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The universe is big - really big. Just our Milky Way galaxy alone is about 300 billion stars, with planets whizzing around them and clouds of gas and dust floating in between. Then there is our orbiting companion, the Andromeda Galaxy and a small group of galaxies in our Local Group, which is about 3 million light years across. What is in the vast unknown remains a mystery but a recent paper shed light on our immediate neighborhood - bright galaxies within 35-million light years of the Earth. "All bright galaxies within 20 million light years, including us, are organized in a 'Local Sheet' 34-million light years across and only 1.5-million light years thick" said Professor Marshall McCall of York University, Canada. "The Milky Way and Andromeda are encircled by twelve large galaxies arranged in a ring about 24-million light years across – this 'Council of Giants' stands in gravitational judgment of the Local Group by restricting its range of influence." The brightest galaxies within 20 million light years of the Milky Way, as seen from above. The largest galaxies, here shown in yellow at different points around the dotted line, make up the ‘Council of Giants’. Credit: Marshall McCall / York University. Side view of the brightest galaxies within 20 million light years of the Milky Way. Credit: Marshall McCall / York University. McCall says twelve of the fourteen giants in the Local Sheet, including the Milky Way and Andromeda, are "spiral galaxies" which have highly flattened disks in which stars are forming. The remaining two are more puffy "elliptical galaxies", whose stellar bulks were laid down long ago. Intriguingly, the two ellipticals sit on opposite sides of the Council. Winds expelled in the earliest phases of their development might have shepherded gas towards the Local Group, thereby helping to build the disks of the Milky Way and Andromeda. McCall also examined how galaxies in the Council are spinning. He comments: "Thinking of a galaxy as a screw in a piece of wood, the direction of spin can be described as the direction the screw would move (in or out) if it were turned the same way as the galaxy rotates. Unexpectedly, the spin directions of Council giants are arranged around a small circle on the sky. This unusual alignment might have been set up by gravitational torques imposed by the Milky Way and Andromeda when the universe was smaller." The boundary defined by the Council has led to insights about the conditions which led to the formation of the Milky Way. Most importantly, only a very small enhancement in the density of matter in the universe appears to have been required to produce the Local Group. To arrive at such an orderly arrangement as the Local Sheet and its Council, it seems that nearby galaxies must have developed within a pre-existing sheet-like foundation comprised primarily of dark matter. "Recent surveys of the more distant universe have revealed that galaxies lie in sheets and filaments with large regions of empty space called voids in between" says McCall. "The geometry is like that of a sponge. What the new map reveals is that structure akin to that seen on large scales extends down to the smallest." Citation: Marshall L. McCall, 'A Council of Giants', MNRAS May 01, 2014 440 (1): 405-426. doi: 10.1093/mnras/stu199 - PHYSICAL SCIENCES - EARTH SCIENCES - LIFE SCIENCES - SOCIAL SCIENCES Subscribe to the newsletter Stay in touch with the scientific world! Know Science And Want To Write? - Gravitational Waves? Watch the LIGO press conference at 10:30 Eastern. - LIGO, Gravitational Waves, And Laser Interferometry - Giddings: The 750 GeV Diphoton Resonance Is A Graviton - Starting Age Of Marijuana Use May Have Long-term Effects On Brain Development - The Greenhouse Effect Fallacy - Native Grass Make Super-Thin Condoms - Lipid-based Diets Effectively Combat Alzheimer's Disease In Mouse Model - "Yes the details of the gravitational waves they detect will be very important. Will they..." - "For what its worth (and at this point, it is worth nothing), my space-times-time invariance as..." - "Here's a link to the twins study: http://news.meta.com/2016/01/18/twinsstudy/..." - "Marijuana creates a greater degree of grey matter in the brain. it is the most important human..." - "The USA is not a democracy it is a federal republic based on a combination of Native American and..."

http://www.science20.com/news_articles/where_the_milky_way_stands_in_the_council_of_giants-133533

Pain in the English offers proofreading services for short-form writing such as press releases, job applications, or marketing copy. 24 hour turnaround. Learn More Joined: August 28, 2012 (email not validated) Comments posted: 1 Votes received: 6 The key is not to confuse part of speech with function (I just gave a lecture on this toady). The "word" is a conjunction. There are three basic types of conjunctions: coordinating (and, but, for, not, etc...), suboordinating (after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, until, when, where, whether, and while), and correlative (both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, so...as, and whether...or). Coordinating conjunctions are used to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. For example, I didn't wake up on time SO i was late. A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s). For example, “Begin grooming your kitten while it is still young.” Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence elements. For example, "I am neither happy nor saddened by the news about the change in the school calendar." "While" is a conjunction. Specifically, it is a coordinating conjunction that joins the independent clause "Begin grooming your kitten" and "it is still young." By adding "while," it forms a dependent or suboordinating clause. It is true that the function of the clause is adverbial, but that doesn't change the part of speech of the word. There are three types of dependent or suboordinate clauses: 1) noun, 2) adjective, and 3) adverb. Since the whole clause performs the function of an adverb (indicating a time that a predicate should be performed), the whole "clause" is adverbial; however, the word "while" is still a conjunction within that clause. I hope this helps! August 28, 2012, 7:38am ©2016 CYCLE Interactive, LLC.All Rights Reserved.

https://painintheenglish.com/users/view/10539

The first horses in North America would not have been able to hold their own in the Triple Crown. At just about 5.6 kilograms the Sifrhippus sandrae hoofed onto the scene some 56 million years ago about the size of a small dog. But then a funny thing happened. In the next 130,000 years during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, these small equines got even smaller, reaching the tiny size of 3.9 kilograms—some 30 percent lighter than their initial heft. Just 45,000 years later, however, the genus had bulked up to seven kilograms. And the horses were not the only ones. Many other mammals in the area followed the same pattern. These animals' sizes likely resulted from relatively rapid climate change, suggest the authors of a new study published online Thursday in Science. The study "highlights the importance of temperature on evolution—particularly mammal evolution," says Felisa Smith, a professor of biology at the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque, who wrote an essay on the findings in the same issue of Science. And it adds a new high-resolution tracking of body size and temperature during a crucial—and long puzzling—time in geologic history. Looking the small horse in the mouth The researchers did not have complete skeletons to measure for all of the animals, so to track the size of the horses over time they looked at their teeth—in particular, their molars. "It turns out that teeth are much better than femurs," Smith says. A leg bone "does tell you something about size, but teeth are much better." And as far as teeth go, she says, "the best thing to know is the area of the first molar." The teeth came from a fossil-rich area called Cabin Fork in Wyoming and are part of a substantial collection at the University of Florida built in part by study co-author Jonathan Bloch, an associate curator of vertebrate paleontology there. From the collection, the research team could estimate the size of about 44 diminutive adult horses. Some 40 percent of other mammals in the area seem to have experienced similar shrinking and subsequent growth, notes co-author Ross Secord, a vertebrate paleontologist at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. They stuck with the small horses, however, because they had much more solid records from which to accurately date the samples. The researchers used oxygen isotopes left by freshwater in the fossils to track mean annual temperature from when the animals had been alive. In particular, they sampled the isotopes from teeth of a large, water-dwelling mammal Coryphodon. With these isotope readings, "you get a little, tiny window as to what the temperature was at that time," Smith says. This close reading has excited Smith and others who have been tracking animal size over the ages. "Although we knew that temperature might set a maximum for body size," Smith says, the new findings actually present a mechanism—and do so in a very detailed manner, showing "how animals responded to a particular temperature at a particular place at a particular time." Backing Bergmann's rule The concept that ambient average temperature likely influences body size is not new. Naturalists have long observed this trend geographically, but as Smith notes, Secord and his colleagues present a strong case for the correlation to occur over deep archeological time. And the mechanisms behind this theory, known as Bergmann's rule, have been fiercely debated since the mid-19th century, when it was introduced. One argument posits that temperature affects body size for the ease of keeping cool—or of staying warm. As the overall volume of an object increases, the relative amount of surface area decreases. This relationship is handy if you live in high latitudes and are a mammal that needs to retain as much warmth as possible. But if you live in the tropics and are trying to avoid overheating, it should be better to have a smaller body size, which would give relatively more surface area through which to shed heat. But this direct temperature correlation might not be the only force at work in the case of the mini horses. Previous studies have suggested that temperature and, more specifically, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels influence body size more via an indirect impact on food availability and nutritional content. But the sustained shrinkage of these horses over tens of thousands of years suggests a deeper genetic change that held fast over generations. "We can't say it didn't have an effect," Secord says of the nutritional changes. But, he notes, "we saw some fluctuations from wet to dry to wet to dry in these intervals, and the body sizes of these animals aren't changing" in parallel. Instead, the animals' sizes followed the single up and down of the average temperatures. A smaller, hotter future? The new findings hold implications for digging deeper into the past—as well as looking into our own warmer future. Smith suggests using the data to learn more about the other organisms in Sifrhippus's world to see if they were largely following the same pattern. "What about the predators?" she asks. "Were there some lineages that responded in another way? I think that would be phenomenally interesting." Before we can understand what past climate change meant for more animals—"there needs to be a lot more work on modern animals," Secord says. Ancient animals, however, might give us an insight into how modern animals might fare with our predicted climate change. Although the era Secord and his colleagues studied experienced a similar increase in temperatures (five degrees Celsius or more) as is predicted for us for the near future (four degrees C), he points out the ancient animals had tens of thousands of years to adapt to changing temperatures—rather than just centuries. "The question is now, over the next century or two, are we going to see a shift in body size?" Secord asks. "Are they going to be able to adjust quickly enough?" He hopes that many species will be able to keep pace, especially those with shorter generations. Many bird species have already been getting smaller over the past few decades. And if animals do undergo size changes with future climate change, as Secord points out, we are not going to be seeing smaller race horses—unless we breed them that way. "This is certainly something that is going to be restricted to wild animals," he says. "Anything that has a way of artificially regulating temperature or diet is going to take it out of the loop." That would certainly apply to jockeys and the rest of us humans, too.

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/24/miniature-horse-sifrhippus_n_1298853.html

Far more work has gone into reconstructing it than any other proto-language, and it is by far the best-understood of all proto-languages. The techniques of comparison and analysis are called historical linguistics. Discovery and reconstruction[change | change source] There are several competing hypotheses about when and where PIE was spoken. Scholars estimate that PIE may have been spoken as a single language (before divergence began) around 3700 BC. Estimates by different authorities can vary by more than a millennium. The most popular hypothesis for the origin and spread of the language is the Kurgan hypothesis, an origin in the Pontic-Caspian steppe of Eastern Europe. Method[change | change source] There is no direct evidence of PIE, because it was never written. All PIE sounds and words are reconstructed from later Indo-European languages. The asterisk is used to mark reconstructed PIE words, such as *wódr̥ 'water', *ḱwṓn 'dog', or *tréyes 'three (masculine)'. Many of the words in the modern Indo-European languages seem to have derived from such "protowords" by regular sound changes, such as Grimm's law. Phonology[change | change source] |This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.| |Fricatives||s||h₁, h₂, h₃| |Liquids, Glides||w||r, l||j| These phonemes are generally accepted: - Short vowels a, e, i, o, u - Long vowels ā, ē, ō; sometimes a colon (:) is employed to indicate vowel length instead of the macron sign (a:, e:, o:). - Diphthongs ai, au, āi, āu, ei, eu, ēi, ēu, oi, ou, ōi, ōu - vocalic allophones of consonantal phonemes: u, i, r̥, l̥, m̥, n̥. Accent[change | change source] PIE had a free pitch accent, which could appear on any syllable. This distinguished between different meanings of a word by high or low pitch. Morphology[change | change source] PIE was an inflected language, meaning it had roots with suffixes. This basic root shape is often altered by ablaut. In linguistics, ablaut is a system of regular vowel variations. An example of ablaut in English is the strong verb sing, sang, sung and its related noun song. Synthetic[change | change source] Most Indo-European languages are synthetic. By that is meant a "a high morpheme-per-word ratio". Morphemes may be stuck together to make composite words, as in German. Or, root words may be joined to "bound morphemes" to show function. They are morphemes which only appear as part of a larger word. - German example: Aufsichtsratsmitgliederversammlung => "Supervision + council + member + assembly" - Spanish example: escribiéndomelo => "writing it to me" These methods were probably typical of PIE. Languages like English, which has very few such combinations, are derived from earlier, more typical Indo-European languages. English is derived from Anglo-Saxon, a western Germanic language. That English once was synthetic like German is shown by Cranberry morphemes, so called because the "cran-" is a fossil of a word which no longer exists. Likewise mulberry and raspberry, where also the first syllable is a bound morpheme. Sample texts[change | change source] As PIE was spoken by a prehistoric society, there are no genuine sample texts. Scholars have made various attempts to compose example texts for purposes of illustration. These texts are educated guesses. In spite of its 150 years' history, comparative linguistics is not in the position to reconstruct a single well-formed sentence in PIE. Nevertheless, such texts do have the merit of giving an impression of what a coherent utterance in PIE might have sounded like. A passage by Schleicher has been reworked a number of times: Schleicher (1868)[change | change source] Avis akvāsas ka - Avis, jasmin varnā na ā ast, dadarka akvams, tam, vāgham garum vaghantam, tam, bhāram magham, tam, manum āku bharantam. Avis akvabhjams ā vavakat: kard aghnutai mai vidanti manum akvams agantam. Akvāsas ā vavakant: krudhi avai, kard aghnutai vividvant-svas: manus patis varnām avisāms karnauti svabhjam gharmam vastram avibhjams ka varnā na asti. Tat kukruvants avis agram ā bhugat. Comment: Schleicher's reconstruction assumed that the o/e vocalism was secondary, and his version of PIE is much more closely based on Sanskrit than modern reconstructions. Hirt (1939)[change | change source] - Owis, jesmin wьlənā ne ēst, dedork’e ek’wons, tom, woghom gʷьrum weghontm̥, tom, bhorom megam, tom, gh’ьmonm̥ ōk’u bherontm̥. Owis ek’womos ewьwekʷet: k’ērd aghnutai moi widontei gh’ьmonm̥ ek’wons ag’ontm̥. Ek’wōses ewьwekʷont: kl’udhi, owei!, k’ērd aghnutai vidontmos: gh’ьmo, potis, wьlənām owjôm kʷr̥neuti sebhoi ghʷermom westrom; owimos-kʷe wьlənā ne esti. Tod k’ek’ruwos owis ag’rom ebhuget. Comment: Hirt introduced the o/e vocalism, and some rather different consonants. English translation[change | change source] The Sheep and the Horses - [On a hill,] a sheep that had no wool saw horses, one of them pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses." The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool." Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain. Some of the differences between the texts are just varying spelling conventions: w and u̯, for example, are only different ways to indicate the same sound, a consonantal u. However, many other differences are because there are different views on the sounds and structure of PIE. Related pages[change | change source] References[change | change source] - Mallory J.P. & Adams D.Q. 2006. The Oxford introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European world. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-929668-5 - Ivanov, Vyacheslav V.& Gamkrelidze, Thomas 1990. The early history of Indo-European languages. Scientific American 262, March. - Beekes Robert 1995. Comparative Indo-European linguistics: an introduction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. ISBN 90-272-2150-2 (Europe), ISBN 1-55619-504-4 (U.S.) - Russell D. Gray and Quentin D. Atkinson, Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin, Nature 426 (27 November 2003) 435-439 Other websites[change | change source] - American Heritage Dictionary: - PIE grammar - Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (Leiden University) - Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (University of Texas) - Indo-European Documentation Center at the University of Texas - "The Indo-Uralic Verb" by Frederik Kortlandt - Say something in Proto-Indo-European (by Geoffrey Sampson) - An Overview of the Proto-Indo-European Verb System (by Piotr Gąsiorowski) - Many PIE example texts - PIE root etymology database

https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language

German scientists said recently that moon samples collected during the 1960s and 1970s have shown new evidence that the moon formed when a young Earth collided with another celestial body. The smash-up between an early form of Earth and a planetary body named Theia some 4.5 billion years ago is put forth by what scientists call the Giant Impact Hypothesis of moon formation. While most experts support the notion, they say the only way to confirm such an impact is to study ratios between the isotopes of oxygen, titanium, silicon and others. Until now, researchers studying lunar samples that arrived on Earth via meteorites have found that the Earth and moon were quite similar in makeup. But using samples collected from the lunar surface by Nasa’s Apollo 11, 12 and 16 moon missions, and more advanced scientific techniques, scientists found something new. “They were able to detect a slightly but distinctly higher composition of the oxygen isotope in the lunar samples,” said the study in the journal Science. “This very small difference supports the Giant Impact Hypothesis of moon formation.” According to theoretical models of the collision, the moon would have formed mostly from Theia, at between 70% and 90%, with some 10%-30% coming from Earth. But researchers now say the moon could be a 50/50 mixture of Earth and Theia remnants, though more study is needed to confirm. “The differences are small and difficult to detect, but they are there,” said lead author Daniel Herwartz of Georg-August-Universitat Gottingen. “We can now be reasonably sure that the Giant collision took place.” – AFP

http://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/features/2014/06/11/new-evidence-shows-when-the-moon-was-formed/

This video uses a series of examples and student-active segments to investigate the concepts of torque and equilibrium. The primary context is balance in the human body. Students are involved in partner activities, brainstorms, and problem-solving segments as the video progresses. After watching this video students will be able to: Funding provided by the Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD) Developed by the Teaching and Learning Laboratory (TLL) at MIT for SUTD MIT © 2012 Here are two people. They're both standing, but they're standing in two completely different ways. Which person would it be easier to push over? If you wanted to push this person [left] over, where would you apply a force? What about this [right] person? The answers to all these questions can be explained using the concept of torque. This video is part of the Representations video series. Information can be represented in words, through mathematical symbols, graphically, or in 3-D models. Representations are used to develop a deeper and more flexible understanding of objects, systems, and processes. Hi. I'm Sanjay Sarma. Professor of mechanical engineering at MIT, In this video, we'll be talking torque and balance. In order to understand these core concepts, you'll need a working knowledge of vectors and their uses. Specifically, you must be familiar with force, displacement, and torque. We will also assume that you know how to compute a cross product, and how to use the Right-Hand Rule, and that you have done problems involving the center of mass of an object. Our objective is to improve your ability to draw torque diagrams, and give you some practice with setting them up. By the end you should also understand what is needed for human beings to balance. We'll start with an activity. Everyone stand up and spread out across the room. You'll need a partner for this activity. When I say "go," your goal is to carefully push your partner over. Use the smallest amount of force you can. You will switch partners halfway through, so be gentle. When you push, consider where you should push, and in what direction. Try many different approaches. Here are some questions that may help you think about this in a scientific manner. When it comes to your push, where will you push? What direction will you push? How hard will you push? Consider your partner as well: how is your partner standing? What is the floor like under your partner's feet? Can your partner balance well? Are you ready? Go! Your teacher will now lead you in a short discussion about this activity. Pause the video here. Let's continue our investigation of torque and balance in the human body. Take a look at this next video clip, in which MIT researchers Colin Fredericks and Jennifer French demonstrate the effectiveness of properly applied torque. [Colin speaking] This is called "Sai son" stance. This is a basic stance in martial arts. Known for it's stability along a particular direction. This is my colleague, mathematician Jennifer French. Jen knows the stance is strong along certain directions–such as the one she is pulling in now. It can also withstand a great deal of force in the opposite direction. I'm not going to be knocked over if she is pushing or pulling along that particular line. However, Jen knows the stance's weak point. If she pushes along a different line, it'll knock me right down to the ground. This isn't just martial arts. This is science. Torque controls my ability to balance and we're going to show you how today. [Sanjay speaking] To analyze the situation, let's look at what physical properties are important here. What forces do you think are involved? Pause the video to discuss. Next, draw a simple diagram that you can use to find the net torque on this man. Pause the video while you do this. The simplest way to represent this man is with a rectangle. You should remove any other details, and draw our forces so that we can tell exactly where they are applied to his body. Finally, if you were to draw a diagram showing someone resisting a push, how would you do it? Which of these three is most appropriate? Pause the video to discuss. You may be wondering why we can use a two-dimensional diagram to discuss a three-dimensional situation. The reason is that all of our forces are applied in the same plane, simplifying the problem. While our torque vectors point in and out of the screen on this diagram, we can represent that fairly easily. In a more complex situation, we may need to draw something more fully three-dimensional, as our torques might point in other directions. This next video clip will walk you through a partial analysis of this situation. You will need a way to take notes and draw diagrams while you watch. [Jen speaking] I couldn't push Colin over by applying force in the stable direction. Yet when I applies the same force in a different direction, I could push him over. How did I know this? Here you see two 2-dimensional views representing Colin. The width of the base represents the distance between his feet. The wide square is the view of Colin from the side and stable states. The narrow rectangle is the view of Colin from straight on. Lets draw in the forces acting on Colin as I push him in the stable directions. Start by drawing the center of mass. Which we assume is at the center of the square. The force of gravity pulls straight down with magnitude three halfs. There is also the force of my push of length one. Which we place in the location where the force is applied. This push shifts Colin's weight entirely to his back foot. So the normal force is applied there with a magnitude equal and opposite that of force p. The force of friction is also at this foot. Equal and opposite the magnitude and direction of the push force. Recall that torque is r cross F. That is, torque occurs when a force is applied some displacement distance from a reference point. We can choose any reference point we like, and the net torque we compute will be the same. For this problem I will choose the reference point to be the pivot point. Why don't you try this problem but choose the center of mass as the reference point. Lets get back to the problem. The push force and the gravitation force are applied some distance from the pivot point at the foot. So they will create torque. However, the friction force and normal force are applied at the pivot point. So R is zero and we can ignore that when we compute the net torque. Lets compute the torque due to the push force. The vector r is the displacement from the pivot point to where the force is applied. We decompose this vector into its x and y components. We use a coordinate system with origin at the pivot point to determine the r vector to be 4i + 3j. The magnitude of the push force is negative one i. The magnitude of torque can be found as the magnitude of r times the magnitude of F times sin theta. Where theta is the angle between the two vectors. Thus the magnitude is the area of the parallelogram formed by r and F. Since the area of this parallelogram is also the area of the rectangle formed by F and r sin theta or the component of r that is perpendicular to F. We can see this magnitude visually as the area of this rectangle. We will show the magnitudes in this way because it is very easy to see the relative magnitudes of the various torques. For the push force the area is 3, which mean the magnitude of the torque is 3. The direction of the torque vector is along the axis of rotation caused by this force. We find the direction using the right hand wall. Point our fingers along r and curl along F. In this case we find the direction to be out of the board or positive k. So this tells us that the torque due to the push force is equal to 3k. We can also find the torque vector by taking the determinate of the following three by three matrix. The first row is i, j, and k. The second row are the x, y, and z components of the r vector. And the third row are the x, y , and z components of the force vector. Because r and F lie in the same plane, the z components are zero. In our example, the force is pointing in the negative i direction and r we found to be 4 i plus 3 j. Computing it this way, we also find that the torque is 3k. Now let's find the torque due to gravity. The vector r is found by connecting the pivot point to the center of mass. We leave to you to pause the video and to determine the components of r using this coordinate system. We find the magnitude of the torque by taking the component of r that is perpendicular to F pointing in the x direction, and the magnitude is the area of the rectangle between these two vectors. Again, we find the direction using the right hand rule. We find the torque to be pointing into the board at the pivot point. Since the x component of the r vector is 2, and the force due to gravity is 3 halves, pointing in the negative j direction. The magnitude of the torque due to gravity is 3 and it points in the negative k direction. So the torque is negative 3 k at the pivot point. Adding the push torque and the gravity torque together we find that we get zero. This means that there is no rotation about the pivot point. Now let's look in the unstable direction. We have all the same forces as before- force of gravity at the center of mass, the push force, a normal force at the back foot, as well as a friction force. The magnitudes of these forces are all the same as in the other diagram. Let's compute the torque due to the push force. The vector r connects the pivot point to the place where the force is applied. Using our coordinate axes with the origin placed at the pivot point, we find this vector to be i plus 3 j. We find the magnitude of the torque vector is the area of the rectangle formed by force vector and the component of r, perpendicular to F. Thus the area is one times three, or three. In order to find the direction, we use the right hand rule. Point our fingers along r, curl in the direction of F, and our thumb points out of the board, so the direction of our torque is k. Since the magnitude is 3, that tells us that torque due to the push is 3 k at the pivot point. Finally, let's find the torque due to gravity. Start by drawing the r vector from the pivot point to the center of mass. Now let's decompose this vector into it's x and y components. We leave this as an exercise to you, using the coordinate system shown here. The magnitude of the torque due to gravity at the pivot point is found by the area of the rectangle form by the force vector and the x component of the r vector. The direction is found using the right hand rule, pointing our fingers along r and curling around F. In other words, into the board or negative k. So the torque due to gravity is one-half times three-halves or three-fourths pointing in the negative k direction. The net torque about the pivot point is the sum of these two. In other words, the torque push plus the torque due to gravity is the net torque around the pivot point, which is two and a quarter the positive k direction. That means there is a total net rotation about the pivot point. Causing Colin to fall over. We leave it as an exercise for you to use the determinate in order to compute the torque vectors. If you computed the net torque using the center of mass as the reference point, you should notice that the net torques that you found are equal to the net torques that we computed here. [Sanjay speaking] Now that you've seen torque and balancing in detail, let's consider a more complex problem. This one is a bit tricky. I'll show you how it works. I'm going to take a chair and place it next to the wall. I'll put my toes up to the wall, and step back, toe-to-heel, twice. I step sideways until I'm over the chair. Then I bend forward until my head touches the wall, pick up the chair, and stand up... er... or not. This is something that most women can do, but men cannot. Maybe you think it's a trick? Here's a video of some of your professors trying to lift [Jen speaking]Okay, walk up to the wall. Then heel toe heel toe. That's it. One more time. And now translate over but don't come in or out. Now bend over to the the wall. Bend over. Put your head on the wall. Pick the chair up. Now stand up. That's fair enough. Don't hurt yourself. No, no. There was actually no way. [laughing] Toes against the wall. Two. Okay, translate over. You might be able to do it because his feet are proportionately small. Pick it up. Pick up the chair first. Please pick up of the chair please. Now stand up. Okay. One over. Okay, then do it one more time with the other foot. Okay, now can translate over a little bit? Just move over but don't go in or out. Well, no. You want a line there. Actually... be in a little. There you go. No no no- you're fine! Just even up your feet. Bend over. Put your hands on the wall, just so you don't hit your head. now pick up the chair. Now stand up. No no. Don't do it again. You have to pick up the chair. Clean pick up. Now stand up. [Sanjay speaking] Now it's your turn to try. Get together with your partner again and bring a chair over to the wall. Why don't you pause the video and give it a try? Now that you've attempted the chair lift, let's return to our seats and discuss what happened. If you wanted to figure out why this happens, what information would you need? What assumptions would you have to make? Discuss the matter with your partner. Try to draw a diagram of the situation. Pause the video here while you work this out. Many of you should be wondering about the center of mass for this situation. This diagram shows typical locations for the center of mass in men (on the left) and women (on the right). Not only are men typically taller, but their center of mass is usually higher in their bodies. This is not always true, but it is fairly typical. Using this information, work with your partner to try to explain what is happening. Why can women lift the chair when men cannot? You do not need to obtain a numerical solution. Instead, use reasoned arguments, diagrams, and well-supported assumptions to prove your answer. Only use calculations if you cannot support your answer in any other way. Pause the video and give it a try. Are you ready to see the solution? Let's take a look. For this section we will measure torques around the center of mass. This will simplify our work so that we don't have to worry about the person's mass and the pull of gravity. This diagram shows the man lifting the chair. You can see that the center of mass is outside his body, and has been moved farther forward and down by the chair. This diagram shows the same for the woman. Her center of mass is also outside her body, but is much closer to her legs. If we draw a line for the man to indicate where his toes are, you see that the center of mass is beyond the edge of his foot! No matter how hard he tries, he simply cannot apply force in the right place to lift that chair. On our diagram, we can see that the torque will always point in the direction out of the screen. It will rotate the man counterclockwise, pushing his head harder into the wall. The harder he pushes, the worse it will be. The woman, however, has her center of mass above her feet. She can stand up because her feet are able to apply force in the proper location and direction. If we draw a torque diagram, we can see that the direction of torque applied by her feet will be into the screen. By applying more force, she can rotate her upper body clockwise and stand up, whereas the man cannot. Today we hope that you have improved your ability to draw torque diagrams, and to analyze torque problems that occur in the real world. Torque is an important quantity that comes into play in countless situations around us, from machinery to buildings to the simple act of walking. I hope you enjoyed this look at one of its fascinating applications. It is highly recommended that the video is paused when prompted so that students are able to attempt the activities on their own and then check their solutions against the video. During the video, students will: This OCW supplemental resource provides material from outside the official MIT curriculum. MIT OpenCourseWare is a free & open publication of material from thousands of MIT courses, covering the entire MIT curriculum. No enrollment or registration. Freely browse and use OCW materials at your own pace. There's no signup, and no start or end dates. Knowledge is your reward. Use OCW to guide your own life-long learning, or to teach others. We don't offer credit or certification for using OCW. Made for sharing. Download files for later. Send to friends and colleagues. Modify, remix, and reuse (just remember to cite OCW as the source.) Learn more at Get Started with MIT OpenCourseWare

http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-tll-004-stem-concept-videos-fall-2013/videos/representations/torque/

While cold fusion remains a pipe dream, fusion as an energy source for the future continues to be funded and improved. In nuclear fission, current nuclear energy, the nucleus of an atom is split, but in fusion two lightweight atoms join together. The biggest benefit is no explosion. The ITER project is seeking to turn nuclear fusion into reality and is making use of the Tokamak reactor for this purpose. Reactors of this type and the plasma used in them to carry out fusion have a number of control problems, and to solve them, electronics engineer Goretti Sevillano has come up with some tools in her thesis defended at the University of the Basque Country. Tokamak is in the pole position to obtain efficient energy from nuclear fusion, says Sevillano. “The materials used in fusion must have certain specific features, and these materials have to be turned into plasma. At the same time, the plasma has to be restricted to a limited space to enable the reaction to be generated and the energy to be used. To achieve this, magnetic confinement is applied in the case of the Tokamaks.” ITER Tokamak. credit: ITER.org The magnetic field creates lines that act as a wall to keep the plasma in place, but the plasma and the device itself have several problems that have yet to be solved. “To develop Tokamaks, many of the plasma’s parameters must be controlled, as well as the whole device itself; the currents that are going to be used, the voltage, the intensity, etc. Until all these things are controlled, it will not be possible to use these machines to produce marketable energy,” the researcher points out. Toward this end, Sevillano has embedded the code named ASTRA, frequently used to simulate the behavior of Tokamak reactors, into Matlab software. Using the code in Matlab will facilitate the development of controllers suited to these devices. “Control of the parameters is necessary to obtain the maximum energy possible from the plasma, and the amount of this energy that can be extracted is calculated on the basis of the current: the greatest amount of current possible has to be maintained during the longest time possible. That is why these parameters have to be controlled by means of the control, in turn, of the numerous coils and voltages within the structure,” she adds. Goretti Sevillano, author of the thesis. Credit: Monika del Valle / Argazki Press This PhD thesis work is only a single branch of what needs to be a complete tree. “The aim of all these tasks is to design a machine capable of generating marketable energy within the ITER project,” she explains. No rush. Nuclear fusion has been in the works for 50 years and it is always 40 years away. Sevillano's thesis is entitled Herramientas para el control del plasma en reactores Tokamak de fusión nuclear: integración Astra-Matlab y control en tiempo real (Tools for plasma control in Tokamak nuclear fusion reactors: Astra-Matlab integration and control in real time). She has also had two papers published on this, in the journals Informatica and Energy. - PHYSICAL SCIENCES - EARTH SCIENCES - LIFE SCIENCES - SOCIAL SCIENCES Subscribe to the newsletter Stay in touch with the scientific world! Know Science And Want To Write? - Top Secret: On Confidentiality On Scientific Issues, Across The Ring And Across The Bedroom - The Mystery Of The Red Sea - Would New Planet X Clear Its Orbit? - And Any Better Name Than "Planet Nine"? - Stop Using BMI To Determine Health - Make Sexual Harassment in Federally Funded Institutions a Crime. - First-semester GPA A Better Predictor Of College Success Than ACT Score - The Greenhouse Effect Fallacy - "Hello Vance,yes I know about that model, and about at least two experimental attempts, one with..." - "No, I am not from the states. It sounds like an astonishing arrangement to have multiple jurisdiction..." - "Very true. The observation I've made is that in 2001 it was John F. Nash and Alicia DeLarde ..." - "The male female difference you think is so basic isn't so simple. Consider this bird. http..." - "It is a matter of jurisdiction. In the USA the federal government can only claim jurisdiction..." - BMI is Bologna - Energy Drinks: The Dose Makes the Poison - California’s Prop 65: Bad For Public Acceptance Of Science, About To Get Worse - Wear Red Today! It’s Women’s Heart Health Awareness Day - Can Marijuana Ease NFL Players’ Pain? Claims Are All Over The Field - Mid-Life Crisis Clusters Found In 4 US Cities - Cambridge researcher develops smartphone app to map Swiss-German dialects - Studies link healthy workforces to positive stock market performance - Pioneering discovery leads to potential preventive treatment for sudden cardiac death - Online shopping might not be as green as we thought - Gene family turns cancer cells into aggressive stem cells that keep growing

http://www.science20.com/news_articles/nuclear_fusion_latest-89529

Beginning with the Stamp Act that angered the patriots, readers meet George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and other historical figures, and learn about the documents and battles that kept the fight for freedom alive. Each striking illustration introduces readers to the people, places, and events that gave birth to our nation. Grade Range: 6-12 Resource Type(s): Interactives & Media, Lessons & Activities, Primary Sources, Worksheets Duration: 10 minutes Date Posted: 4/2/2012 Louisa Susannah Wells was a female colonist who was loyal to King George III, who was banished from America and returned to England after the War of Independence. Listen to a dramatic reading of her narrative, and then study the supporting primary sources to answer the discussion questions. This resource is part of a series called “Life at Sea: 1680 to 1806,” which includes five perspectives on maritime life in the colonial period and early America. This resource includes a teacher guide, student worksheet, downloadable audio, images of supporting primary sources, and discussion questions.

https://historyexplorer.si.edu/resource/banished-louisa-susannah-wells-loyalist-woman

An estimated 16 bird species would have gone extinct between 1994 and 2004 were it not for conservation programmes that tackled their threats, reduced rates of population decline and/or increased population sizes. In addition, during this 10-year period, 49 Critically Endangered species (28%) benefited from conservation action such that they declined less severely (24 species) or improved in status (25 species). To build on these successes, BirdLife has launched a major new initiative: the Preventing Extinctions Programme. This is spearheading greater conservation action, awareness and funding support for the world’s most threatened birds, through appointing Species Guardians (to implement the priority actions) and Species Champions (to provide the resources). An ultimate aim of conservation is to preserve biodiversity intact for future generations. A critical measure of conservation success, therefore, is whether conservation action has prevented any species from going extinct. Further, have any species had their extinction risk reduced and are now safer as a result of conservation? Butchart et al. (2006) estimated that 16 species would have gone extinct during 1994–2004 were it not for conservation programmes that tackled their threats, reduced rates of population decline and/or increased population sizes. This estimate was based on assessments of candidate species’s population parameters, threats, and the nature and intensity of conservation actions implemented during the period. The mean minimum population size of the suite of species increased from 34 to 147 breeding individuals, while 63% of them had declining population trends in 1994, compared to 81% that were increasing by 2004. A second study (Brooke et al. 2008) examined the rate that species have moved through the IUCN Red List categories towards extinction during the same decade, and argued that conservation action has substantially slowed this trajectory. While three Critically Endangered species had gone extinct by 2004, 49 species (28%) benefited from conservation action such that they declined less severely (24 species) or improved in status (25 species). An additional 47 species (27%) gained marginal benefits from conservation action. Hence, conservation action has for many species slowed, halted or even reversed the rates of decline driven by human-induced threats, and for a suite of 16 species saved them from, or staved off, extinction. BirdLife International (2008) Over ten years, action by BirdLife Partners and others prevented the extinction of 16 bird species. Presented as part of the BirdLife State of the world's birds website. Available from: http://birdlife.org/datazone/sowb/casestudy/268. Checked: 13/02/2016 |Key message: Species can be saved from extinction|

http://birdlife.org/datazone/sowb/casestudy/268

Teaching and Learning Approaches for Children with Asperger's Syndrome Falk-Ross, Francine, Iverson, Mary, Gilbert, Carol, Teaching Exceptional Children Asperger's syndrome (AS) is a grouping of physical and behavioral characteristics that introduces educational challenges for students of all ages, especially at middle school levels when literacy activities involve inferential and critical levels of analysis. Often overlooked or misdiagnosed in primary level classrooms because the syndrome is still relatively unfamiliar to educators, the symptoms are not readily recognized by individual specialists, and the subtleties of behavior are often misleading. Several medical and special education researchers have re-introduced this social communicative disorder (e.g., Frith, 1991; Gillberg, 1995; Klin, Volkmar, & Sparrow, 2000; TwachtmanCullen, 1996), describing the syndrome and its general characteristics in broad terms. Due to the increased awareness on the part of special education staff, students in private and public school systems have been identified in larger numbers. Because these students often remain in general education classrooms for various lengths of time, it is beneficial for educators to become familiar with the specific idiosyncrasies of individuals with AS, their practical language systems, and effective educational strategies. To guide new learning, case studies extend people's understanding through naturalistic, psychological generalizations. Advantages of case studies include application of theory to practice, activation of problem-solving skills, and immersion in authentic and relevant experiences (Elksnin, 1998); therefore, we chose a case study focus to describe students' discourse patterns, their educators' contextualization (or facilitation) cues, and the collaborative intervention approaches characteristic of the two programs (i.e., one clinically based and one school-based), for two children with Asperger's syndrome. This article reviews descriptors of Asperger's syndrome, presents case studies, and addresses two lines of inquiry: 1. How do the characteristics of Asperger's syndrome manifest themselves in middle school children's language and literacy behaviors? 2. What forms of special education intervention and classroom accommodations will support these students' inclusion and achievement in general education classes? We present individual manifestations of the disorder, familiarize teachers with beneficial compensatory educational strategies to use in the classroom, and target the practical application of theory into practice. The strategies described are for everyday use with children with AS in the middle grades (5-8), with attention to areas that are not routinely targeted, such as sensory processing, pragmatic strategies, and parent-teacher communication. Ctaweteristics of Asperger's Syndrome The cluster of symptoms referred to as Asperger's syndrome were first identified by Hans Asperger in 1944 at about the same time that Leo Kanner described the combination of behaviors now commonly referred to as autism. Asperger's syndrome was first included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) in 1994. Along with official recognition and additional research, the characteristics of this subcategory of pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) have been used to describe children with specific social communication difficulties. Researchers agree that there are variations among individuals displaying the characteristics of Asperger's syndrome in perceived intellectual abilities, sensory functioning, social skills, and gross motor development. The DSM-IV (1994) described Asperger's syndrome as one of several pervasive developmental disorders. There is overlap among the disorders that compose the PDD classification, such as * Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). * Nonverbal learning disability (NLD). * Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). * Tourette syndrome. * High-functioning autism (HFA). * Retts syndrome. * Prevasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS). …

https://www.questia.com/read/1P3-576706621/teaching-and-learning-approaches-for-children-with

A grow light or plant light is an artificial light source, generally an electric light, designed to stimulate plant growth by emitting an electromagnetic spectrum appropriate for photosynthesis. Grow lights are used in applications where there is either no naturally occurring light, or where supplemental light is required. For example, in the winter months when the available hours of daylight may be insufficient for the desired plant growth, lights are used to extend the time the plants receive light. If plants do not receive enough light, they will grow long and spindly. Grow lights either attempt to provide a light spectrum similar to that of the sun, or to provide a spectrum that is more tailored to the needs of the plants being cultivated. Outdoor conditions are mimicked with varying colour, temperatures and spectral outputs from the grow light, as well as varying the lumen output (intensity) of the lamps. Depending on the type of plant being cultivated, the stage of cultivation (e.g., the germination/vegetative phase or the flowering/fruiting phase), and the photoperiod required by the plants, specific ranges of spectrum, luminous efficacy and colour temperature are desirable for use with specific plants and time periods. - 1 Typical Usage - 2 Common Types of Grow Lights - 2.1 High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lights - 2.2 LED (Light Emitting Diodes) - 2.3 Fluorescent - 3 Color Spectrum - 4 Light Requirements of Plants - 5 See also - 6 References - 7 External links Grow lights are used for horticulture, indoor gardening, plant propagation and food production, including indoor hydroponics and aquatic plants. Although most grow lights are used on an industrial level, they can also be used in households. According to the inverse-square law, the intensity of light radiating from a point source (in this case a bulb) that reaches a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the surface's distance from the source (if an object is twice as far away, it receives only a quarter the light) which is a serious hurdle for indoor growers, and many techniques are employed to use light as efficiently as possible. Reflectors are thus often used in the lights to maximize light efficiency. Plants or lights are moved as close together as possible so that they receive equal lighting and that all light coming from the lights falls on the plants rather than on the surrounding area. A range of bulb types can be used as grow lights, such as incandescents, fluorescent lights, high-intensity discharge lamps (HID), and light-emitting diodes (LED). Today, the most widely used lights for professional use are HIDs and fluorescents. Indoor flower and vegetable growers typically use high-pressure sodium (HPS/SON) and metal halide (MH) HID lights, but fluorescents and LEDs are replacing metal halides due to their efficiency and economy. Metal halide lights are regularly used for the vegetative phase of plant growth, as they emit larger amounts of blue and ultraviolet radiation. With the introduction of Ceramic Metal Halide lighting and full-spectrum Metal Halide lighting, they are increasingly being utilized as an exclusive source of light for both vegetative and reproductive growth stages. Blue spectrum light may trigger a greater vegetative response in plants. High-pressure sodium lights are also used as a single source of light throughout the vegetative and reproductive stages. As well, they may be used as an amendment to full-spectrum lighting during the reproductive stage. Red spectrum light may trigger a greater flowering response in plants. If high-pressure sodium lights are used for the vegetative phase, plants grow slightly more quickly, but will have longer internodes, and may be longer overall. In recent years LED technology has been introduced into the grow light market. By designing an indoor grow light using diodes, specific wavelengths of light can be produced. NASA has tested LED grow lights for their high efficiency in growing food in space for extraterrestrial colonization. Findings showed that plants are affected by light in the red, green and blue parts of the visible light spectrum. Common Types of Grow Lights High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lights While fluorescent lighting used to be the most common type of indoor grow light, HID lights are now the most popular. High intensity discharge lamps out-perform all other lamps in their lumen-per-watt efficiency. There are several different types of HID lights including mercury vapor, metal halide, high pressure sodium and conversion bulbs. Metal Halide and HPS lamps produce a color spectrum that is somewhat comparable to the sun and can be used to grow plants. Mercury vapor lamps were the first type of HIDs and were widely used for street lighting, but when it comes to indoor gardening they produce a relatively poor spectrum for plant growth so they have been mostly replaced by other types of HIDs for growing plants. All HID grow lights require a ballast to operate, and each ballast has a particular wattage. Popular HID wattages include 150W, 250W, 400W, 600W and 1000W. Of all the sizes, 600W HID lights are the most electrically efficient as far as light produced, followed by 1000W. A 600W HPS produces 7% more light (watt-for-watt) than a 1000W HPS. Although all HID lamps work on the same principle, the different types of bulbs have different starting and voltage requirements, as well as different operating characteristics and physical shape. Because of this a bulb won't work properly unless it's using a matching ballast, even if the bulb will physically screw in. In addition to producing lower levels of light, mismatched bulbs and ballasts will stop working early, or may even burn out immediately. Metal Halide (MH) Metal halide bulbs are a type of HID light that emit light in the blue and violet parts of the light spectrum, which is similar to the light that's available outdoors during spring. Because their light mimics the color spectrum of the sun, some growers find that plants look more pleasing under a metal halide than other types of HID lights such as the HPS which distort the color of plants. Therefore it's more common for a metal halide to be used when the plants are on display in the home (for example with ornamental plants) and natural color is preferred. Metal Halide bulbs need to be replaced about once a year, compared to HPS lights which last twice as long. Metal halide lamps are widely used in the horticultural industry and are well-suited to supporting plants in earlier developmental stages by promoting stronger roots, better resistance against disease and more compact growth. The blue spectrum of light encourages compact, leafy growth and may be better suited to growing vegetative plants with lots of foliage. A metal halide bulb produces 60-125 lumens/watt, depending on the wattage of the bulb. They are now being made for digital ballasts in a pulse start version, which have higher electrical efficiency (up to 110 lumens per watt) and faster warmup. One common example of a pulse start metal halide is the ceramic metal halide (CMH). Pulse start metal halide bulbs can come in any desired spectrum from cool white (7000 K) to warm white (3000 K) and even ultraviolet-heavy (10,000 K). Ceramic Metal Halide (CMH, CDM, LEC) Ceramic metal halide (CMH) lamps are a relatively new type of HID lighting, and the technology is referred to by a few names when it comes to grow lights, including ceramic discharge metal halide (CDM), ceramic arc metal halide, and light emitting ceramic (LEC). Ceramic metal halide lights are started with a pulse-starter, just like other "pulse-start" metal halides. The discharge of a ceramic metal halide bulb is contained in a type of ceramic material known as polycrystalline alumina (PCA), which is similar to the material used for an HPS. PCA reduces sodium loss, which in turn reduces color shift and variation compared to standard MH bulbs. Horticultural CDM offerings from companies such as Philips have proven to be effective sources of growth light for medium-wattage applications. Combination MH and HPS ("Dual Arc") Combination HPS/MH lights combine a metal halide and a high-pressure sodium in the same bulb, providing both red and blue spectrums in a single HID lamp. The combination of blue metal halide light and red high-pressure sodium light is an attempt to provide a very wide spectrum within a single lamp. This allows for a single bulb solution throughout the entire life cycle of the plant, from vegetative growth through flowering. There are potential tradeoffs for the convenience of a single bulb in terms of yield. There are however some qualitative benefits that come for the wider light spectrum. High-Pressure Sodium (HPS) High-pressure sodium lights are a more efficient type of HID lighting than Metal Halides. HPS bulbs emit light in the yellow/red visible light as well as small portions of all other visible light. Since HPS grow lights deliver more energy in the red part of the light spectrum, they may promote blooming and fruiting. They are used as a supplement to natural daylight in greenhouse lighting and full-spectrum lighting(metal halide) or, as a standalone source of light for indoors/grow chambers. HPS grow lights are sold in the following sizes: 150W, 250W, 400W, 600W and 1000W. Of all the sizes, 600W HID lights are the most electrically efficient as far as light produced, followed by 1000W. A 600W HPS produces 7% more light (watt-for-watt) than a 1000W HPS. An HPS bulb produces 60-140 lumens/watt, depending on the wattage of the bulb. Plants grown under HPS lights tend to elongate from the lack of blue/ultraviolet radiation. Modern horticultural HPS lamps have a much better adjusted spectrum for plant growth. The majority of HPS lamps while providing good growth, offer poor CRI rendering. As a result, the yellowish light of an HPS can make monitoring plant health indoors more difficult. CRI isn't an issue when HPS lamps are used as supplemental lighting in greenhouses which make use of natural daylight (which offsets the yellow light of the HPS). High-pressure sodium lights have a long usable bulb life, and six times more light output per watt of energy consumed than a standard incandescent grow light. Due to their high efficiency and the fact that plants grown in greenhouses get all the blue light they need naturally, these lights are the preferred supplemental greenhouse lights. But, in the higher latitudes, there are periods of the year where sunlight is scarce, and additional sources of light are indicated for proper growth. HPS lights may cause distinctive infrared and optical signatures, which can attract insects or other species of pests; these may in turn threaten the plants being grown. High-pressure sodium lights emit a lot of heat, which can cause leggier growth, although this can be controlled by using special air-cooled bulb reflectors or enclosures. Conversion bulbs are manufactured so they work with either a MH or HPS ballast. A grower can run an HPS conversion bulb on a MH ballast, or a MH conversion bulb on a HPS ballast. The difference between the ballasts is an HPS ballast has an igniter which ignites the sodium in an HPS bulb, while a MH ballast does not. Because of this, all electrical ballasts can fire MH bulbs, but only a Switchable or HPS ballast can fire an HPS bulb without a conversion bulb. Usually a metal halide conversion bulb will be used in an HPS ballast since the MH conversion bulbs are more common. A switchable ballast is an HID ballast can be used with either a metal halide or an HPS bulb of equivalent wattage. So a 600W Switchable ballast would work with either a 600W MH or HPS. Growers use these fixtures for propagating and vegetatively growing plants under the metal halide, then switching to a high-pressure sodium bulb for the fruiting or flowering stage of plant growth. To change between the lights, only the bulb needs changing and a switch needs to be set to the appropriate setting. LED (Light Emitting Diodes) LED grow lights are composed of light-emitting diodes, usually in a casing with a heat sink and built-in fans. LED grow lights do not usually require a separate ballast and can be plugged directly into a standard electrical socket. LED grow light models can be customized to emit only specific wavelengths of light. It is known that red, far-red and blue light spectra have an effect on root formation, plant growth, and flowering, but there are not enough scientific studies or field-tested trials using LED grow lights to recommended specific color ratios for optimal plant growth under LED grow lights. The diodes used in initial LED grow light designs were usually 1/3 watt to 1 watt in power. However, higher wattage diodes such as 3 watt and 5 watt diodes are now commonly used in LED grow lights. LED grow lights should be kept at least 12" away from plants to prevent leaf burn. LED grow lights are usually priced much higher, watt-for-watt, than other grow lights. Fluorescent lights come in many form factors, including long, thin bulbs as well as smaller spiral shaped bulbs (compact fluorescent lights). Fluorescent lights are available in color temperatures ranging from 2700 K to 10,000 K. The luminous efficacy ranges from 60 lm/W to 90 lm/W. The two main types of fluorescent lights used for growing plants are the tube-style lights and compact fluorescent lights. Tube-Style Fluorescent Lights Fluorescent grow lights are not as intense as HID lights and are usually used for growing vegetables and herbs indoors, or for starting seedlings to get a jump start on spring plantings. A ballast is needed to run these types of fluorescent lights. Standard fluorescent lighting come in multiple form factors, including the T5, T8 and T12. The brightest version is the T5. The T8 and T12 are less powerful and are more suited to plants with lower light needs. High-output fluorescent lights produce twice as much light as standard fluorescent lights. A high-output fluorescent fixture has a very thin profile, making it useful in vertically limited areas. Fluorescents have an average usable life span of up to 20,000 hours. A fluorescent grow light produces 33-100 lumens/watt, depending on the form factor and wattage. Compact Fluorescent Lights (CFLs) Compact Fluorescent lights (CFLs) are smaller versions of fluorescent lights that were originally designed as pre-heat lamps, but are now available in rapid-start form. CFLs have largely replaced incandescent light bulbs in households because they last longer and are much more electrically efficient. In some cases, CFLs are also used as grow lights. Like standard fluorescent lights, they are useful for propagation and situations where relatively low light levels are needed. While standard CFLs in small sizes can be used to grow plants, there are also now CFL lamps made specifically for growing plants. Often these larger compact fluorescent bulbs are sold with specially designed reflectors that direct light to plants, much like HID lights. Common CFL grow lamp sizes include 125W, 200W, 250W and 300W. Unlike HID lights, CFLs fit in a standard mogul light socket and don't need a separate ballast. Compact fluorescent bulbs are available in warm/red (2700 K), full spectrum or daylight (5000 K) and cool/blue (6500 K) versions. Warm red spectrum is recommended for flowering, and cool blue spectrum is recommended for vegetative growth. Examples of lumens and lumens/watt for different size CFLs: |CFL Wattage||Initial Lumens||Lumens/watt| Different grow lights produce different spectrums of light. Plant growth patterns can respond to the color spectrum of light, a process completely separate from photosynthesis known as photomorphogenesis. Natural daylight has a high color temperature (approximately 5000-5800 K). Visible light color varies according to the weather and the angle of the Sun, and specific quantities of light (measured in lumens) stimulate photosynthesis. Distance from the sun has little effect on seasonal changes in the quality and quantity of light and the resulting plant behavior during those seasons. The axis of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit around the sun. During half of the year the north pole is tilted towards sun so the northern hemisphere gets nearly direct sunlight and the southern hemisphere gets oblique sunlight that must travel through more atmosphere before it reaches the Earth's surface. In the other half of the year, this is reversed. The color spectrum of light that the sun emits does not change, only the quantity (more during the summer and less in winter) and quality of overall light reaching the Earth's surface. The color rendering index allows comparison of how closely the light matches the natural color of regular sunlight. Different stages of plant growth require different spectra. The initial vegetative stage requires a blue spectrum of light, whereas the later "flowering" stage is usually promoted with red–orange spectra. The ability of a plant to absorb light varies with species and environment, however, the general measurement for the light quality as it affects plants is the PAR value, or Photosynthetically Active Radiation. This measures the useful light energy received by the plant, and the spectra measurements favor the blue and red portions of the light while ignoring in part the green and yellow portions, which plants generally do not benefit from. For example, some supplemental LED grow lights in vertical greenhouses produce a combination of only red and blue wavelengths. Light Requirements of Plants A plant's specific needs determine which lighting is most appropriate for optimum growth; artificial light must mimic the natural light to which the plant is best adapted. If a plant does not get enough light, it will not grow, regardless of other conditions. For example, vegetables grow best in full sunlight, and to flourish indoors they need equally high light levels, whereas foliage plants (e.g., Philodendron) grow in full shade and can grow normally with much lower light levels. In addition, many plants also require both dark and light periods, an effect known as photoperiodism, to trigger flowering. Therefore, lights may be turned on or off at set times. The optimum photo/dark period ratio depends on the species and variety of plant, as some prefer long days and short nights and others prefer the opposite or intermediate "day lengths". Much emphasis is placed on photoperiod when discussing plant development. However, it is the number of hours of darkness that affects a plant’s response to day length. In general, a “short-day” is one in which the photoperiod is no more than 12 hours. A “long-day” is one in which the photoperiod is no less than 14 hours. Short-day plants are those that flower when the day length is less than a critical duration. Long-day plants are those that only flower when the photoperiod is greater than a critical duration. Day-neutral plants are those that flower regardless of photoperiod. Plants that flower in response to photoperiod may have a facultative or obligate response. A facultative response means that a plant will eventually flower regardless of photoperiod, but will flower faster if grown under a particular photoperiod. An obligate response means that the plant will only flower if grown under a certain photoperiod. Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) Lux and lumen are photometric units, in that different wavelengths of light are weighted by the eye's response to them. This makes them inappropriate measure of the lighting level in a horticultural lighting system. Instead, lighting levels are quantified as amount of radiation in the wavelength range from 400 to 700 nm, or photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). It can be expressed in units of energy flux (W/m2) or photon flux (mol m−2s−1). Different grow lights have different PAR spectrums that can be compared against each other and to the sun. - Photosynthetically active radiation - High Pressure Sodium Lamp - Fluorescent Lights - Compact Fluorescent Lights - Learning centre - Plant Growth Factors: Light - Phototropins Promote Plant Growth in Response to Blue Light in Low Light Environments - Green-light Supplementation for Enhanced Lettuce Growth under Red- and Blue-light-emitting Diodes - Green Light Drives Leaf Photosynthesis More Efficiently than Red Light in Strong White Light: Revisiting the Enigmatic Question of Why Leaves are Green - Howard Resh (16 January 2013). Hobby Hydroponics, Second Edition. CRC Press. pp. 23–28. ISBN 978-1-4665-6942-3. - George F. Van Patten (2002). Gardening Indoors: The Indoor Gardener's Bible. Van Patten Publishing. pp. 47–50. ISBN 978-1-878823-31-1. - Max Clarke (13 March 2013). The Complete Guide to Building Your Own Greenhouse. Lulu.com. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-105-91367-9. - Ellen Zachos (16 December 2014). Growing Healthy Houseplants: Choose the Right Plant, Water Wisely, and Control Pests. Storey Publishing, LLC. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-1-61212-440-7. - Sue Reed (18 October 2013). Energy-Wise Landscape Design: A New Approach for Your Home and Garden. New Society Publishers. pp. 247–250. ISBN 978-1-55092-443-5. - Wayne C. Turner; Steve Doty (2007). Energy Management Handbook. The Fairmont Press, Inc. pp. 376–378. ISBN 978-0-88173-543-7. - Turner, Wayne C.; Doty, Steve (2007-01-01). Energy Management Handbook. The Fairmont Press, Inc. p. 376. ISBN 9780881735437. - Anil Ahuja (9 March 2013). Integrated M/E Design: Building Systems Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 28–31. ISBN 978-1-4757-5514-5. - "Conversion (MH<-->HPS)". Growers House. Growers House. Retrieved 12/15/15. Check date values in: - "Frequently Asked Questions". leds.hrt.msu.edu. Retrieved 2015-09-19. - Parks, Brian M. (2003-12-01). "The Red Side of Photomorphogenesis". Plant Physiology 133 (4): 1437–1444. doi:10.1104/pp.103.029702. ISSN 1532-2548. PMC 1540344. PMID 14681526. - "Vertical 'Pinkhouses:' The Future Of Urban Farming?". NPR.org. Retrieved 2016-02-08. - Managing Photoperiodic Lighting - Growing your profits: horticultural lighting. Philips (2010).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grow_lamp

