whether “personal property,” such as cash, stocks, jewelry or furniture, or “real property,” such as land and/or a house, should prepare a will. If married, each spouse should have a will. Making a Valid Will A will should be made when a person is “legally competent” (of sound mind and at least 18 years old). It should be prepared while its maker is in good health and free from emotional stress. In other words, to make a valid will, you must understand such things as what property you own, its value, and whom you are leaving it to when you die. Dying Without a Will. When there is no valid will, the person is said to have died “intestate.” A court appoints an administrator to handle the decedent’s affairs, and his or her property is then distributed according to a formula fixed by law. The laws for distribution of an intestate estate are rigid and generally do not make accommodations for those in unusual need. After payment of taxes, debts, funeral expenses and administrative costs, the property goes to the surviving spouse, children and/or relatives. The laws are specific as to how property is to be distributed, including which relatives have priority and how the property is divided. Valid Will Requirements. Each state has its own laws that determine the requirements for a legal will. In Washington: 1. The will must be written, dated and signed; 2. The person who makes a will (called a “testator”) must be legally competent and acting voluntarily (of sound mind and free of any improper influence), and be at least 18 years old; and 3. The signing of the document must be witnessed by at least two legally competent individuals (one of whom may be a notary public) and signed in strict accordance with technical formalities. Witnesses do not need to know the contents of the will and should not be beneficiaries (persons who will receive something) of the will. Handwritten (or “holographic”) wills that are not properly witnessed are invalid in Washington. A will made in another state in accordance with that state’s requirements will be valid in Washington. Probate Probate is the legal process by which the affairs of a deceased person are settled and title to his or her property is transferred to the heirs. Washington has one of the simplest and least expensive probate systems in the country. Changing or Revoking a Will. A will is effective only at death and may be changed or revoked at any time before death. A will should be revised to reflect any changes in circumstances, personal choices or resources. Changes are often made by a simple document called a codicil (a supplement to a will), or by redrafting the will. An attorney should be consulted when making changes to ensure that changes are legal and properly made. Updating a Will A will should be reviewed and updated as conditions and circumstances change. For example, changes may be necessary when: • The family changes as a result of a birth, adoption, marriage, divorce or death; • Substantial changes occur in the amount or kind of property owned; • Tax laws change; • Residence changes from one state to another; • The designated executor, guardian or trustee can no longer serve; or • You decide—for any reason—to change the distribution of your estate. Longevity of a Will. A will is valid until legally revoked or changed, and becomes final or effective upon its maker’s death. In the event of a divorce, a will automatically excludes the former spouse unless it expressly states otherwise. (Complications could result, however, if no property settlement agreement of the divorce exists.) Periodic reviews are important to make sure the will conforms with changing laws—as well as the will-maker’s intentions. Keeping a Will Safe. The signed original document should be kept in a safe place. As with all vital papers, this document should be stored where it is protected (such as a bank’s safe deposit vault), yet readily accessible when needed. In Washington, the safe deposit box of the deceased is not sealed, so someone who has access to the box can get the will. Arrangements should be made for the will to be immediately available to the decedent’s executor. A copy of the will that notes the location of the original document, and a letter of instruction that contains numbers for bank accounts, insurance policies, credit cards or other financial details, should also be prepared. The letter may also contain instructions regarding burial, cremation or anatomical gifts, and should be given to the executor or will-maker’s attorney. Because this letter may function as a plan for handling important estate matters, it should be as complete as possible. Costs and Fees. Considering its importance, the cost of making a will is modest. A properly drawn will should reduce expenses (and in some cases, taxes), while simplifying the administration of an estate. Fees for preparing a will and drafting the necessary documents depend on an attorney’s experience and expertise, the complexity of the situation, and the amount of time spent counseling clients and preparing documents. Approximate costs should be discussed when first consulting an attorney. The advice of an expert on this complex subject could prove invaluable in preserving the value of the estate and assuring that property is distributed as intended. Advance planning for the distribution of property; specific bequests (gifts); and the naming of an executor, guardian or trustee can also help save time and money. Therefore, before seeing an attorney, think about your estate planning objectives and make preliminary decisions about the distribution of your property. You can facilitate the process, and control costs, by preparing an inventory of your assets and listing your various bank accounts; stocks and bonds; insurance policies; and any profit-sharing, retirement and pension plans. Services of an Attorney. Drafting a will is an important and sometimes complex matter that involves the judgment and skills of an attorney. It is a critical process that requires legal knowledge, informed decision-making, and coordination with other estate planning documents. Although “do-it-yourself” forms and kits are available, they may not consider individual circumstances and relationships, and could cause litigation, contested wills and other problems in transferring property to heirs. An attorney can assist and advise by analyzing individual circumstances and preferences, drafting valid documents, and avoiding pitfalls that alter intent. Trusts. Estate planning involves many considerations and various legal devices to make sure your heirs (beneficiaries) receive your property according to your wishes. This article is intended to provide you with general information about trusts, a popular — but sometimes complex — estate planning tool. The contents are based on trust statutes of the state of Washington, which were modified in 1984, and on the Tax Reform Act of 1986. (Also see the Wills and Probate articles.) Defining a Trust. A trust is an agreement under which money or other assets are held and managed by one person for the benefit of another. Different types of trusts may be created to accomplish specific goals. Each kind may vary in the degree of flexibility and control it offers. The common benefits that trust arrangements offer include: • Providing personal and financial safeguards for family and other beneficiaries; • Postponing or avoiding unnecessary taxes; • Establishing a means of controlling or administering property; and • Meeting other social or commercial goals. Creating a Trust. Certain elements are necessary to create a legal trust, including a trustor, trustee, beneficiary, trust property and trust agreement. The person who provides property and creates a trust is called a trustor. This person may also be referred to as the “grantor,” “donor” or “settlor.” The trustee is the individual, institution or organization that holds legal title to the trust property and is responsible for managing and administering those assets. If not designated by name, a trustee will be appointed by the court. In some cases, a trustor can serve as the trustee. It is also possible for two or more trustees to serve together, or for both an individual and an organization to act as co-trustees. Separate trustees may also be named to manage different parts of a trust estate. The beneficiary is the person who is to receive the benefits or advantages (such as income) of a trust. In general, any person or entity may be a beneficiary, including individuals, corporations, associations or units of government. The general duties and obligations of the beneficiary, the trustee and the trustor are summarized elsewhere in this article. To be valid, a trust must hold some property to be administered. The trust property may be any asset, such as stocks, real estate, cash, a business or insurance. In other words, either “real” or “personal” property may constitute trust property (which may also be called the “trust corpus,” “trust res,” “trust estate” or “trust principal”). Trust property may also include some future interest or right to future ownership, such as the right to receive proceeds under a life-insurance policy when the insured dies (discussed under “Insurance Trusts”). Property is made subject to the trust by transfer to the trustee, commonly called a “gift in trust.” The trust agreement is a contract that formally expresses the understanding between the trustor and trustee. It generally contains a set of instructions to describe the manner in which the trust property is to be held and invested, the purposes for which its benefits (such as income or principal) are to be used, and the duration of the agreement. Trust agreements may be expressed in writing, by oral agreement or may be implied, and the trustor usually has considerable latitude in setting the terms of the trust. To be enforceable, a trust involving an interest in land must be in writing. Types of Trusts Many kinds of trusts are available. Trusts may be classified by their purposes, by the ways in which they are created, by the nature of the property they contain, and by their duration. One common way to describe trusts is by their relationship to the trustor’s life. In this regard, trusts are generally classified as either living trusts (“inter vivos” trusts), or testamentary trusts. Living trusts are created during the lifetime of the trustor. Property held in a living trust is not normally subject to probate (the court-supervised process to validate a will and transfer property on the death of the trustor). In Washington, because such property is not subject to probate, it need not be disclosed in the court record and confidentiality may be maintained. Such trusts are widely used because they allow the trustor to designate a trustee to provide professional management. Under some circumstances, living trusts will allow income to be taxed to a beneficiary and result in income tax savings to the trustor. However, it should be noted that income earned by a trust established for a beneficiary under the age of 14 may be taxed at the beneficiary’s parent’s tax rate. The transfer of property to a living trust may also be subject to a gift tax. Testamentary trusts are created as part of a will and must conform to the statutory requirements that govern wills. This type of trust becomes effective upon the death of the person making the will (the “decedent”) and is commonly used to conserve or transfer wealth. The will provides that part or all of the decedent’s estate will go to a trustee who is charged with administering the trust property and making distributions to designated beneficiaries according to the provisions of the trust. Before the trust property becomes subject to the testamentary trust, it will normally pass through the decedent’s estate. When the estate is probated, those trust assets will be subject to probate. The assets, which will form the corpus of a testamentary trust, also are potentially subject to an estate and generation-skipping transfer tax at the time of the decedent’s death. A testamentary trust gives the trustor substantial control over his or her estate distribution. It also may be used to achieve significant savings in the future. For example, by using a testamentary trust, a trustor can provide for a child’s education or can delay the receipt of property by a child until the child gains financial maturity. Moreover, given the proper form of trust, property may be exempted from death taxation on the later death of a trust beneficiary. However, a generation-skipping transfer tax may still apply. Living trusts can be “revocable” or “irrevocable.” The trustor may change the terms or cancel a revocable living trust. Upon revocation, the trustor resumes ownership of the trust property. In general, a revocable living trust is used when the trustor does not want to lose permanent control of the trust property, is unsure of how well the trust will be administered, or is uncertain of the proper duration for the trust. With a properly drafted revocable trust, you may: 1. Add or withdraw some assets from the trust during your lifetime; 2. Change the terms and the manner of administration of the trust; and 3. Retain the right to make the trust irrevocable at some future time. The assets in this type of trust will generally be includable in the trustor’s taxable estate, but may not be subject to probate. An irrevocable living trust may not be altered or terminated by the trustor once the agreement is signed. There are two distinct advantages of irrevocable trusts: 1. The income may not be taxable to the trustor; and 2. The trust assets may not be subject to death taxes in the trustor’s estates. However, these benefits will be lost if the trustor is entitled to (1) receive any income; (2) use the trust assets; or (3) otherwise control the administration of the trust in a manner that is inconsistent with the requirements of the Internal Revenue Code. Since a will may be revoked or amended at any time prior to death, a testamentary trust may be changed or canceled. Revisions can be made by drafting a new will or by using a simple document called a “codicil” to make changes or additions to your will. However, to be effective, any such modifications must be executed in the same manner required for wills. The trust instrument should be explicit regarding revocability or irrevocability. If it is not, the trust will be considered irrevocable. Establishing a Trust. Depending on a number of circumstances, trusts may be established orally, in writing or by conduct. Most trusts involve a number of technical legal concepts relating to ownership, taxes and control. A lawyer can assist in explaining options, considering contingencies and preparing documents. In creating a trust, you should consider several factors and obligations, including: • Your personal situation, including age, health and financial status; • Your family relationships and your family’s financial circumstances; • Personal financial data: personal property, real estate holdings, securities, and other property — as well as your tax situation and any debts or obligations; • The purpose of the trust: your goals, or what you hope to accomplish by the arrangement; • The type of trust, and how versatile or flexible your plans are. • The amount and type of property it will contain; • The duration, or how long the trust will last; • The beneficiaries and their specific needs; • Any conditions that must be met by a beneficiary to receive benefits (such as attaining a certain age); • Alternatives for disposing of assets in case the trust conditions are not met or circumstances change; and • The trustee, and the conditions or guidelines under which he or she will function. Dependency exemptions, capital gains and losses, income, gift, estate and generation-skipping transfer taxes also should be considered when planning certain types of trusts. Likewise, you may want to think about naming alternative or contingent beneficiaries and trustees. Once a trust has been established, a periodic review of the status of the trust is advisable; you may want to obtain professional assistance appropriate to the requirements of the trust. Location of a Trust The location of the trust is usually determined by the residence of either the trustor or the trustee. In deciding where to establish the trust, it must be remembered that each state has different laws governing the operation of trusts and trustees’ powers. Circumstances may sometimes warrant moving the trust location. Relocation, called a “change of situs,” may be desirable or necessary for either tax or nontax reasons (e.g., the trustee moves to another state). Whether or not a move can be made, and how the move is accomplished, will be dictated by each state’s laws. Duties and Obligations of a Trustee A trustee — whether an individual or institution — holds legal title to the trust property and is given broad powers over maintenance and investment. To ensure that these duties are properly carried out, the law requires that the trustee act in a certain manner. In general, a trustee must: • Act in accord with the express terms of the trust instrument; • Act impartially, administering the trust for the benefit of all trust beneficiaries; • Administer the trust property with reasonable care and skill, considering both its safety and the amount of income it produces; • Maintain complete accounts and records; and • Perform taxpayer duties, such as filing tax returns for the trust and paying required taxes. The trustee must administer the trust property only for the designated beneficiaries and may not use trust principal or income for his or her own benefit. In other words, a trustee is usually prohibited from borrowing or buying from the trust, from selling his or her own property to it, and from using the trust assets as collateral for a personal debt. In selecting a trustee you should consider the potential trustee’s competence and experience in managing business or financial matters and the potential trustee’s availability and willingness to serve. Individuals and certain corporations (or a combination of both) may serve as trustee. Each selection offers distinct advantages and drawbacks that should be considered. For example, an institution, such as a bank, usually offers specially trained managers to provide administrative, counseling and tax services. Other typical advantages include the institution’s continuity and reliability of service, and its ready availability. Most banks charge a fee for trust services, and some may not want to manage small trusts, so you may want to compare options. As an alternative, an individual, such as a relative, family friend or business associate, may serve as trustee. An individual, unlike an institution, may be willing to serve for little or no fee. Furthermore, this person could add a more personal touch for special understanding to the needs of the beneficiaries. However, you will want to be certain that any nominated individual has the skill and experience necessary to properly manage the trust property. Insurance Trusts. Insurance trusts may take various forms, such as business insurance trusts (which may be used to protect the “key men,” proprietor or partners of a business), or personal insurance trusts (which involve no business interests). These types of trusts are usually intended to provide assistance in the management of insurance proceeds from estate taxation. Insurance trusts may be revocable or irrevocable, and various types of agreements are available to accommodate an individual’s circumstances and desires, or the requirements of a business. Another form of insurance trust is the life-insurance trust. This trust, similar to a living trust, is created to receive proceeds payable under a life-insurance policy. It is normally established to exclude those proceeds from taxation in the decedent’s estate. A life-insurance trust can also be used to provide a vehicle for continued management and distribution of insurance proceeds for a beneficiary who may need assistance in those matters. To obtain the tax benefits of having the proceeds excluded from the decedent’s estate, it is imperative that the insured divest himself or herself of all interest in the policy, and place those rights in the hands of the trustee. For this reason, it is preferable to have an individual other than the insured act as trustee. This type of trust cannot be revocable, and the insured cannot retain any right to trust income. To ensure the tax advantages are retained, it is important that the document be properly drafted. The tax rules in this area are quite complex, so professional legal assistance may be helpful in the preparation of such a document. Charitable Trusts. A charitable trust is also called a “public trust,” because it benefits‚ immediately or eventually, members of the general public through charitable means. It can offer many tax advantages to the trustor not available to other “private” trusts. Unlike private trusts, it can be established to last indefinitely. Although sometimes complicated in their arrangement, charitable trusts offer considerable flexibility in providing benefits from the trustor or other trust beneficiaries, while at the same time meeting charitable goals. Charitable trusts must be carefully drafted, however, to ensure advantageous tax treatment. A commonly used charitable trust is the “charitable remainder trust.” Charitable Remainder Trusts This type of trust allows you to give a future interest in an asset to charity, while keeping an income stream for yourself or for another beneficiary. A trustor may specify that a certain portion of the trust income be distributed to a noncharitable beneficiary for a certain period of time, with the charity to receive the money or property thereafter (e.g., upon the death of the noncharitable beneficiary). In addition to offering an immediate tax deduction for the charitable contribution, the charitable remainder trust can help lower your estate taxes. To qualify for a charitable deduction, specific formats must be followed, and the charitable beneficiary must meet standards set by the Internal Revenue Service. The amount of the charitable deduction is based on complex tax laws that consider such factors as the age of the beneficiary, the value of the property, and the expected income from the trust. Because of the detailed legal concepts and changing IRS regulations, it is advisable to consult a lawyer when considering such arrangements. Longevity of a Trust. There is no specified time during which a trust must remain in effect. Each situation must be evaluated separately. In general, however, Washington State law will not allow a private trust to continue longer than 21 years after the death of a person living at the time the trust was established. Charitable trusts, on the other hand, may continue indefinitely. Taxes The use of a trust may help you achieve certain goals, such as reduction of taxes. However, while trusts can offer a number of tax advantages, tax avoidance should not be the sole motivation for using this estate-planning tool. It also should be recognized that the laws governing trusts and their taxation are complex and subject to change. As an example, under the Tax Reform Act of 1986, income earned in a trust which has a beneficiary under the age of 14 will be taxed at that beneficiary’s marginal tax rate. This is a significant departure from prior tax law, which provided that such income be taxed to the child at his or her own tax rate, often resulting in little or no tax being due. Because of the new tax rules, an individual contemplating a trust for tax purposes should consult with his or her accountant or attorney to determine whether the trust can be structured in a way to meet the tax objectives. By carefully choosing the proper type of investments within a trust, it may still be possible to accomplish tax goals, but careful planning and drafting are required. These facts, coupled with the numerous financial considerations involved in estate planning, suggest that professional legal and financial assistance may be necessary to help you make an informed decision. Fees and Costs. The cost of creating and administering a trust can vary considerably, depending on its type and duration. A lawyer’s fees to create a trust, for example, will usually be based on the time involved in consulting with you, and in planning and preparing documents. Therefore, before you hire a lawyer, you should discuss fees (for example, whether hourly or flat fees are charged). Ask for an estimate or arrange a written fee agreement. A trustee’s fee may vary with the skill and expertise the trustee offers. Charges may also be influenced by the size and complexity of the trust estate. This affects the nature and amount of services required, such as record-keeping, asset management and tax planning. In addition to legal and trustee expenses, there may be accounting, real estate management or other service fees. Other common charges include annual, minimum, withdrawal and termination fees.

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Battle of Shangani (called Bonko by the amaNdebele) - This was the first battle for Lobengula’s seasoned warriors who had been urging Lobengula to attack ever since the white settlers had crossed the Shashe River in July 1890 to settle in Mashonaland. - Great bravery was shown by both sides, but particularly by the amaNdebele Regiments who attacked time and time again in the face of the crushing Maxim gun fire supported by artillery. This was the first time the Maxim gun was used against combatants and played a decisive role in the battle. - The amaNdebele showed considerable tactical skill attacking when the column was in a vulnerable position shortly after crossing the Shangani River and before dawn. Both Forbes and Wilson would have liked to march on, but the evening was closing in by the time both columns had crossed the Shangani River drifts and although the site was far from perfect; it was well-suited to the use of the Maxim guns with clear fields of fire. - The amaNdebele planned to attack with a silent dawn charge, but a Shona picket fired an alarm shot as they closed in on Quested’s laager to the east. On their defeat their leader Manonda committed suicide by hanging himself. From Bulawayo: take the A5 towards Gweru; pass Shangani, 1.3 KM before crossing the Shangani River reach the Shangani Memorial. The neat stone plinth survives, but the metal plaque has been torn out and the former sign has been removed although the metal uprights remain. From the Zimbabwe Military museum in Gweru take the A5 towards Bulawayo; 56 KM pass the Shangani River Bridge, 57.3 KM the Shangani Memorial plaque is on the right-hand side of the road. GPS reference for the Salisbury Column Shangani River drift: 19⁰44′16.95″S 29⁰24′47.30″E GPS reference for the Victoria Column Shangani River drift: 19⁰44′32.72″S 29⁰24′45.98″E GPS reference for the laager site: 19⁰44′33.53″S 29⁰19′38.35″E The Salisbury and Fort Victoria columns joined together at Iron Mine hill on the morning of 16th October 1893 and advanced in parallel columns in the direction of Bulawayo; their combined strength at the Shangani River was about 1,727 men (672 white and 1,055 Shona; mostly men but with some released captive Shona women) with 414 horses. Apart from individual rifles they had three galloping maxims, one seven-pounder Gardiner gun, one seven-pounder screw-gun, a one pounder Hotchkiss gun and a Nordenfeldt gun. The Columns arrived at the Shangani River on the morning of 24th October 1893 about 9am. Major P.W. Forbes in command and Major Alan Wilson found locations just north of the present national road bridge where it would be possible to dig two separate drifts for each column down the banks of the Shangani River. They left the men cutting away the banks and rode ahead to find a suitable spot for the night’s laager of both columns which they found about a 900 metres west from the Shangani. The columns arrived on the river’s eastern side about 9:00am on the 24 October 1896 and made temporary laagers; by 3:00pm the drifts across the Shangani River had been made and two troops of mounted men were sent together with two Maxim guns and a seven-pounder to the small kopje south west of the crossing point and next to the national road to cover the river crossing. Two other mounted troops crossed the river; one under Captain Borrow to the line of small hills on the northern horizon one and a half kilometres away; the other under Captain Fitzgerald to the south of today’s A5 along a small tributary of the Shangani River to prevent any attack from this side during the river crossing. The Salisbury columns had twenty-one wagons, the Victoria column eighteen wagons and they both hurried to cross the two drifts; all realised the river crossing made them particularly vulnerable to attack. The more northerly Salisbury Column got across the drift onto the west bank of the Shangani River in just sixteen minutes; the Victoria column took nineteen minutes to cross. The two columns combined as one to save time cutting tracks and to reach the best possible laager site before nightfall. Both Forbes and Wilson would have preferred to have moved on further than the 900-1,000 metres from the Shangani River, but by 4:30pm they needed to form the laagers and build kraals for the cattle before nightfall. The columns had captured about 1,000 cattle and 900 sheep and goats and released many captive Shona (Maholi) of the amaNdebele as they made their way towards Bulawayo, so that their numbers had gradually risen to over one thousand. Little grain for the animals had been found and there was not much time to build a cattle kraal before dark; but a makeshift one was sited east of the wagon laager. The Shona built a makeshift kraal for themselves about 550 metres away from the laager site; others slept in the open in the vicinity of the laager. The Google earth snapshot shows the main features of the battle-field. The Shangani River flows from south to North on the east side of the snapshot; the combined Column laager site is indicated by Purple = Salisbury laager, yellow = the thorn bush kraal for the trek oxen, green = Victoria laager, brown = the kraal for the captured cattle. The blue polygon north of the small hill = Quested’s Shona kraal. The positions indicated are speculative, as no permanent signs of the laager were left; but are based on Major Forbes stating they were about 300-350 metres from the small rise - the highest point between the laager and the Shangani River – which Major Willoughby’s map shows as due east from the laager site that the columns had skirted around and that they had trekked about 900 metres from the drifts on the Shangani River to their laager site. The attached diagram shows the layout of the combined laagers on the night of 24th October 1893 with the Salisbury laager to the north. The mounted troops were inside the laager, the dismounted men and artillery formed the outlying pickets on guard duty about 100 metres from the outer edge of the laager. That night there were 10 groups of pickets: 8 of white Troopers comprising an NCO and six Troopers and 2 of Shona, comprising an NCO and 3 guards. The patrols sent out earlier under Captains Borrow and Fitzgerald came in shortly before nightfall and reported seeing no amaNdebele (Matabele) and only a few Maholi (Shona slaves) brought in by Fitzgerald’s patrol. These had relatives in Mr Quested’s contingent and there was much rejoicing amongst them until late. Shortly after dark Forbes sent up signal rockets on the chance that some of the scouts from the southern column approaching from Fort Tuli were in the neighbourhood. The amaNdebele had followed the Column from the Somabhula Forest to the east and soon after dark crossed the Shangani River and began to surround the laager and Quested’s Shona kraal. The plan had been to attack about 10:30pm, but the noisy rejoicing amongst the Shona and then the signal rockets which they had never encountered before, resulted in the attack being postponed. Just before 4am when the laager would customarily wake for the “stand-to” in the pre-dawn darkness, around 5,000 amaNdebele were positioned around the site. Sir John Willoughby’s map shows how close that had moved to the laager without detection. Some Shona from Quested’s camp were walking down to the Shangani River for water and walked straight into warriors of the Insiziba Regiment. They immediately attacked Quested’s kraal and began to kill men, women and children there. The following is from Major Forbes account of the battle in the book The Downfall of Lobengula by W.A. Wills and L.T. Collingridge: “At five minutes to four the following morning we were suddenly awakened by quick firing and realised the enemy were on us. The wagons were manned immediately and fire opened all around the laager. It was too dark to see the natives at first, but their position was shown by the flashes that came from the grass all around the laager. [The Matabele were equipped with a mixture of Martini-Henry rifles supplied by Rhodes for the Rudd Concession and assorted muskets bought in Kimberley and from Portuguese traders] I jumped up onto the nearest wagon and tried to see into the darkness, but could distinguish nothing but the flashes, which were very close and frequent. The enemy were so close to us that I did not think it safe to stop firing, even if I had been able to do so in the noise that was going on and I was very much afraid that some of the men on picket would be killed either by friends or enemies and I was greatly relieved to hear shortly afterwards that they all got safely in. During the attack Quested (in charge of the native contingent) came into the laager. He had been sleeping with his natives and they had received the brunt of the attack, waking up to find the Matabele right upon them and stabbing them. Quested managed to make a stand for a short time and then retired on the laager with his people; he was wounded in the arm and side and had his thumb shot off. Most of his people managed to get inside the laager, although several were wounded. C Troop was inlying picket and had saddled up their horses at the first alarm. A Troop was on the right and B on the left of the laager. The first attack lasted about half-an-hour and then the enemy’s fire ceased; it was still too dark to see any distance, but objects in the immediate vicinity were visible. As I was afraid that some of our friendly natives might have failed to get into the laager, I sent Captain Spreckley with twenty mounted men to go round the open ground close to the laager and see if he could find anyone; he brought in several of our natives and a few shots were fired at his party from the bush, but no harm was done. Shortly after they returned and when it was getting light enough to see some distance, a large number of natives were seen collecting on the top of a small rise about 350 yards [320 metres] to the south-east of the laager. I was standing with Mr Chappe at the Maxim at the left rear of our laager watching them through glasses and from the quiet way they were moving about, took them to be some of our natives who had escaped into the bush at the first alarm and now gone there for safety. There must have been between 200 – 300 of them and I could see no shields among them. After they had collected on top of the rise, they opened out and began to walk quietly towards the laager; I and I think everyone who was watching them except Mr Chappe, who insisted they were Matabele, thought they were friendlies. They advanced down the slope in a most casual way, without hurrying or attempting to take cover and I allowed no firing on them. When they got to the bottom of the slope, they suddenly sat down and commenced to fire at us. A very heavy fire was at once poured on them from two or three Maxims and about 200 rifles and they forced to retire over the hill much faster than they had come down. The way they advanced was most plucky and we found out afterwards they were the Insukameni, the best regiment there. Had the whole of the attacking force come on in the same way, we should have had more trouble than we had. As soon as they advanced, firing recommenced from the bush all round; but very few natives appeared in the open and after they retired, the firing ceased again. After waiting for some time, during which only a few shots were fired at us at long distances and it was now broad daylight, patrols were sent out to see if the enemy had retired. Each of these parties found the enemy in the bush within half-a-mile of the laager and after a sharp skirmish, in which we lost four horses, had to fall back to the laager towards which the enemy followed them, but were driven back by the Maxims. A large number of Matabele now appeared on a small kopje, 2,000 yards to the west of the laager and they appeared to be reforming there, but three well-directed shells from the Salisbury seven-pounder dispersed them. Meanwhile Captain Lendy was doing great execution with the Hotchkiss gun, firing at small parties crossing the open 1,500 – 2,000 yards to the south and south-west of the laager. It was afterwards found that one of the one-pounder shells had killed twelve men.” Mounted patrols were then sent out and all encountered the amaNdebele with Captain Heany being attacked so heavily his patrol had to retire to a better position at the gallop before opening fire on them and driving them back into the bush. He had two horses wounded, but no other casualties although there were some close escapes, one trooper having the sole of his boot and another had his belt cut by bullets. The amaNdebele position was then shelled by the seven-pounder. Major Forbes continues: “we ascertained from a wounded native who was brought in that the force which attacked us consisted of the Insukameni, Ihlati, Amaveni and Siseba Regiments and Jingen, Enxna, Zinyangene and Induba kraals, in all not less than 5,000; that they had been waiting for us in the Somabula Forest, but that we had passed it before they knew where we were and that they had then followed us up, expecting to catch us before we got to the Shangani River; that they had arrived shortly before dark the previous evening and had been in position to attack about 10pm, but the rocket signal and rockets sent up had frightened them and the attack had been postponed until daybreak. They were all to advance as close to the laager as possible under the cover of darkness and then rush in with assegais. It was finding Quested’s natives so far away that caused the first firing and so gave us the alarm.” It has been estimated that by the time the amaNdebele withdrew, they had suffered around 1,500 fatalities; Trooper Walters of the Victoria column was wounded and died the same night and six others were wounded including Trooper Forbes, the Major’s brother. A Shona wagon driver and around 40 – 50 friendlies were killed, including women and children, mainly from the initial attack. Lobengula's warriors were well-drilled and formidable; but the firepower of the Column’s Maxim guns, which had never before been used in battle, far exceeded expectations. Major Forbes attributes their low casualties to the belief by the amaNdebele that the higher they put up the sights of their rifles, the harder they would shoot and consequently nearly all their shots were too high. Forbes also says: “we had noticed a curious thing that morning, that whenever a shell exploded all the Matabele nearby fired their rifles at it; on enquiry from a prisoner we found that they thought that the shell was full of little white men, who ran out as soon as it burst and killed everybody nearby; we saw this done almost every time a shell was fired during the campaign.” That same afternoon the two columns moved on about five kilometres into the open plain probably north of where Shangani is now situated and set up a new laager. The following notes provide a different perspective from that of Major Forbes and are compiled from the note books of Jack Carruthers, a Victoria Scout present at both the Shangani and Bembezi battles. "October the 24th around 4 p.m. we rode back as the column was preparing a drift. They had called a halt at the river. Captain Charles Lendy, a keen artilleryman, was trying out a Maxim gun. Knowing our combined columns were being shadowed, preparations for safety were promptly made. We laagered just before dark. The Shangani laager was situated on top of a rise half a mile west of the present Shangani Bridge. The wagons were formed into a large square about 600 yards up from the river on an elevated ridge overlooking the valley to the south. Some granite hills were situated half a mile to the west. The black watch, as our native levies were called, had cleared our front by cutting down all the scrub-bush on the south and west side of the laager for some distance. The scrub was used for brushing in the openings between the wagons. The picketing ropes for the horses were fixed in the centre. The oxen lay on their yokes with chains turned inwards. The columns held their respective positions east and west forming the Shangani laager. Men were told-off to certain wagons in case of alarm. The native guard under T W Quested took up a position at our rear on a small kopje. At dark Brabant and my brother Bob with Nobby Clarke, came in from the east with some captured cattle and a number of Mashona women, known to some of our black watch. Bob and Nobby were placed between the laager and a timber ridge on the north-east side, they schermed themselves in for the night. Dollar and some scouts, slept out near the timber about a hundred yards east of the drawn-up wagons. I preferred sleeping in laager, telling Bob Carruthers to bring in the horses and picket them. I occupied the top of Bradfield's wagon with Jim Stodart and Harry Cumming. My friend Alfred Webb took up a position underneath. Both Parkin and Lynch were out on guard. It was just after 2:15am, [note most accounts state almost 4am] a peaceful night, clear sky but on the dark side. The bugles gave the alarm, the camp was all excitement in a moment, all noise with the opening of ammunition boxes and shouting of officers, the men were getting into their places. There was a din outside the laager from the on-rushing Matabele impis that had decided to attack in the usual Zulu fashion. It could be distinctly heard above the confusion of our own loyal natives. My friend Quested's encampment was the first attacked, he lost a finger from a gunshot and just got into laager in the nick of time. It was 3 of his boys that had saved the situation by their going down to fetch water at the river. They walked into the Matabele impi who were planning their attack on the laager. Only one of the boys got back - he was badly stabbed. Brabant and my brother Bob were endeavouring to get the loyal natives to come into laager. The natives were confused, making off in all directions. Most of the women ran into the veldt, only to be killed by the on-rush of the Matabele. Sergeant Reed with the big gun was forced to open fire as the ridge to our east was a black mass of the enemy. Their Indunas were persuading the impi to advance further. My brother held a conversation in Matabele with one that later seemed to me rather amusing. Our scouts had no time to loosen their mounts, several were assegai'd. Texas Long was the only one to bring in his old charger and Dollar lost his mount, the scouts had hardly time to save themselves. The outer sentries also had narrow escapes getting back into laager. I called Webb up into the wagon at the onset, strange to say our small bushman boy was found dead, shot in the place which Webb had vacated. The Insukameni [Regiment] discarded their shields in a trick that almost worked. Seeing the apparently unarmed warriors approaching the laagers from a kopje on the south, Forbes ordered a cease-fire. The Insukameni pressed forward within a few yards of the laagers before opening fire with their concealed rifles. The full weight of the column fell upon them. Forbes dispatched Captain’s Frederick Fitzgerald and Bastard to the south-west of the Victoria laager after the Matebele's repeated attempts to get close. They were finally driven back. Just after 8am the Matabele launched a third concentrated attack from the north, east and south. This attack drove the mounted men toward the laagers, the artillery then opened fire in support. The Maxims brought an end to the final attacks. I saw one of our levies actually cut off his dangling arm with his own assegai. The Matabele retreated at daylight; several had hung themselves to trees with their girdles rather than return beaten. One in desperation, it seemed, had fallen on his own assegai. The Salisbury laager had several wounded, one badly who died that night. The deceased was Harry Dalton Watson from Breakfast Vlei near Grahamstown. [Major Forbes says it was Trooper Walters] We buried him at our next camp the following day. Unfortunately we had killed about 40 of our loyal natives having to open fire with the Maxim. The only surviving native woman had been badly stabbed. The Matabele had killed her baby; one assegai wound penetrated her breast from behind. She walked along with the other wounded to Bulawayo. We scouts were away soon after the battle following on the retreating warriors. We climbed the big hill two miles south of the Shangani battlefield. [Tisikiso] Here I had a magnificent panoramic view of the retreating Matabele. There were several impis moving in different directions - their coloured shields in the right hand and assegais in the left, glinting in the morning sun - a picture now so engrained in my mind, I shall always remember this. Jones who was with me made several attempts to shoot a Matabele spy we had disturbed on the hill. Having only six cartridges for my sporting rifle I did not fire. A troop of the Salisbury Horse, under Major Heany, was almost led into a trap just beyond the granite kopjes out west. In the early afternoon after shelling the natives out of the hills, the columns moved forward for safety to an open plain [what is now the Shangani Siding] We halted, fully prepared for further trouble. The small kraal half a mile up to the right was where Ted Burnett had been wounded while sitting on his horse. The next day found us in timber country. The impis had disappeared and the columns continued forward. The wagons moved slowly, cutting the way meant a great deal of work and delay. The noise of the driving wagons could be heard a long way off. I was given the direct front and scouted out into an open glade about 7 to 8 miles ahead. We heard firing and pulled up. We Scouts were quite out of touch with the moving column at this time. Dollar was with most of the Victoria Scouts were away on the south side. The Salisbury Scouts were somewhere to the north. We suddenly heard a galloping horse passing away to our right, flying for his dear life, but could not see who it was until it had broken out into the open, half a mile ahead of us. After shouting we chased after the hatless rider eventually getting him to stop. It turned out to be Swinburne. He was quite concerned. Pulling up breathless he mentioned Captain Owen Williams had been killed and that the Matebele’s were following him. We rode back part of the way and directed him, with Bain accompanying, towards the oncoming column. This finished his scouting, I never saw him out again. After a tedious day of uncertainty we found the laager at dark. The column had been forced to laager among the big trees, owing to Dollar sending back word that the Matabele were in great force, close by to the south. Captain Jack Spreckley and his troop had been chased in from the north." Another account of the battle quoted by R.C. Knight is given by George Rattray in a letter written soon after to his mother: Nov. 11th 1893 My dear Mamma I take this opportunity to write to you as a carrier goes to Tati tomorrow. I would have written before but have had no chance whatever. We crossed the Shashi on the 15th October and have had a fairly lively time ever since. The Salisbury column joined us about six days after and we have laagered side by side ever since. The day before we met our scouts had the first skirmish and captured six hundred head of cattle, the Salisbury scouts capturing 250. Two hundred and fifty of the best were picked out and sent back to Victoria as loot, the remainder we ate in a couple of weeks. Captain Campbell of Salisbury had his leg shattered by a lump of iron the beggars load their guns with, and had to have the limb cut off, he died the same night and was buried with military honours. We had two or three brushes with them later on and shot a good many but nothing serious occurred till we got to the Umshangaan River. We had to outspan in a bad spot as the oxen were knocked up having to trek a long way for water. There was a good bit of bush about and a rise or small Kopje about 400 yards on our flank. About 4 o'clock in the morning the outlying pickets commenced firing. The alarm was sounded and every man was at his post on the wagons. In the excitement our pickets were mistaken in the dark and had a regular volley of bullets sent into them from both laagers, but fortunately none were hit. The maxims were turned on a lot of our Mahalakas, the useless brutes coming rushing towards the laager with assegais and guns and consequently being mistaken for Matabele. Seven or eight were killed and a numerous lot were wounded. When they were shot they had the sense to lie still till the fight was over. The Matabele got on the Kopje and commenced a galling fire on us as they got behind anthills and stones. There were two regiments we afterwards found out about 5,000 men. As soon as it commenced to get light we could see them and then they got it, directly one showed himself about twenty bullets were after him and one always told. As soon as the sun got up we were ordered to mount and clear them from the valley and flats. As soon as they were seen from the laager trying to surround us, the Maxims and shell guns opened on them. We soon cleared them out though I can tell you the bullets were coming thick. Reins were cut, shoulder straps taken away, hats bored, horses shot underneath their riders yet strange to say not a man was wounded. The one pounder killed twelve in a lump not far from us and the seven pounder shelled the Kopjes all round within 4 miles. The latter gun did tremendous damage, killing them by fifties. They couldn't make it out at first as they saw the smoke miles off and heard the report and presently another report in the middle of them and dead and dying all round. They call it the "by 'n bye" gun and at first it was amusing to see them fire volley after volley at the shell directly it dropped thinking if they hit it they might kill it. We moved from that place the same afternoon and laagered two miles further on in a good position. The letter then goes on to describe the Battle of Bembesi. Major I.M. Tomes in an excellent article on the Matabele War favours the Shangani Drift marked (A) on the Google view; whereas I favour the more northern drift marked (B). When you walk the battle site, the small hill marked on Willoughby’s map is actually bigger than first indicated as shown by the modern farm track / 1896 coach road which has to follow the contour of the hill and is indicated in red by the Google view. The route indicated on Willoughby’s map is generally south west as indicated by the purple route from drift B and does not show the curve around the hill following the contour line. The second argument in favour of drift (B) is that it is much wider than drift (A) which as the photo shows is narrow and has to be indicated with upright stones. The two columns crossed on separate drifts which drift (A) would not permit. Drift (B) is quite shallow, especially in late October ,when the Shangani would be low and would permit two drifts even though they may be close. Although Major Forbes knew the columns were vulnerable crossing the drifts, he mitigated the risk by sending two mounted Troops with two Maxims and a seven-pounder gun onto the small hill to the west and the line of kopjes to the northwest. Two more troops were sent: one under Capt. Borrow to the north and the other under Capt. Fitzgerald to the southwest. Their tasks: “to destroy kraals, seize cattle and prevent us (i.e. the Columns) being attacked while crossing.” R.F.H. Summers and C.W.D. Pagden, assisted by Col. A.S. Hickman. Notes on the Battlefields at Shangani and Bembesi. Rhodesiana No.17 of December 1967 R.L. Moffat. A further note on the Battle of Shangani. Rhodesiana No.18 of July 1968. Maj. I.M. Tomes. The Matabele War 1893. Heritage of Zimbabwe. No. 17 1998. P18-73 W.A. Wills and L.T. Collingridge. The Downfall of Lobengula. Books of Rhodesia Volume 17. 1971. R.C. Knight. Letter from George Rattray. The Journal of the Rhodesian Study Circle. 1987 Notebook of Jack Carruthers. Extract kindly provided by Ian Carruthers