Vowels have lip, tongue, and jaw positions. Lip positions vary from highly spread (almost smiling) to rounded (puckered) positions. When you say “cheese” for a photo, you are producing the “ee” vowel, which puts your lips in the most spread position. Many children master consonant /r/ (pre-vocalic, e.g., “run”, “right”, etc.) before r-colored vowels (post-vocalic /r/). Producing the glide /w/ with puckered lips, in place of the liquid /r/ with neutral lips, is a common early phonological process. Residual lip rounding may continue when producing rhotic vowels. Rhotic vowels follow the same lip, tongue, and jaw positions as their underlying vowels. There are typically six rhotic vowels: fear, fair, fur, four, far, fire. In speech sound disorders, residual lip tensing and puckering may be visible in both the top and bottom lip, or just the top lip. Any lip rounding will change the resonating and acoustic properties of the underlying vowel – it will sound slightly distorted. When eliciting vowel /r/ sounds, watch the client’s lip and jaw movements to see if they match the underlying vowel. In 5/6 rhotic vowels, there should not be any added tensing, puckering, rounding, or mouth opening. We can teach our clients the underlying lip and jaw shape of each vowel, so that they can monitor their articulators using a mirror. Fear: Underlying vowel is close to “ee”, as in “see”. Lips should be spread (light, friendly smile). Jaw is nearly closed with only a minimal opening. Tongue is a in a high position in the mouth. As we move from “ee” to “ear”, our lips may stay slightly spread or return to a neutral (relaxed) position. Fair: Underlying vowel is close to “ay”, as in “hay”. Lips are slightly spread (light, friendly smile). Jaw opens midway. Tongue is in a mid-position in the mouth. As we move from “ay” to “air”, our lips may remain slightly spread or return to a neutral (relaxed) position. Fur: Underlying vowel is close to “uh”, like “duh”, or “duck”. Lips are in the most relaxed position (resting position when lips are closed). Lips open slightly without changing position. Lips and tongue primarily remain passive while the mouth opens midway. This is a challenging sound because you maintain neutrality of the lips and tongue, and then use only the tongue to add the rhotic element. Many clients use excessive lip movement for the “er” sound, which distorts the production. Watch how the lips are frozen in place in “uh, uh, uh”, and sliding from “uhhhh” to “er” Four: Underlying vowel is like in the East Coast dialect “coffee”. This vowel is round! This is the only vocalic /r/ with a rounded lip shape. Mouth is open midway, tongue is in mid-position in the mouth, and lips are puckered. Far: Underlying vowel is “ahh”, like “hot”, or when the doctor says, “say ‘ah’”. Mouth is in its most open position; lips are typically in a neutral or slightly spread position while jaw lowers. Tongue is in the lowest position in the mouth. Tongue moves from “ah” to “are”, while the lips remain neutral or spread lightly. Fire: Underlying vowel is a diphthong with two sounds, like “eye”, that ends with an “ee” sound. Mouth starts in an open position and moves to near closed position. Tongue starts in a low position and moves toward a high position. Lips are spread (smiling). Isolating and maintaining the underlying lip, tongue, and jaw positions will help our clients recognize when residual, early patterns of lip rounding are still occurring. Clinicians typically rely heavily on the phrases “say it again” and the mind-numbing “one more time” in articulation therapy. Intervention for speech sound disorders generally includes repeated trials of target words to facilitate auditory discrimination of correct/incorrect productions, self-monitoring of accuracy, and the formation of a new pattern of motor planning and execution for the articulators. Students may be instructed to repeat target productions multiple times in formalized tasks. Adding naturalistic conversational, teaching, and pretend play strategies helps encourage repetition in a less formal manner, which may increase generalization. Conversational strategies may be common requests for clarification. Teaching strategies involve independent practice and showing others what to do. Pretend play adds varied paralinguistic elements, including intonation patterns. We can use engaging and interactive ways to elicit repetition: • Appear to become distracted by other tasks and pretend that you didn’t hear the student’s production: “Sorry I missed that. I’m ready. Let’s hear it. I’m watching now.” • Mock (and genuine) surprise with praise: “What just happened? That sounded amazing! I can’t believe it. Let’s hear it again.” • Give the student a few moments of independent practice: “This is a tricky word. Practice it by yourself for a couple minutes and then tell me when your ready.” (Pretend to work on other tasks and look away from the student.) SEE ALSO iPad Use for Children With Apraxia • Ask for self-monitoring while giving praise: “Did you hear how you said that? It was awesome! I want to hear it again. Listen to how you do it.” • Praise and request to watch for understanding: “That was incredible. Do it again so I can watch and figure out just how you did it.” • Praise and ask for self-report: “It was amazing when you said, (target word). Do it again so you can tell us how you did it.” • Praise and watch self: “That sounded so clear. Look in the mirror and do it again so you can see how great that was.” • Praise and show peer: “You did awesome! Show (peer name) what you just did.” • Role-play: “Ready, pretend you are the movie announcer at the theater. Say it again, like the announcer says it.” (Vary situations for different settings). “Now pretend you are the waiter at a restaurant offering dessert.” • Praise and add pretend emotion: “That sounded great. Pretend that there are no desserts and say it in a sad way.” (Vary situations for different emotions.) “Now pretend that there are lots of desserts and say it in an excited way.” • Ask a question that requires the use of the word that the student has just produced: “Dessert. Hmm, is your favorite dessert a baked dessert or a frozen dessert?” or “Dessert. Do you like chocolate desserts or fruit desserts?” There are many ways to embed requests for repetition. We can help give each repetition a specific goal and communicative purpose beyond “say it again.” I almost got in an argument with a five-year-old. We were working on describing skills and taking turns providing descriptors for familiar objects. We were looking at a picture of a car. I attempted to give him a clue. I whispered that a car needs a key. He shook his head, “no”. He said that a car didn’t need a key. I looked at him questioningly, but he was adamant. I started to explain how you used a key to start a car and make it go. He didn’t agree with me. I was about to protest when I finally had the good sense to stop telling him how a car worked and asked him instead, “How does it go?” “Like this,” he said and gestured as if he had a toy car in his hand and was dragging it backwards. Many toy cars have a pullback clockwork motor so that when you release them, they accelerate forward. We were both right, but we weren’t talking about the same type of car. Developmental Psychologist Piaget described the cognitive process of learning. As young learners, we form internal schemes for concepts through our interactions with our environment. We are continually gaining new information. With each new bit of information about a concept, we will either assimilate the knowledge into an already existing scheme about that concept, or adapt and create a whole new scheme. We are continually arranging and rearranging our schemes in an interconnected organizational system. Schemes may be the basis for taxonomic knowledge, the ability to store and retrieve words by category. In the describing lesson, I had been attempting to help the child establish a set of characteristics or semantic features, which represented the concept of “car”. Early definitions rely on use and how we interact with an object. An early definition of “chair” might be “sit on it”. We gradually expand our definitions to include descriptors (color, size, shape, part/whole, etc.), and context (where you find it). Fully formed definitions include superordinate categories, such as defining “chair” with the category title “furniture”. Although we had both described how we interacted with a car, our world knowledge didn’t match. I hadn’t taken the time to understand his scheme for “car” before superimposing my scheme of “car”. If I had learned about his perspective first, we could have started by comparing and contrasting toy cars and adult cars. I could have asked: • “What do you do with it? • “Where do you find it?” • “How big is it?” • “How does it work?” We all have our own unique life experiences that shape our definitions of shared concepts. When we learn about our clients’ schemes, we may be able to understand how they view the world. We will be able to find commonalities and recognize the differences that exist. Do you know future Speech Language Pathologists who are applying to graduate school? Here are some tips to share with them about graduate school interviews. Many university programs use interviews to learn about a candidate’s experiences, interests, and personality. Think about the following types of questions: • What interested you in Speech Language Pathology? Concisely share your background and meaningful life decisions that have led you to this point. • Why are you interested in attending this university? Review the values and mission of the university, along with the expertise of the faculty before the interview. • What are your strengths? Think about strengths that are unique to you, along with a short example of when you used one of your strengths to support others. • What are your challenges? Think about how you have come to understand your struggles, and how you have established ways to ensure that you are successful, e.g., “I know that I like to observe before I jump in, so I make sure to let people know that I learn best by example." • What hobbies do you have? Your creativity and life interests help people see your personality. Share a vignette from one of your favorite recent pastimes. • What is a time that you have handled a difficult interpersonal situation? Describe how you work with others and how you consider other people’s perspectives. • What are your clinical interests? Share your enthusiasm and excitement about specific aspects of this field. Additionally, remember to show that you are open-minded in your learning and that you have an appreciation of the complexity of disorder types and clinical populations. An interview is a form of ritualized and scripted interaction. There are expected ways of responding that reflect your ability to organize and present information. • Practice answering sample questions before the actual interview. Have a supportive friend listen to your responses. Record yourself answering questions. You are practicing composing and expressing your thoughts for an audience. • Practice answering with a summary statement, two or three main points, and a short example, e.g., “I am interested in how Autism Spectrum Disorder affects learning opportunities. ASD affects social interaction, which reduces access to incidental learning in daily family routines. When children have less early learning opportunities, this could impact their language development. I’ve read how Early Intervention can change access to social opportunities through parent training models. When I watched (add example from an observation or video from class).” • Don’t rush to answer a question. You can restate the question, pause, and then answer, e.g., “…My clinical interests... I have many clinical interests (and then start your answer)” • Think about ways to personalize the exchange. Make a genuine positive comment about new information provided by the interviewers. Share a meaningful and emotional (happy, funny, sad, surprising) learning moment from your coursework or clinical work. An interview provides a special opportunity to reflect on your emerging professional identity. Let the interviewers see your commitment and dedication. Our profession needs your fresh insight and energy! I was working with a bright student who has difficulty producing /r/ and consonant clusters. He was explaining about writing computer code in Java script. The word “script” was challenging for him. We stopped the conversation to practice it. “Did you know that script is ‘crypt’ with an ‘s’ at the beginning?” I asked, while writing ‘script’ and ‘crypt’ on a piece of paper. “And ‘crypt’ is actually ‘ripped’ with a ‘k’ sound at the beginning,” I continued while writing ‘k + ripped.’ “In fact, ‘ripped’ is ‘rip’ with a ‘t’ sound added at the very end,” I concluded. We now had a list of words of increasing complexity to practice. We analyzed articulatory movement within each word. • “rip”: Your tongue starts in the back for /r/. Pull your tongue to the back of your mouth and have the sides of your tongue slide up to your back molars for /r/. Then your tongue zooms to the middle of your mouth for “i”, like in the word “it”, and you smile a little bit (spread your lips). Then your lips jump in and close for /p/. • “ripped” or “rip+t”: Now we have to get ready for the /p/ and the /t/ sound to come out together. When you close your lips for /p/, make sure your tongue tip is up high behind your front teeth for /t/. When you open your lips, the /p/ and the /t/ come out at the same time. • “crypt” or “k+rip+t: Your tongue starts way in the back for /k/. From the /k/ spot, lift the sides of your tongue up to your molars to make a valley for the /r/ sound to come through. • “script” or “s+k+rip+t: Here’s the tricky part. Your tongue starts up high behind the front teeth for /s/, and then it has to zoom back for /k/ and /r/. We found smaller words within the target word. We described tongue movement and presence/absence of lip involvement. Each phoneme has a different profile. We described why some transitions are easier than others, e.g., front to back tongue excursion and lip/tongue involvement. Having the student increase his awareness of his articulators, using a mirror, and analyzing placement sound-by-sound gave us the opportunity to discuss motor muscle movements. Speech is the finely coordinated timing of articulatory contacts. We can help students recognize why certain words are more challenging than others. What will the future bring? As we enter a new time period, a new calendar year, school year, month, or even week, we can help students make predictions about upcoming events. Asking questions about factual and hypothetical events may build metacognitive and syntactic skills: • What do you know will happen? When we know something will happen, we express certainty. We have factual information, e.g., “I know that we will have no school on (date) because it is a (reason: holiday or planning day),” while showing the calendar. • What do you think might happen? When we think something might happen, we show a degree of uncertainty, which expresses a possibility. We have probable information, e.g., “I think that there might be a (event: field trip, book fair, other school event) in (month).” • What do you hope might happen? When we hope something might happen, we highlight uncertainty and express desire. We have hopes and dreams, e.g., “I hope that we have cheesy breadsticks for lunch this week,” or “I hope that I win the track race”. We can extend the concept of “hope” to discuss agency, or personal control, e.g., “When we hope for something, sometimes what we do makes a difference, and sometimes it doesn’t. We don’t control school lunches, but we do have some control over other things. If I hoped that I would win the track race next month, I could practice a lot. Even if I practiced a whole lot I might not win, but I would be working toward my dream. Sometimes we can do things that might help our dreams come true.” Metacognitive verbs refer to acts of thinking. “Meta” is self-referential. We use an abstraction (a part) of a concept to talk about that same concept. “Know”, “think”, and “hope” reflect an awareness of substantially different likelihoods of occurrence. Modal verbs, e.g., “will” and “might”, represent probability of future events. Verbs for mental states are foundational for academic tasks, including evaluating events/concepts (scientific experiments) and understanding literature (book reports and character analyses). The ability to discern a person’s mental state of certainty within a conversation is integral in social interaction. Syntactically, at the sentence level, metacognitive verbs require a dependent clause. When we use “know” for a person or an activity, e.g., “I know Sam”, or “I know karate”, the noun is one word: “Sam” or “karate”. When we use “know” for an event, e.g., “I know (that) we will go to the movies on Friday”, we have created a complex sentence with a subordinate clause used as a noun phrase. The embedded nominal clause “that we will go to the movies on Friday” has a modal (auxiliary) verb, and acts like a noun in the sentence. Looking into the future and making predictions involves planning, evaluating probability, and generating complex syntactical forms. We can help students visualize upcoming events, and determine their likelihood of occurrence, and their role in the outcome, while expanding their verb phrase and sentence length. With speech sound therapy, guided questions may help children recognize which words to practice and allow for visualization of a semi-independent practice routine. Co-create a list of practice words: • Which of these words did you think were your star words – your best words? • Which of these words do you want to practice more? • Do you think that you should practice three words or five words? Five words or ten words? Highlighting successful productions during the treatment session helps students recognize which productions were the clearest, e.g., “that’s your star word”, “that’s your show-off word”, “that’s your rock star word”. When students choose their practice words from a small set of acceptable options, we may gain insight into their self-awareness of their own performance and their level of desired challenge. Co-create a practice card with instructions: • What directions do we need to give your mouth? What do we need to tell your tongue to do? What do we need to tell your lips to do? • What should we tell your tongue to do if it has trouble? What reminders should we give it? Separating and personifying the articulators may help students form a sense of control by reminding them that they may direct their own motor movements. Expecting that the articulators (not the student) occasionally make mistakes may depersonalize possible feelings of self-judgment or concerns around perfectionism. Co-design a plan for practice: • Do you think that you should practice for five minutes, or for ten minutes? • Where will you practice? • What materials do you need? • Who will be with you? Who will listen to you? If you are by yourself, what will you look for and listen for? • How will you know if your tongue is doing what you want it to do? What will you feel? What will you hear? • If your mouth isn’t doing what you want it to do, how will you fix it? • How will you reward yourself for doing a good job? What will you say to yourself when you’re finished? What do you usually say to yourself when you are proud of what you’ve done? Describing and visualizing how, where, and when practice will be completed in another setting may help students develop a mental image of specific behavior patterns. Including self-evaluative and self-repair strategies may help students understand that practice is about self-monitoring and making continual adjustments. Success is noticing and altering movement patterns. Positive self-talk and providing one’s own internal reinforcement may help foster a sense of pride and accomplishment. Questions can be simplified and shortened for younger students with an emphasis on being proud of sharing your words with others. Sometimes students practice at home and sometimes they don’t. There are many internal and external factors that affect everyone’s lives, however, scripting a routine for practice may help many students see themselves as capable of establishing new patterns. “What day is it today?” I ask students this question at the beginning of every session. It started as strategy of modeling self-talk, showing students my thought processes as I recorded the session data in the data log. Thinking aloud highlights internal steps of planning and information seeking. With busy schedules, often across multiple sites, it’s easy to become confused about the day/date. I needed to check a calendar! I quickly realized the benefit of two separate calendars: one for me, and one for the students. My calendar is electronic and full of meetings, notes, and responsibilities. The student calendar is a traditional paper calendar with an engaging theme (e.g., baby animals, underwater dog photos, wild weather, etc.). When I travel from place to place, without a dedicated clinical space, I use a 7”x7” mini-calendar. Calendar referencing is built into the beginning of each session. Students find the day’s date. For younger students, this involves guided questions, and prompts, e.g., “What month is it? It’s cold outside and winter break is coming soon. It’s De…” Students write their birthdays on the calendar, as appropriate (I verify the dates of their birthdays and research family backgrounds before asking them). We record school events, field trips, assemblies, half-days, etc., using child-focused interpretations, e.g., “No School” instead of “Teacher In-Service Day”. Students decorate the date squares for events with a tiny drawing or writing in fancy lettering. We discuss holidays listed on the calendar, e.g., “Some people celebrate (holiday). Does your family celebrate (holiday)?” Calendars let us predict upcoming events, reflect on prior events, and recognize the passage of time. We cross out days that are finished and we count down days until fun events. Calendars involve specific vocabulary for past, present, and future: • “Yesterday was (day) and today is (day).” • “Last week (point to date) we (describe past activity). Today (point to date), we are going to (describe upcoming activity).” • “How many days until (activity)? Let’s count. Start here because this is today.” • “We have no school next week (point to date). What are you going to do? (Model future tense options)” • “We had a break last week (point to date). What did you do? (Model past tense options)” Learning about the calendar initially involved free exploration of the pages and pictures, and labeling/reciting days of the week, and months of the year. Students shared and took turns looking through the months. They had time to feel comfortable with the contents before we learned about the day/date. Calendar activities in small groups expand on the classroom calendar routine and allow for extended practice. When the year changes, we celebrate having a new calendar. We model two important time markers: the end of the calendar year (December/January), and the end of the school year (May/June). Calendars reflect daily routines and events. Early calendar interactions may lay a foundation for goal-directed planning behaviors, based on anticipating events, which is a valuable skill as students mature. Many students have describing goals. Describing is the ability to provide details and specific information about a person, place, object, or concept. Descriptors allow a listener to create a mental picture of a shared idea. Descriptors help differentiate between different possible interpretations of an entity, e.g., for “dog”, “the small dog” versus “the big dog”. Adding descriptors elaborates the noun phrase. A simple noun phrase is often a determiner (the, a/an) + a noun, such “the bear”. Adding adjectives before the noun provides information about the bear, e.g., “the big bear”, “the big, brown bear”, and “the big, brown, furry bear”. Notice the specific order of the adjectives of size/shape, color, and texture/composition. We wouldn’t say, “the furry, brown, big bear”. We can teach sequences of adjectives by asking a series of questions that replicate the expected order: • What size is it? • What color is it? • What does it feel like? What is it made of? Describing is more than adding adjectives. Interesting descriptors come after the noun, as post-noun modifiers. Adjectival phrases add information about characteristics or location. An adjectival phrase may be a prepositional phrase introduced with a preposition (in, on, at, with, by, etc.). • Characteristics: “the kitten with the white paws”, “the shirt with the red stripes ” • Location: “the kitten in the tree”, “the girl in my class” Teach characteristics by asking about distinguishing traits and modeling adding detail into the sentence: • What color is the cat? What color are the cat’s paws? That’s right, it’s an orange cat with white paws. I see the orange cat with white paws. The orange cat with white paws is cute. Teach location with guided questions using locational prepositions and modeling adding location into the sentence: • Where is the kitten? What is it next to? What is it on? Etc. • “That's right, the kitten is in the tree. I see the kitten in the tree. The kitten in the tree is meowing!” Relative clauses add details and increase clausal density (create sentences with more than one verb). A relative clause is introduced with a relative pronoun (that, who, which, etc.), e.g., “the boy who has a red shirt is next”. The relative clause, “who has a red shirt”, adds descriptive information within the simple sentence, “the boy is next”. Teach relative clauses with a series of action pictures, guided questions, and modeling embedding of information: • Where is he sitting? What is he doing? That’s right, he’s sitting at the table. He’s sitting at the table and he’s eating. The boy is sitting at the table and eating. The boy who is sitting at the table is eating. • What is she doing? How is she feeling? That's right, she’s playing on the swings. She’s playing on the swings and she’s happy. The girl is playing on the swings and she’s happy. The girl who is playing on the swings is happy. Elaborated noun phrases have more details and increased sentence length and complexity. They allow us to express more than one idea within a sentence and represent higher-level syntax (sentence form) skills. A colleague asked about ways to analyze a language sample: Consider cultural and linguistic factors: dialect/language differences, linguistic community, etc. Highlight conjunctions: compare compound and complex sentences • Coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, etc. • Subordinating conjunctions: before/after, because, until, where, etc. • Examine use of simple coordinating conjunctions for overreliance on forms o “and then… and then… and then…” • Look for sentence complexity: cause/effect, rationale, temporal relationships o “We were last because there was a long line” • Find the longest grammatically correct sentence as a sample to share with family Highlight morphological errors • Subject-verb agreement: “she play” • Past tense forms: “it costed(-ed)”, “he catched it”, “I drawed” • Plurals: “two cat”, “two teeths” • Comparatives and superlatives: “more funner”, “goodest” SEE ALSO: Interactive Patient Education Highlight syntactical errors • Declaratives: “going up kitty” • Interrogatives: “why he come here?” • Negative: “we not go to the park” Consider noun and verb specificity: level of semantic meaning • Non-specific nouns: “that guy”, “the thing”, “there”, “it” • Generic nouns: girl, dog, store, park, ball o “the kids went to the park” • Specific nouns: proper nouns, descriptive elements, character names, location names o “my sister Briana, she goes to South City High School”, “My friend Ethan caught the baseball.” • Non-specific verbs: go/went, have/had, do/did, get/got o “that boy went ‘hi’”, “they do it” • Generic verbs: play/played, ran/run, says/said, etc. o “they ran outside” • Specific verbs: describes action and gives detail, yell, ask, race, jump, write, etc. o “the tall boy grabbed the ball”, “he won the game” • Look for metacognitive verbs for mental processes: thought, remember, forgot, etc. o “and then I ‘membered what to do” • Look for modal verbs for ability, obligation, or likelihood: can/could, have to, might, will, etc. o “I had to go outside”, “he couldn’t play” • Look for adverbial forms: manner (slowly), location (here/there), time (first/last), extent (only/almost), and intensity (very/really) for actions o “we always walk real slow”, “he ran out so fast’, “I literally laughed” • Consider any non-words (created forms): “he tornating the other boy”, “she swipt the floor” • Consider repetition: same concepts/terms used multiple times, overuse of routinized/ritualized phrases, e.g., “and it was fun”, “and I liked it” Descriptors/adjectives: details, perception/opinion, and specificity • Unelaborated noun: “the bear” • Elaborated with adjectives: “the big, fuzzy teddy bear” • Elaborated with prepositional phrase: “the bear on the shelf” • Elaborated with relative clause: “the bear that my sister gave me” Narrative conventions: stylistic elements and story grammar • Introduction/conclusion, time elements, etc. o “Once there was”, “for a long time”, “and it was all better” • Complexity of episodes (events – actions/attempts – consequences, etc.) • Characters: dialog, feelings, motivations, responses o “he was excited because he found the treasure” • Coherence: referents, introduction of characters, noun/pronoun agreement o “this girl, he had a cat” • Topic maintenance: tangential or off-topic, multiple topics Sequencing: presence and order of events/steps • All steps present: in chronological order or out of order o “My sister got a new doll. We had a party. It was her birthday” • Not all steps are present o “It was her birthday. She like her doll.” Pragmatics: attempts to engage listener and emphasize information • Paralinguistic: pitch, stress, rate, pauses/hesitations, etc. o Delayed responses, asking for help, persistence, self-cueing, mazing (mid-sentence revisions) o Look for clues about planning and formulation of ideas • Nonlinguistic: gestures, body posture, facial expression, etc. Listener response: listener’s ability to understand and retell story • Level of communicative competence • Presupposition: understand when listener doesn’t know background information o Listener able or unable to determine who did what, what happened, where/when/why something happened o Determine which elements are missing and why listener would be confused In-depth analysis may guide language goals. Noticing areas of difficulty provides information about skill development across language domains. Feeling thankful is recognizing the good things in one’s life, whether they are big things or little things. During clinical sessions, we can help students recognize the significance of everyday events, and the value of the people in their lives. As clinicians, we are role models for our students. We teach through our own values and behaviors. We may foster skills with social reciprocity, empathy, and resilience by helping students to identify positive relationships and caring gestures. Thankfulness can be expanded throughout the year: Thank students at each session: Take a moment to thank your students for a specific behavior, e.g., “thank you for walking so quietly in the hallway”, “thank you for taking-turns during the game”, “thank you for thinking about your sounds”, etc. Guide students to thank each other: Help students recognize the moment that a peer has done something kind, e.g., “Sam let you pick the game today. That was really nice of him. Let’s make sure we thank him.” Thank the prior clinician: Whenever you begin at a new site, or are replacing another clinician, or you have students who are new to your caseload from another location, have students write ‘thank-you’ cards to the previous clinician. Model ideas for the students, e.g., “thank you for helping me with my (insert speech sound, skills, or activities)”. This may ease closure and transition, along with validating the importance of the therapeutic relationship. 'Thank-you' cards: Have students create ‘thank-you’ cards at periodic intervals, such as holidays, school breaks, or transition times. Have students think about which one person they want to thank and the reason why they want to thank that person. Add perspective-taking skills by asking the student to think about what kind of picture the person receiving the card would like to see. Customizing a card for a specific recipient requires you to reflect on another person’s interests. You can use art supplies, stickers, clipart, etc. Thank colleagues: At the end of the school year, and/or at holiday times, have students sign their name to cards to key staff in the school building, e.g., school secretary, principal, custodian, etc. Email notes: Show that you appreciate your team by thanking staff for their contributions and support after important meetings, e.g., “Thank you for coming to the meeting and sharing how well (student name) is participating in group activities in science. This is great news!” Gratitude wall: Designate a wall, board, or location in the clinic room for students to share what they are grateful for. Use post-its to have students write what makes them feel grateful. Guide students in recognizing positive events in their lives and noticing how people help each other to be successful. Thanking someone shows that you appreciate their actions and efforts. Thankfulness honors and increases the strength of the positive relationships in our lives. “Do you think that the teacher is a racist?” Does this question offend you? Does it depend on the context? Does the context matter? Here is the actual situation: the special education team is reviewing referrals from general education staff. One teacher (not present) has referred a fourth grade student for concerns about his reading and math skills. The student is identified as African-American in a school where the majority of students and staff are identified as Caucasian. This student would be considered a minority at his school and within the greater society. The administrator asks the team, “Do you think that the teacher is a racist?” What would have prompted this question? • District sanctions for disproportion: Perhaps the district had faced fines for having too many students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds receiving special education services, as compared to the general population. • Referral rates: Perhaps the school had a history of referring many children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds for special education services. • Over-identification: Perhaps the school had a history of inappropriately identifying students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds as having a delay or disorder. • Cultural sensitivity training: Perhaps the administrator had recently completed a cultural sensitivity training and considered this to be a reasonable question. • School culture: Perhaps there were concerns about school climate and inclusive practice within the school community. All of these issues are serious concerns. An entire discussion about institutional biases within educational systems is valid, as schools have a symbiotic relationship with society. It is appropriate to ask about the role of cultural and linguistic factors in the classroom. It is not appropriate to ask one staff member if another staff member is a racist. SEE ALSO: American Disabilities Act at 25 ‘Racist’ is a dichotomous term reflecting identity. It is often used to imply an inherent trait within a person and presupposes a permanent mindset of ‘racism’ consistent across all settings and contexts. ‘Racist’ may be used as an accusation. Yes, people may demonstrate behaviors that are (or appear) racially biased. It’s likely that all of us have inadvertently, or even purposefully, demonstrated negative racially biased behaviors. We live within a complex society, which grants hierarchical levels of privileges to different groups based on racial/ethnic identity, among many other variables. We are all affected by pervasive, systemic issues across media, business, policy, law, infrastructure, etc. It is essential to question these issues, however, we can explore the role of cultural and linguistic factors without using accusatory language: • “I would like to hear more about cultural factors in the classroom.” • “I’m wondering about the role of racial and ethnic communication characteristics for the student and the teacher.” • “Let’s talk about diversity in the classroom and how it may be affecting student performance.” There are no simple solutions to entrenched societal challenges. We can advocate for thoughtful consideration of the issues. We can find safe and respectful ways to start these discussions. Do you know anyone applying to graduate school? Here are some tips to share: Writer’s block: Fight the freeze by starting in the middle of the essay. Sometimes we discover introductions through conclusions. Return to the opening lines only after you’ve reached the end. Answer simple questions: Unsure what to say? Start with everyday, plain language. Writing is about sharing your ideas. Editing is about refining them. • Why do you want to be a Speech Language Pathologist? • How did you hear about this field? • How have you worked with clients? • What classes have you taken? • What are your favorite classes? • What are your areas of interest? • What inspires you? • What do you like about Speech Language Pathology? • Why do you think that you will be good at it? Overwrite: Write long answers to simple questions. Words are like clay and we need a lot of clay to create a sculpture – the more words, the better. Overwriting is free expression without judgment. Don’t delete during this stage – just keep writing. Ask “why?” again and again: Every time you answer a simple question, ask yourself “why?” If you think, “I want to be a Speech Language Pathologist to help people communicate,” then answer the questions “why do I want to help people communicate?” and “why is communication important?” Find the underlying reasons for every statement you make. If you think, “I like neurology,” then ask yourself “why?” again and again to discover your values. Value statements: Explain the origin of your values and beliefs. People come to this profession for different reasons. Find your reasons by asking yourself what matters and why it matters. Learning examples: Reflect on times that you’ve had an emotional response to learning. Describe these pivotal moments in your understanding. Include course material, meaningful observations, positive interactions with clients, etc. Credit others: Who has helped you? Describe support and mentoring in your life. When you credit others, you share the knowledge that you gained while honoring the expertise of others. Recognize uniqueness: What can you say that no one else can say? Find the truths about your experiences, skills, commitment, and interests that are not the same as other peoples. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity: Reflect on your personal and professional experiences understanding the role of language and culture in communication and social interaction. Check the basics: A personal statement is a persuasive essay. Build evidence showing that you are prepared for graduate school. Make sure that you have information about your experiences, employment, volunteer work, skills, academic coursework, etc. Graduate programs need to know: (1) why you are interested in the field, (2) the experiences and skills you bring, and (3) your readiness for high-level academic coursework. Tell everyone why you want to be a clinician. Our profession needs the new ideas and enthusiasm that you will bring! Last week you told me about a recent leadership meeting: participants, proposed initiatives, attempted negotiations, and post-meeting allegiances. I didn’t hear what you needed, but I should have. I tried to dissuade you from higher-level politics. I don’t know if I felt jaded, or if I was trying to protect you. I care about you a lot. I don’t want you hurt by the system, or transformed into something that you are not. I’ll tell you what I did, but you are your own person, so your course will be different: Solidify values and vision: Reflect on characteristics and traits linked to your professional vision. Chose adjectives, e.g., “informed”, “resourceful”, etc. Use belief statements and inclusive language to form goals, e.g., “All practitioners have the right to access current research in the field,” “All clients have the right to culturally sensitive services,” etc. Determine needs and strengths: Interview clinicians across levels of experience. Make calls and visit people. Ask new clinicians what would help them the most. Ask experienced clinicians what system changes they recommend. Use open-ended questions. Act as an unbiased reporter taking notes. Thank people for their time and ideas. Remember each person’s unique insights and strengths. Learn organizational history: Interview long-time employees. Find out about prior influential leadership, times of major policy changes, previous programs and teams, etc. Trace funding streams of financial allocations. Review policy: Learn basic fundamentals of federal law, state law, and district policies. Refer to ASHA policy statements. Evaluate how Special Education legislation was interpreted locally. Remember that working within an organization does not negate your clinical judgment. Organizational initiatives: Track local and regional philosophical shifts and projected program adoptions. Prepare for negativity: Some people have limited understanding of daily issues and say dismissive and inaccurate things. When this happens, listen impartially to gather more information: “I hadn’t heard about that. Where is this happening?” Provide an alternate interpretation or counter example. Remind everyone that there are multiple ways to view any given situation and one solitary exemplar is not a trend. Manage feelings: Suppress instinctive emotional reactions. Conversations provide data for planning and progressive steps toward goals. View people as uninformed, not malicious. Craft recommendations: Combine and synthesize information to form possible steps, e.g., policy changes, committees, trainings, guidelines, etc. Plant seeds: Start to share small pieces of your ideas with everyone. Pique others’ interest in moving toward positive shared goals. Shape aspects of goals to align with others’ strengths. Let people create meaningful roles for themselves. Discover solutions collaboratively: Solutions may appear after sufficient foundational information has been shared by all parties. Balance patience with activism. Understanding fosters receptiveness to recommendations. Prepare three possible mutually beneficial solutions with varied levels of implementation to present to administration. I know that you are incredibly intelligent, creative, and caring. I have watched you consider leadership roles and I’ve encouraged you in the past. You have the potential to initiate changes that will support students and staff now, and in the future. I believe in you and I am prepared to help. Clients working on cluster blends, /pl/, /bl/, /fl/, /kl/, /gl/, and /sl/, may initially demonstrate vowel epenthesis, inserting a schwa between two consonants, e.g., “puh-lay” for “play”, and altering the syllable shape from CCV to CVCV. We can directly teach how to blend consonants to produce near simultaneous release of sound – and lose the schwa (“uh”). After a client has mastered placement for alveolar /l/, blends may be challenging. Make sure the client is familiar with the parts of the mouth and how sounds are produced, e.g., identification of articulators (tongue, lips, jaw), tongue tip placement, lip sounds (/p/ and /b/) versus tongue sounds (/k/ and /g/), etc. A basic understanding of speech sound production lets us describe how /l/ blends involve anticipation and preparation. Speakers are generally already in position for the next sound in a sequence, before they have even started to speak. “When you say two sounds together at the start of word, you say them at almost the exact same time. Our mouth is actually ready to say two sounds together.” /pl/ and /bl/: “Open your mouth wide and lift your tongue tip to the bumps right behind your front teeth (alveolar ridge) for /l/. Now freeze your tongue there. Don’t move it. Ready? Close your lips and keep you tongue tip high. Is your tongue tip still behind your teeth? Great! Ready? When you open your lips for the /p/ sound, then say the /l/ sound, too. Your lips will say /p/ while your tongue says /l/. They will both be saying sounds at the same time.” /fl/: Follow the same directions for /l/ placement at the alveolar ridge. “Keep your tongue tip up high for /l/. Now lightly bite your lower lip to get ready for /f/. Is your tongue tip still touching the top of your mouth? Great! Ready? Just as soon as you start making the ‘ffff’ sound for /f/, start make your /l/ sound. They can come out together.” SEE ALSO: It's All About That Alveolar Ridge /kl/ and /gl/: The back of the tongue and the tip of tongue are both active. Production of /l/ is slightly retracted from the alveolar ridge because of the velar production of /k/ or /g/. “Let’s make a /k/ sound.” (Have client look in a mirror with a flashlight to see tongue retraction.) “The back of your tongue is doing the work. See how far it pulled back in your mouth? Now we’re going to see if we can make the tip of your tongue work too. Freeze the back of your tongue for /k/ and see if you can point your tongue tip up toward the roof of your mouth. Let’s see if the back of your tongue can make a /k/, while the front of your tongue makes an /l/.” /sl/: “Your tongue stays up high for /s/ and never drops. Start your /s/ sound with your tongue tip up, and as soon as you start it, tap your tongue to the top of your mouth for /l/. The /s/ is really fast because your tongue is starting the /l/ as soon as it can.” Some clients benefit from specific explanations of placement and movement to sequence sound combinations. Our knowledge of speech science lets us describe the co-articulatory process.

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Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Canada) The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) was a truth and reconciliation commission organized by the parties to the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement. The commission was part of a holistic and comprehensive response to the charges of abuse and other ill effects for First Nations children that resulted from the Indian residential school legacy. The Commission was officially established on June 2, 2008, and was completed in June 2015. The Aboriginal Men and Women, who lived through residential schools, placed the concern of residential schools on the public agenda.Their joint work resulted in the Indian Residential School Settlement Agreement, which stipulated a residential school Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada be conducted.The Royal commission concluded that the Canadian residential school system was established for the purpose of separating children from their families.According to the commission this was done with the intention to minimize the family's ability to pass along their cultural heritage to their children.And ideally allowing the residential schools to introduce the children to a Euro-Christian society. The commission spent six years travelling to different parts of Canada to hear the testimony of approximately six thousand Aboriginal people who as children were taken away from their families and placed in residential schools. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s conclusion that residential schools where designed by the government in an attempt to assimilate the Aboriginal children into Canadian society is supported in a statement by Sir John. A Macdonald in 1883, in his address to the House of Commons “ Indian children should be withdrawn as much as possible from the parental influence, and the only way to do that will be to put them into central training industrial schools.” After the closing of the Indian residential schools, which operated from the 1870s to 1996, and held some 150,000 aboriginal children over the decades, some former students made allegations of physical, psychological, and sexual abuse and neglect. The commission studied records and took testimony for evidence of activities alleged to have occurred at residential schools, as well as the negative effects resulting from the schools' stated aim to assimilate First Nations children into the majority culture. The matter of student deaths at these institutions and the burial of deceased students in unmarked graves without the notification or consent of the parents was an additional item on the agenda. In March 2008, Indigenous leaders and church officials embarked on a multi-city 'Remembering the Children' tour to promote activities of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. On January 21–22, 2009, the King's University College of Edmonton, Alberta, held an interdisciplinary studies conference on the subject of the Truth and Reconciliation Committee. On June 11 of the same year, Prime Minister Stephen Harper apologized for the role of past governments in administration of the residential schools. Justice Harry S. Laforme of the Ontario Court of Appeal was named to chair the commission. He resigned on October 20, 2008, citing insubordination by commissioners Claudette Dumont-Smith and Jane Brewin Morley. Although Dumont-Smith and Morley denied the charge and initially stayed on, both resigned in January 2009. In June, Murray Sinclair, Manitoba's first aboriginal associate chief justice, was appointed to chair the panel. The other members of the commission were Marie Wilson, a senior executive with the Workers' Safety and Compensation Commission of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, and Wilton Littlechild, former Conservative Member of Parliament and Alberta regional chief for the Assembly of First Nations. Unlike the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa, the Canadian commission had no power to offer known perpetrators of abuse the possibility of amnesty in exchange for honest testimony about any abuses that may have been committed. The Canadian commission heard mostly from alleged victims, with little to no testimony from persons of authority in the residential school system. Hymie Rubenstein, a retired professor of anthropology, and Rodney A. Clifton, professor emeritus of education and a residential school supervisor in the 1960s, held that, while the residential school program had been harmful to many students, the commission had shown "indifference to robust evidence gathering, comparative or contextual data, and cause-effect relationships," which resulted in the commission's report telling "a skewed and partial story". The commission held a series of national events in Winnipeg, Inuvik, Halifax, Saskatoon, Montreal, Edmonton, and Vancouver. In 2014, it reported that at least 4,000 Aboriginal children died in residential schools; five to seven percent of those who were enrolled in the institutions. The truth and reconciliation report did not compare its findings with rates and causes of mortality among Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children attending public schools. Rubenstein and Clifton noted that the report also failed to consider Indian residential schools were typically located in rural areas far from hospitals, making treatment more difficult to acquire. The commission's mandate was originally scheduled to end in 2014, with a final event in Ottawa. However, it was extended to 2015 as numerous records related to residential schools were provided to the commission by the federal government by order, in January 2013, of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice. They needed to review these documents. The commission held its closing event in Ottawa from May 31 to June 3, 2015, including a ceremony at Rideau Hall with Governor General David Johnston. Calls to action Upon closing, the commission issued a document identifying 94 "Calls to Action" to "redress the legacy of residential schools and advance the process of Canadian reconciliation". These were divided into two categories: "Legacy" and "Reconciliation": Redressing the harms resulting from the Indian residential schools, the proposed actions are identified in the following sub-categories: - Child welfare - Residential schools served as a foster home rather than an educational center. According to a 1953 survey, 4,313 children of 10,112 residential school children were described as either orphans or originated from broken homes. By 2011, 3.6% of of all First Nations children under the age of 14 were in foster care, compared to 0.3% for non-aboriginal children. In 2012, the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child voiced its concern on Canada's removal of aboriginal children from their families as a 'first resort'. - Education - The education system for residential schools operated under the assumption that aboriginals were intellectually and culturally inferior. As a result, many students did not progress beyond a rudimentary education. The calls to action are to address the current school completion rates and the income gap between the aboriginals and non-aboriginals. In addition, the calls to actions request to eliminate the discrepancy in funding of schools on and off reserves, where children have had to leave their families behind to pursue high-school education or further education. - Language and Culture - Children in residential schools were not allowed to speak their native languages or practice their culture in an effort by the government to assimilate Aboriginals. According to UNESCO, 36% of Canada’s Aboriginal languages are listed as being critically endangered. The calls to action request increased funding for educating children in Aboriginal languages and also request that post-secondary institutions provide degrees and diplomas in Aboriginal languages. - Health - The Aboriginal children of residential schools were subjugated to sexual and physical abuse. The effects of the trauma were passed on to the survivors of these schools. Today, due to the isolated locations of many Aboriginal communities, there continues to be a significant lack of health services available to these communities. The calls to action are meant to address the health outcomes for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Canadians. - Justice - When the Canadian legal system was tasked with investigating abuse claims, few prosecutions resulted from police investigations. In many cases, the federal government and the RCMP actually compromised the investigations. Given the statutes of limitations, many acts of abuse have gone unpunished because the children did not have the means or possess the knowledge to seek justice for their abuses. The calls to action seek to extend the statutes of limitations and reaffirm the independence of the RCMP. In order to bring the federal and provincial governments and Indigenous nations of Canada into a reconciled state for the future, the proposed actions are identified in the following sub-categories: - Canadian governments and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People - Royal proclamation and covenant of reconciliation - Settlement agreement parties and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples - Equity for Aboriginal people in the legal system - National council for reconciliation - Professional development and training for public servants - Church apologies and reconciliation - Education for reconciliation - Youth programs - Museums and archives - Missing children and burial information - National centre for truth and reconciliation - Media and reconciliation - Sports and reconciliation - Business and reconciliation - Newcomers to Canada - Residential School Settlement - Truth and Reconciliation Commisision of Canada. (Report). - Mark Kennedy, "At least 4,000 aboriginal children died in residential schools, commission finds", Ottawa Citizen, Canada.com, 3 January 2014, accessed 18 October 2015 - "Indian, church leaders launch multi-city tour to highlight commission". CBC. March 2, 2008. Retrieved June 11, 2011. - "Statement of apology to former students of Indian Residential Schools". Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Government of Canada. June 11, 2008. Retrieved June 17, 2015. - Judge at head of residential school investigation resigns, CBC, October 18, 2008, retrieved October 20, 2008 - New commissioners for native reconciliation, CBC, June 10, 2009, retrieved June 16, 2009 - Rubenstein, Hymie; Rodney, Clifton (June 22, 2015). "Truth and Reconciliation report tells a 'skewed and partial story' of residential schools". National Post (Post Media). Retrieved June 29, 2015. - Kennedy, Mark (January 3, 2014). "At least 4,000 aboriginal children died in residential schools, commission finds". canada.com. Retrieved January 9, 2014. - Black, Conrad (June 6, 2015). "Canada's treatment of aboriginals was shameful, but it was not genocide". National Post (Post Media). Retrieved June 29, 2015. - Rubenstein, Hymie; Rodney, Clifton (June 4, 2015). "Debunking the half-truths and exaggerations in the Truth and Reconciliation report". National Post (Post Media). Retrieved June 29, 2015. - "Huge number of records to land on Truth and Reconciliation Commission's doorstep". CBC. April 23, 2014. - Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action (PDF) (Report). Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2012. Retrieved June 14, 2015. In order to redress the legacy of residential schools and advance the process of Canadian reconciliation, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission makes the following calls to action. - TRC, NRA, INAC – Resolution Sector – IRS Historical Files Collection – Ottawa, file 6-21-1, volume 2 (Ctrl #27-6), H. M. Jones to Deputy Minister, 13 December 1956. [NCA-001989-0001] - Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal People in Canada, 19 - United Nations, Convention on the Rights of the Child, Concluding observations, 12–13 - Moseley and Nicolas, Atlas of the World’s Languages, 117 |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| - Truth and Reconciliation Main Website - Indian Residential School Resolution Canada - Remembering the Children Tour

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Reform Judaism in the United States Leaders of Reform Judaism in the United States have often celebrated their movement’s role in emancipating women from the many restrictions that Judaism has traditionally imposed upon their ability to participate and lead public worship. Although Reform thinkers in Germany made the case for women’s equality in Judaism and the abolition of anachronistic laws and customs that stifled the public expression of women’s religiosity, it was only in the United States that practical innovations adopted by the Reform Movement actively redefined the nature of women’s participation in public worship. Chief among Reform Judaism’s liberating innovations have been the abolition of a separate women’s gallery within the synagogue in the 1850s and the ordination of the first American female rabbi in 1972. Reform congregations have also provided important sites for Jewish women to work out the tensions between evolving societal expectations for women and the roles identified with traditional Jewish practice. Many innovations common in early American synagogues helped to redefine women’s place in Jewish worship even before the emergence of a formal Reform movement. American synagogue builders had, for the most part, done away with the partition barriers that kept women out of sight, in traditional women’s galleries. Many congregations employed choirs of mixed male and female voices, challenging the usual Orthodox prohibitions against allowing women’s voices to be heard within worship services. In addition, the introduction of confirmation services in many Jewish congregations signified, in part, an effort to solemnize the Jewish education and identity of girls as well as boys. Family pews, the innovation connected with women’s status most explicitly identified with the nineteenth-century Reform Movement, may have arisen as a matter of convenience. When Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise’s Anshe Emeth Congregation in Albany occupied a church building in 1851 and when New York’s Temple Emanu-El bought a former church in 1854, both congregations determined that rather than build new galleries, they would seat men and women together in the pews that had been used by the churches. The prominence of Temple Emanu-El’s Reform program and of its elite congregants helped place family pews on the Reform agenda. With Reform’s emergence as the dominant tendency among America’s acculturating Jews in the 1860s and 1870s, the family pew became a requisite feature of the imposing temples and synagogues added to the post–Civil War urban landscape. Offered a place in the sanctuary, Jewish women continued a trend that had marked early nineteenth-century American synagogues. In a departure from the traditional pattern of synagogue worship, women quickly came to dominate attendance at weekly Sabbath services. Women’s access to the sanctuary floor, however, came at a moment when the content of congregational participation had been radically redefined. The Judaism championed by American Reformers placed the rabbi or service reader in a prominent elevated location at the front of the congregation. Women did not need more Jewish education to participate in Reform services that were premised upon the limited knowledge and involvement of all the congregants. Although Reform leaders often celebrated their introduction of the family pew in bringing gender equality to Jewish religious life, the second half of the nineteenth century brought mixed results in forwarding the public position of women in America’s Reform congregations. Although Jewish women’s attendance patterns may have emulated the pew dominance of American Christian women, mid-nineteenth-century Jewish women did not participate in the explosion of voluntary and organizational activity identified with women in Protestant churches of the same era. The Reform synagogue’s emphasis upon worship undermined the existence of the many synagogue-affiliated groups, like female benevolent societies, which had earlier been part of broadly defined synagogue communities. As the purposes of the congregation narrowed to the limited sphere of worship, women found little to do except sit and listen quietly. Those active synagogue affiliations that remained—spiritual leadership and lay governance—were exclusively in male hands. Formal organization of the Reform Movement grew from the founding of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations (UAHC) in 1872 and Hebrew Union College (HUC) in 1875. Women contributed some money, but otherwise played little role in these institutional developments. Although HUC president Isaac Mayer Wise had often called for the creation of a “female theological seminary,” nothing along these lines ever emerged. A few female students did enroll at the early Hebrew Union College, but none advanced very far in their studies. One area in which women continued to expand their involvement in synagogue life was in congregational religious schools, in which they often served as teachers and supporters. But even in these settings, women were often explicitly excluded from leadership roles and could not serve on the congregational boards overseeing the schools. Late nineteenth-century Reform congregations rejected the exclusively male bar mitzvah, adopting the confirmation ritual observed on Shavuot as the primary adolescent rite of passage, thus hoping to demonstrate their regard for the religious education of girls. During confirmation services, girls, together with boys, offered prayers and speeches, and testified to their learning and commitment. It was not until the late 1880s that new structures emerged to absorb the latent energies of the women within Reform congregations. The first Jewish Sisterhood of Personal Service organized by Rabbi Gustav Gottheil of New York’s Reform Temple Emanu-El provided the prototype for a women’s organization that was quickly emulated in Jewish congregations throughout the country. At first, these groups of Americanized Jewish women focused their energies on the impoverished Eastern European Jewish multitudes lately arrived in the United States. As numerous organizations emerged around the turn of the century to tend to the needs of these immigrants and as the professionalization of social work displaced “lady visitors” in immigrant work, women’s synagogue organizations often turned their now-organized energies back to their own communities. Women’s groups offered services in whatever ways congregations would allow them to participate, often in areas such as schools and temple decoration. The expansion of women’s energies in this direction was also facilitated by attempts to expand the ambit of the synagogue beyond the narrow worship-centered sanctuary of early Reformers. The massive temple edifices built in the early twentieth century hosted a broad range of community-oriented activities. Congregational governance structures yielded slowly to women’s participation. A few Reform congregations responded to calls from the National Council of Jewish Women in the 1890s to open up the category of synagogue membership to women who were not widows of deceased members. Yet, for the most part, the call to grant women access to both membership and positions on congregational boards met stony resistance. It was not until the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution was passed in 1920, granting female suffrage, that most Reform congregations offered formal membership to women who were not widows or who were unmarried, and began to invite sisterhood presidents to serve on congregational lay leadership boards. Women affiliated with the Reform Movement were first organized into a national movement in 1913 when the National Federation of Temple Sisterhoods (NFTS) was formed at a special meeting of 156 representatives from fifty-two congregations, held in conjunction with the UAHC meeting held in Cincinnati. The moving forces behind creation of the NFTS were Rabbi George Zepin of the UAHC and Carrie Simon, a civic leader who was the wife of a Washington, D.C., rabbi. Simon served as the organization’s founding president and Zepin as its executive secretary. Organization of the NFTS at a national level prompted many congregations that had not yet created women’s membership organizations to found local synagogue sisterhoods. Once founded, these groups encouraged thousands of women to focus their energies on congregational life. In the interwar years, sisterhood members elaborated their congregational roles, assuming responsibility for a wide range of temple, school, and communal activities, as well as for certain liturgical events. Sisterhoods organized community seders and summer services. At annual sisterhood Sabbaths, women took public pulpit roles, delivering sermons and often conducting the services themselves. On a national level, NFTS took a leading role in supporting the movement’s rabbinic school, raising student scholarships, and supplying funds to build the Sisterhood Dormitory in Cincinnati. NFTS was also instrumental in founding the National Braille Institute and the National Federation of Temple Youth. The presence, contributions, energy, and activities that women brought to the Reform Movement, nationally and locally, contributed to growing expectations that women should be recognized as full participants in the work of Reform Judaism. Through the sisterhood, women were beginning to have a say in both local synagogue governance and the national movement. The growth of a cadre of local and national sisterhood leaders, together with the logic implicit in the woman suffrage amendment, confronted Reform leaders with the question of female religious leadership. In 1922, facing the possibility that Martha Neumark, a female student at Hebrew Union College, might continue her studies and become a candidate for ordination, HUC’s board of governors and faculty and the Reform Movement’s federation of rabbis, the Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR), all took up the question of whether to approve, in principle, the ordination of female rabbis. Some traditionalist-leaning members of the HUC faculty expressed misgivings as to whether the Reform Movement, in ordaining women, would irreparably sunder itself from the other movements in Judaism. Nonetheless, the faculty unanimously agreed that this innovation was consistent with the inclusive and progressive tenets of the Reform Movement and was equivalent to other major breaks with tradition accepted by the movement. Consideration of the issue at the 1922 CCAR convention was especially noteworthy for the decision of the delegates to include female members of the audience, mainly wives of the rabbis in attendance, in the discussion. Although the faculty and the CCAR both voted to support the proposed change, HUC’s board of governors, which had to make the final decision, ultimately rejected the proposal. The question of whether women should serve as rabbis lay dormant over the next few decades as the energy and creativity of women within the movement provided their communities with a rich congregational life. During World War II, as had been the case during World War I, many women looked to the sisterhood to formalize their contribution to the war effort. They knitted, crocheted, baked cookies, organized blood banks, sold bonds, conducted first-aid classes, and resettled Jewish refugees, all under the auspices of their congregational sisterhoods. Continued postwar growth in synagogue activity reflected a nationwide return to religion that enlivened both churches and synagogues through the 1950s. As synagogue organizational life flourished, sisterhoods were critical in sustaining synagogue life in older congregations and in creating new frameworks for community as old and new congregations found their way to the suburbs. The confirmation service, with its egalitarian commitment to Jewish education for both boys and girls, had been an early aspect of the Reform Movement’s agenda. As the bar mitzvah ceremony regained popularity in Reform congregations after World War I, however, confirmation ceremonies became increasingly a province for girls alone. The feminization of the group confirmation service, together with the bar mitzvah ceremony’s emphasis on individual Jewish ritual skills and obligations, highlighted the gender inequity within Jewish worship that confirmation was meant to neutralize. The first bat mitzvah ceremony, as a female counterpart to the bar mitzvah, was introduced by Mordecai Kaplan, founder of the Reconstructionist Movement, for his daughter Judith Kaplan (Eisenstein) in 1922. The bat mitzvah ceremony slowly took root within the Conservative Movement in the 1930s and 1940s. The Reform Movement’s commitment to the confirmation rite, however, slowed acceptance of the bat mitzvah in Reform temples. Bat mitzvah ceremonies began to appear in Reform congregations in the 1950s and made more general progress in the 1960s. Varying in format, a Reform bat mitzvah was often celebrated with a reading of the haftarah on Friday night rather than with the standard bar mitzvah Saturday morning Torah service. By the early 1970s, a Saturday morning bat mitzvah service, identical in its requirements with the ceremony held for boys, was in place in most Reform congregations. In the years surrounding the publication of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique (1963), the rhetoric of gender egalitarianism and equality of opportunity became more familiar in the broader culture. The idea of sustaining distinctive rituals to mark the religious obligations and duties of boys and girls, or of men and women, within Judaism became untenable. No one within the Reform Movement questioned the decision of Meridian, Mississippi’s Reform congregation to appoint the widow of their deceased rabbi to serve as the community’s spiritual leader from 1951 to 1953. In 1956, the CCAR’s Barnett Brickner asked the CCAR to declare a commitment to the principle of female ordination. Although his proposal received general approval, the question was “laid on the table” until those with opposing views could present their case—or, as it turned out, indefinitely. In 1963, the women of the NFTS reflected shifting cultural currents and renewed attention to questions of women’s equality by again requesting the governing (male) bodies of Reform Judaism to take up the question of women’s ordination. Ultimately, the issue was resolved without grand statements from the movement’s organizing bodies. As Sally Priesand advanced through the course of study at the Hebrew Union College–Jewish Institute of Religion (HUC–JIR) in Cincinnati, the question was no longer one of abstract commitments but of practical realities. HUC–JIR president Nelson Glueck made clear that he would ordain a female candidate when the opportunity arose. Following Glueck’s death in 1971, the honor of ordaining America’s first female rabbi devolved upon Alfred Gottschalk, Glueck’s successor as president of HUC–JIR. The Reform Movement’s accomplishment was soon followed by the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, which ordained Sandy Eisenberg Sasso as its first female rabbi in 1974. The Conservative Movement’s Jewish Theological Seminary did not ordain a woman, Amy Eilberg, as rabbi until 1985. The ordination of Sally Priesand was seen by some as the ultimate realization of women’s religious equality by the Reform Movement. As additional female colleagues joined in numbers that by the early 1980s approached equity with the number of male ordainees, the movement continued to celebrate its commitment to female religious equality. Indeed, by 2005 at least fifteen women had been appointed to senior rabbinic positions in Reform congregations with a membership of five hundred or more households. They included Rabbi Marcia Zimmerman, who in 2001 was chosen to lead the nineteen hundred families of Temple Israel in Minneapolis, Minnesota. (By contrast, 2005 marked the first time a woman attained the senior rabbinic position at a Conservative synagogue of over five hundred families.) In April 2003, Rabbi Janet Marder was elected the first woman president of the Central Conference of American Rabbis. She also serves as senior rabbi at the 1,300-member Congregation Beth Am of Los Altos Hills, California. Thus, it seems that the advent of female rabbis had, by the early years of the twenty-first century, addressed the question of women’s equal authority and status within the movement. Still, despite a continuing rhetorical commitment to gender equity, there are frequent instances of women finding their placement or renewal in clergy complicated by concerns about their marital status, childcare responsibilities, sexual orientation, wardrobe, personal appearance, or inability to get along with male supervisors. Women’s rabbinic salaries, moreover, continue to trail those of men. In addition, although the faculty on some campuses of the Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion is beginning to show the presence of more than just one or two female professors, the only HUC-JIR faculty members to be denied tenure since 1963 have been two professors who were each the first woman to be hired to the faculty of their respective campuses. None of these difficulties negates the overall and symbolic progress that women are making within the Reform movement, but they remind us that the journey is not yet over. Changing societal roles for women have also reshaped congregational life. Although sisterhoods remain important membership organizations, congregational leaders no longer assume that they can draw on the unlimited energies and time of a cadre of talented female volunteers. As a result, much of the responsibility for sustaining a more limited range of congregational activities falls increasingly upon paid (male and female) staff members. Meanwhile, many women now become involved in synagogue life and governance without first rising through the sisterhood. As women take on lay leadership roles that were once monopolized by men, many are wary of the subsidiary role often ascribed to sisterhoods. This same concern was reflected in the National Federation of Temple Sisterhoods’ 1993 decision to change its name to Women of Reform Judaism, the Federation of Temple Sisterhoods (WRJ). The change of name reflects a desire to be seen not merely as an ancillary service group but as an organization that puts its members and their interests at the center of the Reform Movement. Although WRJ continues to fulfill many of NFTS’s traditional roles within the movement, current efforts such as campaigns against breast cancer and in areas of social action, as well as sponsorship of a new bible commentary written by women, demonstrate a commitment to redefining the tradition and texts of Jewish life. As the WRJ’s Torah commentary project suggests, the desire to offer women full access to Judaism is complicated by the indelibly patriarchal sources of Jewish tradition. Gender-inclusive liturgical reform, for example, is slowed by desires to preserve the language of Jewish tradition, worries about how to keep texts familiar to congregants who are poorly educated in Hebrew, and differing perceptions of the extent to which Jewish prayer and practice are formulated as expressions of male religiosity. In 1993, the movement published a “gender-sensitive” liturgy meant to supplement Gates of Prayer, which appeared in 1975. The new edition does not employ male pronouns to refer to God, and it offers gender-neutral English prayers and translations. Changes in the Hebrew text, however, are limited to adding the names of the matriarchs to liturgical references to the patriarchs. In 2006, the Reform movement will publish a new prayerbook, edited by Rabbi Elyse Freedman. It will offer an important measure of the impact of women rabbis and feminist ideas on the Reform movement. The particular adaptations necessary to realize Reform Judaism’s rhetorical commitment to the principle of religious equality for men and women have evolved along with the broader society’s often-confusing mix of expectations of proper gender roles. Contemporary Reform Judaism, the denomination with which the largest percentage (35%) of American Jews identify, struggles with how to redefine notions of rabbinic authority in ways that can do justice to both the men and women who fill rabbinic roles. At the same time, the movement must also accommodate those who believe that there should be a way to sustain distinctive religious roles and responsibilities for men and women. Discrete and significant advances, like the ordination of female rabbis or efforts to demasculinize Jewish prayer, often tend to raise awareness that even more change is necessary. Current efforts to push Reform practice and liturgy to respond to gender concerns often draws upon the creative work of progressive Jews from outside the Reform Movement. Yet, the recognition that a vibrant and relevant Judaism must respond to the challenges raised by the position of women in American life derives from the earliest days and concerns of America’s Reform Movement. “Reform Jews.” Special Report of the National Jewish Population Survey. United Jewish Communities: The Federations of North America (2000); Evans, Jane. “Intertwining Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow: The Union of American Hebrew Congregations.” In The Jewish Condition: Essays on Contemporary Judaism Honoring Rabbi Alexander M. Schindler, edited by Aron Hirt-Manheimer (1995); Goldman, Karla. Beyond the Synagogue Gallery: Finding a Place for Women in American Judaism (2000); Joselit, Jenna Weissman. The Wonders of America: Reinventing Jewish Culture, 1880–1950 (1994); Nadell, Pamela S. “‘Top Down’ or ‘Bottom Up’: Two Movements for Women’s Rabbinic Ordination.” In An Inventory of Promises: Essays on American Jewish History in Honor of Moses Rischin, edited by Jeffrey S. Gurock and Marc Lee Raphael (1995); Nadell, Pamela S., and Rita J. Simon. “Ladies of the Sisterhood: Women in the American Reform Synagogue, 1900–1930.” In Active Voices: Women in Jewish Culture, edited by Maurie Sacks (1995); National Federation of Temple Sisterhoods. The Days of Our Years: Service through Sisterhood, 1913–1963 (1963); Tigay, Chanan. JTA, March 10, 2005; Umansky, Ellen M. “Women in Judaism: From the Reform Movement to Contemporary Jewish Religious Feminism.” In Women of Spirit: Female Leadership in the Jewish and Christian Traditions, edited by Rosemary Radford Ruether and Eleanor McLaughlin (1979), and “Women’s Journey toward Rabbinic Ordination.” In Women Rabbis: Exploration and Celebration, edited by Gary P. Zola (1996). How to cite this page Goldman, Karla. "Reform Judaism in the United States." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 1 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on February 8, 2016) <http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reform-judaism-in-united-states>.

http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reform-judaism-in-united-states