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Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. 1 Introduction In its earlier study, Urban Change and Poverty, the Committee on National Urban Policy examined the general state of U.S. cities and urban poverty. The findings were more hopeful than had been expected in certain areas of concern and more disturbing in others. On the hopeful side, cities as a whole were found to be less financially and economically distressed than one might have been led to expect by the rhetoric of urban crisis. A disturbing finding, however, was that poverty appeared to be worse in many large cities than it had been 10 and 20 years before. More significantly, poverty appears to be becoming more spatially concentrated in inner-city neighborhoods. Some analysts have concluded that an urban underclass consisting of persistently poor people is developing in U.S. cities. Our earlier report sug- gested that, at the least, poverty is an increasingly serious problem in cities. But we wanted to know more about the extent to which poverty is concen- trated in particular neighborhoods and the effects of this concentration on poor people themselves. With these and related concerns in mind, the committee undertook the current study, which examines the issue of concentrated poverty in U.S. cities. The committee was charged with four main tasks: describe the extent to which poverty has become concentrated in particular areas; identity causes of this concentration; . · identify the consequences for the poor of living in areas of highly concentrated poverty; and analyze implications of the findings for national urban policy. 7 8 INNER-CITY POVERTY IN THE UNITED STATES TRENDS IN URBAN POVERlY Since the early Woos the metropolitan areas of the United States have been the sites of most of the nation's growth in employment and income. American cities attracted those looking for economic opportunity and social advancement from the countryside and abroad (Kasarda, 1988~. Within metropolitan areas, however, people and jobs have been migrating to the suburbs and beyond since at least the 1920s (Hawley, 1956; Long, 1981~. Inner cities have declined in population, employment, and income relative to fast-growing suburbs. At the regional level, jobs and people have been shifting from the Northeast and the Midwest to the South and the West. The older regions have suffered especially from declines in manufacturing employment, as the growth of the economy has taken the form of increases in the production of information and other sentences (Garnick, 1988; Noyelle and Stanback 1984~. In recent decades, middle-income blacks and other minorities have joined better-off whites in moving to the suburbs. These demographic and economic trends have affected the socioeconomic conditions of cities, especially in the Northeast and the Midwest. The exodus from central cities that is, the largest cities of standard metropolitan statistical areas- has been only partially offset by in-migration, and most of those moving into large cities have been people with low incomes and minorities (Kasarda, 1988:~ble 12~. Gentrification that is, the influx of more affluent people- has been limited to a few neighborhoods in particular cities (Berry, 1985; Frey, 1985~. As a result, the proportion of the population living in large central cities has decreased nationally. Average personal income levels have dropped, and the proportions of city residents who are poor, unskilled, poorly educated, unemployed, and members of minority groups have increased relative to those living in the suburbs. For example, the ratio of average city income to average suburban income among families declined from 79e8 percent in 1970 to 76~5 percent in 1980 (Manson and Schnare, l985:1bble II- 4~. At the same time, the social structure of the city has also been changing: There are fewer employed men and more families headed by women, especially among blacks (Wilson and Neckerman, 1986; McI~nahan et al., 1988. By the early 1980s it was apparent that poverty had shifted from being a mostly rural to a mostly urban phenomenon. That shift did not mean that ~ There are large regional differences in these trends. It is the large central cities (and, in some cases, entire metropolitan areas) in the Midwest and the Northeast that are losing population and where the disparities between central cities and their suburbs are the largest. There is less disparity between central cities and suburbs in the South and the West where the population is increasing in central cities and central cities are able to grow through annexation. INTRODUCTION 9 the majority of the poor now lived in central cities, but that the central-city share had grown considerably. More than half of poor people in the United States (56 percent) lived outside metropolitan areas in 1959; less than a third (30 percent) did in 1985. In 1959, about 27 percent of poor people lived in central cities; by 1985, 41 percent did. The poverty rate, meaning the incidence of poverty in central cities, was 14.2 percent in 1970, reached 19.9 percent in 1982 during the recession, then declined to 18.0 percent in 1986. Central-city poverty rates are now higher than nonmetropolitan poverty rates (18.6 versus 16.9 percent in 1987), and more than double suburban poverty rates (8.5 percent in 1987~. GHETTO POVERTY The trends in central-city poverty described in the previous section tell only part of the story. The spatial organization of poverty within metropolitan areas and within cities adds yet another and we believe significant-dimension. Ghetto poverty, which is the proportion of poor people living in neighborhoods with very high poverty rates, has been increasing rapidly in many large metropolitan areas. The social conditions in urban ghettos, including crime, dilapidated housing, drug use and drug-related violence, problems related to out-of- wedlock births, and chronic unemployment have been well documented in the popular press. Many observers believe that extreme poverty in a poor person's neighborhood and the social disorganization associated with it exacerbate the problems of poverty and make it all the more difficult for individuals and families to escape poverty. In this section, we review the data on ghetto poverty and consider the possible consequences. The term ghetto has no official definition. As it is typically used in discussions of poverty, the term refers to inner-cibr neighborhoods with very high levels of poverty. Usually, but not always, these neighborhoods are predominantly black and Hispanic. We follow the convention adopted by Jargowsly and Bane in this volume and use census tracts as a proxy for neighborhoods.2 They define a ghetto as any neighborhood (i.e., group of census tracts) with an overall poverty rate of 40 percent or more.3 The ghetto poor, then, are poor people who live in a ghetto. The level of ghetto poverty is the proportion of the poor who live in ghettos. This proportion 2 Census tracts are areas defined by the Census Bureau, typically containing about 2,000 to 8,000 people. In a densely settled neighborhood, a census tract may be the size of four or five city blocks. 3Although the phrase "increase in ghetto poverty" is often assumed to mean the same thing as "growing concentration of poverty," the latter term may give a misleading impression. Ghettos in 1980 were typically bigger geographically but less densely populated than in 1970. 10 INNER-CITY POVERTY IN THE UNITED STATES can be disaggregated by race, e.g., the level of ghetto poverty among blacks would be the proportion of black poor people living in ghettos. In 1980, there were 2.4 million poor people living in ghettos~.9 percent of all U.S. poor people.4 Thus, it is clearly not true that the typical poor person was a resident of an urban ghetto. Since many politicians, reporters, and members of the public seem to equate poverty with the black residents of urban ghettos, the relatively small size of this percentage deserves emphasis. The incidence of ghetto poverty varies sharply by race. In 1980, 2.0 percent of all U.S. non-Hispanic white poor people, 21.1 percent of all U.S. black poor people, and 15.9 percent of all U.S. Hispanic poor people lived in ghettos. Thus, nearly mro-thirds of the ghetto poor are black, and most of the rest are Hispanic. The level of ghetto poverty also varies by region. Within all U.S. metropolitan areas, 28 percent of black poor people lived in ghettos. In the Northeast, however, 34 percent of black poor people lived in ghettos, compared with 30 percent, 26 percent, and 11 percent for the North Central, South, and West regions, respectively. And 37 percent of poor Hispanics lived in ghettos in the Northeast, 21 percent in the South, and many fewer elsewhere. Ghetto poverty, and the social disorganization thought to be associated with it, are often said to be "exploding." The facts, however, create a different picture. The total number of poor people living in ghettos increased 29.5 percent, from 1.9 million in 1970 to 2.4 million, in 1980. However, the total number of poor people in metropolitan areas grew nearly as fast (23.5 percent). Thus, the increase in the level of ghetto poverty relative to overall poverty was more modest: among blacks, the level of ghetto poverty increased from 26.5 percent to 27.7 percent; among Hispanics, it actually decreased from 23.7 to 18.6 percent. This picture of a modest increase in ghetto poverty among blacks and a decrease among Hispanics seems at odds with common perceptions of a rapidly growing problem. The discrepancy can be resolved, however, by noting the tremendous racial, regional, and city-to~ibr variation in ghetto poverty. In the Northeast, the level of ghetto poverty among blacks more than doubled from 15 to 34 percent. In the South, it dropped from 36 to 26 percent. As a result of these regional shifts, the distribution of poor people living in ghettos changed substantially between 1970 and 1980. lo-thirds of the ghetto poor lived in the South in 1970. By 1980, the figure was less 4Since census tract data are only available from decennial censuses, the most recent data avail- able on ghetto poverty are for 1980. All data on ghetto poverty presented in this section are from Jargowsky and Bane; see their paper in this volume for details on data sources and methods. INTRODUCTION 11 than 40 percent. The proportion of poor people living in ghettos in the Northeast and the North Central regions, taken together, increased from 27 to 55 percent. Because the metropolitan areas in the North tend to be larger than metropolitan areas in the South, ghetto poverty also became more of a "big city" phenomenon. The proportion of poor people living In ghettos in metropolitan areas of more than 1 million people increased from 45 to 63 percent. Within regions, there was also city-to-city variation in the growth of ghetto poverty. In the New York standard metropolitan statistical area, which by 1980 contained nearly one-fifth of all U.S. ghetto poor, the level of ghetto poverty among blacks tripled: from 14.5 to 43.4 percent. In contrast, the Boston metropolitan area had a decrease: from 19.6 to 9.8 percent. Many cities in the South had decreases but remained at high levels; for example, in New Orleans ghetto poverty decreased from 49.7 to 40.7 percent. The increases in ghetto poverty did not occur because more poor people moved into fixed areas of cities. Rather, the geographical size of ghettos increased rapidly in many metropolitan areas. In some, even cities with decreases in ghetto poverty had an expansion of the ghetto area as measured by the number of census tracts with poverty rates greater than 40 percent; the expansion of the ghetto area was associated with general exodus from downtown areas. Both poor and nonpoor people moved out of ghettos and mixed income areas, perhaps trying to escape crime and a deteriorating quality of life. The nonpoor moved out faster than the poor, however, so the group left behind was poorer. As a result, many census tracts saw poverty rates rise to 40 percent and higher. Most often, then-new ghetto tracts were adjacent to the old ghetto tracts, so that the ghetto area seemed to expand outward from a central core. THE UNDERCI^SS HYPOTHESIS According to numerous journalistic accounts, social pathologies have increased among urban and (usually) young and minority poor residents. The problems highlighted in these accounts include involvement with illegal drugs, violent crime, dropping out of school, unemployment, welfare de- pendence, pregnancy among the teenage children of welfare recipients, and a disproportionate number of families headed by single women. (Chapter 2 deals with this issue in more detail.) Some scholars argue that these problems indicate the existence of a growing, largely black, underclass in inner-city ghettos. For example, Wilson (1987:49) argues: Inner-city neighborhoods have undergone a profound social transformation in the last several years as reflected not only in their increasing rates of social 12 INNER-CITY POVERTY IN THE UNITED STATES dislocation (including come, joblessness, out~f-wedlock births, female-headed families, and welfare dependency but also in the changing economic class structure of ghetto neighborhoods.... The movement of middle~lass black professionals from the inner city, followed in increasing numbers by working~lass blacks, has left behind a much higher concentration of the most disadvantaged segments of the black urban population, the population to which I refer when I speak of the ghetto underclass. Wilson (1987:60) hypothesizes that this "higher concentration of the most disadvantaged segments of the urban black population" has resulted in "concentration effects," which exacerbate unemployment and other condi- tions associated with poverty. He cites as examples isolation from informal job networks, lack of exposure to norms and behavior patterns of the steadily employed, lack of access to effective schools, and lack of opportu- nity for women to marry men with stable jobs. While these observations are certainly provocative, the question of whether ghetto poverty actually causes the development of an underclass deserves more careful scrutiny. This volume directly addresses this issue. Does ghetto poverty in cen- tral cities cause or reinforce behaviors deemed socially unacceptable that, in turn, lead to long-term or persistent poverty among affected residents, especially among children? In other words, what are the relationships among several distinct dimensions of urban poverty: ghetto poverty, persis- tent poverty, and socially unacceptable behavior? Only some poor people remain poor for long periods of time; are they more or less likely than those who are poor for brief periods to live in very poor neighborhoods? Are people engaging in socially unacceptable behavior more or less likely to be persistently poor or residents of very poor neighborhoods? This report examines these questions in terms of currently available data and assesses their implications for policy. POLICY ISSUES This volume addresses three questions, the answers to which have significant policy implications: 1. ~ what extent is poverty increasing in urban areas, especially in central cities? Is ghetto poverty increasing as well? Who is affected? Is it a general phenomenon or rather confined to certain cities or regions? 2. Are there concentration effects i.e., is it worse to be poor in a very poor neighborhood than in another neighborhood? Is ghetto poverty fostering the growth of a new underclass that is not only poor and disad- vantaged but also distinct and deviant in its values and behavior? 3. If ghetto poverty is increasing in some areas, what is causing it to do so? Are there alternative explanations? Do government policies inad- vertently encourage ghettos to form, or do they result from broad economic INTRODUCTION 13 changes or from urban-level forces? Are there multiple causes, working in different ways in different cities? What are the policy implications of the increasing ghetto poverty in large cities? Does it require policies spe- cially designed or targeted for certain cities, or is it amenable to a general antipoverty strategy? In the next chapter Paul Jargowsky and Mary Jo Bane answer basic questions about the geographic location of ghetto poverty, the characteris- tics of poor people who live there compared with those in nonpoor areas, and trends in ghetto poverty during the 1970s. In Chapter 3 John Weicher provides a different view of ghetto poverty by following the fortunes of a set of persistently poor inner-city neighbor- hoods from 1970 to 1980 (and, for a more limited set of neighborhoods, from 1960 to 1980~. He analyzes population changes, compares the charac- teristics of the residents and housing at each census, and tests the association of changes in these characteristics with changes in metropolitan-level pop- ulation, unemployment, income, and job location (i.e., "suburbanization" of employment). In Chapter 4 Christopher Jencks and Susan Mayer evaluate the leading quantitative research studies of the erects of living or growing up in a poor rather than a nonpoor neighborhood in terms of several outcomes, including crime, teenage sexual behavior, school achievement, and labor market success. These studies, although plagued with data limitations and methodological shortcomings, provide some insight into the potential importance of the contextual effects of poverty on ghetto residents. Jencks and Mayer conclude with suggestions for research that would better answer questions about the significance and extent of concentration effects for policy makers. In Chapter 5 Jencks and Mayer evaluate the hypothesis that a growing number of urban jobs have relocated to the suburbs, while exclusionary housing practices have prevented blacks from moving out of inner-city neighborhoods. They also consider the related question of whether black workers who live in the suburbs find better jobs than those who live in inner-city neighborhoods. Finally, they compare the earnings of inner-city blacks who commute to the suburbs with the earnings of similar blacks who work in ghettos. In Chapter 6 Michael McGeary reviews the research on federal policies and programs, including policies against housing discrimination, transporta- tion programs, economic development, and educational welfare programs, examining them for evidence of their effects on ghetto poverty. In the last chapter the committee reviews the findings concerning the extent and nature of urban poverty, the relationship of ghetto poverty to the existence of an underclass, and the impact of ghettos per se on the 14 INNER-C1IY POVERTY IN THE UNITED STATES individuals involved. It ends by discussing the possible implications of these findings for federal policy and makes recommendations for both policy and research. REFERENCES Berty, Brian J.L. 1985 Islands of renewal in seas of decay. Pp. 69-96 in Paul E. Peterson, ea., The New Urban Reality. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution. Clark, Kenneth B., and Richard Nathan 1982 The urban underclass. In Critical Issues for National Urban Policy: A Reconnaissance arid Ada for Further Study. Committee on National Urban Policy, National Research Council. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Frey, William H. 1985 Mover destination selectivity and the changing suburbanization of metropoli- tan whites and blacks. Demog~a~y 22(May):~243. Garnick, Daniel H. 1988 Local area economic growth patterns: A comparison of the 198Os and previous decades. Pp. 199-254 in Michael G.H. McGeary and Laurence E. Lynn, Jr., eds., Urban Change and Poverty. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Hawley, Amos H. 1956 The Changing Shape of Metropolitan Arr~rica: Deconcentration Since 1920. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press. Kasarda, John D. 1988 Jobs, migration, and emerging urban mismatches. Pp. 148-198 in Michael G.H. McGeary and Laurence E. Lynn, Jr., eds., Urban Change and Poverty. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Long, John F. 1981 Population Deconcen~ation u' the United States. Special Demographic Anal yses, CDS-81-5. Bureau of the Census. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce. McLanahan, Sara S., Irwin Garfinkel, and Dorothy Watson 1988 Family structure, poverty, and the underclass. Pp. 10~147 in Michael G.H. McGeary and Laurence E. Lynn, Jr., eds., Urban Change and Poverty. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Manson, Donald B., and Ann B. Schnare 1985 Change in Be Ci~/S?~burb Income Gap, 1970-1980. November. Report for Urban Institute Project 3376. Washington, D.C: Urban Institute. Nathan, Richard R. 1986 The Underclas~ll It Always Be with Us? Paper presented at the New School for Social Research, New York. National Research Council 1982 Critical Issues for National Urban Policy: A Reconnaissance and AT for Further Study. Committee on National Urban Polipy. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Noyelle, Thierry J., and Thomas M. Stanback, Jr. 1984 The Economic Transformation of American Cities. Totowa, NJ.: Rowman & Allanheld. INTRODUCTION 15 Wilson, William Julius 1987 The Truly Disadvantaged. The Inner City, He Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Wilson, William Julius, and Kathryn M. Neckerman 1986 Poverty and family structure: The widening gap between evidence and public policy issues. Pp. 232-259 in Sheldon H. Danziger and Daniel H. Weinberg, eds., Fighting Poverty: What Works and What Doesn't. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

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Perception (from the Latin perceptio, percipio) is the organization, identification and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment. All perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in turn result from physical stimulation of the sense organs. For example, vision involves light striking the retinas of the eyes, smell is mediated by odor molecules and hearing involves pressure waves. Perception is not the passive receipt of these signals, but can be shaped by learning, memory and expectation. Perception involves these "top-down" effects as well as the "bottom-up" process of processing sensory input. The "bottom-up" processing is basically low-level information that's used to build up higher-level information (i.e. - shapes for object recognition). The "top-down" processing refers to a person's concept and expectations (knowledge) that influence perception. Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness. Since the rise of experimental psychology in the late 19th Century, psychology's understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. Psychophysics measures the effect on perception of varying the physical qualities of the input. Sensory neuroscience studies the brain mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the information they process. Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sounds, smells or colors exist in objective reality rather than the mind of the perceiver. Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to make sense of their input. There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary. The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the sensory information may be incomplete and rapidly varying. Human and animal brains are structured in a modular way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. Some of these modules take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brain's surface. These different modules are interconnected and influence each other. For instance, the taste is strongly influenced by its odor. Process and terminology The process of perception begins with an object in the real world, termed the distal stimulus or distal object. By means of light, sound or another physical process, the object stimulates the body's sensory organs. These sensory organs transform the input energy into neural activity—a process called transduction. This raw pattern of neural activity is called the proximal stimulus. These neural signals are transmitted to the brain and processed. The resulting mental re-creation of the distal stimulus is the percept. Perception is sometimes described as the process of constructing mental representations of distal stimuli using the information available in proximal stimuli. An example would be a person looking at a shoe. The shoe itself is the distal stimulus. When light from the shoe enters a person's eye and stimulates their retina, that stimulation is the proximal stimulus. The image of the shoe reconstructed by the brain of the person is the percept. Another example would be a telephone ringing. The ringing of the telephone is the distal stimulus. The sound stimulating a person's auditory receptors is the proximal stimulus, and the brain's interpretation of this as the ringing of a telephone is the percept. The different kinds of sensation such as warmth, sound, and taste are called "sensory modalities". Psychologist Jerome Bruner has developed a model of perception. According to him people go through the following process to form opinions:. When a perceiver encounters an unfamiliar target we are opened different informational cues and want to learn more about the target. In the second step we try to collect more information about the target. Gradually, we encounter some familiar cues which helps us categorize the target. At this stage the cues become less open and selective. We try to search for more cues that confirm the categorization of the target. At this stage we also actively ignore and even distort cues that violate our initial perceptions. Our perception becomes more selective and we finally paint a consistent picture of the target. According to Alan Saks and Gary Johns, there are three components to perception. The Perceiver, the person who becomes aware about something and comes to a final understanding. There are 3 factors that can influence his or her perceptions: experience, motivational state and finally emotional state. In different motivational or emotional states, the perceiver will react to or perceive something in different ways. Also in different situations he or she might employ a "perceptual defence" where they tend to "see what they want to see". The Target. This is the person who is being perceived or judged. "Ambiguity or lack of information about a target leads to a greater need for interpretation and addition." The Situation also greatly influences perceptions because different situations may call for additional information about the target. Stimuli are not necessarily translated into a percept and rarely does a single stimulus translate into a percept. An ambiguous stimulus may be translated into multiple percepts, experienced randomly, one at a time, in what is called "multistable perception". And the same stimuli, or absence of them, may result in different percepts depending on subject’s culture and previous experiences. Ambiguous figures demonstrate that a single stimulus can result in more than one percept; for example the Rubin vase which can be interpreted either as a vase or as two faces. The percept can bind sensations from multiple senses into a whole. A picture of a talking person on a television screen, for example, is bound to the sound of speech from speakers to form a percept of a talking person. "Percept" is also a term used by Leibniz Bergson, Deleuze and Guattari ] to define perception independent from perceivers. Perception and reality In the case of visual perception, some people can actually see the percept shift in their mind's eye. Others, who are not picture thinkers, may not necessarily perceive the 'shape-shifting' as their world changes. The 'esemplastic' nature has been shown by experiment: an ambiguous image has multiple interpretations on the perceptual level. This confusing ambiguity of perception is exploited in human technologies such as camouflage, and also in biological mimicry, for example by European Peacock butterflies, whose wings bear eye markings that birds respond to as though they were the eyes of a dangerous predator. There is also evidence that the brain in some ways operates on a slight "delay", to allow nerve impulses from distant parts of the body to be integrated into simultaneous signals. Perception is one of the oldest fields in psychology. The oldest quantitative law in psychology is the Weber-Fechner law, which quantifies the relationship between the intensity of physical stimuli and their perceptual effects (for example, testing how much darker a computer screen can get before the viewer actually notices). The study of perception gave rise to the Gestalt school of psychology, with its emphasis on holistic approach. Perceptual constancy is the ability of perceptual systems to recognise the same object from widely varying sensory inputs. For example, individual people can be recognised from views, such as frontal and profile, which form very different shapes on the retina. A coin looked at face-on makes a circular image on the retina, but when held at angle it makes an elliptical image. In normal perception these are recognised as a single three-dimensional object. Without this correction process, an animal approaching from the distance would appear to gain in size. One kind of perceptual constancy is color constancy: for example, a white piece of paper can be recognized as such under different colors and intensities of light. Another example is roughness constancy: when a hand is drawn quickly across a surface, the touch nerves are stimulated more intensely. The brain compensates for this, so the speed of contact does not affect the perceived roughness. Other constancies include melody, odor, brightness and words. These constancies are not always total, but the variation in the percept is much less than the variation in the physical stimulus. The perceptual systems of the brain achieve perceptual constancy in a variety of ways, each specialized for the kind of information being processed. Law of Closure. The human brain tends to perceive complete shapes even if those forms are incomplete. The principles of grouping (or Gestalt laws of grouping) are a set of principles in psychology, first proposed by Gestalt psychologists to explain how humans naturally perceive objects as organized patterns and objects. Gestalt psychologists argued that these principles exist because the mind has an innate disposition to perceive patterns in the stimulus based on certain rules. These principles are organized into six categories. The principle of proximity states that, all else being equal, perception tends to group stimuli that are close together as part of the same object, and stimuli that are far apart as two separate objects. The principle of similarity states that, all else being equal, perception lends itself to seeing stimuli that physically resemble each other as part of the same object, and stimuli that are different as part of a different object. This allows for people to distinguish between adjacent and overlapping objects based on their visual texture and resemblance. The principle of closure refers to the mind’s tendency to see complete figures or forms even if a picture is incomplete, partially hidden by other objects, or if part of the information needed to make a complete picture in our minds is missing. For example, if part of a shape’s border is missing people still tend to see the shape as completely enclosed by the border and ignore the gaps. The principle of good continuation makes sense of stimuli that overlap: when there is an intersection between two or more objects, people tend to perceive each as a single uninterrupted object. The principle of common fate groups stimuli together on the basis of their movement. When visual elements are seen moving in the same direction at the same rate, perception associates the movement as part of the same stimulus. This allows people to make out moving objects even when other details, such as color or outline, are obscured. The principle of good form refers to the tendency to group together forms of similar shape, pattern, color, etc. Later research has identified additional grouping principles. A common finding across many different kinds of perception is that the perceived qualities of an object can be affected by the qualities of context. If one object is extreme on some dimension, then neighboring objects are perceived as further away from that extreme. "Simultaneous contrast effect" is the term used when stimuli are presented at the same time, whereas "successive contrast" applies when stimuli are presented one after another. The contrast effect was noted by the 17th Century philosopher John Locke, who observed that lukewarm water can feel hot or cold, depending on whether the hand touching it was previously in hot or cold water. In the early 20th Century, Wilhelm Wundt identified contrast as a fundamental principle of perception, and since then the effect has been confirmed in many different areas. These effects shape not only visual qualities like color and brightness, but other kinds of perception, including how heavy an object feels. One experiment found that thinking of the name "Hitler" led to subjects rating a person as more hostile. Whether a piece of music is perceived as good or bad can depend on whether the music heard before it was unpleasant or pleasant. For the effect to work, the objects being compared need to be similar to each other: a television reporter can seem smaller when interviewing a tall basketball player, but not when standing next to a tall building. Effect of experience With experience, organisms can learn to make finer perceptual distinctions, and learn new kinds of categorization. Wine-tasting, the reading of X-ray images and music appreciation are applications of this process in the human sphere. Research has focused on the relation of this to other kinds of learning, and whether it takes place in peripheral sensory systems or in the brain's processing of sense information. Effect of motivation and expectation A perceptual set, also called perceptual expectancy or just set is a predisposition to perceive things in a certain way. It is an example of how perception can be shaped by "top-down" processes such as drives and expectations. Perceptual sets occur in all the different senses. They can be long term, such as a special sensitivity to hearing one's own name in a crowded room, or short term, as in the ease with which hungry people notice the smell of food. A simple demonstration of the effect involved very brief presentations of non-words such as "sael". Subjects who were told to expect words about animals read it as "seal", but others who were expecting boat-related words read it as "sail". Sets can be created by motivation and so can result in people interpreting ambiguous figures so that they see what they want to see For instance, how someone perceives what unfolds during a sports game can be biased if they strongly support one of the teams. In one experiment, students were allocated to pleasant or unpleasant tasks by a computer. They were told that either a number or a letter would flash on the screen to say whether they were going to taste an orange juice drink or an unpleasant-tasting health drink. In fact, an ambiguous figure was flashed on screen, which could either be read as the letter B or the number 13. When the letters were associated with the pleasant task, subjects were more likely to perceive a letter B, and when letters were associated with the unpleasant task they tended to perceive a number 13 Perceptual set has been demonstrated in many social contexts. People who are primed to think of someone as "warm" are more likely to perceive a variety of positive characteristics in them, than if the word "warm" is replaced by "cold". When someone has a reputation for being funny, an audience are more likely to find them amusing. Individual's perceptual sets reflect their own personality traits. For example, people with an aggressive personality are quicker to correctly identify aggressive words or situations One classic psychological experiment showed slower reaction times and less accurate answers when a deck of playing cards reversed the color of the suit symbol for some cards (e.g. red spades and black hearts). Philosopher Andy Clark explains that perception, although it occurs quickly, is not simply a bottom-up process (where minute details are put together to form larger wholes). Instead, our brains use what he calls Predictive coding. It starts with very broad constraints and expectations for the state of the world, and as expectations are met, it makes more detailed predictions (errors lead to new predictions, or learning processes). Clark says this research has various implications; not only can there be no completely "unbiased, unfiltered" perception, but this means that there is a great deal of feedback between perception and expectation (perceptual experiences often shape our beliefs, but those perceptions were based on existing beliefs). Perception as hypothesis-testing Cognitive theories of perception assume there is a poverty of stimulus. This (with reference to perception) is the claim that sensations are, by themselves, unable to provide a unique description of the world. " Sensations require 'enriching', which is the role of the mental model. A different type of theory is the perceptual ecology approach of James J. Gibson. Gibson rejected the assumption of a poverty of stimulus by rejecting the notion that perception is based upon sensations – instead, he investigated what information is actually presented to the perceptual systems. His theory "assumes the existence of stable, unbounded, and permanent stimulus-information in the ambient optic array. And it supposes that the visual system can explore and detect this information. The theory is information-based, not sensation-based." He and the psychologists who work within this paradigm detailed how the world could be specified to a mobile, exploring organism via the lawful projection of information about the world into energy arrays. Specification is a 1:1 mapping of some aspect of the world into a perceptual array; given such a mapping, no enrichment is required and perception is direct perception. An ecological understanding of perception derived from Gibson's early work is that of "perception-in-action", the notion that perception is a requisite property of animate action; that without perception action would be unguided, and without action perception would serve no purpose. Animate actions require both perception and motion, and perception and movement can be described as "two sides of the same coin, the coin is action". Gibson works from the assumption that singular entities, which he calls "invariants", already exist in the real world and that all that the perception process does is to home in upon them. A view known as constructivism (held by such philosophers as Ernst von Glasersfeld) regards the continual adjustment of perception and action to the external input as precisely what constitutes the "entity", which is therefore far from being invariant. Glasersfeld considers an "invariant" as a target to be homed in upon, and a pragmatic necessity to allow an initial measure of understanding to be established prior to the updating that a statement aims to achieve. The invariant does not and need not represent an actuality, and Glasersfeld describes it as extremely unlikely that what is desired or feared by an organism will never suffer change as time goes on. This social constructionist theory thus allows for a needful evolutionary adjustment. A mathematical theory of perception-in-action has been devised and investigated in many forms of controlled movement, and has been described in many different species of organism using the General Tau Theory. According to this theory, tau information, or time-to-goal information is the fundamental 'percept' in perception. Evolutionary psychology and perception Many philosophers, such as Jerry Fodor, write that the purpose of perception is knowledge, but evolutionary psychologists hold that its primary purpose is to guide action. For example, they say, depth perception seems to have evolved not to help us know the distances to other objects but rather to help us move around in space. Evolutionary psychologists say that animals from fiddler crabs to humans use eyesight for collision avoidance, suggesting that vision is basically for directing action, not providing knowledge. Building and maintaining sense organs is metabolically expensive, so these organs evolve only when they improve an organism's fitness. More than half the brain is devoted to processing sensory information, and the brain itself consumes roughly one-fourth of one's metabolic resources, so the senses must provide exceptional benefits to fitness. Perception accurately mirrors the world; animals get useful, accurate information through their senses. Scientists who study perception and sensation have long understood the human senses as adaptations. Depth perception consists of processing over half a dozen visual cues, each of which is based on a regularity of the physical world. Vision evolved to respond to the narrow range of electromagnetic energy that is plentiful and that does not pass through objects. Sound waves provide useful information about the sources of and distances to objects, with larger animals making and hearing lower-frequency sounds and smaller animals making and hearing higher-frequency sounds. Taste and smell respond to chemicals in the environment that were significant for fitness in the EEA. The sense of touch is actually many senses, including pressure, heat, cold, tickle, and pain. Pain, while unpleasant, is adaptive. An important adaptation for senses is range shifting, by which the organism becomes temporarily more or less sensitive to sensation. For example, one's eyes automatically adjust to dim or bright ambient light. Sensory abilities of different organisms often coevolve, as is the case with the hearing of echolocating bats and that of the moths that have evolved to respond to the sounds that the bats make. Evolutionary psychologists claim that perception demonstrates the principle of modularity, with specialized mechanisms handling particular perception tasks. For example, people with damage to a particular part of the brain suffer from the specific defect of not being able to recognize faces (prospagnosia). EP suggests that this indicates a so-called face-reading module. Theories of visual perception Empirical theories of perception Anne Treisman's feature integration theory Interactive activation and competition Irving Biederman's recognition by components theory A sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception. Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, somatic sensation (touch), taste and olfaction (smell). It has been suggested that the immune system is an overlooked sensory modlality. In short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind. The receptive field is the specific part of the world to which a receptor organ and receptor cells respond. For instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its receptive field; the light that each rod or cone can see, is its receptive field. Receptive fields have been identified for the visual system, auditory system and somatosensory system, so far. Hearing (or audition) is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations. Frequencies capable of being heard by humans are called audio or sonic. The range is typically considered to be between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Frequencies higher than audio are referred to as ultrasonic, while frequencies below audio are referred to as infrasonic. The auditory system includes the ears and inner structures which produce neural signals in response to the sound. The primary auditory cortex, within the temporal lobe of the human brain, is where auditory information arrives in the cerebral cortex. Sound does not usually come from a single source: in real situations, sounds from multiple sources and directions are superimposed as they arrive at the ears. Hearing involves the computationally complex task of separating out the sources of interest, often estimating their distance and direction as well as identifying them. Though the phrase "I owe you" can be heard as three distinct words, a spectrogram reveals no clear boundaries. Speech perception is the process by which the sounds of language are heard, interpreted and understood. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how human listeners recognize speech sounds and use this information to understand spoken language. The sound of a word can vary widely according to words around it and the tempo of the speech, as well as the physical characteristics, accent and mood of the speaker. Listeners manage to perceive words across this wide range of different conditions. Another variation is that reverberation can make a large difference in sound between a word spoken from the far side of a room and the same word spoken up close. Experiments have shown that people automatically compensate for this effect when hearing speech. The process of perceiving speech begins at the level of the sound within the auditory signal and the process of audition. After processing the initial auditory signal, speech sounds are further processed to extract acoustic cues and phonetic information. This speech information can then be used for higher-level language processes, such as word recognition. Speech perception is not necessarily uni-directional. That is, higher-level language processes connected with morphology, syntax, or semantics may interact with basic speech perception processes to aid in recognition of speech sounds. It may be the case that it is not necessary and maybe even not possible for a listener to recognize phonemes before recognizing higher units, like words for example. In one experiment, Richard M. Warren replaced one phoneme of a word with a cough-like sound. His subjects restored the missing speech sound perceptually without any difficulty and what is more, they were not able to identify accurately which phoneme had been disturbed. Haptic perception is the process of recognizing objects through touch. It involves a combination of somatosensory perception of patterns on the skin surface (e.g., edges, curvature, and texture) and proprioception of hand position and conformation. People can rapidly and accurately identify three-dimensional objects by touch. This involves exploratory procedures, such as moving the fingers over the outer surface of the object or holding the entire object in the hand. ] Haptic perception relies on the forces experienced during touch. Gibson defined the haptic system as "The sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body". Gibson and others emphasized the close link between haptic perception and body movement: haptic perception is active exploration. The concept of haptic perception is related to the concept of extended physiological proprioception according to which, when using a tool such as a stick, perceptual experience is transparently transferred to the end of the tool. Taste (or, the more formal term, gustation) is the ability to perceive the flavor of substances including, but not limited to, food. Humans receive tastes through sensory organs called taste buds, or gustatory calyculi, concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue. The human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on each of its roughly ten thousand taste buds. There are five primary tastes: sweetness, bitterness, sourness, saltiness, and umami. Other tastes can be mimicked by combining these basic tastes. The recognition and awareness of umami is a relatively recent development in Western cuisine. The basic tastes contribute only partially to the sensation and flavor of food in the mouth — other factors include smell, detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose; texture, detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, muscle nerves, etc.; and temperature, detected by thermoreceptors. All basic tastes are classified as either appetitive or aversive, depending upon whether the things they sense are harmful or beneficial. Main article: Sense Other senses enable perception of body balance, acceleration, gravity, position of body parts, temperature, pain, time, and perception of internal senses such as suffocation, gag reflex, intestinal distension, fullness of rectum and urinary bladder, and sensations felt in the throat and lungs.

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Health effects of wine The health effects of wine are mainly determined by its active ingredient alcohol. Some studies found that, when comparing people who consume alcohol, drinking small quantities of alcohol (up to one standard drink per day for women and one to two drinks per day for men) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome and early death. However, other studies found no such effect. Drinking more than the standard drink amount increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, stroke and cancer. Mixed results are also observed in light drinking and cancer mortality. Risk is greater in young people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents. About 88,000 deaths in the US are estimated to be due to alcohol each year. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and excessive alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. According to systematic reviews and medical associations, people who are nondrinkers should not start drinking wine. Wine has a long history of use as an early form of medication, being recommended variously as a safe alternative to drinking water, an antiseptic for treating wounds, a digestive aid, and as a cure for a wide range of ailments including lethargy, diarrhea and pain from child birth. Ancient Egyptian papyri and Sumerian tablets dating back to 2200 BC detail the medicinal role of wine, making it the world's oldest documented human-made medicine.:433 Wine continued to play a major role in medicine until the late 19th and early 20th century, when changing opinions and medical research on alcohol and alcoholism cast doubt on its role as part of a healthy lifestyle. - 1 Moderate consumption - 2 Effect on the body - 3 Heavy metals - 4 Chemical composition - 5 History of wine in medicine - 6 References Nearly all research into the positive medical benefits of wine consumption makes a distinction between moderate consumption and heavy or binge drinking. Moderate levels of consumption vary by the individual according to age, gender, genetics, weight and body stature, as well as situational conditions, such as food consumption or use of drugs. In general, women absorb alcohol more quickly than men due to their lower body water content, so their moderate levels of consumption may be lower than those for a male of equal age.:341–2 Some experts define "moderate consumption" as less than one 5-US-fluid-ounce (150 ml) glass of wine per day for women and two glasses per day for men. The view of consuming wine in moderation has a history recorded as early as the Greek poet Eubulus (360 BC) who believed that three bowls (kylix) were the ideal amount of wine to consume. The number of three bowls for moderation is a common theme throughout Greek writing; today the standard 750 ml wine bottle contains roughly the volume of three kylix cups (250 ml or 8 fl oz each). However, the kylix cups would have contained a diluted wine, at a 1:2 or 1:3 dilution with water. In his circa 375 BC play Semele or Dionysus, Eubulus has Dionysus say: |“||Three bowls do I mix for the temperate: one to health, which they empty first, the second to love and pleasure, the third to sleep. When this bowl is drunk up, wise guests go home. The fourth bowl is ours no longer, but belongs to violence; the fifth to uproar, the sixth to drunken revel, the seventh to black eyes, the eighth is the policeman's, the ninth belongs to biliousness, and the tenth to madness and hurling the furniture.||”| Effect on the body Heavy alcohol consumption has been shown to have a damaging effect on the cellular processes that create bone tissue, and long-term alcoholic consumption at high levels increases the frequency of fractures. Epidemiological studies (studies done by interviewing subjects and studying their health records) have found a positive association between moderate alcohol consumption and increased bone mineral density (BMD). Most of this research has been conducted with postmenopausal women, but one study in men concluded that moderate consumption of alcohol may also be beneficial to BMD in men. A 2019 study found that drinking one bottle of wine per week is associated with an increased lifetime cancer risk for non-smokers of 1% for men and 1.4% for women, while consuming three bottles of wine per week approximately doubled the cancer risk for men and women. The study equated the cancer risk of consuming one bottle of wine per week to smoking five cigarettes per week for men or 10 for women. Studies have shown that heavy drinkers put themselves at greater risk for heart disease and developing potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Excessive alcohol consumption can cause higher blood pressure, increased cholesterol levels and weakened heart muscles. Studies have shown that moderate wine drinking can improve the balance of low-density lipoprotein (LDL or "bad" cholesterol) to high-density lipoprotein (HDL or "good" cholesterol), which has been theorized as to clean up or remove LDL from blocking arteries. The main cause of heart attacks and the pain of angina is the lack of oxygen caused by blood clots and atheromatous plaque build up in the arteries. The alcohol in wine has anticoagulant properties that limit blood clotting by making the platelets in the blood less prone to stick together and reducing the levels of fibrin protein that binds them together. Professional cardiology associations recommend that people who are currently nondrinkers should not start drinking alcohol. Research has shown that moderate levels of alcohol consumed with meals does not have a substantial impact on blood sugar levels. A 2005 study presented to the American Diabetes Association suggest that moderate consumption may lower the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes.:341–2 There are several potential causes of so-called "red wine headaches", including histamine and tannins from grape skin or other phenolic compounds in wine. Sulfites – which are used as a preservative in wine – are unlikely to be a headache factor. Wine, like other alcoholic beverages, is a diuretic which promotes dehydration that can lead to headaches (such as the case often experienced with hangovers), indicating a need to maintain hydration when drinking wine and to consume in moderation. A 2017 review found that 22% of people experiencing migraine or tension headaches identified alcohol as a precipitating factor, and red wine as three times more likely to trigger a headache than beer. |“||Alcohol can stimulate the appetite so it is better to drink it with food. When alcohol is mixed with food, it can slow the stomach's emptying time and potentially decrease the amount of food consumed at the meal.||”| A 5 ounces (140 g) serving of red or white wine provides about 120 to 130 calories, while dessert wines supply a higher caloric value. As wine has an alcohol by volume (ABV) percentage of about 11%, the higher the ABV, the higher the calorie count of a wine. Danish epidemiological studies suggest that a number of psychological health benefits are associated with drinking wine. In a study testing this idea, Mortensen et al. (2001) measured socioeconomic status, education, IQ, personality, psychiatric symptoms, and health related behaviors, which included alcohol consumption. The analysis was then broken down into groups of those who drank beer, those who drank wine, and then those who did and did not drink at all. The results showed that for both men and women drinking wine was related to higher parental social status, parental education and the social status of the subjects. When the subjects were given an IQ test, wine drinkers consistently scored higher IQs than their counterpart beer drinkers. The average difference of IQ between wine and beer drinkers was 18 points. In regards to psychological functioning, personality, and other health-related behaviors, the study found wine drinkers to operate at optimal levels while beer drinkers performed below optimal levels. As these social and psychological factors also correlate with health outcomes, they represent a plausible explanation for at least some of the apparent health benefits of wine. In 2008, researchers from Kingston University in London discovered red wine to contain high levels of toxic metals relative to other beverages in the sample. Although the metal ions, which included chromium, copper, iron, manganese, nickel, vanadium and zinc, were also present in other plant-based beverages, the sample wine tested significantly higher for all metal ions, especially vanadium. Risk assessment was calculated using "target hazard quotients" (THQ), a method of quantifying health concerns associated with lifetime exposure to chemical pollutants. Developed by the Environmental Protection Agency in the US and used mainly to examine seafood, a THQ of less than 1 represents no concern while, for example, mercury levels in fish calculated to have THQs of between 1 and 5 would represent cause for concern. The researchers stressed that a single glass of wine would not lead to metal poisoning, pointing out that their THQ calculations were based on the average person drinking one-third of a bottle of wine (250 ml) every day between the ages of 18 and 80. However the "combined THQ values" for metal ions in the red wine they analyzed were reported to be as high as 125. A subsequent study by the same university using a meta analysis of data based on wine samples from a selection of mostly European countries found equally high levels of vanadium in many red wines, showing combined THQ values in the range of 50 to 200, with some as high as 350. The findings sparked immediate controversy due to several issues: the study's reliance on secondary data; the assumption that all wines contributing to that data were representative of the countries stated; and the grouping together of poorly understood high-concentration ions, such as vanadium, with relatively low-level, common ions such as copper and manganese. Some publications pointed out that the lack of identifiable wines and grape varieties, specific producers or even wine regions, provided only misleading generalizations that should not be relied upon in choosing wines. In a news bulletin following the widespread reporting of the findings, the UK's National Health Service (NHS) were also concerned that "the way the researchers added together hazards from different metals to produce a final score for individual wines may not be particularly meaningful". Commentators in the US questioned the relevance of seafood-based THQ assessments to agricultural produce, with the TTB, responsible for testing imports for metal ion contamination, have not detected an increased risk. George Solas, quality assessor for the Canadian Liquor Control Board of Ontario (LCBO) claimed that the levels of heavy metal contamination reported were within the permitted levels for drinking water in tested reservoirs. Whereas the NHS also described calls for improved wine labeling as an "extreme response" to research which provided "few solid answers", they acknowledged the authors call for further research to investigate wine production, including the influence that grape variety, soil type, geographical region, insecticides, containment vessels and seasonal variations may have on metal ion uptake. Natural phenols and polyphenols Although red wine contains many chemicals under basic research for their potential health benefits, resveratrol has been particularly well studied and evaluated by regulatory authorities, such as the European Food Safety Authority and US Food and Drug Administration which identified it and other such phenolic compounds as not sufficiently understood to confirm their role as physiological antioxidants. Resveratrol is a stilbenoid phenolic compound found in wine produced in the grape skins and leaves of grape vines. It has received considerable attention in both the media and medical research community for its potential health benefits:569 which remain unproven in humans. The production and concentration of resveratrol is not equal among all the varieties of wine grapes. Differences in clones, rootstock, Vitis species as well as climate conditions can affect the production of resveratrol. Also, because resveratrol is part of the defence mechanism in grapevines against attack by fungi or grape disease, the degree of exposure to fungal infection and grape diseases also appear to play a role. The Muscadinia family of vines, which has adapted over time through exposure to North American grape diseases such as phylloxera, has some of the highest concentrations of resveratrol among wine grapes. Among the European Vitis vinifera, grapes derived from the Burgundian Pinot family tend to have substantially higher amounts of resveratrol than grapes derived from the Cabernet family of Bordeaux. Wine regions with cooler, wetter climates that are more prone to grape disease and fungal attacks such as Oregon and New York tend to produce grapes with higher concentrations of resveratrol than warmer, dry climates like California and Australia.:569 Although red wine and white vine varieties produce similar amounts of resveratrol, red wine contains more than white, since red wines are produced by maceration (soaking the grape skins in the mash). Other winemaking techniques, such as the use of certain strains of yeast during fermentation or lactic acid bacteria during malolactic fermentation, can have an influence on the amount of resveratrol left in the resulting wines. Similarly, the use of certain fining agents during the clarification and stabilization of wine can strip the wine of some resveratrol molecules.:569 The prominence of resveratrol in the news and its association with positive health benefits has encouraged some wineries to highlight it in their marketing. In the early 21st century, the Oregon producer Willamette Valley Vineyards sought approval from the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) to state on their wine labels the resveratrol levels of their wines which ranged from 19 to 71 micromoles per liter (higher than the average 10 micromoles per liter in most red wines). The TTB gave preliminary approval to the winery, making it the first to use such information on its labels. While resveratrol is the most widely publicized, there are other phenolic components in wine that have been the focus of medical research for potential health benefits, including the compounds catechin and quercetin,:569 none of which has been proven to have any health value in humans. Although anthocyanins are under basic and early-stage clinical research for a variety of disease conditions, there exists no sufficient evidence that they have any beneficial effect in the human body. The US FDA has issued warning letters, e.g., to emphasize that anthocyanins are not a defined nutrient, cannot be assigned a dietary content level and are not regulated as a drug to treat any human disease. History of wine in medicine Early medicine was intimately tied with religion and the supernatural, with early practitioners often being priests and magicians. Wine's close association with ritual made it a logical tool for these early medical practices. Tablets from Sumeria and papyri from Egypt dating to 2200 BC include recipes for wine based medicines, making wine the oldest documented human-made medicine.:433 When the Greeks introduced a more systematized approach to medicine, wine retained its prominent role. The Greek physician Hippocrates considered wine a part of a healthy diet, and advocated its use as a disinfectant for wounds, as well as a medium in which to mix other drugs for consumption by the patient. He also prescribed wine as a cure for various ailments ranging from diarrhea and lethargy to pain during childbirth.:433 The medical practices of the Romans involved the use of wine in a similar manner. In his 1st-century work De Medicina, the Roman encyclopedist Aulus Cornelius Celsus detailed a long list of Greek and Roman wines used for medicinal purposes. While treating gladiators in Asia Minor, the Roman physician Galen would use wine as a disinfectant for all types of wounds, and even soaked exposed bowels before returning them to the body. During his four years with the gladiators, only five deaths occurred, compared to sixty deaths under the watch of the physician before him. Religion still played a significant role in promoting wine's use for health. The Jewish Talmud noted wine to be "the foremost of all medicines: wherever wine is lacking, medicines become necessary." In his first epistle to Timothy, Paul the Apostle recommended that his young colleague drink a little wine every now and then for the benefit of his stomach and digestion. While the Islamic Koran contained restrictions on all alcohol, Islamic doctors such as the Persian Avicenna in the 11th century AD noted that wine was an efficient digestive aid but, because of the laws, were limited to use as a disinfectant while dressing wounds. Catholic monasteries during the Middle Ages also regularly used wine for medical treatments.:433 So closely tied was the role of wine and medicine, that the first printed book on wine was written in the 14th century by a physician, Arnaldus de Villa Nova, with lengthy essays on wine's suitability for treatment of a variety of medical ailments such dementia and sinus problems. Risks of consumption The lack of safe drinking water may have been one reason for wine's popularity in medicine. Wine was still being used to sterilize water as late as the Hamburg cholera epidemic of 1892 in order to control the spread of the disease. However, the late 19th century and early 20th century ushered in a period of changing views on the role of alcohol and, by extension, wine in health and society. The Temperance movement began to gain steam by touting the ills of alcoholism, which was eventually defined by the medical establishment as a disease. Studies of the long- and short-term effects of alcohol caused many in the medical community to reconsider the role of wine in medicine and diet.:433 Soon, public opinion turned against consumption of alcohol in any form, leading to Prohibition in the United States and other countries. In some areas, wine was able to maintain a limited role, such as an exemption from Prohibition in the United States for "therapeutic wines" that were sold legally in drug stores. These wines were marketed for their supposed medicinal benefits, but some wineries used this measure as a loophole to sell large quantities of wine for recreational consumption. In response, the United States government issued a mandate requiring producers to include an emetic additive that would induce vomiting above the consumption of a certain dosage level. Throughout the mid to early 20th century, health advocates pointed to the risk of alcohol consumption and the role it played in a variety of ailments such as blood disorders, high blood pressure, cancer, infertility, liver damage, muscle atrophy, psoriasis, skin infections, strokes, and long-term brain damage. Studies showed a connection between alcohol consumption among pregnant mothers and an increased risk of mental retardation and physical abnormalities in what became known as fetal alcohol syndrome, prompting the use of warning labels on alcohol-containing products in several countries.:341–2 French paradox and the benefits of consumption The 1990s and early 21st century saw a renewed interest in the health benefits of wine, ushered in by increasing research suggesting that moderate wine drinkers have lower mortality rates than heavy drinkers or teetotalers.:341–2 In November 1991, the U.S. news program 60 Minutes aired a broadcast on the so-called "French Paradox". Featuring the research work of Bordeaux scientist Serge Renaud, the broadcast dealt with the seemingly paradoxical relationship between the high fat/high dairy diets of French people and the low occurrence of cardiovascular disease among them. The broadcast drew parallels to the American and British diets which also contained high levels of fat and dairy but which featured high incidences of heart disease. One of the theories proposed by Renaud in the broadcast was that moderate consumption of red wine was a risk-reducing factor for the French and that wine could have more positive health benefits yet to be studied. Following the 60 Minutes broadcast, sales of red wine in the United States jumped 44% over previous years. This changing view of wine can be seen in the evolution of the language used in the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Dietary Guidelines. The 1990 edition of the guidelines contained the blanket statement that "wine has no net health benefit". By 1995, the wording had been changed to allow moderate consumption with meals providing the individual had no other alcohol-related health risk. From a research perspective, scientists began differentiating alcohol consumption among the various classes of beverages – wine, beer, and spirits. This distinction allowed studies to highlight potentially positive medical benefits of wine apart from the mere presence of alcohol, though these studies are increasingly being called into question. Wine drinkers tend to share similar lifestyle habits – better diets, regular exercise, non-smoking – that may in themselves be a factor in the supposed positive health benefits compared to drinkers of beer and spirits or those who abstain completely. - Trichopoulou A, Lagiou P (November 1997). "Healthy traditional Mediterranean diet: an expression of culture, history, and lifestyle". Nutrition Reviews. 55 (11 Pt 1): 383–9. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.1997.tb01578.x. PMID 9420448. - Shen J, Wilmot KA, Ghasemzadeh N, Molloy DL, Burkman G, Mekonnen G, Gongora MC, Quyyumi AA, Sperling LS (2015). "Mediterranean Dietary Patterns and Cardiovascular Health". Annual Review of Nutrition. 35: 425–49. doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-011215-025104. PMID 25974696. - O'Keefe JH, Bhatti SK, Bajwa A, DiNicolantonio JJ, Lavie CJ (March 2014). "Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the dose makes the poison…or the remedy". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 89 (3): 382–93. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.005. PMID 24582196. - Stockwell T, Zhao J, Panwar S, Roemer A, Naimi T, Chikritzhs T (March 2016). "Do "Moderate" Drinkers Have Reduced Mortality Risk? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Alcohol Consumption and All-Cause Mortality". Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs. 77 (2): 185–98. doi:10.15288/jsad.2016.77.185. PMC 4803651. PMID 26997174. - Jin M, Cai S, Guo J, Zhu Y, Li M, Yu Y, Zhang S, Chen K (March 2013). "Alcohol drinking and all cancer mortality: a meta-analysis". Annals of Oncology. 24 (3): 807–16. doi:10.1093/annonc/mds508. PMID 23104725. - Bagnardi V, Rota M, Botteri E, Tramacere I, Islami F, Fedirko V, Scotti L, Jenab M, Turati F, Pasquali E, Pelucchi C, Bellocco R, Negri E, Corrao G, Rehm J, Boffetta P, La Vecchia C (February 2013). "Light alcohol drinking and cancer: a meta-analysis". Annals of Oncology. 24 (2): 301–8. doi:10.1093/annonc/mds337. PMID 22910838. - Poli A, Marangoni F, Avogaro A, Barba G, Bellentani S, Bucci M, Cambieri R, Catapano AL, Costanzo S, Cricelli C, de Gaetano G, Di Castelnuovo A, Faggiano P, Fattirolli F, Fontana L, Forlani G, Frattini S, Giacco R, La Vecchia C, Lazzaretto L, Loffredo L, Lucchin L, Marelli G, Marrocco W, Minisola S, Musicco M, Novo S, Nozzoli C, Pelucchi C, Perri L, Pieralli F, Rizzoni D, Sterzi R, Vettor R, Violi F, Visioli F (June 2013). "Moderate alcohol use and health: a consensus document" (PDF). Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases. 23 (6): 487–504. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2013.02.007. hdl:10447/94503. PMID 23642930. - Noelle K. LoConte, Abenaa M. Brewster, Judith S. Kaur, Janette K. Merrill, and Anthony J. Alberg (7 November 2017). "Alcohol and Cancer: A Statement of the American Society of Clinical Oncology". Journal of Clinical Oncology. 36 (1). Clearly, the greatest cancer risks are concentrated in the heavy and moderate drinker categories. Nevertheless, some cancer risk persists even at low levels of consumption. A meta-analysis that focused solely on cancer risks associated with drinking one drink or fewer per day observed that this level of alcohol consumption was still associated with some elevated risk for squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus (sRR, 1.30; 95% CI, 1.09 to 1.56), oropharyngeal cancer (sRR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.06 to 1.29), and breast cancer (sRR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.08), but no discernable associations were seen for cancers of the colorectum, larynx, and liver.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - "Alcohol Facts and Statistics". Retrieved 9 May 2015. - Schuckit MA (November 2014). "Recognition and management of withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens)". The New England Journal of Medicine. 371 (22): 2109–13. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1407298. PMID 25427113. - "Alcohol and heart health". American Heart Association. 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016. - Harding G (2005). A Wine Miscellany. New York: Clarkson Potter. pp. 66–70, 90 & 108. ISBN 978-0-307-34635-3. - Robinson J, ed. (2006). The Oxford Companion to Wine (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860990-2. - Shuman TC, ed. (October 1, 2005). "Alcohol and Heart disease". WebMD. - Johnson H (1989). Vintage: The Story of Wine. Simon and Schuster. pp. 35–46. ISBN 978-0-671-68702-1. - Eubulus. Semele or Dionysus, fr. 93. - Walker-Bone K (August 2012). "Recognizing and treating secondary osteoporosis". Nature Reviews. Rheumatology. 8 (8): 480–92. doi:10.1038/nrrheum.2012.93. PMID 22782006. - McLernon DJ, Powell JJ, Jugdaohsingh R, Macdonald HM (May 2012). "Do lifestyle choices explain the effect of alcohol on bone mineral density in women around menopause?". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 95 (5): 1261–9. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.021600. PMID 22456655. - Alcohol drinking (PDF). Lyon: World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1988. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-92-832-1244-7. - Hydes, Theresa J.; Burton, Robyn; Inskip, Hazel; Bellis, Mark A.; Sheron, Nick (28 March 2019). "A comparison of gender-linked population cancer risks between alcohol and tobacco: how many cigarettes are there in a bottle of wine?". BMC Public Health. 19 (1): 316. doi:10.1186/s12889-019-6576-9. ISSN 1471-2458. - Zelman, Kathleen M. (January 26, 2005). "Wine: How Much Is Good for You?". WebMD. - Guilford JM, Pezzuto JM (2011). "Wine and Health: A Review". American Journal of Enology and Viticulture. 62 (4): 471–86. doi:10.5344/ajev.2011.11013. - Koppes LL, Dekker JM, Hendriks HF, Bouter LM, Heine RJ (March 2005). "Moderate alcohol consumption lowers the risk of type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of prospective observational studies". Diabetes Care. 28 (3): 719–25. doi:10.2337/diacare.28.3.719. PMID 15735217. - Brenner H, Berg G, Lappus N, Kliebsch U, Bode G, Boeing H (May 1999). "Alcohol consumption and Helicobacter pylori infection: results from the German National Health and Nutrition Survey". Epidemiology. 10 (3): 214–8. doi:10.1097/00001648-199905000-00004. JSTOR 3703585. PMID 10230827. - Liu, Shi-Yu; Han, Xin-Chen; Sun, Jan; Chen, Guang-Xia; Zhou, Xiao-Ying; Zhang, Guo-Xin (2016). "Alcohol intake and Helicobacter pylori infection: a dose–response meta-analysis of observational studies". Infectious Diseases. 48 (4): 303–309. doi:10.3109/23744235.2015.1113556. ISSN 2374-4235. PMID 26585858. - "Ask the doctor: What causes red wine headaches?". Harvard Health Publishing, Harvard Medical School. 2019. Retrieved 15 May 2019. - Davis-Martin, Rachel E.; Polk, Ashley N.; Smitherman, Todd A. (26 August 2017). "Alcohol use as a comorbidity and precipitant of primary headache: Review and meta-analysis". Current Pain and Headache Reports. 21 (10). doi:10.1007/s11916-017-0642-8. ISSN 1531-3433. PMID 28844083. - Locke Hughes (22 March 2017). "How Many Calories Are in Your Wine?". WebMD. Retrieved 15 May 2019. - Mortensen EL, Jensen HH, Sanders SA, Reinisch JM (2001). "Better psychological functioning and higher social status may largely explain the apparent health benefits of wine: a study of wine and beer drinking in young Danish adults". Archives of Internal Medicine. 161 (15): 1844–8. doi:10.1001/archinte.161.15.1844. PMID 11493125. - The sample wine was declared to be "a Shiraz from Southeast Australia", although no specific vintage, producer or wine region was stated in the report. - Hague T, Petroczi A, Andrews PL, Barker J, Naughton DP (June 2008). "Determination of metal ion content of beverages and estimation of target hazard quotients: a comparative study". Chemistry Central Journal. 2: 13. doi:10.1186/1752-153X-2-13. PMC 2443149. PMID 18578877. - Wang X, Sato T, Xing B, Tao S (November 2005). "Health risks of heavy metals to the general public in Tianjin, China via consumption of vegetables and fish". The Science of the Total Environment. 350 (1–3): 28–37. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.09.044. PMID 16227070. - Naughton DP, Petróczi A (October 2008). "Heavy metal ions in wines: meta-analysis of target hazard quotients reveal health risks". Chemistry Central Journal. 2: 22. doi:10.1186/1752-153X-2-22. PMC 2628338. PMID 18973648. - Study of Wine's Heavy Metal Hazard Raises Doubts Among Other Experts Wine Spectator, November 2008 - Metal in wine, UK NHS news bulletin, October 2008 - "Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to various food(s)/food constituent(s) and protection of cells from premature aging, antioxidant activity, antioxidant content and antioxidant properties, and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/20061". EFSA Journal. 8 (2). 2010. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1489. - Gross P (March 1, 2009), New Roles for Polyphenols. A 3-Part report on Current Regulations & the State of Science, Nutraceuticals World - Gislason NE, Currie BL, Waterhouse AL (June 2011). "Novel antioxidant reactions of cinnamates in wine". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 59 (11): 6221–6. doi:10.1021/jf200115y. PMID 21561133. - The Connecticut Post, "Selling resveratrol: Wonder drug or snake oil?," 08/04/2009, by Melissa Healy for the Los Angeles Times news service - Gehm BD, McAndrews JM, Chien PY, Jameson JL (December 1997). "Resveratrol, a polyphenolic compound found in grapes and wine, is an agonist for the estrogen receptor". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 94 (25): 14138–43. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.25.14138. PMC 28446. PMID 9391166. - EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) (2010-02-01). "Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to various food(s)/food constituent(s) and protection of cells from premature aging, antioxidant activity, antioxidant content and antioxidant properties, and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006". EFSA Journal. 8 (2): n/a. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1489. ISSN 1831-4732. - Muñoz-Espada AC, Wood KV, Bordelon B, Watkins BA (November 2004). "Anthocyanin quantification and radical scavenging capacity of Concord, Norton, and Marechal Foch grapes and wines". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 52 (22): 6779–86. doi:10.1021/jf040087y. PMID 15506816. - Williams RJ, Spencer JP, Rice-Evans C (April 2004). "Flavonoids: antioxidants or signalling molecules?". Free Radical Biology & Medicine. 36 (7): 838–49. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.01.001. PMID 15019969. - "Redco Foods, Inc". Wagner, RF, Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US FDA. 22 February 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2014. - Nutton V (May 1973). "The chronology of Galen's early career". Classical Quarterly. 23 (1): 158–71. doi:10.1017/S0009838800036600. JSTOR 638137. PMID 11624046. - Johnson H (1989). Vintage: The Story of Wine. Simon and Schuster. p. 126. - Mansoon, P. (March 15, 1994). "The Father of the French Paradox". Wine Spectator. - Franz M (May 4, 2005). "Merlot's Bad Press". Washington Post. - Frank M (September 26, 2018). "Bad Wine Health News: You're Going To Die ... Someday". Wine Spectator. - Mansson P (November 29, 2001). "Eat Well, Drink Wisely, Live Longer". Wine Spectator.

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At the height of its power, Rome reached a population of nearly one million people -- the largest city of an empire that stretched from Scotland in the west to the Persian Gulf in the east. A city of that size required enormous planning, and Roman engineers obliged by taking into consideration a number of features that ensured the safety, productivity and well-being of its citizens. They provided systems to dispose of sewage. They built aqueducts to bring water to the city. They built roads to facilitate transportation and communication. They designed and arranged financing for baths, sports arenas and theaters. And they placed, at the heart of the city, a forum where Romans of every class and distinction could gather to socialize, worship and conduct business. Although ancient Rome finally collapsed, the principles of municipal planning that made the city so splendid and powerful lived on. As other cities grew, they also had to address the myriad problems that arose whenever a large number of people crowded into a relatively small amount of space. Over time, the development process cities undertook -- a process that led to solutions for habitation, communication, education, transportation and more -- became known as urban planning. And the people who guided the work became known as urban planners. Today, urban planning is one of the most important occupations when you consider how much of the world's population lives in cities and their surrounding areas. In 1800, a little more than 2 percent of the world's population lived in urban areas. By 1900, that number had grown to 45 percent. And by 2010, it is expected to grow to 51.3 percent, according to the United Nations [source: ScienceDaily]. Clearly, effective urban planning will be critical to the success of our planet. But what exactly is it? That's the question this article will answer. We'll look closely at what urban planning is, how long it's been around, what it entails and who provides the services in most cities and towns. We'll also explore the future of urban planning to understand how municipal planning principles used today may be incorporated into cities of the future, including cities that could exist on the moon or Mars. But before we travel into outer space, let's go back to Chicago at the beginning of the 20th century. To understand Chicago of the early 1900s, consider this observation from Truesdale Marshall, the protagonist of Henry Blake Fuller's novel, "With the Procession:" "[Chicago is a] hideous monster … so pitifully grotesque, gruesome, appalling." Many people, foreigners and Americans alike, felt the same way about most cities in America. By 1910, many cities contained one million residents, but few planned properly for such a population explosion. As a result, cities developed in an ad hoc fashion. This made them shapeless, inefficient and, in many cases, dangerous. Daniel Hudson Burnham, a Chicago architect, began to address these issues in an approach to urban planning that would become known as the City Beautiful movement. City Beautiful was characterized by the belief that if you improved form, function would follow. In other words, an attractive city would perform better than an unattractive one. Beauty came from what Burnham called "municipal art" -- magnificent parks, highly designed buildings, wide boulevards, and public gathering places adorned with fountains and monuments. Such beautiful additions to the cityscape could not directly address perceived social ills, but they could, at least in Burnham's thinking, indirectly improve social problems by enhancing the urban environment. Burnham first displayed the City Beautiful principles at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. His dream city, known as White City, featured large-scale monuments, electric lights and state-of-the-art transport systems. It also removed all visible signs of poverty so that the roughly 27 million visitors who streamed through the exhibition witnessed a true urban utopia. Burnham then applied City Beautiful ideas to several city designs between 1902 and 1905. He directed plans for Washington, D.C.; Cleveland, Ohio; Manila; and San Francisco, Calif., But the culmination of the movement came in 1906 when Burnham teamed up with Edward Bennett to prepare the Plan of Chicago, the first comprehensive plan for controlled growth of an American city. The Plan encompassed the development of Chicago within a 60-mile radius and called for a double-decker boulevard to better accommodate commercial and regular traffic, straightening of the Chicago River, consolidation of competing rail lines and an integrated park system that encompassed a 20-mile park area along Lake Michigan. Some of these features, such as the twin-level roadway, were firsts in any city, anywhere in the world. Although the City Beautiful movement was revolutionary in America, it drew upon urban planning ideas used for many years in Europe. In particular, Burnham used Paris as a successful model of urban planning. Planning of Paris began in earnest in the 1600s during the reign of Louis XIV when architects used great foresight to build squares, parks and avenues in areas that were barely settled. As Paris increased its population, it was able to grow into its design. Then, in another era of notable development beginning in the 1850s, Georges Eugéne Haussmann, appointed by Napoleon Bonaparte, began reworking the city, making it more suitable and attractive for the vast numbers of visitors, merchants, manufacturers and residents who filled the city. Burnham also recognized the contribution of the ancient planners responsible for Athens and Rome, as well as the planning tradition that went back for centuries. In the next section, we'll look at how this tradition manifests itself today in the hands of modern planners. Urban Planning Basics The goal of planning is to guide the development of a city or town so that it furthers the welfare of its current and future residents by creating convenient, equitable, healthful, efficient and attractive environments. Most urban planners work in existing communities, but some help develop communities -- known as new towns, new cities or planned communities -- from scratch. Either way, urban planners must consider three key aspects of a city as they map out their programs: The physical environment: A city's physical environment includes its location, its climate and its proximity to sources of food and water. Because drinking water is so crucial, many cities are founded at the head of a river or at the fall line, the point where rivers descend from the regions of older, harder rocks toward the softer sediments of the coastal plain. The rapids that often form at the fall line mark ideal locations for towns and villages to evolve. Coastal cities also have a great advantage in that their accessibility positions them to become important trading centers. Planners must often consider an area's geologic history to understand the full character of a city. For example, the physical environment of New York City and the surrounding region reflects the culmination of a billion years of geologic activity. Over this great span of time, mountain ranges formed and were worn away. Seaways came and went. Most recently, episodes of continental glaciation covered the area with ice sheets that eventually retreated. All of this activity makes New York City what it is today and affects how it might change in the future. The social environment: The social environment includes the groups to which a city's residents belong, the neighborhoods in which they live, the organization of its workplaces, and the policies created to impose order. One of the biggest issues in most cities is the inequitable distribution of resources. For example, more than 50 percent of the population of Mumbai and New Delhi (cities in India) live in slums, while in Lagos and Nairobi (cities in Africa), more than 60 percent of households aren't connected to water [source: United Nations Human Settlements Programme]. As a result, the social environment can be a risk factor for disease and mortality as much as individual risk factors. Planners work with local authorities to make sure residents are not excluded from the benefits of urbanization as a result of physical, social or economic barriers. The economic environment: All cities work hard to support the retention and expansion of existing local businesses. Primary employers, such as manufacturing as well as research and development companies, retail businesses, universities, federal labs, local government, cultural institutions, and departments of tourism all play strong roles in a city's economy. The programs of an urban planner should encourage partnerships among public agencies, private companies and nonprofit organizations; foster innovation and competitiveness; provide development opportunities and resources to small businesses; and nurture, preserve and promote local arts and creative industries in order to sustain a city's cultural vitality. As you can imagine, urban planners must do a great deal of research and analysis to fully understand how the physical, social and economic aspects of a city interact. Before they ever put pen to paper, they study: - The current use of land for residential, business and community purposes - The locations and capacity of streets, highways, airports, water and sewer - The types of industries embedded in the community - The characteristics of the population - Employment and economic trends They also gather input from residents, government officials, politicians, business executives and special groups. Armed with all of this information, planners develop short- and long-term strategic alternatives for solving problems in a coordinated and comprehensive manner. They also show how these programs can be carried out and how much they will cost. All of these details are captured in a formal document known as a comprehensive plan or a master plan. In the next section, we'll take a look at a typical plan. The Master Plan Any municipality, from small village to sprawling metropolis, can have a master plan. Small communities will hire a private planning firm to prepare a plan and submit it to the local government for approval. In big cities, the department of city planning prepares the master plan. The plan itself is a document, sometimes hundreds of pages long, that shows a community as it is and recommends how it should exist in the future. It often contains diagrams, aerial photos, maps, reports and statistical information that support the planner's vision. A typical master plan addresses the following: - Transportation and traffic: A good master plan takes all of a city's transportation corridors into account. A transportation corridor is any channel along which people and goods move from place to place. - Community facilities: Cities support an array of community facilities that satisfy its demand for social and cultural enrichment. These include public and charter schools, police and fire departments and community centers. - Parks and open space: Parks are vital to cities because they serve as the focal points of neighborhoods and often have community and cultural facilities grouped around them. In addition to parks, cities maintain a variety of open spaces, which may be undeveloped lands or land set aside for health and safety reasons or for preservation. - Neighborhoods and housing: Although they have unique characteristics, neighborhoods in vibrant cities are interconnected and enjoy a dynamic exchange of commuters, ideas and influences. Successful neighborhoods also emphasize community, livability, appearance, transportation opportunities, convenience and safety for all residents. - Economic development: A master plan recommends how a city's design can be enhanced to attract new businesses and protect existing businesses. For example, a plan might call for redevelopment of a downtown area to include a public market and a conference/convention center, with the goal of better serving the city. - Land use: The major land use recommendations presented in a master plan result from analysis of a city's environmental and physical conditions, as well as the planner's vision for future growth. A map of future land use is generally included and makes recommendations about land set aside for parks and open space; residential areas; commercial, office and industrial uses; civic and institutional uses; and mixed-use areas. Public support of a master plan, no matter how comprehensive or visionary, is crucial to its overall success. Strong public opposition can arise if city residents believe the proposals of a plan are too costly, aren't fair and equitable or could interfere with their safety and well-being. In situations like this, urban planners may have to explain their plans to planning boards, interest groups and the general public. If opposition cannot be overcome, governments sometimes refuse to act on proposals of a master plan. Once a plan is adopted, implementation can begin. Not all programs can be implemented at once, so most plans include, usually as part of the appendix, an action agenda that provides an outline of the short- to medium-term actions essential to getting the master plan off the ground. The implementation process relies heavily on government authority. The city may use its grant of the police power to adopt and enforce growth and development regulations. It may also use its power to tax to raise the money necessary to fund growth and development. And it may use eminent domain -- the power to force sale of private property for valid public use -- to enable various infrastructure investments and redevelopment actions in support of public policy and plans. Planners must also be aware of zoning laws, which are another way cities control the physical development of land. Zoning laws designate the kinds of buildings permitted in each part of a city. An area zoned R-1 might allow only single-family detached homes, whereas an area zoned C-1 might allow only certain commercial or industrial uses. Zoning is not without controversy. Zoning ordinances have been challenged as unconstitutional several times, and some argue that they are tools of racial and socioeconomic exclusion. As we'll see in the next section, this is just one of many criticisms leveraged against urban planning. Criticisms of Urban Planning Some early opponents of urban planning blamed its practitioners for focusing only on aesthetics with no regard for human welfare. But today, such criticisms are largely unfounded because urban planners take a much more holistic approach to community development. They look far beyond aesthetics to consider the environmental, economic and social health issues that affect a community as it grows and changes. Unfortunately, as the complexity of urban planning has increased, so have the length of time and costs required to complete the process. The time-intensive nature and high costs of planning are two of the biggest criticisms. If the planning process takes too long, the solutions it proposes may be obsolete before they're fully implemented -- a serious concern in emerging cities where change occurs more rapidly. Some people object to the fact that urban planning gives the government too much power over individuals. And still others say urban planners put too much emphasis on the future of cities and towns and not enough on present problems. This discontent with urban planning pushes the field forward and forces it to evolve. One of the most influential critiques of modern urban planning came in 1961 by Jane Jacobs. Her book, "Death and Life of Great American Cities," blasted 20th century urban planning and proposed radically new principles for rebuilding cities: - Cities as ecosystems: Jacobs compared cities to living things that change over time as they interact with their environment. If the city is the organism, then the sidewalks, parks, streets and neighborhoods are the various systems, each with a different function but tightly and seamlessly integrated. By viewing cities in this way, planners can better understand their structure and make more efficacious recommendations. - Mixed-use development: Jacobs saw diversity as an absolute requirement for healthy, vibrant urban communities. Diversity didn't just refer to populations. Jacobs also felt that buildings should vary in age, condition, use and rentals. In such an environment, people of different ages and backgrounds use different parts of the city at different times of the day, making the city vital and healthy around the clock, not just during business hours. - Bottom-up community planning: Jacobs felt that planners didn't rely enough on local expertise. How could an outsider, she argued, know the real-life needs of a neighborhood better than the people who actually lived there? In the Jacobian planning model, residents are highly involved in the entire development process. - The case for higher density: While conventional wisdom suggested that densely populated neighborhoods led to crime and squalor, Jacobs called for even more density. She believed that diverse and highly concentrated populations of people, including residents, promote visible city life and help to combat the homogeneity that ultimately leads to dullness. - Local economies: Jacobs developed a model of local economic development based on revitalizing old businesses, promoting small businesses and supporting entrepreneurs, as opposed to replacing smaller, less-profitable businesses with large, stable corporations. In fact, her approach to economic development is just another way a city can maintain diversity. Having a variety of businesses forms the base for diversity in a specific district and has a cross-effect on the diversity of other localities by providing affluent residents and patrons needed for mutual support. Although controversial, Jane Jacobs' ideas shook the industry and heavily influenced a new generation of planners and architects. Her theories and principles will, no doubt, continue to affect the design of cities for years to come. So what's in the years to come? On the next page, we'll take a look. The Future of Urban Planning As long as people live in cities, there will be a need for urban planning. In developing countries, such as China and India, high rates of urbanization make successful city planning especially difficult. Planners must balance the speed of decision-making with the need for thoughtful, well-considered programs for development. And they must address very difficult questions: What qualities in society should be valued most? What is fair and equitable? Whose interests will be served first? In the future, these questions will likely be posed for cities that exist on the moon or Mars. Urban planning in such situations will have the added challenge of dealing with microgravity, extreme temperatures, radiation and other environmental issues. You might think that such a city is unrealistic, but NASA has been planning a "city in the sky" for years. In 1975, a team of researchers, planners and NASA officials met for 10 weeks to design this space city. The team's solution was a giant wheel nearly two kilometers across. Inside the wheel, the city's 10,000 inhabitants would enjoy breathable air and normal Earth gravity due to the rotation of the wheel about its axis. They would work in factories; travel across the city in transport tubes; and participate in activities at schools, arenas and theaters. They would, in short, do all of the same things residents of Earth-bound cities do. And they would require superior urban planning to make sure they lived in a healthy, comfortable and efficient community. For more information on cities and related topics, visit the links on the next page. More Great Links - "61.8 million slum dwellers in urban areas: Govt." The Times of India.http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/618_million_slum_dwellers_in_cities_/articleshow/2326899.cms - "City." World Book 2005. - The City of Hoboken Master Planhttp://www.hobokennj.org/html/masterplan/mp2a.html - "City Planning." World Book 2005. - The Field of Urban Planning, UCLA School of Public Affairshttp://www.spa.ucla.edu/dept.cfm?d=up&s=home&f=field.cfm - Jane Jacobs Biography, Project for Public Spaceshttp://www.pps.org/info/placemakingtools/placemakers/jjacobs - Martin, Douglas. "Jane Jacobs, Urban Activist, Is Dead at 89." The New York Times. April 25, 2006. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/25/books/25cnd-jacobs.html - "Mayday 23: World Population Becomes More Urban Than Rural." ScienceDaily. May 25, 2007. May 2, 2008. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070525000642.htm - The Plan of Chicagohttp://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/10537.html - "The State of the World's Cities Report 2001." United Nations Human Settlements Programme. http://ww2.unhabitat.org/istanbul+5/statereport1.htm - Urban and Regional Planners, U.S. Department of Labor Web Site http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos057.htm - Urban and Regional Planning Career Information, The American Planning Association Web Site http://www.planning.org/careers/field.htm#1