Italian Aims in the First Civil War 87-82 BC By Andrew Swidzinski Hirundo, the McGill Journal of Classical Studies, Volume 5 (2006-07) Introduction: The Social War of 91 BC was a turning point in the development of the Roman state and citizenship. During the course of this conflict, half of Rome’s Italian allies rebelled against Roman rule and established a full fledged counter-state, possessing a Senate, a capital and a patriotic notion of Italia, perhaps best symbolized by their minting of coins depicting an Italian bull goring a Roman wolf. It was a desperate struggle, in which the Romans were driven so close to defeat that they were forced to conscript former slaves to defend their coasts. Both sides initially fielded armies in excess of 100,000 men. Because the Italian troops had themselves contributed massively to the Roman armies of the past decades, they undoubtedly enjoyed similar training and abilities as the legions. The result was that, equally matched, both sides suffered horrendous casualties. Yet rather than being a long and drawn out conflict, the Social War ended after only three years with the Romans victorious. As the war progressed, rather than imposing more stringent conditions upon their enemies, the Romans steadily granted the rights of Roman citizenship to the whole of Italy. Moreover, in the civil war that immediately ensued, the Italians played a role that seemed radically different from that of a conquered population. They deployed enormous armies to support both sides in the conflict, and by the end of the war their political rights had been significantly enhanced. Several important questions have arisen as to the causes and the nature of this conflict. The ancient sources, of which there are few for the period in question, viewed it largely as a response on the part of the Italian allies to the refusal of the Romans to grant them the citizenship, and thus allow them to share in the benefits of the empire which had been created in great part due to the efforts of their own soldiers. This is the view taken by Appian, an Alexandrian Greek who composed a history of Rome’s civil wars during the reign of the Emperor Antoninus Pius, and Velleius Paterculus, a Roman knight who wrote during the principate of Tiberius and was himself descended from participants in the conflict. Their view has been defended by many modern scholars, notably Sherwin White (1971), Brunt (1988) and Keaveney (2004). Yet both Appian and Velleius lived in periods in which the idea of universal citizenship had become common among the Romans, and Italy and Rome had come to be viewed as one and the same, and so they may have reshaped the narrative in accordance with their own inherent biases.

http://www.historyoftheancientworld.com/2012/12/italian-aims-in-the-first-civil-war-87-82-bc/

A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. The most common or simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam. The example shows a beam which is simply supported at both ends. Simply supported means that each end of the beam can rotate; therefore each end support has no bending moment. The ends can only react to the shear load. Other beams can have both ends fixed; therefore each end support has both bending moment and shear reaction loads. Beams can also have one end fixed and one end simply supported. The simplest type of beam is the cantilever, which is fixed at one end and is free at the other end (neither simple or fixed). In reality, beam supports are usually neither absolutely fixed nor absolutely rotating freely. The internal reaction loads in a cross-section of the structural element can be resolved into a resultant force and a resultant couple. For equilibrium, the moment created by external forces (and external moments) must be balanced by the couple induced by the internal loads. The resultant internal couple is called the bending moment while the resultant internal force is called the shear force (if it is transverse to the plane of element) or the normal force (if it is along the plane of the element). The bending moment at a section through a structural element may be defined as "the sum of the moments about that section of all external forces acting to one side of that section". The forces and moments on either side of the section must be equal in order to counteract each other and maintain a state of equilibrium so the same bending moment will result from summing the moments, regardless of which side of the section is selected. If clockwise bending moments are taken as negative, then a negative bending moment within an element will cause "sagging", and a positive moment will cause "hogging". It is therefore clear that a point of zero bending moment within a beam is a point of contraflexure—that is the point of transition from hogging to sagging or vice versa. Moments and torques are measured as a force multiplied by a distance so they have as unit newton-metres (N·m), or pound-foot or foot-pound (ft·lb). The concept of bending moment is very important in engineering (particularly in civil and mechanical engineering) and physics. Tensile and compressive stresses increase proportionally with bending moment, but are also dependent on the second moment of area of the cross-section of a beam (that is, the shape of the cross-section, such as a circle, square or I-beam being common structural shapes). Failure in bending will occur when the bending moment is sufficient to induce tensile stresses greater than the yield stress of the material throughout the entire cross-section. In structural analysis, this bending failure is called a plastic hinge, since the full load carrying ability of the structural element is not reached until the full cross-section is past the yield stress. It is possible that failure of a structural element in shear may occur before failure in bending, however the mechanics of failure in shear and in bending are different. Moments are calculated by multiplying the external vector forces (loads or reactions) by the vector distance at which they are applied. When analysing an entire element, it is sensible to calculate moments at both ends of the element, at the beginning, centre and end of any uniformly distributed loads, and directly underneath any point loads. Of course any "pin-joints" within a structure allow free rotation, and so zero moment occurs at these points as there is no way of transmitting turning forces from one side to the other. It is more common to use the convention that a clockwise bending moment to the left of the point under consideration is taken as positive. This then corresponds to the second derivative of a function which, when positive, indicates a curvature that is 'lower at the centre' i.e. sagging. When defining moments and curvatures in this way calculus can be more readily used to find slopes and deflections. Critical values within the beam are most commonly annotated using a bending moment diagram, where negative moments are plotted to scale above a horizontal line and positive below. Bending moment varies linearly over unloaded sections, and parabolically over uniformly loaded sections. Engineering descriptions of the computation of bending moments can be confusing because of unexplained sign conventions and implicit assumptions. The descriptions below use vector mechanics to compute moments of force and bending moments in an attempt to explain, from first principles, why particular sign conventions are chosen. Computing the moment of force An important part of determining bending moments in practical problems is the computation of moments of force. Let be a force vector acting at a point A in a body. The moment of this force about a reference point (O) is defined as where is the moment vector and is the position vector from the reference point (O) to the point of application of the force (A). The symbol indicates the vector cross product. For many problems, it is more convenient to compute the moment of force about an axis that passes through the reference point O. If the unit vector along the axis is , the moment of force about the axis is defined as where indicates the vector dot product. The adjacent figure shows a beam that is acted upon by a force . If the coordinate system is defined by the three unit vectors , we have the following The moment about the axis is then The negative value suggests that a moment that tends to rotate a body clockwise around an axis should have a negative sign. However, the actual sign depends on the choice of the three axes . For instance, if we choose another right handed coordinate system with , we have For this new choice of axes, a positive moment tends to rotate body clockwise around an axis. Computing the bending moment In a rigid body or in an unconstrained deformable body, the application of a moment of force causes a pure rotation. But if a deformable body is constrained, it develops internal forces in response to the external force so that equilibrium is maintained. An example is shown in the figure below. These internal forces will cause local deformations in the body. For equilibrium, the sum of the internal force vectors is equal to the applied external force and the sum of the moment vectors created by the internal forces is equal to the moment of the external force. The internal force and moment vectors are oriented in such a way that the total force (internal + external) and moment (external + internal) of the system is zero. The internal moment vector is called the bending moment. Though bending moments have been used to determine the stress states in arbitrary shaped structures, the physical interpretation of the computed stresses is problematic. However, physical interpretations of bending moments in beams and plates have a straightforward interpretation as the stress resultants in a cross-section of the structural element. For example, in a beam in the figure, the bending moment vector due to stresses in the cross-section A perpendicular to the x-axis is given by Expanding this expression we have, We define the bending moment components as The internal moments are computed about an origin that is at the neutral axis of the beam or plate and the integration is through the thickness () In the beam shown in the adjacent figure, the external forces are the applied force at point A () and the reactions at the two support points O and B ( and ). The reactions can be computed using balances of forces and moments about point A, i.e., If is the length of the beam, we have If we solve for the reactions we have Looking at the free body diagram of the part of the beam to the left of point X, the total moment of the external forces about the point X is If we compute the cross products, we have For this situation, the only non-zero component of the bending moment is For the sum of the moments at X about the axis to be zero, we require At , we have . In the above discussion, it is implicitly assumed that the bending moment is positive when the top of the beam is compressed. That can be seen if we consider a linear distribution of stress in the beam and find the resulting bending moment. Let the top of the beam be in compression with a stress and let the bottom of the beam have a stress . Then the stress distribution in the beam is . The bending moment due to these stresses is where is the area moment of inertia of the cross-section of the beam. Therefore the bending moment is positive when the top of the beam is in compression. Many authors follow a different convention in which the stress resultant is defined as In that case, positive bending moments imply that the top of the beam is in tension. Of course, the definition of top depends on the coordinate system being used. In the examples above, the top is the location with the largest -coordinate. - Twisting moment - Shear and moment diagrams - Stress resultants - First moment of area - Influence line - Second moment of area - List of area moments of inertia - Wing bending relief |Wikiversity has learning materials about Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams|

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bending_moment

Understanding and calculating rotational speed. Understanding the differences between rotations and revolutions. How to define a rotation and what information is necessary to perform a rotation. Understanding rotational inertia. How to define rotational symmetry and identify the degree of rotational symmetry of common regular polygons. Understanding the differences between speed and instantaneous speed. How to find the speed of waves. How to calculate average speed. Understanding the concept of torque. How to define a composition of transformations; how to perform a composition of translations. The laws of physics are not affected by varying amounts of inertia. How to determine the types of transformations, the definition of isometry, and how to say and write a transformation's new image. How to find the speed of transit when the time of two different legs is known. How to use and convert scientific units. How we measure airspeed, wind, groundspeed, and other variables in navigation.

https://www.brightstorm.com/tag/rotational-speed-rotation-revolution/

Dead Sea scrolls The Dead Sea scrolls include several of the oldest extant manuscripts of the Old Testament, found in a remarkable modern discovery near the Dead Sea in Israel. This discovery proved the accuracy of the copying and preservation of Scriptures over thousands of years, because the ancient contents of these scrolls are virtually identical to the modern content today. In addition, these scrolls are an important source of information about the Holy Land in the first century after Jesus Christ's ministry on earth, The first scrolls were discovered in 1947 by a Bedouin shepherd who uncovered seven scrolls in a cave. In the following decade, further searches yielded many thousands of scroll fragments, and there are currently over 900 such documents, discovered in eleven different caves. A nearby habitation, known as Qumran, was also excavated in this time in an effort to identify the people who left the scrolls in the caves. "Scholars have pointed to similarities between beliefs and practices outlined in the Qumran literature and those of early Christians." The Biblical Scrolls' contents focus the books from the Old Testament. The Scrolls are written in Hebrew and in Aramaica with a few texts in Greek. The use of Hebrew was a surprise to many scholars who felt that Hebrew had become a dead language by that time, and this discovery gave new evidence to a claim that the Gospels of Matthew and Luke were originally written in Hebrew and then quickly translated into Greek. According to the Library of Congress: Within a fairly short time after their discovery, historical, paleographic, and linguistic evidence, as well as carbon-14 dating, established that the scrolls and the Qumran ruin dated from the 250 B.C. to 68 A.D. From the standpoint of biblical archeology, this was unparalleled. Coming from the late Second Temple Period, a time when Jesus of Nazareth lived, they are older than any other surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew Scriptures by almost one thousand years. Most part of the biblical books that have survived two millennia in the caves are extremely fragmented; many are no larger than the size of a postcard, and some fragments are as small as a postage stamp. Even the smallest fragment, however, can add to our knowledge of the Bible.... With the exception of the book of Esther, every book of the Old Testament has been found in the Qumran caves. All told, 230 Biblical manuscripts have been found (of course many are copies of the same books). Among the many copies of the Bible found were: - 35 copies of the Psalms - 22 copies of Deuteronomy - 21 copies of Isaiah (The copies of Isaiah were written over a period of 180 years). - JUDAISM AND CHRISTIANITY AND THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS Library of Congress Exhibitions. - THE WORLD OF THE SCROLLS Library of Congress Exhibitions. - Dead Sea Scrolls exhibit, San Diego, Sept 30 2007 - Old Testament Texts at Qumran - Burrows, M., The Dead Sea Scrolls (Secker & Warburg, 1956). - Vermes, G., The Dead Sea Scrolls (Penguin, 1968).

http://www.conservapedia.com/Dead_Sea_Scrolls

There are two theories as to how planets in the solar system were created. The first and most widely accepted, core accretion, works well with the formation of the terrestrial planets but has problems with giant planets such as Uranus. The second, the disk instability method, may account for the creation of giant planets. The core accretion model Approximately 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was a cloud of dust and gas known as a solar nebula. Gravity collapsed the material in on itself as it began to spin, forming the sun in the center of the nebula. With the rise of the sun, the remaining material began to clump together. Small particles drew together, bound by the force of gravity, into larger particles. The solar wind swept away lighter elements, such as hydrogen and helium, from the closer regions, leaving only heavy, rocky materials to create terrestrial worlds. But farther away, the solar winds had less impact on lighter elements, allowing them to coalesce into gas giants such as Uranus. In this way, asteroids, comets, planets, and moons were created. Unlike most gas giants, Uranus has a core that is rocky rather than gaseous. The core likely formed first, and then gathered up the hydrogen, helium, and methane that make up the planet's atmosphere. Heat from the core drives Uranus' temperature and weather, overpowering the heat coming from the distant sun, which is almost two billion miles away. The disk instability model But the need for a rapid formation for the giant gas planets is one of the problems of core accretion. According to models, the process takes several million years, longer than the light gases were available in the early solar system. At the same time, the core accretion model faces a migration issue, as the baby planets are likely to spiral into the sun in a short amount of time. According to a relatively new theory, disk instability, clumps of dust and gas are bound together early in the life of the solar system. Over time, these clumps slowly compact into a giant planet. These planets can form faster than their core accretion rivals, sometimes in as little as a thousand years, allowing them to trap the rapidly-vanishing lighter gases. They also quickly reach an orbit-stabilizing mass that keeps them from death-marching into the sun. As scientists continue to study planets inside of the solar system, as well as around other stars, they will better understand how Uranus and its siblings formed. A dangerous youth The early solar system was a time of violent collisions, and Uranus was not exempt. While the surface of the moon and Mercury both show evidence of bombardment by smaller rocks and asteroids, Uranus apparently suffered a significant collision with an Earth-size protoplanet. As a result, Uranus is tipped on its side, with one pole pointing toward the sun for half the year. Uranus is the smallest of the gas giants, perhaps in part because it lost some of its mass during the impact. — Nola Taylor Redd, SPACE.com Contributor

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Back To CourseHistory 101: Western Civilization I 16 chapters | 223 lessons Welcome to Mesopotamia! Mesopotamia derives its name from the Greek meso, meaning 'between', and the Greek potamos, meaning 'river.' It is literally a place between two rivers - the Tigris and the Euphrates. This Fertile Crescent proved an ideal place to form the first civilizations. Looking at this region today it is difficult to see how, but 12 thousand years ago, the earth was far cooler and rainier than it is now. Climate shifts and centuries of intensive agriculture have since made this area less inviting, yet when the first peoples came to settle between the Tigris and Euphrates, the lands were lush and productive. But it was not just farmland that made Mesopotamia such a splendid place to found an empire. The two rivers served as arteries for trade, as well as highways for soldiers and chariots. There are few natural boundaries in this relatively flat region, allowing for armies to move fairly easily over land. These features combined to make Mesopotamia the cradle of civilization. It is difficult to tell the history of Mesopotamia. It is a time in which many cities vied for power. Ebla, Mari, Ur, Uruk, Akka, Lagash, Isin, Larsa, Babylon, Susa, Assur - each would try to unite their neighbors under a single empire. Some would succeed better than others and each would build off the accomplishments of its predecessors. This makes them hard to tell apart in many respects. For most of early Mesopotamian history, the main distinguishing feature between empires is language. Our sources for this time period are few but more than we've had to work with so far. We have written epics, which are enlightening but difficult to trust since they are written by kings trying to tell everyone how awesome they are. Our main source for chronology is lists of kings. We make especial use of the Egyptian lists because they don't go through revolutions quite so often. We also have occasional events that are mentioned across cultures, such as specific battles or eclipses. Yet our most trustworthy source of information in this period is material culture - buildings, artifacts, etc. These are many but they're also hard to interpret. This is especially true when dealing with early Mesopotamian architecture. Southern Mesopotamia doesn't have much stone, so Sumerians built with clay and mud brick. Such building materials erode very quickly, creating tells upon which new structures are built, thereby slowly raising the level of ancient cities. Unfortunately, eroded mud brick buildings leave us very little archaeological evidence. However, they do leave enough to confirm the descriptions we find in epic. It is likely that the first public buildings were temples. People had been building temples for thousands of years. This is Goebekli Tepe, a temple from the 10th millennium BCE. Like with the rest of their architecture, the Sumerians built their temples of sun-baked mud brick, tearing them down when they began to crumble and rebuilding them grander than ever. This makes it hard to say much. Sumerian Temples apparently start out as rectangular enclosures with a single entrance. As these early city-states become more advanced and complex, their temples do likewise and incorporate a bent axis approach, with entrances for gods along one axis, and entrances for mortals along another. In the Uruk Period, people start making T-shaped or tripartite temples. Yet the height of Sumerian temple building would be the ziggurat. A ziggurat is a step pyramid with a flat top holding a temple. It is likely that this developed from the trend of building on the tell of a previous building. The higher the mound, the more ancient and sacred a building is. It took only a bit of imagination for them to decide to build an artificial tell, a ziggurat, for the temple to stand on top of. Temples contain a bunch of stuff. They contain votive figures since mortals cannot enter the most sacred precincts of the temple. Temples also contain steles, which provide us with the valuable information, like who built this temple and why. Another source of information are tombs. The Royal Tombs of Ur offer us a wealth of information. They're not architecturally very interesting but their contents tell us a great deal. First of all, we find a lot of other people buried in the tomb with their king. This suggests human sacrifice, unless everyone got sick simultaneously and died. Possible, not likely. Second, there are beautifully decorated artifacts. We have this lovely little lyre here. Perhaps the most enlightening artifact we've found is the Standard of Ur, which offers a glimpse into the lives of early Sumerians in times of war and times of peace. The final things we find in tombs are cylinder seals. Archaeologists have found thousands of these things. In a society that uses clay to write, a rolling seal makes for a fine signature. Yet even after clay is abandoned as a writing material, people still keep carrying around these cylinder seals for thousands of years, suggesting that these were perhaps a status symbol as well as a way of writing your name. All right, so we've seen what early Mesopotamians have left us to work with. From these remains, archeologists have pieced together a rough history of early Mesopotamia. As I said before, early Mesopotamian history is all about city-states vying for regional control. These states were organized with writing and hierarchies, they were protected by walls, they were armed with bronze, and they used chariots and roads to move their armies around. Each city-state tried to dominate the region. The first people to make the attempt were the Sumerians. The Sumerians had an advantage over their neighbors in their writing system, cuneiform. At the heart of this empire was the city of Uruk. The huge mounds of records we find in this city tell us this was centralized state. Uruk's time in the sun was short lived however, lasting only from 2295 BCE to 2271 BCE when Naram Sin (an Akkadian king) had a great victory over the Sumerians, which he commemorated in this famous victory stele. Although Akkadian was a new language, they borrowed cuneiform from the Sumerians. This would form a trend. Each culture would need to learn to write before they could build an empire. Still, there is evidence that the Sumerian language continued to be used for religious purposes. Indeed, the Akkadians and their successors would copy virtually everything from the Sumerians: their temples, their palaces, their irrigation, and their roads. Perhaps they were unsure whether civilization would work unless they copied it exactly. Akkad proved a longer lasting capitol, surviving more than a century until the Akkadian empire, in turn, was destroyed around 2141 BCE by a savage people called the Guti. The Guti weren't as interested in building an empire as in pillaging it. In their century-long reign of terror, city after city was razed, while canals and roads were left to fall into disrepair. Finally around 2050, Utu Hengal (the governor of Uruk) had enough of these barbaric Gutians and drove them from the land - once again establishing Uruk as the capitol of a new Sumerian empire. Yet for some reason, Uruk just has no staying power as a capitol. Perhaps the Akkadians felt left out. This time, Uruk lasted less than a decade before another city, Ur, took the reins of the empire. In this empire, Akkadian and Sumerian cultures merged and reached their apex. Ur was a fully planned city, with gardens, neighborhoods, temples and palaces. Those palaces served as huge administrative structures. At the head of this empire stood their inspired leader, Ur-Nammu. Ur-Nammu does much to unify the disparate people of his empire. He establishes a powerful central bureaucracy. He rebuilds roads and canals ruined by the Guti. Perhaps his greatest legacy was his system of law. The code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest surviving code of laws. The publication of laws implies a high level of literacy, and indeed, this culture generated an unprecedented amount of literature. They wrote the Epic of Gilgamesh, Enmerkar Legends, the Tales of Lugalbanda and the Tale of the Flood that would later become our story of Noah. Thus by the 19th century BCE, the Akkado-Sumerian culture had established the general outlines of civilization. They had centrally planned cities administered through writing under a king. These central cities were connected by roads and canals, first to their surrounding areas, and later to conquered lands and cities of the empire. They built walls, palaces and temples, culminating with the impressive ziggurat. They had laws, literature, art, and music. Later civilizations would expand upon and improve these forms, yet they all retain a debt to the genius of the Sumerians. To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Create your account Did you know… We have over 49 college courses that prepare you to earn credit by exam that is accepted by over 2,000 colleges and universities. You can test out of the first two years of college and save thousands off your degree. Anyone can earn credit-by-exam regardless of age or education level. To learn more, visit our Earning Credit Page Not sure what college you want to attend yet? Study.com has thousands of articles about every imaginable degree, area of study and career path that can help you find the school that's right for you. Back To CourseHistory 101: Western Civilization I 16 chapters | 223 lessons

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Beacon Lesson Plan Library Toothpicks, Gumdrops, and Polyhedrons Santa Rosa District Schools Using toothpicks and gumdrops, students make prisms and pyramids to discover the relationship between faces, vertices, and edges. The student knows the attributes of and draws three-dimensional figures (including rectangular solids and cylinders). The student knows the properties of two- and three-dimensional figures. -Models of prisms and pyramids (paper or wooden) -Paper net of a prism and pyramid (large enough for all students to clearly see) -Toothpicks (15 per student pair) -Gumdrops, or marshmallows (10 per student pair) -Sandwich bags, cups, some container for gumdrops and toothpicks -Paper towels for clean work mats -Toothpicks and Gumdrops worksheet 1. Gather models of polyhedrons. 2. Make a large paper net of a prism and pyramid. 3. Copy worksheets (1 per student). 4. Put 15 toothpicks and 10 gumdrops into sandwich bags. 1. Show students the models of prisms. Have students describe common characteristics. List these characteristics on the board or overhead. Explain that all prisms have rectangular sides and 2 congruent, parallel bases. The bases are used to name the prism. Have students name the example prisms. 2. Show students the models of pyramids. Have students describe common characteristics. Again, list these characteristics on the board or overhead. Explain that all pyramids have triangular faces and 1 polygonal base. The base is used to name the pyramid. 3. Have students complete the Venn diagram on the worksheet by recording the characteristics listed on the board or overhead. Check students’ work for any misconceptions. 4. While using the models, show students the edges, vertices and faces of a prism and a pyramid. Draw the net of each. Help students understand how the net ‘folds’ into the polyhedron. Fold the paper net into the polyhedron. 5. Explain that the students will work in pairs and make a model of various polyhedrons and record the number of vertices, faces, and edges. They will also draw the net of each figure. In order to make the model, students will use toothpicks and gumdrops. Build a model as an example. Ask students what part of the polyhedron does the gumdrops represent? The vertices. What does the toothpicks represent? The edges. 6. Circulate around the room and have students name their model. Answer any questions that may come up. While circulating about the class, observe students and help students correct any errors.

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3 Answers | Add Yours Before the "fall" of the Western Roman Empire, there were two major differences between the two halves of the empire. First, the West was a Latin civilization. In that part of the empire, Latin was spoken and Latin/Roman culture dominated. The East was essentially Greek in its language and in its culture. This difference extended to the second main difference, which was religion. The West was dominated by Roman Catholicism. By contrast, the East followed the Orthodox faith. Distinctions between the two regions became more pronounced after the fall of the Western Empire. But the two parts of the empire were already growing apart even before Rome fell. The citizens of the empire in Constantinople believed that they were the citizens of Rome. Even after the city of Rome fell in the Fifth Century, contemporary Romans felt that the empire survived by moving East. In this way, Eastern and Western Rome were one in the same. It was only later that historians designated the title Byzantine Empire to the remaining remnants of the Roman Empire in the East. The reason that historians made this distinction is because of some of the cultural differences that exist between the East and West. These differences included variations in religion, language, and architecture between the two cities. Aside from the obvious language and religious distinctions between Rome and Constantinople, other important cultural differences existed. The Eastern Roman empire was more cosmopolitan in nature than Western Rome and had accepted differing philosophies, religions, and ideas than the city of Rome. While Rome was an important center of trade and commerce, Constantinople was one of a number of important cities in the east. It could be stated the Roman Empire in Constantinople was more of an urban culture than it was when centered in Rome. Because of the urban nature of the East, it had a much larger population per square mile. The East was also much wealthier than the West. The wealth of the empire was distributed more evenly than the East, which led to less class struggle and more harmony. While Western Rome was rich in territory, much of the land was undeveloped forests. In the East, centers of trade were firmly established and a strong network of trade existed with Asia. Another important distinction existed in the relationship between the church and the state. Towards the end of the imperial empire in Rome, the Roman Catholic Church exerted considerable authority over the emperors. In the East, the emperors established a system by which the state was firmly in authority over the church and the two entities remained separated. Other differences existed in the legal realm. In Western Rome, laws were diverse in different regions. The Eastern Roman empire established a unified code of law for the entire empire. This allowed for a more unified society. The wealth and trade networks, separation of church and state, and codified system of laws that the Byzantine Empire possessed allowed it to thrive long after Rome fell to barbarian invaders. The Western portion of the Roman Empire was centered in the city of Rome in Italy in the mid-Mediterranean. The Eastern portion of the Roman Empire was centered in Constantinople, a city built by the Roman Emperor Constantine in 324. The story of how they were divided begins with Emperor Diocletian who believed the empire was too big to be governed from Rome. He decided to split Rome up into Western and Eastern Rome, each of which would be ruled by co-emperors. Despite sharing a political system and military, the two portions of the Roman Empire differed culturally. Eastern Rome picked up the Greek language and cultural elements, while Western Rome maintained Latin as a language. Additionally, Eastern Rome split from Roman Catholicism and practiced Orthodox Christianity. Once the Western Roman Empire fell in 476, the East continued to rule under the Byzantine Empire, which fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. Despite the Roman Empire "continuing" until the 15th century, the Eastern portion had such a different culture that it inevitably became a separate entity from its Western Roman counterpart. We’ve answered 301,699 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question

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Does the presence of nitrates affect water quality? Unlike temperature and dissolved oxygen, the presence of normal levels of nitrates usually does not have a direct effect on aquatic insects or fish. However, excess levels of nitrates in water can create conditions that make it difficult for aquatic insects or fish to survive. Algae and other plants use nitrates as a source of food. If algae have an unlimited source of nitrates, their growth is unchecked. So, Why is that a problem? A bay or estuary that has the milky colour of pea soup is showing the result of high concentrations of algae. Large amounts of algae can cause extreme fluctuations in dissolved oxygen. Photosynthesis by algae and other plants can generate oxygen during the day. However, at night, dissolved oxygen may decrease to very low levels as a result of large numbers of oxygen consuming bacteria feeding on dead or decaying algae and other plants. Eutrophication – “The process by which a body of water acquires a high concentration of nutrients, especially phosphates and nitrates. These typically promote excessive growth of algae. As the algae die and decompose, high levels of organic matter and the decomposing organisms deplete the water of available oxygen, causing the death of other organisms, such as fish. Anoxia – Anoxic Event: Anoxia is a lack of oxygen caused by excessive nutrients in waterways which triggers algae growth. When the plants die and decay, oxygen is stripped from the water, which then turns green or milky white and gives off a strong rotten egg odour. The lack of oxygen is often deadly for invertebrates, fish and shellfish. Can the presence of nitrates affect human health? People who use wells as a source of drinking water need to monitor the level of nitrates in their well water. If you drink water that is high in nitrates, it can interfere with the ability of your red blood cells to transport oxygen. Infants who drink water high in nitrates may turn “bluish” and appear to have difficulty in breathing since their bodies are not receiving enough oxygen. Just like dissolved oxygen, temperature, and pH, the amount of nitrates in water is determined by both natural processes and human intervention. A body of water may be naturally high in nitrates or have elevated nitrate levels as a result of careless human activities. Why do we need nitrogen? What are the sources of Nitrogen? Nitrogen is essential for all living things: animals and plants. Nitrogen forms a part of the proteins and DNA that are found in cells. Animals get nitrogen by eating plants and other animals. Just like animals, plants require nitrogen to grow and survive. But they do not get nitrogen by consuming proteins like animals do. Plants get nitrogen from water and from the soil. They get nitrogen by absorbing it in the form of nitrates and ammonium. Nitrates are the major source of nitrogen for aquatic plants. Nitrates are not utilized by aquatic organisms such as fish and aquatic insects, but nitrates are used by aquatic plants. Where do Nitrates come from? All aquatic organisms excrete wastes and aquatic plants and organisms eventually die. These activities create ammonia. Some bacteria in the water change this ammonia to produce nitrite which is then converted by other bacteria to nitrate. Nitrates (NO3-) are an oxidized form of nitrogen and are formed by combining oxygen and nitrogen. Nitrates also come from the earth. Soil contains organic matter, which contains nitrogen compounds. Just like the ammonia in water, these nitrogen compounds in the soil are converted by bacteria into nitrates. Although nitrates occur naturally in soil and water, an excess levels of nitrates can be considered to be a contaminant of ground and surface waters. Most sources of excess nitrates come from human activity. The source of excess nitrates can usually be traced to agricultural activities, human wastes, or industrial pollution. Nitrogen fertilizers have been applied to yards, fields, golf courses to promote the growth of plants. Rainwater can wash nitrates in the fertilizer into streams and rivers or the nitrates can seep into ground water. This can also occur with animal waste and manure. In addition to animal waste, untreated human sewage can contribute to nitrate levels in surface and ground water. Leaking or poorly functioning septic systems are a source of such nitrates. City sewage treatment plants treat sewage to make it non-hazardous, but treatment plants still release nitrates into waterways. In addition, industrial plants and agricultural processing operations are potential sources of nitrate pollution. How do nitrates affect human health? Nitrate concentrations are monitored in municipal water supplies and foods to prevent exposing people to the potential harmful effects of high levels of nitrates. Nitrates are highly soluble, meaning that they easily dissolve in water. For many people in rural areas, the primary source of drinking water is well water, which may be contaminated with nitrates. Nitrates are colorless and odorless, so their presence cannot be determined without the use of special testing equipment. Nitrates can interfere with the ability of our red blood cells to carry oxygen. Infants are more at risk of nitrate poisoning than older children or adults. Babies can turn “blue” when there is not enough oxygen being transported by their blood. This “blue baby syndrome” (technically known as methemoglobinemia) is a serious condition that can cause brain damage or death. How do nitrates affect the health of aquatic animals? Fish and aquatic insects can be affected indirectly by increased nitrate concentrations in the water. Basically, any excess nitrate in the water is a source of fertilizer for aquatic plants and algae. In many cases, the amount of nitrate in the water is what limits how much plants and algae can grow. If there is an excess level of nitrates, plants and algae will grow excessively. Excess plants in a body of water can create many problems. An excess in the growth of plants and algae create an unstable amount of dissolved oxygen. During the day, there will be usually be high levels of dissolved oxygen, and at night the levels of oxygen can decrease dramatically. - This will create stressful conditions for fish. If they are stressed for a significant part of the day, they will not behave normally or reproduce. If the conditions persist for a long period of time, the stressed fish species may choose to leave that area or die off. - Excess algae or plant growth is also unsightly. If you’ve ever been to a beach where mats of rotting algae wash up on shore or the bottom of the lake is teaming with weeds, it’s probably because excess nitrates are available for plant growth. Excess plants and algae will also create conditions where organic matter accumulates. High densities of algae will create a condition where sunlight cannot reach very far into the water. Since plants and algae require some sunlight, plants and algae not receiving sunlight will die off. These dead plant materials will settle to the bottom of the water and bacteria that feed on decaying organic material will greatly increase in numbers. These bacteria will consume oxygen and, therefore, the level of dissolved oxygen in this water will fall to levels that are too low for many aquatic insects and fish to survive. Also, this can cause extreme changes in habitat. Fish that need gravel or sand for spawning may find nothing but mats of vegetation and muck so will be unable to produce offspring. Information by: Partnership For Environmental Education and Rural Health PEI News Items on Wheatley River Anoxic Events. - Aug 16, 2010 - July 24, 2010 - July 21, 2010 - Aug. 5, 2009 - July 30, 2008 - July 31, 2008 - Aug 6, 2008 - Aug. 13, 2007

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Dry Bulb, Wet Bulb and Dew Point temperatures are commonly used to determine the state of humid moist air The Dry Bulb, Wet Bulb and Dew Point temperatures are important to determine the state of humid air. The knowledge of only two of these values is enough to determine the state - including the content of water vapor and the sensible and latent energy (enthalpy). Dry Bulb Temperature - Tdb The Dry Bulb temperature, usually referred to as air temperature, is the air property that is most common used. When people refer to the temperature of the air, they are normally referring to its dry bulb temperature. The Dry Bulb Temperature refers basically to the ambient air temperature. It is called "Dry Bulb" because the air temperature is indicated by a thermometer not affected by the moisture of the air. Dry-bulb temperature - Tdb, can be measured using a normal thermometer freely exposed to the air but shielded from radiation and moisture. The temperature is usually given in degrees Celsius (oC) or degrees Fahrenheit (oF). The SI unit is Kelvin (K). Zero Kelvin equals to -273oC. The dry-bulb temperature is an indicator of heat content and is shown along the bottom axis of the psychrometric chart. Constant dry bulb temperatures appear as vertical lines in the psychrometric chart. Wet Bulb Temperature - Twb The Wet Bulb temperature is the adiabatic saturation temperature. Wet Bulb temperature can be measured by using a thermometer with the bulb wrapped in wet muslin. The adiabatic evaporation of water from the thermometer bulb and the cooling effect is indicated by a "wet bulb temperature" lower than the "dry bulb temperature" in the air. The rate of evaporation from the wet bandage on the bulb, and the temperature difference between the dry bulb and wet bulb, depends on the humidity of the air. The evaporation is reduced when the air contains more water vapor. The Wet Bulb temperature is always between the Dry Bulb temperature and the Dew Point. For the wet bulb, there is a dynamic equilibrium between heat gained because the wet bulb is cooler than the surrounding air and heat lost because of evaporation. The wet bulb temperature is the temperature of an object that can be achieved through evaporative cooling, assuming good air flow and that the ambient air temperature remains the same. By combining the dry bulb and wet bulb temperature in a psychrometric diagram or Mollier chart the state of the humid air can be determined. Lines of constant wet bulb temperatures run diagonally from the upper left to the lower right in the Psychrometric Chart. Dew Point Temperature - Tdp The Dew Point is the temperature at which water vapor starts to condense out of the air (the temperature at which air becomes completely saturated). Above this temperature the moisture stays in the air. - if the dew-point temperature is close to the dry air temperature - the relative humidity is high - if the dew point is well below the dry air temperature - the relative humidity is low If moisture condenses on a cold bottle taken from the refrigerator the dew-point temperature of the air is above the temperature in the refrigerator. The Dew Point temperature is always lower than the Dry Bulb temperature and will be identical with 100% relative humidity (the air is at the saturation line). As air temperature changes the Dew Point tends to remain constant unless water is added or removed from the air. The Dew Point temperature can be measured by filling a metal can with water and some ice cubes. Stir by a thermometer and watch the outside of the can. When the vapor in the air starts to condensate on the outside of the can, the temperature on the thermometer is pretty close to the dew point of the actual air. The Dew Point is given by the saturation line in the psychrometric chart. Dew Point Temperature Charts Dew point temperatures from dry and wet bulb temperatures are indicated in the charts below. Dew Point Temperature Charts - en: dry wet dew bulb point temperature - es: temperatura húmeda seca punto del bulbo de rocío - de: trocken nass tau Lampenpunkttemperatur

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At a Glance - Translating Equations and Inequalities between Coordinate Systems We can look at rectangular and polar coordinates as two different languages. We use them to describe the same things using different words. In the last section we learned how to translate points from one coordinate system to another. Begin with a basic example, the right triangle. Rectangular and polar coordinates give different information about a right triangle. From looking at the triangle we can see that these statements are true: These transformation equations let us translate equations and inequalities between different coordinates. To translate an equation or inequality from rectangular to polar coordinates, x becomes r cos θ and y becomes r sin θ. We can also replace x2 + y2 with r2. Translating from polar to rectangular coordinates isn't quite as straightforward as going the other way. We can replace r2 with x2 + y2, r cos θ with x, and r sin θ with y. However, sometimes we might need to do an extra step or two before we have any recognizable terms to replace. Why can't we use one coordinate system and be done with it? The answer is that some equations and inequalities look better in one system than the other. We know from practice that the equation x2 + y2 = 36 describes a pizza with a 6 inch radius, but isn't r = 6 a much nicer way to describe it? Going the other way, the polar inequality r ≤ 2/cos θ is a mess. If we translate into rectangular coordinates, though, we find r cos θ ≤ 2 x ≤ 2 which describes the part of the (x, y)-plane that lies on and to the left of the line x = 2. If we're good at translating between coordinate systems, we can quickly find the simplest representation of a particular equation. Translate the equation x + y = 2x2 into polar coordinates. Translate the inequality x2 + y2 > 1 into polar coordinates. Translate the equation r cos θ + r sin θ = 2 into rectangular coordinates. Translate the inequality into rectangular coordinates, assuming . - Translate each equation into polar coordinates. - (x + 2)2 + (y + 2)2 = 4 - x + y2 = 0 - (x + y)2 = 4 - Translate each inequality into polar coordinates. - y ≥ 5 - x + y ≤ 3 - x2 + y2 < 100 - Translate each equation into rectangular coordinates. - r cos θ + r2 sin2 θ = 4r sin θ - r = 4 - Translate each inequality into rectangular coordinates. Assume r is non-negative. - r cos2 θ + r sin2 θ = 1 - 5r2 cos2 θ + 10r cos θ + 5 – 4r2 sin2 θ + 16r sin θ – 16 = 20

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|Home Earth Continents The Americas Mexico Country Profile History of Mexico ___ History of Mexico |Early Settlement and Pre-Columbian Civilizations Nomadic paleo-Indian societies are widely believed to have migrated from North America into Mexico as early as 20,000 B.C. Permanent settlements based on intensive farming of native plants such as corn, squash, and beans were established by 1,500 B.C. Between 200 B.C. and A.D. 900, several advanced indigenous societies emerged. During this “Classic Period,” urban centers were built at Teotihuacán (in central Mexico), Monte Albán (in the territory now making up the state of Oaxaca), and in the Mayan complexes (in the modern-day states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo, as well as at sites in the modern-day countries of Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize). These advanced societies developed written languages, displayed high levels of occupational specialization and social stratification, and produced elaborate art, architecture, and public works. After the unexplained collapse of the Teotihuacán society around A.D. 650, the early civilizations of central Mexico were eclipsed by the Mayan city-states of the Yucatan Peninsula. The lowland Mayan communities flourished from A.D. 600 to A.D. 900, when they, too, abruptly declined. The Post-Classic period (from about 900 to 1500) was characterized by widespread migration throughout Mesoamerica and the re emergence of the central valley of Mexico as the site of large-scale urban settlement and political power. By the 1300s, the Aztecs had established themselves on the site of present-day Mexico City. The militaristic and bureaucratic Aztec state ruled a far-flung tributary empire spanning much of Central Mexico. Spanish Conquest, Colonization, and Christianization During the early sixteenth century, Spanish military adventurers based in Cuba organized expeditions to the North American mainland. The first major military expedition to Mexico, led by Hernán Cortés, landed near present-day Veracruz in 1519 and advanced inland toward the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán hoping to conquer central Mexico. By 1521 Spanish forces under Cortés, reinforced by rebellious Indian tribes, had overthrown the Aztec empire and executed the last Aztec king, Cuauhtémoc. The Spanish subsequently grafted their administrative and religious institutions onto the remnants of the Aztec empire. During the early years of colonial rule, the conquistadors and their descendants vied for royal land titles (encomiendas) and Indian labor allotments (repartimientos). The early colonial economic system was based largely on the ability of the encomienda holders (encomenderos) to divert Indian labor from agriculture to the mining of precious metals for export to Spain. The encomienda became the basis for a semi-autonomous feudal society that was only loosely accountable to the central authorities in Madrid. New Spain and the Mercantile Economy During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Mexico experienced far-reaching demographic, cultural, and political change. New Spanish-style cities and towns were founded throughout central Mexico, serving as commercial, administrative, and religious centers that attracted an increasingly Hispanicized and Christianized mestizo population from the countryside. Mexico City, built on the ruins of Tenochtitlán, became the capital of Spain’s North American empire. Colonial society was stratified by race and wealth into three main groups: whites (European- and American-born), castas (mestizos), and native peoples; each had specific rights or privileges (fueros) and obligations in colonial society. New Spain was ruled by a viceroy appointed by the Spanish crown but in practice enjoyed a large degree of autonomy from Madrid. Throughout the colonial period, Mexico’s economic relationship with Spain was based on the philosophy of mercantilism. Mexico was required to supply raw materials to Spain, which would then produce finished goods to be sold at a profit to the colonies. Trade duties that placed stringent restrictions on the colonial economies protected manufacturers and merchants in Spain from outside competition in the colonies. In the mid-eighteenth century, the third Bourbon king of Spain, Charles III, reorganized the political structure of Spain’s overseas empire in an effort to bolster central authority, reinvigorate the mercantile economy, and increase tax revenues. New Spain was divided into 12 military departments (intendencias) under a single commandant general in Mexico City who was independent of the viceroy and reported directly to the king. War of Independence The spread of late eighteenth-century Enlightenment philosophy, together with the egalitarian example of the American and French revolutions, motivated Mexican-born whites (criollos) to seek greater autonomy and social status within the colonial system. Discrimination against criollos in the granting of high offices had long been a source of contention between Spain and Mexico City. In 1808 the invasion of the Iberian Peninsula by Napoleon Bonaparte and the forced abdication of the Spanish king, Charles IV, disrupted Spain’s faltering authority over Mexico. Rejecting the puppet regime installed by France, the incumbent viceroy allied himself with the criollos and declared an independent junta ostensibly loyal to Charles IV. Allies of the Napoleonic regime responded by staging a coup and installing a new viceroy, an action that set the stage for war between criollos and Spanish loyalists. On September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a criollo parish priest, issued the Grito de Dolores (Cry of Dolores), a call to arms against Spanish rule that mobilized the Indian and mestizo populations and launched the Mexican war of independence. After a brief siege of Mexico City by insurgents in 1814, Spanish forces waged a successful counteroffensive that had nearly annihilated the rebels by 1820. However, the tide turned in favor of the criollos in February 1821, when a loyalist officer, Augustín de Iturbide, spurned the newly established constitutional monarchy in Spain and defected with his army to the rebels. Under the conservative Plan of Iguala, the rebel army agreed to respect the rights of Spanish-born whites (peninsulares) and to preserve the traditional privileges (fueros) and land titles of the Roman Catholic Church. The Spanish, now outmaneuvered politically as well as militarily, lost the will to continue the war and recognized Mexican independence in September 1821. Empire and Early Republic Upon the withdrawal of Spain, Iturbide declared himself emperor of Mexico and Central America. Within months, however, his imperial regime was bankrupt and had lost the support of the criollo elite. In February 1823, Iturbide was overthrown by republican forces led by General Antonio López de Santa Anna. The Mexican empire was dissolved when the United Provinces of Central America declared their independence in July 1823. Clashes between the conservative and liberal parties dominated politics during the early republic. Conservatives, who advocated a centralized republic governed from Mexico City and the maintenance of clerical and military fueros, had the support of the Roman Catholic Church and much of the army. Liberals, on the other hand, advocated federalism, secularism, and the elimination of fueros. Under the federal republic in effect from 1824 to 1836, Mexico was ruled by a series of weak and perennially bankrupt liberal governments. General Santa Anna and his allies fashioned a centralized republic that held power from 1836 to 1855. Although nominally a liberal, Santa Anna was primarily a nationalist who dominated Mexico’s politics for two decades. Santa Anna’s efforts to assert Mexican government authority over Anglo-American settlements in Texas spurred that region’s secession from Mexico in 1835. Excesses committed by a punitive Mexican expedition against Texan garrisons at the Alamo and Goliad provoked strong anti-Mexican sentiment in the United States and galvanized U.S. public support for Texan independence. In April 1836, Texan forces defeated and captured Santa Anna at San Jacinto. During a brief captivity, the Mexican general signed a treaty recognizing Texan independence from Mexico. Mexican-American War, Civil War, and French Intervention A dispute with the United States over the boundaries of Texas led to war between the United States and Mexico in April 1846. Two U.S. Army columns advancing southward from Texas quickly captured northern Mexico, California, and New Mexico, repelling Santa Anna’s forces at Buena Vista. An amphibious expeditionary force led by General Winfield Scott captured the Gulf Coast city of Veracruz after a brief siege and naval blockade. Scott’s forces subdued Mexico City in September 1847, following a series of pitched battles along the route inland to the Mexican capital and its surrounding bastions. In the ensuing Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, U.S. withdrawal was contingent on Mexico’s ceding of the territories of New Mexico and Upper California (the present-day states of California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming) and its acceptance of the incorporation of Texas into the United States. In 1855 Santa Anna was ousted and forced into exile by a revolt of liberal army officers. A liberal government under President Ignacio Comonfort oversaw a constitutional convention that drafted the progressive constitution of 1857. The new constitution contained a bill of rights that included habeas corpus protection and religious freedom and mandated the secularization of education and the confiscation of Catholic Church lands. It was strongly opposed by conservatives and church officials who objected to its anticlerical provisions. Seeking to avoid armed conflict, President Comonfort delayed its promulgation and instead decreed his own moderate reform agenda known as the Three Laws. However, in January 1858, after unsuccessful efforts by Comonfort to craft a political compromise, the factions took up arms, and the government was forced from office. A three-year civil war between conservative and liberal armies, known as the War of the Reform, engulfed the country. After initial setbacks, the liberals, led by the prominent Zapotec Indian politician and former vice president Benito Juárez, gained the upper hand. In January 1861, the liberals regained control of Mexico City and elected Juárez president. In January 1862, the navies of Spain, Britain, and France jointly occupied the Mexican Gulf coast in an attempt to compel the repayment of public debts. Britain and Spain quickly withdrew, but the French remained and, in May 1863, occupied Mexico City. Drawing on the support of the Mexican conservatives, Napoleon III installed Austrian prince Ferdinand Maximilian von Habsburg as Mexican Emperor Maximilian I. By February 1867, a growing liberal insurgency under Juárez and the threat of war with Prussia had compelled France’s withdrawal from Mexico. Maximilian was captured and executed by Juárez’s forces shortly thereafter. Juárez was restored to the presidency and remained in office until his death in 1872. Porfirio Díaz Era From 1876 until 1910, governments controlled by the liberal caudillo Porfirio Díaz pursued economic modernization while maintaining authoritarian political control. In contrast to his liberal predecessors, Díaz established cordial relations with the Catholic Church, an institution he considered central to Mexican national identity. The Díaz years, known as the “Porfiriato” saw heavy state investment in urban public works, railroads, and ports—all of which contributed to sustained, export-led economic growth. The Porfiriato governments encouraged foreign investment in export agriculture and the concentration of arable land in the form of haciendas. Although the urban middle class experienced substantial improvements in quality of life, Mexico’s peasant majority found its livelihood threatened by the loss of communal lands to the haciendas. In response to growing unrest in the countryside, Díaz created the Rural Guard, a paramilitary force that became notorious for its repressive tactics. Mexican Revolution and Aftermath By the turn of the century, opposition to Díaz had spread among dissident liberals who sought a return to the principles of the constitution of 1857. Following Díaz’s fraudulent re-election in 1910, several isolated rural revolts coalesced into a nationwide insurrection. Unable to regain control of several rebellious state capitals, Díaz resigned the presidency in May 1911 and fled to France. A provisional government under the liberal reformer Francisco I. Madero was installed but failed to maintain the support of radical peasants led by Emiliano Zapata, who was conducting a rural insurgency in southern Mexico. Amid general unrest, a counterrevolutionary government under Victoriano Huerta assumed power in February 1913. Huerta’s authority was undermined when U.S. Marines occupied Veracruz in response to a minor incident. Following Huerta’s resignation in July 1914, fighting continued among rival bands loosely allied with Venustiano Carranza and Francisco “Pancho” Villa. U.S. support for Carranza prompted Villa to retaliate by raiding several U.S. border towns. In response, the United States dispatched troops under General John J. Pershing on an unsuccessful expedition into northern Mexico to either kill or capture Villa. Carranza negotiated a cease-fire among several of the warring Mexican factions in December 1916 and restored order to most of the country by accepting the radical constitution of 1917. Rural violence continued in the south, however, until the assassination of Zapata by Carranza’s forces in November 1920. The Mexican Revolution exacted a heavy human and economic toll; more than 1 million deaths were attributed to the violence. Consolidation of the Revolution From the 1920s through the 1940s, a series of strong central governments led by former generals of the revolutionary armies governed Mexico. Most Mexican presidents complied with the constitutional provision mandating a single six-year term (sexenio) with no re-election. During the late 1920s, President Plutarco Elías Calles established many of the institutions that would define the Mexican political system throughout the twentieth century. This system was based on an authoritarian state controlled by a hegemonic “revolutionary” party headed by a powerful president, economic nationalism, limited land collectivization, military subordination to civilian authority, anticlericalism, and the peaceful resolution of social conflict through corporatist representation of group interests. Tactics such as extensive use of state patronage, manipulation of electoral laws and electoral fraud, government propaganda and restrictions on the press, and intimidation of the opposition helped ensure the decades-long domination of government at all levels by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional—PRI). Through their top-down control of the PRI, presidents acquired the power to handpick their successors, decree laws, and amend the constitution virtually at will. The ideology of the revolutionary regime took a leftward turn during the sexenio of Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–40). Cárdenas nationalized Mexico’s oil industry and vastly expanded the acreage of nontransferable collectivized farms (ejidos) set aside for peasant communities. During World War II and the early years of the Cold War, the governments of Miguel Avila Camacho (1940–46) and Miguel Alemán Valdés (1946–52) repaired strained relations with the United States and returned to more conservative policies. In the postwar years, Mexico pursued an economic development strategy of “stabilizing development” that relied on heavy public-sector investment to modernize the national economy. Concurrently, Mexican governments followed conservative policies on interest and exchange rates that helped maintain low rates of inflation and attracted external capital to support industrialization. This dual strategy helped maintain steady economic growth and low rates of inflation through the 1960s. Crisis and Recovery During the presidencies of Luis Echeverría (1970–76) and José López Portilllo (1976–82), the public sector grew dramatically, and state-owned enterprises became a mainstay of the national economy. Massive government spending was sustained in part by revenues from the export of newly discovered offshore oil deposits. By the late 1970s, oil and petrochemicals had become the economy’s most dynamic sectors. However, the windfall from high world demand for oil would be temporary. In mid-1981, Mexico was beset by falling oil prices, higher world interest rates, rising inflation, a chronically overvalued peso, and a deteriorating balance of payments that spurred massive capital flight. In August 1982, the Mexican government defaulted on scheduled debt repayments—an event that heralded a regionwide debt crisis. President López Portillo responded to the crisis by nationalizing the banking industry, further undermining investor confidence. His successor, Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado (1982–88), implemented economic austerity measures that laid the groundwork for economic recovery. In September 1985, the country suffered another blow when two major earthquakes struck central Mexico. Between 5,000 and 10,000 people are believed to have died and 300,000 left homeless in the worst natural disaster in Mexico’s modern history. Many victims lost their lives in modern high-rise buildings constructed in violation of safety codes. The high death toll and the government’s inadequate response to the disaster further undermined public confidence in the PRI-dominated political system. In the run-up to the 1988 presidential and congressional elections, a splinter faction of left-wing former PRI members opposed to market reforms rallied behind the independent presidential candidacy of Cuahtemoc Cárdenas. In the first competitive presidential election in decades, the PRI candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, was declared the winner with a bare majority of the vote. Numerous irregularities in the vote tally, including an unexplained shutdown of the electoral commission’s computer system, led to widespread charges of fraud. Overcoming a weak mandate and strong opposition from organized labor, President Salinas undertook a sweeping liberalization of the economy. Reforms included the privatization of hundreds of state-owned enterprises, liberalization of foreign investment laws, deregulation of the financial services sector, and across-the-board reductions in tariffs and nontariff trade barriers. Economic liberalization culminated in the negotiation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with Canada and the United States in 1992. Salinas’s reforms were overshadowed by subsequent revelations of corruption within the top echelons of the PRI, as well as by the unexpected emergence of a rural insurgency in the southern state of Chiapas. Despite the assassination of the original PRI candidate, Luis Donaldo Colosio, the presidential election proceeded as scheduled in the fall of 1994. The replacement PRI candidate, Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de León, managed to stave off a serious challenge from the center-right National Action Party (Partido de Acción Nacional—PAN) to win the presidency. Transition to Democracy During the mid-1990s, an economic crisis stemming from an unsustainable current account deficit and mismanagement of the government bond market plunged Mexico into a severe recession. President Zedillo spent much of his sexenio restoring macroeconomic balance and responding to demands for greater accountability and transparency of public institutions. Zedillo also had to contend with the Zapatista rebellion in Chiapas, which highlighted the poverty and marginalization that characterized many of Mexico’s indigenous communities. In the political realm, the Zedillo administration advanced electoral system reforms that leveled the playing field for opposition parties and set the stage for a genuine transition to democracy. The July 1997 midterm elections left the PRI with a minority of seats in the Chamber of Deputies (the lower house of Congress), expanded opposition control of state governorships, and gave the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution (Partido de la Revolución Democrática—PRD) control of Mexico City’s government. The opposition’s momentum carried over into the September 2000 general elections. The PAN candidate, Vicente Fox Quesada, won the historic presidential race, becoming the first opposition head of state since the consolidation of the revolution. President Fox promised a deepening of Mexico’s economic and political reforms, declared “war” on organized crime, and planned to negotiate an immigrant “guest worker” program with the United States. Despite strong public support early in its term, the Fox administration was weakened by the PAN’s loss of congressional seats during the 2003 midterm elections and the government’s failure to craft a legislative coalition in support of its reform agenda. By the end of his term in 2006, much of President Fox’s structural reform program remained unfulfilled. On July 2, 2006, Mexico held general elections for president, all seats in Congress, and several state governorships. The presidential race was closely contested between the PAN candidate, former Fox administration energy minister Felipe Calderón Hinojosa, and the PRD candidate, populist former mayor of Mexico City Andrés Manuel López Obrador. The PRI candidate, former Tabasco governor Roberto Madrazo Pintado, trailed in the race, as voters appeared wary of returning the PRI to the presidency. Opinion polls indicated that the election was largely a referendum on Mexico’s two decades of market-oriented economic reforms. Calderón promised to continue the reform agenda by promoting greater foreign investment and increasing the competitiveness of Mexico’s economy through structural reforms of the pension and labor laws. He also pledged to continue the government’s fight against the drug cartels and to improve public safety. By contrast, López Obrador vowed to focus on Mexico’s domestic problems, such as poverty and social inequality, and to halt so-called “neo-liberal” reforms. He promised to create thousands of jobs by funding massive public works projects and affirmed that he would seek to renegotiate NAFTA in order to protect Mexican farmers from an influx of imported U.S. corn. Further, López Obrador vowed to break up the unpopular commercial oligopolies that emerged from the privatization of state assets during the 1990s. Official tallies showed the results of the presidential election to be extremely close. Initial uncertainty about the accuracy of the preliminary vote count led both of the leading candidates to claim victory. However, subsequent official tabulations by the independent Federal Electoral Institute (Instituto Federal Electoral—IFE) confirmed that Calderón had indeed won the election by a slim plurality of 35.89 percent versus López Obrador’s 35.31 percent of the vote (a margin of victory of 244,000 votes out of 41.8 million cast). The results of the 2006 congressional races saw both the PAN and the PRD gain seats at the expense of the formerly dominant PRI. For the first time in its history, the PRI lost its plurality of seats in both houses of Congress, an event observers interpreted as a further sign of the party’s decline. Nonetheless, the PRI retained a sufficiently large bloc of seats to remain an influential congressional force and was well positioned to become a coalition partner of any future Mexican government. The PRD retained control of the powerful mayoralty of Mexico City. All three major parties held state governorships. During 2007, the Calderón administration made public safety and the fight against drug cartels its highest domestic priorities. In response to escalating drug violence, the federal government deployed 24,000 troops to various states and removed hundreds of corrupt police officials. Mexican public opinion strongly backed Calderón’s aggressive tactics against the drug gangs. Under Calderón’s leadership, the center-right PAN government courted the center-left PRI in an effort to advance the president’s legislative agenda. During the 2007 legislative session, Congress passed far-reaching fiscal and pension system reforms that had stalled during the Fox administration. By mid-2008 successive Mexican governments had made progress in reforming the economy and reducing extreme poverty. However, significant disparities in wealth, high levels of crime, and corruption persisted. The less-developed states in the south continued to lag economically behind the more prosperous north and center, fueling illegal migration to the United States. Mexico’s economy was also lagging behind those of other middle-income countries, such as China, in terms of overall competitiveness. In addition to further consolidating Mexico’s transition to democracy, the 2006 general elections presented an opportunity to overcome executive-legislative stalemate and move toward consensus on economic and public-sector reforms. Source: Library of Congress |Related Mexico Pages: Zoomable map/satellite view of Mexico City Zoomable map/satellite view of Mexico Political Map of Mexico Administrative Map of Mexico Mexico Country Profile Mexico in numbers Mexico key statistical data. Map of Central America and the Caribbean Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia Website of the National Institute of Anthropology and History. History of Mexico Mexico and Mexican History - And Introduction from the Pre Columbian Era to Modern Times. History Time Line Mexican historical time periods. Mexican History Directory Articles and information about Mexican history, famous battles, constitutions, treaties & documents. The Roots of the City History of the central region of the Mexican high plateau, the site of Mexico City. Search Nations Online |Bookmark/share this page: One World - Nations Online .:. let's care for this planet Actually, it's impossible to simulate freedom --- or? Nations Online Project is made to improve cross-cultural understanding and global awareness. More signal - less NOISE |Site Map | Information Sources | Disclaimer | Contact: [email protected] | Copyright © 1998-2016 :: nationsonline.org|

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Are you a parent who wants to know more about teaching how to read? Learning to read is a huge step in your child’s life and one which you, no doubt, want to be a part of. Educational reports often highlight the failure of our schools to teach reading effectively and this is a worry for any parent. The conflicting advice on different methods used in teaching how to read can also easily leave us feeling bewildered. It comes as no surprise, therefore, that many parents want to understand more about the processes behind teaching how to read and how they can best support their children in taking this important step. Have you heard of babies being taught to read and are wondering if there is anything in it? Maybe you are thinking of teaching your preschooler the basics before she starts school? Are you interested in teaching your child to read using an effective reading program, but are unsure of which instructional method to follow? Or do you want to be able to support your child effectively once she starts being taught at school? Read on for some straightforward information on proven methods for teaching how to read. There are a number of different methods you can use to teach your child to read. The question of which is the best method continues to promote lively debate, with experts believing passionately in one approach or another. The reality is that all of the methods have shown success to some degree. Before we get into the details of the different methods, first a word about phonics. Our writing is a code in which our speech is broken down into individual sounds and represented by letters. Phonics teaches the correspondence between these letters and the sounds they represent. The main teaching methods can broadly be categorised into those which employ phonics and those which do not. In phonics methods for teaching how to read children learn how to decode. They look at the individual or groups of letters, recognise the sounds and blend them together to form a fluent word. Children can therefore read new words which they have never been taught. In alternative teaching methods children learn to recognise whole words or sentences rather than individual sounds. Repetition in books or through flashcards is used to enable the child to memorise new words. They may also be taught to take clues from pictures accompanying the text. Keep reading for a more detailed description of the different methods you can use to teach your child to read. Our writing is a code in which our speech is broken down into individual sounds and represented by letters. Phonics teaches the correspondence between these letters and the sounds they represent. Children are taught to look at the individual or groups of letters, recognise the sounds and blend them together to form a fluent word. There are several approaches to teaching how to read with phonics which vary according to how the letter-sound combinations are represented to your child and how your child decodes unknown words. In Analytic Phonics children are taught to look initially at the whole word and then break it down to compare parts of the word to letter-sound relationships they have come across in previously learned words. Similarly spelt words are learnt together in rhyming groups called word families. In Synthetic Phonics children are taught to link an individual letter or letter combination with its appropriate sound and then blend the sounds to form words. Children are systematically taught the forty plus phonic sounds which make up the English language and the combination of letters used to represent each sound. The Look and Say, or Whole Word, teaching method teaches children to read through pattern recognition, rather than decoding the word into letters. Flashcards are often used with individual words written on them, sometimes with an accompanying picture. The flashcards are shown repetitively to children until they memorise the pattern of the word. They therefore build up an extensive ‘sight vocabulary’ – words which are recognised on sight. The Whole Language method for teaching how to read is based on the belief that all children will learn to read naturally, just as they learn to talk and walk. By simply immersing children in good books you can produce fluent and capable readers. Interesting and fun books are used to excite children about learning to read so that they begin to memorise the many words they see in the books. Teachers look for opportunities in the books to point out phonic connections. Some reading programmes propose teaching a combination of both Phonics and Whole Language, but not at the same time. Proponents of these programmes believe that phonics needs to be taught separately, directly, and systematically to children, and not in the context of reading literature. But they also believe that children need daily exposure to good literature through reading aloud, discussion of the stories, and introduction to new knowledge and vocabulary. Once children learn phonics they need to practice what they have learned daily to become skilled readers. There are pros and cons for each of the different methods for teaching how to read. Phonics methods for teaching how to read can seem less engaging to children, with endless sounds to learn and simple books to read using regular words. However children like the fact that they can read the whole book by themselves, and can decipher a new word which they haven’t seen before. Children taught with whole word methods will have to guess when faced with an unfamiliar word and there is a limit to the number of words they can memorise. However these children are more likely to understand the meanings of the words they are reading and may be able to tackle more interesting books early on. Experts say that 50% children will learn to read whatever the method used. 25% of children will learn to read reasonably well, but may struggle with more complex words and spelling. The remaining 25% of children will struggle, unless they are explicitly taught the connection between letters and sounds as in the phonics teaching methods. If you teach your child to read on a one-to-one basis you can pick a teaching method which is most appropriate for your and your child’s needs. There is much controversy on which is the best method, but ‘best’ depends on the circumstances. Do you want a programme which is most likely to succeed in the highest percentage of cases? If so, Synthetic Phonics is probably for you. If you want a fun activity for your infant or toddler to start exposing him to reading words then the Look and Say method could be best. Or are you looking to improve your child’s basic reading ability, or is your child unlikely to be motivated by a formal instruction programme? Then perhaps a combination of Phonics and Whole Language is appropriate. Whatever you choose, don’t forget that this should be fun for both you and your child. If things aren’t progressing as you hoped, take a rest for a few weeks and come back to it later, or try a different teaching method. Good Luck! Was it a success or a bit of a disaster? Did you follow a specific teaching program? Do you have any tips for success or pitfalls to avoid? Share your experiences - good and bad - with other visitors to this page. Click on the links below to read about the experiences others have had teaching their children to read ... How I learned to read I was in first grade in 1941. The school system (one of the best in the country) adhered rigidly to the look say method. I wasn't reading while it seemed … Phonics Approach sets the foundation both for Reading and Language I experienced teaching PreK children how to read using the phonics approach. I must say, it is a good start for them because it gives them the concept … Starting with a Baby I started teaching my baby to read when she was 1 year old. We used the look say method only she never said the words as she wasn't talking - I just kept … See and Say Method Not rated yet This is what it was called in 1953 when I was supposedly taught to read in 1st grade. This was in public school in Orlando, FL. My mother did not know … You may also like: Can't find what you're looking for? Try searching for it here. Can't find what you're looking for? Try searching for it here.