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The Newton is a series of personal digital assistants (PDA) developed and marketed by Apple Computer, Inc. An early device in the PDA category – the Newton originated the term "personal digital assistant" – it was the first to feature handwriting recognition. Apple started developing the platform in 1987 and shipped the first devices in 1993. Production officially ended on February 27, 1998. Newton devices run on a proprietary operating system, Newton OS; examples include Apple's MessagePad series and the eMate 300, and other companies also released devices running on Newton OS. Most Newton devices were based on the ARM 610 RISC processor and all featured handwriting-based input. |Developer||Apple Computer, Inc.| |Discontinued||February 27, 1998| |Operating system||Newton OS| The Newton was considered technologically innovative at its debut, but a combination of factors, some of which included its high price and early problems with its handwriting recognition feature, limited its sales. Apple cancelled the platform at the direction of Steve Jobs, after his return to Apple, in 1998. - 1 Development - 2 Product details - 3 Newton technology after cancellation - 4 In popular culture - 5 See also - 6 References - 7 External links The Newton project was a personal digital assistant platform. The PDA category did not exist for most of Newton's genesis, and the phrase "personal digital assistant" was coined relatively late in the development cycle by Apple's CEO John Sculley, the driving force behind the project. Larry Tesler determined that an advanced, low-power processor was needed for sophisticated graphics manipulation. He found Hermann Hauser, with the Acorn RISC Machine (ARM) processor, and put together Advanced RISC Machines (now ARM Holdings). When the move was made to a smaller design (designed by Jonathan Ive), Dylan was relegated to experimental status in the "Bauhaus Project" and eventually canceled outright. Its replacement, NewtonScript, had garbage collection and tight integration with the "soup" storage and user-interface toolkit, and was specifically designed to run in environments with small RAM and large ROM. It was mostly developed by Walter Smith from 1992 to 1993. Although PDAs had been developing since the original Psion Organiser in 1984, the Newton has left one particular lasting impression: the term personal digital assistant was first coined to refer to the Newton. Later history and cancellationEdit The Newton was considered innovative at its debut, but it suffered from its high price and problems with the handwriting recognition element, its most anticipated feature. The handwriting software was barely ready by 1993 and its tendency to misread characters was widely derided in the media. This was parodied in The Simpsons episode Lisa on Ice; where a scene makes fun of the Newton's handwriting recognition turning "Beat up Martin" into "Eat up Martha". Garry Trudeau also mocked the Newton in a weeklong arc of his comic strip Doonesbury, portraying it as a costly toy that served the same function as a cheap notepad, and using its accuracy problems to humorous effect. In one panel, Michael Doonesbury's Newton misreads the words "Catching on?" as "Egg Freckles", a phrase that became widely repeated as symbolic of the Newton's problems. This phrase was subsequently included as a trigger for an easter egg in later editions of the MessagePad, producing a panel from the strip when it was entered on the device. In acknowledgement of the strip, Apple subsequently gifted a MessagePad to Trudeau. Although the software improved substantially in Newton OS 2.0, it was not enough to inspire strong sales. The Newton became popular in some industries, notably the medical field. However, the debut of the competing Palm Pilot substantially reduced its market share. Apple struggled to find a new direction for the Newton, and when Steve Jobs returned to the company in 1997, he killed the product line. He was critical of the device's weak performance, the management of the development team, and the stylus, which he disliked as it prevented the use of the fingers. He was likely also motivated by the fact that the Newton was the pet project of his old adversary John Sculley. However, Jobs saw potential in the technology and concept, if not the execution, and eventually led Apple to create its multi-touch devices, the iPhone and iPad. - MessagePad (also known as the H1000, OMP or Original MessagePad) - MessagePad 100 (same hardware as OMP, but newer system version) - MessagePad 110 - MessagePad 120 - MessagePad 130 - eMate 300 - MessagePad 2000 - MessagePad 2100 - Sharp ExpertPad PI-7000 (equivalent to OMP) - Sharp ExpertPad PI-7100 (equivalent to MP 100) From Digital Ocean: - Harris SuperTech 2000 Most Newton devices were pre-loaded with a variety of software to help in personal data organization and management. This included such applications as Notes, Names, and Dates, as well as a variety of productivity tools such as a calculator, conversion calculators (metric conversions, currency conversions, etc.), time-zone maps, etc. In later/2.x versions of the Newton OS these applications were refined, and new ones were added, such as the Works word processor and the Newton Internet Enabler, as well as the inclusion of bundled 3rd party applications, such as Notion: The Newton List Manager, the QuickFigure Works spreadsheet (a "lite" version of Pelicanware's QuickFigure Pro), Pocket Quicken, the NetHopper web browser, and the EnRoute email client. Various Newton applications had full import/export capabilities with popular desktop office suite and PIM (Personal Information Manager) application file formats, primarily by making use of Apple's bundled Newton Connection Utilities (or the older Newton Connection Kit, which had been sold separately for Newton devices that used the 1.x versions of the OS). The Notes application allowed users to create small documents that could contain text that had been typed, or that had been recognized from handwriting, as well as free-hand sketches, "Shapes", and "ink text". In version 2.0 of the Newton OS, the Notes application (as well as Names) could accept what Apple termed "stationery", 3rd-party created plug-in modules that could extend the functionality of the basic applications. One of the new types of Notes stationery added to Newton OS 2.0 was a hierarchical, bullet-ed, collapsible, multi-line "Checklist", an implementation of outliner software. This could be used for organizing thoughts, priorities, "to do" lists, planning steps and sub-tasks, etc. Each bullet point could contain as many lines of text as desired. A bullet point could be dragged and placed underneath another bullet point, thus forming a hierarchical outline/tree. When a bullet point was dragged, the entire sub-tree of child bullet points underneath it (if any) would be dragged along as well. If a bullet point had child bullet points, tapping the hollow parent bullet point once would "roll up" or collapse all the children ("windowshade" effect). The parent bullet point would become a solid black circle and all the children would disappear. Tapping the parent bullet point again would make the children re-appear. This functionality arrived in Newton OS 2.0, but several third parties made similar software previously for OS 1.x Newton machines, the most notable of which was Dyno Notepad, released in 1993. The Names application was used for storing contacts. Contacts created either on the Newton device or on a Windows or Macintosh desktop PIM could be synchronized to each other. Entering a date in Names for fields such as birthday or anniversary automatically created corresponding repeating events in the Dates application. Each contact had an attached free-form notes field available to it, that could contain any mix of interleaved text, ink text, Shapes, or Sketches. Like Notes, Names could be extended by developers, to create special new categories of contacts with specialized pre-defined fields. Names shipped with 3 types of contacts, "people", "companies", and "groups", but a developer could define new types, for instance "client", "patient", etc. Stand Alone Software, Inc. also created a Newton software package called the Stationery Construction Kit, which allowed users to make stationery themselves without aid of any other tools. Dates supplied calendar, events, meeting, and alarms functions, including an integrated "to do" list manager. It offered many different display and navigation styles, including a list view, graphical day "time blocking" view, or a week, month, or year grid. As with Names and Notes, Dates items created either on the Newton or on a Windows or Macintosh desktop PIM could be synchronized to each other. Operating system and programming environmentEdit The Newton OS consists of three layers. At the lowest level, a microkernel handles resources like tasks and memory. On top of the microkernel, the bulk of the operating system is implemented in C++, including the communications layer, handwriting recognition, and the NewtonScript environment. The top layer consists of built-in and user installed applications written in NewtonScript. NewtonScript is an advanced object-oriented programming language, developed by Apple employee Walter Smith. Some programmers complained at the $1000 cost of the Toolbox programming environment. Additionally, it required learning a new way of programming. The Newton Toolkit (NTK), an integrated environment tailored to the graphical nature of the Newton platform, was developed specifically for developing applications for the Newton platform and included a graphical view editor, a template browser, and an interactive inspector window for debugging. Initially, it was only available for Macintosh computers, and later a Microsoft Windows version was developed. The Technical Lead for the Newton Toolkit was Norberto Menendez; other engineers on the team were Ben Sharpe and Peter Potrebic. Data in Newton is stored in object-oriented databases known as soups. One of the innovative aspects of Newton is that soups are available to all programs; and programs can operate cross-soup; meaning that the calendar can refer to names in the address book; a note in the notepad can be converted to an appointment, and so forth; and the soups can be programmer-extended—a new address book enhancement can be built on the data from the existing address book. The soup system also made it easy to synchronize data, and the Newton Connection tools could be used for importing and exporting data. Among many file formats are the Rich Text Format, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Works, and many more. Another consequence of the data-object soup is that objects can extend built-in applications such as the address book so seamlessly that Newton users can sometimes not distinguish which program or add-on object is responsible for the various features on their own system, because the advanced nature of Newton devices makes it easy to accept such add-ons. A user rebuilding their system after extended usage might find themselves unable to manually restore their system to the same functionality because some long-forgotten downloaded extension was missing. Data owned and used by applications and extensions themselves is tossed in the "Storage" area of the "Extras" drawer in 2.x Newton devices; on 1.x systems, they can only be found or removed in the Memory section of the built-in Prefs application, in the Card slip (also built-in), or with third-party tools such as NewtCase. There is no built-in distinction between types of data in that area. For example, an installed application's icon could be sitting right next to a database of addresses used by another installed extension further down the list. Finally, the data soup concept works well for data like addresses, which benefit from being shared cross-functionally, but it works poorly for discrete data sets like files and documents. Later, the 2.0 release of the Newton OS introduced Virtual Binary Objects to alleviate the problem of handling large data objects. Package installation, capacity planning, and disaster recoveryEdit Several software utilities which accommodate data transfer to and from a host system exist for the following platforms: Newton technology after cancellationEdit Before the Newton project was canceled, it was "spun off" into an Apple wholly owned subsidiary company, Newton Inc., but was reabsorbed several months later when Apple CEO Gil Amelio was fired by the board and Steve Jobs took over as then interim CEO. Two ex-Apple Newton developers founded Pixo, the company that created the operating system for the original iPod. Speculation continued for several years that Apple might release a new PDA with some Newton technology or collaborate with Palm. Feeding a bit of speculation, Apple put the "Print Recognizer" part of the Newton 2.1 handwriting recognition system into Mac OS X v10.2 (known as "Jaguar"). It can be used with graphics tablets to seamlessly input handwritten printed text anywhere there was an insertion point on the screen. This technology, known as "Inkwell", appears in the System Preferences whenever a tablet input device is plugged in. An Easter egg in Print Recognizer on the Newton (write "ROSETTA! ROSETTA! ROSETTA!", and the Newton will insert "ROSETTA! ROSETTA! Hey, that's me!" instead) was present in Inkwell in Mac OS 10.2 and 10.3, but seems to have been removed in 10.4. Larry Yaeger was the author of the original Rosetta recognizer on the Newton, and was also responsible for porting it to Mac OS X. The Rosetta name was later used for Apple's PowerPC software translation layer for Intel-based Macs. Some of the handwriting recognition technology from the Newton later found its way into Windows CE. The letter preferences menus showing the different ways that people write cursive characters were pixel identical on Windows CE to those previously used on the MessagePad.. At an All Things Digital conference in 2004, Steve Jobs made reference to a new "Apple PDA" (perhaps a successor to the Newton) which the company had developed but had decided not to bring to market. The tablet likely eventually evolved into the iPhone or iPad.. Since 2004, the Einstein Project has been working on emulating the Newton for use as an alternative OS on other platforms. It is currently available for the Sharp Zaurus, Apple's Mac OS X, Nokia Maemo, Microsoft Windows, and the Pepper Pad 3. The emulator is an open source project, but requires an original Newton ROM to be installed in order to function. iPhones and iPads run Einstein since September 2010. The Android operating system runs Einstein since March 2011. A possible Newton revival was at one time a common source of speculation among the Macintosh user base; when patents for a tablet based Macintosh were applied for, rumor sites jumped at the possibility of a new tablet PC-style Macintosh. This later turned out to be the iPad, which currently runs Apple's proprietary iOS System Software. In popular cultureEdit During Apple's March 21, 2016 keynote conference, a celebration video called "40 Years in 40 Seconds" was unveiled. The video featured flashing text of names from Apple's most notable products and taglines in their forty-year history, including Newton. However, in Newton's case, it was the only name depicted in the video being explicitly scratched out, referencing the full cancellation of the product line. - Hormby, Tom (February 7, 2006). "The Story Behind Apple's Newton". Low End Mac. - Kuehl Julie; Martellaro, John; Greelish, David (January 13, 2012). "John Sculley: The Truth About Me, Apple, and Steve Jobs Part 2". The Mac Observer. Retrieved January 20, 2012. [...] Larry [Tesler] realized that if you’re going to do very sophisticated graphics manipulation on a handheld product, that no processor existed at that time that was both powerful and low powered enough to be able to even attempt that. Larry Tesler found a man in the UK named Hermann Hauser who had founded the Acorn computer company. [...] a new company that we had to put together that was 47 percent owned by Apple, it was 47 percent owned by Olivetti, a name from the past, and the rest of it was owned by Hermann Hauser. And this company we called ARM. - "Who Is Jonathan Ive? An in-depth look at the man behind Apple's design magic". BusinessWeek. September 25, 2006. - "Cyber Elite: Jonathan Ive". Time Digital. 2000. Archived from the original on August 19, 2000. - "PDA". authorSTREAM. Retrieved November 10, 2015. - History of PDAs blog Archived July 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine - Kawamoto, Dawn (October 2, 2003). "Riding the next technology wave". Newsmaker. CNET. Archived from the original on February 5, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2012. - Hide, Nick (September 23, 2013). "The Simpsons' 'Eat Up Martha' was the first autocorrect fail". CNET. Retrieved August 6, 2019. - Markoff, John (December 18, 1995). "Doonesbury' and Apple Hatch a Comic Surprise". New York Times. Retrieved June 15, 2012. - Evans, David S.; Hagiu, Andrei; Schmalensee, Richard (2008). Invisible Engines: How Software Platforms Drive Innovation and Transform Industries. MIT Press. pp. 159–161. ISBN 0262262649. - Honan, Matt (August 5, 2013). "Remembering the Apple Newton's Prophetic Failure and Lasting Impact". WIRED. Retrieved November 17, 2015. - Luckie, Douglas. "Newton MessagePad". Luckie's Homepage. Retrieved July 18, 2015. - Luckie, Douglas. "Sharp's Newton ExpertPad". Luckie's Homepage. Retrieved July 18, 2015. - Quinlan, Tom (January 9, 1995). "Newton-based PDA announced". InfoWorld (Vol. 17, No. 2). InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. Retrieved July 18, 2015. - Ortiz, Kedesh. "Back before iPhones and Androids, we had these..." Tech Under The Sun. Retrieved July 18, 2015. - Genghis7777. "Siemens NotePhone". My Apple Newton. Retrieved July 18, 2015. - Schmidt, Tim (February 19, 1996). "Discord in hardwareland". Network World (Vol. 13, No. 8). IDG Network World Inc. Retrieved July 18, 2015. - Apple Computer. "Newton Connection Utilities ReadMe", Apple, July 24, 1997 - Apple Computer. "Newton Connection Utilities Features", Newton Source - "Walter Smith, software guy". waltersmith.us. Retrieved November 10, 2015. - Handwriting Recognition Technology in the Newton's Second Generation “Print Recognizer” (The One That Worked), By Larry Yaeger - Apple Computer, World Wide Newton Conference, September 4–5, 2004, Slides - Jobs: Apple developed, but did not ship Apple PDA, By Kasper Jade, June 7, 2004, AppleInsider - "pguyot/Einstein". GitHub. Retrieved November 10, 2015. - Apple Newton on Android, March 13, 2011, My Apple Newton - Appleinsider, Euro filing reveals Apple handheld design images, August 13, 2004 - Remembering the Apple Newton's Prophetic Failure and Lasting Impact, Wired, August 2013, https://www.wired.com/2013/08/remembering-the-apple-newtons-prophetic-failure-and-lasting-ideals/ - Stone, Brad (September 28, 2009). "Apple Rehires a Developer of Its Newton Tablet". Bits. New York Times. Retrieved June 15, 2012. - "United Network of Newton Archives". www.unna.org. Archived from the original on October 23, 2005. Retrieved November 25, 2015. - "40Hz". 40hz.org. Retrieved November 25, 2015. - "Infomania: What is the relationship between Apple and lain?". Cornell Japanese Animation Society. November 21, 2009. Retrieved August 13, 2019. - Hackett, Stephen (March 22, 2016) Apple’s ’40 Years in 40 Seconds’ Video Annotated 512 Pixels (blog). Retrieved 2019-10-11 |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Apple Newton.| Newton technical documents for programmersEdit NewtonScript Programming: NewtonScript is the native programming language for all MessagePads - The Newton Application Architecture - Newton Tool Kit (NTK) Integrated Development Environment Manual - The Newton Application Architecture - A quick introduction to programming in NewtonScript using NTK - The NewtonScript Programming Language (Apple Manual). - Newton Programmer's Guide, OS 2.0 - Newton Programmer's Guide, OS 2.1 Addendum - Newton Programmer's Reference, OS 2.0 - Newton OS 2.1 Engineering Documents - Explanation of NewtonScript Prototyping - Newton User Interface Specification Guide

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On August 1, 1907, the Aeronautical Division of the United States Army Signal Corps was established, and the United States Army purchased its first heavier-than-air aircraft, a Wright Model A, in 1908. It was allocated the serial number 1. Further Army aircraft were assigned serial numbers in sequence of their purchase. Unfortunately, early records from these days are rather incomplete, and there are numerous gaps and conflicts. To add to the confusion, it often happened that at the time an aircraft was rebuilt, it was assigned a brand new serial number. Some aircraft from this period (for example the DH-4 "Liberty Plane") are known to have carried at least four serial numbers during their careers. After a while, certain serial number blocks were introduced--the 200 block was reserved for seaplanes, the 40000 block for experimental aircraft, and the 94000 block for prototypes and aircraft under evaluation. The new Army Aeronautical Division was renamed the United States Army Air Service (USAAS) on May 14, 1918. The sequential serial number scheme continued until the end of US Fiscal Year (FY) 1921 (which was June 30, 1921). At that time, the numbers had reached 69592, plus a special block of 1919-1921 experimental procurements in the 94022/94112 range. Starting on July 1, 1921 (the beginning of FY 1922) a new serial number system was adopted based on procurement within each Fiscal Year. Each serial number now consisted of a base number corresponding to the last two digits of the FY in which money was allocated to manufacture the aircraft, and a sequence number indicating the sequential order in which the particular aircraft was ordered within that particular FY. For example, airplane 22-1 was the first aircraft ordered in FY 1922, 23-1 was the first example ordered in FY 1923, etc. This system is still in use today. It is important to recognize that the serial number reflects the Fiscal Year in which the order for the aircraft is placed, NOT the year in which it is delivered. Nowadays, the difference between the time the order is placed and the time the aircraft is actually delivered can be as much as several years. On July 2, 1926, the Army Air Service was renamed the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC). On June 20, 1941, the USAAC was renamed the United States Army Air Force (USAAF). On September 18, 1947, the United States Army Air Force was split off from the US Army and became a separate service, the United States Air Force. Throughout all of these changes the earlier fiscal-year serial number system remained unchanged. In 1947, at about the same time that the USAF was officially formed, DoD regulation 5304.9003 was promulgated which required that the sequence number now have at least 3 digits. This means that fiscal year serials with individual sequence numbers less than 100 are filled up with zeroes to bring them up to 3 digits in length. So 48-1 is written as 48-001 in official documentation. Sequence numbers greater than 9999 are written with 5 digits. In 1958, the minimum number of digits in the sequence number was raised to four, so that the 1958 aircraft series started at 58-0001. Following the passage of the Lend-Lease Act in 1941, USAAF serial numbers were allocated to US-built aircraft intended for service with Allied air forces during the Second World War. This was done strictly for administrative purposes, even though these aircraft were never intended for USAAF service. Later, during the Cold War, aircraft supplied to US allies under the Mutual Aid Program or the Mutual Defense Assistance Program were assigned USAF serial numbers for record-keeping purposes, even though they never actually served with the USAF. Not all the aircraft which served with the US Army Air Force were issued USAAF serial numbers. The best-known examples are those aircraft acquired abroad by the US Army during the Second World War. In most cases, they operated under their foreign designations and serials. For example, the Spitfires acquired in the UK under "Reverse Lend-Lease" were operated under their British designations and their British serial numbers. In addition, some US-built aircraft that were ordered by Britain prior to Lend-Lease but later impressed into USAAF service still retained their Royal Air Force serials. Occasionally, USAF aircraft are extensively remanufactured to bring them up to modern standards or to fulfill completely new roles for which they were not originally designed. In many cases, these aircraft are re-serialed with new numbers relevant to their year of re-manufacture. However, this rule is not always followed--re the rather grotesque modifications inflicted on some C-135 aircraft which did not result in new serial numbers. The US Navy and the US Marine Corps have an entirely different serial numbering scheme, based on numerically progressive numbers allocated by the Bureau of Aeronautics. Occasionally, aircraft are transferred from the Navy to the USAF. If the transfer is anticipated to be permanent, it is usually the case that the transferred aircraft are given USAF serial numbers. Most often, the USAF serials of these transferred Navy aircraft are inserted within the regular sequence of numbers, but sometimes these new USAF serials are constructed by retroactively adding additional numbers at the end of the sequence number block for the fiscal year in which they were originally ordered by the Navy. Aircraft that are only temporarily transferred to the USAF from the Navy usually retain their Navy serial numbers even though painted in USAF markings, but it sometimes happens that aircraft loaned by the Navy are assigned brand-new USAF serials. Unfortunately, the system is not always consistent. In recent years, the assignment of USAF serial numbers has not always been in strict numerical order within the FY. Furthermore, an aircraft is sometimes listed in a given FY block when it was actually ordered in a different FY. This is most often done for reasons of special convenience. For example, the serials of the two "Air Force One" VC-137s (62-6000 and 72-7000) might indicate that they were ordered ten years apart, whereas the actual difference was only seven years. The Presidential VC-25s were ordered in FY 1986 under the serials 86-8800 and 86-8900, but these numbers were changed to 82-8000 and 92-9000 by special order to create a series following the two earlier VC-137Cs. When some civilian aircraft have been acquired by the USAF, either by purchase or by seizure, serial numbers have sometimes been assigned out of sequence, with their numbers deliberately chosen to match their former civilian registration numbers. Other times, serial number allocation is done for reasons of secrecy, to conceal the existence of classified aircraft from prying eyes. For example, the serial numbers of the F-117s were initially assigned in strict numerical order, but they were sprinkled among several different fiscal years. In other cases, the serial numbers (e.g. the serial numbers for the new F-22 Raptor fighters) were derived from the manufacturer's construction numbers rather than from the sequence in which they were ordered. Another odd example was the A-1 Skyraiders acquired from the Navy for use in Vietnam--they had USAF serial numbers constructed by taking the plane's Navy serial number (Bureau Number) and prefixing in front of it the fiscal year number in which the plane was ordered by the Navy. For example Navy A-1E Skyraider BuNo 132890 became 52-132890 on USAF rolls. During the 1950s and 1960s, it was common practice to include missiles and unmanned aircraft in USAF serial number batches. Consequently, it is not always possible to determine the total number of aircraft ordered by the USAF simply by looking at serial number ranges. Following the splitoff of the USAF from the US Army, the Army continued to use the same serial number system for its aircraft, with the serials for Army and Air Force aircraft being intermixed within the same FY sequence. in FY 1967, the Army began using serials beginning at 15000 for each FY, so Army aircraft could usually be distinguished from USAF aircraft by their high serial numbers. In addition, if an Army aircraft of helicopter had a serial number with less than 4 digits, extra zeros were added to pad the number out to 5 digits. In FY 1971, the Army went over to a new serial series for their helicopters, which started at 20000 and had continued consecutively since then. Within each FY, the US Army numbers are much higher than the USAF numbers are ever likely to get, so there is not much danger of any overlap. By 1914, when the Army first began to acquire tractor-engined aircraft, the official serial number began to be painted in large block figures on both sides of the fuselage or on the rudder. These numbers were so large that they could be easily seen and recognized from a considerable distance. At the time of American entry into the First World War, the large numbers were retained on the fuselage and sometimes added to the top of the white rudder stripe. By early 1918, the letters "S.C." (for "Signal Corps") were often added as a prefix to the displayed serial number. When the Army Air Service was created in May of 1918, the letters SC were replaced by "A.S". (for "Air Service"). In July of 1926, the Army Air Service was renamed the Army Air Corps, and the serial number prefix became A.C. for "Air Corps". However, these prefix letters were not part of the official serial number, and were finally dropped in 1932. By late 1924, the fuselage serial numbers began to get smaller in size, until they standardized on four-inch figures on each side of the fuselage. In 1926, the words "U.S. Army" were often added to the fuselage number, and in 1928 the manufacturer's name and the Army designation were also added to the display, but this was not always done. The three-line fuselage data block was reduced in size to one-inch characters in 1932 and placed on the left hand side of the fuselage near the cockpit. This is known as the Technical Data Block (TDB). The data block not only displayed the full serial number, but also the exact model type and sometimes the aircraft's home base or the branch of the military with which it served. The TDB eventually became the only place on the aircraft where the serial number was actually displayed. It was often true that the only other sort of identification shown was a unit and base identification code displayed on both sides of the fuselage or on the fin. This made it difficult to identify the actual serial number of the aircraft, leading to a lot of confusion. The Technical Data Block is still used today, although it is now called the Aircraft Data Legend, and by the early 1990s it was reduced in size to letters only 1/2 inch high and moved to a new position near the ground refuelling receptacle. T.O 1-1-4 states that the Technical Data Block can be either on the fuselage side or near the ground refuelling receptacle. For a few years during the late 1940s and early 1950s, the serial number displayed in the Technical Data Block often carried a suffix letter, which was not actually part of the official serial number. Five letters were used--A for US Air Force, G for US Army, N for Air National Guard, R for Air Force Reserve, and T for Reserve Officers Training Course (ROTC). For a while the letter M was used for USAF aircraft associated with American embassies in foreign countries, but this use was discontinued in August 1955. The lack of a readily-visible serial number on Army aircraft began to be a serious problem, and on October 28, 1941, shortly after the USAAF had been formed, an order was given that numbers of no less that 4 digits would be painted on the tail fin of all Army aircraft (where feasible) in a size large enough to be seen from at least 150 yards away. This was officially called the radio call number, but was almost universally known as the tail number. Since military aircraft were at that time not expected to last more than ten years, the first digit of the fiscal year number was omitted in the tail number as was the AC prefix and the hyphen. For example, Curtiss P-40B serial number 41-5205 had the tail number 15205 painted on its tail fin, Curtiss P-40K serial number 42-11125 had the tail number 211125 painted on the fin, and P-51B 42-106559 had 2106559 painted on the tail. Since the Army (later Air Force) used the last four digits of the tail number as a radio call sign, for short serial numbers (those less than 100), the tail number was expanded out to four digits by adding zeros in front of the sequence number. For example, 41-38 would have the tail number written as 1038. Consequently, in most situations for a World War II-era aircraft where the tail number is visible, you can deduce the serial number simply by putting a dash after the first digit, prefixing a 4, and you automatically have the serial number. Unfortunately, there were many deviations from these rules--there are examples in which only the last 4 or 5 digits were painted on the tail, which makes identification of the aircraft particularly difficult. In the 1950s, many airplanes left over from the World War II era were still in service, exceeding their expected service lives of less than 10 years. In order to avoid potential confusion with later aircraft given the same tail number, these older aircraft had the number zero and a dash added in front of the tail number to indicate that they were over 10 years old. It was hoped that this would avoid confusion caused by duplication of tail numbers between two aircraft built over ten years apart. However, this was not always done, and it was not always possible uniquely to identify an aircraft by a knowledge of its tail number. This practice was eventually discontinued when people started referring to the number 0 as being a letter O, standing for Obsolete. The requirement for the 0- prefix was officially dropped on April 24, 1972. For a few years during the late 1940s and early 1950s, the serial number displayed in the Technical Data Block often carried a suffix letter, which was not actually part of the official serial number. Five letters were used--A for US Air Force, G for US Army, N for Air National Guard, R for Air Force Reserve, and T for Reserve Officers Training Course (ROTC) In 1958, a regulation was promulgated which decreed that that the tail number should be expanded to a minimum of 5 digits in length. Sometimes the tail number was cut down in length to five digits by deliberately omitting both of the fiscal year digits--for example 64-14841 would be presented on the tail as 14841. Sometime, one or more of the first digits of the sequence number would also be omitted. This practice lead to a lot of confusion. Camouflage began to reappear on USAF aircraft during the Vietnam War, and this led to a change in tail number presentation. The letters "AF" were added directly above the last two digits of the fiscal year, followed by the last three digits of the sequence number. The three-digit sequence number has a height of the AF and fiscal year letters combined and is sometimes called the "large" component of the tail number. For example, F-4E serial number 67-0288 had the tail number 67(small) 288 (large). This could of course lead to confusion, since aircraft 67-1288, 67-2288, etc would have exactly the same tail numbers as 67-0288 under this scheme. This would not ordinary cause a whole lot of difficulty unless of course some of these larger serial numbers also happened to be F-4Es (which they were not). Unfortunately, the system was not always consistent--for example F-4D serial number 66-0234 had a tail number that looks like this: 60(small) 234(large). It appears as if this number was obtained by omitting the first digit of the fiscal, and combining the remaining "6" with the "0234". Consequently, one often has to do a lot of educated guessing in order to derive the aircraft serial number from a knowledge of its tail number, and a knowledge of the aircraft type and sometimes even the version is required. I would appreciate hearing from anyone who has noted different tail number presentations on recent USAF aircraft. However, Air Mobility Command and USAF Europe aircraft still display the previous format for the tail number, with all digits being the same size and the first digit being the last digit of the Fiscal Year and the remaining 4 digits being the last 4 digits of the sequence number. There is no AF displayed, just the name of the command a couple of feet above it. AMC regulations state that the tail number must be the last five digits of the serial number. If the serial number does not have five significant characters at the end, the last digit of the fiscal year becomes the first character, and zeroes are used to fill up the space to make five digits. This would make 58-0001 appear as 80001. The Technical Order refers to radio call numbers on the fin, the full serial number only appearing within the Aircraft Data Legend block. In those rare cases in which the Air Force purchased more than 10,000 aircraft in a single fiscal year (1964 was such a year), aircraft with serial numbers greater than 10,000 would have both digits of the fiscal year omitted--for example the tail number of 64-14840 is 14840, not 44840. An exception was the tail number of EC-130H serial number 73-1583, which had its tail number displayed as 731583, i.e., the full serial number without the hyphen. Again, I would like to hear from anyone who has seen different types of serial number displays on Air Mobility Command aircraft. In the years immediately following World War 2, many USAAF/USAF aircraft used markings that would make it possible to identify low-flying aircraft from the ground. This was intended to discourage the unsafe practice of pilots of high-performance aircraft making low passes (colloquially known as "buzzing") over ground points. Consequently, these numbers came to be known as buzz numbers. The system used two letters and three numbers, painted as large as practically feasible on each side of the fuselage and on the underside of the left wing. The two letter code identified the type and model of the aircraft, and the three digits consisted of the last three numbers of the serial number. For example, all fighters were identified by the letter P (later changed to F), and the second letter identified the fighter type. For example, the buzz number code for the F-86 Sabre was FU, for the F-100 Super Sabre it was FW. The buzz number for F-100A 53-1551 was FW-551, the buzz number for F-86D 53-1020 was FU-020. On occasion, two planes of the same type and model would have the same last three digits in their serial numbers. When this happened, the two aircraft were distinguished by adding the suffix letter A to the buzz number of the later aircraft, preceded by a dash. Some stateside aircraft during World War II carried enlarged code numbers on their sides, but I don't know if the purpose of these large markings were to act as "buzz numbers". The system was in wide use throughout the 1950s, but was gradually phased out during the 1960s. The January 1965 edition of Technical Order 1-1-4 dropped all mention of any buzz number requirement, and these numbers started getting painted over and were largely gone by the middle of 1965. But in 1966, the Army started using five digit sequence numbers that were greater than any sequence numbers used by the USAF, so that observers would not confuse aircraft between the two services. In addition, Army sequence numbers that were allocated within the Air Force sequence were often padded with extra zeros to make them have a total of 5 digits. Unfortunately, there is some confusion, since this system was not always consistently followed, and there were numerous departures from this norm. Although the Army started using 5 digit serial numbers starting in 1964, there was a mixed bag of four and five digit numbers in actual use. For tail number presentations (or pylon numbers for helicopters), the early years were pretty consistent, using the last digit of the fiscal year and just the four digits of the serial number being shown. When the five digit serial numbers started being used, there was a mixture of tail number presentations of just the five digits with no year (and sometimes a leading zero!), as well as presentations in which the last digit of the year was shown, along with all five of the sequence numbers. Sometimes both the digits of the year number were painted over and then just the the five-digit sequence number was presented. Sometimes, Army helicopters used the last three digits of the sequence number as a call sign and you will often see those three digits painted on the nose, the side window or highlighted on the pylon itself. There are even a few older aircraft with the two digit year and the entire five digit serial number shown, just to round out all the options. (Ref, Nick Van Valkenburgh, Jul 26, 2013) In 1971, the Army started using sequence numbers starting at 20000, and the numbers were not restarted with each succeeding fiscal year. In written correspondence, the leading zeros were often dropped. It is not at all clear when the system of padding sequence numbers with zeros actually started. It also seems that the Army continues to use both systems for its aircraft serial numbers, one a sequence number greater than any sequence numbers used by the USAF, plus lower sequence number padded with zeros. (Ref, Nick Van Valkenburgh, Jul 26, 2013) The ultimate end for many USAF and US Army aircraft and helicopters once they leave active service is the boneyards at the Davis-Monthan AFB near Tucson, Arizona. At the end of World War 2, the base was selected as a storage site for decommissioned military aircraft. The dry climate of Tucson and the alkali soil made it ideal for aircraft storage and preservation. Excess DoD and Coast Guard aircraft are stored there after they are removed from service. Sometimes the aircraft are actually returned to active service, either as remotely-controlled drones or are sold to friendly foreign governments, but most often they are scavenged for spare parts to keep other aircraft flying or are scrapped. Initially known as the Military Aircraft Storage and Disposal Center (MASDC), the name of the facility was changed in October of 1985 to the Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center (AMARC). AMARC was officially redesignated May 2, 2007 as the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group (AMARG), but it still uses the title AMARC for worldwide recognition and legacy reasons. If I know of the date at which an aircraft was transferred to MASDC/AMARC, I list it here. When an aircraft enters AMARG, it is assigned a code number (known as a Production Control Number, or PCN) consisting of four letters, followed by a three-digit number. The first two letters specify the service (AA for Air Force, AN for Navy, AC for Coast Guard, AX for government agency aircraft, AY for foreign allied aircraft). The second pair of letters specify the type of aircraft (e.g FP for the F-4 Phantom), and the three digit number specifies the order in which the particular plane of that type was entered into AMARG. For example, the first F-4 admitted to AMARC would be numbered AAFP001, with two zeros being added to pad out number of digits to 3. So the PCN was useful in telling at a glance who owned the aircraft, what type of aircraft it was, and the order in which it arrived at AMARG Prior to Oct 1994 the number in the PCN code had three digits, but AMARC realised that they were soon going to have more than 1000 F-4s on inventory, and the decision was made that it was necessary to expand the number format to four digits in order to accommodate new Phantom arrivals. So RF-4C 64-1021 was given the number AAFP969 on Oct 19, 1994 and the next arrival 64-1068 was given the number AAFP0970 the same day. All later F-4s arrivals were numbered in the four-digit style. I imagine that once AMARC had altered their database field to use 6 characters, they then decided to use that style for ALL new arrivals from Oct '94, and a zero was prefixed when the order number was less than 1000. Ref: eLaReF, Jun 17, 2012. To add to the confusion, an aircraft could receive multiple PCNs if it came back to the facility multiple times - for example - an aircraft might have come in to AMARG for service life extension (it would have been given a PCN for the duration of its refit). Then it would have been returned to the operational fleet. During its service, if the operators determine that all aircraft of this type need something else to be checked, the aircraft would return to 309 AMARG for that check as part of some minor repair work. On arrival it would have received a new (2nd) PCN. On completion of the minor repairs, the aircraft would return to the operators. Eventually when the operators determine that the aircraft is no longer needed and they retire it to storage, a third PCN would have been assigned. If it happened that the aircraft were returned to service yet again and then brought back to AMARG for storage, it would get a *fourth* PCH. (Ref: Robert D. Raine, Jun 27, 2013) An aircraft can also be assigned a different PCN if it is administratively tranferred to a different service while it is sitting in the boneyards. For example - AMARG currently stores a C-131 that originally arrived as a Navy asset (and was assigned a Navy PCN). The Navy transferred the aircraft to the Air Force (so the Navy PCN was removed and replaced by an Air Force PCN). The USAF then transferred it to another government agency, so the USAF PCN was removed and replaced by a U.S. Gov't agency PCN beginning with the prefix "AX." Same plane, three different PCNs. (Ref: Robert D. Raine, Jun 27, 2013) Recently, AMARG introduced a new computer system and decided to stop bothering to assign a PCN when an aircraft arrives at the facility. Everything is now tracked by serial number, since no two aircraft ever have exactly the same serial number. PCNs were not removed from older aircraft, but new PCNs are no longer assigned to aircraft when they arrive. (Ref: Robert D. Raine, Jun 27, 2013). A list of the serial numbers of aircraft transferred to MASDC/AMARC can be found on the website at www.amarcexperience.com. When an aircraft is constructed, the company which built it assigns it a manufacturer's serial number. This number is usually displayed on a plate mounted somewhere inside the aircraft. When the aircraft is sold to the Air Force, it is issued a military serial number by the Defense Department. These two numbers bear no relationship with each other, but they are often confused with each other. When I know the manufacturer's serial number of a particular military aircraft, I list it. If a military aircraft ultimately ends up in civilian hands, it is issued a civil registration number by the owner's national civilian aviation authority. In the USA, these numbers are issued by the FAA, and are known as N-numbers in the USA, since they all begin with the letter N. Typically, the FAA uses the aircraft's manufacturer serial number to track these aircraft. For example, a lot of C-47 Skytrain aircraft ended up in civilian hands after their military service ended, and they are tracked by using their manufacturer's serial numbers. The following is a list of serial numbers for US Army and USAF aircraft. It is incomplete, with numerous gaps--especially in later years. If I know the final disposition of a particular aircraft, or if the aircraft has some special historical significance, this information is listed here too. Enjoy yourself browsing through these lists--there are lots of neat historical interludes provided here. These lists are by no means complete or error-free and I would appreciate hearing from anyone who has additions or corrections. There are a lot of people who want to know about the operational history or ultimate disposition of a particular aircraft referred to in this database, but about which I have little or no information. If you have a specific question about the history of a particular USAAF/USAF aircraft, you might try the Air Force Historical Research Agency which is located at Maxwell AFB, Alabama. They have cards on virtually every aircraft ever owned or operated by the USAAC/USAAF/USAF, and they might be able to answer your question fairly quickly. Another source of information is the Individual Aircraft Record Card file located at the National Air and Space Museum Archives Division. They also may be able to help you. However, you are always welcome to e-mail me in any case and I will see if I can dig up something. If you want to search this site for a serial number or for a particular aircraft type, go to Jeremy Kuris's search engine: |1908-1921 Serial Numbers Last revised September 18, 2019| |1922-1929 Serial Numbers Last revised August 21, 2019| |1930-1937 Serial Numbers Last revised March 3, 2019| |1938-1939 Serial Numbers Last revised September 18, 2019| |1940 Serial Numbers Last revised December 3, 2018| |1941 Serial Numbers 41-1 to 41-6721 Last revised June 29, 2019| |1941 Serial Numbers 41-6722 to 41-13296 Last revised August 21, 2019| |1941 Serial Numbers 41-13297 to 41-24339 Last revised September 17, 2019| |1941 Serial Numbers 41-24340 to 41-30847 Last revised October 31, 2019| |1941 Serial Numbers 41-30848 to 41-39600 Last revised August 21, 2018| |1942 Serial Numbers 42-001 to 42-30031 Last revised September 3, 2019| |1942 Serial Numbers 42-30032 to 42-39757 Last revised October 11, 2019| |1942 Serial Numbers 42-39758 to 42-50026 Last revised November 6, 2019| |1942 Serial Numbers 42-50027 to 42-57212 Last revised October 21, 2019| |1942 Serial Numbers 42-57213 to 42-70685 Last revised August 21, 2019| |1942 Serial Numbers 42-70686 to 42-91973 Last revised November 9, 2019| |1942 Serial Numbers 42-91974 to 42-110188 Last revised October 2, 2019| |1943 Serial Numbers 43-001 to 43-5108 Last revised July 11, 2019| |1943 Serial Numbers 43-5109 to 43-52437 Last revised November 8, 2019| |1944 Serial Numbers 44-001 to 44-30910 Last revised September 14, 2019| |1944 Serial Numbers 44-30911 to 44-35357 Last revised August 13, 2019| |1944 Serial Numbers 44-35358 to 44-40048 Last revised April 24, 2019| |1944 Serial Numbers 44-40049 to 44-70254 Last revised October 31, 2019| |1944 Serial Numbers 44-70255 to 44-83885 Last revised November 8, 2019| |1944 Serial Numbers 44-83886 to 44-92098 Last revised June 19, 2019| |1945 Serial Numbers Last revised November 11, 2019| |1946 to 1948 Serial Numbers Last revised October 11, 2019| |1949 Serial Numbers Last revised August 24, 2019| |1950 Serial Numbers Last revised October 31, 2019| |1951 Serial Numbers Last revised November 13, 2019| |1952 Serial Numbers Last revised November 13, 2019| |1953 Serial Numbers Last revised September 8, 2019| |1954 Serial Numbers Last revised October 8, 2019| |1955 Serial Numbers Last revised September 22, 2019| |1956 Serial Numbers (56-001/956) Last revised October 15, 2019| |1956 Serial Numbers (56-957/6956) Last revised November 6, 2019| |1957 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1958 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1959 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1960 Serial Numbers Last revised October 9, 2019| |1961 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1962 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1963 Serial Numbers Last revised November 14, 2019| |1964 Serial Numbers Last revised November 14, 2019| |1965 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1966 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1967 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1968 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1969 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1970 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1971 Serial Numbers Last revised July 28, 2019| |1972 Serial Numbers Last revised October 22, 2019| |1973 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1974 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1975 Serial Numbers Last revised July 28, 2019| |1976 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1977 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1978 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2018| |1979 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1980 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1981 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1982 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1983 Serial Numbers Last revised October 11, 2019| |1984 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |1985 Serial Numbers Last revised October 31, 2019| |1986 Serial 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Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |2006 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |2007 Serial Numbers Last revised September 3, 2019| |2008 Serial Numbers Last revised September 22, 2019| |2009 Serial Numbers Last revised September 3, 2019| |2010 Serial Numbers Last revised November 15, 2019| |2011 Serial Numbers Last revised September 3, 2019| |2012 Serial Numbers Last revised September 3, 2019| |2013 Serial Numbers Last revised October 6, 2019| |2014 Serial Numbers Last revised October 6, 2019| |2015 Serial Numbers Last revised November 10, 2019| |2016 Serial Numbers Last revised September 22, 2019| |2017 Serial Numbers Last revised September 22, 2019| |2018 Serial Numbers Last revised October 2, 2019| |2019 Serial Numbers Last revised August 30, 2019| |Captured Axis Aircraft Last revised January 6, 2019| Click here to look at the list of references for the serial numbers listed in this site.

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This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (July 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) |Member of Parliament| |Preceded by||Charles George Merewether| |Succeeded by||Sir Moses Philip Manfield| |Born||26 September 1833| Hoxton, England, UK |Died||30 January 1891 (aged 57)| London, England, UK In 1880, Bradlaugh was elected as the Liberal MP for Northampton. His attempt to affirm as an atheist ultimately led to his temporary imprisonment, fines for voting in the Commons illegally, and a number of by-elections at which Bradlaugh regained his seat on each occasion. He was finally allowed to take an oath in 1886. Eventually, a parliamentary bill which he proposed became law in 1888 which allowed members of both Houses of Parliament to affirm, if they so wished, when being sworn in. The new law resolved the issue for witnesses in civil and criminal court cases. Born in Hoxton (an area in the East End of London), Bradlaugh was the son of a solicitor's clerk. He left school at the age of eleven and then worked as an office errand-boy and later as a clerk to a coal merchant. After a brief spell as a Sunday school teacher, he became disturbed by discrepancies between the Thirty-nine Articles of the Anglican Church and the Bible. When he expressed his concerns, the local vicar, John Graham Packer, accused him of atheism and suspended him from teaching. He was thrown out of the family home and was taken in by Eliza Sharples Carlile, the widow of Richard Carlile, who had been imprisoned for printing Thomas Paine's The Age of Reason. Soon Bradlaugh was introduced to George Holyoake, who organised Bradlaugh's first public lecture as an atheist. At the age of 17, he published his first pamphlet, A Few Words on the Christian Creed. However, refusing financial support from fellow freethinkers, he enlisted as a soldier with the Seventh Dragoon Guards hoping to serve in India and make his fortune. Instead he was stationed in Dublin. In 1853, he was left a legacy by a great-aunt and used it to purchase his discharge from the army. Activism and journalismEdit Bradlaugh returned to London in 1853 and took a post as a solicitor's clerk. By this time he was a convinced freethinker and in his free time he became a pamphleteer and writer about "secularist" ideas, adopting the pseudonym "Iconoclast" to protect his employer's reputation. He gradually attained prominence in a number of liberal or radical political groups or societies, including the Reform League, Land Law Reformers, and Secularists. He was President of the London Secular Society from 1858. In 1860 he became editor of the secularist newspaper, the National Reformer, and in 1866 co-founded the National Secular Society, in which Annie Besant became his close associate. In 1868, the Reformer was prosecuted by the British Government for blasphemy and sedition. Bradlaugh was eventually acquitted on all charges, but fierce controversy continued both in the courts and in the press. A decade later (1876), Bradlaugh and Besant decided to republish the American Charles Knowlton's pamphlet advocating birth control, The Fruits of Philosophy, or the Private Companion of Young Married People, whose previous British publisher had already been successfully prosecuted for obscenity. The two activists were both tried in 1877, and Charles Darwin refused to give evidence in their defence, pleading ill-health, but at the time writing to Bradlaugh that his testimony would have been of little use to them because he opposed birth control. They were sentenced to heavy fines and six months' imprisonment, but their conviction was overturned by the Court of Appeal on the basis that the prosecution had not set out the precise words which were alleged to be obscene in the indictment. The Malthusian League was founded as a result of the trial to promote birth control. He was a member of a Masonic lodge in Bolton, although he was later to resign due to the nomination of the Prince of Wales as Grand Master. Bradlaugh was an advocate of trade unionism, republicanism, and universal suffrage, and he opposed socialism. His anti-socialism was divisive, and many secularists who became socialists left the secularist movement because of its identification with Bradlaugh's liberal individualism. He was a supporter of Irish Home Rule, and backed France during the Franco-Prussian War. He took a strong interest in India. In 1880 Bradlaugh was elected Member of Parliament for Northampton. To take his seat and become an active Parliamentarian, he needed to signify his allegiance to the Crown and on 3 May Bradlaugh came to the Table of the House of Commons, bearing a letter to the Speaker "begging respectfully to claim to be allowed to affirm" instead of taking the religious Oath of Allegiance, citing the Evidence Amendment Acts of 1869 and 1870. Speaker Brand declared that he had "grave doubts" and asked the House for its judgment. Lord Frederick Cavendish, for the Government, moved that a Select Committee be set up to decide whether persons entitled to make a solemn affirmation in court were also allowed to affirm instead of taking the Parliamentary oath. First Select CommitteeEdit This Select Committee held only one brief meeting on 12 May 1880. The Attorney General, Sir Henry James, moved that anyone entitled to affirm to give evidence in court was also entitled to affirm instead of taking the Oath in Parliament. Sir John Holker, Conservative MP for Preston, moved an amendment to reverse this finding, and the committee split down the middle with eight members (seven Conservatives and Charles Henry Hopwood, Liberal MP for Stockport) supporting the amendment and eight (all Liberals) opposing it; on the casting vote of the chairman Spencer Horatio Walpole the amendment was carried. Bradlaugh was not surprised that the Committee had gone against him, and notified the Speaker that he would attend to take the Oath on 21 May. Attempts to take the OathEdit To explain his actions, Bradlaugh wrote an open letter to The Times which was published on the morning of 21 May. He said it would have been hypocritical to voluntarily take the oath "including words of idle and meaningless character" without protest when another form of words was available, but now that the Select Committee had ruled he must, he would do so and "regard myself as bound not by the letter of its words, but by the spirit which the affirmation would have conveyed had I been permitted to use it." Bradlaugh's letter was regarded as a direct provocation by his opponents, and when he came to the table, Sir Henry Drummond Wolff rose to object to the administration of the Oath to Bradlaugh. Speaker Brand allowed him to object, and Wolff argued that the Evidence Amendment Acts referred to by Bradlaugh only allowed an affirmation to one who regarded the oath as meaningless, so the House should not allow Bradlaugh to take it. Prime Minister William Gladstone, alerted to the fact that a protest was possible, moved to set up a second Select Committee to examine whether it was possible to interfere with a Member wishing to take the oath. Gladstone's amendment was carried by 289 to 214. Second Select CommitteeEdit The Select Committee began deliberating on 1 June 1880, when it considered a paper put in by Sir Thomas Erskine May, the Clerk of the House. Sir Thomas found several precedents for Members disabled to sit for refusing to take the Oath, together with Quaker MP Joseph Pease who was permitted to affirm, and Jewish MPs Baron Lionel de Rothschild and David Salomons who were eventually allowed to take the Oath while omitting the words "on the true faith of a Christian". On the following day, Erskine May and Bradlaugh himself were questioned by the Committee, with Bradlaugh arguing that, should the Committee decide he had no right to affirm, he would take the oath and regard it as binding on his conscience. When the Committee decided its report, it agreed by one vote an amendment declaring that the House could "and, in the opinion of your Committee, ought to" prevent Bradlaugh taking the Oath. It also added (by 12 votes to 9) that it would be possible for an action in the High Court of Justice to test whether an affirmation was genuinely legal, and therefore recommended that if Bradlaugh sought to affirm, he should be allowed to do so in order that such an action be brought to clarify the law. The second Select Committee had effectively reversed the outcome of the first. When it was known that this was the likely outcome of the Select Committee, Bradlaugh's fellow Northampton MP Henry Labouchère initiated a debate on a motion to allow Bradlaugh to affirm. Sir Hardinge Giffard moved an amendment that Bradlaugh be not permitted to take either the Oath or make an affirmation. After two days of debate, Giffard's amendment was carried by 275 to 230, a defeat which surprised Gladstone. The majority comprised 210 Conservatives, 34 Liberals and 31 Irish Home Rulers; supporting Bradlaugh were 218 Liberals, 10 Home Rulers and 2 Conservatives. On the next day, Bradlaugh came to the Table claiming to take the Oath; in consequence of the previous night's vote the Speaker ordered him to withdraw. Bradlaugh was permitted to address the House from behind the Bar (which was technically outside the Chamber), and treated the occasion as his maiden speech. He based his argument on law, contending that he was not legally disqualified, and asking "as one man against six hundred" for the same justice he would receive in the Courts. Although well received, the speech was too late to reverse the decision, and Henry Labouchère was forced to withdraw a motion to rescind it. At that point Bradlaugh was summoned back to the table to be told the outcome of the debate; having relayed it, the Speaker then ordered him to withdraw. Bradlaugh "respectfully refused" to obey an order of the House which was "against the law". The Conservative leader Sir Stafford Northcote successfully moved a motion that Bradlaugh be required to withdraw (agreed on a division by 326 to 38, Liberal MPs being unwilling to challenge a motion which sustained the House's legal authority) but Bradlaugh "positively refused to obey". The Serjeant-at-arms was sent for and led Bradlaugh out to the Bar of the House, but Bradlaugh then immediately returned to the table claiming to take the Oath. At this Sir Stafford Northcote moved that Bradlaugh be taken into custody. The House agreed, on a division by 274 votes to 7 and Bradlaugh was taken to the small prison cell located under Big Ben in the Clock Tower. Because Members had to take the oath before being allowed to take their seats, he effectively forfeited his seat in Parliament. His seat fell vacant and a by-election was declared. Bradlaugh was re-elected by Northampton four times in succession as the dispute continued. Supporting Bradlaugh were William Ewart Gladstone, T. P. O'Connor and George Bernard Shaw as well as hundreds of thousands of people who signed a public petition. Opposing his right to sit were the Conservative Party, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and other leading figures in the Church of England and Roman Catholic Church. On at least one occasion, Bradlaugh was escorted from the House by police officers. In 1883 he took his seat and voted three times before being fined £1,500 for voting illegally. A bill allowing him to affirm was defeated in Parliament. In 1886 Bradlaugh was finally allowed to take the oath, and did so at the risk of prosecution under the Parliamentary Oaths Act. Two years later, in 1888, he secured passage of a new Oaths Act, which enshrined into law the right of affirmation for members of both Houses, as well as extending and clarifying the law as it related to witnesses in civil and criminal trials (the Evidence Amendment Acts of 1869 and 1870 had proved unsatisfactory, though they had given relief to many who would otherwise have been disadvantaged). Bradlaugh spoke in Parliament about the London matchgirls strike of 1888. His daughter, Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner (1858–1935), was a peace activist, author, atheist and freethinker. She was named for Hypatia, the Ancient Greek pagan philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and teacher, who was murdered by a mob of Coptic monks devoted to the Christian archbishop Cyril of Alexandria. In 1898, Bradlaugh's daughter Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner wrote a pamphlet in answer to the question that was often addressed to her: whether her father "changed his opinions and became a Christian" before he died. Bonner laid out all the evidence and concluded that her father gave no indication that his opinions had changed in the "smallest" way. A statue of Bradlaugh is located on a traffic island at Abington Square, Northampton. The statue points west towards the centre of Northampton, the accusing finger periodically missing due to vandalism. In 2014 the statue was cleaned and returned to the stonework. New signs are to be installed in 2015 on the roundabout reading "Charles Bradlaugh MP". Since 2002, an "Annual Commemoration" has taken place beneath the statue at 3 pm on the Sunday closest to his birthday, organised by the Charles Bradlaugh Society. Attendees are invited to speak about Charles Bradlaugh. 2014 saw the addition of the inaugural Bradlaugh Talk with speakers on issues relevant to Bradlaugh. The first speaker was Graham Smith, CEO of Republic. Bradlaugh Fields, a community wildlife park situated to the north of Northampton, was named after Charles Bradlaugh when it opened in 1998. Other landmarks bearing his name include The Charles Bradlaugh pub, Charles Bradlaugh Hall at the University of Northampton and Bradlaugh Hall in Lahore, Pakistan. In November 2016 a portrait bust of Charles Bradlaugh entered the Parliamentary Art Collection. Displayed in the Palace of Westminster, the sculpture was designed by Suzie Zamit (who is the fourth female sculptor to have work represented in the Parliamentary Art Collection) and was donated by the National Secular Society as part of its 150th anniversary celebrations. Works by Charles Bradlaugh: 132 works online. - Political Essays: A Compilation (1833–1891) - Half-Hours with the Freethinkers 1857 - The Credibility and Morality of the Four Gospels, 1860 - Who Was Jesus Christ, and What Did He Teach? 1860 - A Few Words About the Devil (includes an autobiographical sketch) 1864 - A Plea for Atheism (included in Theological Essays) 1864 - The Bible: What It Is! 1870 - The Impeachment of the House of Brunswick 1875 - The Freethinker's Text-Book, Vol 1 1876 - Is The Bible Divine? (Debate with Roberts) 1876 - Ancient and Modern Celebrated Freethinkers (rpt Half-Hours with the Freethinkers) 1877 - When Were Our Gospels Written? 1881 - Some Objections to Socialism 1884 - The Atheistic Platform: 12 Lectures by Charles Bradlaugh, Annie Besant [and others] 1884 - Is There a God? 1887 - Humanity's Gain from Unbelief 1889 - Labor and Law 1891 - The True Story of My Parliamentary Struggle 1882 - Heresy: Its Utility And Morality. A Plea And A Justification 1882 - Theological Essays ( includes 20 essays) 1895 - Man, Whence and How? and Religion, What and Why? (rpt of The Freethinker's Text-Book, Vol 1) 1906 - Luis Emilio Recabarren, Chilean communist, was prevented from assuming his position because, as an atheist, he refused to be sworn in on a Bible. - "Charles Bradlaugh (1833–1891): Founder". National Secular Society. Archived from the original on 16 April 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2008. - See Bradlaugh-Bonner (1908, p.8); Headlingly (1888, pp. 5–6); Tribe (1971, p.18) - "Charles Bradlaugh". Oxforddnb.com. Retrieved 15 July 2016. - Knowlton, Charles (October 1891) . Besant, Annie; Bradlaugh, Charles (eds.). Fruits of philosophy: a treatise on the population question. San Francisco: Reader's Library. OCLC 626706770. View original copy. - "Charles Bradlaugh". Freemasonry.bcy.ca. Retrieved 15 July 2016. - "Random Recollections of Leicester Secular Society". Retrieved 23 February 2015. - Theresa Notare, A Revolution in Christian Morals: Lambeth 1930-Resolution #15. History and Reception (ProQuest, 2008), 188. - Arnstein, p. 34-35 - "PARLIAMENTARY OATH (MR. BRADLAUGH). (Hansard, 3 May 1880)". api.parliament.uk. Retrieved 27 July 2019. - Arnstein, p. 38; "Report from the Select Committee on the Parliamentary Oath" HCP 159 (1880). - Arnstein, p. 40-51; Hansard 3ser vol 252 cols 187–221, 333–422. - "Report from the Select Committee on Parliamentary Oath (Mr. Bradlaugh)", HCP 226 (1880), Appendix No. 1 (pp. 25–33). - Evidence, Q 85. - Proceedings of the Select Committee, p. xv–xvi. - Proceedings of the Select Committee, p. xvii–xviii. - Arnstein, p. 70. - Hansard, 3ser, vol 253 cols 443–513, 550–628. - Arnstein, p. 73–74. - Arnstein, pp. 75–76. - "Is There a God? : Bradlaugh, Charles, 1833–1891 : Free Download & Streaming". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - Arnstein, p. 76–77. - "Random Recollections of Leicester Secular Society". Leicestersecularsociety.org.uk. Retrieved 15 July 2016. - Chatterjee, Margaret (2005). Gandhi and the challenge of religious diversity: religious pluralism revisited. New Delhi/Chicago:Promilla & Co./Bibliophile South Asia, p.330 - Payne, Robert (1969). The life and death of Mahatma Gandhi. New York: E.P. Duttonhttp://leicestersecularsociety.org.uk/history_gimson.htm#%281%29, pp.73. - Arnstein (1983), p.322. - "Charles Bradlaugh". Necropolis Notables. The Brookwood Cemetery Society. Archived from the original on 25 March 2007. Retrieved 23 February 2007. - "Did Charles Bradlaugh die an atheist?". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - "About the Charles Bradlaugh Society". Charles Bradlaugh Society. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2015. - "Inaugural Annual Charles Bradlaugh Talk". Charles Bradlaugh Society. 27 September 2014. - "History of Bradlaugh Fields". Bradlaugh Fields & Barn. Archived from the original on 24 September 2016. - Celebrating the first atheist MP Charles Bradlaugh, 14 November 2016, retrieved 17 November 2016 - "Portrait bust of NSS founder Charles Bradlaugh MP unveiled in Parliament". National Secular Society. 2 November 2016. Retrieved 17 November 2016. - "Internet Archive Search: Charles Bradlaugh". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - "Political essays : Bradlaugh, Charles, 1833–1891 : Free Download & Streaming". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - A. Collins (1857). J. Watts (ed.). "Half-hours with the freethinkers". p. 1. Retrieved 15 July 2016. - "The credibility and morality of the four Gospels, report of the discussion between T.D. Matthias". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - Charles Bradlaugh (1874). "A Few Words about the Devil: And Other Biographical Sketches and Essays". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - "A Plea for Atheism : Bradlaugh, Charles, 1833–1891 : Free Download & Streaming". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2015-03-26.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - "The impeachment of the House of Brunswick : Bradlaugh, Charles, 1833–1891 : Free Download & Streaming". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - Charles Bradlaugh (1876). "Is the Bible Divine?: A Six Nights' Discussion Between Mr. Charles Bradlaugh ..." p. 90. Retrieved 15 July 2016. - "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 31 March 2015. Retrieved 2015-03-26.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 30 March 2015. Retrieved 2015-03-26.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - Platform, Atheistic (1884). "The atheistic platform, 12 lectures by C. Bradlaugh [and others]". p. 99. Retrieved 15 July 2016. - Platform, Atheistic (1884). "The atheistic platform, 12 lectures by C. Bradlaugh [and others]". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - "The True Story of My Parliamentary Struggle : Charles Bradlaugh : Free Download & Streaming". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - "Heresy: Its Utility and Morality : Bradlaugh, Charles, 1833–1891 : Free Download & Streaming". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - "Theological Essays : Bradlaugh, Charles, 1833–1891 : Free Download & Streaming". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - Charles Bradlaugh (1906). "Man: Whence and How?: Religion: what and Why?". Retrieved 15 July 2016. - Alexander, Nathan G. (2019). Race in a Godless World: Atheism, Race, and Civilization, 1850-1914. New York/Manchester: New York University Press/Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1526142375 - Alexander, Nathan G. "Atheism and Polygenesis in the Nineteenth Century: Charles Bradlaugh's Racial Anthropology." Modern Intellectual History. (2018) - Arnstein, Walter L. (1962) "Gladstone and the Bradlaugh Case," Victorian Studies, (1962) 5#4 pp 303–330 - Arnstein, Walter L. (1965) The Bradlaugh Case: a study in late Victorian opinion and politics. Oxford University Press. (2nd ed. with new postscript chapter published as The Bradlaugh Case: Atheism, Sex and Politics Among the Late Victorians, University of Missouri Press, 1983. ISBN 0-8262-0425-2) - Besant, Annie. Autobiographical Sketches (1885) in which Bradlaugh plays a major role. - Besant, Annie. An Autobiography (1893) in which Chap VI is devoted to Charles Bradlaugh. - Bonner, Hypatia Bradlaugh (1895). Charles Bradlaugh: A Record of His Life and Work, Vol 1. London, T. Fisher Unwin. - Bonner, Hypatia Bradlaugh (1891), Catalogue of the Library of the Late Charles Bradlaugh. London: Mrs. H. Bradlaugh Bonner - Champion of Liberty: Charles Bradlaugh (Centenary Volume) (1933). London, Watts & Co and Pioneer Press. - Diamond, M. (2003) Victorian Sensation, London, Anthem Press. ISBN 1-84331-150-X, pp. 101–110. - Headingly, Adolphe S. (1888). The biography of Charles Bradlaugh. London: Freethought Publishing Company. - Manvell, Roger (1976). Trial of Annie Besant and Charles Bradlaugh. London: Elek/Pemberton. - Niblett, Bryan (2011). Dare to Stand Alone: The Story of Charles Bradlaugh. Oxford: kramedart press. ISBN 978-0-9564743-0-8 - Robertson, J.M. (1920). Charles Bradlaugh. London, Watts & Co. - Tribe, David (1971) President Charles Bradlaugh MP. London, Elek. ISBN 0-236-17726-5 |Wikisource has original works written by or about:| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Charles Bradlaugh.| |Wikiquote has quotations related to: Charles Bradlaugh| |Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Charles Bradlaugh.| - Works by Charles Bradlaugh at Project Gutenberg - Works by or about Charles Bradlaugh at Internet Archive - Works by Charles Bradlaugh at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) - Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Charles Bradlaugh - NSS Founder, Charles Bradlaugh - ‘The Cause of Humanity’: Charles Bradlaughnand Freemasonry‘ by Professor Andrew Prescott, PhD, 2003 - Charles Bradlaugh writings (Bank of Wisdom) - Dare To Stand Alone by Bryan Niblett – book review by Edward Pearce - Detailed account in page on police in Parliament by Robin Fell - Browse and search the catalogue of the Charles Bradlaugh Collection and Bradlaugh Papers archive, held at the Bishopsgate Institute, London. - Charles Bradlaugh Collection, Northamptonshire Central Library, Northampton - Hackney Plaques and Social History: birthplace of Charles Bradlaugh - Omnibus: Charles Bradlaugh, BBC World Service radio programme, broadcast 1991 - A bronze bust of Bradlaugh - Northampton based Charles Bradlaugh Society |Parliament of the United Kingdom| Charles George Merewether | Member of Parliament for Northampton 1880 – 1891 With: Henry Labouchère