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Table of Contents - Common cold facts - What is the common cold, and what causes it? - How is the common cold transmitted? - What are risk factors for acquiring the common cold? - What are the symptoms and signs of the common cold in adults, children, and infants? What is the incubation period of the common cold? - Does it have anything to do with exposure to cold weather? - What is the difference between the common cold and influenza (the flu)? - How do physicians diagnose the common cold? - What is the treatment for the common cold? Are there any home remedies for the common cold? - Are antibiotics a suitable treatment for the common cold? - When should a health-care professional be consulted? - What is the prognosis for the common cold? What is the duration of the common cold? - What are complications of the common cold? - Is it possible to prevent the common cold? How is the common cold transmitted? The common cold is spread either by direct contact with infected secretions from contaminated surfaces or by inhaling the airborne virus after individuals sneeze or cough. Person-to-person transmission often occurs when an individual who has a cold blows or touches their nose and then touches someone or something else. A healthy individual who then makes direct contact with these secretions can subsequently become infected, often after their contaminated hands make contact with their own eyes, nose, or mouth. A cold virus can live on objects such as pens, books, telephones, computer keyboards, and coffee cups for several hours and can thus be acquired from contact with these objects. Continue Reading

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West Antarctic Ice Sheet The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West (or Lesser) Antarctica, the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains which lies in the Western Hemisphere. The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet, meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves. The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf, the Ronne Ice Shelf, and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea. It is estimated that the volume of the Antarctic ice sheet is about 25.4 million km3 (6.1 million cu mi), and the WAIS contains just under 10% of this, or 2.2 million km3 (530,000 cu mi). The weight of the ice has caused the underlying rock to sink by between 0.5 and 1 kilometres (0.31–0.62 mi) in a process known as isostatic depression. Under the force of its own weight, the ice sheet deforms and flows. The interior ice flows slowly over rough bedrock. In some circumstances, ice can flow faster in ice streams, separated by slow-flowing ice ridges. The inter-stream ridges are frozen to the bed while the bed beneath the ice streams consists of water-saturated sediments. Many of these sediments were deposited before the ice sheet occupied the region, when much of West Antarctica was covered by the ocean. The rapid ice-stream flow is a non-linear process still not fully understood; streams can start and stop for unclear reasons. Ice mass loss Indications that the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is losing mass at an increasing rate come from the Amundsen Sea sector, and three glaciers in particular: the Pine Island, Thwaites and Smith Glaciers. Data reveals they are losing more ice than is being replaced by snowfall. According to a preliminary analysis, the difference between the mass lost and mass replaced is about 60%. The melting of these three glaciers alone is contributing an estimated 0.24 millimetres (0.0094 in) per year to the rise in the worldwide sea level. There is growing evidence that this trend is accelerating: there has been a 75% increase in Antarctic ice mass loss in the ten years 1996–2006, with glacier acceleration a primary cause. As of November 2012 the total mass loss from the West Antarctica is estimated at 118 ± 9 Gt/y mainly from the Amundsen Sea coast. Satellite measurements by ESA’s CryoSat-2 revealed that the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) is losing more than 150 cubic kilometres (36 cu mi) of ice each year, especially pronounced at grounding lines, the area where the floating ice shelf and the part resting on bedrock are. Hence, affecting the ice shelf stability and flow rates. Large parts of the WAIS sit on a bed which is below sea level and slopes downward inland.[A] This slope, and the low isostatic head, mean that the ice sheet is theoretically unstable: a small retreat could in theory destabilize the entire WAIS leading to rapid disintegration. Current computer models do not include the physics necessary to simulate this process, and observations do not provide guidance, so predictions as to its rate of retreat remain uncertain. This has been known for decades. In January 2006, in a UK government-commissioned report, the head of the British Antarctic Survey, Chris Rapley, warned that this huge west Antarctic ice sheet may be starting to disintegrate. It has been hypothesised that this disintegration could raise sea levels by approximately 3.3 metres (11 ft). (If the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet were to melt, this would contribute 4.8 m (16 ft) to global sea level.) Rapley said a previous (2001) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report that played down the worries of the ice sheet's stability should be revised. "I would say it is now an awakened giant. There is real concern." Rapley said, "Parts of the Antarctic ice sheet that rest on bedrock below sea level have begun to discharge ice fast enough to make a significant contribution to sea level rise. Understanding the reason for this change is urgent in order to be able to predict how much ice may ultimately be discharged and over what timescale. Current computer models do not include the effect of liquid water on ice sheet sliding and flow, and so provide only conservative estimates of future behaviour." James E. Hansen, a senior NASA scientist and leading climate expert, said the results were deeply worrying. "Once a sheet starts to disintegrate, it can reach a tipping point beyond which break-up is explosively rapid," he said. Polar ice experts from the U.S. and U.K. met at the University of Texas at Austin in March, 2007 for the West Antarctic Links to Sea-Level Estimation (WALSE) Workshop. The experts discussed a new hypothesis that explains the observed increased melting of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. They proposed that changes in air circulation patterns have led to increased upwelling of warm, deep ocean water along the coast of Antarctica and that this warm water has increased melting of floating ice shelves at the edge of the ice sheet. An ocean model has shown how changes in winds can help channel the water along deep troughs on the sea floor, toward the ice shelves of outlet glaciers. The exact cause of the changes in circulation patterns is not known and they may be due to natural variability. However, this connection between the atmosphere and upwelling of deep ocean water provides a mechanism by which human induced climate changes could cause an accelerated loss of ice from WAIS. Recently published data collected from satellites support this hypothesis, suggesting that the west Antarctic ice sheet is beginning to show signs of instability. On 12 May 2014, It was announced that two teams of scientists said the long-feared collapse of the Ice Sheet had begun, kicking off what they say will be a centuries-long, "unstoppable" process that could raise sea levels by 1.2 to 3.6 metres (3.9–11.8 ft) They estimate that rapid drawdown of Thwaites Glacier will begin in 200 – 1000 years. (Scientific source articles: Rignot et al. 2014 and Joughin et al. 2014.) The West Antarctic ice sheet (WAIS) has warmed by more than 0.1 °C (0.18 °F)/decade in the last fifty years, and the warming is the strongest in winter and spring. Although this is partly offset by fall cooling in East Antarctica, this effect was restricted to the 1980s and 1990s. The continent-wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is positive and statistically significant at >0.05 °C (0.090 °F)/decade since 1957. This warming of WAIS is strongest in the Antarctic Peninsula. In 2012, the temperature records for the ice sheet were reanalyzed with a conclusion that since 1958, the West Antarctic ice sheet had warmed by 2.4 °C (4.3 °F), almost double the previous estimate. Some scientists now fear that the WAIS could now collapse like the Larsen B Ice Shelf did in 2002. The possible disastrous outcome of a disintegration of the WAIS for global sea levels has been mentioned and assessed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report but was left out in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. Jessica O'Reilly, Naomi Oreskes and Michael Oppenheimer discussed the case in a Social Studies of Science paper 2012. According them, IPCC authors were less certain about potential WAIS disintegration not only due to external new science results. As well pure internal "cultural" reasons, as changes of staff within the IPCC and externally, made it too difficult to project the range of possible futures for the WAIS as required. Mike Hulme saw the issue as a showcase to urge for the integration of minority views in the IPCC and other major assessment processes. - East Antarctic Ice Sheet - List of glaciers in the Antarctic - Retreat of glaciers since 1850 - WAIS Divide Ice Core Drilling Project - In this case the ice is effectively moving upslope towards the sea. - Lythe, Matthew B.; Vaughan, David G. (June 2001). "BEDMAP: A new ice thickness and subglacial topographic model of Antarctica". Journal of Geophysical Research 106 (B6): 11335–11352. Bibcode:2001JGR...10611335L. doi:10.1029/2000JB900449. - Anderson, John B. (1999). Antarctic marine geology. Cambridge University Press. p. 59. ISBN 0-521-59317-4. - Ice Shelves, Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition Archived February 3, 2006 at the Wayback Machine - Rignot, E. (2008). "Changes in West Antarctic ice stream dynamics observed with ALOS PALSAR data". Geophysical Research Letters 35 (12): L12505. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3512505R. doi:10.1029/2008GL033365. - Jenny Hogan, "Antarctic ice sheet is an 'awakened giant'", New Scientist, February 2, 2005 - Rignot, E.; Bamber, J. L.; Van Den Broeke, M. R.; Davis, C.; Li, Y.; Van De Berg, W. J.; Van Meijgaard, E. (2008). "Recent Antarctic ice mass loss from radar interferometry and regional climate modelling". Nature Geoscience 1 (2): 106. Bibcode:2008NatGe...1..106R. doi:10.1038/ngeo102. - King, M. A.; Bingham, R. J.; Moore, P.; Whitehouse, P. L.; Bentley, M. J.; Milne, G. A. (2012). "Lower satellite-gravimetry estimates of Antarctic sea-level contribution". Nature 491 (7425): 586–589. doi:10.1038/nature11621. PMID 23086145. - ESA (December 11, 2013). "Antarctica’s ice loss on the rise". - Hughes, Terence J. (1981). "The weak underbelly of the West Antarctic ice-sheet.". - Bamber J.L., Riva R.E.M., Vermeersen B.L.A., LeBroq A.M. (2009). "Reassessment of the potential sea-level rise from a collapse of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet". Science 324 (5929): 901–3. Bibcode:2009Sci...324..901B. doi:10.1126/science.1169335. PMID 19443778. - Bamber J.L., Riva R.E.M., Vermeersen B.L.A., LeBroq A.M. (2009). "Reassessment of the potential sea-level rise from a collapse of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (Supporting Online Material)". Science 324 (5929): 901–3. Bibcode:2009Sci...324..901B. doi:10.1126/science.1169335. PMID 19443778. - "West Antarctic ice sheet: Waking the sleeping giant?", Symposium, February 19, 2006 - Jonathan Leake and Jonathan Milne, "Focus: The climate of fear", The Sunday Times — Britain, February 19, 2006 - Statement: Thinning of West Antarctic Ice Sheet Demands Improved Monitoring to Reduce Uncertainty over Potential Sea-Level Rise (March 28, 2007) - Thoma, M.; Jenkins, A.; Holland, D.; Jacobs, S. (2008). "Modelling Circumpolar Deep Water intrusions on the Amundsen Sea continental shelf, Antarctica". Geophysical Research Letters 35 (18): L18602. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3518602T. doi:10.1029/2008GL034939. - Kaufman, Mark (2008) "Escalating Ice Loss Found in Antarctica: Sheets Melting in an Area Once Thought to Be Unaffected by Global Warming" Washington Post (January 14) p. A01 online - Boyle, Alan (12 May 2014). "West Antarctic Ice Sheet's Collapse Triggers Sea Level Warning". Retrieved 12 May 2014. - Rignot, E., J. Mouginot, M. Morlighem, H. Seroussi and B. Scheuch (May 12, 2014). "Widespread, rapid grounding line retreat of Pine Island, Thwaites, Smith and Kohler glaciers, West Antarctica from 1992 to 2011". Geophysical Research Letters. doi:10.1002/2014GL060140. - Joughin, Ian, Benjamin E. Smith, Brooke Medley (May 12, 2014). "Marine Ice Sheet Collapse Potentially Underway for the Thwaites Glacier Basin, West Antarctica". Science. doi:10.1126/science.1249055. - Steig, E. J.; Schneider, D. P.; Rutherford, S. D.; Mann, M. E.; Comiso, J. C.; Shindell, D. T. (2009). "Warming of the Antarctic ice-sheet surface since the 1957 International Geophysical Year". Nature 457 (7228): 459–462. doi:10.1038/nature07669. PMID 19158794. - Matt McGrath (23 December 2012). "West Antarctic Ice Sheet warming twice earlier estimate". BBC News. Retrieved 16 February 2013. - The Rapid Disintegration of Projections: The West Antarctic Ice Sheet and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Jessica O'Reilly Naomi Oreskes, Michael Oppenheimer Social Studies of Science June 26, 2012, doi: 10.1177/0306312712448130 - Mike Hulme, "Lessons from the IPCC: do scientific assessments need to be consensual to be authoritative?" in (eds.) Doubleday, R. and Willesden, J. March 2013, page 142 ff - Crystal Ball: Scientists Race to Foretell West Antarctica's Unclear Future - WAIS – West Antarctic Ice Sheet Initiative – A multidisciplinary study of rapid climate change and future sea level. Sponsored by National Science Foundation Office of Polar Programs and NASA Earth Science. - U.S. National Snow and Ice Data Center Antarctic Data - Dramatic change in West Antarctic ice could produce 16ft rise in sea levels - Structure Found Deep Within West Antarctic Ice Sheet, September 2004

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet

Chromatin is an uncoiled mass of DNA and associated proteins called histones. When cell division begins, DNA coils around the proteins forming visible structures called chromosomes. Below: Human chromosomes (female) Diploid cells (2N) have two complete sets of chromosomes. The body cells of animals are diploid. Haploid cells have one complete set of chromosomes. In animals, gametes (sperm and eggs) are haploid. Homologous chromosomes are two chromosomes that are the same. This happens because humans and other diploid organisms have two of each chromosome. Each of the pairs is a homologous pair. One of the homologous chromosomes was inherited from the individual's mother and the other one was inherited from the individual's father. For example, the two chromosomes #1 are homologous. However, a chromosome #1 and a chromosome #2 are not homologous because they are different chromosomes. A small segment of DNA that contains the information necessary to construct a protein or part of a protein (polypeptide) is called a gene. Genes are the unit of inheritance. A cell divides by pinching into two. Each of two daughter cells produced contains genetic material inherited from the original (parent) cell. Single-celled organisms divide to reproduce. Cell division in multicellular organisms enables the organism to grow larger while the cells remain small. A large surface:volume ratio is due to small cell size. Organisms with many cells can have cells which are specialized for different functions and tasks. For example, red blood cells are specialized for carrying oxygen but neurons (nervous tissue) are specialized for conducting signals from one cell to another. Some cells of multicellular organisms must divide to produce sex cells (gametes). Mitosis produces two daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell. If the parent cell is haploid (N), then the daughter cells will be haploid. If the parent cell is diploid, the daughter cells will also be diploid. N --> N 2N --> 2N This type of cell division allows multicellular organisms to grow and repair damaged tissue. Meiosis produces daughter cells that have one half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. 2N --> N Meiosis enables organisms to reproduce sexually. Gametes (sperm and eggs) are haploid. Meiosis involves two divisions producing a total of four daughter cells. Click here to go to the chapter on meiosis. A chromatid is a single DNA molecule. Double-stranded chromosomes have two chromatids; normally, each one is identical to the other. The point where the two chromatids are attached is called the centromere.Chromosome Doubling vs DNA Synthesis Splitting chromosomes into two will double their number because each chromatid is identical. DNA replication occurs when a single-stranded chromosome produces a second chromatid. Click here to review DNA synthesis (replication). Interphase (G1 and G2) Chromosomes are not easily visible because they are uncoiled The chromosomes coil. The nuclear membrane disintegrates. The spindle apparatus forms. The chromosomes become aligned. The chromatids separate (The number of chromosomes doubles). The nuclear membrane reappears. The chromosomes uncoil. The spindle apparatus breaks down. The cell divides into two. The chromosomes have one chromatid. The chromosomes have two chromatids. The link below is an animation that shows chromosome movement during mitosis in a hypothetical species with 2N = 4. Click here to begin the animation. After the screen opens, press Ctrl-F to view the animation in full screen mode. The cell cycle alternates between interphase and mitosis as diagrammed below. Mitosis has these four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During prophase, chromosomes begin condensing (forming) as DNA becomes coiled. The genes cannot function (produce mRNA and therefore protein) when the DNA is coiled. Coiling facilitates movement. The nucleolus disappears. The nuclear membrane becomes fragmented and disappears by the end of prophase. A system of microtubules needed to move the chromosomes begins to form during prophase. The microtubules, also called spindle fibers, form from an area of the cell called the centrosome. During interphase, the cell has one centrosome but just before prophase, the centrosome duplicates, producing a second centrosome. During prophase, microtubules radiate from each centrosome. Some of the microtubules extend from one centrosome toward the other. The entire complex of centrosomes and spindle fibers is called the spindle apparatus. Each centrosome of an animal cell contains two centrioles. Plant cells do not have centrioles but they do form spindle fibers. Click on the image above to enlarge it. During metaphase, the chromosomes have moved to the center of the cell (diagram below, photograph above). This line of chromosomes is referred to as the metaphase plate. The structures in the diagram below are referred to as the spindle apparatus. Kinetochore microtubules are attached to the chromosomes. Polar microtubules are not attached to chromosomes but overlap each other. Asters are short microtubules that radiate from the centrosomes. The spindle apparatus can be seen on the drawing of a cell in metaphase below. Metaphase ends when chromosomes split, thus doubling the number of chromosomes. When the chromosomes split at the end of metaphase, the chromosome number is doubled. For example, the number of chromosomes and chromatids during each phase in a human cell is: Phase # Chromosomes # Chromatids Prophase Metaphase 46 92 Anaphase 92 92 Telophase 92 92 Microtubules lengthen and shorten by the addition or removal of tubulin dimers. Click here for details in the chapter on cells. During anaphase, the chromosomes move toward poles of cell. Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) begins in anaphase. A cleavage furrow forms as actin filaments underneath the plasma membrane constrict in a band called the contractile ring. Two cells will be produced as this process continues. Telophase begins when chromosomes reach the poles of the daughter cells. Many of the events in telophase are the reverse of prophase. The chromosomes uncoil, the nuclear membranes around daughter nuclei appear, the spindle apparatus breaks down, and the nucleolus reappears. Cytokinesis is completed as telophase ends. This is the non-dividing phase. During interphase, the nucleus is visible and the chromosomes are uncoiled and invisible. Interphase includes G1, S and G2. Each chromosome has one chromatid. The cell grows in size. Synthesis of organelles occurs. This is when DNA synthesis occurs. Each chromosome has two chromatids. The synthesis of enzymes and other proteins in preparation for mitosis occurs during this period. Some cells remain permanently in G1. Examples: skeletal muscle, nerve cells Some cells remain permanently in G2. Example: cardiac muscle Below: Whitefish blastula X 400 How many chromosomes are there in each of the three diagrams below? How many chromatids? If a parent cell had 6 chromosomes, how many during each phase listed below? If a cell had 4 chromosomes that were single-stranded, how many chromosomes and chromatids during each phase listed below? Draw each phase of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) in a cell that has 2N = 4 chromosomes. Show the chromosomes, microtubules, and nucleus where appropriate.

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2 Answers | Add Yours Citizenship was extremely important in the Greek polis. The bond between citizen and polis was very strong and the polis was the center of a citizen’s life. Citizenship was usually bestowed only on adult men, on landowners and was descendant. Most city-states required that citizens show descent from at least one parent who was a citizen, and in some cases, both parents. Citizens had more rights than any other resident of a polis. They could include owning property, holding public office, voting, and speaking for themselves in court. With citizenship came obligations to the polis. Citizens were expected to participate in government and defend the polis in times of war or conflict. This is a very interesting topic. The previous thoughts were quite stellar. I think that political activity through the idea of citizenship was connected to the Greek polis and the social setting of the time as a reflection of freedom. For the Greeks, participation in the polis helped to determine the collective sovereignty of a social order. At the same time, participation in the polis was seen as a reflection of the highest notion of the good, a setting where political participation was not merely encouraged, but demanded. Those who lacked political voice such as women or slaves did not have their voice or experiences validated. Hence, only those who participated in the polis were able to create legislation that was able to reflect their own experience or consciousness. Hence, citizenship and participation in the polis became linked as reflections of one another. Those who did not or could not participate in the polis did not do so because they were denied the chance to do so. Hence, citizenship and the political activity prerequisite were the defining elements of one’s freedom. If one did not possess political autonomy, they were not allowed to partake in the polis, suggesting that it represented the highest notion of individuals being able to create legislation or discourse that represented their own background and narratives. We’ve answered 301,102 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question

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Template:Cub Scout Science/req : - - - Belt Loop Requirements Complete these three requirements: - Explain the scientific method to your adult partner. - Use the scientific method in a simple science project. Explain the results to an adult. - Visit a museum, a laboratory, an observatory, a zoo, an aquarium, or other facility that employs scientists. Talk to a scientist about his or her work. Academics Pin Requirements Earn the Science belt loop, and complete five of the following requirements: - Make a simple electric motor that works. - Find a stream or other area that shows signs of erosion. Try to discover the cause of the erosion. - Plant seeds. Grow a flower, garden vegetable, or other plant. - Use these simple machines to accomplish tasks: lever, pulley, wheel-and-axle, wedge, inclined plane, and screw. - Learn about solids, liquids, and gases using just water. Freeze water until it turns into ice. Then, with an adult heat the ice until it turns back into a liquid and eventually boils and becomes a gas. - Build models of two atoms and two molecules, using plastic foam balls or other objects. - Make a collection of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks and label them. - Learn about a creature that lives in the ocean. Share what you have learned with your den or family. - Label a drawing or diagram of the bones of the human skeleton. - Make a model or poster of the solar system. Label the planets and the sun. - Do a scientific experiment in front of an audience. Explain your results. - Read a book about a science subject that interests you. Please report any issues with this page.

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What is it? Each ear is made up of three parts. There is the outer ear which you can see, and which gathers the sound. Further in, the outer ear joins the middle ear on each side of the head. Deeper still, there is an inner ear on each side. The sound goes down the ear tube, which is part of the outer ear, into the middle ear on that side. The ear drum stretches across the deepest part of the ear tube between the outer ear and the middle ear. The drum is about 8mm (a third of an inch) across. It is made of thin skin, like the top of a real drum. Your ear drum has a hole in it, which doctors call a perforation. This can be the result of repeated ear infections, previous placement of tubes in the ear drum to drain fluid that sometimes accumulates behind it, or trauma of the drum (the use of cotton swabs to clean the ears being a very common source of trauma of the ear drum). Germs may go through the hole and cause an ear infection, particularly if you get water in the ear whilst hair washing, taking a shower or swimming. The hole in the ear drum will stop it from vibrating normally, and this may cut down your hearing. Sealing up the hole in the ear drum should prevent you getting so many ear infections, and may improve the hearing. Just how much hearing improvement depends where in the drum the hole is, and how big it is. You have a general anaesthetic and are completely asleep. A cut will be made in the skin above your ear. From inside this cut the surgeon will take a small, thin piece of tissue. This tissue is called a graft, and the surgeon will use it to seal up the hole in your ear drum. The surgeon will shine a microscope inside your ear, and the rest of the operation is carried out through the ear passage. Using very, very small instruments, the ear drum is lifted up and the graft is put underneath the ear drum and spread out to seal up the hole. A small amount of some sticky-spongy dissolvable material is placed on each side of the graft (in the ear tube and the middle ear) to support the graft until it heals and seals up the hole. This material will just melt away in a few weeks. A dressing soaked in antibiotic drops will then be put into the ear passage, and stays in place for about three weeks whilst the graft and ear drum are healing up. Cotton-wool padding is placed over the ear and held in place with a bandage. Because you are asleep you will not feel any pain during the operation. You will be in the hospital for one or two days depending upon your progress. Sometimes holes in the ear drum heal themselves. In your case this has not happened. Drops or tablets will not make the hole close up. If the hole is left open you risk getting more ear infections every time you get water in the ear. Before the operation If you know that you have problems with your blood pressure, your heart, or your lungs, ask your family doctor to check that these are under control. Check you have a relative or friend who can come with you to the hospital, take you home, and look after you for the first few days after the operation. Sort out any tablets, medicines or inhalers that you are using. Keep them in their original boxes and packets. Bring them to the hospital with you. If you take aspirin or other medication that contains this particular ingredient, you need to let your doctor know and stop taking it one week before the operation. This is because aspirin is a blood-thinner and can cause bleeding. On the ward, you will be checked for past illnesses and will have special tests to make sure that you are well prepared and that you can have the operation as safely as possible. Please tell the doctors and nurses of any allergies to tablets, medicines or dressings. You will have the operation explained to you and will be asked to fill in an operation consent form. Before you sign the consent form, make sure that you fully understand all the information that was given to you regarding your health problems, the possible and proposed treatments and any potential risks. Feel free to ask more questions if things are not entirely clear. Any tissues that are removed during the operation will be sent for tests to help plan the appropriate treatment. Any remaining tissue that is left over after the tests will be discarded. Before the operation and as part of the consent process, you may be asked to give permission for any 'left over' pieces to be used for medical research that have been approved by the hospital. It is entirely up to you to allow this or not. Many hospitals now run special preadmission clinics, where you visit a week or so before the operation, where these checks will be made. If you have a cold in the week before your admission to hospital, please telephone the ward and let the ward sister know. The operation will usually be put off, and you will be given time to get better before being sent for again. You will have to get over the cold before the operation can be done because by having an anaesthetic the cold could turn into a serious infection in the chest. After – in hospital You may be given oxygen from a face mask for a few hours if you have had any chest problems in the past, you are a smoker or you are obese. Your ear will be a little sore after the operation. There may be some discomfort in your ear when opening and closing your mouth, or if you lie on the ear. You will be given an injection or tablets to control this discomfort. Ask for more if the pain is not well controlled or if it gets worse. A general anaesthetic may make you slow, clumsy and forgetful for about 24 hours. The nurses will help you with everything you need until you are able to do things for yourself. Do not make important decisions during this time. You must not blow your nose, and you must not stifle any sneezing. Blowing your nose, trying to stop a sneeze or sneezing with the mouth closed, will increase the pressure underneath the ear drum, can be very uncomfortable and painful and could push the graft out of place, leaving the hole open again. You may have some dizziness for the first 24 hours after the operation, but this is not very common. Medicine can be given to stop the dizziness. You may notice a strange squelching, buzzing or popping noise in your ear. This is usually due to the dressing in the ear, it is expected and you should not worry about it. The noises usually stop when the dressing is removed. Some soreness or stiffness when opening your mouth is common after ear operations. It usually stops within one or two weeks. The stitches above your ear need to stay in for seven days. You must be careful when taking a shower and washing your hair not to get the ear or the wound above it wet. You will probably be given a time to return to the ward a week after your operation, for the stitches to be removed. You will be given an appointment card to come back to the ENT (ear, nose and throat) outpatient clinic about three weeks after the operation, when the surgeon will remove the dressing from the ear passage. He will examine your ear carefully and tell you whether the operation has been successful. The nurses will advise about sick notes, certificates etc. After – at home Take two painkilling tablets every six hours to control any pain or discomfort. Be sure to keep the ear dry and do not go swimming. You should also avoid flying until the doctor confirms that the graft has successfully closed the hole. This is because changes in the ear pressure especially during take off and landing can push the graft out of place. You may feel rather tired for a week or so, but this will steadily improve. You should be able to go back to work after 10 days, but you must keep your ear dry. It will be better for somebody to drive you home after the operation or for you to take a taxi. As with any operation under general anaesthetic, there is a very small risk of complications related to your heart and lungs. The tests that you will have before the operation will make sure that you can have the operation in the safest possible way and will bring the risk for such complications very close to zero. Provided the advice given above is followed, you are unlikely to have any problems. There is a small risk that the ear may bleed when you get home. If this happens come back to the ward. If possible try and avoid catching a cold in the first month or so after your operation. Try and avoid contact with friends or relatives who have colds. If you catch a cold you should go to your doctor for antibiotics as there is a risk that a cold could lead to an ear infection which would destroy the graft while it is healing. If the ear becomes very painful, or if you develop a temperature or a headache it may mean that the ear is infected and you should return to the ward. A continuous discharge form the ear (especially if it is thick, green and/or yellow or smelly) is also a significant indication of an infection and you will need immediate medical attention. If you get an ear infection, you will need antibiotics for a week or two to control it. Remember any infection in the early stages after the operation will destroy the graft. Very rarely, the infection can be serious and can spread in the inner ear, the face bones and or in your bloodstream. If this happens, you will need to come back to hospital and have it treated with intravenous antibiotics – through a small plastic tube placed in a vein in your arm. A rare complication is damage during the operation of a small nerve that runs behind the ear drum. If this happens, you will experience some loss of taste and/or numbness on the side of the tongue. This usually gets much better with time in most cases. Overall the success rate of this operation is about 90 per cent. If your ear drum is badly scarred from previous infections this will lower the success rate of the operation. If you have any queries or problems, please ask the doctors or nurses.

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The English, Dutch, and French In the late 16th and early 17th cent., the English, Dutch, and French began to undertake colonization through the agency of chartered companies. The greatest of these private trading companies was the British East India Company, which played a vital role in the history of the British Empire. The French generally adhered to mercantilist theory in establishing their colonies, using them mainly for the economic advantage of France. The English colonists in North America, however, were, in many respects, virtually independent of the parent country, the most serious restriction being the establishment of a trade monopoly by the home government through the Navigation Acts. Because their territory was suitable for settlement, rather than exploitation, the residence of the British colonists in America tended to be permanent. The increase in overseas trade and colonial consumption helped to stimulate the Industrial Revolution, which in turn, because of the increased technological superiority afforded Europe, especially Great Britain, and because of the greater desire for markets and raw materials, gave added impetus to colonization and made it easier to accomplish. Although Great Britain lost most of its North American colonies as a result of the American Revolution, other acquisitions (most notably in India) soon made it the greatest colonial power in the world. The French, stripped of one colonial empire in the colonial wars of the 18th cent., established another in the 19th cent. Sections in this article: The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: Political Science: Terms and Concepts

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bill of rights Definition of bill of rights : a document containing a formal statement of rights <a patients' bill of rights>; specifically : a summary of fundamental rights and privileges guaranteed to a people against violation by the state —used especially of the first 10 amendments to the United States Constitution First Known Use of bill of rights BILL OF RIGHTS Defined for Kids Bill of Rights Definition of Bill of Rights : the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution Learn More about bill of rights Britannica English: Translation of "bill of rights" for Arabic speakers Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about "bill of rights" Seen and Heard What made you want to look up bill of rights? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible).

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Students learn about how engineers design and build shake tables to test the ability of buildings to withstand the various types of seismic waves generated by earthquakes. Just like engineers, students design and build shake tables to test their own model buildings made of toothpicks and mini marshmallows. Once students are satisfied with the performance of their buildings, they put them through a one-minute simulated earthquake challenge. Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standard Network (ASN), a project of JES & Co. (www.jesandco.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g., by state; within source by type; e.g., science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc. Click on the standard groupings to explore this hierarchy as it applies to this document. - Colorado: Science - a. Compare and contrast different types of waves (Grade 8) ...show - Common Core State Standards for Mathematics: Math - b. Solve unit rate problems including those involving unit pricing and constant speed. For example, if it took 7 hours to mow 4 lawns, then at that rate, how many lawns could be mowed in 35 hours? At what rate were lawns being mowed? (Grade 6) ...show - International Technology and Engineering Educators Association: Technology - H. Modeling, testing, evaluating, and modifying are used to transform ideas into practical solutions. (Grades 6 - 8) ...show - Next Generation Science Standards: Science - Evaluate competing design solutions using a systematic process to determine how well they meet the criteria and constraints of the problem. (Grades 6 - 8) ...show - Analyze data from tests to determine similarities and differences among several design solutions to identify the best characteristics of each that can be combined into a new solution to better meet the criteria for success. (Grades 6 - 8) ...show - Explain the four different types of seismic waves produced by earthquakes. - Describe the purpose of shake tables and how engineers use them. - 1 shoebox - 1 wooden board (sized to fit in the bottom of the shoebox with room to move in all directions) - 10 marbles - 20 Popsicle sticks - 10 rubber bands - string, ~50 cm to 1m in length - hot glue gun and 3 glue sticks - 1 sandwich bag of mini marshmallows - toothpicks, a handful or unlimited, depending on materials limitations imposed by teacher - Shake It Up! Activity Worksheet, one per person - duct tape - masking tape - scissors and/or box cutters - Build a shake table that uses a variable speed drill to move the table; follow instructions at John Lahr's Shake Table website: http://jclahr.com/science/earth_science/shake/index.html; materials include: plywood, wooden blocks, foam core board, hollow metal tubes, hot glue, metal rods (welding rods), rod with u-shaped bend, wire, strapping tape (or piece of rubber), fasteners, and a variable speed drill with a speed control unit. - Alternatively, if you do not want to build the drill-powered shake table, have the class select the best shake table from all the groups and use that one for the one-minute earthquake challenge testing. - Alternatively, the engineering colleges at some universities make available their shake tables for use by outside student groups for academic purposes. - The depth at which the earthquake took place (the closer to the surface, the greater the amplitude of the wave) - The intensity of the earthquake (earthquakes with higher Richter scale ratings produce more intense seismic waves) - The composition of the Earth's crust - P-waves (or primary waves, a type of body wave) - S-waves (or secondary waves, a type of body wave) - Love waves (a type of surface wave) - Rayleigh waves (a type of surface wave) |A seismic wave that travels through the Earth rather than across its surface.| |A series of steps used by engineering teams to guide them as they solve problems: define the problem, come up with ideas (brainstorming), select the most promising design, plan and communicate the design, create and test the design, and evaluate and revise the design. Also called the design-build-test loop.| |A surface seismic wave that cause horizontal shifting of the Earth during an earthquake.| |(noun) A representation of something for imitation, comparison or analysis, often on a different scale. (verb) To simulate, make or construct something to help visualize or learn about something else (such as a product, process or system).| |A seismic pressure wave that travel through the body of the Earth. The fastest of all seismic waves.| |A surface seismic wave generated by the interaction of P-waves and S-waves at the surface of the Earth that move with a rolling motion.| |A shear or transverse body seismic wave, with motion perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.| |A wave of energy that travels through the Earth as a result of an earthquake.| |A device for shaking structural models or building components. The movement simulates the ground motions of earthquakes. Also called a shaking table.| |Imitating the behavior of some situation or process, especially for the purpose of study or experimental testing.| |A seismic wave that travels across the surface of the Earth as opposed to through it. Surface waves usually have larger amplitudes and longer wavelengths than body waves, and they travel more slowly than body waves.| - Gather materials and make copies of the Shake It Up! Activity Worksheet. - Build the teacher's shake table that uses a variable speed drill to create the shaking movement. Or, if you do not want to build the drill-powered shake table, at the end, have the class select the best shake table from all the groups and use that one for the earthquake challenge. - Show students the available materials. Point out that this project follows the steps of the engineering design process: understand the need (requirements, objective), brainstorm different design solutions, select the most promising design, plan (strategy, drawings, measurements, materials), create and test, and improve to make the best solution possible. - Identify a few design requirements: - For the shake tables, a wooden board must serve as a base that can move around to simulate the ground movement during an earthquake. The goal is to create shake tables that move in ways that resemble the different types of seismic waves. For example, movement could be the back and forth motion of a P-wave or a more destructive rocking type movement representing a surface wave. Also design a way to control the shake table from outside of the box (so your hands are not in the box where the model building will be located). - The model buildings must be made only from toothpicks and marshmallows, and be at least one-foot (.3 m) tall. (Consider imposing a materials limitation to make the project more challenging.) Its base will be taped to the wooden board for testing. - Hand out the worksheets to students. Give them time to independently design and draw their shake tables and buildings, as instructed on page 1 of the worksheet. If possible, assign this as homework the night before so students have a chance to develop their own ideas before coming together in teams to determine the most promising designs. - Divide the class into groups of three or four students each. - Ask students in each group to brainstorm ideas, starting by sharing their individual ideas. Have each team choose one design to construct for its shake table. In the spirit of true brainstorming, encourage teams to combine and compromise their ideas to come up with creative solutions. (Review brainstorming guidelines at http://www.cs.unb.ca/profs/fritz/cs3503/storm35.htm.) - Provide students with materials and give them time to construct their shake tables—a minimum of 30 minutes for construction is suggested. - Once shake tables are completed, have groups brainstorm ideas for their model building structures that use only mini marshmallows and toothpicks as the materials. Require that the buildings be at least one-foot (.3 m) tall. Have teams each agree upon a final design that they will construct. - Give students time to construct their model buildings, and then use their own shake tables to test and modify (improve) the designs. Point out that the testing-improving-testing process is an important part of the bigger engineering design process. That's how weaknesses are discovered and problems solved—before you have an actual earthquake! Emphasize that in the upcoming earthquake challenge they will have only one chance to put their final building designs through a "real earthquake" test to see if they survive, so they must be certain that their buildings are survivable. What works? What doesn't? What could be improved? Test, test, test! - Earthquake Challenge: Once teams have one-foot tall structures and are satisfied with their stability and robustness, put the structures through a one-minute simulated earthquake challenge in which every team uses the same shaker table—either the teacher's shake table (that uses a variable speed drill to shake the table), or the best of the teams' shake tables, as agreed-upon by the class. - Have one student use a stopwatch to time how long each building survives the earthquake simulation. Remind groups to be ready to record the length of time their buildings lasted, the end building heights, as well as observations about how the building structures behaved under the shaking conditions. Have students watch all team tests to gather observations that they will use to finish the worksheet questions. - Failure: If the building collapses or any part of the building besides its base touches the shake table, consider it failed, and note the time and stop the shake table. The building is not earthquake-safe for people. Once the shake table is off, measure the height of the building. - Success: If the building survives for a full minute and is still one-foot tall, consider it a success—the group has engineered a solution to the challenge and is "hired" to design real buildings for their community. Record measurements and observations. - Have students complete the concluding worksheet questions, incorporating what they learned from observing their own and other groups' model building behavior under seismic stress. Have them draw conclusions about the relationship between the appearance of the structure and its building strategies, and its performance. If time permits, lead a class discussion using the concluding questions (see the Investigating Questions section) so students can hear each others' opinions and ideas. - Review safety precautions for using glue guns and box cutters. - Which types of seismic waves did your shake table imitate (simulate)? Explain the movements and speeds. Explain how it does this. - Describe what happens to your building when you test it on your shake table. - How long did your building last through the "earthquake"? - Describe what happened to your building while it was going through the "earthquake." - Based on what you noticed from your group and other groups, which designs and strategies worked the best? - Why do you think this particular type of design worked the best? - Bonus question: How did the ability of your shake table to accurately represent seismic waves help in the evolution of your building design? - Bonus question: Think back and describe in your own words the steps of the engineering design process that you went through. - For lower grades or younger students, skip the team construction of shake tables altogether. Give students the challenge of building a structure that is at least 1 foot tall with only mini marshmallows and toothpicks, and only have them test on a common shake table provided by the teacher. Allow students to create more than one structure so they have the opportunity to radically alter their designs and recognize building strategies that work best. Also, provide different materials, such as gum drops, pipe cleaners or dry spaghetti, so they can test to see if some materials work better than others. - For upper grades or older students, offer more advanced materials for the team shake table construction, such as foam core board, wood, saws, drills and drill bits, and drills to power them. If desired, make the objective of the activity to create shake tables that most accurately represent a given seismic wave type or one that proves to be the most destructive . To test which shake table is the most destructive, have students each follow a set of instructions to build the same building. Then time how long it takes for each shake table to destroy the building, with the goal to have the lowest time. Additional Multimedia Support World's Largest Earthquake Shake Table Test in Japan. Simpson Strong-Tie Company, Inc. Accessed April 20, 2011. (Article and a five-minute video show a full-scale seven-story wood-framed condominium tower being tested on world's largest shake table in July 2009, where it survived a 7.5 magnitude earthquake simulation with minor damage) http://www.strongtie.com/about/research/capstone.html?source=hpnav Carleigh Samson, Stephanie Rivale, Denise W. Carlson © 2010 by Regents of the University of Colorado. Integrated Teaching and Learning Program, College of Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder Last modified: February 9, 2016

https://www.teachengineering.org/view_activity.php?url=collection/cub_/activities/cub_seismicw/cub_seismicw_lesson01_activity1.xml

The crusades were a series of military campaigns undertaken by European Christians with the goal of conquering Jerusalem, which was held by the Muslims. While Muslims were the primary targets of the crusading armies, the religious zeal inspired by the crusades led to the slaughter of many Jewish populations, not only during the first crusade, but also during the subsequent crusades of the Late Middle Ages. In 1095, Byzantine Emperor Alexios I sought the assistance of Pope Urban II and the various armies of Western Europe to fight the Seljuk Turks, who had conquered Nicea, a city only miles from Constantinople. Urban II not only called for a crusade to assist the Byzantines, but also to conquer the Holy Land from the Muslims. The religious zeal awakened by Urban's call led many people, both princes and commoners, on the road to Jerusalem. This religious zeal, however, manifested as anti-Semitism. While on the road to Jerusalem, crusader mobs attacked Jewish villages and massacred entire populations, mostly in the German Rhineland but also in France. Other crusader princes seemed less interested in killing Jewish people and more interested in ransoming them for money, suggesting a more financial motivation. Not all crusader princes massacred Jews, and some rulers, such as Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, attempted to prohibit such massacres. Sack of Jerusalem Jewish populations in the Holy Land suffered no less than those in Europe. Before the crusader conquest, Jewish people had been living peacefully under the Muslim-ruled Jerusalem, and while they may not have been accorded the same rights as Muslims, they were accepted as a community. However, when the crusaders took Jerusalem in 1099, they massacred the Jewish population along with the Muslims. During subsequent crusades during the Late Middle Ages, Jewish populations continued to suffer. The Shepherd's Crusade of 1320 specifically targeted Jewish populations throughout France: a young shepherd in Normandy led a crusade to liberate Spain from the Muslims. As he led the crusaders across France, however, he focused his energy on massacring Jewish populations, who the crusaders saw as a similar blight to France's Christian identity. As with the first crusade, the religious zeal to kill Muslims was quickly transplanted onto European Jews. Historians argue that the trajectory of European anti-Semitism began with the pogroms and massacres of the crusades and the religious zeal they inspired. As Europe adopted a more Christian identity, Jewish people came increasingly to be seen as outsiders, a sad trajectory that would lead to events such as the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492 at the culmination of the country's reconquest from the Muslim Moors, and of course the Holocaust. Style Your World With Color Barack Obama's signature color may bring presidential power to your wardrobe.View Article See how the colors in your closet help determine your mood.View Article Understand how color and its visual effects can be applied to your closet.View Article Let your clothes speak for themselves with this powerhouse hue.View Article - The First Crusade: A New History; Thomas Asbridge - Introduction to Medieval Europe: 300 - 1550; Willem Pieter Blockmans, Wim Blockmans, Peter C. M. Hoppenbrouwers - Photos.com/Photos.com/Getty Images

http://classroom.synonym.com/effects-did-crusades-jewish-people-europe-during-late-middle-ages-6499.html

It’s long been thought that so-called modern human behavior first arose during the middle Stone Age, in “modern” humans—Homo sapiens. But a new study suggests modern living may have originated roughly 500,000 years earlier—courtesy of one of our hairy, heavy-browed ancestor species. At the prehistoric Gesher Benot Ya'aqov site in northern Israel, researchers have found the earliest known evidence of social organization, communication, and divided living and working spaces—all considered hallmarks of modern human behavior. The former hunter-gatherer encampment dates back as far as 750,000 years ago, and must have been built by Homo erectus or another ancestral human species, archaeologists say. Homo sapiens—our own species—emerged only about a couple hundred thousand years ago, fossil record suggest. At the site, researchers found artifacts including hand axes, chopping tools, scrapers, hammers and awls, animal bones, and botanical remains buried in distinct areas. "Different tasks"—from nut processing to seafood preparation—"were taking place in different locations in the site," said archaeologist Naama Goren-Inbar, who led the excavation. "The modification of basalt tools was done in proximity to the fireplace but, on the other hand, flint [sharpening] was done on the other end of the site in association with where we found a lot of fish teeth," said Goren-Inbar, of Hebrew University's Institute of Archaeology in Mount Scopus, Israel. Traditionally, the search for the earliest signs of modern human behavior has focused on Homo sapiens sites from the middle Stone Age (roughly 300,000 to 50,000 years ago), due to the preponderance of evidence found at them in the past. (Related: "Prehistoric Bones Point to First Modern-Human Settlement in Europe.") Based on their finds and evidence from other sites and groups, the researchers assume there was a division of labor at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov. A visitor stumbling upon the Gesher Benot Ya'aqov encampment might have found women gathering nuts and processing small animals like fish, crabs, and turtles close to the communal hearth, Goren-Inbar speculated, based on ethnographic analogies and comparisons. The men would be off hunting or situated in farther corners of the site butchering larger game, including a long-extinct elephant species, she suggests. Basalt, limestone, and flint toolmaking would also be taking place in various locations around the encampment. And some people would just be chowing down on roasted nuts—still a local staple—or fish. "One of the highlights of our report is that people ate fish more than 750,000 years ago," Goren-Inbar said. The encampment, located on an ancient lakeshore, holds some of the earliest evidence of fish eating ever found, according to the study, published in the journal Science. Bones at the site suggest a now extinct, yard-long (meter-long) carp species was a common meal, for example. Greatest Story Ever Told? Archaeologist Dani Nadel agrees that the new discovery indicates a surprisingly early emergence of modern human behavior. "They managed to show that there are certain areas in this site connected to certain activities—an organization of space," said Nadel, of the University of Haifa, was not involved in the Gesher Benot Ya'aqov excavations. The findings, he said, fit nicely into a regional story of human development emerging from the archaeological record. At the 1.5-million-year-old Israeli site of Ubeitiya, for example, archaeological evidence indicates inhabitants chose raw materials based on the types of tools they intended to craft—they didn't just pick up the closest rock and start banging at it, Nadel said. Alternately, evidence of early modern human behavior has also been found at 100,000-, 50,000-, and 23,000-year-old sites around Israel's Mount Carmel and Galilee regions. Nadel said these sites show a continuous development in every aspect of daily life, from the burial of the dead to the layouts of communities and homes. "Now we have kitchens and living rooms and bedrooms," Nadel said. "But it all started somewhere in the past." Shroud of Turin Not Jesus', Tomb Discovery Suggests Oldest Skeleton of Human Ancestor Found

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/01/100112-modern-human-behavior/

The scene is a set of points, and these points are projected to a plane (computer screen) in front of the view point (the viewer's eye). The problem of perspective ... Definition of perspective view: Drawing that shows the exterior view of an object or an assembly, without any parts removed. With cutaway (sectional) views it ... About Parallel and Perspective Views. Dec 16 2015 | In-Product View. Applies to AutoCAD 2016, AutoCAD Architecture 2016, AutoCAD Civil 3D 2016, AutoCAD ... 3 days ago ... Make changes to model elements in a perspective view, and toggle between the perspective and parallel representations of the 3D view, ... Definition: In documentary filmmaking, perspective is the selection and arrangement of sounds and images to tacitly convey or imply the filmmaker’s point of view about a subject. When dealing with cases of child abuse, it may be difficult for a director to hide her per ... More » Jun 5, 2013 ... What are the differences between Orthographic and Perspective views? ... Menu: View » Perspective / View » Orthographic Perspective and ... Home page for PerspectiveView Learning Dynamics(TM) Perspective has a Latin root meaning "look through" or "perceive," and all the meanings of ... Definitions of perspective. 1 ... viewinterventionheresytriple. There are many forms used under perspective drawing such as, one perspective, two-point perspective, three-point perspective, bird's eye view, worm's eye ... Computer dictionary definition for what perspective view means including related links, information, and terms.

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In the early 1500s, famed Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus first proposed that the Earth was not the center of the universe — a revelation that, more than 500 years later, has catapulted the 16th century scientists into the center of the Google-verse. The Internet search giant Google honored Copernicus' paradigm-shifting model of the cosmos today with a unique dynamic "doodle" that animates the motion of the solar system's planets around the sun. The Copernicus doodle went live on Copernicus' 540th birthday. Nicolaus Copernicus was born on Feb. 19, 1473, and traveled to Italy at age 18 to attend university. At that time, the prevailing theory of the cosmos stated that the planets (not to mention the sun) all circled the Earth, which was at the center of the universe. At the University of Bologna, Copernicus studied astronomy under professor Domenico Maria de Novara, during which time he helped observe the night sky. After return to his native Poland to serve as a cleric in Frauenburg, he continued his astronomical observations using a observatory in the tower in which he lived. [The Greatest Astronomers of All Time] Copernicus is perhaps best known for his work on the motion of solar system planets. The prevailing model — that the Earth was at the center of the universe — resulted in a complicated view of the solar system in order to account for the apparent backward motion of some planets across the sky. This "retrograde motion," as it was called, was explained by confusing circles within circles (called epicycles) by the Greek astronomer Ptolemy. But Copernicus' model streamlined the solar system by proposing that the Earth was not the center of the universe — a heretical view at the time. Instead, Copernicus proposed that the center was near the sun, and that all the planets (Earth included) revolved around it. He also proposed that that it was the Earth's motion around the sun that caused other planets to appear as if they moved backward — a theory later proven correct. The Copernican model of the solar system is also known as the heliocentric model. While Copernicus still got some details incorrect (he assumed the orbits of planets were perfect circles, not the ellipses we know today, which still required epicycles), it did lay the foundation for future astronomers. Copernicus documented his theory in handwritten notes to friends in 1514, when he would have been about 41 years old. It was not until he was 70 and near death that Copernicus formally published his proposal in the book "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres." Despite Copernicus' work, nearly 100 years later Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei found himself in trouble with Catholic church authorities in 1632 when he also proposed that Earth orbited the sun. Both astronomers were ultimately vindicated, leading to the modern understanding of solar system mechanics scientists have today. You can follow SPACE.com Managing Editor Tariq Malik on Twitter @tariqjmalik. Follow SPACE.com on Twitter @Spacedotcom. We're also on Facebook & Google+.