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The EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (Regulation 2016/679) is the world’s strictest data privacy law, setting new rules on how personal data should be collected, processed, and shared. In this guide, we cover the major provisions in detail and discuss what your business must do to comply. 1. Introduction to the GDPR The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), is a new set of rules that unifies the data privacy laws across EU countries, and strengthens the rights of European citizens to protect their information. The regulation came into effect on May 25, 2018. Businesses must now become more transparent with how they use data, implement stronger data security measures, and obtain permission before collecting certain kinds of data – or be subject to much larger fines than ever before. Since the Data Protection Directive and Data Protection Act (DPA) came into effect in the 1990s, EU privacy laws have been ill-equipped to handle the increasing challenges that have accompanied the rise of social media and cloud computing. Moreover, the inconsistency of enforcement among European nations left business owners to navigate through a foggy legal environment — often implementing only piecemeal compliance plans. Check out our GDPR overview for a more digestible breakdown of the General Data Protection Regulation. By updating privacy standards and unifying laws across the EU, the GDPR has become the most comprehensive and expansive digital privacy law yet, and will likely become the gold standard of consumer data protection rights. 2. Key Terms & Definitions Before we get into the finer aspects of the law, it’s important to understand some common terms and phrases mentioned throughout the text. Let’s review: Consent – Consent is one of the core principles of the GDPR. Under GDPR consent rules, there are several scenarios that require controllers and processors to get permission from data subjects before collecting and processing their personal data. Data Controller – A data controller is anyone that determines how and why personal data is collected. Data Processor – A data processor is anyone that gathers, stores, or maintains personal data. Processors are often third-party service providers that handle data for controllers. Data Protection Authority (DPA) – A data protection authority is the supervisory body in each EU member state that is responsible for providing advice on data protection issues, investigating complaints against controllers and processors, and levying fines on organizations they find to be in violation of the GDPR. Data Protection Impact Assessment (DPIA) – A DPIA is a systematic process used to evaluate the risks that a specific data processing activity might present to the rights and freedoms of a natural person. Data Protection Officer (DPO) – A data protection officer is an individual who an organization appoints to ensure their data collection, processing, and management practices are compliant with the GDPR. Data Subject – A data subject is any individual whose personal information is collected or processed. Personal Data – Also known as personally identifiable information (PII), personal data is described as anything that can identify a natural person, such as: - Photos, videos, or audio files - Bank details - Identification number - Online identifiers (account numbers, PINs, IP address) - Location data - Pseudonymous data (key-coded data) If you collect any of the data listed above from EU data subjects, then you MUST comply with GDPR regulations. Sensitive Personal Data – Personal data is considered sensitive if it reveals any of the following: - Racial/ethnic Origin - Political opinions - Religious/philosophical beliefs - Sex life and sexual orientation - Genetic/biometric data If you collect information from EU data subjects that falls into either category, you MUST comply with the GDPR. However, if you collect information considered “sensitive,” you’ll be subject to more stringent guidelines. 3. Who does the GDPR apply to? The GDPR applies to any company or organization — regardless of where it’s located — that provides services and products to, or monitors the behavior of, EU data subjects. One of the major features of the GDPR is the extraterritorial expansion of its application to companies beyond the EU’s physical borders. Previous legislation only applied to companies that operated in the EU or used servers located in the EU. However, now even companies headquartered in the US may need to comply with the GDPR — or face legal penalties. Examples of when the regulation applies: 1. A full-service marketing agency in the US takes on an American app developer. The marketing agency is helping the developer with their new photo editing app that’s been launched in the US, Canada, and UK. - The app developer must comply, as they clearly market their product to users in the UK. The agency may also need to comply if they are given the authority to perform marketing activities through which they process user data from UK customers (e.g., email marketing, retargeting ads). 2. A small fitness blog, run by an Australian, sells workout programs, ebooks, and access to a forum of fitness enthusiasts. This site is translated in German and French, and the owner runs Google ads for their workout programs in both Germany and France. - While the site may be small, the owner would still need to comply as the website clearly targets and advertises to users in the EU. Examples of when the regulation doesn’t apply: 1. A Japanese business sells clothing on its website, which is only in Japanese. - Although in theory, an EU citizen could stumble on their website and input personal info to purchase a sweatshirt, this business would likely not need to comply as it is not targeting EU consumers. 2. A Canadian software company hires a German citizen living in Canada. - The GDPR would not apply in this scenario because the EU citizen is living and being paid in Canadian dollars. Under Article 3, for the GDPR to apply to an entity outside of the EU, they must either be processing data for the purpose of offering good/services to data subjects in the EU, or monitoring behavior that takes place in the EU. 3. A stay at home mom starts a small personal blog to share DIY tips for children’s projects with local moms. - Regardless of where this mom is located, the GDPR would not apply because she’s not actually collecting or processing any data, nor is she selling a product or service. A study done by Ovum found that two-thirds of US companies expect to change their European business strategies. 4. GDPR Compliance Requirements Below are the big changes that the GDPR will bring to the internet privacy fold. Depending on the type of data you collect and whether you are a processor or controller, you may have to comply with some or all of these changes. Feature #1: Data Breach Notifications Article 33 of the GDPR states that: In the case of a personal data breach, the controller shall without undue delay and, where feasible, not later than 72 hours after having become aware of it, notify the personal data breach to the supervisory authority. This means that data processors and controllers must notify their supervisory authorities of a security breach within 72 hours of discovering the breach. The notification must at least include: - A description of the breach in terms of the number of people that were affected and the kind of data that was accessed - The contact details of the company’s data protection officer - Any possible consequences of the data breach - What actions are being taken by the company to mitigate the consequences Feature #2: Data Protection Impact Assessments (DPIAs) A DPIA is an evaluation of the effect of a data processing activity on the security of personal data. Article 35 requires controllers to conduct DPIAs in the event that one of their data processing activities is “likely to result in a high risk to the rights and freedoms of natural persons.” According to the text, the assessment should address the necessity of the data processing activity, outline the risks, and offer measures that will be used to avoid said risks. Ultimately, the DPIA should result in a judgement on whether or not the potential risks of a processing activity are justified. However, Article 35 isn’t clear on what exactly a high risk processing activity is, and only provides a few examples: - “automated processing for purposes of profiling and similar activities intended to evaluate personal aspects of data subjects” - “processing on a large scale of special categories of data or of data relating to criminal convictions and offenses” - “a systematic monitoring of a publicly accessible area on a large scale” Fortunately, the UK’s Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO) provides a clearer list of actions that likely require a DPIA. ICO recommends that a DPIA should be conducted whenever you plan to: - use new technologies - use profiling or sensitive data - profile data subjects on a large scale - process genetic or biometric data - match data or combine datasets from different sources - track individuals’ location or behavior - profile children or target marketing or online services at them As a starting point, ICO also provides a template that you can use to guide you through the process. Another valuable step in both performing a DPIA and complying with EU laws is GDPR data mapping – a system of cataloguing and mapping the movement of your data. Feature #3: Privacy by Design (PbD) Developed in the 1990s, Privacy by Design is a concept that argues for privacy and security to be fully integrated into the design processes, procedures, protocols, and policies of a business. There are seven major principles that guide this concept: - Privacy should be the default setting - Privacy should be proactive, not reactive - Privacy and design should go hand in hand - Privacy shouldn’t be sacrificed for functionality - PbD should be implemented for the full life cycle of the data - Data collection operations should be fully visible and transparent - User protection must be prioritized Now that Privacy by Design is a legal requirement, businesses should make a point to implement this concept into all new and existing endeavors. Feature #4: Stricter Consent Conditions Although the GDPR expands many privacy features, when it comes to consent, the definition actually gets narrower. As outlined in Article 7, controllers will no longer be able to use opt-out or implied methods of consent — such as pre-ticked boxes, silence, or inactivity. Instead, the text lays out that consent: should be given by a clear affirmative act establishing a freely given, specific, informed and unambiguous indication of the data subject’s agreement to the processing of personal data relating to him or her, such as by a written statement, including by electronic means, or an oral statement. If pre-ticked boxes and inactivity no longer count, then what constitutes unambiguous consent and how does it differ from explicit consent? Below is an example of each type of consent: Consent Example #1: Unambiguous Consent with an Affirmative Act A website offers a free downloadable ebook in return for some basic information, such as the user’s name, industry, and job title. There is an optional email field with subtext underneath stating, “Enter your email address to receive our weekly newsletter and product updates.” Consent Example #2: Explicit Consent A website offers a paid, personalized nutrition plan. There is an online health form that needs to be filled in before making this purchase. Underneath the health form, there is a checkbox that needs to be checked before the form is submitted that reads: I consent to you using this information to recommend an appropriate nutrition plan. The differences between the examples above might seem minute, but there’s a drastic distinction. In the unambiguous consent example, the user is taking an “affirmative action” by inputting their email address, but they aren’t explicitly signing or clicking something that says they agree to the processing of information for a specific purpose. Read our GDPR consent guide for a more in-depth explanation of the definition of consent and what your business must do to legally obtain it. Feature #5: Data Subject Access Requests (DSAR) Under the GDPR, EU citizens have 8 rights over data collected from them: - The right to be informed: data subjects should be able to easily learn how their data is collected and processed - The right of access: data subjects have the right to request to access any data that has been collected from them - The right of rectification: data subjects have the right to request to change inaccurate or incomplete data that has been collected from them - The right to erasure: individuals have the right to request the deletion of their data, also referred to as the ‘right to be forgotten’ - The right to restrict processing: individuals have the right to request to block specific data processing activities - The right to data portability: individuals have the right to request to retain and reuse their data for other services - The right to object: data subjects have the right to object to the use of their data for certain processing activities - Rights in relation to automation: data subjects have the right not to be subject to a decision based solely on automated processing, including profiling, which produces legal effects concerning him or her or similarly significantly affects him or her To exercise these rights, data subjects can make direct requests to controllers, whether it be through a phone call, email, or web form. These requests must be addressed quickly as the GDPR only gives controllers 30 days to respond. That period may be extended by two further months where necessary, taking into account the complexity and number of the requests. The controller shall inform the data subject of any such extension within one month of receipt of the request, together with the reasons for the delay. For more details on the 8 rights above, check out the UK Information Commissioner’s Office Website. Feature #6: Appointing a Data Protection Officer (DPO) The last major piece of the GDPR is the requirement to appoint a data protection officer (DPO). A DPO plays several key roles in your GDPR compliance plan. They are responsible for: - Educating controllers and processors on how they must comply with the regulation - Monitoring compliance efforts - Offering advice on data protection assessments - Acting as the point of contact for the supervisory authority Determining whether your business needs to designate a data protection officer or not will become a major element of complying with the GDPR. If assigning one is necessary for your company, the act of doing so will play a critical role in keeping your business compliant in the eyes of European regulators. Controllers and processors are required to designate a DPO if: - The processing is carried by a government entity - The controller/processor regularly collects and processes a large amount of data - The controller/processor processes a variety of sensitive personal information 5. Summary of the Major GDPR Articles Chapter 2 – Core Principles |#6||lawfulness of processing||Data collection and processing must fall under at least 1 of 6 legal bases: 1. User consent 2. Legitimate interest 3. Contractual necessity 4. Vital interest of the user 5. Legal obligation 6. Public interest |#7||conditions for consent||If using consent as a legal basis, businesses must: 1. Request consent using clear and plain language 2. Provide the specific reasons for requesting consent 3. Require users to take an affirmative action to demonstrate their consent (e.g., ticking a box) 4. NOT bundle consent (do not make consent a precondition to use a service, unless absolutely necessary to carry out the contract or service) 5. Maintain records of user consent 6. Allow users to withdraw consent at anytime |#9||special categories of personal data||If a business collects data relating to race or ethnicity, political opinions, religious beliefs, trade union membership, genetic data, biometric data, or sexual orientation, they must first collect EXPLICIT consent OR meet 1 of 9 other conditions listed in the article| Chapter 3 – User Rights |#13||Information to provide when collecting user data||When personal data is obtained, the data controller must provide users with all of the following information: 1. The identity and the contact details of the data controller and DPO 2. Purposes of processing 3. Possible recipients of the data 4. Other details, depending if they apply *Note, this is only necessary if the user DOES NOT already have this information |#15||Right of access by the data subject||Users have the right to access details on the data collected from them, at any time. Data controllers must reply to these requests within 30 days (within 90 days for complex cases).| |#16||Right to rectification||Users have the right to have data controllers fix any inaccurate data about them. Data controllers must reply to these requests within 30 days (within 90 days for complex cases).| |#17||Right to be forgotten||Users may request to have their data deleted. Data controllers must reply to these requests within 30 days (within 90 days for complex cases).| |#18||Right to restriction of processing||Users may request to limit how their data is processed. Data controllers must reply to these requests within 30 days (within 90 days for complex cases).| |#20||Right to data portability||Users can request to receive their data and give it to another data controller| |#21||Right to object||Users may request that the data controller stops processing any data that was collected on the basis of public or legitimate interest if the legitimate grounds of the user override those of the controller.| Chapter 4 – Controllers and Processors |#25||Data protection by design and by default||Data controllers should implement technical & organizational data safeguards (e.g., pseudonymisation of data) throughout their data collection, processing, and maintenance activities.| |#27||EU Representatives||When the controller or processor is not located in the EU, they must appoint a representative in the EU.| |#28||Processors||Data controllers can only work with processors that meet the requirements of the GDPR| |#30||Records of processing activities||Controllers/processors and, where applicable, their representative must keep a record of all processing activities if they employ more than 250 persons, if the processing is likely to result in a risk to the rights and freedoms of data subjects, if the processing is not occasional, or if the processing includes special categories of data or personal data relating to criminal convictions and offenses.| |#33||Data Breach Notification to Supervisory Authority||In the event of a breach, processors and controllers have 72 hours to notify the supervisory authority of the breach. The processor shall notify the controller without undue delay after becoming aware of a personal data breach.| |#34||Data Breach Notification to Data Subjects||In the event of a data breach that is likely to result in a high risk to the rights and freedoms of natural persons, controllers shall notify users without undue delay.| |#35||Data Protection Impact Assessment (DPIA)||Before new high-risk processing procedures are implemented, the controller must assess the impact of these procedures on their ability to protect user data.| |#36||Supervisory Authority's Review of DPIA||When a DPIA finds that a processing activity presents a high risk to user data, the supervisory authority must be consulted.| |#37||Designating a DPO||A processor or controller must appoint a DPO if: 1. The processing is done by a public authority 2. The data being processed is related to criminal convictions 3. Special categories of personal data are being processed on a large scale |#39||Responsibilities of the DPO||The DPO must: 1. Advise controllers/processors and train staff on proper compliance measures 2. Provide advice on DPIAs 3. Cooperate with the supervisory authority |#42||Compliance Certifications||EU member states, the supervisory authority, the Board and the Commission should encourage the establishment of data protection certifications, seals, and marks for controllers and processors to demonstrate their compliance.| |#43||Certification Organizations||EU member states and the supervisory authority can approve and accredit organizations to issue certifications, seals, or marks.| Chapter 5 – Data Transfers |#45||Transfers based on the "adequacy decision"||Data transfers to an outside country or international organization can be made if the Commission has deemed the outside country/organization to have adequate data protections.| |#46||Safeguarding Data Transfers||Transfers to outside countries/organizations that have not been approved by the Commission can only done if the controller has taken appropriate measures to safeguard the data (e.g., binding corporate rules or an approved code of conduct)| 6. GDPR Violations As mentioned earlier, the final date to comply with the GDPR was May 25, 2018. Now that that date has passed, businesses that are not compliant are subject to steep GDPR fines (take lessons from the €50 million Euro Google GDPR fine). Before the GDPR, EU member states were responsible for individually setting fines for violations. This, of course, meant that penalties across the EU were inconsistent. Now, penalties have been unified, with the maximum penalty as high as €20 million, or 4 percent of global annual turnover – whichever is higher. Based on an Ovum report commissioned by Intralinks, 52% of US companies think that they are likely to be fined for noncompliance. Moreover, the global management company, Oliver Wyman, predicts that the EU is likely to collect $6 billion in fines and penalties in the first year of enforcement. It’s hard to estimate how much a fine will be because infringements are judged on a case-by-case basis. The severity of the fines is based on a variety of factors such as the length of the infringement, whether it was intentional or negligent, if actions were taken to rectify the issue, the type of data involved, and if the company has a history of previous infringements. My business is located in the US, there’s no way they can penalize me, right? Just because a business is not located in the EU, does not mean it can get away with violating the GDPR. The EU judges violations based on a company’s legal presence, not just its location. Legal presence is determined by a variety of factors, but the most important question is whether the company is directing business efforts toward EU consumers. If you’re seeking out residents or citizens of the EU, you probably have a legal presence in the EU – thereby making it possible for you to be sued by that European citizen in a European court. Not convinced that a US court will hold up a ruling from the EU? There are a number of ways for European citizens to get judgements from EU courts recognized and enforced in the US. In fact, it has been noted that foreign judgements are enforced in the US more often than in any other country. However, if you do have a physical presence in the EU (e.g., office location, European bank accounts), then getting US courts involved won’t even be necessary. European courts can simply go after the assets that you own in Europe. In sum, the effects and influence of the GDPR in the US may be as strong as they are within the EU. As we’ve outlined above, there are a plethora of considerations that businesses will need to address in order to comply with this regulation. But here at Termly, our main concern is how this law will affect your business’s policies. Based on our research, we’ve found that companies will need to make seven significant changes to their privacy policies in order to fulfill GDPR requirements: 1. Include an EU representative’s contact details: If you are a data controller and your business is not located in the EU, you must appoint a local representative and provide their contact details in your policy. 3. Provide the legal basis for each piece of data collected: Businesses must now outline the legal justifications for each action in which they use personal information — whether it is based on user consent, done in the customer’s legitimate interests, necessary to fulfill a contract with users, or to comply with legal obligations. 4. Describe transfers of personal information: If you conduct cross-border personal data transfers, you’ll need to provide the details of the recipient, including the destination country, whether the recipient is covered by the EU Commission, the risks of the transfer, and the safeguards you have in place. Read this article for more details on the GDPR’s stance towards data transfers. 5. Cover how long you keep personal information: The GDPR requires that you specify how long you will retain a user’s information. The GDPR is just the first domino to fall, influencing new internet laws around the world. So sit down with your team and put together a compliance plan that will save you from the backlash of the GDPR, and prepare you for the many data privacy laws yet to come. Now is the time to make privacy your priority.

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Theoretical Research: Intangible Cornerstone of Computer Science The theory and vocabulary of computing did not appear ready-made. Some important concepts, such as operating systems and compilers, had to be invented de novo. Others, such as recursion and invariance, can be traced to earlier work in mathematics. They became part of the evolving computer science lexicon as they helped to stimulate or clarify the design and conceptualization of computing artifacts. Many of these theoretical concepts from different sources have now become so embedded in computing and communications that they pervade the thinking of all computer scientists. Most of these notions, only vaguely perceived in the computing community of 1960, have since become ingrained in the practice of computing professionals and even made their way into high-school curricula. Although developments in computing theory are intangible, theory underlies many aspects of the construction, explanation, and understanding of computers, as this chapter demonstrates. For example, the concept of state machines (described below) contributed to the development of compilers and communications protocols, insights into computational complexity have been applied to improve the efficiency of industrial processes and information systems, formal verification methods have provided a tool for improving the reliability of programs, and advances in number theory resulted in the development of new encryption methods. By serving as practical tools for use in reasoning and description, such theoretical notions have informed progress in all corners of computing. Although most of these ideas have a basis in mathematics, they have become so firmly fixed in the instincts of computer scientists and engineers that they are likely to be used as naturally as a cashier uses arithmetic, with little attention to the origins of the process. In this way, theory pervades the daily practice of computer science and lends legitimacy to the very identity of the field. This chapter reviews the history and the funding sources of four areas of theoretical computer science: state machines, computational complexity, program correctness, and cryptography. A final section summarizes the lessons to be learned from history. Although by no means a comprehensive overview of theoretical computer science, the discussion focuses on topics that are representative of the evolution in the field and can be encapsulated fairly, without favoring any particular thesis. State machines, computational complexity, and verification can be traced to the work of logicians in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Cryptography dates back even further. The evolution of these subfields reflects the interplay of mathematics and computer science and the ways in which research questions changed as computer hardware placed practical constraints on theoretical constructs. Each of the four areas is now ubiquitous in the basic conceptual toolkit of computer scientists as well as in undergraduate curricula and textbooks. Each area also continues to evolve and pose additional challenging questions. Because it tracks the rise of ideas into the general consciousness of the computer science community, this case study is concerned less with issues of ultimate priority than with crystallizing events. In combination, the history of the four topics addressed in this chapter illustrates the complex fabric of a dynamic field. Ideas flowed in all directions, geographically and organizationally. Breakthroughs were achieved in many places, including a variety of North American and European universities and a few industrial research laboratories. Soviet theoreticians also made a number of important advances, although they are not emphasized in this chapter. Federal funding has been important, mostly from the National Science Foundation (NSF), which began supporting work in theoretical computer science shortly after its founding in 1950. The low cost of theoretical research fit the NSF paradigm of single-investigator research. Originally, such work was funded through the division of mathematical sciences, but with the establishment of the Office of Computing Activities in 1970, the NSF initiated a theoretical computer science program that continues to this day. As Thomas Keenan, an NSF staffer, put it: Computer science had achieved the title "computer science" without much science in it, [so we] decided that to be a science you had to have theory, and not just theory itself as a separate program, but everything had to have a theoretical basis. And so, whenever we had a proposal . . . we encouraged, as much as we could, some kind of theoretical background for this proposal. (Aspray et al., 1996) The NSF ended up funding the bulk of theoretical work in the field (by 1980 it had supported nearly 400 projects in computational theory), much of it with great success. Although funding for theoretical computer science has declined as a percentage of the NSF budget for computing research (it constituted 7 percent of the budget in 1996, down from 20 percent in 1973), it has grown slightly in real dollars.1 Mission-oriented agencies, such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration or the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, tend not to fund theoretical work directly because of their emphasis on advancing computing technology, but some advances in theory were made as part of their larger research agendas. Machine Models: State Machines State machine are ubiquitous models for describing and implementing various aspects of computing. The body of theory and implementation techniques that has grown up around state machines fosters the rapid and accurate construction and analysis of applications, including compilers, text-search engines, operating systems, communication protocols, and graphical user interfaces. The idea of a state machine is simple. A system (or subsystem) is characterized by a set of states (or conditions) that it may assume. The system receives a series of inputs that may cause the machine to produce an output or enter a different state, depending on its current state. For example, a simplified state diagram of a telephone activity might identify states such as idle, dial tone, dialing, ringing, and talking, as well as events that cause a shift from one state to another, such as lifting the handset, touching a digit, answering, or hanging up (see Figure 8.1). A finite state machine, such as a telephone, can be in only one of a limited number of states. More powerful state machine models admit a larger, theoretically infinite, number of states. The notion of the state machine as a model of all computing was described in Alan Turing's celebrated paper on computability in 1936, before any general-purpose computers had been built. Turing, of Cambridge University, proposed a model that comprised an infinitely long tape and a device that could read from or write to that tape (Turing, 1936). He demonstrated that such a machine could serve as a general-purpose computer. In both academia and industry, related models were proposed and studied during the following two decades, resulting in a definitive 1959 paper by Michael Rabin and Dana Scott of IBM Corporation (Rabin and Scott, 1959). Whereas Turing elucidated the undecidability2 inherent in the most general model, Rabin and Scott demonstrated the tractability of limited models. This work enabled the finite state machine to reach maturity as a theoretical model. Meanwhile, state machines and their equivalents were investigated in connection with a variety of applications: neural networks (Kleene, 1936; McCulloch and Pitts, 1943); language (Chomsky, 1956); communications systems (Shannon, 1948), and digital circuitry (Mealey, 1955; Moore, 1956). A new level of practicality was demonstrated in a method of deriving efficient sequential circuits from state machines (Huffman, 1954). When formal languages—a means of implementing state machines in software—emerged as an academic research area in the 1960s, machines of intermediate power (i.e., between finite-state and Turing machines) became a focus of research. Most notable was the ''pushdown automata,'' or state machine with an auxiliary memory stack, which is central to the mechanical parsing performed to interpret sentences (usually programs) in high-level languages. As researchers came to understand parsing, the work of mechanizing a programming language was formalized into a routine task. In fact, not only parsing but also the building of parsers was automated, facilitating the first of many steps in converting compiler writing from a craft into a science. In this way, state machines were added to the everyday toolkit of computing. At the same time, the use of state machines to model communication systems—as pioneered by Claude Shannon—became commonplace among electrical and communications engineers. These two threads eventually coalesced in the study of communications protocols, which are now almost universally specified in terms of cooperating state machines (as discussed below in the section dealing with correctness). The development of formal language theory was spurred by the construction of compilers and invention of programming languages. Compilers came to the world's attention through the Fortran project (Backus, 1979), but they could not become a discipline until the programming language Algol 60 was written. In the defining report, the syntax of Algol 60 was described in a novel formalism that became known as Backus-Naur form. The crisp, mechanical appearance of the formalism inspired Edward Irons, a graduate student at Yale University, to try to build compilers directly from the formalism. Thereafter, compiler automation became commonplace, as noted above. A task that once required a large team could now be assigned as homework. Not only did parsers become easy to make; they also became more reliable. Doing the bulk of the construction automatically reduced the chance of bugs in the final product, which might be anything from a compiler for Fortran to an interpreter for Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). State machines were developed by a mix of academic and industrial researchers. The idea began as a theoretical construct but is now fully naturalized throughout computer science as an organizing principle and specification tool, independent of any analytical considerations. Introductory texts describe certain programming patterns as state driven (Garland, 1986) or state based (Clancy and Linn, 1995). An archetypal state-based program is a menu-driven telephone-inquiry system. Based on their familiarity with the paradigm, software engineers instinctively know how to build such programs. The ubiquity of the paradigm has led to the development of special tools for describing and building state-based systems, just as for parsers. Work continues to devise machine models to describe different types of systems. The theory of computability preceded the advent of general-purpose computers and can be traced to work by Turing, Kurt Godel, Alonzo Church, and others (Davis, 1965). Computability theory concentrated on a single question: Do effective procedures exist for deciding mathematical questions? The requirements of computing have raised more detailed questions about the intrinsic complexity of digital calculation, and these questions have raised new issues in mathematics. Algorithms devised for manual computing often were characterized by operation counts. For example, various schemes were proposed for carrying out Gaussian elimination or finite Fourier transforms using such counts. This approach became more common with the advent of computers, particularly in connection with algorithms for sorting (Friend, 1956). However, the inherent degree of difficulty of computing problems did not become a discrete research topic until the 1960s. By 1970, the analysis of algorithms had become an established aspect of computer science, and Knuth (1968) had published the first volume of a treatise on the subject that remains an indispensable reference today. Over time, work on complexity theory has evolved just as practical considerations have evolved: from concerns regarding the time needed to complete a calculation, to concerns about the space required to perform it, to issues such as the number of random bits needed to encrypt a message so that the code cannot be broken. In the early 1960s, Hao Wang3 noted distinctions of form that rendered some problems in mathematical logic decidable, whereas logical problems as a class are undecidable. There also emerged a robust classification of problems based on the machine capabilities required to attack them. The classification was dramatically refined by Juris Hartmanis and Richard Stearns at General Electric Company (GE), who showed that within a single machine model, a hierarchy of complexity classes exists, stratified by space or time requirements. Hartmanis then left GE to found the computer science department at Cornell University. With NSF support, Hartmanis continued to study computational complexity, a field widely supported by NSF. Hartmanis and Stearns developed a "speed-up" theorem, which said essentially that the complexity hierarchy is unaffected by the underlying speed of computing. What distinguishes levels of the hierarchy is the way that solution time varies with problem size—and not the scale at which time is measured. Thus, it is useful to talk of complexity in terms of order-of-growth. To that end, the "big-oh" notation, of the form O(n), was imported from algorithm analysis to computing (most notably by Knuth ), where it has taken on a life of its own. The notation is used to describe the rate at which the time needed to generate a solution varies with the size of the problem. Problems in which there is a linear relationship between problem size and time to solution are O(n); those in which the time to solution varies as the square of the problem size are O(n2).4 Big-oh estimates soon pervaded algorithm courses and have since been included in curricula for computer science in high schools. The quantitative approach to complexity pioneered by Hartmanis and Stearns spread rapidly in the academic community. Applying this sharpened viewpoint to decision problems in logic, Stephen Cook at the University of Toronto proposed the most celebrated theoretical notion in computing—NP completeness. His "P versus NP" conjecture is now counted among the important open problems of mathematics. It states that there is a sharp distinction between problems that can be computed deterministically or nondeterministically in a tractable amount of time.5 Cook's theory, and previous work by Hartmanis and Stearns, helps categorize problems as either deterministic or nondeterministic. The practical importance of Cook's work was vivified by Richard Karp, at the University of California at Berkeley (UC-Berkeley), who demonstrated that a collection of nondeterministically tractable problems, including the famous traveling-salesman problem,6 are interchangeable ("NP complete") in the sense that, if any one of them is deterministically tractable, then all of them are. A torrent of other NP-complete problems followed, unleashed by a seminal book by Michael Garey and David Johnson at Bell Laboratories (Garey and Johnson, 1979). Cook's conjecture, if true, implies that there is no hope for precisely solving any of these problems on a real computer without incurring an exponential time penalty. As a result, software designers, knowing that particular applications (e.g., integrated-circuit layout) are intrinsically difficult, can opt for "good enough" solutions, rather than seeking "best possible" solutions. This leads to another question: How good a solution can be obtained for a given amount of effort? A more refined theory about approximate solutions to difficult problems has been developed (Hochbaum, 1997), but, given that approximations are not widely used by computer scientists, this theory is not addressed in detail here. Fortunately, good approximation methods do exist for some NP-complete problems. For example, huge "traveling salesman routes" are routinely used to minimize the travel of an automated drill over a circuit board in which thousands of holes must be bored. These approximation methods are good enough to guarantee that certain easy solutions will come very close to (i.e., within 1 percent of) the best possible solution. Verifying Program Correctness Although the earliest computer algorithms were written largely to solve mathematical problems, only a tenuous and informal connection existed between computer programs and the mathematical ideas they were intended to implement. The gap between programs and mathematics widened with the rise of system programming, which concentrated on the mechanics of interacting with a computer's environment rather than on mathematics. The possibility of treating the behavior of programs as the subject of a mathematical argument was advanced in a compelling way by Robert Floyd at UC-Berkeley and later amplified by Anthony Hoare at The Queen's University of Belfast. The academic movement toward program verification was paralleled by a movement toward structured programming, christened by Edsger Dijkstra at Technische Universiteit Eindhoven and vigorously promoted by Harlan Mills at IBM and many others. A basic tenet of the latter movement was that good program structure fosters the ability to reason about programs and thereby assure their correctness.7 Moreover, analogous structuring was to inform the design process itself, leading to higher productivity as well as better products. Structured programming became an obligatory slogan in programming texts and a mandated practice in many major software firms. In the full verification approach, a program's specifications are described mathematically, and a formal proof that the program realizes the specifications is carried through. To assure the validity of the (exhaustingly long) proof, it would be carried out or checked mechanically. To date, this approach has been too onerous to contemplate for routine programming. Nevertheless, advocates of structured programming promoted some of its key ideas, namely precondition, postcondition, and invariant (see Box 8.1). These terms have found their way into every computer science curriculum, even at the high school level. Whether or BOX 8.1 The Formal Verification Process In formal verification, computer programs become objects of mathematical study. A program is seen as affecting the state of the data with which it interacts. The purpose of the program is to transform a state with known properties (the precondition) into a state with initially unknown, but desired properties (the postcondition). A program is composed of elementary operations, such as adding or comparing quantities. The transforming effect of each elementary operation is known. Verification consists of proving, by logical deduction, that the sequence of program steps starting from the precondition must inexorably lead to the desired postcondition. When programs involve many repetitions of the same elementary steps, applied to many different data elements or many transformational stages starting from some initial data, verification involves showing once and for all that, no matter what the data are or how many steps it takes, a program eventually will achieve the postcondition. Such an argument takes the form of a mathematical induction, which asserts that the state after each repetition is a suitable starting state for the next repetition. The assertion that the state remains suitable from repetition to repetition is called an "invariant" assertion. An invariant assertion is not enough, by itself, to assure a solution. To rule out the possibility of a program running forever without giving an answer, one must also show that the postcondition will eventually be reached. This can be done by showing that each repetition makes a definite increment of progress toward the postcondition, and that only a finite number of such increments are possible. Although nationally straightforward, the formal verification of everyday programs poses a daunting challenge. Familiar programs repeat thousands of elementary steps millions of times. Moreover, it is a forbidding task to define precise preconditions and postconditions for a program (e.g., spreadsheet or word processor) with an informal manual running into the hundreds of pages. To carry mathematical arguments through on this scale requires automation in the form of verification tools. To date, such tools can handle only problems with short descriptions—a few dozen pages, at most. Nevertheless, it is possible for these few pages to describe complex or subtle behavior. In these cases, verification tools come in handy. not logic is overtly asserted in code written by everyday programmers, these ideas inform their work. The structured programming perspective led to a more advanced discipline, promulgated by David Gries at Cornell University and Edsger Dijkstra at Eindhoven, which is beginning to enter curricula. In this approach, programs are derived from specifications by algebraic calculation. In the most advanced manifestation, formulated by Eric Hehner, programming is identified with mathematical logic. Although it remains to be seen whether this degree of mathematicization will eventually be- come common practice, the history of engineering analysis suggests that this outcome is likely. In one area, the design of distributed systems, mathematicization is spreading in the field perhaps faster than in the classroom. The initial impetus was West's validation of a proposed international standard protocol. The subject quickly matured, both in practice (Holzmann, 1991) and in theory (Vardi and Wolper, 1986). By now, engineers have harnessed a plethora of algebras (e.g., temporal logic, process algebra) in practical tools for analyzing protocols used in applications ranging from hardware buses to Internet communications. It is particularly difficult to foresee the effects of abnormal events on the behavior of communications applications. Loss or garbling of messages between computers, or conflicts between concurrent events, such as two travel agents booking the same airline seat, can cause inconvenience or even catastrophe, as noted by Neumann (1995). These real-life difficulties have encouraged research in protocol analysis, which makes it possible to predict behavior under a full range of conditions and events, not just a few simple scenarios. A body of theory and practice has emerged in the past decade to make automatic analysis of protocols a practical reality. Cryptography is now more important than ever. Although the military has a long history of supporting research on encryption techniques to maintain the security of data transmissions, it is only recently that cryptography has come into widespread use in business and personal applications. It is an increasingly important component of systems that secure online business transactions or maintain the privacy of personal communications.8 Cryptography is a field in which theoretical work has clear implications for practice, and vice versa. The field has also been controversial, in that federal agencies have sometimes opposed, and at other times supported, publicly accessible research. Here again, the NSF supported work for which no funding could be obtained from other agencies. The scientific study of cryptography matured in conjunction with information theory, in which coding and decoding are central concerns, albeit typically in connection with compression and robust transmission of data as opposed to security or privacy concerns. Although Claude Shannon's seminal treatment of cryptography (Shannon, 1949) followed his founding paper on information theory, it was actually written earlier under conditions of wartime security. Undoubtedly, Shannon's involvement with cryptography on government projects helped shape his thinking about information theory. Through the 1970s, research in cryptography was pursued mainly under the aegis of government agencies. Although impressive accomplishments, such as Great Britain's Ultra code-breaking enterprise in World War II, were known by reputation, the methods were largely kept secret. The National Security Agency (NSA) was for many years the leader in cryptographic work, but few of the results were published or found their way into the civilian community. However, an independent movement of cryptographic discovery developed, driven by the availability and needs of computing. Ready access to computing power made cryptographic experimentation feasible, just as opportunities for remote intrusion made it necessary and the mystery surrounding the field made it intriguing. In 1977, the Data Encryption Standard (DES) developed at IBM for use in the private sector received federal endorsement (National Bureau of Standards, 1977). The mechanism of DES was disclosed, although a pivotal aspect of its scientific justification remained classified. Speculation about the strength of the system spurred research just as effectively as if a formal request for proposals had been issued. On the heels of DES came the novel proposal for public-key cryptography by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman at Stanford University, and, independently, by R.C. Merkle. Hellman had been interested in cryptography since the early 1970s and eventually convinced the NSF to support it (Diffie and Hellman, 1976). The notion of public-key cryptography was soon made fully practical by Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who, with funding from the NSF and Office of Naval Research (ONR), devised a public-key method based on number theory (Rivest et al., 1978) (see Box 8.2). Their method won instant acclaim and catapulted number theory into the realm of applied mathematics. Each of the cited works has become bedrock for the practice and study of computer security. The NSF support was critical, as it allowed the ideas to be developed and published in the open, despite pressure from the NSA to keep them secret. The potential entanglement with International Traffic in Arms Regulations is always apparent in the cryptography arena (Computer Science and Telecommunications Board, 1996). Official and semiofficial attempts to suppress publication have often drawn extra notice to the field (Diffie, 1996). This unsolicited attention has evoked a notable level of independence among investigators. Most, however, have achieved a satisfactory modus vivendi with the concerned agencies, as evidenced by the seminal papers cited in this chapter that report on important cryptographic research performed under unclassified grants. BOX 8.2 Rivest-Shamir-Adleman Cryptography Before public-key cryptography was invented, cipher systems required two communicating parties to agree in advance on a secret key to be used in encrypting and decrypting messages between them. To assure privacy for every communication, a separate arrangement had to be made between each pair who might one day wish to communicate. Parties who did not know each other in advance of the need to communicate were out of luck. By contrast, public-key cryptography requires merely that an individual announce a single (public) encryption key that can be used by everyone who wishes to send that individual a message. To decode any of the messages, this individual uses a different but mathematically related key, which is private. The security of the system depends on its being prohibitively difficult for anyone to discover the private key if only the public key is known. The practicality of the system depends on there being a feasible way to produce pairs of public and private keys. The first proposals for public-key cryptography appealed to complexity theory for problems that are difficult to solve. The practical method proposed by Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman (RSA) depends on a problem believed to be of this type from number theory. The problem is factoring. The recipient chooses two huge prime numbers and announces only their product. The product is used in the encryption process, whereas decryption requires knowledge of the primes. To break the code, one must factor the product, a task that can be made arbitrarily hard by picking large enough numbers; hundred-digit primes are enough to seriously challenge a stable of supercomputers. The RSA method nicely illustrates how theory and practice evolved together. Complexity theory was motivated by computation and the desire to understand whether the difficulty of some problems was inherent or only a symptom of inadequate understanding. When it became clear that inherently difficult problems exist, the stage was set for public-key cryptography. This was not sufficient to advance the state of practice, however. Theory also came to the fore in suggesting problems with structures that could be adapted to cryptography. It took the combination of computers, complexity theory, and number theory to make public-key cryptography a reality, or even conceivable. Once the idea was proposed, remarkable advances in practical technique followed quickly. So did advances in number theory and logic, spurred by cryptographic needs. The general area of protection of communication now covers a range of topics, including code-breaking (even the "good guys" must try to break codes to confirm security); authentication (i.e., preventing imposters in communications); checks and balances (i.e., forestalling rogue actions, such as embezzlement or missile launches, by nominally trusted people); and protection of intellectual property (e.g., by making information theft-proof or providing evidence that knowledge exists without revealing the knowledge). Lessons from History Research in theoretical computer science has been supported by both the federal government and industry. Almost without exception in the cases discussed, contributions from U.S. academia acknowledge the support of federal agencies, most notably the NSF and ONR. Nevertheless, many advances in theoretical computer science have emerged from major industrial research laboratories, such as IBM, AT&T (Bell Laboratories), and GE. This is partly because some of the areas examined developed before the NSF was established, but also because some large corporate laboratories have provided an environment that allows industry researchers to produce directly relevant results while also carrying on long-term, theoretical investigations in the background. Shannon, for example, apparently worked on information theory for a decade before he told the world about it. Theoretical computer science has made important contributions to computing practice while, conversely, also being informed by that practice. Work on the theory of one-way functions, for example, led to the development of public-key cryptography, and the development of complexity theory, such as Cook's conjecture, sparked efforts to improve methods for approximating solutions to nondeterministically tractable problems. Similarly, the theoretical work in complexity and program correctness (or verification) has been redirected by the advancing needs of computing systems. Academia has played a key role in propagating computing theory. By teaching and writing textbooks, academic researchers naturally influenced the subjects taught, especially during the formative years of computer science departments. However, some important synthesizing books have come from industrial research laboratories, where management has seen fit to support such writing to enhance prestige, attract candidates, and foster the competence on which research depends. Foreign nations have contributed to theoretical computer science. Although the United States has been the center of systems-related research, a considerable share of the mathematical underpinnings for computer science can be attributed to British, Canadian, and European academics. (The wider practical implementation of this work in the United States may be explained by a historically greater availability of computers.) The major foreign contributions examined in this case were all supported by governments; none came from foreign industry. Personal and personnel dynamics have also played important roles. Several of the papers cited in this chapter deal with work that originated during the authors' visiting or short-term appointments, when they were free of the ancillary burdens associated with permanent positions. Research- ers in theoretical computer science have often migrated between industry and academia, and researchers in these sectors have often collaborated. Such mixing and travel helped infuse computing theory with an understanding of the practical problems faced by computer designers and helped establish a community of researchers with a common vocabulary.