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Mississippi was first inhabited by three major tribes: Chickasaws in the north Choctaws in the central and south Natchez Indians in the southwest along the Mississippi River. Other tribes include: - Bureau of Indian Affairs - Land and Maps - Miscellaneous Links - Research Help - Suggested Reading - Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, St. Tammay Parrish, Louisiana - Life Among The Choctaw Indians - Handbook of American Indians - Native Cemeteries and Forms of Burial East of the Mississippi - Introduction to the Study of Mortuary Customs Among the North American Indians - Tribal Migrations East of the Mississippi - Southern Contacts of the Indians North of the Gulf of Mexico The soil of what is now known as the State of Mississippi was occupied in whole or in part by the Chickasaws, Choctaws, Natchez, Chokchoomas, Yazoos, Koroas, Tunicas, Pascagoulas, Biloxis, and other less known tribes. The Indians of Mississippi belonged to the Muskhogean Muscogee) family, except the Natchez, who belonged to the Natchesan family, the Biloxis, who belonged to the Sioux family,2 and the Tunicas (Tonicas), who belonged to a family by itself. The Tensas and Natchez belonged to the same family.3 Generally speaking, the country stretching from the Savannah and the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the Tennessee river was occupied by the Muskhogean family, except some small portions, occupied by the Natchez, Uchees, “and some small settlements” of the Shawanese. The northern portions of Mississippi and a part of the present State of Tennessee were the earliest homes of the Chickasaws which history allows one to trace. In the 18th century Pontotoc county was the center of their habitation; later historians report that the Chickasaws had settlements on the Mississippi. CHICKASAW TRADITIONS, CUSTOMS, ETC. “They laid the corpse in his tomb in a sitting posture, with his face towards the east, his head anointed with bear’s oil and his face painted red, but not streaked with black, because that is a constant emblem of war and death; he was dressed in his finest apparel, having his gun and pouch and trusty hickory bow, with a young panther’s skin full of arrows, alongside of him, and every other useful thing he had been possessed of, that when he rises again, they may serve him in that tract of land which pleased him best before he went to take his long sleep. His tomb was firm and clean inside. They covered it with thick logs, so as to bear several tiers of cypress bark, and such a quantity of clay, as would confine the putrid smell, and be on a level with the rest of the floor. They often sleep over those tombs, which, with the loud wailing of the women at the dusk of the evening and dawn of the day, on benches close by the tombs, must awake the memory of their relations very often; and if they were killed by an enemy, it helps to irritate and set on such revengeful tempers to retaliate, blood for blood.” Charles C. Jones, Jr. in his Antiquities of the Southern Indians, Particularly of the Georgia Tribes, says, (referring to Bartram’s Travels and Romans’ Florida): “The Muscogulgees buried their dead in the earth – a deep pit, about four feet square, being dug under the cabin and couch occupied by the deceased. This grave was carefully lined with cypress bark, and in it the corpse placed in a sifting posture. Such articles of property as he valued most, were deposited with him. The funeral customs of the Chickasaws did not differ materially from those of the Muscogulges. They interred the dead as soon as the breath left the body, and beneath the couch on which the deceased expired.” Edwin G. Thomas, son of Elisha Thomas, was born near Mt. Pleasant, Maury county, Tenn., July 31, 1810. He moved to Alabama. In 1834 he made a trip through the Indian nation, going first to Cotton Gin, across what was then Indian country. He says that one day, while on this trip and while in the Indian country, “about sun-down in a southeastern direction I heard a wailing noise. “None of the crowd (those who accompanied Thomas) knew what it was, but a negro told us it was the Indians mourning for their dead. The Indians also came in the house and mourned. We were told that they were buried in the house. Nation and that he knew that tribe better than he did the Choctaws. Romans described the Chickasaws as a haughty, insolent, fierce, and cruel race, filthy in their discourse, corrupt in their morals, well-made, powerful and lazy, excellent hunters, expert swimmers, and good warriors. The Choctaws he lauded as a nation of agriculturists, inclined to industry and peace. Adair on the other hand lauds the Chickasaws. Claiborne, who had official intercourse with the Choctaws, speaks in glowing terms of them. “The Choctaws never robbed nor permitted robbers to live with them. Honesty on the part of the men and chastity of the women were characteristics of the Choctaw people.” CHICKASAW MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The following statement from Cyrus Harris, a mixed-breed Chickasaw, relates to Chickasaw marriage customs: “When a man found a girl that suited his fancy, he would send his mother or sister with perhaps calico enough to make one or more dresses, tied up in a shawl or handkerchief, with instructions to ask the father and mother of the girl to give their approval of the intention of the sender. If they gave their consent, the bundle was handed to the girl. If she took the bundle, it was considered a bargain made. The mother or sister brings back news of her errand. The maji then hunts up his clothes and dresses himself from head to foot, paints his face with vermilion and other paints, and starts for the residence of his intended. On reaching the place he is invited to take a seat on a cowhide or the hide of any ‘varmint’ generally used for seats in those days. After the general topics of the day are talked over, supper is announced. The visitor and the intended father-in-law, in the absence of any other visitor, take supper, unaccompanied by the intended wife or her mother. Some time after supper, a bed commonly occupied by the girl is prepared for their accommodation, the girl getting in bed first, previous to the man’s entering the bedroom. The man comes in and occupies the front side of the bed. This makes them man and wife, and, at any time, either one of them getting dissatisfied with the other, by jealousy or otherwise, they separate mutually. This, sir, was ancient marriage ceremony among the Chickasaws.” sources: Claiborne’s Miss. Cyrus Harris to author, “June 18th, 1881″ Before the year 1834, the Chickasaws had but few laws; one law was life for life. Adair’s History North American Indians. Jones’ Antiquity of the Southern Indians. Narrative of Edwin G. Thomas, May 10, 1880. Mr. Thomas moved to Fulton in the fall of 1837. Fulton was first named Jacinto. “she was killed by the relatives of the slain. If the murderer could not be found, it was lawful to put to death the brother of the one who had done the killing, which made an end of the difficulty.” The property of deceased persons went to brothers and sisters, the husband, or wife and children not being entitled to any part of the estate. Children were not regarded as related to their father, but were closely related to their mother, they being of the same house-name. The husband and father were of a different house-name, or clan, as it is called. A man and woman of the same house-name were not allowed to marry, hence they considered the children related only to the mother and not to the father. If a man married a woman who had several sisters, he had a perfect right to marry them all, and live with them all at the same time. A man who died, leaving a widow, gave his brother a sort of lien on her ;28 and the surviving brother could marry her, if he wished. A person who stole a horse was whipped by order of the king, but it was a rare thing for a Chickasaw to steal at all. One of the light-horsemen who generally gave the lash, went by the name of Ish-yah-kah-py. His English name was “Big Legs”; he lived eight miles southeast of Pontotoc, on a creek called Punk-a-tuckah-ly, a name which signifies “Hanging Grapes,” now called Pontotoc creek. Cyrus Harris to author.

http://www.mississippigenealogy.com/lawrence/native-americans.htm

Structural Biochemistry/Organic Chemistry/Organic Functional Group/Carboxyl A carboxyl group consists of a carbon double-bonded to an oxygen and also bonded to a -OH group. Compounds with carboxyl groups are called carboxylic acids or organic acids. The carboxyl group can act as an acid when by donating a proton (H+) to a solution and becoming ionized. Under biological conditions at pH~7, carboxyl groups are usually deprotonated, meaning they lose a H+, and become negatively charged. An example of a carboxyl group in the body would be carbonic acid, formed from the hydration of a carbon dioxide. Under biological conditions, carbonic acid usually dissociates into bicarbonate ion. Carboxyl groups have an electronegative oxygen atom double bonded to a carbon atom. This carbon-oxygen bond is very polar and the fact that its a double bond increases the polarity of the bond. As a result of the polarity, compounds containing carboxyl groups usually have higher melting points, boiling points and have hydrophilic centers. Moreover the higher melting point and higher boiling point can be attributed to the fact that they can form hydrogen bonds both in the liquid and solid state. Fatty acids are examples of compounds that have hydrophilic centers due to their carboxyl groups. Also, carboxyl groups, especially when present in molecules with a low molecular weight tend to be highly volatile and therefore tend to have strong odors. The pKa of carboxyl groups usually range from 4-5. In naming organic molecules with multiple functional groups, the carboxyl group takes precedence in naming over any other functional group. Therefore when naming a molecule such as an alkane that contains a carboxyl group, the -e on the alkane is replaced by -oic acid. Also, when numbering the chain of the organic molecule that contains a carboxyl group, the carboxy carbon is labeled as the number 1 carbon. Molecules with two carboxyl groups would use instead the -dioic suffix. The polarity of the carbon-oxygen bond makes the carbon very susceptible to nucleophilic attack. Upon attack, the electrons of the double bond will migrate to the oxygen atom in order to maintain the octet for the carbon atom. The oxygen will now be negatively charged and a tetrahedral intermediate has been formed. The double bond will reform when the migrated electrons on the oxygen atom move back into the double bond to oxygen while the carbonyl carbon attacked expels the -OH group as a leaving group. While the expulsion of an -OH group is energetic unfavorable, the formation of the energetically favorable carbon-oxygen double bond helps overcomes this obstacle. Other ways to overcome this obstacle is to convert the -OH group into a better leaving group. The polarity giving the oxygen a partially negative charge also makes the carboxylic acid susceptible to electrophilic attack. An example of this is the hydrolysis of a carboxylic acid under acidic conditions where a proton acts as an electrophile and attacks at the oxygen which is doubly bonded to the carbon. The carboxyl group is a major component of amino acids. The carboxyl group, along with the amino group, allows amino acids to be zwitterions where both the amino group and the carboxyl group are charged. Since the carboxyl group can be deprotonated, it can impart a negative charge onto the amino acid. The carboxyl group is also key in the formation of peptide bonds. The carboxyl group of an amino acid can be attacked by the amino group of another amino acid. The nitrogen group of the amino group acts as the nucleophile and attacks the carbon of the carboxyl group. Carboxyl groups are also present on the side chains of two amino acids, Aspartate and Glutamate. These amino acids allow for hydrogen bonding and the formation of salt bridges, which help stabilize the structure of proteins. - Formic acid (HCOOH), the simplest carboxylic acid with only one carboxyl group, is primarily responsible for the pain caused by insects' bites(mostly Hymenoptera, like bees and ants). - Acetic acid (CH3COOH) can be biologically synthesized by either aerobic or anaerobic fermentation, a process used to make vinegar. The aerobic process requires warm ethanol (CH3CH2OH) and oxygen with Acetobacter. The anearobic process requires only sugar(C6H12O6) as input chemical, and acetogen can then give carboxylic acids as output. It should be noted that aerobic process is still dominantly applied, because acetogens used for anaerobic processes show less tolerance to acidic environments. In other words, acetogens will be killed if too much acid is produced. - Propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH,or C2H5COOH). It can be formed by breakdown of fatty acids with odd numbers of carbon atoms. During such metabolic process, propanoic acid undergoes condensation reaction with the thiol end of CoA (coenzyme A) to form propionyl-CoA. Propanoic acid can also be synthesized by anaerobic respiration of bacteria called propionybacterium. - Butanoic Acid (C3H7COOH) can be found in some naturally occurring esters, such as hexyl butanoate from oil of Heracleum and octyl butanoate in parsnip. The fermentation (biological) method of butanoic acid production was discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1861. The overall process takes one mole of glucose and the products are one mole of butanoic acid, two moles of carbon dioxide, two moles of hygrogen gas and three moles of ATP. During such process, glucose is cleaved into two pyruvate molecules first. The pyruvate is then oxidized to acetyl CoA releasing carbon dioxide and hydrogen as by-products. The ATP is released after the acetyl CoA undergoes various enzyme reactions. - Benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) is the main component of benzoin resin. However, it will be fairly pricey to extract benzoic acid directly from benzoin resins. Therefore most benzoic acid in the market is manufactured industrially. - Citric acid (HOOCCH2-COH(COOH)-CH2COOH).The simple structure is similar to glycerol, which is also a biologically abundant molecule in fat. Citric acid is a well known organic acid in variety of citrus fruit such as lemon and lime. It is the essential material for citric acid cycle, a very important metabolic process. It is also very useful for modern pharmaceutical, cosmetics and other industries that include chemical processes. The industrial production of citric acid experienced a transformation from juice extraction to biosynthesis. Industrial citric acid production began in 1890 using extractions from Italian citrus exports, following the first crystallization of citric acid by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1784. The biological methods of production was discovered in 1893 using Penicillium mold and sugar, but such process was not popular until World War I cut the Italian citrus exports. A more effecient biological production was then discovered by American food chemist James Currie by using cheap sugary mixture and mold called A. niger. Such industrial process has been used by major pharmaceutical companies like Pfizer. In addition, the extracted or biologically synthesized citric acid is precipitated by calcium hydroxide for isolation and acid is converted back from precipitate at the end. - Oxalic acid (HOOC-COOH) is found in kidney stones as calcium oxalate, and it leads to kidney failure. It is therefore risky to eat carambola (commonly known as starfruit) and monstera due to their high oxalate content. Oxalate is also included in citric acid cycle.

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||This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. (March 2014)| |Indian classical music| Shruti or śruti (Hindustani pronunciation: [ˈʃruːti]) is a Sanskrit term, which in the context of Indian music, is the smallest interval of pitch that the human ear can detect. It has been used in several contexts throughout the history of Indian music. To know the real meaning of shruti, it is important to know the various contexts in which the term is used. Ancient period: Grama system Bharata Muni uses shruti to mean the interval between two notes such that the difference between them is perceptible. He formulates jatis, which are classes of melodic structures. These can be further grouped into two gramas—shadja-grama and madhyama-grama. The notes (svaras) are separated by intervals, as measured in shrutis. The shadja-grama is given by the following division: Sa of four shrutis, Ri of three shrutis, Ga of two shrutis, Ma of four shrutis, Pa of four shrutis, Da of three shrutis and Ni of two shrutis. Bharata also describes an experiment to obtain the correct physical configuration of shruti in shadja grama, Sarana Chatushtai. The madhyama-grama is the same, but the panchama (Pa) has to be diminished by one shruti. That is, the panchama of madhyama-grama is lower than that of shadja-grama by one shruti, according to Bharata. Shruti is only mentioned as a perceptual measure in the music of Bharata's time. In both the gramas, Ri is three shrutis away from Sa – there are three perceptible intervals between Sa and Ri. The third of these is called trishruti rishabha (Ri). Likewise, the second interval is called dvishruti rishabha, and the first ekashruti rishabha. Notes nine and 13 shrutis from each other are mutually samvādi (consonant). The notes that are at the distance of two and 20 shrutis are mutually vivādi (dissonant). The remaining ones, at the distance between 2 and 20 shrutis, are called anuvādi (assonant). The shruti table below shows the mathematical ratios considered to correspond to the system described by Bharata and Dattila, along with the comparable notes in common Western 12-TET tuning and comparable notes in 53-TET tuning. The names of the 22 shrutis were provided by Śārñgadeva. |Shrutis||12-TET Notes||53-TET Notes||Perfect FIFTHs| The 53-TET approximation has a maximum error of 1.5%, while the perfect fifths approximation has a maximum error of 2%. The table below shows the Harmonic scales into shruti: |HARMONIC MULTIPLES = Normalized x n (n = 2,3,4,5,6,8,9,10,12,15,16,18,19,20,24,25,27,30,32) As is shown, the harmonics in scales of shruti are multiples of prime numbers 2, 3, 5 and 19. There are no multiples of 7, 11, 13, 17, 23, etc., just of 19. In reality it is not 19, but 19.2, because 19.2/32 = 3/5, which means that the harmonic 19.2 becomes the harmonic 3 and all of the harmonics multiplies up by 5. Medieval period: Mela system By the time Venkatamakhin formulated the melakarta ("mela") system, the grama system was no longer in use. Unlike the grama system, the mela system uses the same starting swara. It forms the scales by varying the intervals of the subsequent swaras, and does not specify a fixed interval for a swara in terms of shrutis. For example, the intervals of kakali-nishada and shuddha-madhyama vary depending on the dhaivata and the gandhara that precede them, respectively. The interval of kakali-nishada is of three different shruti values depending on whether shuddha, panca-sruti or shat-shruti-dhaivata preceded it. Thus shruti as a measure of interval is not fully employed in the mela system. Modern period: Controversy In current practice of Carnatic music, shruti has several meanings. It is used by musicians in several contexts. For instance, the Tamil term "Oru kattai sruti (ஒரு கட்டை ஸ்ருதி)" means that the tonic is set to the pitch C or the first key. The Telugu term "Sruti chesuko (శ్రుతి చేసుకో)" is a way to correspond with the accompanying artists to tune their instruments. In certain ragas, due to inflexions or gamakas on some of those 12 notes, listeners perceive a sharpened or flattened version of an existing note. Some scholars have attempted to fit such perceived new tones into the non-contextual Bharata's 22 shrutis, which lead to confusion and controversy. It was also wrongly attributed to Bharata, who proposed shruti in a completely different context. Some scientific evidence shows that these intermediate tones perceived in the contemporary rendition of a raga do not hint at the existence of 22 shrutis. The number 22 is of no practical significance in the current performance of Carnatic and Hindustani music traditions, partly because different musicians use slightly different "shrutis" when performing the same raga. The phenomenon of intermediate tones is pursued as an active area of research in Indian Musicology, which says the number of perceptible intermediate tones may be less or more than 22. N. Ramanathan, a musicologist points this out and says that the idea of 22 shrutis is applicable only to the music system of Bharata's time. An Indian monograph about shruti claims various opinions about the number (66, 53) of shrutis. In recent times it seems that the number of shrutis is broadly agreed upon to be 22. Recognizing the controversy over the number and the exact ratios of shruti intervals, it also says that not all shruti intervals are equal and known as pramana shruti (22%), nyuna shruti (70% cents) and purana shruti (90%). Еach shruti may be approximated in 53EDO system. Ancient treatises on Indian classical music and performing arts - Natya Shastra by Bharata - Dattilam by Dattila - Brihaddeshi by Matanga Muni - Abhinavabharati - Abhinava Gupta's commentary on Natya Shastra - Sangita Ratnakara by Sarangadeva - Bakshi, Haresh. 101 Raga-s for the 21st Century and Beyond: A Music Lover's Guide to Hindustani Music. - Ramanathan, N. Sruti in Ancient, Medieval and Modern Contexts, an article from musicresearch.in - Krishnaswamy A. Inflexions and Microtonality in South Indian Classical Music. Frontiers of Research on Speech and Music, 2004. - Krishnaswamy A. On the twelve basic intervals in South Indian classical music. AUDIO ENGINEERING SOCIETY. 2003 - Datta, A. K.; Sengupta, R.; Dey, N.; Nag, D (2006). Experimental Analysis of Shrutis from Performances in Hindustani Music. Kolkata, India: SRD ITC SRA. p. 19. ISBN 81-903818-0-6. - Ibidem. p. 28. - Khramov, Mykhaylo (December 2011). "On Amount of Notes in Octave" (PDF). Ninaad, Journal of the ITC-SRA (Kolkata, India) 25: 31–37. ISSN 0973-3787.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shruti_(music)

4 Answers | Add Yours Boron (B) is the fifth element in the periodic table. It has two electrons in the first energy level and three electrons in the second energy level. The electrons in the second energy level are called valence electrons and can form bonds with other elements to make compounds. Because there are only three valence electrons Boron forms three bonds with other elements. An example is BH3, boron trihydride. BF3, boron triflouride, is another example. The electron boron can form 3 bonds. Boron can form three bonds Boron can form three bonds because it is the 5th element on the periodic table therefore it has 3 valence electrons which can be used to bond. We’ve answered 302,085 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question

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Using a combination of data from NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and the National Science Foundation's Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), the world's largest radio telescope, astronomers have zeroed in on the source of this ancient outburst. Theorists expect gamma-ray outbursts occur only in close proximity to a galaxy's central black hole, the powerhouse ultimately responsible for the activity. A few rare observations suggested this is not the case. The 2011 flares from a galaxy known as 4C +71.07 now give astronomers the clearest and most distant evidence that the theory still needs some work. The gamma-ray emission originated about 70 light-years away from the galaxy's central black hole. The 4C +71.07 galaxy was discovered as a source of strong radio emission in the 1960s. NASA's Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, which operated in the 1990s, detected high-energy flares, but the galaxy was quiet during Fermi's first two and a half years in orbit. In early November 2011, at the height of the outburst, the galaxy was more than 10,000 times brighter than the combined luminosity of all of the stars in our Milky Way galaxy. "This renewed activity came after a long slumber, and that's important because it allows us to explicitly link the gamma-ray flares to the rising emission observed by radio telescopes," said David Thompson, a Fermi deputy project scientist at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. Located in the constellation Ursa Major, 4C +71.07 is so far away that its light takes 10.6 billion years to reach Earth. Astronomers are seeing this galaxy as it existed when the universe was less than one-fourth of its present age. At the galaxy's core lies a supersized black hole weighing 2.6 billion times the sun's mass. Some of the matter falling toward the black hole becomes accelerated outward at almost the speed of light, creating dual particle jets blasting in opposite directions. One jet happens to point almost directly toward Earth. This characteristic makes 4C +71.07 a blazar, a classification that includes some of the brightest gamma-ray sources in the sky. Boston University astronomers Alan Marscher and Svetlana Jorstad routinely monitor 4C +71.07 along with dozens of other blazars using several facilities, including the VLBA. The instrument's 10 radio telescopes span North America, from Hawaii to St. Croix in the U.S. Virgin Islands, and possess the resolving power of a single radio dish more than 5,300 miles across when their signals are combined. As a result, The VLBA resolves detail about a million times smaller than Fermi's Large Area Telescope (LAT) and 1,000 times smaller than NASA's Hubble Space Telescope. In autumn 2011, the VLBA images revealed a bright knot that appeared to move outward at a speed 20 times faster than light. "Although this apparent speed was an illusion caused by actual motion almost directly toward us at 99.87 percent the speed of light, this knot was the key to determining the location where the gamma-rays were produced in the black hole's jet," said Marscher, who presented the findings Monday at the American Astronomical Society meeting in Long Beach, Calif. The knot passed through a bright stationary feature of the jet, which the astronomers refer to as its radio "core," on April 9, 2011. This occurred within days of Fermi's detection of renewed gamma-ray flaring in the blazar. Marscher and Jorstad noted that the blazar brightened at visible wavelengths in step with the higher-energy emission. During the most intense period of flaring, from October 2011 to January 2012, the scientists found the polarization direction of the blazar's visible light rotated in the same manner as radio emissions from the knot. They concluded the knot was responsible for the visible and the gamma-ray light, which varied in sync. This association allowed the researchers to pinpoint the location of the gamma-ray outburst to about 70 light-years from the black hole. The astronomers think that the gamma rays were produced when electrons moving near the speed of light within the jet collided with visible and infrared light originating outside of the jet. Such a collision can kick the light up to much higher energies, a process known as inverse-Compton scattering. The source of the lower-energy light is unclear at the moment. The researchers speculate the source may be an outer, slow-moving sheath that surrounds the jet. Nicholas MacDonald, a graduate student at Boston University, is investigating how the gamma-ray brightness should change in this scenario to compare with observations. "The VLBA is the only instrument that can bring us images from so near the edge of a young supermassive black hole, and Fermi's LAT is the only instrument that can see the highest-energy light from the galaxy's jet," said Jorstad. NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope is an astrophysics and particle physics partnership. Fermi is managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. It was developed in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy, with contributions from academic institutions and partners in France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden and the United States. The VLBA is operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.For images related to this finding and to learn more about Fermi, visit: Further reports about: > Earth's magnetic field > Fermi > Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope > Gamma-ray > Gamma-ray Space Telescope > Goddard Space Flight Center > Observatory > Science TV > Space > Space Telescope > Telescope > VLBA > black hole > radio emission > radio telescope > speed of light > speed|scan atlineCT-System LIGO confirms RIT's breakthrough prediction of gravitational waves 12.02.2016 | Rochester Institute of Technology Milestone in physics: gravitational waves detected with the laser system from LZH 12.02.2016 | Laser Zentrum Hannover e.V. Today, plants and microorganisms are heavily used for the production of medicinal products. The production of biopharmaceuticals in plants, also referred to as “Molecular Pharming”, represents a continuously growing field of plant biotechnology. Preferred host organisms include yeast and crop plants, such as maize and potato – plants with high demands. With the help of a special algal strain, the research team of Prof. Ralph Bock at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology in Potsdam strives to develop a more efficient and resource-saving system for the production of medicines and vaccines. They tested its practicality by synthesizing a component of a potential AIDS vaccine. The use of plants and microorganisms to produce pharmaceuticals is nothing new. In 1982, bacteria were genetically modified to produce human insulin, a drug... Atomic clock experts from the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) are the first research group in the world to have built an optical single-ion clock which attains an accuracy which had only been predicted theoretically so far. Their optical ytterbium clock achieved a relative systematic measurement uncertainty of 3 E-18. The results have been published in the current issue of the scientific journal "Physical Review Letters". Atomic clock experts from the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) are the first research group in the world to have built an optical single-ion clock... The University of Würzburg has two new space projects in the pipeline which are concerned with the observation of planets and autonomous fault correction aboard satellites. The German Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Energy funds the projects with around 1.6 million euros. Detecting tornadoes that sweep across Mars. Discovering meteors that fall to Earth. Investigating strange lightning that flashes from Earth's atmosphere into... Physicists from Saarland University and the ESPCI in Paris have shown how liquids on solid surfaces can be made to slide over the surface a bit like a bobsleigh on ice. The key is to apply a coating at the boundary between the liquid and the surface that induces the liquid to slip. This results in an increase in the average flow velocity of the liquid and its throughput. This was demonstrated by studying the behaviour of droplets on surfaces with different coatings as they evolved into the equilibrium state. The results could prove useful in optimizing industrial processes, such as the extrusion of plastics. The study has been published in the respected academic journal PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America). Exceeding critical temperature limits in the Southern Ocean may cause the collapse of ice sheets and a sharp rise in sea levels A future warming of the Southern Ocean caused by rising greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere may severely disrupt the stability of the West... 12.02.2016 | Event News 09.02.2016 | Event News 02.02.2016 | Event News 12.02.2016 | Physics and Astronomy 12.02.2016 | Life Sciences 12.02.2016 | Medical Engineering

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The mountain plover (Charadrius montanus) is a medium-sized ground bird in the plover family (Charadriidae). It is misnamed, as it lives on level land. Unlike most plovers, it is usually not found near bodies of water or even on wet soil; it prefers dry habitat with short grass (usually due to grazing) and bare ground. The word plover came from a Latin world pluvia which means "rain". In Medieval England some migratory birds became known as plovers because they returned to their breeding grounds each spring with rain. In 1832 American naturalist John Kirk Townsend spotted a species of unknown bird near the Rocky Mountains, and assumed that all these birds live in mountains. The plover comes back each spring to its breeding grounds, and so the wrong name mountain plover was given to the species. The mountain plover is 8 to 9.5 inches (20 to 24 cm) long and weighs about 3.7 ounces (105 grams). Its wingspread is 17.5 to 19.5 inches (44.5 to 49.5 cm). The mountain plover's call consists of a low, variable whistle. Both sexes are of the same size. In appearance it is typical of Charadrius plovers, except that unlike most, it has no band across the breast. The upperparts are sandy brown and the underparts and face are whitish. There are black feathers on the forecrown and a black stripe from each eye to the bill (the stripe is brown and may be indistinct in winter); otherwise the plumage is plain. The mountain plover is much quieter than its relative the killdeer. Its calls are variable, often low-pitched trilled or gurgling whistles. In courtship it makes a sound much like a far-off cow mooing. It breeds in the high plains of North America from extreme southeastern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan to northern New Mexico and the Texas panhandle, as well as an isolated site in the Davis Mountains of West Texas. About 85 percent of the population winters in the San Joaquin and Imperial Valleys in California. Its winter range also extends along the U.S.-Mexican border, more extensively on the Mexican side. The mountain plover needs about 70 acres of territory for breeding, and about 25 acres for survival in non-breeding times. Around late July, mountain plovers leave their breeding range for a period of post-breeding wandering around the southern Great Plains. Little is known about their movements at this time, although they are regularly seen around Walsh, Colorado and on sod farms in central New Mexico. By early November, most move southward and westward to their wintering grounds. Spring migration is apparently direct and non-stop. Ecology and status Mountain plovers nest on bare ground in early spring (April in northern Colorado). The breeding territory must have bare round with short, sparse vegetation. Plovers usually select a breeding range that they share with bison and black tailed prairie dogs. These animals are grazers that keep vegetation short. Plovers like to nest among prairie dog colonies because the foraging and burrowing that these animals do expose even more bare soil which creates an ideal habitat for plover nest sites. It is believed that plovers like to nest on bare soil because they blend into the land hiding them from birds that may pray on them and the short vegetation allows them to easily detect predators on the ground. It is also believed it is easier for them to spot insects to eat. A mountain plover nest has a survival rate that ranges from 26 to 65%. This wide range may be due to the impact that varying climate has on nest survival. A nest made in a colder climate with less precipitation has a better chance of survival. These conditions are preferred because of the climate's effect on the eggs directly, changes in predatory behavior, or changes in vegetation that can affect the mortality rates of parents. Higher heat may expose eggs to heat stress;also, a wetter climate may factor in to predators having a more sensitive sense of smell, aiding the discovery of nests. Nest predators are the biggest cause of nest destruction. Because of this, it is a primary driving force of survival rate. Increase in soil moisture may the environment of bare grounds and short grass that prairie birds thrive in. Their breeding season extends over the summer months and ends some time around late July or early August. During mating the male will set a territory and perform displays to attract a female. Females lay multiple clutches of eggs with three eggs to a clutch; the eggs are off-white with blackish spots. Egg size decreases as the breeding season goes on because of the high energy cost on the females. It has been found that eggs laid during a time of drought tend to be larger providing the incubating chick with more nourishment and so a greater chance at survival. Mountain plovers perform uniparental incubation by both sexes. Females leave their first clutch to be incubated and tended to by the male and then lay a second clutch, which she tends to herself. This type of incubation suits the mountain plover well and allows for a greater yield of chicks compared to similar species of birds in which both the male and female tend a single clutch together. Females can mate with several males and have several male tended nests in one breeding season. This would result in a greater reproductive success for the female but there is a high energy cost on the female laying so many eggs and so it is more common for a female to lay only two clutches. If the eggs survive various dangers, especially such predators as coyotes, snakes, and swift foxes, they hatch in 28 to 31 days, and the hatchlings leave the nest within a few hours. In the next two or three days, the family usually moves one to two kilometers from the nest site to a good feeding area, often near a water tank for livestock. The population has been estimated at between 5,000 and 10,000 adult birds, although those numbers have recently been revised to the range of 11,000 to 14,000, with a total population estimate of about 15,000 to 20,000. In March 2009, a multi-agency report, the first of its kind, issued by the Cornell University Lab of Ornithology in conjunction with federal agencies and other organizations, indicated that the mountain plover is one of the birds showing serious declines in population. The population of mountain plovers is in decline because of cultivation, urbanization, and over-grazing of their living space. Fritz Knopf has closely studied the mountain plover, and has tracked population declines. These downhill trends led to a 1999 proposal to list them as a threatened species. On June 29, 2009 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published a proposed rule to list the mountain plover as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. A 2005 report details that in a study conducted by Stephen J Dinsmore, Gary C White, and Fritz L Knopf, the populations of mountain plovers and prairie dogs in southern Phillips County in north-central Montana were observed in the effort to provide clues about the ecosystem and mountain plover preservation. Mountain plovers like to build their habitats in prairie dog colonies, meaning that an increase in prairie dogs will coincide with an increase in mountain plovers. This knowledge can be useful in mountain plover conservation efforts. The loss of prairie dog colonies is a huge threat to mountain plovers in Montana; if prairie dog colonies can be preserved, there is a greater chance that mountain plovers can be saved. Other proposed plans of preservation include protecting remaining breeding and wintering habitats, and stopping the conversion of grasslands for agricultural purposes. The connection between mountain plovers and prairie dogs is particularly strong in Montana, but less so in the grasslands of Colorado and the grasslands and shrub-steppe habitats of Wyoming. In places where prairie dogs aren’t as prominent in the ecosystem, fire or grazing can act as substitutes for prairie dogs in creating suitable plover nesting because they maintain low vegetation. In the construction of suitable plover habitats, more success would be found in short-grass prairie habitats. However, concerning conservation, a large portion of the overall plover population breeds near the northern limit of their range in Montana, and it would be wise to make this area a conservation priority. The population of plovers in Wyoming is lower than that of other states, but Wyoming’s population of mountain plovers and mostly intact expanses of grazed rangeland will probably become much more important in the coming years as urban and agricultural development continues in contiguous states. In Oklahoma, 90% of mapped mountain plover locations are in cultivated fields, often bare and flat. Their preferred land areas contain clay loam soils, as the sandier soils are less reliable when sand can easily be blown around, covering nests, obscuring vision, and irritating eyes. Additional study is needed to help ensure the continued presence of mountain plovers in Oklahoma. Mountain plover populations should continue to be monitored and investigated so as to understand how to support their survival. Plovers are important to the ecosystem at large because they are considered indicators of the health of their respective habitats. Local population managers can best help the plovers by protecting the land and prairie dog colonies from human disturbances such as mining, and monitoring the size and health of suitable plover habitat in each region. Lower chick survival contributes to the decline in population. Efforts to increase nest survival provides minimal growth when compared to ensuring juvenile chick survival. Population growth can be helped more by learning more about post-egg survival. - BirdLife International (2012). "Charadrius montanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013. - Many bird populations in trouble, report says. CNN (2009-03-19). Retrieved on 2011-05-10. - FR Doc 2010-15583. Edocket.access.gpo.gov. Retrieved on 2011-05-10. - Knopf, Fritz L. (1997): A Closer Look: Mountain Plover. Birding 29(1): 38–44. - Knopf, Fritz L. & Wunder, M.B (2006): Mountain Plover. In: Poole, A. & Gill, F. (eds.): The Birds of North America 211. Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA & American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. Online version, retrieved 2008-MAY-23. doi:10.2173/bna.211 (requires subscription) - Sibley, David Allen (2000): The Sibley Guide to Birds. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 0-679-45122-6 - Dinsmore S, White G, Knopf F. 2005. Mountain Plover Population Responses to Black-Tailed Prairie Dogs in Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management, 69(4):1546-1553. - Skrade, P, Dinsmore, S. (2013). Egg-Size Investment in a Bird with Uniparental Incubation by Both Sexes. The Condor, 115 (3): 508-514. - Goguen, C. (2012). Habitat use by Mountain Plovers in Prairie Dog Colonies in Northeastern New Mexico. Journal of Field Ornithology, 83 (2): 154-165. - May, Holly. Mountain Plover. 22. Madison: Wildlife Habitat Management Institute, 2001. 1-11. Web. <https://prod.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_022162.pdf>. - Victoria J. Dreitz, Reesa Yale Conrey, Susan K. Skagen, (2012): Drought and Cooler Temperatures Are Associated with Higher Nest Survival in Mountain Plovers. "Avian Conservation and Ecology" Vol. 7 No. 1 Article. 6 - Stephen J. Dinsmore, Michael B. Wunder, Victoria J. Dreitz, and Fritz L. Knopf, (2010): An Assessment of Factors Affecting Population Growth of the Mountain Plover. "Avian Conservation and Ecology" Vol. 5 No. 1 Article. 5 - Cook, Kevin. "Shorebirds in a land without shore." Reporter - Herald. 24 04 2013: Print. <http://www.reporterherald.com/ci_23089051/shorebirds-land-without-shore>. - Childers T, Dinsmore S. 2008. Density and Abundance of Mountain Plovers in Northeastern Montana. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 120(4):700-707. - Plumb R, Knopf F, Anderson S. 2005. Minimum Population Size of Mountain Plovers Breeding in Wyoming. The Wilson Bulletin, 117(1):15-22. - McConnell et al. 2009. Mountain Plovers in Oklahoma: distribution, abundance, and habitat use. Journal of Field Ornithology, 80(1):27-34.

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The mesothelium is a cellular membrane covering five cavities of the human body: the pericardial (around the heart sac), pleural (around the lungs), peritoneal (around the abdominal cavity), scrotal (inside the scrotum), and the cavities in the women’s internal reproductive organs. Basically, it is the thin layer of mesodermal epithelium cells surrounding the above cavities. Mesothelium derives from the mesoderm membrane covering the body cavity of the embryo which further develops into a layer of cells surrounding and protecting most of the internal organs. Mesothelium can be of two types: visceral mesothelium closely surrounds the organ, and parietal mesothelium is the “sac” lining the cavity. The proteins and serosal fluid that are released between the two layers of Mesothelium make a lubricating liquid providing a slippery protective surface to facilitate movement of organs, such as the heart throbbing, the lungs breathing and the intestinal peristalsis. The lubrication allows organs to glide easily inside the cavity. Mesothelioma is a cancerous disease which causes abnormal growth and division of the mesothelium cells. They can invade and damage the adjusting tissues and organs and the cancer cells can also spread from their original location to other parts of the body. Mesothelioma mostly starts in the peritoneal cavity. More than 90% of mesothelioma cases are connected with asbestos exposure. Smoking combined with asbestos exposure significantly increases a person’s risk of developing mesothelioma. Note: Article contributed by the author and owner of mesotheliomamesothelium.com, for publication in Biology-Online.org Articles. Contact us for any authorship issues associated with the article. rating: 0.00 from 0 votes | updated on: 20 May 2011 | views: 847 |

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Women of the Ku Klux Klan The WKKK (also known as the Women's Ku Klux Klan or Women of the Ku Klux Klan) was one of a number of auxiliaries of the Ku Klux Klan. While most women focused on the moral, civic, and educational agenda of the Klan, they also had considerable involvement in issues of race, class, ethnicity, gender, and religion (Feldman 2003, p. 25). The women in the WKKK fought for education and social reform like other Progressive reformers but with extreme racism and intolerance. Particularly prominent in the 1920s, the WKKK existed in every state, but their strongest chapters were in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Arkansas. White, native-born, Protestant women over age 16 were allowed to join the Klan. Women of the Klan differed from Klansmen primarily in their political agenda to incorporate racism, nationalism, traditional morality, and religious intolerance in everyday life through mostly non-violent tactics. The first wave of the WKKK began in the mid-1860s, co-founded by James C.N. Chambers and Rosie Chappell, and extended for about ten years. Although women were not participating members, women were often used as a symbol of racial and sexual supremacy protected by the men of the KKK. Some women assisted with sewing Klansmen's costumes and others even let the men borrow their own clothes to serve as a disguise. One of the stated purposes of the Klan in the first wave was that "females, friends, widows, and their households shall ever be special objects of our regard and protection," which only referred to white women. Black and low-class white women, and white women judged as promiscuous were often the victims of rape and assault as Klansmen deemed them to be "lacking in virtue." (Hodes 1993, pp. 409–410) The second wave began in the early 1920s. In 1923, the Women of the Ku Klux Klan was formed as an auxiliary group to the Ku Klux Klan with its capitol in Little Rock, Arkansas. Like the Klan, they were anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant, and anti-black. Although they were not as violent as their male counterpart, the KKK, they did sometimes resort to violent tactics. By the end of the decade, Klan collapsed rapidly as a result of economic depression, internal battles, and financial scandals. During the 1920’s, the women helped the Ku Klux Klan expand their efforts throughout the country. The WKKK did function separately from the KKK but would join them in parades, social functions, and occasionally meetings. To qualify for membership, one had to be a native-born, white, Protestant woman. Women played a minor role during the third wave which appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s. KKK members consisted largely of men of the rural South who had little education and money. Much of their violence was aimed at African Americans. Women no longer played a prominent role as they were integrated into the Ku Klux Klan. The fourth and "modern" wave emerged in the late 1980s. With women participating as full members of the Klan, they could even serve as leaders and come from a range of social and economic classes. These women could be mothers, employed, and unemployed. The modern wave has been primarily fueled by economic, racial, and religious motives. During the wave of the 1920s, activism was strongest due to the efforts of women's suffrage. Many members were related to Klansmen. Some women joined the WKKK against the wishes of their husbands who felt it out of their partners' "wifely duty" and a rebellious attempt to increase her political power. Women also joined in an effort to preserve their white Protestant rights as they felt violated by the intrusion of immigrant and African-American voters. The WKKK hired "lecturers, organizers, and recruiters to establish new local chapters" where the KKK was especially successful. Some advertisements appealed to women by asking for their help in restoring America. Many women joined the WKKK because they believed it was their duty to their country to protect the threats of the minorities, which included African Americans and immigrants. The women not only wanted to conform to the traditional familial roles of wives, mothers, sisters, and daughters, but also wanted to assist in the white supremacist movement. Some men were also looking for a way to get their wives involved in the movement and pushed for the formation of a Women’s Ku Klux Klan. To educate potential WKKK prospects, the women used pamphlets with information about the Klan’s beliefs to serve as recruiting tools. Currently these pamphlets are used as research tools to see in the minds of the Klan’s women since there is very little information about those involved due to security concerns within the group. Today women are recruited to a much lesser extent than what once existed. Men hold the highest power, strongly limiting the rights of contemporary women in politics and propaganda. Dissimilar from the KKK, Klanswomen typically worked to strengthen the organization, "led political assaults on non-Klan businesses," and worked to strengthen the base of the Klan. They organized rallies, festivals, and day-long ritual carnivals that involved parading through town, crossburning, and a series of lectures and speeches. They held boycotts against anti-Klan store owners. Klanswomen engaged in a number of rites of passage like Klan wedding services, christening ceremonies, and funeral services. Women the Klan also worked to reform public schools, doing so by distributing Bibles in schools, working to have Catholic teachers fired, and running for positions on school board seats. In an effort to influence politics, Klanswomen would lobby voters and distribute negative reports on non-Klan member candidates. Conflict amongst Klan members During the second wave, men and women had similar agendas but often faced conflicts regarding distribution of dues. A few situations regarding financial mismanagement and illegal practices were brought to court in Arkansas, Michigan, and Pennsylvania. Many men disagreed with allowing women into the clan during the 1920s, as they felt it went against the beliefs of the Klan. Klansmen also disliked the ridicule they received from non-Klan members for allowing women to have a voice in politics and bringing them out of the home where they belonged. During the second wave, of the WKKK conflict arouse when Alice B. Cloud of Dallas, Texas filed a lawsuit with two other Klan members against the head of the WKKK, Robbie Gill Comer, and her husband claiming that they took funds from the WKKK and used them for personal use. Upon looking into financial records of the WKKK the court found that they had been squandering almost $70,000 of funds for unnecessary needs for the WKKK headquarters and personal use as well. Due to this, women began to drop out of the WKKK and form other organizations of their own due to problems within the Klan, competing leadership, and corruption financially. Women were also concerned with the increase in the participation of the male Klan violence, which, in turn caused them to leave the Klan. Conflict arose during the modern wave regarding gender equity, as the Klan adheres to rules of "moral conservatism", such as disbelief in divorce and acknowledgment of male authority in politics and in the home. In today's movement, many Klanswomen claim the organization does not support women in their practices and they feel constrained by the limitations set before them by Klansmen. Surprisingly, many women of the modern Klan do not wish their daughters to be a part of it as they feel that despite their commitment to the racist movement, women are not well respected. - Hill, Jackie (2008). "Progressive Values in the Women's Ku Klux Klan". Constructing the Past 9 (1). - Blee, Kathleen M (1991). Women of the Klan. University of California Press. p. 107. ISBN 0-520-07876-4. - Kerbawy, Kelli (2007). Knights in White Satin: Women of the Ku Klux Klan. Marshall University. - McGehee, Margaret. "Women of the Ku Klux Klan (WKKK)". The Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Emory University. Retrieved 24 November 2015. - Blee, Kathleen (2014). Block Sharon, Alexander Ruth & Notrton, Mary Beth (Eds.), Major Problems in American Women's History (5th ed.). Cengage Learning. pp. 331–341. ISBN 9781133955993. - Selzer, Abigail Deborah (2009). An invisible empire of her own: The women of the Ku Klux Klan (1923-30). Thesis Purdue University. - Lawrence, L.S. (October 1929). White, Alma, ed. "Patriotic Day at Zarephath Camp-Meeting". The Good Citizen (Pillar of Fire Church): 10. The Assembly Hall was filled in the evening, with about 100 klanswomen and a few klansmen in robes. The first speaker of the evening was Bishop White. She gave a fiery message on the topic of race and social equality....She expressed hope that the Klan would do its part in keeping the blood of America pure - Blee, Kathleen M. (1991). Women of the Klan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07876-4. - Blee, Kathleen (1991). "Women in the 1920s' Ku Klux Klan Movement". Feminist Studies 17 (1): 57–77. JSTOR 3178170. - Blee, Kathleen (2002). "The Gendered Organization of Hate: Women in the U.S. Ku Klux Klan". In Bacchetta, P. & Margaret Power. Right-Wing Women. New York: Routledge. pp. 101–114. ISBN 0-415-92777-3. - Feldman, Glen (2003). "Keepers of the Hearth: Women, the Klan, and Traditional Family Values". In Clayton, B. & John Salmond. Lives Full of Struggle and Triumph. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. pp. 150–180. ISBN 978-0-8130-2675-6. - Hodes, Martha (Jan 1993). "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics" (PDF). Journal of the History of Sexuality 3: 402–417. JSTOR 3704014. Retrieved February 15, 2013.

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In physics, a free surface is the surface of a fluid that is subject to both zero perpendicular normal stress and parallel shear stress, such as the boundary between two homogeneous fluids, for example liquid water and the air in the Earth's atmosphere. Unlike liquids, gases cannot form a free surface on their own. Fluidized/liquified solids, including slurries, granular materials, and powders may form a free surface. A liquid in a gravitational field will form a free surface if unconfined from above. Under mechanical equilibrium this free surface must be perpendicular to the forces acting on the liquid; if not there would be a force along the surface, and the liquid would flow in that direction. Thus, on the surface of the Earth, all free surfaces of liquids are horizontal unless disturbed (except near solids dipping into them, where surface tension distorts the surface in a region called the meniscus). In a free liquid that is not affected by outside forces such as a gravitational field, internal attractive forces only play a role (e.g. Van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds). Its free surface will assume the shape with the least surface area for its volume: a perfect sphere. Such behaviour can be expressed in terms of surface tension. It can be demonstrated experimentally by observing a large globule of oil placed below the surface of a mixture of water and alcohol having the same density so the oil has neutral buoyancy. If the free surface of a liquid is disturbed, waves are produced on the surface. These waves are not elastic waves due to any elastic force; they are gravity waves caused by the force of gravity tending to bring the surface of the disturbed liquid back to its horizontal level. Momentum causes the wave to overshoot, thus oscillating and spreading the disturbance to the neighboring portions of the surface. The velocity of the surface waves varies as the square root of the wavelength if the liquid is deep; therefore long waves on the sea go faster than short ones. Very minute waves or ripples are not due to gravity but to capillary action, and have properties different from those of the longer ocean surface waves, because the surface is increased in area by the ripples and the capillary forces are in this case large compared with the gravitational forces. Capillary ripples are damped both by sub-surface viscosity and by surface rheology. If a liquid is contained in a cylindrical vessel and is rotating around a vertical axis coinciding with the axis of the cylinder, the free surface will assume a parabolic surface of revolution known as a paraboloid. The free surface at each point is at a right angle to the force acting at it, which is the resultant of the force of gravity and the centrifugal force from the motion of each point in a circle. Since the main mirror in a telescope must be parabolic, this principle is used to create liquid mirror telescopes. Consider a cylindrical container filled with liquid rotating in the z direction in cylindrical coordinates, the equations of motion are: Integrating, the equation for the free surface becomes: Where is the distance of the free surface from the bottom of the container along the axis of rotation. If one integrates the volume of the paraboloid formed by the free surface and then solves for the original height, one can find the height of the fluid along the centerline of the cylindrical container: The equation of the free surface at any distance from the center becomes: - In hydrodynamics, the free surface is defined mathematically by the free-surface condition, that is, the material derivative on the pressure is zero: - In fluid dynamics, a free-surface vortex, also known as a potential vortex or whirlpool, forms in an irrotational flow, for example when a bathtub is drained. - In naval architecture and marine safety, the free surface effect occurs when liquids or granular materials under a free surface in partially filled tanks or holds shift when the vessel heels. - In hydraulic engineering a free-surface jet is one where the entrainment of the fluid outside the jet is minimal, as opposed to submerged jet where the entrainment effect is significant. A liquid jet in air approximates a free surface jet. - In fluid mechanics a free surface flow, also called open channel flow, is the gravity driven flow of a fluid under a free surface, typically water flowing under air in the atmosphere. - Free surface effect - Surface tension - Laser-heated pedestal growth - Liquid level - Splash (fluid mechanics) - Slosh dynamics - Riabouchinsky solid - "Glossary: Free Surface". Interactive Guide. Vishay Measurements Group. Retrieved 2007-12-02. Surface of a body with no normal stress perpendicular or shear stresses parallel to it… - Free surface. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com. Retrieved on 2007-12-02. - White, Frank (2003). Fluid mechanics. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 4. ISBN 0-07-240217-2. - Rowland, Henry Augustus; Joseph Sweetman Ames (1900). "Free Surface of Liquids". Elements of Physics. American Book Co. pp. 70–71. - Millikan, Robert Andrews; Gale, Henry Gordon (1906). "161. Shape assumed by a free liquid". A First Course in Physics. Ginn & company. p. 114. Since, then, every molecule of a liquid is pulling on every other molecule, any body of liquid which is free to take its natural shape that is which is acted on only by its own cohesive forces, must draw itself together until it has the smallest possible surface compatible with its volume; for, since every molecule in the surface is drawn toward the interior by the attraction of the molecules within, it is clear that molecules must continually move toward the center of the mass until the whole has reached the most compact form possible. Now the geometrical figure which has the smallest area for a given volume is a sphere. We conclude, therefore, that if we could relieve a body of liquid from the action of gravity and other outside forces, it would at once take the form of a perfect sphere. - Dull, Charles Elwood (1922). "92. Shape Assumed by a Free Liquid". Essentials of Modern Physics. New York: H. Holt. Since the molecules of liquids slide over one another readily, the force of gravity causes the surface of liquids to become level. If the force of gravity can be nullified, a small portion of free liquid will then assume a spherical form. - Gilman, Daniel Coit; Peck, Harry Thurston; Colby, Frank Moore, ed. (1903). "Hydrostatics". The New International Encyclopædia. Dodd, Mead and Company. p. 739. - "Hydrostatics". Appletons' Cyclopædia of Applied Mechanics. New York: D. Appleton and company. 1880. p. 123. If a perfectly homogeneous mass of liquid be acted upon by a force which varies directly as the distance from the centre of the mass, the free surface will be of spherical form; if the mass rotates about an axis, the form assumed will be that of an oblate spheroid, which is the shape of the earth. - "Free surface". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2007-11-27. - Brighton, John A.; Hughes, William T. (1999). Schaum's outline of theory and problems of fluid dynamics. Boston, Mass: McGraw Hill. p. 51. ISBN 0-07-031118-8. A simple example of irrotational flow is a whirlpool, which is known as a potential vortex in fluid mechanics. - "Ricerca Italiana - PRIN - Global stability of three-dimensional flows". Retrieved 2007-12-02. The free-surface vortex (whirlpool) that occurs during the draining of a basin has received different interpretations along its history; - "The Free Surface Effect - Stability". Retrieved 2007-12-02. In a partly filled tank or fish hold, the contents will shift with the movement of the boat. This "free surface" effect increases the danger of capsizing. - Suryanarayana, N. V. (2000). "3.2.2 Forced Convection - External Flows". In Kreith, Frank. The CRC Handbook of Thermal Engineering (Mechanical Engineering). Berlin: Springer-Verlag and Heidelberg. pp. 3–44. ISBN 3-540-66349-5. In free-surface jets — a liquid jet in an atmosphere of air is a good approximation to a free-surface jet — the entrainment effect is usually negligible… - White, Frank M. (2000). "2.5 Open Channel Flow". In Kreith, Frank. The CRC Handbook of Thermal Engineering (Mechanical Engineering). Berlin: Springer-Verlag and Heidelberg. pp. 2–61. ISBN 3-540-66349-5. The term open channel flow denotes the gravity-driven flow of a liquid with a free surface.

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Rotary Engine Assembly A rotary engine is assembled in layers. The two-rotor engine we took apart has five main layers that are held together by a ring of long bolts. Coolant flows through passageways surrounding all of the pieces. This content is not compatible on this device. The two end layers contain the seals and bearings for the output shaft. They also seal in the two sections of housing that contain the rotors. The inside surfaces of these pieces are very smooth, which helps the seals on the rotor do their job. An intake port is located on each of these end pieces. The next layer in from the outside is the oval-shaped rotor housing, which contains the exhaust ports. This is the part of the housing that contains the rotor. The center piece contains two intake ports, one for each rotor. It also separates the two rotors, so its outside surfaces are very smooth. In the center of each rotor is a large internal gear that rides around a smaller gear that is fixed to the housing of the engine. This is what determines the orbit of the rotor. The rotor also rides on the large circular lobe on the output shaft. Next, we'll see how the engine actually makes power.

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Official Symbols and Names for the Elements Each element is assigned an official symbol by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). For example, the symbol for carbon is C, and the symbol for silver is Ag [Lat. argentum = silver]. There are several ways of designating an isotope. One designation consists of the name or symbol of the element followed by a hyphen and the mass number of the isotope; thus the isotope of carbon with mass number 12 can be designated carbon-12 or C-12. The mass number is often written as a superscript, e.g., C12; sometimes the atomic number is written as a subscript preceding the symbol, e.g., 6C12. The IUPAC rules for nomenclature of inorganic chemistry state that the subscript atomic number and superscript mass number should both precede the symbol, e.g., Many isotopes were given special names and symbols when they were first discovered in natural radioactive decay series (e.g., uranium-235 was called actinouranium and represented by the symbol AcU). This practice is discouraged in the modern nomenclature except in the case of hydrogen. The isotopes hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3 are usually called deuterium and tritium, respectively. Hydrogen-1, the most abundant isotope, has the name protium but is usually simply called hydrogen. Newly discovered elements that have been synthesized by one laboratory and not yet confirmed by a second are given a provisional name based on Greek and Latin roots; when the discovery is confirmed, the laboratory that first made it may suggest a name for the element. Sections in this article: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Chemistry: General

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Waterfalls are commonly formed when a river is young. At these times the channel is often narrow and deep. When the river courses over resistant bedrock, erosion happens slowly, while downstream the erosion occurs more rapidly. As the watercourse increases its velocity at the edge of the waterfall, it plucks material from the riverbed. Whirlpools created in the turbulence as well as sand and stones carried by the watercourse increase the erosion capacity. This causes the waterfall to carve deeper into the bed and to recede upstream. Often over time, the waterfall will recede back to form a canyon or gorge downstream as it recedes upstream, and it will carve deeper into the ridge above it. The rate of retreat for a waterfall can be as high as one and half meters per year. Often, the rock stratum just below the more resistant shelf will be of a softer type, meaning that undercutting due to splashback will occur here to form a shallow cave-like formation known as a rock shelter under and behind the waterfall. Eventually, the outcropping, more resistant cap rock will collapse under pressure to add blocks of rock to the base of the waterfall. These blocks of rock are then broken down into smaller boulders by attrition as they collide with each other, and they also erode the base of the waterfall by abrasion, creating a deep plunge pool or gorge. Streams become wider and shallower just above waterfalls due to flowing over the rock shelf, and there is usually a deep area just below the waterfall because of the kinetic energy of the water hitting the bottom. Waterfalls normally form in a rocky area due to erosion. After a long period of being fully formed, the water falling off the ledge will retreat, causing a horizontal pit parallel to the waterfall wall. Eventually, as the pit grows deeper, the waterfall collapses to be replaced by a steeply sloping stretch of river bed. In addition to gradual processes such as erosion, earth movement caused by earthquakes or landslides or volcanoes can cause a differential in land heights which interfere with the natural course of a water flow, and result in waterfalls. A river sometimes flows over a large step in the rocks that may have been formed by a fault line. Waterfalls can occur along the edge of a glacial trough, where a stream or river flowing into a glacier continues to flow into a valley after the glacier has receded or melted. The large waterfalls in Yosemite Valley are examples of this phenomenon, which is referred to as a hanging valley. Another reason hanging valleys may form is where two rivers join and one is flowing faster than the other. Waterfalls can be grouped into ten broad classes based on the average volume of water present on the fall (which depends on both the waterfall's average flow and its height) using a logarithmic scale. Class 10 waterfalls include Niagara Falls, Paulo Afonso Falls and Khone Falls. #WaterfallWednesday #gif #nature #naturegifs #photography #travel #naturephotography #travelphotography #photooftheweek #trending #trendingnow #picoftheweek #spring #spring2014 #springphotography #springphotos #springpictures #springpics #naturephotos Site-ul anunţul urmărit penal după ce mai 7 Nis 2015 - Site-ul anunţul este urmărit penal pentru proxenetism, după ce procurorii au stabilit că prin intermediul acestuia erau racolaţi "clienţi" de www.anuntul-galben.ro - International Medical University MalaysiaAssociate Professor, 2008 - present - Gandhara University PakistanAssistant Professor, 2000 - 2008 - Khyber College of DentistryBachelor of Dental Surgery, 92 - 95 - University of MalayaConservative Dentistry, 98 - 2000 - University of PeshawarPG Diploma in Health Planning & Managment, 2 - 2 - Gandhara UniversityPublic Health, 5 - 6 - Snakes and Ladders See What Happens When You Eat Garlic On an Empty Stomach ‹ Did you know that eating a whole head of garlic a day does miracles for your body? Garlic – a simple ingredient with amazing health benefits Seven Characteristics of Good Learners | Faculty Focus Good teachers model this kind of learning for their students, which makes me believe “good learner” belongs on those lists of good teacher c Watch This Multi-Billion-Dollar Industry Evaporate Overnight | LinkedIn Imagine an industry where a few companies make billions of dollars by exerting strict control over valuable information -- while paying the Five Lies That Could Be Ruining Your Career (and your Life) | LinkedIn We humans are really great at telling ourselves stories. That voice we hear in our head recites some pretty interesting narratives so often The Pakistan zeitgeists: A nation through the ages NFP takes us on a journey across Pakistan Q5 Kid Mobile Phone With GPS Tracking (Blue+White, Q5 Warranty) Only at RM299! Grab it now! Der erste Lernstift, der vibriert, wenn man sich verschreibt! Der Lernstift erkennt die Schreib-Bewegungen bzw. die Zeichen und Worte. 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Watching this resources will notify you when proposed changes or new versions are created so you can keep track of improvements that have been made. Favoriting this resource allows you to save it in the “My Resources” tab of your account. There, you can easily access this resource later when you’re ready to customize it or assign it to your students. A system of equations, also known as simultaneous equations, is a set of equations that have multiple variables. The answer to a system of equations is a set of values that satisfies all equations in the system. Systems of equations can have multiple sets of answers that are correct. Solutions to a system of equations are often written as ordered pairs, (x,y). There are many ways of solving a system of equations, including the elimination, substitution, and graphical methods. There are many applications of systems of equations. Whenever you have a problem that has multiple variables, setting up a system of equations is often the best method for solving. The steps you need to take in order to do that are: (1) identify the variables in the problem, (2) name the variables, and (3) set up the equations and solve for each variable. Emily is hosting a major after-school party. The principal has imposed two restrictions. First, the total number of people attending (teachers and students combined) must be 56. Second, there must be one teacher for every seven students. How many students and how many teachers are invited to the party? First, we need to identify our variables. In this case, our variables are teachers and students. Now we need to name these variables: number of teachers will be T, and number of students will be S. Now we need to set up our equations. There is a constraint limiting the total number of people in attendance to 56, so: For every seven students, there must be one teacher, so: Now we a system of equations that can be solved by substitution, elimination, or graphically. The solution to the system is S=49 and T=7. A group of 75 students and teachers are in a field, picking sweet potatoes for the needy. Kasey picks three times as many sweet potatoes as Davis—and then, on the way back to the car, she picks up five more sweet potatoes than that! Looking at her newly increased pile, Davis remarks "Wow, you've got 29 more potatoes than me! " How many sweet potatoes did Kasey and Davis each pick? To solve, we first define our variables. The number of sweet potatoes that Kasey picks is K, and the number of sweet potatoes that Davis picks is D. Now we can write equations based on the situation: $K-5 = 3D$ $D+29 = K$ From here, substitution, elimination or graphing will reveal that K is 41 and D is 12. It is important that you always check your answers. A good way to check solutions to a system of equations is to look at the functions graphically and then see where the graphs intersect . Source: Boundless. “Applications of Systems of Equations.” Boundless Algebra. Boundless, 12 Aug. 2015. Retrieved 10 Feb. 2016 from https://www.boundless.com/algebra/textbooks/boundless-algebra-textbook/systems-of-equations-and-matrices-6/systems-of-equations-in-two-variables-40/applications-of-systems-of-equations-193-2244/

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In late May, NASA's Swift satellite imaged comet Siding Spring, which will brush astonishingly close to Mars later this year. These optical and ultraviolet observations are the first to reveal how rapidly the comet is producing water and allow astronomers to better estimate its size. "Comet Siding Spring is making its first passage through the inner solar system and is experiencing its first strong heating from the sun," said lead researcher Dennis Bodewits, an astronomer at the University of Maryland College Park (UMCP). "These observations are part of a two-year-long Swift campaign to watch how the comet's activity develops during its travels." This composite of C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) merges Swift UVOT images taken between May 27 and 29, 2014. Sunlight reflected from the comet's dust, which produces most of the light in this image, appears yellow; violet shows ultraviolet light produced by hydroxyl (OH), a molecular fragment of water. Image Credit: NASA/Swift/D. Bodewits (UMD), DSS "Fresh" comets like Siding Spring, which is formally known as C/2013 A1, contain some of the most ancient material scientists can study. The solid part of a comet, called its nucleus, is a clump of frozen gases mixed with dust and is often described as a "dirty snowball." Comets cast off gas and dust whenever they venture near enough to the sun. What powers this activity is the transformation of frozen material from solid ice to gas, a process called sublimation. As the comet approaches the sun and becomes heated, different gases stream from the nucleus, carrying with them large quantities of dust that reflect sunlight and brighten the comet. By about two and a half times Earth's distance from the sun (2.5 astronomical units, or AU), the comet has warmed enough that water becomes the primary gas emitted by the nucleus. Between May 27 and 29, Swift's Ultraviolet/Optical Telescope (UVOT) captured a sequence of images as comet Siding Spring cruised through the constellation Eridanus at a distance of about 2.46 AU (229 million miles or 368 million km) from the sun. While the UVOT cannot detect water molecules directly, it can detect light emitted by fragments formed when ultraviolet sunlight breaks up water -- specifically, hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl (OH) molecules. "Based on our observations, we calculate that at the time of the observations the comet was producing about 2 billion billion billion water molecules, equivalent to about 13 gallons or 49 liters, each second," said team member Tony Farnham, a senior research scientist at UMCP. At this rate, comet Siding Spring could fill an Olympic-size swimming pool in about 14 hours. Impressive as it sounds, though, this is relatively modest water emission compared to other comets Swift has observed. Based on these measurements, the team concludes that the icy nucleus of comet Siding Spring is only about 2,300 feet (700 meters) across, placing it at the lower end of a size range estimated from earlier observations by other spacecraft. The comet makes its closest approach to Mars on Oct. 19, passing just 86,000 miles (138,000 km) from the Red Planet -- so close that gas and dust in the outermost reaches of the comet's atmosphere, or coma, will interact with the atmosphere of Mars. For comparison, the closest recorded Earth approach by a comet was by the now-defunct comet Lexell, which on July 1, 1770, swept to within 1.4 million miles (2.3 million km) or about six times farther than the moon. During its Mars flyby, comet Siding Spring will pass more than 16 times closer than this. Scientists have established that the comet poses no danger to spacecraft now in orbit around Mars. These missions will be pressed into service as a provisional comet observation fleet to take advantage of this unprecedented opportunity. The Swift observations are part of a larger study to investigate the activity and evolution of new comets, which show distinct brightening characteristics as they approach the sun not seen in other comets. Bodewits and his colleagues single out comets that can be observed by Swift at distances where water has not yet become the primary gas and repeatedly observe them as they course through the inner solar system. This systematic study will help astronomers better understand how comet activity changes with repeated solar heating. Mars & Comets: Siding Spring (C/2013 A1) NASA's Hubble Space Telescope Spots Mars-Bound Comet Sprout Multiple Jets (03.27.2014) NASA's Swift Monitors Departing Comet Garradd (4.13.2012) Swift’s Comet Tally Highlighted in Observatory Webcast (04.03.2009) NASA's Swift Spies Comet Lulin (02.20.2009) NASA's Swift Looks to Comets for a Cool View (12.03.2008) NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland Francis Reddy | Eurek Alert! Absorbing acoustics with soundless spirals 10.02.2016 | American Institute of Physics Hot Science of the Cold Universe 10.02.2016 | Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie Atomic clock experts from the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) are the first research group in the world to have built an optical single-ion clock which attains an accuracy which had only been predicted theoretically so far. Their optical ytterbium clock achieved a relative systematic measurement uncertainty of 3 E-18. The results have been published in the current issue of the scientific journal "Physical Review Letters". Atomic clock experts from the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) are the first research group in the world to have built an optical single-ion clock... The University of Würzburg has two new space projects in the pipeline which are concerned with the observation of planets and autonomous fault correction aboard satellites. The German Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Energy funds the projects with around 1.6 million euros. Detecting tornadoes that sweep across Mars. Discovering meteors that fall to Earth. Investigating strange lightning that flashes from Earth's atmosphere into... Physicists from Saarland University and the ESPCI in Paris have shown how liquids on solid surfaces can be made to slide over the surface a bit like a bobsleigh on ice. The key is to apply a coating at the boundary between the liquid and the surface that induces the liquid to slip. This results in an increase in the average flow velocity of the liquid and its throughput. This was demonstrated by studying the behaviour of droplets on surfaces with different coatings as they evolved into the equilibrium state. The results could prove useful in optimizing industrial processes, such as the extrusion of plastics. The study has been published in the respected academic journal PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America). Exceeding critical temperature limits in the Southern Ocean may cause the collapse of ice sheets and a sharp rise in sea levels A future warming of the Southern Ocean caused by rising greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere may severely disrupt the stability of the West... Indications of light-induced lossless electricity transmission in fullerenes contribute to the search for superconducting materials for practical applications. Superconductors have long been confined to niche applications, due to the fact that the highest temperature at which even the best of these materials becomes... 09.02.2016 | Event News 02.02.2016 | Event News 26.01.2016 | Event News 10.02.2016 | Life Sciences 10.02.2016 | Earth Sciences 10.02.2016 | Physics and Astronomy

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Seabirds (also known as marine birds) are birds that have adapted to life within the marine environment. While seabirds vary greatly in lifestyle, behaviour and physiology, they often exhibit striking convergent evolution, as the same environmental problems and feeding niches have resulted in similar adaptations. The first seabirds evolved in the Cretaceous period, and modern seabird families emerged in the Paleogene. In general, seabirds live longer, breed later and have fewer young than other birds do, but they invest a great deal of time in their young. Most species nest in colonies, which can vary in size from a few dozen birds to millions. Many species are famous for undertaking long annual migrations, crossing the equator or circumnavigating the Earth in some cases. They feed both at the ocean's surface and below it, and even feed on each other. Seabirds can be highly pelagic, coastal, or in some cases spend a part of the year away from the sea entirely. Seabirds and humans have a long history together: they have provided food to hunters, guided fishermen to fishing stocks and led sailors to land. Many species are currently threatened by human activities, and conservation efforts are under way. Classification of seabirds There exists no single definition of which groups, families, and species are seabirds, and most definitions are in some way arbitrary. In the words of two seabird scientists, "The one common characteristic that all seabirds share is that they feed in saltwater; but, as seems to be true with any statement in biology, some do not." However, by convention all of the Sphenisciformes and Procellariiformes, all of the Pelecaniformes except the darters, and some of the Charadriiformes (the skuas, gulls, terns, auks and skimmers) are classified as seabirds. The phalaropes are usually included as well, since although they are waders ("shorebirds" in North America), two of the three species are oceanic for nine months of the year, crossing the equator to feed pelagically. Loons and grebes, which nest on lakes but winter at sea, are usually categorized as water birds, not seabirds. Although there are a number of sea ducks in the family Anatidae which are truly marine in the winter, by convention they are usually excluded from the seabird grouping. Many waders (or shorebirds) and herons are also highly marine, living on the sea's edge (coast), but are also not treated as seabirds Evolution and fossil record Seabirds, by virtue of living in a geologically depositional environment (that is, in the sea where sediments are readily laid down), are well represented in the fossil record. They are first known to occur in the Cretaceous Period, the earliest being the Hesperornithiformes, like Hesperornis regalis, a flightless loon-like seabird that dove in a fashion similar to grebes and loons (using its feet to move underwater) but had a beak filled with sharp teeth. While Hesperornis is not thought to have left descendants, the earliest modern seabirds also occurred in the Cretaceous, with a species called Tytthostonyx glauconiticus, which seems allied to the Procellariiformes and/or Pelecaniformes. In the Paleogene the seas were dominated by early Procellariidae, giant penguins and two extinct families, the Pelagornithidae and the Plotopteridae (a group of large seabirds that looked like the penguins). Modern genera began their wide radiation in the Miocene, although the genus Puffinus (which includes today's Manx Shearwater and Sooty Shearwater) might date back to the Oligocene. The highest diversity of seabirds apparently existed during the Late Miocene and the Pliocene. At the end of the latter, the oceanic food web had undergone a period of upheaval due to extinction of considerable numbers of marine species; subsequently, the spread of marine mammals seems to have prevented seabirds from reaching their erstwhile diversity. Adaptations to life at sea Seabirds have made numerous adaptations to living on and feeding in the sea. Wing morphology has been shaped by the niche an individual species or family has evolved, so that looking at a wing's shape and loading can tell a scientist about its life feeding behaviour. Longer wings and low wing loading are typical of more pelagic species, whilst diving species have shorter wings. Species such as the Wandering Albatross, which forage over huge areas of sea, have a reduced capacity for powered flight and are dependent on a type of gliding called dynamic soaring (where the wind deflected by waves provides lift) as well as slope soaring. Seabirds also almost always have webbed feet, to aid movement on the surface as well as assisting diving in some species. The Procellariiformes are unusual amongst birds in having a strong sense of smell, which is used to find widely distributed food in a vast ocean, and possibly to locate their colonies. Salt glands are used by seabirds to deal with the salt they ingest by drinking and feeding (particularly on crustaceans), and to help them osmoregulate. The excretions from these glands (which are positioned in the head of the birds, emerging from the nasal cavity) are almost pure sodium chloride. With the exception of the cormorants and some terns, and in common with most other birds, all seabirds have waterproof plumage. However, compared to land birds, they have far more feathers protecting their bodies. This dense plumage is better able to protect the bird from getting wet, and cold is kept out by a dense layer of down feathers. The cormorants possess a layer of unique feathers that retain a smaller layer of air (compared to other diving birds) but otherwise soak up water. This allows them to swim without fighting the buoyancy that retaining air in the feathers causes, yet retain enough air to prevent the bird losing excessive heat through contact with water. The plumage of most seabirds is less colourful than that of land birds, restricted in the main to variations of black, white or grey. A few species sport colourful plumes (such as the tropicbirds or some penguins), but most of the colour in seabirds appears in the bills and legs. The plumage of seabirds is thought in many cases to be for camouflage, both defensive (the colour of US Navy battleships is the same as that of Antarctic Prions, and in both cases it reduces visibility at sea) and aggressive (the white underside possessed by many seabirds helps hide them from prey below). Diet and feeding Seabirds evolved to exploit different food resources in the world's seas and oceans, and to a great extent, their physiology and behaviour have been shaped by their diet. These evolutionary forces have often caused species in different families and even orders to evolve similar strategies and adaptations to the same problems, leading to remarkable convergent evolution, such as that between auks and penguins. There are four basic feeding strategies, or ecological guilds, for feeding at sea: surface feeding, pursuit diving, plunge diving, and predation of higher vertebrates; within these guilds there are multiple variations on the theme. Surface feeding itself can be broken up into two different approaches, surface feeding while flying (for example as practiced by gadfly petrels, frigatebirds and storm petrels), and surface feeding whilst swimming (examples of which are practiced by fulmars, gulls, many of the shearwaters and gadfly petrels). Surface feeders in flight include some of the most acrobatic of seabirds, which either snatch morsels from the water (as do frigate-birds and some terns), or "walk", pattering and hovering on the water's surface, as some of the storm-petrels do. Many of these do not ever land in the water, and some, such as the frigatebirds, have difficulty getting airborne again should they do so. Another seabird family that does not land while feeding is the skimmer, which has a unique fishing method: flying along the surface with the lower mandible in the water—this shuts automatically when the bill touches something in the water. The skimmer's bill reflects its unusual lifestyle, with the lower mandible uniquely being longer than the upper one. Surface feeders that swim often have unique bills as well, adapted for their specific prey. Prions have special bills with filters called lamellae to filter out plankton from mouthfuls of water, and many albatrosses and petrels have hooked bills to snatch fast-moving prey. Gulls have more generalised bills that reflect their more opportunistic lifestyle. Pursuit diving exerts greater pressures (both evolutionary and physiological) on seabirds, but the reward is a greater area in which to feed than is available to surface feeders. Propulsion underwater can be provided by wings (as used by penguins, auks, diving petrels, and some other species of petrel) or feet (as used by cormorants, grebes, loons and several types of fish-eating ducks). Wing-propelled divers are generally faster than foot-propelled divers. In both cases, the use of wings or feet for diving has limited their utility in other situations: loons and grebes walk with extreme difficulty (if at all), penguins cannot fly, and auks have sacrificed flight efficiency in favour of underwater diving. For example, the razorbill (an Atlantic auk) requires 64% more energy to fly than a petrel of equivalent size. Many shearwaters are intermediate between the two, having longer wings than typical wing-propelled divers but heavier wing loadings than the other surface-feeding procellariids, leaving them capable of diving to considerable depths while still being efficient long-distance travellers. The most impressive diving exhibited by shearwaters is found in the Short-tailed Shearwater, which has been recorded diving below 70 m. Some albatross species are also capable of some limited diving, with Light-mantled Sooty Albatrosses holding the record at 12 m. Of all the wing-propelled pursuit divers, the most efficient in the air are the albatrosses, and it is no coincidence that they are the poorest divers. This is the dominant guild in polar and subpolar environments, as it is energetically inefficient in warmer waters. With their poor flying ability, many wing-propelled pursuit divers are more limited in their foraging range than other guilds, especially during the breeding season when hungry chicks need regular feeding. Gannets, boobies, tropicbirds, some terns and Brown Pelicans all engage in plunge diving, taking fast moving prey by diving into the water from flight. Plunge diving allows birds to use the energy from the momentum of the dive to combat natural buoyancy (caused by air trapped in plumage), and thus uses less energy than the dedicated pursuit divers, allowing them to utilise more widely distributed food resources, for example, in impoverished tropical seas. In general, this is the most specialised method of hunting employed by seabirds; other non-specialists (such as gulls and skuas) may employ it but do so with less skill and from lower heights. In Brown Pelicans the skills of plunge diving take several years to fully develop—once mature, they can dive from 20 m (70 ft) above the water's surface, shifting the body before impact to avoid injury. It has been suggested that plunge divers are restricted in their hunting grounds to clear waters that afford a view of their prey from the air, and while they are the dominant guild in the tropics, the link between plunge diving and water clarity is inconclusive. Some plunge divers (as well as some surface feeders) are dependent on dolphins and tuna to push shoaling fish up towards the surface. Kleptoparasitism, scavenging and predationThis catch-all category refers to other seabird strategies that involve the next trophic level up. Kleptoparasites are seabirds that make a part of their living stealing food of other seabirds. Most famously, frigatebirds and skuas engage in this behaviour, although gulls, terns and other species will steal food opportunistically. The nocturnal nesting behaviour of some seabirds has been interpreted as arising due to pressure from this aerial piracy. Kleptoparasitism is not thought to play a significant part of the diet of any species, and is instead a supplement to food obtained by hunting. A study of Great Frigatebirds stealing from Masked Boobies estimated that the frigatebirds could at most obtain 40% of the food they needed, and on average obtained only 5%. Many species of gull will feed on seabird and sea mammal carrion when the opportunity arises, as will giant petrels. Some species of albatross also engage in scavenging: an analysis of regurgitated squid beaks has shown that many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive, and include mid-water species likely to be beyond the reach of albatrosses. Some species will also feed on other seabirds; for example, gulls, skuas and giant petrels will often take eggs, chicks and even small adult seabirds from nesting colonies. Seabirds' life histories are dramatically different from those of land birds. In general, they are K-selected, live much longer (anywhere between twenty and sixty years), delay breeding for longer (for up to ten years), and invest more effort into fewer young. Most species will only have one clutch a year, unless they lose the first (with a few exceptions, like the Cassin's Auklet), and many species (like the tubenoses and sulids), only one egg a year. Care of young is protracted, extending for as long as six months, among the longest for birds. For example, once Common Guillemot chicks fledge, they remain with the male parent for several months at sea. The frigatebirds have the longest period of parental care of any bird, with the chicks fledging after four to six months and with continued assistance after that for up to fourteen months. Due to the extended period of care, breeding occurs every two years rather than annually for some species. This life-history strategy has probably evolved both in response to the challenges of living at sea (collecting widely scattered prey items), the frequency of breeding failures due to unfavourable marine conditions, and the relative lack of predation compared to that of land-living birds. Because of the greater investment in raising the young and because foraging for food may occur far from the nest site, in all seabird species except the phalaropes, both parents participate in caring for the young, and pairs are typically at least seasonally monogamous. Many species, such as gulls, auks and penguins, retain the same mate for several seasons, and many petrel species mate for life. The albatrosses and procellariids which mate for life can take many years to form a pair bond before they breed, and the albatrosses have an elaborate breeding dance that is part of pair-bond formation. Breeding and colonies Ninety-five per cent of seabirds are colonial, and seabird colonies are amongst the largest bird colonies in the world, providing one of Earth's great wildlife spectacles. Colonies of over a million birds have been recorded, both in the tropics (such as Kiritimati in the Pacific) and in the polar latitudes (as in Antarctica). Seabird colonies occur exclusively for the purpose of breeding; non-breeding birds will only collect together outside the breeding season in areas where prey species are densely aggregated. Seabird colonies are highly variable. Individual nesting sites can be widely spaced, as in an albatross colony, or densely packed as with a murre colony. In most seabird colonies, several different species will nest on the same colony, often exhibiting some niche separation. Seabirds can nest in trees (if any are available), on the ground (with or without nests), on cliffs, in burrows under the ground and in rocky crevices. Competition can be strong both within species and between species, with aggressive species such as Sooty Terns pushing less dominant species out of the most desirable nesting spaces. The tropical Bonin Petrel nests during the winter to avoid competition with the more aggressive Wedge-tailed Shearwater. When the seasons overlap, the Wedge-tailed Shearwaters will kill young Bonin Petrels in order to use their burrows. Many seabirds show remarkable site fidelity, returning to the same burrow, nest or site for many years, and they will defend that site from rivals with great vigour. This increases breeding success, provides a place for returning mates to reunite, and reduces the costs of prospecting for a new site. Young adults breeding for the first time usually return to their natal colony, and often nest close to where they hatched. This tendency, known as philopatry, is so strong that a study of Laysan Albatrosses found that the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was 22 m; another study, this time on Cory's Shearwaters nesting near Corsica, found that of nine out of 61 male chicks that returned to breed at their natal colony bred in the burrow they were raised in, and two actually bred with their own mother. Colonies are usually situated on islands, cliffs or headlands which land mammals have difficulty accessing. This is thought to provide protection to seabirds, which are often very clumsy on land. Coloniality often arises in types of bird which do not defend feeding territories (such as swifts, which have a very variable prey source); this may be a reason why it arises more frequently in seabirds. There are other possible advantages: colonies may act as information centres, where seabirds returning to the sea to forage can find out where prey is by studying returning individuals of the same species. There are disadvantages to colonial life, particularly the spread of disease. Colonies also attract the attention of predators, principally other birds, and many species attend their colonies nocturnally to avoid predation. MigrationLike many birds, seabirds often migrate after the breeding season. Of these, the trip taken by the Arctic Tern is the farthest of any bird, crossing the equator in order to spend the Austral summer in Antarctica. Other species also undertake trans-equatorial trips, both from the north to the south, and from south to north. The population of Elegant Terns, which nest off Baja California, splits after the breeding season with some birds travelling north to the Central Coast of California and some travelling as far south as Peru and Chile to feed in the Humboldt Current. The Sooty Shearwater undertakes an annual migration cycle that rivals that of the Arctic Tern; birds that nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan, Alaska and California, an annual round trip of Template:Convert/smi. Other species also migrate shorter distances away from the breeding sites, their distribution at sea determined by the availability of food. If oceanic conditions are unsuitable, seabirds will emigrate to more productive areas, sometimes permanently if the bird is young. After fledging, juvenile birds often disperse further than adults, and to different areas, so are commonly sighted far from a species' normal range. Some species, such as the auks, do not have a concerted migration effort, but drift southwards as the winter approaches. Other species, such as some of the storm petrels, diving petrels and cormorants, never disperse at all, staying near their breeding colonies year round. Away from the sea While the definition of seabirds suggests that the birds in question spend their lives on the ocean, many seabird families have many species that spend some or even most of their lives inland away from the sea. Most strikingly, many species breed many tens, hundreds or even thousands of miles inland. Some of these species still return to the ocean to feed; for example, the Snow Petrel, the nests of which have been found 480 kilometres (300 mi) inland on the Antarctic mainland, are unlikely to find anything to eat around their breeding sites. The Marbled Murrelet nests inland in old growth forest, seeking huge conifers with large branches to nest on. Other species, such as the California Gull, nest and feed inland on lakes, and then move to the coasts in the winter. Some cormorant, pelican, gull and tern species have individuals that never visit the sea at all, spending their lives on lakes, rivers, swamps and, in the case of some of the gulls, cities and agricultural land. In these cases it is thought that these terrestrial or freshwater birds evolved from marine ancestors. Some seabirds, principally those that nest in tundra-like skuas and phalaropes, will migrate over land as well. The more marine species, such as petrels, auks, and gannets, are more restricted in their habits, but are occasionally seen inland as vagrants. This most commonly happens to young inexperienced birds, but can happen in great numbers to exhausted adults after large storms, an event known as a wreck, where they provide prized sightings for birders. Relationship with humans Seabirds and fisheries Fishermen have traditionally used seabirds as indicators of both fish shoals, underwater banks that might indicate fish stocks, and of potential landfall. In fact, the known association of seabirds with land was instrumental in allowing the Polynesians to locate tiny landmasses in the Pacific. Seabirds have provided food for fishermen away from home, as well as bait. Famously, tethered cormorants have been used to catch fish directly. Indirectly, fisheries have also benefited from guano from colonies of seabirds acting as fertilizer for the surrounding seas. Negative effects on fisheries are mostly restricted to raiding by birds on aquaculture, although long-lining fisheries also have to deal with bait stealing. There have been claims of prey depletion by seabirds of fishery stocks, and while there is some evidence of this, the effects of seabirds are considered smaller than that of marine mammals and predatory fish (like tuna).Some seabird species have benefited from fisheries, particularly from discarded fish and offal. These discards compose 30% of the food of seabirds in the North Sea, for example, and compose up to 70% of the total food of some seabird populations. This can have other impacts; for example, the spread of the Northern Fulmar through the United Kingdom is attributed in part to the availability of discards. Discards generally benefit surface feeders, such as gannets and petrels, to the detriment of pursuit divers like penguins. Fisheries also have negative effects on seabirds, and these effects, particularly on the long-lived and slow-breeding albatrosses, are a source of increasing concern to conservationists. The bycatch of seabirds entangled in nets or hooked on fishing lines has had a big impact on seabird numbers; for example, an estimated 100,000 albatrosses are hooked and drown each year on tuna lines set out by long-line fisheries. Overall, many hundreds of thousands of birds are trapped and killed each year, a source of concern for some of the rarest species (for example, only about 2,000 Short-tailed Albatrosses are known to still exist). Seabirds are also thought to suffer when overfishing occurs. Other human factors have led to declines and even extinctions in seabird populations, colonies and species. Of these, perhaps the most serious are introduced species. Seabirds, breeding predominantly on small isolated islands, have lost many predator defence behaviours. Feral cats are capable of taking seabirds as large as albatrosses, and many introduced rodents, such as the Pacific Rat, can take eggs hidden in burrows. Introduced goats, cattle, rabbits and other herbivores can lead to problems, particularly when species need vegetation to protect or shade their young. Disturbance of breeding colonies by humans is often a problem as well—visitors, even well-meaning tourists, can flush brooding adults off a colony leaving chicks and eggs vulnerable to predators. The build-up of toxins and pollutants in seabirds is also a concern. Seabirds, being apex predators, suffered from the ravages of DDT until it was banned; among other effects, DDT was implicated in embryo development problems and the skewed sex ratio of Western Gulls in southern California. Oil spills are also a threat to seabird species, as both a toxin and because the feathers of the birds become saturated by the oil, causing them to lose their waterproofing. Oil pollution threatens species with restricted ranges or already depressed populations. The threats faced by seabirds have not gone unnoticed by scientists or the conservation movement. As early as 1903, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt was convinced of the need to declare Pelican Island in Florida a National Wildlife Refuge to protect the bird colonies (including the nesting Brown Pelicans), and in 1909 he protected the Farallon Islands. Today many important seabird colonies are given some measure of protection, from Heron Island in Australia to Triangle Island in British Columbia. Island restoration techniques, pioneered by New Zealand, enable the removal of exotic invaders from increasingly large islands. Feral cats have been removed from Ascension Island, Arctic Foxes from many islands in the Aleutian Islands, and rats from Campbell Island. The removal of these introduced species has led to increases in numbers of species under pressure and even the return of extirpated ones. After the removal of cats from Ascension Island, seabirds began to nest there again for the first time in over a hundred years. Seabird mortality caused by long-line fisheries can be greatly reduced by techniques such as setting long-line bait at night, dying the bait blue, setting the bait underwater, increasing the amount of weight on lines and by using bird scarers, and their deployment is increasingly required by many national fishing fleets. The international ban on the use of drift nets has also helped reduce the mortality of seabirds and other marine wildlife. One of the Millennium Projects in the UK was the Scottish Seabird Centre, near the important bird sanctuaries on Bass Rock, Fidra and the surrounding islands. The area is home to huge colonies of gannets, puffins, skuas and other seabirds. The centre allows visitors to watch live video from the islands as well as learn about the threats the birds face and how we can protect them, and has helped to significantly raise the profile of seabird conservation in the UK. Seabird tourism can provide income for coastal communities as well as raise the profile of seabird conservation. For example, the Northern Royal Albatross colony at Taiaroa Head in New Zealand attracts 40,000 visitors a year. The plight of albatross and large seabirds, as well as other marine creatures, being taken as bycatch by long-line fisheries, has been addressed by a large number of non-governmental organizations (including BirdLife International, the American Bird Conservancy, and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds). This led to the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, a legally binding treaty designed to protect these threatened species, which has been ratified by eleven countries as of 2008 (namely Argentina, Australia, Chile, Ecuador, France, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, South Africa, Spain, and the United Kingdom). Role in culture Many seabirds are little studied and poorly known, due to living far out to sea and breeding in isolated colonies. However, some seabirds, particularly, the albatrosses and gulls, have broken into popular consciousness. The albatrosses have been described as "the most legendary of birds", and have a variety of myths and legends associated with them, and today it is widely considered unlucky to harm them, although the notion that sailors believed that is a myth which derives from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's famous poem, "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner", in which a sailor is punished for killing an albatross by having to wear its corpse around his neck. Instead of the Cross the Albatross About my neck was hung Gulls are one of the most commonly seen seabirds, given their use of human-made habitats (such as cities and dumps) and their often fearless nature. They therefore also have made it into the popular consciousness – they have been used metaphorically, as in Jonathan Livingston Seagull by Richard Bach, or to denote a closeness to the sea, such as their use in The Lord of the RingsTemplate:Spaced ndash both in the insignia of Gondor and therefore Númenor (used in the design of the films), and to call Legolas to (and across) the sea. Other species have also made an impact; pelicans have long been associated with mercy and altruism because of an early Western Christian myth that they split open their breast to feed their starving chicks. The following are the groups of birds normally classed as seabirds. Sphenisciformes (Antarctic and southern waters; 16 species) - Spheniscidae penguins Procellariiformes (Tubenoses: pan-oceanic and pelagic; 93 species) - Diomedeidae albatrosses - Procellariidae fulmars, prions, shearwaters, gadfly and other petrels - Pelacanoididae diving petrels - Hydrobatidae storm petrels Pelecaniformes (Worldwide; 57 species) - Pelecanidae pelicans - Sulidae gannets and boobies - Phalacrocoracidae cormorants - Fregatidae frigatebirds - Phaethontidae tropicbirds Charadriiformes (Worldwide; 305 species, but only the families listed are classed as seabirds.) For an alternative taxonomy of these groups, see also Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy. - ^ BirdLife International (BLI) (2008). Sterna fuscata. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Downloaded on 7 August 2009. - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Schreiber, Elizabeth A. & Burger, Joanne.(2001.) Biology of Marine Birds, Boca Raton:CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-9882-7 - ^ Johansson LC, Lindhe Norberg UM. (2001) "Lift-based paddling in diving grebe." J Exp Biol. 204(10) :1687–96. - ^ Gregory, J. (1952) "The Jaws of the Cretaceous Toothed Birds, Ichthyornis and Hesperornis" Condor 54(2): 73–88 - ^ Goedert, J. (1989) "Giant Late Eocene Marine Birds (Pelecaniformes: Pelagornithidae) from Northwestern Oregon" Journal of Paleontology, 63(6) 939–944 - ^ Possibly due to comparatively close (in astronomical terms – c. 150 light-years) supernova activity - ^ Olson, S. & Hasegawa, Y. (1979)"Fossil Counterparts of Giant Penguins from the North Pacific" Science 206(4419): 688–689. - ^ a b c d Gaston, Anthony J. (2004). Seabirds: A Natural History New Haven:Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-10406-5 - ^ Pennycuick, C. J. (1982). "The flight of petrels and albatrosses (Procellariiformes), observed in South Georgia and its vicinity". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 300: 75–106. - ^ Lequette, B., Verheyden, C., Jowentin, P. (1989) "Olfaction in Subantarctic seabirds: Its phylogenetic and ecological significance" The Condor 91: 732-135. - ^ Harrison, C. S. (1990) Seabirds of Hawaii, Natural History and Conservation Ithica:Cornell University Press, ISBN 0-8014-2449-6 - ^ Grémillet, D, Chauvin, C, Wilson, R.P., Le Maho, Y. & Wanless, S. (2005) Unusual feather structure allows partial plumage wettability in diving great cormorants Phalacrocorax carbo." Journal of Avian Biology 36(1): 57–63. - ^ Withers, P.C (1979) "Aerodynamics and Hydrodynamics of the ‘Hovering’ Flight of Wilson'S Storm Petrel" Journal of Experimental Biology 80: 83–91 - ^ Metz, V. G., and E. A. Schreiber. 2002. Great Frigatebird (Fregata minor). In The Birds of North America, No. 681 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. - ^ a b c d Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-19-850125-0 - ^ a b c Gaston, Anthony J. & Jones, Ian L. (1998). The Auks Oxford:Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-854032-9 - ^ Weimerskirch, H., Cherel, Y., (1998) Feeding ecology of short-tailed shearwaters: breeding in Tasmania and foraging in the Antarctic? Marine Ecology Progress Series 167: 261–274 - ^ Prince, P.A., Huin, N., Weimerskirch, H., (1994) "Diving depths of albatrosses" Antarctic Science 6: (3) 353–354. - ^ Ropert-Coudert Y., Grémillet D., Ryan P., Kato A., Naito Y. & Le Maho Y. (2004) " Between air and water: the plunge dive of the Cape Gannet Morus capensis" Ibis 146(2): 281–290 - ^ a b Elliot, A. (1992) "Family Pelecanidae (Pelicans)" in Handbook of Birds of the World Vol 1. Barcelona:Lynx Editions, ISBN 84-87334-10-5 - ^ Ainley, D.G. (1977) "Feeding methods in seabirds: a comparison of polar and tropical nesting communities in the eastern Pacific Ocean". In: Llano, G.A. (Ed.). Adaptations within Antarctic ecosystems. Smithsonian Inst. Washington D.C. P 669–685. - ^ Haney, J.C. & Stone, A.E. (1988) "Seabird foraging tactics and water clarity: Are plunge divers really in the clear?" Marine Ecology Progress Series 49 1–9 - ^ a b Au, D.W.K. & Pitman, R.L. (1986) Seabird interactions with Dolphins and Tuna in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. Condor, 88: 304–317. - ^ Schnell, G., Woods, B & Ploger B (1983) "Brown Pelican foraging success and kleptoparasitism by Laughing Gulls" Auk 100:636–644 - ^ Gaston, A. J., and S. B. C. Dechesne. (1996). Rhinoceros Auklet (Cerorhinca monocerata). In The Birds of North America, No. 212 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, and The American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C. - ^ Vickery, J & Brooke, M. (1994) "The Kleptoparasitic Interactions between Great Frigatebirds and Masked Boobies on Henderson Island, South Pacific " Condor 96: 331–340 - ^ Croxall, J.P. & Prince, P.A. (1994). "Dead or alive, night or day: how do albatrosses catch squid?" Antarctic Science 6: 155–162. - ^ Punta, G, Herrera, G. (1995) "Predation by Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus on adult Imperial Cormorants Phalacrocorax atriceps" Marine Ornithology 23 166-167 - ^ Robertson, C.J.R. (1993). "Survival and longevity of the Northern Royal Albatross Diomedea epomophora sanfordi at Taiaroa Head" 1937–93. Emu 93: 269–276. - ^ Manuwal, D. A. and A. C. Thoresen. 1993. Cassin’s Auklet (Ptychoramphus aleuticus). In The Birds of North America, No. 50 (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, D.C.: The American Ornithologists’ Union. - ^ Metz, V.G. & Schreiber, E.A. (2002) "Great Frigatebird (Fregata minor)" In The Birds of North America, No 681, (Poole, A. & Gill, F., eds) The Birds of North America Inc:Philadelphia - ^ Pickering, S.P.C., & Berrow, S.D., (2001) "Courtship behaviour of the Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans at Bird Island, South Georgia" Marine Ornithology 29: 29–37 - ^ Schreiber, E. A., C. J. Feare, B. A. Harrington, B. G. Murray, Jr., W. B. Robertson, Jr., M. J. Robertson, and G. E. Woolfenden. 2002. Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata). In The Birds of North America, No. 665 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. - ^ Seto, N. W. H., and D. O'Daniel. (1999) Bonin Petrel (Pterodroma hypoleuca). In The Birds of North America, No. 385 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. - ^ Bried, J.L., Pontier, D., Jouventin, P., (2003) "Mate fidelity in monogamous birds: a re-examination of the Procellariiformes" Animal Behaviour 65: 235–246 - ^ Fisher, H.I., (1976) "Some dynamics of a breeding colony of Laysan Albatrosses. Wilson Bulletin 88: 121–142. - ^ Rabouam, C., Thibault, J.-C., Bretagnole, V., (1998) "Natal Philopatry and Close Inbreeding in Cory's Shearwater (Calonectris diomedea)" Auk 115(2): 483–486 - ^ a b Moors, P.J.; Atkinson, I.A.E. (1984). Predation on seabirds by introduced animals, and factors affecting its severity.. In Status and Conservation of the World's Seabirds. Cambridge: ICBP. ISBN 0-946888-03-5. - ^ Keitt, B.S., Tershy, B.R. & Croll, D.A (2004). "Nocturnal behavior reduces predation pressure on Black-vented Shearwaters Puffinus opisthomelas" Marine Ornithology 32 (3): 173-178. - ^ Burness, G. P., K. Lefevre, and C. T. Collins. 1999. Elegant Tern (Sterna elegans). In The Birds of North America, No. 404 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. - ^ Shaffer S.A., Tremblay Y., Weimerskirch H., Scott D., Thompson D.R., Sagar P.M., Moller H., Taylor G.A., Foley D.G., Block B.A., Costa D.P. (2006) "Migratory shearwaters integrate oceanic resources across the Pacific Ocean in an endless summer." Proc Natl Acad Sci. 103(34): 12799–12802 - ^ Oro, D., Cam, E., Pradel, R. & Martinetz-Abrain, A. (2004) "Influence of food availability on demography and local population dynamics in a long-lived seabird" Proc. R. Soc. London B. 271:387–396 - ^ Croxall, J, Steele, W., McInnes, S, Prince, P. (1995)"Breeding Distribution of Snow Petrel Pagodroma nivea" Marine Ornithology 23 69–99 - ^ Nelson, S. K. 1997. Marbled Murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus). In The Birds of North America, No. 276 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, and The American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C. - ^ Winkler, D. W. 1996. California Gull (Larus californicus). In The Birds of North America, No. 259 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, and The American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. - ^ Harris, M. & Wanless, S., (1996) "Differential responses of Guillemot Uria aalge and Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis to a late winter wreck" Bird Study 43(2): 220–230 - ^ Collis, K., Adamany, S. – Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission, Roby, D.D., Craig, D.P., Lyons, D.E., – Oregon Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, (2000), "Avian Predation on Juvenile Salmonids in the Lower Columbia River", 1998 Annual Report to Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, OR, - ^ Oro, D., Ruiz, X., Pedrocchi, V. & Gonzalez-Solis, J. (1997) "Diet and adult time budgets of Audouin's Gull Larus audouinii in response to changes in commercial fisheries" Ibis 139: 631–637 - ^ Thompson, P.M., (2004) "Identifying drivers of change; did fisheries play a role in the spread of North Atlantic fulmars?" in Management of marine ecosystems: monitoring change in upper trophic levels. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press - ^ BirdLife International/RSPB (2005) Save the Albatross: The Problem Retrieved March 17, 2006 - ^ Brothers NP. 1991. "Albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the Japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean." Biological Conservation 55: 255–268. - ^ Carlile, N., Proiddel, D., Zino, F., Natividad, C. & Wingate, D.B. (2003) "A review of four successful recovery programmes for threatened sub-tropical petrels" Marine Ornithology 31: 185–192 - ^ Fry, D. & Toone, C. (1981) "DDT-induced feminization of gull embryos" Science 213(4510): 922–924 - ^ Dunnet, G., Crisp, D., Conan, G., Bourne, W. (1982) "Oil Pollution and Seabird Populations [and Discussion]" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B 297(1087): 413–427 - ^ USFWS Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge History of Pelican Island Retrieved September 2, 2006 - ^ Williams, J.C., Byrd G.V.& Konyukhov, N.B. (2003) "Whiskered Auklets Aethia pygmaea, foxes, humans and how to right a wrong." Marine Ornithology 31: 175–180 - ^ BirdLife International (2005) Stamps celebrate seabird return. Retrieved August 12, 2006 - ^ Food and Agriculture Organisation (1999) "The incidental catch of seabirds by longline fisheries: worldwide review and technical guidelines for mitigation. FAO Fisheries Circular No.937. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels Site Retrieved April 8, 2008 - ^ a b Carboneras, C. (1992) "Family Diomedeidae (Albatrosses)" in Handbook of Birds of the World Vol 1. Barcelona:Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-10-5 - ^ Cocker, M., & Mabey, R., (2005) Birds Britannica London:Chatto & Windus, ISBN 0-7011-6907-9 |40x40px||Look up http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/seabird in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.| - Project Titi; a collaboration between the Māori of Stewart Island and the University of Otago to manage Sooty Shearwater harvests - BirdLife International; Save the Albatross Campaign - Marine Ornithology, the Journal of Seabird Science and Conservation - www.seabird.org, official site of the Scottish Seabird Centre |This article is part of Project Glossary, a All Birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each term related to animals.| | Project Glossary |

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Theoretical Models of SupernovasType I Supernovas In the 1930s Fritz Zwicky, Walter Baade, and Rudolph Minkowski developed several models of supernova events. In a star about to become a Type I supernova, the star's hydrogen is exhausted, and the star's gravity pulling inward overcomes the forces of its thermonuclear fires pushing the material outward. As the core begins to contract, the remaining hydrogen ignites in a shell, swelling the star into a giant and beginning the process of helium burning. Eventually the star is left with a still contracting core of carbon and oxygen. If the star, now a white dwarf, has a nearby stellar companion, it will begin to pull matter from the companion. In many stars the excess matter is blown off periodically as a nova; if it is not, the star continues to get more and more massive until the matter in the core begins to contract again. When the star gets so massive that it passes Chandrasekhar's limit (1.44 times the sun's mass), it collapses very quickly and all of its matter explodes. Type II supernovas involve massive stars that burn their gases out within a few million years. If the star is massive enough, it will continue to undergo nucleosynthesis after the core has turned to helium and then to carbon. Heavier elements such as phosphorus, aluminum, and sulfur are created in shorter and shorter periods of time until silicon results. It takes less than a day for the silicon to fuse into iron; the iron core gets hotter and hotter and in less than a second the core collapses. Electrons are forced into the nuclei of their atoms, forming neutrons and neutrinos, and the star explodes, throwing as much as 90% of its material into space at speeds exceeding 18,630 mi (30,000 km) per sec. After the supernova explosion, there remains a small, hot neutron star, possibly visible as a pulsar, surrounded by an expanding cloud, such as that seen in the Crab Nebula. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: Astronomy: General

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"The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave" is an autobiography that tells the story of the author's 21 years as a slave and later years as a free man and abolitionist. It is one of the earliest narratives written by a former American slave. Within the narrative, Douglass makes use of literary elements including symbolism and allegory, recurring themes, point of view, and syntax and diction to tell his story. Themes explored in the work include the importance of literacy in gaining freedom, the role of Christianity in slavery and the role of ignorance as a means of reinforcing slavery as an institution, according to Ronald Sundstrom's article "Frederick Douglass," in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The book also explores the link between slavery and spiritual emptiness. An additional theme explored is the link between violence and revelation, particularly the way in which Douglass' final fight with temporary owner Edward Covey resolves doubts within himself about his desire for freedom. According to Waldo E. Martin's "Mind of Frederick Douglass," important symbols in the work include the white-sailed ships Douglass sees in Chesapeake Bay when he is first rented to Edward Covey and "The Columbian Orator," a collection of essays Douglass read after achieving literacy. Douglass saw the abandoned white sailed ships as metaphors for himself, abandoned to Covey's rule. He conversely saw "The Columbian Orator" as a path to freedom and a symbol of the power of oration. Point of View The narrative's first person point of view plays a key role in the story. Because it is one of the first narratives written by a former slave, the firsthand account stands as a vitally important aspect of the work, according to the Harvard University Press website article, "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, Revisited." Douglass uses the fact that the narrative is told in first person to display his own intelligence and to refute arguments that slaves and African Americans in general were incapable of learning. Douglass makes use of several different motifs throughout the narrative to emphasize certain aspects of slavery, many of which would also be used as literary devices in other slave narratives. Douglass' narrative frequently describes his quest for literacy and freedom, creates a sense of sympathy that the audience is affected by, and details the destruction of his family by the institution of slavery, according to Washington State University English professor, Donna M. Campbell. Style Your World With Color Understand how color and its visual effects can be applied to your closet.View Article See if her signature black pairs well with your personal style.View Article Explore a range of cool greys with the year's top colors.View Article Barack Obama's signature color may bring presidential power to your wardrobe.View Article - Photos.com/Photos.com/Getty Images