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Pharyngitis is the term doctors use to describe sore throat and it accounts for 10-15 percent of all pediatric office visits. Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis (GABHS), more commonly known as strep throat, is a primary concern of a person with a sore throat. GABHS is more common in children than adults. In both kids and adults viruses are the most common cause of sore throat. The most important concern in the person with a sore throat is to rule out some serious conditions associated with sore throat, including, most commonly GABHS. Certain factors will help predict if the cause of the sore throat is GABHS or a viral infection. The factors are not perfect and the use of a throat culture is needed in many cases in order to rule out strep throat. Important factors to know about strep include: • It most commonly affects children between 5-15 years old. • It does not commonly affect children under three years old. • It has an incubation period of 2-5 days. This means that if you have been in contact with someone who is infected and are infected your disease may not show up for 2-5 days. • Respiratory secretions spread the infection. Causes of sore throat Viruses cause the majority of sore throats. Bacteria cause 5-15% of sore throats, but those between the ages of 5-15 have a higher incidence of bacterial causes of sore throat. In this group, 15-30 percent of sore throats may be caused by GABHS. Certain factors can help determine if the sore throat is caused by a bacteria or a virus. Viruses that cause sore throat are more commonly accompanied by cough, stuffy nose, red eyes and fatigue. • Viral sore throat – there are over 200 viruses that cause the common cold and each presentation may be a little different. Many of these viruses are linked to sore throat. Below some specific viruses that cause sore throat will be discussed. • Hand-foot and mouth disease. This is caused by a virus that is called the Cocsackie virus. It causes blisters on the hands and feet as well as in the mouth or throat. • Infectious mononucleosis can also cause sore throat. This sore throat is typically severe and associated with pus (white patches) in the throat. This disease is associated with swollen lymph nodes – particularly the glands on the back of the neck. It sometimes comes with stomach pain due to an enlarged liver or spleen. Those who are treated with penicillin will usually develop a rash (90% of the time). It is most common in those who are 10-25 years old and is accompanied by fatigue and a lingering sore throat. • HIV is a rare cause of sore throat. Individuals who have risk factors for HIV (multiple sexual partners, men who have sex with men, intravenous drug users) who present with a sore throat should have this diagnosis considered. • Bacterial sore throat. The most common cause of bacterial sore throat is GABHS. Other bacteria can sometimes cause sore throat. • Fungal infections rarely cause sore throats. Candida infections are a common cause of fungal sore throat. The individual will have a sore throat with a white coat on the tongue and in the oral cavity that looks like cottage cheese. The white coating will bleed if it is scraped off. • Diphtheria is a rare cause of sore throat. It presents with a sore throat, fever, tender lymph nodes in the front on the neck and serosanguineous nasal discharge. It can be prevented by routine vaccinations. • Kawasaki disease rarely occurs but affects children under five and presents with sore throat, tender lymph nodes, fever, eye discharge, red oral mucosa, strawberry tongue, cracked red lips, swelling of the hands and feet and red rash on the hands and feet, followed by peeling of the palms. • Peritonsillar abscess is a serious cause of sore throat and presents with fever, feeling wiped out, a hot potato voice, difficulty swallowing, painful swallowing, ear pain and difficulty opening the mouth. • Miscellaneous causes of sore throat include: persistent cough, smoking, gastroesophageal reflux, postnasal drip secondary to runny nose, allergies, foreign body and thyroiditis (inflamed thyroid gland). Most sore throats are caused by a virus and go away on their own. It is important that all health care consumers are aware of when sore throats can be serious and when they are likely self-limiting. Death is a risk of life, but it is rarely related to sore throat. Throat abscess (pus filled infection in the throat) may lead to breathing problems as the swelling in the throat reduces the ability to breath. Diphtheria can lead to respiratory failure. Untreated GABHS can affect the heart valves and has the potential to lead to heart failure. These serious complications are rare. Rheumatic fever is one of the most common preventable complication of sore throat. It occurs after GABHS goes untreated. The general population is not as greatly affected, as people commonly believe. In fact it takes treating 3000 to 4000 people with antibiotics with strep throat to prevent one case of rheumatic fever. The incidence of rheumatic fever is about one case per one million people. Treatment with antibiotics do not guarantee prevention of rheumatic fever. Rheumatic fever occurs about 3 weeks after an untreated GABHS infection. It is characterized by joint pain and swelling, erythema marginatum (pink rings on the trunk, arms and legs), heart murmur or subcutaneous nodules (painless, firm nodes over the bones or tendons often seen on the wrist, elbow or knees). If this is suspected an immediate evaluation with a health care provider is essential. Peritonsillar abscess (pus behind the tonsils) can cause sore throat or can be a complication of GABHS. It is not common but is characterized by worsening sore throat, ear pain, inability to open the mouth, fever, and a hot potato voice. A rash that feels rough, like sandpaper, is red and fades when you push in on it is likely scarlet fever. This rash will last about a week and will result in peeling of the skin. This is a common manifestation of streptococcal infection Streptococcal infections have the potential to attack the kidneys. It may present 10-14 days after a strep throat. It is characterized by bloody urine and swelling (especially around the eyes). It is unclear if treating with antibiotics reduces the risk of kidney problems after strep throat. • High fever • Unable to handle secretions – drooling • Difficult time opening the mouth • Hot potato voice (muffled voice, sounds like you have a mouthful of hot potatoes) • Uvula (piece of tissue that hangs down in the back of the throat) deviating to one side • One swollen tonsil • Difficultly breathing Diagnosing strep throat Key features of the history and the physical exam will help the health care provider determine the likelihood of streptococcal infection. There are a few key features that are most predictive of strep throat. Recent exposure to streptococcus and white patches in the throat or on the tonsils are the two most important factors in predicting strep throat. Tonsils that are free from swelling or pus and non-tender lymph nodes in the neck are the best criteria for ruling out strep throati. Clinical prediction rules have been developed for helping the health care provider determine who has strep and who does not. None of these rules are perfect, and it usually requires the work of a throat culture to definitively determine who has strep throat. None-the less, these key features can be useful in helping patients determining their risk for strep throat. The prediction rule has been based off of five key criteria. 1. Fever above 100.4 degrees Fahrenheit 2. Swelling of the tonsils or pus on the tonsils 3. Sore throat in the absence of cough 4. Tender lymph nodes in the front of the neck 5. Age – One point is given if the age is between 3 and 14, and one point is taken away if over the age of 45. Based on the number of criteria that are present one can take a guess as to how likely GABHS is. The person is given a score of -1 to 5 and utilizing that point total one can predict the likelihood of strep throat. For example, if we look at the case study presented in chapter 2: A 20 year-old female comes to her doctor with tonsillitis. “My nose has been stuffy for the last couple of days and I have been coughing. I woke up this morning and my throat hurt really badly. I looked in my throat and my tonsils were swollen and there were white dots on them. It is also determined that she did not have a fever. When the doctor felt the front of her neck, he determined that her lymph nodes were swollen and tender. This patient receives one point for swollen tonsils with pus and one point for swollen lymph nodes. She has a point total of 2. Therefore, her risk of strep is about 17%. Table 1: Percent change of having GABHS based on number of clinical criteria -1 or 0 – 1% 1 – 10% 2 – 17% 3 – 35% 4 or 5 – 51% As you can see from the chart, it is impossible to rule in or rule out strep throat just by doing an interview and physical examination. The CDC recommends that antibiotics not be given unless GABHS is found on strep culture. When there is a score of 4 or 5 many health care providers will treat instead of doing a culture and some clinicians even choose to treat if there is a score of 3 or more. One fact that is not well know is that strep throat will go away on its own. Well, that is not entirely true. The symptom of sore throat will remit, but the bacteria may still persist. It has the potential to go to the heart and cause rheumatic fever, it is therefore important to treat strep throat even though the sore throat will go away. When sore throat persists beyond five days strep throat is not likely. It is more likely mononucleosis, a sinus infection, allergies or post-nasal drip. Who is a candidate for diagnostic testing? 1. All children with a sore throat 2. Selected adults with a sore throat. This includes adults with at least one feature suggestive of strep throat (swollen tonsils, pus on the tonsils, fever above 100.4 degrees Fahrenheit, swollen lymph nodes, sore throat in the absence of a cough) What type of testing should be done? 1. A rapid strep test is indicated for most patients with a sore throat with a back up throat culture If the rapid test reads positive, it is quite reliable. If it reads negative it may not be that reliable. Because of the tests ability to miss the diagnosis, it is recommended that the health care provider get a back up culture that is sent to the lab to confirm every negative rapid strep test. Some experts suggest you do not need a back up culture in the adult, but my experience suggests that you should do a back up culture in the adult. The rapid test should not be used in those who had a positive strep test in the last 30 days as there still may be strep antigen fragments hanging around that could give a false positive test. Other testing for sore throat When sore throat persists another diagnosis to consider is mononucleosis. This is most common in those 10-25 years-old. It can be testing by checking the blood for antibodies to the Epstein-bar virus. During the first week of the illness, the test may not pick up the disease but by the second week the test picks up the disease over 80% of the time. Testing for HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases may be warranted in the high-risk individuals. Individuals who have oral sex may need the throat tested for gonorrhea. Some cases of sore throat warrant a broad culture that looks for other causes of sore throat such as other bacteria. Most cases of sore throat are either caused by a virus or GABHS. If strep throat is present treatment with antibiotics is important and if it is not present treatment of the symptoms is all that is necessary. Treatment of strep throat will reduce rheumatic fever, abscess formation, transmission and improve comfort. It is always important to stay alert for other complications of sore throat – even though they are rare. There is a nine-day window that the clinician has to treat strep throat to prevent rheumatic fever after GABHS. Treatment will also speed healing. After starting treatment you should be feeling much better in 24-48 hours. Ideally treatment should be started within 48-72 hours. Some clinicians choose to treat patients while they wait for the return of the culture. Realizing that resolution will be faster and it will provide comfort to some patients. This is not a wise strategy to implement for all patients. This requires some professional judgment of the treating health care provider. Those who are suspected of having strep are better candidates for this method of treatment. The goal is to avoid excessive exposure to antibiotics. When antibiotics are prescribed without a confirmed diagnosis the patient should be encouraged to stop antibiotics immediately if the culture comes back negative. There is no resistance to penicillin in the United States, so it is the drug of choiceii. Ten days of pills or a shot is equally effective in its management. People who will not take all of their medication should receive a shot. Amoxicillin, which is a type of penicillin, is often used in place of penicillin in children, as the suspension of penicillin does not taste good. Amoxicillin suspension has a pleasant tasting bubble gum flavor. Individuals who do not have angioedema (swelling deep in the skin near the eyes and lips) or hives as their allergic reaction to penicillin can be treated with first or second-generation cephalosporins. If they are, they need to be watched closely as allergic reactions with penicillin sometime cross over to an allergic reaction to cephalosporins. Erythromycin is recommended in patients with a severe penicillin allergy. Due to side effects – mainly gastrointestinal – azithromycin or clarithromycin is sometimes substituted. Recurrent GABHS can be treated with amoxicillin-clavulanate (Augmentin). It is not usually picked as a first line medication as it is a more expensive and has a wider spectrum of activity. A wider spectrum of activity means that it is able to cover many other types of infections. The routine utilization of broad-spectrum antibiotics for simple infections has the potential to increase the risk of antibiotic resistance. Penicillin should be used for 10 days in the treatment of GABHS to assure that all the bacteria are killed and no straggling bacteria remain. The use of probiotics are one strategy that will significantly reduce the risk of Clostridium difficile and other complications of antibiotic use. When you are on antibiotic it is critical to take probiotics to reduce the risk of this complications. Always keep a supply of probiotics on hand because you never know when you will need to go on antibiotics. Treating the symptoms Sore throat pain can be quite debilitating and managing that pain is a critical part of treatment. Symptomatic treatment often involves a combination of systemic medications and local acting medications. Systemic medications include medications that are taken by mouth that can help relieve the pain of the sore throat and may also help other symptoms that accompany sore throats such as headache, fever and body aches. Systemic medications include: ibuprofen, acetaminophen, naproxen or acetaminophen/codeine (in severe cases). The use of medications to reduce pain and fever, in addition to reducing symptoms, may help shorten the course of disease by one to two days. Topical medications are available in many over the counter formulations and some can be made at home. A common home remedy is salt-water gargles, which can be made by adding one-fourth of a teaspoon of salt to 6-8 ounces of warm water. This concoction can be gargled and spit out every 3-4 hours. Sugar-free or regular Popsicles can help ease the discomfort of a sore throat. Multiple over the counter medications are available for treating sore throat. They come in sprays and lozenges. Certain foods can help the throat feel better. For example, warm or cool liquids soothe and moisturize the throat. Nasal saline can moisturize the nasal passages and clean mucus out of the nose. This will reduce the amount of post-nasal drip, which will help reduce throat discomfort. Herbal teas may be helpful in the treatment of sore throat. Throat coat – a herbal tea – has a demulcent that is more effective at providing relief than regular tea. Certain prescription medications have the potential to aid a sore throat. Viscous lidocaine is a medications that comes as a thick liquid that the health care provider can prescribe that will numb the throat. It can also be mixed with other liquids such as liquid Benadryl and/or Maalox to ease the discomfort. Steroids are used in some patients with sore throats. This is a prescription given by the doctor and can be given by mouth or as a shot. Steroids reduce the inflammation of a severely inflamed throat. Home remedies for a sore throat: • Salt water gargles as outlined above. • A cool mist humidifier should be used. Many sore throats are caused by or exacerbated by dryness; the moisture that a cool mist humidifier provides can improve symptoms. • Suck on a sour drop. Lemon drops or another type of drop will stimulate saliva and reduce throat pain • Drink tea with honey as this will coat the throat. Improvement in the sore throat caused by a bacteria or virus is typically noted in 2-3 days. When there is no improvement or a worsening of symptoms noted a follow up with your health care provider should be attained to rule out a more serious (cellulitis or abscess) or another underlying condition (mononucleosis or chronic post-nasal drip). Rarely, other bacteria can cause sore throat. This is much more common in the adult than the child. This may be considered when there is a non-response to antibiotics or a negative GABHS culture and the patient is getting worse. The health care provider will often take a more broad culture to look for other bacteria that may be causing the sore throat. At times further testing is indicated. This is not common, but may occur in the sore throat that is not explained by other causes. It is most often carried out by an ear, nose and throat specialist. A laryngoscope will be used to look for cancer, a foreign body, acid reflux or another cause of sore throat. When disease returns within one week of completing antibiotic therapy it is considered treatment failure. The main causes of this are: • Not taking the medication as directed • Resistance to the antibiotic • Repeat infections For those who are thought to have a resistant strain, a different antibiotic may be considered such as a cephalosporin, macrolide or amoxicillin-clavulanate. In cases where there is repeat infection, family members should be checked to see if they are carriers of strep. If they have a positive strep culture, they should be treated. What is a carrier? A surprising number of people – 10 to 25 percent – are colonized with GABHSviii. When one is colonized, it means that the strep is living in the throat with out causing the person to be sick. Generally, those who are colonized do not need to be treated, but sometimes they do. Treatment should ensue when there is: • A personal or family history of rheumatic fever • Recurrent transmission between close contacts • Significant anxiety about GABHS • Consideration of removal of the tonsils to eradicate the carrier state Tonsillectomy and Adenoidectomy Tonsils and adenoids are often removed, but the surgery may be done too often. The tonsils are there for a reason. The tonsils, while they often get infected, help fight infections in the throat and nose and keep the infection from spreading. There are risks with this procedure. Bleeding is the most common complications and can occur up to eight days after surgery. Sore throat after the procedure is common. The voice sometimes changes after the procedure. The most worrisome complication is death, but this only occurs in one of every 250,000 operations. The tonsils and/or adenoids can be removed for multiple reasons including: • Recurrent GABHS: For two-year olds, more than 4 episodes a year; for three year-olds more than 3 episodes per year; and those over 3-years-old, greater than 6 episodes a year is an indication for the tonsils and adenoids to be removed. • Obstructive sleep apnea • A severe infection that does not respond to antibiotics • Recurrent peritonsillar abscess • Potential cancer • Persistent mouth breathers may be a candidate for removal of the adenoids • Persistent swallowing problems if they are caused by large tonsils or adenoids What you need to know If you are diagnosed with strep throat: • Do not infect others. Do not come in close contact with others for 24 hours after starting antibiotics. • Removable oral appliances (e.g. retainers) should be cleaned completely. • A new toothbrush should be used after 24 hours. • Complete the entire course of antibiotics or resistance to that antibiotic may occur. • Symptoms that do not improve by 72 hours or get worse after 48 hours require a medical evaluation. • Do not take any antibiotics that are lying around the house for a sore throat without visiting the health care provider. Antibiotics will invalidate a throat culture. Questions to Ask Your Health Care Provider 1. Is my sore throat related to a virus or a bacterium? 2. Do I need a culture to determine if there is a bacterial infection? 3. Which medications do you recommend to manage my symptoms? 4. Do you recommend any home remedies? 5. Will an antibiotic help my infection? 6. Are there any potential interactions between the medications that you are recommending and the current medications that I am on or any other health problems I may have? 7. When should I expect an improvement in my condition? 8. What complications should I look out for and how will they show up?

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When people make their choices in life, they are influenced by the society that surrounds them by changing their social conditions in ways that may at some point encumber or even support their life with family. Interplay exists between an individual’s family and the society, and throughout the adulthood stage, an individual makes choices that are family related. Development is the movement, growth, and transition made by an individual from one state to another in life. This research has been able to state clearly the stages made by people who are developing from one stage to another. This change of state by individuals has brought about intellectual, physical powers, and the impacts brought about by events of life and different experiences of individuals (Carter & Mcgoldrick, 2005). Monica explains her life span development theory with stages similar to that of Erickson and further ads that stressors in life originating from life situations, transitions, and socio-cultural events produce change to individuals (Boyd &. Bee, 2008). Material, personal, or interpersonal situational stressors include things like loss of a home, income, and vehicle. They are mostly materialistic in nature. Life passages in an individual’s life are transitional stressors, which include transitions made by the family. Values, socialization, deviance, and conflict are examples of socio-cultural stressors. The factors associated with socio-cultural stressors include the ethnic group, sexual orientations discrimination, age, and status of people in the society. Stressors can be private (marriage, promotion) as well as negative (divorce, death experienced in the family). Human development is the study of physical, mental, and relational changes that are observable which occur to human beings when they are born, mature, age, and eventually die. Intrapsychic (inward), subjective changes in human beings are difficult to identify since they are unique to every individual even with common experiences shared. Human development studies in relation to basic principles or questions that are formative in nature have evolved and are being presented as dichotomies. Monica and Erickson’s theory considers the cycle of life from birth through to old age (eight stages) indicating the experiences of each individual (Brenman-Gibson, 1997). Each of the stages as presented by Erickson has its own value and should not be seen as being hierarchical. The early stages of an individual are the most basic and important since they serve as a foundation for later stages in a person’s development process. Erickson’s life stages are useful because they give an overview of the issues of development that are pertinent for one’s counseling in many parts of North America and the United Kingdom. Adulthood covers many years thus, Monica and Erickson divided them into stages according to the experiences of the young, middle aged, and older adults. Early childhood stage takes the infancy- autonomy vs. shame and trust vs. mistrust, late (middle) childhood- industry vs. inferiority, adolescence- identity vs. confusion, early adulthood stage- intimacy vs. isolation, middle adulthood- generativity vs. stagnation, and late adulthood- integrity vs. despair (Herr & Cramer, 1988). “It is human to have a long childhood; it is civilized to have an even longer childhood. Long childhood makes a technical and mental prodigy out of man, but it also leaves a life-long filtrate of emotional juvenile behavior in him.”— Erik Erikson (1902-1994). As individuals pass through the various life stages of development, so does the importance of their various counselors in their life who include parents, teachers, and peers among others thus bringing our opposite traits of personality (optimistic or pessimistic, independent or dependent, leader or follower, aggressive or passive). These traits can be temperament as well as learned based on the challenging experiences and support received as one grows. Erickson was influenced by Freud, but believed that the existing ego in an individual’s life is achieved from birth and the behavior acquired is not defensive. He concluded that development course is determined by bodily interaction (genetic programming biologically), psychological, and ethos influences (Newman & Newman, 2008). Erickson’s philosophy is based on two themes: (1) the world we live in gets bigger as we go along and (2) failure is viewed as cumulative. The second theme asserts that, those individuals who have to pact with atrocious conditions in life when they were children are unable to negotiate at later stages compared to those individual who had less challenges when growing up. For example, he orphans who were never cared for (stroked) as they were growing up have hard times connecting with other members of their peer group especially when they mature to adulthood. Most of them have died without having experienced any contact from other human beings (Newman & Newman, 2008). The first stage in Erickson and Monica’s development theory is the Infancy (oral sensory) stage, which covers birth to 18 months (trust vs. mistrust). The mother has an important role to play especially since the emphasis made for this stage are visual contact and touch. Kay a young female child passes this life period successfully and learns to trust having confidence in future expectations. If Kay had not had all her needs met during her growth, she would end up feeling worthless, frustrated, and would mistrust the general worldview being given by others. Most people who commit suicide are because of not trusting the world hence early years of development is crucial for any individual. The maternal parent or caregivers’ relationship developed becomes the most significant in this oral sensory stage (Newman & Newman, 2008). Early childhood (18 months to 3 years) tries to develop the ego outcome to be that of autonomy vs. shame. In this stage, Kay learns to walk, talk, and feed, finer motor development, and toilet training skills. Her self-esteem and autonomy is being built in this stage by gaining more control of her body and acquiring new skills through differentiating wrong from right. Low self-esteem is experienced when she becomes ashamed of learning the important life skills like toilet training technique as a result; she feels ashamed and doubts her capability. Courage, self-control, and will are her basic strengths. The parents’ relations with her are important at this stage (Demick & Miller, 1993). Play age (3 to 5 years) brings out the initiative vs. guilt ego development. Kay has the desire to copy the adults in her environment and initiates the situation of play creation by making up stories of playing out the roles in a trial universe environment. Here, she explores the use of the word “WHY?” Erickson downplays the sexuality, which is biological, and in favor of the features of psychosocial which are the conflicts between the parents and the child who in our case is Kay. They say that at this stage an individual becomes involved in “Oedipal struggle” which is classic and manages to resolve the struggle through the “social identification role.” Purpose being her basic power maintains that if she becomes frustrated over the acquisition of natural goals and desires, she easily experiences the guilt feeling (Newman & Newman, 2008). School Age (6 to 12 years) ego development outcome is that of industry vs. inferiority. This is the latency stage where Kay is capable of learning, creating, and accomplishing new skills and knowledge thus, she becomes an industrious being. This social stage needs to be fully developed in order to reduce the competence and self-esteem problems. The school and neighborhood at large become the significant relationship to be observed even though the parents still play a role in the development of the child (Demick & Miller, 1993). Adolescence (12 to 18 years) has the identity vs. role confusion in its ego outcome development. What is being done to us is the factor dependent in this developmental stage according to Erickson. From here on to the last stage, what we do is the primary factor of development. Kay tries to find her own identity by struggling with her social interactions in the society and come to grips with her moral issues. As she tries to discover herself individually separating her family and society from her process, she learns so many things that spill to her career and lifestyle development in future. In this stage, she has to make decisions that will reflect her future life. If she does not navigate through this phase of development successful, then she will experience confusion role and mayhem. Peers are our strong relations, but we should always be realistic in our encounters with them since we become too devoted (Demick & Miller, 1993). Young adulthood (18 to 35 years) carries the intimacy and solidarity vs. isolation development of the ego. This stage is crucial in developing our careers and lifestyle especially since we are looking for companionship and love. Marital partners and friends will encourage us and will see to it that our careers are well built in order for us to acquire a good life in future. Lifestyles developed will depend on her peer pressure influence, which brings out her positive and negative sides in the end. Isolation will; not be the best route to take since we need other people for motivation, encouragement and experiences so as to choose a career path meeting all our needs and wants in a comfortable and happy environment (Demick & Miller, 1993). Middle Adulthood stage (35 to 55/65) is the one that has generativity vs. self-absorption (stagnation) outcomes of the ego developed. Our family and work occupy our minds since we need to be creative and have meaningful work, which leaves us with the issue of being in charge of others hence the lifestyle we choose to live in will determine the kind of perception your children will decide to have of the world. Generativity is the ability of a person to care for others by producing things that contribute to the improvement of the society hence one should not be inactive or without meaning. The work place, community, and family are the significant relationships (Demick & Miller, 1993). Late Adulthood stage (55/65 to death) has integrity vs. despair in its ego development. Our strength in this stage comes from wisdom since the world we live in is very large and we have a disconnected apprehension for life as a whole by accepting death as our life’s completion on earth. Those parents in disparity at this stage are as a result of their perceived failures and experiences. According to them, the theory of development from this research has given adolescence stage as the one establishing identity in an individual’s life (Stafford, 1989). Donald Super says that career development in the past 40 years was a vocabulary since it did not exist. In most cases, people get married and live happily thereafter, but in the development of their careers, evolution has to take effect from experiences emerging in a person’s life. Career development has many facets or segments, and aspects, which make the whole theory process complete and valid. According to him, the life span stages include growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline. The establishment stage generally begins at age 25 and the maintenance stage looked at the theory of transition where recycling (women) came in also (Super, 1990). Growth stage (0-14) has pre-adolescents conversant of self-concept and workplace where they have been exposed to use computers, the web and back up resources. The transition that takes place from elementary to secondary school gives assumptions of early cluster of job in making decisions thus choosing appropriate study levels. Exploration stage has dynamism on antithetical hence the counselors and teachers give encouragements to students in being able to widen their research of full spectrum possible occupations. From the growth stage, we look at the establishment with particular reference on Career Consultants who are Pathing and as Cybertraining Consultants for the Press of Research Psychologists. A career pathing consultant is given an opportunity to interact with clients by interpreting inventories. The Cybertraining fellow on the other hand, uses e-resumes and online assessments on careers in his research. Both of these individuals share the same models of career decisions, stresses, and types of stereotyping and mindsets of clients. In the last stage, maintenance, globalization, downsizing, and merges have had traumatic effects on the workers (The Bulletin, Spring 2003) Recycling in women is much clearer as compared to those of men with emphasis on career crises elements. This transition needs to be coped with by both men and women, but the frequency of this element differs in both parties. Fixedness of these stages has been taken by women to be important especially since they saw these stages as being age related and thus they had no general application to their sequence of life. Productive and meaningful career development studies of women give focus to the determinants (situational and personal). Situational determinants are associated with sociologists who refer to structures of opportunity, to the social attitudes, and mores while personal determinants are linked to the psychologists who give emphasis on how the people interact (Santrock, 2008). Self-concept should not have the article “the” but ‘role’ which are complex in nature. For example, a high school student who considers himself a good scholar, but poor athletes are seen as role self-concepts, which are important constellations (positive or negative self-concepts). Individuals need to deal with realities in life that comes with stressors and concepts thus counselors need to help individuals make the accidental happenings happy. For instance, bright girls who ought to be attending colleges could not go because they cannot afford it should be awarded scholarships by their learning institutions in order to help them overwhelm their negative predictions and change them to happy accidents happening. People should be able to clearly examine their realities, assimilate them, and find a solution to them (Super, 1990). Career theories give matching to individuals and their occupations by looking at their interests, abilities, activities, and achievements. Emergent decisions should be made from those approximations of success by any individual especially those of ages 14 and 15. Maturity of career or developments, planning, and knowledge are measure applications used in explaining and exploring the kinds of decisions made by the person, to be able to make decisions that are tentative and hence subject to revision with ones experiences at hand, and be able to make long term decisions involving your study. Work importance and life roles like study, work, homemaking, leisure time, and community hence when a person considers work as lacking importance he/she qualifies to be recognized as being vocationally mature. The components of this level of maturity include planning of the career, its exploration, the world of work knowledge and skills, skills in decision making of career choice, and the preferred occupation of the individual (Holland, 1985). The concept of vocational amplified by Super gives acknowledgment to the distinct characteristics (self) of the individual while acknowledging simultaneously the similarities of other people. An individual makes vocational decisions that are consistent with his/her self-concept since the processes of identification progress with that of differentiation concurrently. The role-playing in the self-concept theory facilitates the development process of vocational theory of self-concept by doing a reality test, which in turn solidifies the whole concept (Patton & McMahon, 2006). Lining up experiences from the past with assumptions that have underlying assumptions in an individual’s life does equate them to the choice manifestation, environment, and opportunity. The experiences that one obtains during his developmental stages pave way to his/her career choice. For example, if one is born in a family where the parents are drunkards, the child might decide to become a counselor in order to give advice to other children who want to engage in the vice of drinking while others might get involved in drug taking and abuse at an early age in life. The opportunity that life presents itself in one’s development stages reflects greatly on the assumptions made by an individual. Those who have plenty of opportunities at their disposal become reluctant in choosing careers since they have a variety of them to choose from while those with insufficient funds have minimal career choices due to the fact that they can afford a majority of them. The environment that one grows in will determine their career development process since the teachers, coaches, and community at large need to contribute in building of their career, which is a long process, all together (Herr & Brook, 1990). The age of individuals at different life span development stages comes with different choices. Those who are in their early stages will make choices depending on their parents’ decision and lead while those in their mid stages are bias and think only of themselves. The older adults will make choices bearing in mind that there are so many people who will be affected They put the needs and feelings of others first especially because they have children who need guidance and counseling (Magnusson, 1997). In conclusion, Super did could have planned this outcome from the beginning. However, it is a process that is inevitable since not all individuals in that particular stage will undergo all of them at the same time. Many people in the 21st century are making changes in their careers in their late stages of life rather than retiring because they were not ready in their early stages of life to make decisions that are going to build them. The most important side effect of this life span development is the advances made in career paths by allowing people to intervene in their decision making process hence their trends in work places generate gains from the societal. Brenman-Gibson, M (1997), “The legacy of Erik Homburger Erikson.”, Psychoanalytic review. Boyd, D, &. Bee, H. (2008). Lifespan Development. MA: Allyn and Bacon. Carter, B., & Mcgoldrick, M. (2005). The Expanded Family Life Cycle: Individual, Family, and Social Perspectives. MA: Allyn & Bacon. Carter, B., and McGoldrick, M. (1988). The Changing Family Life Cycle: A Framework for Family Therapy. New York: Gardner Press. Demick, J., & Miller, M. (1993). Development in the workplace. New York: Routledge. Herr, E., & Brooks, L. (1990). Career choice and development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Herr, E. & Cramer, S. (1988). Career guidance and counseling through the life span. Boston: Scott, Foresman. Holland, J. (1985). Making vocational choices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Magnusson, D. (1997). The lifespan development of individuals: behavioral, neurobiological, and psychosocial perspectives: a synthesis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Newman, M., & Newman, R. (2008). Development through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. New York: Cengage Learning. Patton, W., & McMahon, M. (2006). Career development and systems theory: connecting theory and practice. Chicago: Sense Publishers, 2006. Stafford, Tim. (1989). As Our Years Increase-Loving, Preparing: A Guide. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Santrock, J. (2008). Life Span Development. Boston, MA: McGraw Hill. Super, D. (1990). A life-span, life-space, approach to career development. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. The Bulletin> Spring 2003 > A Look at Donald Super’s stages of Career Development in the 21st Century. Retrieved Sunday, 01 March 2009 from http://www.contactpoint.ca/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=354&catid=58&Itemid=37.

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Response: Strategies for 'Trauma-Informed Teaching' (This is the first post in a two-part series) The new question-of-the-week is: What is trauma-informed teaching and what does it look like in the classroom? Editor's Note: This two-part series is being "guest-hosted" by a longtime regular contributor to this column and a widely respected educator, Rita Platt. Dr. Christy Wolfe, Jason Harelson, Chris Weber, and Jenny Grant Rankin, Ph.D. contribute responses in today's column. I was able to talk with Rita, Christy Wolfe, and Jason on my BAM! Radio Show on this topic. You might also be interested in The Best Ways For Responding To Student Trauma - Help Me Find More, as well as resources found in previous posts here on Race & Gender Challenges. Introduction By Rita Platt Rita Platt (@ritaplatt) is a national-board-certified teacher and a proud #EduDork! Her experience includes teaching learners of all levels from kindergartner to graduate student. She is currently the principal of St. Croix Falls and Dresser Elementary Schools in Wisconsin, teaches graduate courses for the Professional Development Institute, and writes for MiddleWeb. If you are currently a practicing teacher, chances are that you have heard the term trauma-informed teaching. These days, it seems there is quite a bit of buzz about the topic, and educators are clamoring for tools and strategies to help students who are affected by traumatic experiences big and small. This year is my first as the principal of an elementary school. It is my 25th as an educator, and I still have so much to learn. What I struggle the most with is what strategies I can use when students exhibit extreme behaviors. Read the email I recently sent to a dozen of my principal colleagues who serve in diverse settings across the country. Dear Friends and Partners in Teaching & Learning, Please help me puzzle out a question that kept me from sleep last night. As you know, this is my first year at the helm of my wonderful school. It's going well, but I could use some support. Like almost all schools, I suppose, we have an increasing number of children displaying extreme behaviors. Yesterday, right at the end of the day, two of our sweeties, one a 2nd grade girl and the other a 4th grade boy, had meltdowns that were intense. Later, at the after-school program, one of them completely lost control and was violent toward another student. I took a few good punches, too (no worries, I am made of cold hard steel, LOL!). We are a very proactive building and surround kiddos with nurturing. The relationships are in place. We have a strong classroom/school management system in place, use behavior-intervention strategies pulled right from PBIS World when needed, and we work hard to do our best. I am in constant contact with parents and do home visits with some frequency. But, for some hurting students, it is not enough. I am reaching out to learn from your experience. That was the set up, here are the thought questions: - What strategies are you using to help children affected by trauma to be successful? - How do you keep extreme behaviors from hindering the experiences of the other children? - How are you helping teachers who are exhausted and feel ineffective? Thank you so much! I truly look forward to any thinking you can share. Hugs & love to each of you! Unfortunately, my colleagues near and far felt just as humbled by the challenges of teaching our students who suffer from trauma-related issues as I do. That makes me think that it's time for us to put our collective heads together and seek some answers. Which leads to this guest column graciously offered by fellow answer-seeker Larry Ferlazzo. In this two-part series, you'll read answers to the questions of what trauma-informed teaching is and strategies for using it in your practice. Response From Dr. Christy Wolfe Christy Wolfe, Ph.D, J.D., is an assistant professor in the Education Department at Coe College, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. She teaches courses in educational foundations, secondary teaching strategies, and social-justice issues in education. Her favorite thing about teaching is, of course, the students: Trauma-informed teaching is a huge topic. I want to share three points. One, every teacher will teach students who have suffered from trauma. Two, acknowledging that trauma is important. Three, holding high expectations and teaching all students to persevere and live in hope can be a game-changer for many. I am a college professor who works with preservice teachers. Once, when a colleague and I were discussing the trouble one of our students was having in a math-methods course, my colleague said, "I wonder what happened to her in 4th grade. ... " When I looked at her quizzically, she explained, "I can tell when one of our students experienced trauma based on what math skills she lacks. Divorce, a move, a family death, or extended illness—I don't know what kind of trauma—but I know what grade they were in when it happened based on what the student struggles with: long division, fractions, decimals." Through the years, as I've seen students shudder at the thought of taking a college-level math class, I've asked them about their elementary school math experiences. A student would recount that, when she was in 3rd grade, Grandma came to live with the family as Grandma fought (and eventually succumbed to) cancer. It was hard for her to learn that year, and that is why fractions still bewilder her. Another would roll his eyes as he talked about his parents' divorce and how he learned to navigate two homes and his parents' new dating lives but not how to navigate the area of 3D figures. One of the common misconceptions of trauma is that it has a beginning and an end. Trauma is more like a broken leg—it takes a long time to heal, it's never quite the same, and, in the right conditions, when the weather changes, it aches for seemingly no good reason. Consequently, all teachers are teaching to trauma, be it a new break or an old bone, aching with a change in the weather. Teachers must learn to triage the new breaks, but we also can't forget the scars left behind, possibly years ago, that get in the way of a student's learning. When my daughter was in 8th grade, we suffered a family tragedy; two of my sisters—Lizzie's aunts—were murdered. It was devastating to our family, and we all walked blindly for a while. But as the rest of us got used to the new normal, my daughter got stuck. She would cry at school, sitting in the counselor's office for hours at a time. She stopped doing homework. She stopped going to school. It got to the point where it was hard to tell where the tragedy stopped and the trauma started. Acknowledging a student's struggle is important: "I know, it's hard, but we'll just keep working." My daughter was fortunate. At her junior high, teachers, counselors, and administrators gave her space but also closed in on her when she needed support. Several shared their own stories of loss and perseverance. Most just gave her a place to feel safe until her anxiety passed and she could get back to work. In addition to offering empathy and support, teachers must continue to maintain high expectations and standards for students who have lived with trauma. What a powerful gift we could give to students if we could lead them to persevere in the face of adversity. This doesn't mean forsaking flexibility altogether. Extending a deadline is OK; letting the student skip the assignment is not. Asking the student to try is important; giving them a "day off" is not. Another element that needs to be present in trauma-informed teaching is hope. Let students know: One day does not define them. Trauma is part of their experience but not who they are. Help students forget the chaos long enough to dive headfirst into a new math concept or engage with a short story. Make a student laugh with a dumb joke or silly lesson. At the end of the day, say, "See you tomorrow, have a great night.Tomorrow, everything will be different; hopefully, everything will be just a little better! But, even if it's not better, I'll be here waiting for you." Response From Jason Harelson Jason Harelson is an educator, father, golfer, and guitar player. His experience includes educating students at every grade from pre-K to college. Jason is currently the principal at Luck Elementary School in Wisconsin: I learned very early on in my teaching career that students never acted out without reason. Perhaps the student was tired, hungry, had a fight with a friend, had gotten scolded by a parent or another teacher, or was simply having a bad day. If you spend enough time in the classroom with a group of students, you'll notice that some seem to have a bad day every day, and it usually isn't long until you find out why. For these students, it may be a divorce, a sick relative, a recently deceased pet, and in extreme cases, you find that sometimes students are victims of past or even ongoing abuse; in short, trauma is at the heart of the issue. There have been countless meetings in schools where iterations of this conversation have played out: Teacher A: "What is going on with Madison these days? She doesn't seem herself." Teacher B: "You didn't hear? Madison's parents are going through a divorce; seems her father is an abusive alcoholic." But being informed of trauma isn't the same as trauma-informed teaching. The conversation above illustrates the easy part—figuring out the why of student behavior. But, it's the the now-what? part of the equation that is important. Too often, teachers will let students like Madison off easy; they might feel sorry for her and let assignments go unfinished, not mention when she's five minutes late to class, or let it go unaddressed when she is disrespectful. How should we respond appropriately when one of our students shows symptoms of a trauma in his or her personal life? Unfortunately, the most common response isn't the most appropriate one. We want to let things slide, we want to take it easy on the student. We feel that to act in this manner is appropriate compassion. Not only is this not the answer, it is inaction. While we must acknowledge the trauma and by no means not ignore it, educators also have a duty to teach students when it matters most—when the chips are down and students are at their most vulnerable. We have a duty to teach resilience and perseverance. In my experience working with children affected by trauma, I have found that there are three keys: acknowledgment, compassion, and consistency. Trauma has to be acknowledged, but we cannot let the trauma define. Compassion is also important. Once the trauma is acknowledged, it is OK to express that you have empathy and even share a similar harrowing ordeal or offer other resources to help students see themselves reflected in other places and people. Last, consistency in offering a quality education and expecting students to treat themselves and others with respect is critical, too. That means avoiding letting things slide and avoiding treating students differently because of what you know. Holding a student of trauma to the same expectations as everyone else helps reinforce that trauma does not define us. Unfortunately, facing traumatic experiences is a fact of life. In fact, trauma is all too often right around the corner for all of us, but we cannot let it win. We are human beings, and history has taught us that we can persevere through it all; really, we have had no other choice. Part of the human experience is tragedy. Teaching students to deal with tragedy and trauma is just as important as teaching the alphabet. As the profession of teaching is continuously honed and fine-tuned over time, we must endeavor to improve our responses in trauma-informed ways because our students will inevitably face trauma. Response From Chris Weber Chris Weber has been a high school, middle school, and elementary school teacher and has served as a secondary and elementary school administrator. He has worked at district offices in districts in California and in the Chicago public schools. A graduate of the U.S. Air Force Academy, he was a pilot in the U.S. Air Force before becoming a teacher. He earned his Ed.D. from UCLA and has written books on PLCs, RTI, behavior, and mathematics that have supported well over a quarter of a million educators: There are far too many students who have experienced or are experiencing traumas in our schools. And, there are too many times when we do not know who these children are or about their experiences. While there are experts from whom we all have so much to learn, I believe that there are also three practical steps that we should take in schools. * Let's improve our screening practices, actively seeking information on students' literacy, numeracy, and behavioral skills and about their lives so that we can proactively prepare both Tier 1 and Tier 3 support * Let's commit to creating Tier 1 environments where positive mindsets exist, in which students: - Feel as though they belong because, without expectations, they feel connected to someone and something at the school. - Believe that they have the chance to succeed and make progress. - Find relevance and value in activities, curriculum, and instructional strategies. - Know that their ability grows with effort. * Students who have experienced or are experiencing trauma will, logically and tragically, experience difficulties in school. These difficulties may appear as challenges with transitions, adverse reactions to sensory inputs, or hyperactivity and inattentiveness. These symptoms reveal needs in the areas of precognitive self-regulation and emotional and sensory-input coping skills. Educators are skilled in teaching academic skills; we can and must similarly teach the skills that students need to succeed, emotionally and socially, in school and life. With advanced information from screening, we can have supports in place for students who are most vulnerable before school years even begin. Timely and specific information from screening will also allow us to develop a suite of wraparound supports for students experiencing trauma. We can both work with districtwide and communitywide agencies to leverage resources and develop and implement school-based Tier 3 plans that involve more frequent check-ins and monitoring and students' involvement in small-group or individual counseling supports. If it's predictable, it's preventable. We can predict that students in these tragic situations will very likely need supports. We can go a long way toward preventing difficulties, or the exacerbation of difficulties, by proactively supporting students most in need. Response From Jenny Grant Rankin, Ph.D. Dr. Jenny Grant Rankin teaches the PostDoc Masterclass at the University of Cambridge but lives most of the year in California writing books for educators like First Aid for Teacher Burnout and Sharing Your Education Expertise with the World. She has a Ph.D. in education and served as an award-winning teacher, school administrator, district administrator, and chief education & research officer. Dr. Rankin has been honored by the White House for her contributions to education: Trauma-informed teaching involves (1) understanding how adverse experiences impact a person and (2) using this understanding to inform how a teacher works with students to help them learn and prosper. Following are three examples of how such teaching can look in your classroom. Each reflects my research but was also drawn from my own experience teaching (all student names have been changed). Really Know Your Kids More than 50 percent of students have experienced trauma, yet kids "wear" their experiences in different ways. While Mary might "act up" to release an abundance of anger, Juan might be highly obedient and quiet in an effort to avoid notice entirely. Persist in your efforts to know about each child's life and to discover what each kid needs most from you. Help Your Kids Calm Down When a child is in a "fight, flight, or freeze" state of mind—something that can persist throughout the school day—his or her education is severely hampered as the areas of the brain essential to learning are essentially cut off. These children are more likely to be defiant, aggressive, unfocused, forgetful, and underperforming academically. Cho's teachers might think, "Cho is trying to disrespect us!" but really Cho's brain is telling her "you aren't safe, and nothing else matters!" In my classroom, when Cho's tone escalated, it was especially important for my voice to remain calm and my words to remain cordial as I reminded her of our arrangement: Cho could excuse herself to sit at my desk and write in a journal when she felt triggered. She might write a letter to me about her feelings or merely articulate what was happening for her own benefit. This setup helped Cho learn to regulate her own behavior, return to instruction more quickly, and be reminded that our classroom was a safe space for her. Uncover the Real Problem When Damon shouted "F--- you" across the classroom at another student and threw down his book on his chair, some teachers might have chosen to confront Damon in front of the class or send him out of the room. But a confrontation would halt all students' learning and turn them into an audience, and sending Damon from the room would communicate rejection and abandonment to Damon, while also signaling to the rest of the class that I couldn't handle my job. Instead, I gave the class a quick direction (to keep their learning activity moving) and directed Damon to meet me near my desk (so we could speak in relative privacy). Instead, Damon stepped outside and waited for me just outside the door, and through the window I could see him pacing. Despite our rapport and history, when I squeezed half my body outside I saw Damon was red-faced and scowling as if ready for me to scream at him. Instead I said, "You are such a wonderful young man, Damon, and so I'm superconfused by what just happened in there, because shouting like that doesn't match up with this great guy I know and I know you know that's not the way to act in class. So I need you to help me understand what is going on with you today." The obvious love—when Damon expected the opposite—disarmed the young teen immediately. Damon broke down in tears, telling me his mom's boyfriend had beaten her in front of him that morning before class. Only then could I really understand how to best help Damon. You Matter, Too While trauma-informed teaching commonly addresses ordeals a student has weathered, it should also encapsulate trauma experienced by the student's teacher. An American Federation of Teachers survey revealed that within a single school year 18 percent of teachers were threatened with physical violence at school, and 9 percent were physically assaulted. Regular exposure to campus violence, among other stressors, can leave teachers with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or similar concerns that interfere with their ability to thrive and feel comfortable in the classroom. Teachers must be supported in navigating workplace trauma for the sake of students and teachers alike. We all matter and we all deserve to benefit from a trauma-informed classroom. Thanks to Rita for guest-hosting, and to Christy, Jason, Chris, and Jenny for their contributions! Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post. Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected]. When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it's selected or if you'd prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind. You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo. Education Week has published a collection of posts from this blog, along with new material, in an e-book form. It's titled Classroom Management Q&As: Expert Strategies for Teaching. Just a reminder; you can subscribe and receive updates from this blog via email or RSS Reader. And if you missed any of the highlights from the first seven years of this blog, you can see a categorized list below. The list doesn't include ones from this current year, but you can find those by clicking on the "answers" category found in the sidebar. I am also creating a Twitter list including all contributers to this column. Look for Part Two in a few days.