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|Part of a series on| |Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people| |Prejudice / Violence| |Academic fields and Homosexuality (from Ancient Greek ὁμός, meaning "same", and Latin sexus, meaning "sex") is romantic attraction, sexual attraction or sexual behavior between members of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality is "an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions" to people of the same sex. It "also refers to a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions." Along with bisexuality and heterosexuality, homosexuality is one of the three main categories of sexual orientation within the heterosexual–homosexual continuum. There is no consensus among scientists about why a person develops a particular sexual orientation. Many scientists think that nature and nurture – a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences – factor into the cause of sexual orientation. They favor biologically-based theories, which point to genetic factors, the early uterine environment, both, or the inclusion of genetic and social factors. There is no substantive evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences play a role when it comes to sexual orientation; when it comes to same-sex sexual behavior, shared or familial environment plays no role for men and minor role for women. While some people believe that homosexual activity is unnatural, scientific research has shown that homosexuality is a normal and natural variation in human sexuality and is not in and of itself a source of negative psychological effects. Most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation, and there is insufficient evidence to support the use of psychological interventions to change sexual orientation. The most common terms for homosexual people are lesbian for females and gay for males, though gay is also used to refer generally to both homosexual males and females. The number of people who identify as gay or lesbian and the proportion of people who have same-sex sexual experiences are difficult for researchers to estimate reliably for a variety of reasons, including many gay or lesbian people not openly identifying as such due to homophobia and heterosexist discrimination. Homosexual behavior has also been documented and is observed in many non-human animal species. Many gay and lesbian people are in committed same-sex relationships, though only recently have census forms and political conditions facilitated their visibility and enumeration. These relationships are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential psychological respects. Homosexual relationships and acts have been admired, as well as condemned, throughout recorded history, depending on the form they took and the culture in which they occurred. Since the end of the 19th century, there has been a global movement towards increased visibility, recognition, and legal rights for homosexual people, including the rights to marriage and civil unions, adoption and parenting, employment, military service, equal access to health care, and the introduction of anti-bullying legislation to protect gay minors. - 1 Etymology - 2 History - 3 Sexuality and identity - 4 Demographics - 5 Psychology - 6 Causes - 7 Parenting - 8 Health - 9 Law and politics - 10 Society and sociology - 11 Discrimination - 12 Homosexual behavior in other animals - 13 See also - 14 Notes - 15 References - 16 External links The word homosexual is a Greek and Latin hybrid, with the first element derived from Greek ὁμός homos, "same" (not related to the Latin homo, "man", as in Homo sapiens), thus connoting sexual acts and affections between members of the same sex, including lesbianism. The first known appearance of homosexual in print is found in an 1869 German pamphlet by the Austrian-born novelist Karl-Maria Kertbeny, published anonymously, arguing against a Prussian anti-sodomy law. In 1886, Richard von Krafft-Ebing used the terms homosexual and heterosexual in his book Psychopathia Sexualis. Krafft-Ebing's book was so popular among both laymen and doctors that the terms "heterosexual" and "homosexual" became the most widely accepted terms for sexual orientation. As such, the current use of the term has its roots in the broader 19th-century tradition of personality taxonomy. Many modern style guides in the U.S. recommend against using homosexual as a noun, instead using gay man or lesbian. Similarly, some recommend completely avoiding usage of homosexual as it has a negative, clinical history and because the word only refers to one's sexual behavior (as opposed to romantic feelings) and thus it has a negative connotation. Gay and lesbian are the most common alternatives. The first letters are frequently combined to create the initialism LGBT (sometimes written as GLBT), in which B and T refer to bisexual and transgender people. Gay especially refers to male homosexuality, but may be used in a broader sense to refer to all LGBT people. In the context of sexuality, lesbian refers only to female homosexuality. The word lesbian is derived from the name of the Greek island Lesbos, where the poet Sappho wrote largely about her emotional relationships with young women. Although early writers also used the adjective homosexual to refer to any single-sex context (such as an all-girls school), today the term is used exclusively in reference to sexual attraction, activity, and orientation. The term homosocial is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. There is also a word referring to same-sex love, homophilia. Some synonyms for same-sex attraction or sexual activity include men who have sex with men or MSM (used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual activity) and homoerotic (referring to works of art). Pejorative terms in English include queer, faggot, fairy, poof, and homo. Beginning in the 1990s, some of these have been reclaimed as positive words by gay men and lesbians, as in the usage of queer studies, queer theory, and even the popular American television program Queer Eye for the Straight Guy. The word homo occurs in many other languages without the pejorative connotations it has in English. As with ethnic slurs and racial slurs, however, the misuse of these terms can still be highly offensive; the range of acceptable use depends on the context and speaker. Conversely, gay, a word originally embraced by homosexual men and women as a positive, affirmative term (as in gay liberation and gay rights), has come into widespread pejorative use among young people. Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships have varied over time and place, from expecting all males to engage in same-sex relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, and to proscribing it under penalty of death. In a detailed compilation of historical and ethnographic materials of Preindustrial Cultures, "strong disapproval of homosexuality was reported for 41% of 42 cultures; it was accepted or ignored by 21%, and 12% reported no such concept. Of 70 ethnographies, 59% reported homosexuality absent or rare in frequency and 41% reported it present or not uncommon." In cultures influenced by Abrahamic religions, the law and the church established sodomy as a transgression against divine law or a crime against nature. The condemnation of anal sex between males, however, predates Christian belief. It was frequent in ancient Greece; "unnatural" can be traced back to Plato. Many historical figures, including Socrates, Lord Byron, Edward II, and Hadrian, have had terms such as gay or bisexual applied to them; some scholars, such as Michel Foucault, have regarded this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a contemporary construction of sexuality foreign to their times, though others challenge this. In social science, there has been a dispute between "essentialist" and "constructionist" views of homosexuality. The debate divides those who believe that terms such as "gay" and "straight" refer to objective, culturally invariant properties of persons from those who believe that the experiences they name are artifacts of unique cultural and social processes. "Essentialists" typically believe that sexual preferences are determined by biological forces, while "constructionists" assume that sexual desires are learned. Philosopher of science Michael Ruse has stated that the social constructionist approach, which is influenced by Foucault, is based on a selective reading of the historical record that confuses the existence of homosexual people with how they are labelled or treated. The first record of possible homosexual couple in history is commonly regarded as Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum, an ancient Egyptian male couple, who lived around 2400 BCE. The pair are portrayed in a nose-kissing position, the most intimate pose in Egyptian art, surrounded by what appear to be their heirs. Anthropologists Stephen Murray and Will Roscoe reported that women in Lesotho engaged in socially sanctioned "long term, erotic relationships" called motsoalle. E. E. Evans-Pritchard also recorded that male Azande warriors in the northern Congo routinely took on young male lovers between the ages of twelve and twenty, who helped with household tasks and participated in intercrural sex with their older husbands. Among indigenous peoples of the Americas prior to European colonization, a common form of same-sex sexuality centered around the figure of the Two-Spirit individual. Typically this individual was recognized early in life, given a choice by the parents to follow the path and, if the child accepted the role, raised in the appropriate manner, learning the customs of the gender it had chosen. Two-Spirit individuals were commonly shamans and were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary shamans. Their sexual life was with the ordinary tribe members of the same sex. Homosexual and transgender individuals were also common among other pre-conquest civilizations in Latin America, such as the Aztecs, Mayans, Quechuas, Moches, Zapotecs, and the Tupinambá of Brazil. The Spanish conquerors were horrified to discover sodomy openly practiced among native peoples, and attempted to crush it out by subjecting the berdaches (as the Spanish called them) under their rule to severe penalties, including public execution, burning and being torn to pieces by dogs. In 1998, the state of Hawaii passed a constitutional amendment against gay marriage. In 2013 a ruling, by the state attorney general on this amendment, allowed the government to pass a statute legalizing gay marriage. In East Asia, same-sex love has been referred to since the earliest recorded history. Homosexuality in China, known as the passions of the cut peach and various other euphemisms has been recorded since approximately 600 BCE. Homosexuality was mentioned in many famous works of Chinese literature. The instances of same-sex affection and sexual interactions described in the classical novel Dream of the Red Chamber seem as familiar to observers in the present as do equivalent stories of romances between heterosexual people during the same period. Confucianism, being primarily a social and political philosophy, focused little on sexuality, whether homosexual or heterosexual. Ming Dynasty literature, such as Bian Er Chai (弁而釵/弁而钗), portray homosexual relationships between men as more enjoyable and more "harmonious" than heterosexual relationships. Writings from the Liu Song Dynasty by Wang Shunu claimed that homosexuality was as common as heterosexuality in the late 3rd century. Opposition to homosexuality in China originates in the medieval Tang Dynasty (618–907), attributed to the rising influence of Christian and Islamic values, but did not become fully established until the Westernization efforts of the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China. In June 2014, 20,000 supporters demonstrated in favor of gay rights. On October 29, 2014 Singapore High Court dismissed a constitutional challenge against a statute against sodomy. The statute provides a sentence of up to 2 years in jail. In regard to male homosexuality such documents depict a world in which relationships with women and relationships with youths were the essential foundation of a normal man's love life. Same-sex relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time and from one city to another. The formal practice, an erotic yet often restrained relationship between a free adult male and a free adolescent, was valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, though occasionally blamed for causing disorder. Plato praised its benefits in his early writings but in his late works proposed its prohibition. Aristotle, in the Politics, dismissed Plato's ideas about abolishing homosexuality (2.4); he explains that barbarians like the Celts accorded it a special honor (2.6.6), while the Cretans used it to regulate the population (2.7.5). Little is known of female homosexuality in antiquity. Sappho, born on the island of Lesbos, was included by later Greeks in the canonical list of nine lyric poets. The adjectives deriving from her name and place of birth (Sapphic and Lesbian) came to be applied to female homosexuality beginning in the 19th century. Sappho's poetry centers on passion and love for various personages and both genders. The narrators of many of her poems speak of infatuations and love (sometimes requited, sometimes not) for various females, but descriptions of physical acts between women are few and subject to debate. In Ancient Rome the young male body remained a focus of male sexual attention, but relationships were between older free men and slaves or freed youths who took the receptive role in sex. The Hellenophile emperor Hadrian is renowned for his relationship with Antinous, but the Christian emperor Theodosius I decreed a law on 6 August 390, condemning passive males to be burned at the stake. Justinian, towards the end of his reign, expanded the proscription to the active partner as well (in 558), warning that such conduct can lead to the destruction of cities through the "wrath of God". Notwithstanding these regulations, taxes on brothels of boys available for homosexual sex continued to be collected until the end of the reign of Anastasius I in 518. During the Renaissance, wealthy cities in northern Italy — Florence and Venice in particular — were renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a considerable part of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern of Greece and Rome. But even as many of the male population were engaging in same-sex relationships, the authorities, under the aegis of the Officers of the Night court, were prosecuting, fining, and imprisoning a good portion of that population. From the second half of the 13th century, death was the punishment for male homosexuality in most of Europe. The eclipse of this period of relative artistic and erotic freedom was precipitated by the rise to power of the moralizing monk Girolamo Savonarola. In northern Europe the artistic discourse on sodomy was turned against its proponents by artists such as Rembrandt, who in his Rape of Ganymede no longer depicted Ganymede as a willing youth, but as a squalling baby attacked by a rapacious bird of prey. The relationships of socially prominent figures, such as King James I and the Duke of Buckingham, served to highlight the issue, including in anonymously authored street pamphlets: "The world is chang'd I know not how, For men Kiss Men, not Women now;...Of J. the First and Buckingham: He, true it is, his Wives Embraces fled, To slabber his lov'd Ganimede" (Mundus Foppensis, or The Fop Display'd, 1691). Love Letters Between a Certain Late Nobleman and the Famous Mr. Wilson was published in 1723 in England and was presumed by some modern scholars to be a novel. The 1749 edition of John Cleland's popular novel Fanny Hill includes a homosexual scene, but this was removed in its 1750 edition. Also in 1749, the earliest extended and serious defense of homosexuality in English, Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified, written by Thomas Cannon, was published, but was suppressed almost immediately. It includes the passage, "Unnatural Desire is a Contradiction in Terms; downright Nonsense. Desire is an amatory Impulse of the inmost human Parts." Around 1785 Jeremy Bentham wrote another defense, but this was not published until 1978. Executions for sodomy continued in the Netherlands until 1803, and in England until 1835. Between 1864 and 1880 Karl Heinrich Ulrichs published a series of twelve tracts, which he collectively titled Research on the Riddle of Man-Manly Love. In 1867, he became the first self-proclaimed homosexual person to speak out publicly in defense of homosexuality when he pleaded at the Congress of German Jurists in Munich for a resolution urging the repeal of anti-homosexual laws. Sexual Inversion by Havelock Ellis, published in 1896, challenged theories that homosexuality was abnormal, as well as stereotypes, and insisted on the ubiquity of homosexuality and its association with intellectual and artistic achievement. Although medical texts like these (written partly in Latin to obscure the sexual details) were not widely read by the general public, they did lead to the rise of Magnus Hirschfeld's Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, which campaigned from 1897 to 1933 against anti-sodomy laws in Germany, as well as a much more informal, unpublicized movement among British intellectuals and writers, led by such figures as Edward Carpenter and John Addington Symonds. Beginning in 1894 with Homogenic Love, Socialist activist and poet Edward Carpenter wrote a string of pro-homosexual articles and pamphlets, and "came out" in 1916 in his book My Days and Dreams. In 1900, Elisar von Kupffer published an anthology of homosexual literature from antiquity to his own time, Lieblingminne und Freundesliebe in der Weltliteratur. There are a handful of accounts by Arab travelers to Europe during the mid-1800s. Two of these travelers, Rifa'ah al-Tahtawi and Muhammad as-Saffar, show their surprise that the French sometimes deliberately mistranslated love poetry about a young boy, instead referring to a young female, to maintain their social norms and morals. Israel is considered the most tolerant country in the Middle East and Asia to homosexuals with Tel Aviv being named "the gay capital of the Middle East", and is considered one of the most gay friendly cities in the world. The annual Pride Parade in support of homosexuality takes place in Tel Aviv. On the other hand, many governments in the Middle East often ignore, deny the existence of, or criminalize homosexuality. Homosexuality is illegal in almost all Muslim countries. Same-sex intercourse officially carries the death penalty in several Muslim nations: Saudi Arabia, Iran, Mauritania, northern Nigeria, Sudan, and Yemen. Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, during his 2007 speech at Columbia University, asserted that there were no gay people in Iran. However, the probable reason is that they keep their sexuality a secret for fear of government sanction or rejection by their families. In ancient Assyria, homosexuality was present and common; it was also not prohibited, condemned, nor looked upon as immoral or disordered. Some religious texts contain prayers for divine blessings on homosexual relationships. The Almanac of Incantations contained prayers favoring on an equal basis the love of a man for a woman, of a woman for a man, and of a man for man. In Greater Iran, homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were tolerated in numerous public places, from monasteries and seminaries to taverns, military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses. In the early Safavid dynasty (1501–1723), male houses of prostitution (amrad khane) were legally recognized and paid taxes. Some scholars argue that there are examples of homosexual love in ancient literature, like in the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh as well as in the Biblical story of David and Jonathan. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the relationship between the main protagonist Gilgamesh and the character Enkidu has been seen by some to be homosexual in nature. Similarly, David's love for Jonathan is "greater than the love of women." In many societies of Melanesia, especially in Papua New Guinea, same-sex relationships were an integral part of the culture until the middle of the last century. The Etoro and Marind-anim for example, even viewed heterosexuality as sinful and celebrated homosexuality instead. In many traditional Melanesian cultures a prepubertal boy would be paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and who would "inseminate" him (orally, anally, or topically, depending on the tribe) over a number of years in order for the younger to also reach puberty. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile towards same-sex relationships since the introduction of Christianity by European missionaries. Sexuality and identity The Kinsey scale, also called the Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale, attempts to describe a person's sexual history or episodes of his or her sexual activity at a given time. It uses a scale from 0, meaning exclusively heterosexual, to 6, meaning exclusively homosexual. In both the Male and Female volumes of the Kinsey Reports, an additional grade, listed as "X", was used for asexuality. Orientation and behavior The American Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the National Association of Social Workers identify sexual orientation as "not merely a personal characteristic that can be defined in isolation. Rather, one's sexual orientation defines the universe of persons with whom one is likely to find the satisfying and fulfilling relationships": Sexual orientation is commonly discussed as a characteristic of the individual, like biological sex, gender identity, or age. This perspective is incomplete because sexual orientation is always defined in relational terms and necessarily involves relationships with other individuals. Sexual acts and romantic attractions are categorized as homosexual or heterosexual according to the biological sex of the individuals involved in them, relative to each other. Indeed, it is by acting—or desiring to act—with another person that individuals express their heterosexuality, homosexuality, or bisexuality. This includes actions as simple as holding hands with or kissing another person. Thus, sexual orientation is integrally linked to the intimate personal relationships that human beings form with others to meet their deeply felt needs for love, attachment, and intimacy. In addition to sexual behavior, these bonds encompass nonsexual physical affection between partners, shared goals and values, mutual support, and ongoing commitment. Coming out of the closet Coming out (of the closet) is a phrase referring to one's disclosure of their sexual orientation or gender identity, and is described and experienced variously as a psychological process or journey. Generally, coming out is described in three phases. The first phase is that of "knowing oneself", and the realization emerges that one is open to same-sex relations. This is often described as an internal coming out. The second phase involves one's decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, or colleagues. The third phase more generally involves living openly as an LGBT person. In the United States today, people often come out during high school or college age. At this age, they may not trust or ask for help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society. Sometimes their own families are not even informed. According to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006), "the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they learn about their identity and who reinforce and support that identity. Rather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality." Outing is the practice of publicly revealing the sexual orientation of a closeted person. Notable politicians, celebrities, military service people, and clergy members have been outed, with motives ranging from malice to political or moral beliefs. Many commentators oppose the practice altogether, while some encourage outing public figures who use their positions of influence to harm other gay people. Early 20th-century writers on a homosexual orientation usually understood it to be intrinsically linked to the subject's own sex. For example, it was thought that a typical female-bodied person who is attracted to female-bodied persons would have masculine attributes, and vice versa. However, this understanding as sexual inversion was disputed at the time, and through the second half of the 20th century, gender identity came to be increasingly seen as a phenomenon distinct from sexual orientation. Transgender and cisgender people may be attracted to men, women or both, although the prevalence of different sexual orientations is quite different in these two populations (see sexual orientation of transwomen). An individual homosexual, heterosexual or bisexual person may be masculine, feminine, or androgynous, and in addition, many members and supporters of lesbian and gay communities now see the "gender-conforming heterosexual" and the "gender-nonconforming homosexual" as negative stereotypes. However, studies by J. Michael Bailey and K.J. Zucker have found that a majority of gay men and lesbians report being gender-nonconforming during their childhood years. People with a homosexual orientation can express their sexuality in a variety of ways, and may or may not express it in their behaviors. Many have sexual relationships predominately with people of their own gender identity, though some have sexual relationships with those of the opposite gender, bisexual relationships, or none at all (celibate). The Kinsey scale attempts to describe a person's sexual history or episodes of their sexual activity at a given time. It uses a scale from 0, meaning exclusively heterosexual, to 6, meaning exclusively homosexual. It is based on actual sexual behavior surveys. Research indicates that many lesbians and gay men want, and succeed in having, committed and durable relationships. For example, survey data indicate that between 40% and 60% of gay men and between 45% and 80% of lesbians are currently involved in a romantic relationship. Survey data also indicate that between 18% and 28% of gay couples and between 8% and 21% of lesbian couples in the U.S. have lived together ten or more years. Studies have found same-sex and opposite-sex couples to be equivalent to each other in measures of satisfaction and commitment in relationships, that age and gender are more reliable than sexual orientation as a predictor of satisfaction and commitment to a relationship, and that people who are heterosexual or homosexual share comparable expectations and ideals with regard to romantic relationships. Reliable data as to the size of the gay and lesbian population are of value in informing public policy. For example, demographics would help in calculating the costs and benefits of domestic partnership benefits, of the impact of legalizing gay adoption, and of the impact of the U.S. military's Don't Ask Don't Tell policy. Further, knowledge of the size of the "gay and lesbian population holds promise for helping social scientists understand a wide array of important questions—questions about the general nature of labor market choices, accumulation of human capital, specialization within households, discrimination, and decisions about geographic location." Measuring the prevalence of homosexuality presents difficulties. It is necessary to consider the measuring criteria that is used, the cutoff point and the time span taken to define a sexual orientation. Many people, despite having same-sex attractions, may be reluctant to identify themselves as gay or bisexual. The research must measure some characteristic that may or may not be defining of sexual orientation. The number of people with same-sex desires may be larger than the number of people who act on those desires, which in turn may be larger than the number of people who self-identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. In 1948 and 1953, Alfred Kinsey reported that nearly 46% of the male subjects had "reacted" sexually to persons of both sexes in the course of their adult lives, and 37% had had at least one homosexual experience. Kinsey's methodology was criticized by John Tukey for using convenience samples and not random samples. A later study tried to eliminate the sample bias, but still reached similar conclusions. LeVay cites these Kinsey results as an example of the caution needed to interpret demographic studies, as they may give quite differing numbers depending on what criteria are used to conduct them, in spite of using sound scientific methods. According to major studies, 2% to 11% of people have had some form of same-sex sexual contact within their lifetime; this percentage rises to 16–21% when either or both same-sex attraction and behavior are reported. In a 2006 study, 20% of respondents anonymously reported some homosexual feelings, although only 2–3% identified themselves as homosexual. A 1992 study reported that 6.1% of males in Britain have had a homosexual experience, while in France the number was reported at 4.1%. In the United States, according to a The Williams Institute report in April 2011, only 3.5% or approximately 9 million of the adult population are lesbian, gay, or bisexual. According to the 2000 United States Census, there were about 601,209 same-sex unmarried partner households. A 2013 study by the CDC in which over 34,000 Americans were interviewed, puts the percentage of lesbians and gays at 1.6% and 0.7% as bisexual. According to a 2008 poll, 13% of Britons have had some form of same-sex sexual contact while only 6% of Britons identify themselves as either homosexual or bisexual. In contrast, a survey by the UK Office for National Statistics (ONS) in 2010 found that 95% of Britons identified as heterosexual, 1.5% of Britons identified themselves as homosexual or bisexual, and the last 3.5% gave more vague answers such as "don't know", "other", or did not respond to the question. An October 2012 Gallup poll provided unprecedented demographic information about those who identify as LGBT, arriving at the conclusion that 3.4%, with a margin of error of ±1%, of all U.S. adults identify as LGBT. The study is the nation's largest in counting LGBT. Gallup found that those 18-29 are about twice as likely as those 30-49 to identify as LGBT in the United States (6.4% to 3.2%, ±1%) and about three times as likely as those ages 65 or older. (6.4% to 1.9% ±1%) Among 18- to 29-year-olds, women were found to be almost twice as likely to identify as LGBT than men, 8.3% to 4.6%, ±1%; overall, there was no significant difference between the sexes, with 3.6% of women and 3.3% of men identifying as LGBT, ±1%. |Wikinews has related news: Dr. Joseph Merlino on sexuality, insanity, Freud, fetishes and apathy| Psychology was one of the first disciplines to study a homosexual orientation as a discrete phenomenon. The first attempts to classify homosexuality as a disease were made by the fledgling European sexologist movement in the late 19th century. In 1886 noted sexologist Richard von Krafft-Ebing listed homosexuality along with 200 other case studies of deviant sexual practices in his definitive work, Psychopathia Sexualis. Krafft-Ebing proposed that homosexuality was caused by either "congenital [during birth] inversion" or an "acquired inversion". In the last two decades of the 19th century, a different view began to predominate in medical and psychiatric circles, judging such behavior as indicative of a type of person with a defined and relatively stable sexual orientation. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, pathological models of homosexuality were standard. |“||In 1952, when the American Psychiatric Association published its first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, homosexuality was included as a disorder. Almost immediately, however, that classification began to be subjected to critical scrutiny in research funded by the National Institute of Mental Health. That study and subsequent research consistently failed to produce any empirical or scientific basis for regarding homosexuality as a disorder or abnormality, rather than a normal and healthy sexual orientation. As results from such research accumulated, professionals in medicine, mental health, and the behavioral and social sciences reached the conclusion that it was inaccurate to classify homosexuality as a mental disorder and that the DSM classification reflected untested assumptions based on once-prevalent social norms and clinical impressions from unrepresentative samples comprising patients seeking therapy and individuals whose conduct brought them into the criminal justice system. In recognition of the scientific evidence, the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from the DSM in 1973, stating that "homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social or vocational capabilities." After thoroughly reviewing the scientific data, the American Psychological Association adopted the same position in 1975, and urged all mental health professionals "to take the lead in removing the stigma of mental illness that has long been associated with homosexual orientations." The National Association of Social Workers has adopted a similar policy. Thus, mental health professionals and researchers have long recognized that being homosexual poses no inherent obstacle to leading a happy, healthy, and productive life, and that the vast majority of gay and lesbian people function well in the full array of social institutions and interpersonal relationships. The longstanding consensus of research and clinical literature demonstrates that same-sex sexual and romantic attractions, feelings, and behaviors are normal and positive variations of human sexuality. There is now a large body of research evidence that indicates that being gay, lesbian or bisexual is compatible with normal mental health and social adjustment. The World Health Organization's ICD-9 (1977) listed homosexuality as a mental illness; it was removed from the ICD-10, endorsed by the Forty-third World Health Assembly on 17 May 1990. Like the DSM-II, the ICD-10 added ego-dystonic sexual orientation to the list, which refers to people who want to change their gender identities or sexual orientation because of a psychological or behavioral disorder (F66.1). The Chinese Society of Psychiatry removed homosexuality from its Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders in 2001 after five years of study by the association. According to the Royal College of Psychiatrists "This unfortunate history demonstrates how marginalisation of a group of people who have a particular personality feature (in this case homosexuality) can lead to harmful medical practice and a basis for discrimination in society. There is now a large body of research evidence that indicates that being gay, lesbian or bisexual is compatible with normal mental health and social adjustment. However, the experiences of discrimination in society and possible rejection by friends, families and others, such as employers, means that some LGB people experience a greater than expected prevalence of mental health difficulties and substance misuse problems. Although there have been claims by conservative political groups in the USA that this higher prevalence of mental health difficulties is confirmation that homosexuality is itself a mental disorder, there is no evidence whatever to substantiate such a claim." Most lesbian, gay, and bisexual people who seek psychotherapy do so for the same reasons as heterosexual people (stress, relationship difficulties, difficulty adjusting to social or work situations, etc.); their sexual orientation may be of primary, incidental, or no importance to their issues and treatment. Whatever the issue, there is a high risk for anti-gay bias in psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. Psychological research in this area has been relevant to counteracting prejudicial ("homophobic") attitudes and actions, and to the LGBT rights movement generally. The appropriate application of affirmative psychotherapy is based on the following scientific facts: - Same-sex sexual attractions, behavior, and orientations per se are normal and positive variants of human sexuality; in other words, they are not indicators of mental or developmental disorders. - Homosexuality and bisexuality are stigmatized, and this stigma can have a variety of negative consequences (e.g., Minority Stress) throughout the life span (D'Augelli & Patterson, 1995; DiPlacido, 1998; Herek & Garnets, 2007; Meyer, 1995, 2003). - Same-sex sexual attractions and behavior can occur in the context of a variety of sexual orientations and sexual orientation identities (Diamond, 2006; Hoburg et al., 2004; Rust, 1996; Savin-Williams, 2005). - Gay men, lesbians, and bisexual individuals can live satisfying lives as well as form stable, committed relationships and families that are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential respects (APA, 2005c; Kurdek, 2001, 2003, 2004; Peplau & Fingerhut, 2007). - There are no empirical studies or peer-reviewed research that support theories attributing same-sex sexual orientation to family dysfunction or trauma (Bell et al., 1981; Bene, 1965; Freund & Blanchard, 1983; Freund & Pinkava, 1961; Hooker, 1969; McCord et al., 1962; D. K. Peters & Cantrell, 1991; Siegelman, 1974, 1981; Townes et al., 1976). Science has looked at the causes of homosexuality, and more generically the causes of human sexual orientation, with the general conclusions being related to biological and environmental factors. The biological factors that have been researched are genetic and hormonal, particularly during the fetal developmental period, that influence the resulting brain structure, and other characteristics such as handedness. There are a wide range of environmental factors (sociological, psychological, or early uterine environment), and various biological factors, that may influence sexual orientation; though many researchers believe that it is caused by a complex interplay between nature and nurture, they favor biological models for the cause. |“||Sexual orientation probably is not determined by any one factor but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences. In recent decades, biologically based theories have been favored by experts. [...] Although there continues to be controversy and uncertainty as to the genesis of the variety of human sexual orientations, there is no scientific evidence that abnormal parenting, sexual abuse, or other adverse life events influence sexual orientation. Current knowledge suggests that sexual orientation is usually established during early childhood.||”| |“||Currently, there is no scientific consensus about the specific factors that cause an individual to become heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual—including possible biological, psychological, or social effects of the parents' sexual orientation. However, the available evidence indicates that the vast majority of lesbian and gay adults were raised by heterosexual parents and the vast majority of children raised by lesbian and gay parents eventually grow up to be heterosexual.||”| The Royal College of Psychiatrists stated in 2014: |“||The Royal College of Psychiatrists considers that sexual orientation is determined by a combination of biological and postnatal environmental factors. There is no evidence to go beyond this and impute any kind of choice into the origins of sexual orientation.||”| The American Psychological Association states "there are probably many reasons for a person's sexual orientation and the reasons may be different for different people", and says most people's sexual orientation is determined at an early age. Research into how sexual orientation in males may be determined by genetic or other prenatal factors plays a role in political and social debates about homosexuality, and also raises concerns about genetic profiling and prenatal testing. Professor Michael King states: "The conclusion reached by scientists who have investigated the origins and stability of sexual orientation is that it is a human characteristic that is formed early in life, and is resistant to change. Scientific evidence on the origins of homosexuality is considered relevant to theological and social debate because it undermines suggestions that sexual orientation is a choice." The authors of a 2008 study stated "there is considerable evidence that human sexual orientation is genetically influenced, so it is not known how homosexuality, which tends to lower reproductive success, is maintained in the population at a relatively high frequency". They hypothesized that "while genes predisposing to homosexuality reduce homosexuals' reproductive success, they may confer some advantage in heterosexuals who carry them". Their results suggested that "genes predisposing to homosexuality may confer a mating advantage in heterosexuals, which could help explain the evolution and maintenance of homosexuality in the population". A 2009 study also suggested a significant increase in fecundity in the females related to the homosexual people from the maternal line (but not in those related from the paternal one). A review paper by Bailey and Zuk looking into studies of same-sex sexual behaviour in animals challenges the view that such behaviour lowers reproductive success, citing several hypotheses about how same-sex sexual behavior might be adaptive; these hypotheses vary greatly among different species. Bailey and Zuk also suggest future research needs to look into evolutionary consequences of same-sex sexual behaviour, rather than only looking into origins of such behaviour. Lesbian narratives and sexual orientation awareness Lesbians often experience their sexuality differently from gay men, and have different understandings about etiology from those derived from studies focused mostly on men. For information specific to female homosexuality, see Lesbian. In a U.S.-based 1970s mail survey by Shere Hite, lesbians self-reported their reasons for being lesbian. This is the only major piece of research into female sexuality that has looked at how women understand being homosexual since Kinsey in 1953. The research yielded information about women's general understanding of lesbian relationships and their sexual orientation. Women gave various reasons for preferring sexual relations with women to sexual relations with men, including finding women more sensitive to other people's needs. Since Hite carried out her study she has acknowledged that some women may have chosen the political identity of a lesbian. Julie Bindel, a UK journalist, reaffirmed that "political lesbianism continues to make intrinsic sense because it reinforces the idea that sexuality is a choice, and we are not destined to a particular fate because of our chromosomes." as recently as 2009. Sexual orientation change efforts There are no studies of adequate scientific rigor that conclude that sexual orientation change efforts work to change a person's sexual orientation. Those efforts have been controversial due to tensions between the values held by some faith-based organizations, on the one hand, and those held by LGBT rights organizations and professional and scientific organizations and other faith-based organizations, on the other. The longstanding consensus of the behavioral and social sciences and the health and mental health professions is that homosexuality per se is a normal and positive variation of human sexual orientation, and therefore not a mental disorder. The American Psychological Association says that "most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation". Some individuals and groups have promoted the idea of homosexuality as symptomatic of developmental defects or spiritual and moral failings and have argued that sexual orientation change efforts, including psychotherapy and religious efforts, could alter homosexual feelings and behaviors. Many of these individuals and groups appeared to be embedded within the larger context of conservative religious political movements that have supported the stigmatization of homosexuality on political or religious grounds. No major mental health professional organization has sanctioned efforts to change sexual orientation and virtually all of them have adopted policy statements cautioning the profession and the public about treatments that purport to change sexual orientation. These include the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, American Counseling Association, National Association of Social Workers in the USA, the Royal College of Psychiatrists, and the Australian Psychological Society. The American Psychological Association and the Royal College of Psychiatrists expressed concerns that the positions espoused by NARTH are not supported by the science and create an environment in which prejudice and discrimination can flourish. The American Psychological Association "encourages mental health professionals to avoid misrepresenting the efficacy of sexual orientation change efforts by promoting or promising change in sexual orientation when providing assistance to individuals distressed by their own or others' sexual orientation and concludes that the benefits reported by participants in sexual orientation change efforts can be gained through approaches that do not attempt to change sexual orientation". Fluidity of orientation The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has stated "some people believe that sexual orientation is innate and fixed; however, sexual orientation develops across a person's lifetime". A report from the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health states: "For some people, sexual orientation is continuous and fixed throughout their lives. For others, sexual orientation may be fluid and change over time". One study has suggested "considerable fluidity in bisexual, unlabeled, and lesbian women's attractions, behaviors, and identities". A 2012 study found that 2% of a sample of 2,560 adult participants reported a change of sexual orientation identity after a 10-year period. For men, a change occurred in 0.78% of those who had identified as heterosexual, 9.52% of homosexuals, and 47% of bisexuals. For women, a change occurred in 1.36% of heterosexuals, 63.6% of lesbians, and 64.7% of bisexuals. The researchers suggested that heterosexuality may be a more stable identity because of its normative status. A 2-year study by Lisa M. Diamond on a sample of 80 non-heterosexual female adolescents (age 16-23) reported that half of the participants had changed sexual-minority identities more than once, one third of them during the 2-year follow-up. Diamond concluded that "although sexual attractions appear fairly stable, sexual identities and behaviors are more fluid." In a 2004 study, the female subjects (both gay and straight women) became sexually aroused when they viewed heterosexual as well as lesbian erotic films. Among the male subjects, however, the straight men were turned on only by erotic films with women, the gay ones by those with men. The study's senior researcher said that women's sexual desire is less rigidly directed toward a particular sex, as compared with men's, and it is more changeable over time. Scientific research has been generally consistent in showing that lesbian and gay parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as children reared by heterosexual parents. According to scientific literature reviews, there is no evidence to the contrary. A review study suggested that the children with lesbian or gay parents appear less traditionally gender-typed and are more likely to be open to homoerotic relationships, partly due to genetic (80% of the children being raised by same-sex couples in the US are not adopted and most are the result of heterosexual marriages)) and family socialization processes (children grow up in relatively more tolerant school, neighborhood, and social contexts, which are less heterosexist), even though majority of children raised by same-sex couples identify as heterosexual. A 2005 review by Charlotte J. Patterson for the American Psychological Association found that the available data did not suggest higher rates of homosexuality among the children of lesbian or gay parents. One study suggested that children of gay and lesbian parents were more likely to adopt non-heterosexual identities, especially daughters of lesbian parents (inter-generational transfer was not significant in some analyses for sons). The terms "Men who have sex with men" (MSM) and "women who have sex with women" (WSW) refer to people who engage in sexual activity with others of the same sex regardless of how they identify themselves—as many choose not to accept social identities as lesbian, gay and bisexual. These terms are often used in medical literature and social research to describe such groups for study, without needing to consider the issues of sexual self-identity. The terms are seen as problematic, however, because they "obscure social dimensions of sexuality; undermine the self-labeling of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people; and do not sufficiently describe variations in sexual behavior". MSM and WSW are sexually active with each other for a variety of reasons with the main ones arguably sexual pleasure, intimacy and bonding. In contrast to its benefits, sexual behavior can be a disease vector. Safe sex is a relevant harm reduction philosophy. The United States currently prohibits men who have sex with men from donating blood "because they are, as a group, at increased risk for HIV, hepatitis B and certain other infections that can be transmitted by transfusion." Many European countries have the same prohibition. - Avoid contact with a partner's menstrual blood and with any visible genital lesions. - Cover sex toys that penetrate more than one person's vagina or anus with a new condom for each person; consider using different toys for each person. - Use a barrier (e.g., latex sheet, dental dam, cut-open condom, plastic wrap) during oral sex. - Use latex or vinyl gloves and lubricant for any manual sex that might cause bleeding. These safer sex recommendations are agreed upon by public health officials for men who have sex with men to avoid sexually transmitted infections: - Avoid contact with a partner's bodily fluids and with any visible genital lesions. - Use condoms for anal and oral sex. - Use a barrier (e.g., latex sheet, dental dam, cut-open condom) during anal–oral sex. - Cover sex toys that penetrate more than one person with a new condom for each person; consider using different toys for each person and use latex or vinyl gloves and lubricant for any sex that might cause bleeding. When it was first described in medical literature, homosexuality was often approached from a view that sought to find an inherent psychopathology as its root cause. Much literature on mental health and homosexual patients centered on their depression, substance abuse, and suicide. Although these issues exist among people who are non-heterosexual, discussion about their causes shifted after homosexuality was removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) in 1973. Instead, social ostracism, legal discrimination, internalization of negative stereotypes, and limited support structures indicate factors homosexual people face in Western societies that often adversely affect their mental health. Stigma, prejudice, and discrimination stemming from negative societal attitudes toward homosexuality lead to a higher prevalence of mental health disorders among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals compared to their heterosexual peers. Evidence indicates that the liberalization of these attitudes over the past few decades is associated with a decrease in such mental health risks among younger LGBT people. Gay and lesbian youth Gay and lesbian youth bear an increased risk of suicide, substance abuse, school problems, and isolation because of a "hostile and condemning environment, verbal and physical abuse, rejection and isolation from family and peers". Further, LGBT youths are more likely to report psychological and physical abuse by parents or caretakers, and more sexual abuse. Suggested reasons for this disparity are that (1) LGBT youths may be specifically targeted on the basis of their perceived sexual orientation or gender non-conforming appearance, and (2) that "risk factors associated with sexual minority status, including discrimination, invisibility, and rejection by family members...may lead to an increase in behaviors that are associated with risk for victimization, such as substance abuse, sex with multiple partners, or running away from home as a teenager." A 2008 study showed a correlation between the degree of rejecting behavior by parents of LGB adolescents and negative health problems in the teenagers studied: Higher rates of family rejection were significantly associated with poorer health outcomes. On the basis of odds ratios, lesbian, gay, and bisexual young adults who reported higher levels of family rejection during adolescence were 8.4 times more likely to report having attempted suicide, 5.9 times more likely to report high levels of depression, 3.4 times more likely to use illegal drugs, and 3.4 times more likely to report having engaged in unprotected sexual intercourse compared with peers from families that reported no or low levels of family rejection. Crisis centers in larger cities and information sites on the Internet have arisen to help youth and adults. The Trevor Project, a suicide prevention helpline for gay youth, was established following the 1998 airing on HBO of the Academy Award winning short film Trevor. Law and politics |Part of a series on| Most nations do not prohibit consensual sex between unrelated persons above the local age of consent. Some jurisdictions further recognize identical rights, protections, and privileges for the family structures of same-sex couples, including marriage. Some nations mandate that all individuals restrict themselves to heterosexual relationships; that is, in some jurisdictions homosexual activity is illegal. Offenders can face the death penalty in some fundamentalist Muslim areas such as Iran and parts of Nigeria. There are, however, often significant differences between official policy and real-world enforcement. See Violence against LGBT people. Although homosexual acts were decriminalized in some parts of the Western world, such as Poland in 1932, Denmark in 1933, Sweden in 1944, and the United Kingdom in 1967, it was not until the mid-1970s that the gay community first began to achieve limited civil rights in some developed countries. A turning point was reached in 1973 when the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, thus negating its previous definition of homosexuality as a clinical mental disorder. In 1977, Quebec became the first state-level jurisdiction in the world to prohibit discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation. During the 1980s and 1990s, most developed countries enacted laws decriminalizing homosexual behavior and prohibiting discrimination against lesbian and gay people in employment, housing, and services. On the other hand, many countries today in the Middle East and Africa, as well as several countries in Asia, the Caribbean and the South Pacific, outlaw homosexuality. On 11 December 2013, homosexuality was criminalized in India by a Supreme Court ruling. The Section 377 of the colonial-era Indian Penal Code which criminalizes homosexuality remains in effect in many former colonies. In six countries, homosexual behavior is punishable by life imprisonment; in ten others, it carries the death penalty. Laws against sexual orientation discrimination - Employment discrimination refers to discriminatory employment practices such as bias in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, and compensation, and various types of harassment. In the United States there is "very little statutory, common law, and case law establishing employment discrimination based upon sexual orientation as a legal wrong." Some exceptions and alternative legal strategies are available. President Bill Clinton's Executive Order 13087 (1998) prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation in the competitive service of the federal civilian workforce, and federal non-civil service employees may have recourse under the Due Process Clause of the U.S. Constitution. Private sector workers may have a Title VII action under a quid pro quo sexual harassment theory, a "hostile work environment" theory, a sexual stereotyping theory, or others. - Housing discrimination refers to discrimination against potential or current tenants by landlords. In the United States, there is no federal law against such discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity, but at least thirteen states and many major cities have enacted laws prohibiting it. - Hate crimes (also known as bias crimes) are crimes motivated by bias against an identifiable social group, usually groups defined by race (human classification), religion, sexual orientation, disability, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, gender identity, or political affiliation. In the United States, 45 states and the District of Columbia have statutes criminalizing various types of bias-motivated violence or intimidation (the exceptions are AZ, GA, IN, SC, and WY). Each of these statutes covers bias on the basis of race, religion, and ethnicity; 32 of them cover sexual orientation, 28 cover gender, and 11 cover transgender/gender-identity. In October 2009, the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, which "...gives the Justice Department the power to investigate and prosecute bias-motivated violence where the perpetrator has selected the victim because of the person's actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity or disability", was signed into law and makes hate crime based on sexual orientation, amongst other offenses, a federal crime in the United States. In the European Union, discrimination of any type based on sexual orientation or gender identity is illegal under the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. Since the 1960s, many LGBT people in the West, particularly those in major metropolitan areas, have developed a so-called gay culture. To many,[who?] gay culture is exemplified by the gay pride movement, with annual parades and displays of rainbow flags. Yet not all LGBT people choose to participate in "queer culture", and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. To some[who?] it seems to be a frivolous display, perpetuating gay stereotypes. To some others,[who?] the gay culture represents heterophobia and is scorned as widening the gulf between gay and non-gay people. With the outbreak of AIDS in the early 1980s, many LGBT groups and individuals organized campaigns to promote efforts in AIDS education, prevention, research, patient support, and community outreach, as well as to demand government support for these programs. The bewildering death toll wrought by the AIDS epidemic at first seemed to slow the progress of the gay rights movement, but in time it galvanized some parts of the LGBT community into community service and political action, and challenged the heterosexual community to respond compassionately. Major American motion pictures from this period that dramatized the response of individuals and communities to the AIDS crisis include An Early Frost (1985), Longtime Companion (1990), And the Band Played On (1993), Philadelphia (1993), and Common Threads: Stories from the Quilt (1989). Publicly gay politicians have attained numerous government posts, even in countries that had sodomy laws in their recent past. Examples include Guido Westerwelle, Germany's Vice-Chancellor; Peter Mandelson, a British Labour Party cabinet minister and Per-Kristian Foss, formerly Norwegian Minister of Finance. LGBT movements are opposed by a variety of individuals and organizations. Some social conservatives believe that all sexual relationships with people other than an opposite-sex spouse undermine the traditional family and that children should be reared in homes with both a father and a mother. Some opponents of gay rights say that such rights may conflict with individuals' freedom of speech, religious freedoms in the workplace, the ability to run churches, charitable organizations and other religious organizations in accordance with one's religious views, and that the acceptance of homosexual relationships by religious organizations might be forced through threatening to remove the tax-exempt status of churches whose views do not align with those of the government. Policies and attitudes toward gay and lesbian military personnel vary widely around the world. Some countries allow gay men, lesbians, and bisexual people to serve openly and have granted them the same rights and privileges as their heterosexual counterparts. Many countries neither ban nor support LGB service members. A few countries continue to ban homosexual personnel outright. Most Western military forces have removed policies excluding sexual minority members. Of the 26 countries that participate militarily in NATO, more than 20 permit openly gay, lesbian and bisexual people to serve. Of the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, three (United Kingdom, France and United States) do so. The other two generally do not: China bans gay and lesbian people outright, Russia excludes all gay and lesbian people during peacetime but allows some gay men to serve in wartime (see below). Israel is the only country in the Middle East region that allows openly LGB people to serve in the military. While the question of homosexuality in the military has been highly politicized in the United States, it is not necessarily so in many countries. Generally speaking, sexuality in these cultures is considered a more personal aspect of one's identity than it is in the United States. According to American Psychological Association empirical evidence fails to show that sexual orientation is germane to any aspect of military effectiveness including unit cohesion, morale, recruitment and retention. Sexual orientation is irrelevant to task cohesion, the only type of cohesion that critically predicts the team's military readiness and success. Society and sociology Societal acceptance of non-heterosexual orientations such as homosexuality is lowest in Asian and African countries, and is highest in Europe, Australia, and the Americas. Western society has become increasingly accepting of homosexuality over the past few decades. In 2006, the American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association and National Association of Social Workers stated in an amicus brief presented to the Supreme Court of the State of California: "Gay men and lesbians form stable, committed relationships that are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential respects. The institution of marriage offers social, psychological, and health benefits that are denied to same-sex couples. By denying same-sex couples the right to marry, the state reinforces and perpetuates the stigma historically associated with homosexuality. Homosexuality remains stigmatized, and this stigma has negative consequences. California's prohibition on marriage for same-sex couples reflects and reinforces this stigma". They concluded: "There is no scientific basis for distinguishing between same-sex couples and heterosexual couples with respect to the legal rights, obligations, benefits, and burdens conferred by civil marriage." Though the relationship between homosexuality and religion can vary greatly across time and place, within and between different religions and sects, and regarding different forms of homosexuality and bisexuality, current authoritative bodies and doctrines of the world's largest religions generally view homosexuality negatively. This can range from quietly discouraging homosexual activity, to explicitly forbidding same-sex sexual practices among adherents and actively opposing social acceptance of homosexuality. Some teach that homosexual orientation itself is sinful, others state that only the sexual act is a sin, others are completely accepting of gays and lesbians, while some encourage homosexuality. Some claim that homosexuality can be overcome through religious faith and practice. On the other hand, voices exist within many of these religions that view homosexuality more positively, and liberal religious denominations may bless same-sex marriages. Some view same-sex love and sexuality as sacred, and a mythology of same-sex love can be found around the world. Gay bullying can be the verbal or physical abuse against a person who is perceived by the aggressor to be lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender, including persons who are actually heterosexual or of non-specific or unknown sexual orientation. In the US, teenage students heard anti-gay slurs such as "homo", "faggot" and "sissy" about 26 times a day on average, or once every 14 minutes, according to a 1998 study by Mental Health America (formerly National Mental Health Association). Heterosexism and homophobia In many cultures, homosexual people are frequently subject to prejudice and discrimination. A 2011 Dutch study concluded that 49% of Holland's youth and 58% of youth foreign to the country reject homosexuality. Similar to other minority groups they can also be subject to stereotyping. These attitudes tend to be due to forms of homophobia and heterosexism (negative attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favor of opposite-sex sexuality and relationships). Heterosexism can include the presumption that everyone is heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the norm and therefore superior. Homophobia is a fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against homosexual people. It manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others. Similar is lesbophobia (specifically targeting lesbians) and biphobia (against bisexual people). When such attitudes manifest as crimes they are often called hate crimes and gay bashing. Negative stereotypes characterize LGB people as less romantically stable, more promiscuous and more likely to abuse children, but there is no scientific basis to such assertions. Gay men and lesbians form stable, committed relationships that are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential respects. Sexual orientation does not affect the likelihood that people will abuse children. Claims that there is scientific evidence to support an association between being gay and being a pedophile are based on misuses of those terms and misrepresentation of the actual evidence. Violence against gays and lesbians In the United States, the FBI reported that 20.4% of hate crimes reported to law enforcement in 2011 were based on sexual orientation bias. 56.7% of these crimes were based on anti-male homosexual bias. 11.1% were based on anti-female homosexual bias. 29.6% were based on anti-homosexual bias without regard to gender. The 1998 murder of Matthew Shepard, a gay student, is a notorious such incident in the U.S. LGBT people, especially lesbians, may become the victims of "corrective rape", a violent crime with the supposed aim of making them heterosexual. In certain parts of the world, LGBT people are also at risk of "honor killings" perpetrated by their families or relatives. Homosexual behavior in other animals Homosexual, bisexual and transgender behaviors occur in a number of other animal species. Such behaviors include sexual activity, courtship, affection, pair bonding, and parenting, and are widespread; a 1999 review by researcher Bruce Bagemihl shows that homosexual behavior has been documented in about 500 species, ranging from primates to gut worms. Animal sexual behavior takes many different forms, even within the same species. The motivations for and implications of these behaviors have yet to be fully understood, since most species have yet to be fully studied. 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An overview of recent research in layman's language. - BBC News (Feb 1998): Fingerprints Study - BBC News (Apr 1999): Doubt cast on 'gay gene' - WebMD (March 2000) at the Wayback Machine (archived January 10, 2008)[dead link]: Pointing the Finger at Androgen as a Cause of Homosexuality - BBC News (Oct 2004): Genetics of homosexuality - James Davidson, London Review of Books, 2 June 2005, "Mr and Mr and Mrs and Mrs"—detailed review of The Friend, by Alan Bray, a history of same-sex marriage and other same-sex formal bonds Find more about at Wikipedia's sister projects |Definitions from Wiktionary| |Media from Commons| |News stories from Wikinews| |Quotations from Wikiquote| |Source texts from Wikisource| |Textbooks from Wikibooks| |Learning resources from Wikiversity|

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual

How to Make Graphene A simple way to deposit thin films of carbon could lead to cheaper solar cells. Graphene–a flat single layer of carbon atoms–can transport electrons at remarkable speeds, making it a promising material for electronic devices. Until recently, researchers had been able to make only small flakes of the material, and only in small quantities. However, Rutgers University researchers have developed an easy way to make transparent graphene films that are a few centimeters wide and one to five nanometers thick. Thin films of graphene could provide a cheap replacement for the transparent, conductive indium tin oxide electrodes used in organic solar cells. They could also replace the silicon thin-film transistors common in display screens. Graphene can transport electrons tens of times faster than silicon, so graphene-based transistors could work faster and consume less power. (See “Graphene Transistors” and “Better Graphene Transistors.”) In fact, Rutgers materials science and engineering professor Manish Chhowalla and his colleagues used their graphene films to make prototype transistors and organic solar calls. In a recent Nature Nanotechnology paper, they showed that they can deposit the transparent films on any substrate, including glass and flexible plastic. Chhowalla says that the method could be adapted to a larger scale to coat “meters and meters of substrates with graphene films,” using roll-to-roll processing, a technique being developed to make large flexible electronic circuits. By contrast, current techniques for making graphene yield small quantities of the material, fit only for experimental use. One common technique is called the “Scotch tape method,” in which a piece of tape is used to peel graphene flakes off of a chunk of graphite, which is essentially a stack of graphene sheets. This results in micrometer-sized graphene fragments, which are placed between electrodes to make a transistor. “But if you talk about large-scale devices, you want to make macroscopic [sheets],” says Hannes Schniepp, a graphene researcher at Princeton University. For that, you need to guide the assembly of smaller graphene pieces over a large area, Schniepp says, which is exactly what the Rutgers researchers do. The researchers start by making a suspension of graphene oxide flakes. They oxidize graphite flakes with sulphuric or nitric acid. This inserts oxygen atoms between individual graphene sheets and forces them apart, resulting in graphene oxide sheets, which are suspended in water. The suspension is filtered through a membrane that has 25-nanometer-wide pores. Water passes through the pores, but the graphene oxide flakes, each of which is a few micrometers wide and about one nanometer thick, cover the pores. This happens in a regulated fashion, Chhowalla says. When a flake covers a pore, water is directed to its uncovered neighbors, which in turn get covered, until flakes are distributed across the entire surface. “The method allows you to deposit single layers of graphene,” Chhowalla says. “[It] results in a nearly uniform film deposited on the membrane.” The researchers place the film-coated side of the membrane on a substrate, such as glass or plastic, and wash away the membrane with acetone. Finally, they expose the film to a chemical called hydrazine, which converts the graphene oxide into graphene. James Tour, a chemistry professor at Rice University, says that this is “certainly the easiest method I’ve seen for making [graphene thin films] over large areas.” He thinks that the process could easily be converted into a larger, commercial-scale manufacturing technique. “It’s very amenable for rapid production,” he says. “It’s not going to take much to get these things produced … and cover large areas.” Chhowalla and his colleagues control the thickness of the film by changing the suspension’s volume. A volume of 20 milliliters results in a film that is mostly one to two nanometers in thickness, while an 80-milliliter suspension results in films that are mainly three to five nanometers thick. The thinner films are 95 percent transparent. The researchers have used the films as the transparent electrodes in organic solar cells. They have also made transistors by placing their films on a silicon substrate and depositing gold electrodes on them. The graphene films need a lot more work. Right now, the transistors do not carry as much current as those made from individual graphene flakes, which, the researchers speculate, is because of overlapping flakes in their films. For high-quality transistors, they will need to make single-layer graphene films with no overlap. They also need to improve the conductivity of their film: indium tin oxide is still hundreds of times more conductive. Organic solar cells with indium tin oxide electrodes are between 3 percent and 5 percent efficient. “With graphene thin-film electrodes, we get 0.1 percent,” Chhowalla says, “but these are proof-of-concept devices and of course will improve with time.” Tour believes that the film holds more promise for organic solar cells than for transistors. Many researchers are also studying carbon nanotube films as a way to replace indium tin oxide coatings on solar cells. But Tour says that graphene would be “possibly easier than using carbon nanotubes because of the greater availability of the material.” The industry might also find it easier to adopt graphene because of the concerns that some people have about the effects of carbon nanotubes on the environment.

https://www.technologyreview.com/s/409900/how-to-make-graphene/

Explain, interpret, compare, describe, analyze, and/or evaluate voice, tone, style, and mood in a variety of fiction: mood: a distinctive atmosphere or context voice: an instrument or medium of expression tone: accent or inflection expressive of a mood or emotion atmosphere: a surrounding influence or environment <an atmosphere of hostility> ambiance: a feeling or mood associated with a particular place, person, or thing How does the setting of "The Monkey's Paw" contribute to the mood of the short story? 40-60 minutes / 1-2 class periods Online copy of The Gulf Stream by Winslow Homer "The Monkey's Paw" by W. W. Jacobs Setting and "The Monkey's Paw" graphic organizer computer and projector printed copies of "The Monkey's Paw" (see link above) printed copies of the Setting and "The Monkey's Paw" graphic organizer (see link above) Optional / as needed: computer to play audio version of the story W: During this lesson students will identify the elements of setting and analyze how setting contributes to the mood of a short story. H: Students will experience setting visually through the painting, The Gulf Stream by Winslow Homer. Students will have the opportunity to verbalize what they see visually before they analyze setting in a written work. E: Students explore powerful words in the setting of the story and analyze how these words (the setting) affect the mood of the story. R: Student will reinforce the verbalization of the elements of setting (from the painting) through analysis of the written work "The Monkey's Paw." Students will reinforce the analysis of how the setting of the work affects the mood. E: Students will apply the skills they have learned by completing the graphic organizer (powerful words sections) in a group setting. Students will then participate in the group discussion where they will have the opportunity to express their understanding of how the setting affects the mood. T: The instruction attached to the lesson can meet each child's needs. For those who need more support, model with examples. During the planning portion of the lesson, note specific points that certain students can make. Allow supported students to be one of the first comments/questions to boost confidence. For the writing portion (graphic organizer), provide an adaptation that contains benchmarks such as a skeletal supports. If needed, model the first few examples or provide a sample graphic organizer. O: The lesson begins with students connecting with a visual work of art, works through the analysis of a written work in a small group setting, then in a large group setting. The lesson ends with individual analysis. 1. Look at the picture. 2. Write at least 3 words that describe the setting of this picture. 3. If this picture was a snapshot, what would happen next? Observation of the completion of the first portions of the graphic organizer. (formative) Completion of the question, "How does the setting of "The Monkey's Paw" contribute to the mood of the short story?" on the graphic organizer. The graphic organizer will be collected and graded for display of understanding of the concept. (summative) Setting Map Graphic Organizer Audio version of "The Monkey's Paw" by W. W. Jacobs

http://www.pdesas.org/module/content/resources/4765/view.ashx

The Gupta Empire was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 AD and covered most of North-central India, Gupta Empire (never included Pakistan); and what is now western India and Bangladesh. The time of the Gupta Empire is referred to as Golden Age of India in science, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy. Historians place the Gupta dynasty alongside with the Empire]] as a model of a classical civilization. We get plenty of information about this dynasty through coins, inscriptions, monuments and Sanskrit writings. The Gupta rulers were great conquerors and good administrators. This brought on economic prosperity which led to cultural expansion. Gupta society was ordered in accordance with Hindu beliefs. This included a strict class system (varna system). A series of invasions weakened the empire, but many of their cultural and intellectual achievements were saved and transmitted to other cultures and live on today. Gupta dynasty[change | change source] The Gupta dynasty ruled the Gupta Empire of India, from around 320 to 550. Some of its main rulers were: - Chandragupta II - Kumaragupta I Further reading[change | change source] - Karls, Farah. World History The Human Experience. possibly Pala dynasty Other websites[change | change source] +Golden Coins The Guptas were the first to introduce a coinage across their empire.This showed both their wealth-as some coins were trying to unify the empire by using the same coins over the empire.

https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_Empire

Suppose that in 5 minutes, you can type 150 words. If you continued at this rate, do you know how many words you could type in 12 minutes? In order to answer this question, you could use ratios or a proportion. In this Concept, you'll learn how to solve equations with ratios and proportions so that you'll be able to answer questions like this when they arise. Ratios and proportions have a fundamental place in mathematics. They are used in geometry, size changes, and trigonometry. This Concept expands upon the idea of fractions to include ratios and proportions. A ratio is a fraction comparing two things with the same units. A rate is a fraction comparing two things with different units. You have experienced rates many times: 65 mi/hour, $1.99/pound, and $3.79/yd2. You have also experienced ratios. A “student to teacher” ratio shows approximately how many students one teacher is responsible for in a school. The State Dining Room in the White House measures approximately 48 feet long by 36 feet wide. Compare the length of the room to the width, and express your answer as a ratio. 48 feet36 feet=43 The length of the State Dining Room is 43 the width. A proportion is a statement in which two fractions are equal: ab=cd. Is 23=612 a proportion? Solution: Find the least common multiple of 3 and 12 to create a common denominator. This is NOT a proportion because these two fractions are not equal. A ratio can also be written using a colon instead of the fraction bar. ab=cd can also be read, “a is to b as c is to d” or a:b=c:d. The values of a and d are called the extremes of the proportion and the values of b and c are called the means. To solve a proportion, you can use the cross products. The Cross Products of a Proportion: If ab=cd, then ad=bc. Solution: Apply the Cross Products of a Proportion. Solve for a. Consider the following situation: A train travels at a steady speed. It covers 15 miles in 20 minutes. How far will it travel in 7 hours, assuming it continues at the same rate? This is an example of a problem that can be solved using several methods, including proportions. To solve using a proportion, you need to translate the statement into an algebraic sentence. The key to writing correct proportions is to keep the units the same in each fraction. Before we substitute in miles and time into our proportion, we need to have our units consistent. We are given the train's rate in minutes, and asked how far the train will go in 7 hours, so we need to figure out how many minutes are an equivalent amount of time to 7 hours. Since there are 60 minutes in each hour: So 7 hours is equivalent to 420 minutes. Now we solve for the number of miles using the Cross Product of Proportions: The train traveled 315 miles in 7 hours. Sample explanations for some of the practice exercises below are available by viewing the following video. Note that there is not always a match between the number of the practice exercise in the video and the number of the practice exercise listed in the following exercise set. However, the practice exercise is the same in both. CK-12 Basic Algebra: Ratio and Proportion (10:25) Write the following comparisons as ratios. Simplify fractions where possible. - $150 to $3 - 150 boys to 175 girls - 200 minutes to 1 hour - 10 days to 2 weeks In 5 – 10, write the ratios as a unit rate. - 54 hot dogs to 12 minutes - 5000 lbs to 250 in2 - 20 computers to 80 students - 180 students to 6 teachers - 12 meters to 4 floors - 18 minutes to 15 appointments - Give an example of a proportion that uses the numbers 5, 1, 6, and 30 - In the following proportion, identify the means and the extremes: 512=3584 In 13 – 23, solve the proportion. - A restaurant serves 100 people per day and takes in $908. If the restaurant were to serve 250 people per day, what might the cash collected be? - The highest mountain in Canada is Mount Yukon. It is 29867 the size of Ben Nevis, the highest peak in Scotland. Mount Elbert in Colorado is the highest peak in the Rocky Mountains. Mount Elbert is 22067 the height of Ben Nevis and 4448 the size of Mont Blanc in France. Mont Blanc is 4800 meters high. How high is Mount Yukon? - At a large high school, it is estimated that two out of every three students have a cell phone, and one in five of all students have a cell phone that is one year old or less. Out of the students who own a cell phone, what proportion own a phone that is more than one year old? - The price of a Harry Potter Book on Amazon.com is $10.00. The same book is also available used for $6.50. Find two ways to compare these prices. - To prepare for school, you purchased 10 notebooks for $8.79. How many notebooks can you buy for $5.80? - It takes 1 cup mix and 34 cup water to make 6 pancakes. How much water and mix is needed to make 21 pancakes? - Ammonia is a compound consisting of a 1:3 ratio of nitrogen and hydrogen atoms. If a sample contains 1,983 hydrogen atoms, how many nitrogen atoms are present? - The Eagles have won 5 out of their last 9 games. If this trend continues, how many games will they have won in the 63-game season? - Solve 1516÷58. - Evaluate |9−108|. - Simplify: 8(8−3x)−2(1+8x). - Solve for n: 7(n+7)=−7. - Solve for x: −22=−3+x. - Solve for u: 18=2u. - Simplify: −17−(−113). - Evaluate: 5×p6|n| when n=10andp=−6. - Make a table when −4≤x≤4forf(x)=18x+2. - Write as an English phrase: y+11. Answers for Explore More Problems To view the Explore More answers, open this PDF file and look for section 3.7.

http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Basic-Algebra-Concepts/section/3.7/

The students count to 10 or 20 by making Cheerios necklaces. This is also a good activity for developing fine motor skills. To learn to count to 10 (preschool) or 20 (Kindergarten). - Book: The Cheerios Counting Book - construction paper squares numbered 1-10 or 1-20 Read the book The Cheerios Counting Book. Discuss the numbers and count in the book the number of cheerios shown on each page. Discuss with the children how old they are and have them show you their age using their fingers. Have the number cards on the table – one for each child in your class. Have the children sit down and then give each child a handful of cheerios. Have the children take their square and put the right amount of cheerios on it. Talk to the children about what each number is as they put the cheerios on. Let them eat the extra cheerios while you talk about the numbers. Give the children more cheerios. Use the yarn to make cheerios necklaces with the kids. Have them count their Cheerios as they put them on their necklace. If you are teaching preschoolers, use 10 as the number. If you are doing this with kindergartners, let them put 20 cheerios on their necklaces. You could also have Cheerios for snack that day, if you wish. By: Debbie Haren, Preschool Teacher Related lesson plans: - Apples and Counting Lesson Share/BookmarkUsing the apple theme to learn how to count. Objectives: The students will: use apple theme to learn about math (or Johnny Appleseed theme) practice rote counting Materials: Large tree made out of art paper or store bought one. Apple... - M & M Counting Chart Share/BookmarkChildren graph the M&Ms by color, graph their favorite color M and M as a class. Objectives: To learn how to count and to help reinforce colors. Materials: A small graph with the different colors of M and M’s Try... - How to Make an Apple Pie and See the World Snack Activity Share/BookmarkStudents will love this book and activity. Map skills, counting, and following directions are reinforced. Materials: How to Make an Apple Pie and See the World one refrigerator biscuit per child a can of apple pie filling cinnamon sugar Lesson... - The Cheeto Walk Learning Game Share/BookmarkStudents learn number recognition, following simple rules, and listening skills. Objectives: Number recognition, following simple rules, and listening skills Materials: number cards made out of construction paper tape music tape recorder cheetos (or other edibles) small pieces of paper with... - Yummy Pumpkin Treats Snack Activity Share/BookmarkObjectives: After reading Pumpkin, Pumpkin by Jeanne Titherington we make Yummy Pumpkin Treats. This activity enhances math with counting and following directions. You will need: Pumpkin Pumpkin by Jeanne Titherington a pumpkin cookie cutter bread cream cheese raisins candy corn...

http://lessons.atozteacherstuff.com/306/counting-make-a-cheerios-necklace/

Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver, most commonly caused by a viral infection. There are five main hepatitis viruses that cause acute and/or chronic infection, referred to as types A, B, C, D and E. In particular, types B and C lead to chronic disease in hundreds of millions of people worldwide. In the WHO European Region an estimated 13 million people live with chronic hepatitis B, and an estimated 15 million people are infected with hepatitis C. Because the disease is often asymptomatic and left untreated, chronic hepatitis is a major cause of liver cirrhosis and primary liver cancer. People who inject drugs are particularly vulnerable to hepatitis and co-infection with both hepatitis and HIV is common. - Preventing cancer - The European code against cancer - More than 23 million people in the WHO European Region fall ill from unsafe food every year - European HIV-Hepatitis Testing Week: 20–27 November 2015 InfographicMore data and statistics Prevent hepatitis. Act now. WHO Regional Office for Europe works with several key partners on activities related to hepatitisRead more

http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/communicable-diseases/hepatitis

Task-based language learning Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT), also known as task-based instruction (TBI), focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language. Such tasks can include visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling customer service for help. Assessment is primarily based on task outcome (in other words the appropriate completion of real world tasks) rather than on accuracy of prescribed language forms. This makes TBLL especially popular for developing target language fluency and student confidence. As such TBLL can be considered a branch of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). TBLT was popularized by N. Prabhu while working in Bangalore, India. Prabhu noticed that his students could learn language just as easily with a non-linguistic problem as when they were concentrating on linguistic questions. Major scholars who have done research in this area include Teresa P. Pica and Michael Long. Task-based language learning has its origins in communicative language teaching, and is a subcategory of it. Educators adopted task-based language learning for a variety of reasons. Some moved to task-based syllabus in an attempt to make language in the classroom truly communicative, rather than the pseudo-communication that results from classroom activities with no direct connection to real-life situations. Others, like Prabhu in the Bangalore Project, thought that tasks were a way of tapping into learners' natural mechanisms for second-language acquisition, and weren't concerned with real-life communication per se. Definition of a Task - A task involves a primary focus on (pragmatic) meaning. - A task has some kind of ‘gap’ (Prabhu identified the three main types as information gap, reasoning gap, and opinion gap). - The participants choose the linguistic resources needed to complete the task. - A task has a clearly defined, non-linguistic outcome. The core of the lesson or project is, as the name suggests, the task. Teachers and curriculum developers should bear in mind that any attention to form, i.e. grammar or vocabulary, increases the likelihood that learners may be distracted from the task itself and become preoccupied with detecting and correcting errors and/or looking up language in dictionaries and grammar references. Although there may be several effective frameworks for creating a task-based learning lesson, here is a basic outline: In the pre-task, the teacher will present what will be expected of the students in the task phase. Additionally, in the "weak" form of TBLL, the teacher may prime the students with key vocabulary or grammatical constructs, although this can mean that the activity is, in effect, more similar to the more traditional present-practice-produce (PPP) paradigm. In "strong" task-based learning lessons, learners are responsible for selecting the appropriate language for any given context themselves. The instructors may also present a model of the task by either doing it themselves or by presenting picture, audio, or video demonstrating the task. During the task phase, the students perform the task, typically in small groups, although this is dependent on the type of activity. And unless the teacher plays a particular role in the task, then the teacher's role is typically limited to one of an observer or counsellor—thus the reason for it being a more student-centered methodology. If learners have created tangible linguistic products, e.g. text, montage, presentation, audio or video recording, learners can review each other's work and offer constructive feedback. If a task is set to extend over longer periods of time, e.g. weeks, and includes iterative cycles of constructive activity followed by review, TBLL can be seen as analogous to Project-based learning. Types of task According to N. S. Prabhu, there are three main categories of task; information-gap, reasoning-gap, and opinion-gap. Information-gap activity, which involves a transfer of given information from one person to another – or from one form to another, or from one place to another – generally calling for the decoding or encoding of information from or into language. One example is pair work in which each member of the pair has a part of the total information (for example an incomplete picture) and attempts to convey it verbally to the other. Another example is completing a tabular representation with information available in a given piece of text. The activity often involves selection of relevant information as well, and learners may have to meet criteria of completeness and correctness in making the transfer. Reasoning gap Reasoning-gap activity, which involves deriving some new information from given information through processes of inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or a perception of relationships or patterns. One example is working out a teacher’s timetable on the basis of given class timetables. Another is deciding what course of action is best (for example cheapest or quickest) for a given purpose and within given constraints. The activity necessarily involves comprehending and conveying information, as in information-gap activity, but the information to be conveyed is not identical with that initially comprehended. There is a piece of reasoning which connects the two. Opinion gap Opinion-gap activity, which involves identifying and articulating a personal preference, feeling, or attitude in response to a given situation. One example is story completion; another is taking part in the discussion of a social issue. The activity may involve using factual information and formulating arguments to justify one’s opinion, but there is no objective procedure for demonstrating outcomes as right or wrong, and no reason to expect the same outcome from different individuals or on different occasions. According to Jon Larsson, in considering problem based learning for language learning, i.e. task based language learning: - ...one of the main virtues of PBL is that it displays a significant advantage over traditional methods in how the communicative skills of the students are improved. The general ability of social interaction is also positively affected. These are, most will agree, two central factors in language learning. By building a language course around assignments that require students to act, interact and communicate it is hopefully possible to mimic some of the aspects of learning a language “on site”, i.e. in a country where it is actually spoken. Seeing how learning a language in such an environment is generally much more effective than teaching the language exclusively as a foreign language, this is something that would hopefully be beneficial. Larsson goes on to say: - Another large advantage of PBL is that it encourages students to gain a deeper sense of understanding. Superficial learning is often a problem in language education, for example when students, instead of acquiring a sense of when and how to use which vocabulary, learn all the words they will need for the exam next week and then promptly forget them. - In a PBL classroom this is combatted by always introducing the vocabulary in a real-world situation, rather than as words on a list, and by activating the student; students are not passive receivers of knowledge, but are instead required to actively acquire the knowledge. The feeling of being an integral part of their group also motivates students to learn in a way that the prospect of a final examination rarely manages to do. Task-based learning is advantageous to the student because it is more student-centered, allows for more meaningful communication, and often provides for practical extra-linguistic skill building. As the tasks are likely to be familiar to the students (e.g.: visiting the doctor), students are more likely to be engaged, which may further motivate them in their language learning.[according to whom?] According to Jeremy Harmer, tasks promote language acquisition through the types of language and interaction they require. Harmer says that although the teacher may present language in the pre-task, the students are ultimately free to use what grammar constructs and vocabulary they want. This allows them, he says, to use all the language they know and are learning, rather than just the 'target language' of the lesson. On the other hand, according to Loschky and Bley-Vroman, tasks can also be designed to make certain target forms 'task-essential,' thus making it communicatively necessary for students to practice using them. In terms of interaction, information gap tasks in particular have been shown[by whom?] to promote negotiation of meaning and output modification. According to Plews and Zhao, task-based language learning can suffer in practice from poorly informed implementation and adaptations that alter its fundamental nature. They say that lessons are frequently changed to be more like traditional teacher-led presentation-practice-production lessons than task-based lessons. Professional conferences and organizations As an outgrowth of the widespread interest in task-based teaching, the Biennial International Conference on Task-Based Language Teaching has occurred every other year since 2005. Past conferences have been held in Belgium, the United States, England, New Zealand, Canada, with the 2017 conference scheduled to take place in Barcelona, Spain. These events promote theoretical and practical research on TBLT. In addition, the Japan Association for Language Teaching has a special interest group devoted to task-based learning, which has also hosted its own conference in Japan. Related approaches to language teaching - Problem Based Learning is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject in the context of complex, multifaceted, and realistic problems. - Content-based instruction incorporates authentic materials and tasks to drive language instruction. - Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) is an approach for learning content through an additional language (foreign or second), thus teaching both the subject and the language. The idea of its proponents was to create an "umbrella term" which encompasses different forms of using language as medium of instruction. - Communicative language teaching - Content-based instruction - Content and language integrated learning - English as a second or foreign language - Input hypothesis - Problem-based learning - Project-based learning - Second-language acquisition - Harmer 2001, p. 86. - Leaver & Willis 2004, pp. 7–8. - Ellis 2003. - Frost unknown. - Larsson 2001. - Prabhu 1987. - Harmer 2001, pp. 79-80. - Loschky & Bley-Vroman 1993. - Doughty & Pica 1986. - Pica, Kang & Sauro 2006. - Plews & Zhao 2010. - "Content and language integrated learning". European Commission. Retrieved 26 January 2013. - Doughty, Catherine; Pica, Teresa (1986). ""Information Gap" Tasks: Do They Facilitate Second Language Acquisition?". TESOL Quarterly 20 (2): 305–325. doi:10.2307/3586546. - Ellis, Rod (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford, New York: Oxford Applied Linguistics. ISBN 0-19-442159-7. - Frost, Richard. "A Task-based Approach". British Council Teaching English. Retrieved September 21, 2015. - Harmer, Jeremy (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching (3rd ed.). Essex: Pearson Education. - Larsson, Jon (2001). "Problem-Based Learning: A possible approach to language education?" (PDF). Polonia Institute, Jagiellonian University. Retrieved 27 January 2013. - Leaver, Betty Lou; Willis, Jane Rosemary (2004). Task-Based Instruction In Foreign Language Education: Practices and Programs. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-58901-028-4. - Loschky, L.; Bley-Vroman, R. (1993). "Grammar and Task-Based Methodology". In Crookes, G.; Gass, S. Tasks and Language Learning: Integrating Theory and Practice. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters. ISBN 978-058524356-6. - Pica, Teresa; Kang, Hyun-Sook; Sauro, Shannon (2006). "Information gap tasks: Their multiple roles and contributions to interaction research methodology". Studies in Second Language Acquisition 28: 301–338. doi:10.1017/s027226310606013x. - Plews, John L.; Zhao, Kangxian (2010). "Tinkering with tasks knows no bounds: ESL Teachers’ Adaptations of Task-Based Language-Teaching". TESL Canada Journal. Retrieved 26 January 2013. - Prabhu, N. S. (1987). "Second Language Pedagogy". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 18 January 2013. - Willis, Jane (1996). A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Longman.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task-based_language_learning

You Are Here What Makes a Creed Adapted from the Tapestry of Faith story "James Luther Adams," by Jessica York. Present the story Introduction and Part I, reading aloud up to the point marked "STOP." Then, lead a role play and discussion as instructed in Alternate Activity 3, Description of Activity. Following the discussion, read the conclusion of the story (Part II) aloud. Unitarian Universalism is a living faith. We think that people should be free to believe what they must believe—the truth of their life experiences—instead of professing belief in what they are told to believe. This is what we mean when we say ours is a "creedless" religion. Creeds are often associated with "orthodoxy," or "straight teaching." Those who do not agree with the beliefs stated in the creed are often labeled as "heterodoxical," or even "heretical." Being a living faith means that any one of us can change what we believe, if we experience a deeper truth that contradicts our previous beliefs. But in order to change, we must be open to new thoughts, new ideas, and new experiences. We have to have our ears open to hear the experiences of the people with whom we share community. There is a saying that people were created with two ears and one mouth because we should listen twice as much as we speak. When we come together in community, we have the opportunity to listen to each other and gain a perspective greater than what we would have alone. Sometimes we listen with our ears. When you are a part of a sacred, beloved community you listen not only with your ears, but also with your heart. In 1948, most congregations and houses of worship in the United States were segregated by the color of their members' skin. Some were segregated by law; others by custom or by a lack of actively trying to welcome and include all people. The First Unitarian Society of Chicago was one of these congregations. Although their church was located in a neighborhood with many African Americans, only whites could join, according to the written bylaws of the church, and according to custom. The day came that many members began to believe that if they really wanted to live their values and principles, they needed to take action against racism. The minister, the Reverend Leslie Pennington, was ready for this day and ready to take action. So was James Luther Adams, a well-known and respected liberal theologian and social ethicist. Adams taught at the Meadville Lombard Theological School, right across the street from the First Unitarian Society of Chicago. And he was a member of the congregation's Board of Directors. Reverend Pennington and James Luther Adams joined with others to propose a change in the church's bylaws to desegregate the church. They saw this as a way to put their love into action. But in 1948, desegregation—in fact, anything about skin color and racism—was controversial. Some people, even some of those who supported African Americans in demanding their civil liberties, believed in a separate, but equal policy. When the congregation's Board considered the desegregation proposal, most of them supported it. However, one member of the Board objected. "Your new program is making desegregation into a creed," he said. "You are asking everyone in our church to say they believe desegregating, or inviting, even recruiting people of color to attend church here, is a good way to tackle racism. What if some members don't believe this?" Respectful debate ensued at the First Unitarian Society of Chicago. Both sides felt, in their hearts, that their belief was right. Perhaps they were so busy trying to be heard they forgot to listen. And so, they kept on talking. (Facilitator: Stop here. If you choose to, stage a role play of the preceding part of the story, as described in Alternate Activity 3, What Makes a Creed?) The debate went on in the Board of Directors' meeting until the early hours of the morning. Everyone was exhausted and frustrated. Finally, James Luther Adams remembered that we should be listening twice as much as talking. He asked the person who had voiced the strongest objection, "What do you say is the purpose of this church?" Suddenly, everyone was listening. Everyone wanted to hear the answer to this crucial question. Probably, the person who objected was listening especially hard to his own heart, as well as to the words he had heard from other Board members through the long discussion. The Board member who opposed opening the church to people of color finally replied. "Okay, Jim. The purpose of this church is to get hold of people like me and change them." The First Unitarian Society of Chicago successfully desegregated.

https://www.uua.org/re/tapestry/adults/river/workshop2/creed

* This is the Consumer Version. * Aspergillosis is infection, usually of the lungs, caused by the fungus Aspergillus. A ball of fungus fibers, blood clots, and white blood cells may form in the lungs or sinuses. People may have no symptoms or may cough up blood or have a fever, chest pain, and difficulty breathing. If fungi spread to the liver or kidneys, these organs may malfunction. Diagnosis usually involves an x-ray or computed tomography and, if possible, culture of a sample of infected material. Antifungal drugs are used, and sometimes surgery is needed to remove the fungi. Aspergilli are very common in the environment—indoors and out—and frequently occur in compost heaps, air vents, and airborne dust. These fungi are thus unavoidable. Usually, aspergillosis is caused by inhaling Aspergillus spores. Most people inhale these spores every day without being affected. But if the immune system is weak, infection is more likely—because aspergillosis is an opportunistic fungal infection (one that takes advantage of a weakened immune system). The immune system may be weakened by disorders that affect the immune system (including some hereditary disorders), by cancer, or by drugs such as corticosteroids (if high doses are taken for a long time), cancer chemotherapy, or drugs used to prevent an organ transplant from being rejected. Aspergillosis has several forms: Pulmonary aspergilloma: Aspergillosis usually develops in open spaces in the body, such as cavities in the lungs caused by preexisting lung disorders. The infection may also develop in the ear canals and sinuses. In the sinuses and lungs, aspergillosis typically develops as a ball (aspergilloma) composed of a tangled mass of fungus fibers, blood clots, and white blood cells. The ball gradually enlarges, destroying lung tissue in the process, but usually does not spread to other areas. Invasive aspergillosis: Less often, aspergillosis becomes very aggressive and rapidly spreads throughout the lungs and often through the bloodstream to the brain, heart, liver, and kidneys. This rapid spread occurs mainly in people with a very weakened immune system. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis: Some people who have asthma or cystic fibrosis develop a chronic allergic reaction with cough, wheezing, and fever if Aspergillus colonizes the lining of their airways. A fungus ball in the lungs may cause no symptoms and may be discovered only when a chest x-ray is taken for other reasons. Or it may cause repeated coughing up of blood and, rarely, severe, even fatal bleeding. A rapidly invasive infection in the lungs often causes cough, fever, chest pain, and difficulty breathing. Without treatment, this form of invasive aspergillosis is fatal. Aspergillosis that spreads to other organs makes people very ill. Symptoms include fever, chills, shock, delirium, and blood clots. Kidney failure, liver failure (causing jaundice), and breathing difficulties may develop. Death can occur quickly. Aspergillosis of the ear canal causes itching and occasionally pain. Fluid draining overnight from the ear may leave a stain on the pillow. Aspergillosis of the sinuses causes a feeling of congestion and sometimes pain or discharge or bleeding from the nose. Doctors suspect the diagnosis based on symptoms. An x-ray or computed tomography (CT) of the infected area also provides clues for making the diagnosis. To identify the fungus, doctors usually need to send a sample of infected material to a laboratory to grow (culture), examine, and analyze. A viewing tube (bronchoscope or rhinoscope) may be used to obtain this material from the lungs or sinuses. Aspergillosis that affects only a sinus or a single area in the lung requires treatment but does not pose an immediate danger because it progresses slowly. However, if the infection is widespread or if people appear seriously ill or have a weakened immune system, treatment is started immediately. Invasive aspergillosis is treated with antifungal drugs, such as voriconazole, isavuconazole, or sometimes posaconazole or itraconazole. However, some forms of Aspergillus do not respond to these drugs and may need to be treated with amphotericin B or with a combination of other drugs. Aspergillosis in the ear canal is treated by scraping out the fungus and applying drops of antifungal drugs. Collections of fungi in the sinuses must usually be removed surgically. Fungus balls in the lungs do not require treatment with drugs and do not usually respond to drugs. However, if these balls cause bleeding (causing people to cough up blood) or other symptoms, antifungal drugs may help lessen symptoms. Fungus balls may need to be removed surgically. Surgery cures the infection but is often risky because many of these people often have other disorders. Generic NameSelect Brand Names * This is the Consumer Version. *

http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/fungal-infections/aspergillosis