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Lesson 1: A Radical Approach to Trials (James 1:1-4)Related Media One of the popular TV shows when I grew up was “Dragnet,” starring Jack Webb as Joe Friday, a detective with the Los Angeles Police Department. Joe Friday was a no-nonsense cop. His famous line was, “Just the facts, Ma’am.” He didn’t want to hear anything irrelevant to solving the case. If somebody went off on a tangent, he cut to the quick with, “Just the facts, Ma’am.” James is the Joe Friday of the New Testament. He cuts to the bottom line without messing around. He’s not really interested in hearing your profession of faith. He wants to see your practice of the faith. Several writers refer to James as the least theological epistle in the New Testament, except for Philemon. It’s not that James discounts the importance of sound doctrine, but rather that he wants to see that doctrine affecting how we live. Talk is cheap; James wants to see results. Of the 108 verses in the book, 54 (half) contain imperative verbs. James is like a crusty sergeant barking orders at the troops. He wants to see some action! Who was James? There are several men in the New Testament by that name. We know that this James was not the apostle James, brother of John, because he was martyred in A.D. 44, too early for this epistle. The vast majority of scholars agree that the author of James was the half-brother of Jesus (Matt. 13:55). Apparently he did not believe in Jesus as Lord until after the resurrection, when the risen Savior appeared to him (see John 7:5; 1 Cor. 15:7). He became the leader of the church in Jerusalem in the years following the Day of Pentecost (Gal. 2:9; Acts 15:13-29; 21:17-25). He became known as “James the Just” (or, “Righteous”) because of his well-known holiness. James could have pulled rank by opening the letter, “James, the son of the virgin Mary, brother of none other than Jesus Christ. I grew up with Him! I knew Him long before He became famous!” But James (1:1) and his brother, Jude (Jude 1), both opened their letters by calling themselves bond-servants. The word means, “slaves,” and refers to those who are the property of their masters. They had no rights. They lived to do their masters’ will. James adds, “a bond-servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ.” By mentioning God and Jesus Christ on equal terms, and adding “Lord,” the Old Testament word for God, to Jesus, James affirms the deity of Jesus Christ. James wrote this letter to “the twelve tribes who are dispersed abroad” (1:1). This identifies his main readers as Jews who lived outside of Israel. The contents of the letter further identifies them as followers of Christ, although they were perhaps still worshiping in synagogues (“assembly” in 2:2 is literally, “synagogue”). It is likely that James was the first New Testament book written, perhaps around A.D. 47 (before the Jerusalem Council in 49). According to Josephus, James was martyred in 62. Some of the readers had probably been members of the church in Jerusalem, but they had scattered into many locations because of the persecution that arose after the death of Stephen (Acts 8:1; 11:19-20). Because of anti-Semitism in the Roman Empire, these believers in Christ were often the brunt of hostility both from the pagan world, as well as from their own people. Word got back to James of some of the difficulties that these brethren were encountering: affliction from without (5:1-6) and, as often happens at such times, conflicts within (2:1-13; 4:1-12). Some were lapsing into a superficial, formal religion that professed orthodox beliefs, but practiced selfish, ungodly lifestyles (1:22-27; 2:14-26; 3:9-12). As a pastor, James writes to these scattered Jewish believers to make the point: True faith shows itself in practical, godly living. He develops several themes: endurance through trials; the dangers of riches and encouragement to the poor; the law and love; faith and works; the coming of the Lord; and, humility. But his main point is that true biblical faith works. Many writers claim that there is no unifying theme to James, but that it is just a series of unrelated, random exhortations. But, as difficult as it may be to outline the book, I think that the contents may be arranged under this theme of true faith. James is giving a series of tests by which one may determine whether his faith is genuine or false (D. Edmond Hiebert makes this point, “The Unifying Theme of the Epistle of James,” Bibliotheca Sacra [135:539, July-September, 1978], pp. 221-231). I offer this outline: Introduction: Author and recipients (1:1). 1. True faith responds with practical godliness under testing (1:2-27). A. True faith responds with joy when it faces testing (1:2-4). B. True faith seeks God for wisdom in times of testing (1:5-8). C. True faith adopts God’s eternal perspective in both poverty and riches (1:9-11). D. True faith perseveres under testing, not blaming God for temptations (1:12-18). E. True faith obeys God’s word, even when provoked (1:19-27). 2. True faith shows itself in practical obedience (2:1-26). A. True faith does not show partiality (2:1-7). B. True faith practices biblical love (2:8-13). C. True faith proves itself by its works (2:14-26). 3. True faith controls the tongue and acts with gentle wisdom (3:1-18). A. True faith controls the tongue (3:1-12). B. True faith acts with gentle wisdom (3:13-18). 4. True faith resists arrogance by humbling oneself before God (4:1-5:18). A. True faith practices humility in relationships (4:1-12). B. True faith practices humility with regard to the future (4:13-17). C. True faith practices humility by waiting for God to judge the wicked who have wronged us (5:1-11). D. True faith practices humility by speaking the truth apart from self-serving oaths (5:12). E. True faith practices humility by depending upon God through prayer (5:13-18). Conclusion: True faith practices biblical love by seeking to restore those who have strayed from the truth (5:19-20). With that as a brief introduction and overview of the whole book, let’s zero in on James’ radical approach to trials (1:2-4). Writing to refugees who have suffered the loss of their homes and homeland, plus many of their possessions, who are being persecuted in the places that they have sought refuge, James says, When we encounter trials, we should count it as joy, submitting to God, knowing that He is using it for our maturity. Kent Hughes (James: Faith that Works [Crossway], pp. 17-18, ellipsis marks his) imagines the original readers response: “How nice…a letter of encouragement from Pastor Whacko! Don’t worry …be happy!” We may hesitate to call James “Pastor Whacko,” but we might question whether his advice is practical and realistic when we’re going through terrible trials. It may work for the little irritations that we encounter every day, but is it realistic advice for facing the huge trials that hit us? Before we write off James as a masochistic weirdo, we should recall that two other New Testament writers said similar things. Peter wrote to suffering believers whose faith was being tested by fire. He told them that “to the degree that you share the sufferings of Christ, keep on rejoicing” (1 Pet. 4:13; see also, 1:8). The apostle Paul wrote (Rom. 5:3), “And not only this, but we also exult in our tribulations, knowing that tribulation brings about perseverance….” He wrote Philippians from prison, and the theme of that letter is joy in Christ. He gave that impractical command, “Rejoice in the Lord always; again I will say, rejoice!” (Phil. 4:4; see also, 1 Thess. 5:16). Not only that, but Paul practiced what he preached. As he sat in a Philippian jail cell, unjustly arrested and beaten, unable to sleep, he and Silas sang praises at midnight (Acts 16:25). And so if we write off James as being a bit out of touch with reality, we also have to write off Peter and Paul! The alternative is to consider that perhaps these godly men were onto something. Consider three things: 1. We should adopt a radical attitude in trials: “Consider it all joy” (1:2). “Consider” means to think, count, or regard something based on weighing and comparing of facts. It denotes deliberate and careful judgment stemming from external proof, not subjective judgment based on feelings (Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament [Harper & Brothers, 1887], p. 276; A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament, G. Abbott-Smith [Charles Scribner’s Sons], p. 119). Although powerful emotions are inevitable when we encounter severe trials, once the emotions have subsided a bit, we need to think about the trial from a biblical perspective. Let’s consider several aspects of this radical attitude: A. This radical attitude accepts trials as expected, not as a surprise. James does not say, “if you encounter various trials,” but when. It’s not an elective. It’s a required course in the school of faith. As Peter wrote (1 Pet. 4:12), “Beloved, do not be surprised at the fiery ordeal among you, which comes upon you for your testing, as though some strange thing were happening to you; …” Many Christians naively think that if they obey the Lord, they will be spared from any trials. When trials hit them, they are confused and often angry at God: “I was following You! Why did You allow this to happen?” But the Bible gives abundant testimony that all of God’s saints encounter trials. And these trials are not necessarily the consequence of disobedience. Rather, God uses them to test our faith. They will be varied according to His sovereign purpose. We cannot understand why He sends the particular trials that He does, but whatever they are, we can know that they are from Him. B. This radical attitude does not require denying emotional pain. I base this observation on several Scriptures. Jesus did not condemn Mary for weeping at the death of her brother Lazarus. Rather, He wept, too (John 11:33-35). When the Savior faced the cross, He did so with “loud crying and tears” (Heb. 5:7). Paul instructs us, “Rejoice with those who rejoice, and weep with those who weep” (Rom. 12:15). Hebrews 12:11 acknowledges, “All discipline for the moment seems not to be joyful, yet sorrowful….” So James does not mean, “Put on your happy face and deny that you’re hurting.” C. This radical attitude is not natural. While believers grieve, they do not grieve as those who have no hope (1 Thess. 4:13). Our response to trials should distinguish us from the world. Underneath the grief and tears, there should be the serene confidence that God is in control. He will cause “all things to work together for good to those who love God, to those who are called according to His purpose” (Rom. 8:28). “Weeping may last for the night, but a shout of joy comes in the morning” (Ps. 30:5). “Those who sow in tears shall reap with joyful shouting. He who goes to and fro weeping, carrying his bag of seed, shall indeed come again with a shout of joy, bringing his sheaves with him” (Ps. 126:5-6). Biblical joy in times of trials is not natural optimism. It is the joy of hope in God and His sure promises. D. This radical attitude results from a deliberate choice. The choice is, “Will I trust in God and His promises, or not?” As James says, it is our faith that is being tested. We do not know if our faith is genuine until it stands up under the test. You can buy a jacket that claims to be waterproof. If you wear it on dry days, you have not put the jacket to the test. The test of that jacket is, if you get caught in a downpour, does it keep you dry? If it does, you say, “That’s a good jacket!” It’s easy to proclaim, “I trust in God!” Anybody can say that. But, the test of your faith is when you really do choose to trust God in a severe trial. Afterwards, you know that your faith is genuine, because it brought you through the trial. But the point is, when you are faced with a trial, you have a choice: Will I trust God and the promises of His Word, as I have professed to do, or not? To trust God and experience His hope and joy in the midst of trials is a radical attitude that James commands us to adopt. 2. We should understand a reassuring truth in trials: “Knowing that the testing of your faith produces endurance” (1:3). There are two aspects to this reassuring truth: A. God is sovereign over every trial. The verse implies that God is using the trials for His purpose. He is not sitting in heaven saying, “I didn’t want that to happen, but now that it has happened, let’s see how we can make the best of a bad situation!” Scripture is clear that God is sovereign over everything, from the rain and snow that fall (Job 37:6-13), to seemingly random events (the lot, Prov. 16:33), to the events of nations (Ps. 22:28; Acts 14:16; 17:26). On the personal level, He ordained all of the days of our lives before we were ever born (Ps. 139:16). He fashions our hearts (Ps. 33:14-15) and orders our steps (Ps. 37:23; Prov. 16:9; 20:24). There are some radical Arminians (“Open Theism”) who try to get God off the hook when it comes to trials, saying, “This was not in His plan.” They argue that God does not control (or even know in advance!) the choices we make. But the Bible affirms that God is sovereign over birth defects (Exod. 4:11), natural disasters (Gen. 6:17; Jonah 1:4), and even over the evil things that people do, although He is not responsible for their sin (Gen. 50:20; Exod. 4:21; 1 Kings 22:23; Isa. 10:5; Acts 4:27-28). It robs people of comfort and creates a very scary world, where evil is out of control, to deny God’s sovereignty over trials, because it denies that He is purposefully working those trials for our ultimate good. The hymn writer had it right: “Every joy or trial falleth from above, traced upon our dial by the Sun of Love” (Frances Havergal, “Like a River Glorious”). B. God is using the trials to test our faith to produce endurance. Testing is like the refining of a metal: it produces a better product through the process. “Endurance” is the better translation here. It means to stand fast or persevere. R. C. Trench (Synonyms of the New Testament [Eerdmans], p. 198), says that the Greek word translated “patience” is used with respect to persons, whereas “endurance” refers to things. Thus the man is patient who is not easily provoked or angered by difficult people, whereas the man endures who does not lose heart under great trials. We might call it “spiritual toughness” (Hughes, p. 19). Picture an athlete who pushes himself to build up strength and endurance for an upcoming race. If it’s a 10k run, he may start with 5k and gradually extend his distance and speed. If he’s serious about winning, he will be running farther than 10k before the race, so that the race will seem easier than what he is conditioned for. In the same way, when we endure trials by faith, our faith is stronger for the next trial. We know that we can endure, because we’ve already been through previous trials. And when we endure trials by faith, with joy, it brings glory to our Lord and Savior. Thus when we encounter trials, we should adopt the radical attitude of counting it all joy. We should understand the reassuring truth, that our sovereign God is using it to develop enduring faith. 3. We should submit to the refining process in trials: “Let endurance have its perfect result” (1:4). “Let” implies submission to God in the trial. Submitting to God does not necessarily mean passively enduring it without praying for relief. Paul prayed that God would remove his “thorn in the flesh.” He stopped praying when God told him, “My grace is sufficient for you” (2 Cor. 12:8-9). Being submissive to God does not necessarily mean that we do not take steps to remedy the problem. If the trial is the loss of a job, it is right, in dependence on the Lord, to seek another job. If the trial is an illness, it is right not only to pray, but to seek medical help. If it is a difficult circumstance, it is not necessarily wrong to try to change the circumstance. Submission is an attitude toward God, where we do not defiantly shake our fist in His face and tell Him that He has no right to do this to us. We are not submitting to Him if we ignore Him and take matters into our own hands, apart from prayer and faith. One of the best examples of submission was Job. After God afflicted him, he said, “The Lord gave and the Lord has taken away. Blessed be the name of the Lord” (Job 1:21). Briefly note two things: A. Recognize that maturity is a process, not instant perfection. “Let endurance have its perfect result….” This isn’t a quick fix. The word “perfect” does not imply that you reach a point in this life where you’ve arrived and need no further progress. I find myself failing in lessons that I thought that I had already learned. So, I have to take the course over again and again! We don’t graduate until we go to heaven. B. Submitting to the process will result in spiritual maturity. God’s goal in the trials is “that you may be perfect and complete, lacking in nothing.” Again, this does not mean that you can arrive at a state of sinless perfection or perfect maturity in this life. Rather, the idea is that you will be spiritually mature, well-equipped for the purpose that God created you. The fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22-23) will be evident in your daily life. Peter Davids says that the word complete “stresses the incremental character of the process. That is, perfection is not just a maturing of character, but a rounding out as more and more ‘parts’ of the righteous character are added” (New International Greek Commentary, James Eerdmans], p. 70). William Barclay observes (The Daily Study Bible, the Letters of James and Peter [Westminster Press], p. 44), “By the way in which we meet every experience in life we are either fitting or unfitting ourselves for the task which God meant us to do.” John Piper (Future Grace [Multnomah Press], pp. 171-172) relates the amazing story of Marie Durant (from Karl Olsson in Passion [Harper & Row]). In the late 17th century, in southern France, Marie was brought before the authorities and charged with the Huguenot heresy (being a Reformed Protestant). “She was fourteen years old, bright, attractive, marriageable.” She was asked to recant her Huguenot faith. “She was not asked to commit an immoral act, to become a criminal, or even to change the day-to-day quality of her behavior.” She was only asked to say, “I recant.” She refused. Together with thirty other Huguenot women, she was put into a tower by the sea and left there for 38 years. She and her fellow martyrs scratched on the wall of their prison tower the single word, “Resist!” Tourists still see and gape at that word on that stone. Olsson reflects (ibid., p. 172), We can understand a religion which enhances time… But we cannot understand a faith which is not nourished by the temporal hope that tomorrow things will be better. To sit in a prison room with thirty others and to see the day change into night and summer into autumn, to feel the slow systemic changes within one’s flesh: the drying and wrinkling of the skin, the loss of muscle tone, the stiffening of the joints, the slow stupefaction of the senses—to feel all this and still to persevere seems almost idiotic to a generation which has no capacity to wait and to endure. Piper points out that a key adjective in that story points to the power of Marie Durant’s endurance. Olsson said, “We cannot understand a faith which is not nourished by the temporal hope that tomorrow things will be better.” Piper adds (ibid.), “Surely we cannot, if ‘temporal’ hope is the only kind we have. But if there is a hope beyond this temporal life—if future grace extends into eternity—then there may be a profound understanding of such patience in this life.” James (5:7) later encourages us, “Therefore be patient, brethren, until the coming of the Lord.” His radical approach to dealing with trials is: Adopt a radical attitude: “Consider it all joy.” Understand a reassuring truth: “Knowing that the testing of your faith produces endurance.” And, submit to the refining process: “let endurance have its perfect result, so that you may be perfect and complete, lacking in nothing.” That is one way that true faith responds with practical godliness under testing. - Are we supposed to deny our feelings when we “consider it all joy” in time of trial? How does this work in practice? - Why does the Open Theism view that God is not sovereign over trials rob God’s people of hope and comfort? - Some Christian psychologists say that to encourage a suffering saint to “trust God” is useless advice. Agree/disagree? Why? - Is it sin to feel sorrow and grief in a trial? If not, how do these feelings fit in with God’s joy? Copyright, Steven J. Cole, 2005, All Rights Reserved. Unless otherwise noted, all Scripture Quotations are from the New American Standard Bible, Updated Edition © The Lockman Foundation

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by the Revd Dr Alan Garrow Alan’s work recently enjoyed attention as the focus of the $1,000 Synoptic Problem Challenge—as taken up by Mark Goodacre on Bart Ehrman’s blog (we covered the debate here, here, and here). While having an interest in the Synoptic Problem, the primary focus of Garrow’s research is the Didache, or The Teaching of the Lord by the Twelve Apostles to the Gentiles. This article offers an overview of how his research impacts questions about that identity of this infamously enigmatic early Christian document. Conservators working on an ordinary-looking renaissance painting discovered that, beneath various attempts at repair and restoration, lay a very different picture. A series of indicators suggested that, far from being the work of an inauspicious follower, they were dealing with an original Leonardo masterpiece. The painting, which had once sold for $45, subsequently achieved a record-breaking $450 million. On the surface, the Didache, an early Christian text discovered in 1873, looks like a rather mundane document falsely claiming authorship by the Twelve Apostles. On closer inspection, however, certain elements suggest that, beneath the surface, lurks something much more special. This article notes five features of the Didache that suggest something of that star quality. Each feature offers a route to solving a New Testament puzzle that might previously have appeared impenetrable. 1. The Synoptic Problem The Synoptic Problem, perhaps the most notorious of all New Testament puzzles, has resisted a satisfying resolution since it first became the subject of scholarly enquiry about 200 years ago. A development that might help resolve the question of the relationship between the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke would be access to new, relevant evidence. The Didache is a potential source of exactly the type of new evidence required. The sayings in Did. 1.2–5a are strikingly parallel, but different, to those found in Matt 5.38–48 and Luke 6.27–36. 1.2 Now the way of life is this: first, you shall love the God who made you; second, your neighbour as yourself, and everything that you would not have done to you, do not do to another. 1.3a The teaching of these words is this: 1.3b Bless those that curse you and pray for your enemies, fast for those that persecute you. 1.3c For what merit is there if you love those that love you? Do not even the Gentiles do the same? But love those who hate you and you will not have any enemy. 1.4a Avoid the fleshly and bodily passions. 1.4b If someone strikes you on your right cheek, turn the other also, and you will be perfect. If someone forces you to go one mile, go two. If someone takes your coat, give your shirt also. If someone takes away from you what is yours, do not ask for it back, since you cannot. 1.5a To everyone asking of you give, and do not ask for it back, for the Father wishes that gifts be given to all from his own bounty. Some form of relationship between these three sets of sayings is unavoidable. And, if the original creative activity of the compiler of the Didache reappears in a Gospel, this will show that that Gospel depends on the Didache, rather than the reverse—in which case a solution to the Synoptic Problem should soon come into view. Did. 1.2–5a is made up of two distinct sections. Did. 1.2 belongs to a version of the Two Ways ethical tractate, while Did. 1.3–5a is a catena of sayings inserted into the Two Ways to expand the meaning of the preceding commands. It is striking and remarkable, therefore, that the sayings in Did. 1.2 and Did. 1.3–5a appear in an integrated form in Luke 6.27–36. Not only that, the various small differences between Luke 6.27–36 and Did. 1.2–5a make consistent sense as arising from a Lukan attempt to create a smooth and integrated set of sayings out of the rough and awkwardly juxtaposed sayings in Did. 1.2 and Did. 1.3–5a. In the course of this “smoothing” process, Luke coins two distinctive expressions: “love your enemies” (by combining Did. 1.2 “love … your neighbor” with Did. 1.3 “pray for your enemies”) and the positive Golden Rule (Did. 1.2 has the negative Golden Rule, but most of the sayings in Did. 1.3–5a are positive). “Love your enemies” and the positive Golden Rule reoccur, of course, in Matthew’s Gospel (having not otherwise appeared in any more ancient context). At the same time, Matthew also shares a set of small unique agreements with Did. 1.2–5a. This invites an intriguing possibility: that the pattern of similarity and difference between Did. 1.2–5a, Luke 6.27–36, and Matthew 5.38–48 is a consequence of Matthew conflating Luke 6.27–36 with Did. 1.2–5a. If this were the case, the study of the Synoptic Problem could be released from the repetitive debates of the past to consider a new possibility: Mark came first; Luke used Mark and other sources (such as the sayings in Did. 1.2–5a); and Matthew then conflated Mark, Luke, and on occasion, Luke’s sources (e.g. Did. 1.2–5a). Under this arrangement, Did. 1.2–5a falls within the basket of written and oral resources known to both Matthew and Luke—a set of resources that might be termed “Q”—with the quotation marks indicating that this loose collection of resources should be understood as distinct from the approximately 4,500-word Q entertained by the International Q Project. * For more on Matthew’s use of Luke, see Alan Garrow’s “Streeter’s ‘Other’ Synoptic Solution: The Matthew Conflator Hypothesis,” NTS 62.2 (2016). An illustrated presentation of this article is available at www.alangarrow.com/mch.html. ** For more on Didache 1.2–5a as a source for Luke and then for Matthew, see Alan Garrow “An Extant Instance of ‘Q,’” NTS 62.3 (2016). An illustrated presentation of this article is available at www.alangarrow.com/extantq.html. 2. The Thessalonians’ inexplicable grief For some reason, Paul’s teaching on the events of the End caused the Thessalonians to grieve without hope over those who, having responded to Paul’s message, subsequently died. What could Paul have taught to create such an effect? More challenging still, what could Paul have said that, having caused the Thessalonians’ grief, was then susceptible to correction by the means Paul then offers in 1 Thessalonians 4.13–18? Any attempt at an imaginative reconstruction of Paul’s initial teaching would be bound to tie itself in knots. It is particularly striking, therefore, that the eschatological scheme set out in Didache 16.1–6, 8–9 provides what is required with exceptional precision. This scheme is capable of being read as suggesting that only those who remain faithful in the course of the final persecution will be saved. Further, it implies that only these martyrs may join the army of “holy ones” who accompany the Lord at his Parousia. If this were indeed the scheme taught to the Thessalonians by Paul, then this could explain why they believed that those who died before the final trial would be without hope—they would have missed the opportunity to demonstrate the reality of their faith through martyrdom. The really tricky part in all this, however, is that if Paul is to deal with their hopeless grief, he must steer the Thessalonians toward a different interpretation of the same tradition. Once again, Didache 16 fills the exacting brief. This scheme includes ambiguities at precisely such points as would allow Paul to redirect its narrative according to the pattern set out in 1 Thessalonians 4.15–17. * For a fuller presentation of this proposal, see Alan Garrow, “The eschatological tradition behind 1 Thessalonians: Didache 16,” JSNT 32.2 (2009), also available via https://www.alangarrow.com/didache-and-paul.html **‘… the fact that the Didache contains at least one tradition known to Paul’s churches is an exciting discovery, and it opens the way for finding out how much more of the Didache is pre-Pauline.” – Stephen Carlson, SBL Philadelphia, 2005 3. The Acts-Galatians Conundrum According to Richard Pervo, it is “well beyond reasonable doubt”1 that the meeting described in Act 15.6–29 is the same as that described in Galatians 2.1–10, and yet, if this is indeed the case, there are some significant discrepancies between the two accounts. Acts records two visits to Jerusalem prior to the Acts 15 visit; Galatians 2 mentions, quite emphatically, only one. Acts records the creation of formal Apostolic Decree; Galatians mentions only a private conversation and a handshake. How are these differences to be explained? One option, commonly known as the “South Galatia Theory,” is that Paul wrote Galatians in the period between the Dispute at Antioch (Acts 15.1–2//Gal 2.11–14) and the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15.6–29). This theory has several important strengths but also some critical weaknesses. For example, why would Paul address his letter to “Galatians” before he could have founded churches amongst the people group most naturally identified by this title?2 Further, Paul presents his meeting with the Apostles (in Gal 2.1–10) in a way that is curiously reminiscent of the Council in Acts 15. This would seem to require Paul to offer a prescient description of what would happen at that future Council. Those scholars who reject the South Galatian theory, for these and other reasons, tend to favor a solution wherein Luke simply fictionalized various elements of his account. Indeed, the Fellows of the Westar Institute rate almost all of the relevant Lukan narrative as “Black/Improbable.”3 This is problematic inasmuch as it requires Luke to risk the credibility of his entire presentation by resting a key element of his case for gentile inclusion on a document that he knew to be fictional. A route beyond this impasse is, however, available. All that is required is to allow that the apostles might genuinely have produced a decree at a council at which Paul was present—but that this decree was not as straightforwardly supportive of Paul’s position as Luke’s (partisan) account would have us believe. If it did indeed have such a double-edged quality, then the following sequence of events becomes possible: - Responding to a predicted famine, Paul and Barnabas take a gift to Jerusalem (the famine relief visit), at which point the Pillar Apostles accept the non-circumcision of Antioch’s gentile believers. - Later, visitors from Jerusalem to Antioch insist that gentile believers must be circumcised. Paul, confident of having recently secured the apostles’ support, agrees to take this dispute for their adjudication. - The ensuing Council does not go as Paul expects. The apostles are persuaded to produce a compromise, a double-edged decree. - Paul nonetheless elects to use this document as an instrument of mission in Galatia. He commends it to the new converts and emphasizes “edge one”—circumcision is not required for membership. - Paul’s opponents come to Galatia in his wake. They trumpet Paul’s submission to the Jerusalem apostles and his acceptance of their decree. They also point out “edge two”—circumcision is ultimately required for salvation. - The Galatians write to Paul cheerfully announcing that they are ready to take the next step in their newfound faith—as recommended by the document Paul himself commended to them and which has now been more fully explained by his “friends” from Jerusalem. - Paul writes Galatians, a letter that makes full sense against a background in which the Galatians have been quickly persuaded (Gal 1.6) and “bewitched” (3.1) into believing that Paul was, after all, preaching the ultimate necessity of circumcision (5.11). Under this scenario, there is a good reason why Paul does not appeal to the Decree—even while being fully aware of its contents. Once the Decree had been “turned” by his opponents, it would have become a weapon Paul must parry rather one he could have attempted to wield himself. Paul would also have had reason not to recall the events of the formal Council, since the story of the Council only serves to emphasize how he had submitted to the apostles and accepted their Decree. Instead, Paul would have a motive to highlight what had happened at the famine relief visit. There is every reason to expect that he would have been well received as the bearer of a generous gift—and it is entirely credible that his practice of welcoming uncircumcised gentiles would have gone uncontested on that occasion. Galatians 2.1–10 is best understood, therefore, as Paul’s attempt to present the famine relief visit as a “true council,” one at which the mind of the apostles was expressed independent of the machinations of the Judaizers. This would explain why the context of the Galatians 2.1–10 meeting matches that of the Acts 11.27–30 famine visit (preceded by a long absence from Jerusalem, and followed by the Incident at Antioch) while its content echoes that of a decision-making Council (circumcision is not required for Gentiles – viz Titus). By the simple expedient of replacing Luke’s single-edged Decree with a double-edged one, therefore, the Acts-Galatians conundrum is solved. The only difficulty with this approach is that it relies on the notion that the Apostolic Decree could have had two specific, and perhaps seemingly incompatible, properties. First, it is required to have supported Paul’s position with sufficient force for him to commend it to the Galatians at the founding mission. At the same time, however, it is required to have been susceptible, in the hands of the Judaizers, to an interpretation wherein salvation could not be achieved without circumcision. Is it realistic to expect that such a document could ever have existed? This is another point at which the Didache proves unexpectedly useful. It is double-edged in precisely the dimensions required: - The Didache allows baptism without circumcision (Did. 1.1–6.3) and thence permission to participate in the Eucharist (cf. Did. 9.5). If participation in the Eucharist is regarded as the mark of full membership, then full membership may be achieved without circumcision. - The Didache also warns, however, that “the whole time of your faith will be of no account unless you are perfected at the final hour” (Did. 16.2). Further, it describes “perfection” as something that may be achieved by keeping “the whole yoke of the Lord” (Did. 6.2). The Judaizers could then have argued that the whole yoke should be understood as meaning the whole Torah, including circumcision. This is not to suggest that that it must be interpreted in this way, merely that, in the hands of (potentially self-styled) ambassadors of the Jerusalem Apostles, a case persuasive to the neophyte Galatians could have been made. This opens up another intriguing possibility: that the earliest form of the multi-layered Didache, or, to give it its full title, The Teaching of the Lord, by the Twelve Apostles, to the Gentiles, is the complete Apostolic Decree—a document partially recalled (in every sense) by Luke in Acts 15.23–29. ** A paper exploring the notion that the Original Didache is the Apostolic Decree was presented at the combined Paul and Acts Seminars of the British New Testament Conference, September, 2017. An illustrated video version is available at www.alangarrow.com/bntc2017 4. Paul’s Lost “Scripture” On every other occasion where Paul uses the formula “ὡς/καθὼς γέγραπται,” he then goes on to quote a passage of the LXX. In 1 Corinthians 2.9, however, the closest LXX passage is Isaiah 64.4, where the similarities between the two are somewhat limited. It is, of course, possible that, for some unknowable reason, Paul chose to misquote Scripture on this unique occasion. It is more likely, however, that “καθὼς γέγραπται” indicates Paul’s knowledge of these lines as a written source—the authority of which warranted the use of this formula. The seemingly unanswerable puzzle that remains, of course, is the identity of that document. In the face of this conundrum, two features of the Didache are particularly striking. First, Paul attributes an extraordinarily high status to the Didache’s eschatological provisions (cf. The Thessalonians’ grief, discussed above). Thus, in 1 Thessalonians 4.15, he describes the Didache’s eschatological scheme as “a word of the Lord.” It is credible, therefore, that Paul would have thought it appropriate to use “καθὼς γέγραπται” when quoting from the Didache. The second striking feature of the Didache is that there are good reasons to suspect that its eschatological discourse originally concluded: 16.9 τότε ἀπελεύσονται οἱ μὲν πονηροὶ εἰς αἰώνιον κόλασιν, οἱ δὲ δίκαιοι πορεύσονται εἰς ζωὴν αἰῶνιον, κληρονομοῦντες ἐκεῖνα, ἃ ὀφθαμὸς οὐκ εἶδεν καὶ οὖς οὐκ ἤκουσεν καὶ ἐπὶ καρδίαν ἀνθρώπου οὐκ ἀνέβη, ἃ ἡτοίμασεν ὁ θεὸς τοῖς ἀγαπῶσιν αὐτόν. 16.9 Then the evil shall go to eternal punishment but the righteous shall enter into life eternal inheriting those things which eye has not seen and ear has not heard and which has not arisen in the heart of man. Those things which God has prepared for those who love him. Given Paul’s knowledge of Did. 16, as evidenced in 1 Thessalonians, and given the high status he attributes to this tradition, it is credible that the Scripture he quotes in 1 Corinthians 2.9 is Did. 16.9. * A detailed rationale for the reconstruction of the lost ending of the Didache is provided in Alan J P Garrow, The Gospel of Matthew’s Dependence on the Didache (LNTS 254, Continuum, 2004) 44–64. 5. What is Revelation? The Book of Revelation is, perhaps, the New Testament text that bristles with more seemingly unanswerable puzzles than any other. Among this mass of imponderables lies one that has been, understandably, almost universally overlooked: why does Revelation have so many features in common with the Didache? Specifically, why are there are so many distinctive points of similarity in their ethics, eucharistic resonances, and eschatology? The extent of these similarities indicates the likelihood of some form of relationship between the two texts. Furthermore, the much more elaborate forms found in Revelation suggest that this text falls later in the stream of developing tradition than does the Didache. But what, more precisely, could their relationship be? Two factors are critical to the answer I propose. First, it appears that Revelation was designed to be read in six separate installments—each of which leads into an invitation to share in the Eucharist. Second, Did. 10.7 includes the phrase: “allow the prophets to give thanks as much as they wish.” This advice could explain how the Didache’s simple instructions regarding the Eucharist could have been combined with the Didache’s brief eschatological narrative to create the extraordinary, six-installment book of Revelation. In short, the Didache’s eucharistic and eschatological patterns provided the creative fountainhead out of which Revelation was born. And, from this fresh starting point, many of Revelation’s infamous puzzles take on a different, more transparent, complexion. * For more on the theory that Revelation was designed to be read in six separate installments, see Alan J P Garrow, Revelation (Routledge, 1997) and https://www.alangarrow.com/revelation.html. ** For more on the relationship between the Didache and Revelation see: “The Didache and Revelation” in J. A. Draper and C. Jefford’s (eds.) A Missing Piece of the Puzzle in Early Christianity (Atlanta: SBL, 2015). Text also available at www.alangarrow.com/didache-and-revelation.html. What lies beneath? As Salvator Mundi’s conservators gradually peeled away the later layers of retouching and restoration, they no doubt experienced a gradual process of realization. Little by little, as more and more clues accumulated, they came to dare to believe that they really were handling a lost Leonardo masterpiece. The publications and papers noted above represent initial steps in an exploration of the possibility that the Didache, in its original form, is the complete Apostolic Decree: the letter to gentile believers composed by James the Brother of Jesus and the Jerusalem Apostles in 48 CE at the Council described, albeit in partisan fashion, in Acts 15. ** A detailed analysis of the Didache’s compositional history, including an estimate of its earliest form, may be found in Alan J P Garrow, The Gospel of Matthew’s Dependence on the Didache (LNTS 254, T&T Clark Bloomsbury, 2004). Alan Garrow is the Vicar of St Peter’s Church in Harrogate, UK, and a member of the Sheffield Interdisciplinary Institute for Biblical Studies at the University of Sheffield. Don’t forget that this is the last week to save 20% on any Logos base package. - R.I. Pervo, Dating Acts: Between the evangelists and the apologists [Santa Rosa, Calif.: Polebridge Press, 2006], 80. The Acts version of the Jerusalem conference [Acts 15.6-29] is so similar to Paul’s version [Gal 2.1-10] that it has to be the same event [emphasis added] (D.E. Smith and J.B. Tyson [eds.], Acts and Christian Beginnings: The Acts Seminar Report [Polebridge Press, 2013], 333). - E.P. Sanders, Paul: The Apostle’s Life, Letters, and Thought (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2015). In “Appendix II: Where was Galatia? Who were the Galatians?” pp. 748–77. Sanders discusses the identity and location of the audience of Galatians at length. - Smith and Tyson eds., The Acts Seminar Report.

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