Nonverbal Communication Teacher Resources Find Nonverbal Communication educational ideas and activities Showing 1 - 20 of 129 resources Shakespeare: Nonverbal and Verbal Communication Define nonverbal communication and view "The Shakespeare Sessions" for examples of nonverbal communication. Groups read through the dialogue of a scene and assign appropriate gestures, movements, and mannerisms to events and characters.... 7th - 12th English Language Arts Communication – The Total Impact of Your Message Students explore the facets of verbal and nonverbal communication. In this conflict resolution instructional activity, students discover multicultural communication dynamics as they discuss the implications of gesture and tone. Students... 3rd - 12th Social Studies & History Verbal Versus Nonverbal Communication Young scholars create a multimedia presentation. They will complete a verbal versus non-verbal communication chart to create a multimedia presentation which will include the different types of communication strategies. Then answer a... 6th - 9th English Language Arts The 2010 immigration bill passed in Arizona provides class members with an opportunity to examine various perspectives of the immigration debate by watching news videos, reading interview, editorials, and viewing images. Discussion... 7th - 12th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Self-Control Meters for Volume, Space and Levels of Formality If your pupils have difficulty producing the appropriate voice volume in various settings or respecting personal space, refer to this "control-o-meter" device. This resource includes materials to create three meters for you to clearly... K - 12th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Lecture 6 - Oral Interpretation - Verse Students discuss how oral interpretation varies with prose and poetry. They select a piece of prose or poetry to present to the class, and then assess each other on the organization and delivery of their speech as well as on their... 6th - 12th English Language Arts 101 Ways to Teach Children Social Skills Increasing pressure to improve student achievement has made it easy to overlook the social skills they also need to develop. With this collection of worksheets and activities, you'll be able to improve children's communication, teamwork,... K - 6th 21st Century Skills CCSS: Adaptable Conversation Visual Prompts Help learners understand the importance and proper placement of non-verbal communication using these visual prompts. This set includes graphics to remind students to listen (ear), keep personal space (ruler), use the right facial... K - 12th Special Education & Programs CCSS: Adaptable Languages as Reflection of Cultures and Civilizations: French Speaking Countries Expand your class's vision of the French-speaking world by conducting this research project. Pupils focus on building 21st century skills while they look up information about a French country and put together presentations 7th - 12th Social Studies & History CCSS: Designed Youth Obesity: Schools Fight Back Explore nutrition and healthy eating habits through this study on youth obesity. Learners watch a PBS documentary on this epidemic which discusses government programs aimed at healthier choices as well as more localized efforts. They... 9th - 12th Health CCSS: Designed On the Court with... Michael Jordan Pupils learn foundational economic concepts and consider the importance of decision-making, how to evaluate choices and alternatives, and the benefits of consistent training and practice by learning about the early life of Michael Jordan. 5th - 7th Social Studies & History CCSS: Adaptable

http://www.lessonplanet.com/lesson-plans/nonverbal-communication

This statement provides a brief overview of how and why global climate has changed over the past century and will continue to change in the future. It is based on the peer-reviewed scientific literature and is consistent with the vast weight of current scientific understanding as expressed in assessments and reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, and the U.S. Global Change Research Program. Although the statement has been drafted in the context of concerns in the United States, the underlying issues are inherently global in nature. How is climate changing? Warming of the climate system now is unequivocal, according to many different kinds of evidence. Observations show increases in globally averaged air and ocean temperatures, as well as widespread melting of snow and ice and rising globally averaged sea level. Surface temperature data for Earth as a whole, including readings over both land and ocean, show an increase of about 0.8°C (1.4°F) over the period 1901─2010 and about 0.5°C (0.9°F) over the period 1979–2010 (the era for which satellite-based temperature data are routinely available). Due to natural variability, not every year is warmer than the preceding year globally. Nevertheless, all of the 10 warmest years in the global temperature records up to 2011 have occurred since 1997, with 2005 and 2010 being the warmest two years in more than a century of global records. The warming trend is greatest in northern high latitudes and over land. In the U.S., most of the observed warming has occurred in the West and in Alaska; for the nation as a whole, there have been twice as many record daily high temperatures as record daily low temperatures in the first decade of the 21st century. The effects of this warming are especially evident in the planet’s polar regions. Arctic sea ice extent and volume have been decreasing for the past several decades. Both the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have lost significant amounts of ice. Most of the world’s glaciers are in retreat. Other changes, globally and in the U.S., are also occurring at the same time. The amount of rain falling in very heavy precipitation events (the heaviest 1% of all precipitation events) has increased over the last 50 years throughout the U.S. Freezing levels are rising in elevation, with rain occurring more frequently instead of snow at mid-elevations of western mountains. Spring maximum snowpack is decreasing, snowmelt occurs earlier, and the spring runoff that supplies over two-thirds of western U.S. streamflow is reduced. Evidence for warming is also observed in seasonal changes across many areas, including earlier springs, longer frost-free periods, longer growing seasons, and shifts in natural habitats and in migratory patterns of birds and insects. Globally averaged sea level has risen by about 17 cm (7 inches) in the 20th century, with the rise accelerating since the early 1990s. Close to half of the sea level rise observed since the 1970s has been caused by water expansion due to increases in ocean temperatures. Sea level is also rising due to melting from continental glaciers and from ice sheets on both Greenland and Antarctica. Locally, sea level changes can depend also on other factors such as slowly rising or falling land, which results in some local sea level changes much larger or smaller than the global average. Even small rises in sea level in coastal zones are expected to lead to potentially severe impacts, especially in small island nations and in other regions that experience storm surges associated with vigorous weather systems. Why is climate changing? Climate is always changing. However, many of the observed changes noted above are beyond what can be explained by the natural variability of the climate. It is clear from extensive scientific evidence that the dominant cause of the rapid change in climate of the past half century is human-induced increases in the amount of atmospheric greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2), chlorofluorocarbons, methane, and nitrous oxide. The most important of these over the long term is CO2, whose concentration in the atmosphere is rising principally as a result of fossil-fuel combustion and deforestation. While large amounts of CO2 enter and leave the atmosphere through natural processes, these human activities are increasing the total amount in the air and the oceans. Approximately half of the CO2 put into the atmosphere through human activity in the past 250 years has been taken up by the ocean and terrestrial biosphere, with the other half remaining in the atmosphere. Since long-term measurements began in the 1950s, the atmospheric CO2 concentration has been increasing at a rate much faster than at any time in the last 800,000 years. Having been introduced into the atmosphere it will take a thousand years for the majority of the added atmospheric CO2 to be removed by natural processes, and some will remain for thousands of subsequent years. Water vapor also is an important atmospheric greenhouse gas. Unlike other greenhouse gases, however, the concentration of water vapor depends on atmospheric temperature and is controlled by the global climate system through its hydrological cycle of evaporation-condensation-precipitation. Water vapor is highly variable in space and time with a short lifetime, because of weather variability. Observations indicate an increase in globally averaged water vapor in the atmosphere in recent decades, at a rate consistent with the response produced by climate models that simulate human-induced increases in greenhouse gases. This increase in water vapor also strengthens the greenhouse effect, amplifying the impact of human-induced increases in other greenhouse gases. Human activity also affects climate through changes in the number and physical properties of tiny solid particles and liquid droplets in the atmosphere, known collectively as atmospheric aerosols. Examples of aerosols include dust, sea salt, and sulfates from air pollution. Aerosols have a variety of climate effects. They absorb and redirect solar energy from the sun and thermal energy emitted by Earth, emit energy themselves, and modify the ability of clouds to reflect sunlight and to produce precipitation. Aerosols can both strengthen and weaken greenhouse warming, depending on their characteristics. Most aerosols originating from human activity act to cool the planet and so partly counteract greenhouse gas warming effects. Aerosols lofted into the stratosphere [between about 13 km (8 miles) and 50 km (30 miles) altitude above the surface] by occasional large sulfur-rich volcanic eruptions can reduce global surface temperature for several years. By contrast, carbon soot from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels warms the planet, so that decreases in soot would reduce warming. Aerosols have lifetimes in the troposphere [at altitudes up to approximately 13 km (8 miles) from the surface in the middle latitudes] on the order of one week, much shorter than that of most greenhouse gases, and their prevalence and properties can vary widely by region. Land surface changes can also affect the surface exchanges of water and energy with the atmosphere. Humans alter land surface characteristics by carrying out irrigation, removing and introducing forests, changing vegetative land cover through agriculture, and building cities and reservoirs. These changes can have significant effects on local-to-regional climate patterns, which adds up to a small impact on the global energy balance as well. How can climate change be projected into the future? Factors that have altered climate throughout history, both human (such as human emission of greenhouse gases) and natural (such as variation of the Sun’s energy emission, the Earth’s orbit about the Sun, and volcanic eruptions), will continue to alter climate in the future. Climate projections for decades into the future are made using complex numerical models of the climate system that account for changes in the flow of energy into and out of the Earth system on time scales much longer than the predictability limit (of about two weeks) for individual weather systems. The difference between weather and climate is critically important in considering predictability. Climate is potentially predictable for much longer time scales than weather for several reasons. One reason is that climate can be meaningfully characterized by seasonal-to-decadal averages and other statistical measures, and the averaged weather is more predictable than individual weather events. A helpful analogy in this regard is that population averages of human mortality are predictable while life spans of individuals are not. A second reason is that climate involves physical systems and processes with long time scales, including the oceans and snow and ice, while weather largely involves atmospheric phenomena (e.g., thunderstorms, intense snow storms) with short time scales. A third reason is that climate can be affected by slowly changing factors such as human-induced changes in the chemical composition of the atmosphere, which alter the natural greenhouse effect. Climate models simulate the important aspects of climate and climate change based on fundamental physical laws of motion, thermodynamics, and radiative transfer. These models report on how climate would change in response to several specific “scenarios” for future greenhouse gas emission possibilities. Future climate change projections have uncertainties that occur for several reasons — because of differences among models, because long-term predictions of natural variations (e.g., volcanic eruptions and El Niño events) are not possible, and because it is not known exactly how greenhouse gas emissions will evolve in future decades. Future emissions will depend on global social and economic development, and on the extent and impact of activities designed to reduce greenhouse gas and black carbon emissions. Changes in the means and extremes of temperature and precipitation in response to increasing greenhouse gases can be projected over decades to centuries into the future, even though the timing of individual weather events cannot be predicted on this time scale. Because it would take many years for observations to verify whether a future climate projection is correct, researchers establish confidence in these projections by using historical and paleoclimate evidence and through careful study of observations of the causal chain between energy flow changes and climate-pattern responses. A valuable demonstration of the validity of current climate models is that when they include all known natural and human-induced factors that influence the global atmosphere on a large scale, the models reproduce many important aspects of observed changes of the 20th-century climate, including (1) global, continental, and subcontinental mean and extreme temperatures, (2) Arctic sea ice extent, (3) the latitudinal distribution of precipitation, and (4) extreme precipitation frequency. Model limitations include inadequate representations of some important processes and details. For example, a typical climate model does not yet treat fully the complex dynamical, radiative, and microphysical processes involved in the evolution of a cloud or the spatially variable nature of soil moisture, or the atmospheric interactions with the biosphere. Nevertheless, in spite of these limitations, climate models have demonstrated skill in reproducing past climates, and they agree on the broad direction of future climate. How is the climate expected to change in the future? Future warming of the climate is inevitable for many years due to the greenhouse gases already added to the atmosphere and the heat that has been taken up by the oceans. Amelioration might be possible through devising and implementing environmentally responsible geoengineering approaches, such as capture and storage measures to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. However, the potential risks of geoengineering may be quite large, and more study of the topic (including other environmental consequences) is needed. The subject of geoengineering is outside the scope of this statement (for more information see AMS Statement on Geoengineering). In general, many of the climate-system trends observed in recent decades are projected to continue. Those projections, and others in this section, are largely based on simulations conducted with climate models, and assume that the amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere will continue to increase due to human activity. Global efforts to slow greenhouse gas emissions have been unsuccessful so far. However, were future technologies and policies able to achieve a rapid reduction of greenhouse gas emissions — an approach termed “mitigation” — this would greatly lessen future global warming and its impacts. Confidence in the projections is higher for temperature than for other climate elements such as precipitation, and higher at the global and continental scales than for the regional and local scales. The model projections show that the largest warming will occur in northern polar regions, over land areas, and in the winter season, consistent with observed trends. In the 21st century, global sea level also will continue to rise although the rise will not be uniform at all locations. With its large mass and high capacity for heat storage, the ocean will continue to slowly warm and thus thermally expand for several centuries. Model simulations project about 27 cm (10 inches) to 71 cm (28 inches) of global sea level rise due to thermal expansion and melting of ice in the 21st century. Moreover, paleoclimatic observations and ice-sheet modeling indicate that melting of the Greenland and the West Antarctic ice sheets will eventually cause global sea level to rise several additional meters by 2500 if warming continues at its present rate beyond the 21st century. Atmospheric water content will increase globally, consistent with warmer temperatures, and consequently the global hydrological cycle will continue to accelerate. For many areas, model simulations suggest there will be a tendency towards more intense rain and snow events separated by longer periods without precipitation. However, changes in precipitation patterns are expected to differ considerably by region and by season. In some regions, the accelerated hydrological cycle will likely reinforce existing patterns of precipitation, leading to more severe droughts and floods. Further poleward, the greater warming at high latitudes and over land likely will change the large-scale atmospheric circulation, leading to significant regional shifts in precipitation patterns. For example, the model simulations suggest that precipitation will increase in the far northern parts of North America, and decrease in the southwest and south-central United States where more droughts will occur. Climate-model simulations further project that heavy precipitation events will continue to become more intense and frequent, leading to increased precipitation totals from the strongest storms. This projection has important implications for water-resource management and flood control. The simulations also indicate the likelihood of longer dry spells between precipitation events in the subtropics and lower-middle latitudes, with shorter dry spells projected for higher latitudes where mean precipitation is expected to increase. Continued warming also implies a reduction of winter snow accumulations in favor of rain in many places, and thus a reduced spring snowpack. Rivers now fed by snowmelt will experience earlier spring peaks and reduced warm-season flows. Widespread retreat of mountain glaciers is expected to eventually lead to reduced dry season flows for glacier-fed rivers. Drought is projected to increase over Africa, Europe, and much of the North American continental interior, and particularly the southwest United States. However, natural variations in world ocean conditions at decadal scale, such as those in the North Pacific and North Atlantic basins, could offset or enhance such changes in the next few decades. For the longer term, paleoclimatic observations suggest that droughts lasting decades are possible and that these prolonged droughts could occur with little warning. Weather patterns will continue to vary from day to day and from season to season, but the frequency of particular patterns and extreme weather and climate events may change as a result of global warming. Model simulations project an increased proportion of global hurricanes that are in the strongest categories, namely 4 and 5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale, although the total counts of hurricanes may not change or may even decrease. Some regional variations in these trends are possible. Simulations also indicate that midlatitude storm tracks will shift poleward. Interannual variations of important large-scale climate conditions (such as El Niño and La Niña) will also continue to occur, but there may be changes in their intensity, frequency, and other characteristics, resulting in different responses by the atmosphere. Heat waves and cold snaps and their associated weather conditions will continue to occur, but proportionately more extreme warm periods and fewer cold periods are expected. Indeed, what many people traditionally consider a cold wave is already changing toward less severe conditions. Frost days (those with minimum temperature below freezing) will be fewer and growing seasons longer. Drier conditions in summer, such as those anticipated for the southern United States and southern Europe, are expected to contribute to more severe episodes of extreme heat. Critical thresholds of daily maximum temperature, above which ecosystems and crop systems (e.g., food crops such as rice, corn, and wheat) suffer increasingly severe damage, are likely to be exceeded more frequently. The Earth system is highly interconnected and complex, with many processes and feedbacks that only slowly are becoming understood. In particular, the carbon cycle remains a large source of uncertainty for the projection of future climate. It is unclear if the land biosphere and oceans will be able to continue taking up carbon at their current rate into the future. One unknown is whether soil and vegetation will become a global source rather than a sink of carbon as the planet warms. Another unknown is the amount of methane that will be released due to high-latitude warming. There are indications that large regions of the permafrost in parts of Alaska and other northern polar areas are already thawing, with the potential to release massive amounts of carbon into the atmosphere beyond those being directly added by human activity. The portion of the increased CO2 release that is absorbed by the world ocean is making the ocean more acidic, with negative implications for shell- and skeleton-forming organisms and more generally for ocean ecosystems. These processes are only now being quantified by observation and introduced into climate models, and more research is required to fully understand their potential impacts. As impacts of climate change are of regional and local nature, more research is also required to improve climate projections at local and regional scales, and for weather and climate extremes in particular. There is unequivocal evidence that Earth’s lower atmosphere, ocean, and land surface are warming; sea level is rising; and snow cover, mountain glaciers, and Arctic sea ice are shrinking. The dominant cause of the warming since the 1950s is human activities. This scientific finding is based on a large and persuasive body of research. The observed warming will be irreversible for many years into the future, and even larger temperature increases will occur as greenhouse gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere. Avoiding this future warming will require a large and rapid reduction in global greenhouse gas emissions. The ongoing warming will increase risks and stresses to human societies, economies, ecosystems, and wildlife through the 21st century and beyond, making it imperative that society respond to a changing climate. To inform decisions on adaptation and mitigation, it is critical that we improve our understanding of the global climate system and our ability to project future climate through continued and improved monitoring and research. This is especially true for smaller (seasonal and regional) scales and weather and climate extremes, and for important hydroclimatic variables such as precipitation and water availability. Technological, economic, and policy choices in the near future will determine the extent of future impacts of climate change. Science-based decisions are seldom made in a context of absolute certainty. National and international policy discussions should include consideration of the best ways to both adapt to and mitigate climate change. Mitigation will reduce the amount of future climate change and the risk of impacts that are potentially large and dangerous. At the same time, some continued climate change is inevitable, and policy responses should include adaptation to climate change. Prudence dictates extreme care in accounting for our relationship with the only planet known to be capable of sustaining human life. [This statement is considered in force until August 2017 unless superseded by a new statement issued by the AMS Council before this date.]

http://www.celsias.com/article/american-meteorological-society-warming-climate-sy/

Alphabet Letter A Aquarium Preschool Lesson Plan Printable Activities and Worksheets > Letter A > A is for Aquarium Animals > Ocean | Aquatic > Pets | Fish > Aquarium Crafts > Aquarium Here are printable materials and some suggestions to present letter A. Review the themes column for related activities and topics. This is Activity Day #3 of Letter A Impact Poster Lesson Plan Animals > Ocean | Aquatic Animals > Pets > Aquarium An aquarium can be defined two ways. 1. A tank or other container (fish bowl) filled with water in which water animals and plants are kept. This container is also called a fish tank. 2. A building where water (aquatic) animals are kept, displayed and studied. An aquarium can be within a public aquarium, a marine park or zoo. Alphabet Activities > Letter A is for Aquarium Children Age 3 and under: * Print a letter A coloring page in standard block or D'Nealian font and an aquarium coloring image 1 or 2 behind it or on a separate page if using paints to decorate later. Discuss other letter A words found on the worksheet. * Finger Tracing: Trace letter A's in upper and lower case with your finger as you also sound out the letter. Invite the children to do the same on their coloring page. * Children can trace and color the letter A's. After completing coloring the letter, encourage children to color and decorate the aquarium. Write the word aquarium on the finished coloring page. Children Ages 3+ to 6: Alphabet - beginning letter A sound (short sound) Present the Letter A Activity Worksheet and Mini Book program. Read suggested instructions for using the worksheet and mini-book. * Letter A words: This page and matching mini-book can be used as part of Letter A program of activities to reinforce letter practice and to identify related A words. * Finger and Pencil Tracing: Trace letter A's in upper and lower case with your finger as you also sound out the letter. Invite the children to do the same on their worksheet. Encourage the children to trace the dotted letter with your choice of sharpened crayon, fine tip marker, coloring or regular pencil and demonstrate the direction of the arrows and numbers that help them trace the letter correctly. During the demonstration, you may want to count out loud as you trace so children become aware of how the number order aids them in the writing process. * Find the letter A's: Have the children find all the letter A's in upper and lower case on the page and encourage them to circle or trace/shade them first. Visit each child to make sure they have identified the letter A's and then discuss the locations with the poster. * Discuss other letter A words and images: First 'brainstorm' and ask the children about other words that have that beginning sound and write them on a board (dry erase board) as the children come up with example. You can print letter A in a different bright color to make it stand out. If you have illustrated alphabet books you can also use images in them. You can also display other A posters and coloring pages or even make a letter A classroom book using coloring images or color posters. Visit Letter A Alphabet Printable Materials to make your choice. Letter A Word Search Game & Handwriting Practice The four and eight word search game features an aquarium (fish tank) and letter A words with pictures and handwriting practice. Advanced Handwriting Practice: 1. Print your choice of printable lined-paper. Have children draw an an aquarium scene behind the lined paper or print an an aquarium coloring page 1 or 2 to color and decorate after writing practice. 2. Drawing and writing paper: The upper drawing box represents the aquarium. a. Method 1: Step 1 > Print the page to light blue paper. Step 2 > Encourage children to draw and color aquatic animals and plants over the blue background or provide stickers. Practice writing letter A a. b. Method 2: Step 1 > Have children color inside of the frame blue to represent the water. Follow step 2 above. Aquarium Theme Activities and Crafts > Visit these two aquarium theme lesson plans. Activity #1: Aquarium Craft: The Bottom of the Sea Activity #2: Five Fish in a Bowl (aquarium or fish bowl) |To view updates to these activities visit: http://www.first-school.ws/activities/alpha/a/aquarium.htm|

http://www.first-school.ws/activities/alpha/a/aquarium.htm

External Web sites Britannica Web sites Articles from Britannica encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. - Townshend Acts - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11) The Townshend Acts were four laws, passed by the British Parliament in 1767, that angered colonists in North America. Because the colonists were not represented in Parliament, they thought the passage of the acts was unfair. Like the Stamp Act and the Intolerable Acts, the Townshend Acts helped lead to the American Revolution. - Townshend Acts - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) From June 15 to July 2, 1767, the British Parliament issued a series of resolutions called the Townshend Acts to generate revenue in the colonies. Military expenses and territorial gains from its victory in the French and Indian War (1754-63) left the British government in the American colonies with immense debts.

http://www.britannica.com/event/Townshend-Acts/article-websites

A beta particle, sometimes called beta ray, denoted by the lower-case Greek letter beta (β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted in the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus, such as a potassium-40 nucleus, in the process of beta decay. Two forms of beta decay, β− and β+, respectively produce electrons and positrons. Beta particles are a type of ionizing radiation. β− decay (electron emission) - n → p + e− + ν This process is mediated by the weak interaction. The neutron turns into a proton through the emission of a virtual W− boson. At the quark level, W− emission turns a down quark into an up quark, turning a neutron (one up quark and two down quarks) into a proton (two up quarks and one down quark). The virtual W− boson then decays into an electron and an antineutrino. Beta decay commonly occurs among the neutron-rich fission byproducts produced in nuclear reactors. Free neutrons also decay via this process. Both of these processes contribute to the copious numbers of beta rays and electron antineutrinos produced by fission-reactor fuel rods. β+ decay (positron emission) Unstable atomic nuclei with an excess of protons may undergo β+ decay, also called positron decay, where a proton is converted into a neutron, a positron, and an electron neutrino: - p → n + e+ + ν Beta-plus decay can only happen inside nuclei when the absolute value of the binding energy of the daughter nucleus is greater than that of the mother nucleus, i.e., the daughter nucleus is a lower-energy state. Interaction with other matter Of the three common types of radiation given off by radioactive materials, alpha, beta and gamma, beta has the medium penetrating power and the medium ionising power. Although the beta particles given off by different radioactive materials vary in energy, most beta particles can be stopped by a few millimeters of aluminium. Being composed of charged particles, beta radiation is more strongly ionizing than gamma radiation. When passing through matter, a beta particle is decelerated by electromagnetic interactions and may give off bremsstrahlung x-rays. In water, beta radiation from many nuclear fission products typically exceeds the speed of light in that material (which is 75% that of light in vacuum), and thus generates blue Cherenkov radiation when it passes through water. The intense beta radiation from the fuel rods of pool-type reactors can thus be visualized through the transparent water that covers and shields the reactor (see illustration at right). Detection and measurement The ionizing or excitation effects of beta particles on matter are the fundamental processes by which radiometric detection instruments detect and measure beta radiation. The ionization of gas is used in ion chambers and Geiger-Muller counters, and the excitation of scintillators is used in scintillation counters. Beta particles are also used in quality control to test the thickness of an item, such as paper, coming through a system of rollers. Some of the beta radiation is absorbed while passing through the product. If the product is made too thick or thin, a correspondingly different amount of radiation will be absorbed. A computer program monitoring the quality of the manufactured paper will then move the rollers to change the thickness of the final product. An illumination device called a betalight contains tritium and a phosphor. As tritium decays, it emits beta particles; these strike the phosphor, causing the phosphor to give off photons, much like the cathode ray tube in a television. The illumination requires no external power, and will continue as long as the tritium exists (and the phosphors do not themselves chemically change); the amount of light produced will drop to half its original value in 12.32 years, the half-life of tritium. Henri Becquerel, while experimenting with fluorescence, accidentally found out that uranium exposed a photographic plate, wrapped with black paper, with some unknown radiation that could not be turned off like X-rays. Ernest Rutherford continued these experiments and discovered two different kinds of radiation: - alpha particles that did not show up on the Becquerel plates because they were easily absorbed by the black wrapping paper - beta particles which are 100 times more penetrating than alpha particles. He published his results in 1899. In 1900, Becquerel measured the mass-to-charge ratio (m/e) for beta particles by the method of J.J. Thomson used to study cathode rays and identify the electron. He found that e/m for a beta particle is the same as for Thomson’s electron, and therefore suggested that the beta particle is in fact an electron. Beta particles are able to penetrate living matter to a certain extent and can change the structure of struck molecules. In most cases, such change can be considered to be damage, with results possibly as severe as cancer or death. If the struck molecule is DNA, it can cause spontaneous mutation. Beta sources can be used in radiation therapy to kill cancer cells. - Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (9 August 2000). "Beta Decay". Nuclear Wall Chart. United States Department of Energy. Retrieved 17 January 2016. - The macroscopic speed of light in water is 75% of the speed of light in a vacuum (called "c"). The beta particle is moving faster than 0.75 c, but not faster than c. - E. Rutherford (8 May 2009) [Paper published by Rutherford in 1899]. "Uranium radiation and the electrical conduction produced by it". Philosophical Magazine 47 (284): 109–163. doi:10.1080/14786449908621245. - Radioactivity and alpha, beta, gamma and Xrays - Rays and Particles University of Virginia Lecture Notes - History of Radiation at Idaho State University - Betavoltic Battery: Scientists Invent 30 Year Continuous Power Laptop Battery at NextEnergyNews.com - Radioactive laptops? Perhaps not... at the Wayback Machine - Basic Nuclear Science Information at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_particle

New England Confederation, union for "mutual safety and welfare" formed in 1643 by representatives of the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. They met in Boston and adopted a written constitution binding the colonies in a league as "The United Colonies of New England." The chief purpose of the league was coordination of defense and the settlement of boundary disputes; the internal affairs of each colony were to be left to its own management. The first experiment in federation in America, the league was based upon compromise. Its chief weaknesses lay in the inability of the commissioners to do much more than advise and in the petty rivalries among the colonies. Massachusetts Bay, having by far the largest population, had to furnish more fighting men and taxes than any other colony and felt aggrieved at not having more power in the confederation. In 1653, Massachusetts Bay flatly refused to undertake the war against the Dutch that the confederation planned. Maine and the Narragansett Bay settlements (Rhode Island) sought admission to the union but were refused on political and religious grounds. Shortly before New Haven was annexed (1665) to Connecticut, the regulations were changed so that the commissioners would meet once every three years, but the confederation gradually declined. It revived between 1675 and 1676 to undertake its most important task, completely breaking the power of the Native Americans of S New England in King Philip's War. With the revocation of the Massachusetts charter in 1684, the confederation was dissolved. See H. L. Osgood, The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century (3 vol., 1904–7, repr. 1957). The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/history/new-england-confederation.html

Learning to read can be a long process, so it is never too early to prepare a child. While learning to read is a big milestone, it is important that the learning process be fun and engaging for the child. Reading should be something that the child comes to enjoy and can use to gain even more knowledge through books. If you remain patient and make the learning process a fun way to spend time together, it will give the child the best chance to successfully learn to read and love books. Creating a Reading Environment 1Read to the child. Make reading part of the routine every day. It is never too early to start reading to a child. Reading to infants has even been shown to lead to early brain development and improves language, literacy and social skills. 2Use an energetic tone. An engaging storyteller will help to keep the child interested in the book. Even if the child is too young to understand the story, your voice can express happiness, sadness, anger, or many other emotions that will give the child some context to go with the pictures. 3Point to each word as you read. Make sure the child is able to see your finger pointing to each word as you say it. Even if it does not seem like he understands the words, he will begin to realize that the squiggly lines on the page are related to the words that are spoken. - You don't have to just stick to the story. You can pause and use rich vocabulary to describe the pictures, or voices to describe the character. This will help stimulate the child's imagination, too. 4Ask the child questions about the story. Pause while reading to get the child involved in the story. Keep the questions simple. For example, if there is a dog in the story, you can ask the child what color it is. This will help the child to learn to process the story better and lead to better reading comprehension. 5Give him some books. In order to teach the child to read, having plenty of books to explore will help to spark an interest in reading. - Board books and cloth books are great for infants and toddlers. These books will hold up better than paperback or hardcover copies, and the thicker pages make it easier for children to turn the pages. - As the child gets a bit older, focus on rhyming books like Dr. Seuss or books that have songs like "Barnyard Dance" or "Snuggle Puppy" by Sandra Boynton. - Get a library card. Take the child on regular visits to your local library. Go to the children's section and let the child pick the book he wants to read. Once a week on a set date (Friday after school for example) is also a good way to get into a structured routine. It's alright if he is a bit too old for the book or has already read it. When he is a bit older, let him check out the book at the front desk, but always under your supervision. 6Set a positive example by reading books. If a child notices that you are enjoying a book, he will be more likely to develop an interest in reading as well. Try to read around them for about 20 minutes each day. If the child gets curious about what you're doing you can tell him about the book you are reading, or take the opportunity to ask if the child would like to find a book to read. Teaching Necessary Skills 1Teach the alphabet. To begin the process of reading the child will need a solid understanding of the alphabet. In addition to singing the alphabet, the child should develop an understanding of letter shapes and sounds. - Start with an alphabet book. - Make it fun by playing games. You can get some alphabet letters for the fridge, or cut out a bunch of letter shapes and decorate them with objects that begin with each letter. For example, cut out a letter S shapes and have him decorate it by gluing sunflower seeds or applying star stickers. 2Build phonemic awareness. Phonemic awareness is the process of associating letters or letter shapes with the corresponding sounds. Children will need to learn the 44 sounds made by the 26 letters of the alphabet. You can use a list of phonemes and help the child learn to correlate the sounds with the letters of the alphabet. - Teach the child how to pronounce each phoneme. Focus on one letter at a time and teach the child how to pronounce them correctly. Say the letter, then tell him the sound it makes. For example, "the letter A makes an ah sound. Then give him examples of words that start with that sound such as apple or ant. - There are a lot of great apps that have fun games to help teach a child phonemic awareness, many of them such as ABC Genius and Build A Word Express are even free to download. 3Help the child sound out words. Once the child can identify the first sound of one syllable words, teach him to add the ending. Use a picture to break up the letters and make each individual sound, then ask the child what the word is. This will help him to understand how each of the sounds created by letters will work together to form words. Have the child practice sounding out the words in the same way. - Put one syllable words together in a two or three word sentence. Have the child practice reading the sentence by sounding out each word. Try working with some of the pages in the Spot series by Eric Hill. They have many sentences of short, one syllable words. - Once he has the hang of sounding out one syllable words, add another syllable. Keep challenging the child to sound out longer words. 4Teach sight words. Sight words are any short, common words that a child will see often. Some examples of common sight words include plant, father, their and here. Many of these words are difficult to sound out. The best way for a child to learn these words is through repeatedly seeing the word in the context of a sentence and alongside the object it represents. - There are a number of books that focus on teaching sight words. Often times books with sight words will indicate that on the cover. - Use cards with sight words on them and help the child put them alongside the objects they represent. Eventually the child will begin to associate the written word with the object on their own. - Use flashcards to teach sight words. Show the child the card and pronounce the word. Spell it out and use it in a sentence. Then go through and have the child say the word, spell the word and use the word in a sentence. Repeat until the child can identify all the cards. - Play games to help the child learn, like bingo. Mark the spaces on a bingo board with sight words, then call the words out. The child must identify the word on his card and mark it. - Point out word families. Word families are groups of words that rhyme. Make sure the child notices words that rhyme, such as cat, pat, hat. Once, the child sees the words written and hears the similarity of sounds he will begin to identify the at sound and how it appears when written. 1Ensure that the reading area is quiet, free of distractions, and comfortable. Turn off any televisions or electronic devices that could cause the child to lose focus. Put away any toys that might be too tempting to play with. 2Begin by reading the book aloud. Choose and read aloud a paragraph, or a page of a book. If you start the reading, this helps to set the tone for enjoying the reading activity together. You will also be giving them a good example of fluent reading so the child can hear how the story should sound. 3Ask your child to read for you. As your child reads, he will pause on words he is not familiar with. - When your child pauses, immediately provide the word for him and let him move on. Underline or circle in pencil the words he initially cannot read. - Go back and review any incorrect words and help read the words correctly. 4Read the same stories several times. With practice, the child will be able to correctly read more words each time through. By going over the same words again and again, the child will eventually be able to read the story more fluently. The words will be easier to decode and the child will need to stop and sound them out less often. Questions and Answers Give us 3 minutes of knowledge! - Most children don't begin to read until age 5 or 6. While it is good to start early, make sure not to put too much pressure on them to read. - A child should be clear with the words he/she reads and should understand the meaning of the word. A teacher/mother should first make a child learn phonics and the basics. Sources and Citations - ↑ http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/infant-reading-aloud-young-children-benefits-brain-development/ - ↑ http://www.teachreadingearly.com/teaching-child-to-read-age-3-5.php - ↑ https://www.earlymoments.com/promoting-literacy-and-a-love-of-reading/how-a-child-becomes-a-reader/ - ↑ http://www.icanteachmychild.com/10-steps-to-teaching-your-child-to-read/ - ↑ http://www.mumsnet.com/books/teach-your-child-to-read - ↑ http://www.dyslexia-reading-well.com/44-phonemes-in-english.html - ↑ http://www.sightwords.com/phonemic-awareness/word-families/word-maker-part-1/ - ↑ http://www.k12reader.com/sight-word-teaching-strategies/ - ↑ http://www.sightwords.com/sight-words/games/ - ↑ http://www.readingrockets.org/article/how-read-beginning-reader Categories: Preschool and Kindergarten In other languages: Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 4,885 times.

http://www.wikihow.com/Teach-a-Child-to-Read

Climate Change: Ocean Heat Content Updated September 23, 2014 The ocean is the largest solar energy collector on Earth. Not only does water cover more than 70 percent of our planet’s surface, it can also absorb large amounts of heat without a large increase in temperature. This tremendous ability to store and release heat over long periods of time gives the ocean a central role in stabilizing Earth’s climate system. The main source of ocean heat is sunlight. Additionally, clouds, water vapor, and greenhouse gases emit heat that they have absorbed, and some of that heat energy enters the ocean. Waves, tides, and currents constantly mix the ocean, moving heat from warmer to cooler latitudes and to deeper levels. Heat absorbed by the ocean is moved from one place to another, but it doesn’t disappear. The heat energy eventually re-enters the rest of the Earth system by melting ice shelves, evaporating water, or directly reheating the atmosphere. Thus, heat energy in the ocean can warm the planet for decades after it was absorbed. If the ocean absorbs more heat than it releases, its heat content increases. Explore this interactive graph: Click and drag to display different parts of the graph. To squeeze or stretch the graph in either direction, hold your Shift key down, then click and drag. This graph (source data) shows differences from the long-term average global ocean heat content (1955-2006) in the top 700 meters of the ocean. Knowing how much heat energy the ocean absorbs and releases is essential for understanding and modeling global climate. Ocean temperatures can provide this information. Historically, taking the ocean’s temperature required ships to dangle sensors or sample collectors into the water. This time-consuming method could only provide temperatures for a small part of the planet’s vast ocean. To get global coverage, scientists turned to satellites that measure the height of the ocean’s surface. As water warms, it expands, so estimates for ocean temperature can be deduced from sea surface heights. To get a more complete picture of ocean heat content at different depths, scientists and engineers use a range of temperature-sensing instruments. Among these are a fleet of more than 3,000 robotic “floats” that measure ocean temperature around the world. Known as Argo floats, the sensors drift through the ocean at different depths. Every 10 days or so, according to their programmed instructions, they rise through the water, recording temperature (and salinity) as they ascend. When a float reaches the surface, it sends its location and other information to scientists via satellite, and then descends again. Scientists constantly compare data from satellites, floats, and probes to verify that the values they produce make sense. They process the range of measurements to calculate an estimate for global average ocean heat content every three months. Converting the temperatures to joules (a standard unit of energy) allows them to compare heat in the ocean to heat in other parts of Earth’s climate system. Completed analyses show that more than 90 percent of the warming that has happened on Earth over the past 50 years has occurred in the ocean. Recent studies estimate that warming of the upper oceans accounts for about 63 percent of the total increase in the amount of stored heat in the climate system from 1971 to 2010, and warming from 700 meters down to the ocean floor adds about another 30 percent. Though the atmosphere has been spared from the full extent of global warming for now, heat already stored in the ocean will eventually be released, committing Earth to additional warming in the future. In the present, warming of ocean water is raising global sea level because water expands when it warms. Combined with water from melting glaciers on land, the rising sea threatens natural ecosystems and human structures near coastlines around the world. Warming ocean waters are also implicated in the thinning of ice shelves and sea ice, both of which have further consequences for Earth’s climate system. Finally, warming ocean waters threaten marine ecosystems and human livelihoods. For example, warm waters jeopardize the health of corals, and in turn, the communities of marine life that depend upon them for shelter and food. Ultimately, people who depend upon marine fisheries for food and jobs may face negative impacts from the warming ocean. Information on how ocean heat content is calculated from ocean temperatures is available from NOAA’s National Oceanographic Data Center. Scott, Michon. 2006. Earth’s Big Heat Bucket. NASA Earth Observatory. Accessed February 2, 2011. Lindsey, Rebecca. 2008. Correcting Ocean Cooling. NASA Earth Observatory. Accessed February 2, 2011. S. Levitus, J. I. Antonov, T. P. Boyer, R. A. Locarnini, H. E. Garcia, and A. V. Mishonov. 2009. “Global ocean heat content 1955–2008 in light of recently revealed instrumentation problems” Geophysical Research Letters, 36, L07608, doi:10.1029/2008GL037155. T. P. Boyer, J. I. Antonov , O. K. Baranova, H. E. Garcia, D. R. Johnson, R. A. Locarnini, A. V. Mishonov, T. D. O’Brien, D. Seidov, I. V. Smolyar, M. M. Zweng, 2009. World Ocean Database 2009. S. Levitus, Ed., NOAA Atlas NESDIS 66, U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Wash., D.C., 216 pp., DVDs. Global Ocean Heat Content from the National Oceanographic Data Center.

https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-ocean-heat-content

* This is the Professional Version. * Overview of Arbovirus, Arenavirus, and Filovirus Infections Arbovirus (arthropod-borne virus) applies to any virus that is transmitted to humans and/or other vertebrates by certain species of blood-feeding arthropods, chiefly insects (flies and mosquitoes) and arachnids (ticks). Arbovirus is not part of the current viral classification system, which is based on the nature and structure of the viral genome. Families in the current classification system that have some arbovirus members include Most viruses associated with hemorrhagic fevers are classified in the families Arenaviridae and Filoviridae. However, some flaviviruses (yellow fever, dengue viruses), some Bunyaviridae (Rift Valley fever virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, and the hantaviruses) may be associated with hemorrhagic symptoms. Arboviruses number > 250 and are distributed worldwide; at least 80 cause human disease. Birds are often reservoirs for arboviruses, which are transmitted by mosquitoes to horses, other domestic animals, and humans. Most arboviral diseases are not transmissible by humans, perhaps because the typical viremia is inadequate to infect the arthropod vector; exceptions include dengue fever, yellow fever, and chikungunya disease, which can be transmitted from person to person via mosquitoes. Some infections (eg, West Nile virus, Colorado tick fever, dengue) have been spread by blood transfusion or organ donation. Reservoirs for bunyaviruses include insects and vertebrates, often rodents. These viruses spread to humans directly from their reservoirs, but human-to-human transmission may occur. The Arenaviridae includes lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, Lassa fever virus, Mopeia virus, Tacaribe virus, Junin virus, Lujo virus, and Guaroa virus; all are transmitted by rodents and thus are not arboviruses. Lassa fever can be transmitted from person to person. The Filoviridae consists of 2 genera: Ebolavirus (consisting of 5 species) and Marburgvirus (consisting of 2 species). The specific vectors of these viruses have not been confirmed, but fruit bats are the prime candidates; thus, Filoviridae are not arboviruses. Human-to-human transmission of Ebola virus and Marburg virus occurs readily. Many of these infections are asymptomatic. When symptomatic, they generally begin with a minor nonspecific flu-like illness that may evolve to one of a few syndromes (see Table: Arbovirus, Arenavirus, and Filovirus Diseases). These syndromes include lymphadenopathy, rashes, aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, arthralgias, arthritis, and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. Many cause fever and bleeding tendencies (hemorrhagic fever). Decreased synthesis of vitamin K–dependent coagulation factors, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and altered platelet function contribute to bleeding. Laboratory diagnosis often involves viral cultures, PCR, electron microscopy, and antigen and antibody detection methods where available. Arbovirus, Arenavirus, and Filovirus Diseases Treatment for most of these infections is supportive. In hemorrhagic fevers, bleeding may require phytonadione (vitamin K1—see Treatment under Vitamin K Deficiency). Transfusion of packed RBCs or fresh frozen plasma may also be necessary. Aspirin and other NSAIDs are contraindicated because of antiplatelet activity. Ribavirin 30 mg/kg IV (maximum, 2 g) loading dose followed by 16 mg/kg IV (maximum, 1 g/dose) q 6 h for 4 days, then 8 mg/kg IV (maximum, 500 mg/dose) q 8 h for 6 days is recommended for hemorrhagic fever caused by arenaviruses or bunyaviruses including Lassa fever, Rift Valley fever, and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever. For dosage in hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome, see Hemorrhagic Fever With Renal Syndrome (HFRS) : Treatment. Antiviral treatment for other syndromes has not been adequately studied. Ribavirin has not been effective in animal models of filovirus and flavivirus infections. The abundance and diversity of arboviruses means that it is often easier and cheaper to control arbovirus infections by destroying their arthropod vectors, preventing bites, and eliminating their breeding habitats than by developing specific vaccines or drug treatments. At present, there are effective vaccines only for Yellow fever virus and Japanese encephalitis virus. Vaccines for tick-borne encephalitis are available in Europe, Russia and China but are not available in the US. Diseases transmitted by mosquitoes or ticks can often be prevented by wearing clothing that covers as much of the body as possible, using insect repellants (eg, DEET [diethyltoluamide]) and minimizing the likelihood of exposure to the insect (eg, for mosquitoes, limiting time outdoors in wet areas; for ticks, see Tick Bite Prevention). Diseases transmitted by rodent excreta can be prevented by sealing sites of potential rodent entry into homes and nearby buildings, preventing rodent access to food, and eliminating potential nesting sites around the home. Guidelines for cleaning up after rodents and working in areas with potential rodent excreta are available through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Because transmission of the filoviruses Ebola virus and Marburg virus is predominantly from person to person, prevention of spread requires strict quarantine measures. Drug NameSelect Brand Names AspirinNo US brand name * This is the Professional Version. *

http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/arboviridae-arenaviridae-and-filoviridae/overview-of-arbovirus-arenavirus-and-filovirus-infections

The rings of Saturn have been known of since telescopes began peering at the heavens. Galileo first spotted them in 1610. Since that time, astronomers have learned more and more about Saturn's most striking feature, from the material that makes up the rings to the forces that jostle that material around. But two of the most basic-sounding pieces of information about Saturn's rings ? their mass and age ? remain something of a mystery. These questions are "the big elephant in the room," said Jeff Cuzzi, interdisciplinary scientist for rings and dust for NASA?s Cassini spacecraft. Cuzzi is based at NASA Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, Calif. Astronomers hope that this mystery will be solved, or at least better understood, with the help of NASA's Cassini spacecraft, which has spent the last six years exploring the Saturnian system. Cassini is now in its extended mission, and has several maneuvers and observations planned that scientists hope will help settle the questions of just how old Saturn's rings are and how much material is in them. Young or old? For decades, astronomers had thought that the rings of Saturn, like the planet they orbited, had formed when the solar system did some 4.6 billion years ago, and so were as old as the solar system was. This notion was challenged when NASA's Voyager spacecraft flew by the ringed giant in the early 1980s and gathered data on the planet, its many moons and its ring system. Through the Voyager observations, scientists found that complex processes were going on in the rings "that make it very hard to understand how [the rings] could be that old," Cuzzi told SPACE.com. These processes involve the gravitational pushes and pulls, called resonances, that Saturn's moons and rings exert on each other and the cascading effects that those resonances have on other physical processes in the rings. Essentially, scientists worked out, these processes should push Saturn's small moons out of the ring system and pull the rings in toward the planet. But if the ring system was as old as the solar system, this should have happened long ago. "The processes are going so fast that they would be all finished ? the rings would be gone," said Larry Esposito of the University of Colorado at Boulder, the principal investigator of Cassini's Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph (UVIS) instrument. Given the rate at which these processes operate, and the current position of Saturn's rings and moonlets, scientists calculated that the rings would have to be one-tenth as old as old as the solar system, or only a couple hundred million years old, Cuzzi said. But the Voyager flyby data were just snapshots of the Saturn system. When Cassini arrived at Saturn in 2004, its observations showed that the processes churning up the rings were going at an even faster rate than was indicated by the Voyager data, Esposito told SPACE.com. Adjusting the age of the rings accordingly would make them younger than the Voyager exploration era, clearly an impossibility. So the idea that the rings are much younger than the solar system "seems to me to be suspect at this moment," Esposito said. Though there is another, independent line of evidence that suggests that the rings are a young feature ? the amount of pollution in the mostly water-ice rings that comes from incoming meteorite debris. Rock and ice The rings of Saturn are at least 90 percent water ice, observations have found. But, like other things in the solar system, Saturn's rings are under constant bombardment by interplanetary debris, which is about 60 percent carbon and rock, Cuzzi said. Over time, the meteorite debris raining down on the rings would "pollute" the water ice, making it increasingly less pure. "Over time, [the rings] are getting dirtier," Cuzzi said. But the bulk of the rings are still largely water ice, suggesting that the rings haven't been around long enough to be highly polluted, which in turn suggests they're rather young. Of course, how dirty the rings get doesn't depend only on how long they've been around to absorb all that debris; it also depends on how much ring material there is. The pollution wouldn't show up as much in denser, more massive rings as it would in thinner rings. So knowing the mass of Saturn's rings could help scientists figure out how long debris has been bombarding them, and therefore how long they've been around. "We thought we knew the mass of the rings pretty well," Cuzzi said. Scientists, including Esposito, had determined this mass by measuring how much starlight gets through the rings. But Cassini discovered that the material in the rings exerts a gravitational force on itself that causes it to clump up, and almost no starlight penetrates these clumps. "So there's really no way for us to know how much matter is in these clumps," Cuzzi said. The mass that scientists were actually measuring was just the mass of the thinner patches between the more massive clumps. Scientists hope that Cassini can get around this clump problem by measuring the mass of Saturn's rings in a different way. What Cassini will do Toward the end of its mission, Cassini will be put into an orbit between the planet and the inner edge of the rings. "It's going to go in a very, very close orbit," Cuzzi said. "And in these orbits, even the mass of the rings has an effect on the orbit of the spacecraft." So based on how Cassini's course deviates, scientists hope to be able to calculate how massive the rings are. The other part of the equation that would give scientists a constraint on the age of the rings is the rate at which meteorite debris is hitting the rings. Combining the mass of the rings, the amount of pollution seen in them and the rate at which that pollution falls would tell scientists how long the debris had been falling on the rings and therefore how long the rings have been around. Cassini is also trying to answer that second part of the equation. Measuring the flux of meteorite debris into the rings turns out "to be very hard to measure because the system is a very dusty system and a lot of this is just lost to the background," Cuzzi explained. "So we're going to use a bit of trick." The same meteorite debris that falls onto the rings also falls onto Saturn's moons. When that debris hits the small, icy moons, it kicks up dust that can be measured by Cassini. That data in turn can tell scientists how much meteorite debris is falling on the system. The spacecraft recently flew by Saturn's moon Rhea, and scientists are awaiting the data to figure out the meteorite flux, Esposito said. Once all the data from the Cassini mission is in, they hope to combine the calculated mass and meteorite hit rate "and really be able to say whether the rings are as old as the solar system or not," Cuzzi said. - Images - The Rings and Moons of Saturn - Vote Now! Cassini's Greatest Hits: Images of Saturn - Top 10 Extreme Planet Facts

http://www.space.com/8150-mystery-saturn-rings-finally-answer-cassini-probe.html

Celebrate Abraham Lincoln Lesson plans, books, and activities about Abraham Lincoln - Grades: 1–2, 3–5, 6–8 Abraham Lincoln served as president of the United States from 1861 to 1865. He remains one of the most revered figures in American history. Lincoln preserved the fractured Union through the bitter and bloody Civil War and used wartime powers to issue the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. This executive order freed slaves in the Confederate states and preceded the passage of the 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery. Abraham Lincoln at a Glance Abe Lincoln Remembers will provide insight into the life of Abraham Lincoln, one of the greatest U.S. Presidents. Add action and relevancy to curricular themes like Abraham Lincoln and the Civil War with these three Reader's Theater scripts. A brief synopsis of Abraham Lincoln's accomplishments, and a corresponding activity. In this lesson, students will research the events of Abraham Lincoln's life and organize them on a time line. Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States, was famous for freeing the slaves and ending the Civil War. This mini-biography — coupled with a companion crossword puzzle — helps build comprehension and boosts vocabulary. In this video, Kid Reporter Michael Geheren takes viewers on a virtual tour through the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield, Illinois. Use Abe Lincoln: The Boy Who Loved Books when studying U.S. presidents, and when talking about a love of books and reading. Celebrate President Lincoln’s birthday by making a three-dimensional likeness of his log cabin home. This Abraham Lincoln-inspired pencil holder is a fun craft to make for Presidents' Day. With Abraham Lincoln’s birthday on February 12 and the 150th anniversary of the Gettysburg Address fast approaching, here are four classroom-tested ideas for teaching about our sixteenth president. See how Lincoln personifies the definition of "persistence" with a brief look at key facts from his life. Students will learn about Abraham Lincoln and Frederick Douglass through historical texts and biographies and complete a chart comparing and contrasting the two influential men. Just a Few Words, Mr. Lincoln tells the story of the events preceding, and the actual delivery of, President Lincoln's famous Gettysburg Address. Students will come to understand that few words, if carefully chosen, are all that are necessary to communicate important, powerful ideas. Use these teaching resources to talk to your students about the Civil War and President Lincoln's famous speech. Questions for discussing this fast-paced nonfiction thriller that gives a day-by-day account of the wild chase to find the assassin John Wilkes Booth and his accomplices. It shows readers Abraham Lincoln the man, the father, the husband, the friend — and how his death impacted the nation.

http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/collection/celebrate-lincolns-birthday-born-1809

In mathematics, Midy's theorem, named after French mathematician E. Midy, is a statement about the decimal expansion of fractions a/p where p is a prime and a/p has a repeating decimal expansion with an even period (sequence A028416 in OEIS). If the period of the decimal representation of a/p is 2n, so that then the digits in the second half of the repeating decimal period are the 9s complement of the corresponding digits in its first half. In other words, Extended Midy's theorem If k is any divisor of the period of the decimal expansion of a/p (where p is again a prime), then Midy's theorem can be generalised as follows. The extended Midy's theorem states that if the repeating portion of the decimal expansion of a/p is divided into k-digit numbers, then their sum is a multiple of 10k − 1. has a period of 18. Dividing the repeating portion into 6-digit numbers and summing them gives Similarly, dividing the repeating portion into 3-digit numbers and summing them gives Midy's theorem in other bases Midy's theorem and its extension do not depend on special properties of the decimal expansion, but work equally well in any base b, provided we replace 10k − 1 with bk − 1 and carry out addition in base b. For example, in octal In duodecimal (using inverted two and three for ten and eleven, respectively) Proof of Midy's theorem Let p be a prime and a/p be a fraction between 0 and 1. Suppose the expansion of a/p in base b has a period of ℓ, so where N is the integer whose expansion in base b is the string a1a2...aℓ. Note that b ℓ − 1 is a multiple of p because (b ℓ − 1)a/p is an integer. Also bn−1 is not a multiple of p for any value of n less than ℓ, because otherwise the repeating period of a/p in base b would be less than ℓ. Now suppose that ℓ = hk. Then b ℓ − 1 is a multiple of bk − 1. (To see this, substitute x for bk; then bℓ = xh and x − 1 is a factor of xh − 1. ) Say b ℓ − 1 = m(bk − 1), so But b ℓ − 1 is a multiple of p; bk − 1 is not a multiple of p (because k is less than ℓ ); and p is a prime; so m must be a multiple of p and is an integer. In other words, Now split the string a1a2...aℓ into h equal parts of length k, and let these represent the integers N0...Nh − 1 in base b, so that To prove Midy's extended theorem in base b we must show that the sum of the h integers Ni is a multiple of bk − 1. Since bk is congruent to 1 modulo bk − 1, any power of bk will also be congruent to 1 modulo bk − 1. So which proves Midy's extended theorem in base b. To prove the original Midy's theorem, take the special case where h = 2. Note that N0 and N1 are both represented by strings of k digits in base b so both satisfy N0 and N1 cannot both equal 0 (otherwise a/p = 0) and cannot both equal bk − 1 (otherwise a/p = 1), so and since N0 + N1 is a multiple of bk − 1, it follows that From the above, - is an integer And thus for For and is an integer and so on. - Leavitt, William G. (June 1967). "A Theorem on Repeating Decimals". The American Mathematical Monthly (Mathematical Association of America) 74 (6): 669–673. doi:10.2307/2314251. - Kemeny, John. "The Secret Theorem of M. E. Midy = Casting In Nines". Retrieved 27 November 2011. - Bassam Abdul-Baki, Extended Midy's Theorem, 2005. - Rademacher, H. and Toeplitz, O. The Enjoyment of Mathematics: Selections from Mathematics for the Amateur. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 158–160, 1957. - E. Midy, "De Quelques Propriétés des Nombres et des Fractions Décimales Périodiques". College of Nantes, France: 1836. - Ross, Kenneth A. "Repeating decimals: a period piece". Math. Mag. 83 (2010), no. 1, 33–45.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midy%27s_theorem

Communication Networks/TCP and UDP Protocols/UDP Unlike TCP, UDP doesn't establish a connection before sending data, it just sends. Because of this, UDP is called "Connectionless". UDP packets are often called "Datagrams". An example of UDP in action is the DNS service. DNS servers send and receive DNS requests using UDP. In this section we have to look at User Datagram protocol. It’s a transport layer protocol. This section will cover the UDP protocol, its header structure & the way with which it establishes the network connection. As shown in Figure 1,the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a transport layer protocol that supports Network Application. It layered on just below the ‘Session’ and sits above the IP(Internet Protocol) in open system interconnection model (OSI). This protocol is similar to TCP (transmission control protocol) that is used in client/ server programs like video conference systems expect UDP is connection less. Figure 1:UDP in OSI Layer Model What is UDP? UDP is a connectionless and unreliable transport protocol.The two ports serve to identify the end points within the source and destination machines. User Datagram Protocol is used, in place of TCP, when a reliable delivery is not required.However, UDP is never used to send important data such as web-pages, database information, etc. Streaming media such as video,audio and others use UDP because it offers speed. Why UDP is faster than TCP? The reason UDP is faster than TCP is because there is no form of flow control. No error checking,error correction, or acknowledgment is done by UDP.UDP is only concerned with speed. So when, the data sent over the Internet is affected by collisions, and errors will be present. UDP packet's called as user datagrams with 8 bytes header. A format of user datagrams is shown in figur 3. In the user datagrams first 8 bytes contains header information and the remaining bytes contains data. Figure 3:UDP datagrams Source port number: This is a port number used by source host,who is transferring data. It is 16 bit longs. So port numbers range between 0 to 65,535. Destination port number: This is a port number used by Destination host, who is getting data. It is also 16 bits long and also same number of port range like source host. length: Length field is a 16 bits field. It contains the total length of the user datagram, header and data. Checksum: The UDP checksum is optional. It is used to detect error fro the data. If the field is zero then checksum is not calculated. And true calculated then field contains 1. Characteristics of UDP The characteristics of UDP are given below. • End-to-end. UDP can identify a specific process running on a computer. • Unreliable, connectionless delivery (e.g. USPS):: UDP uses a connectionless communication setup. In this UDP does not need to establish a connection before sending data. Communication consists only of the data segments themselves • Same best effort semantics as IP • No ack, no sequence, no flow control • Subject to loss, duplication, delay, out-of-order, or loss of connection • Fast, low overhead 1.Suit for reliable, local network 2.RTP(Real-Time Transport Protocol) Use of ports in Communication After receiving the data,computer must have some mechanism what to do with it.Consider that user has three application open say a web browser,a telnet session and FTP session.All three application are moving data over the network. So, there should be some mechanism for determining what piece of traffic is bound for which application by operating system.To handle this situation , network ports are used.Available port's range is 0 to 65535.In them 0 to 1023 are well-known ports, 1023 to 49151 are registered ports and 49152 to 65535 are dynamic ports. Figure 4: Port List of well-known ports used by UDP: Figure 5:List of ports used by UDP UDP Header structure It contains four section. Source port, Destination port, Length and Checksum. Figure 6: UDP Header Source port is an optional field. When used, it indicates the port of the sending process and may be assumed to be the port to which a reply should be addressed in the absence of any other information. If not used, a value of zero is inserted. It is the port number on which the data is being sent. It include the length of UDP Header and Data. The length in octets of this user datagram, including this header and the data. The minimum value of the length is eight. The main purpose of checksum is error detection.It guarantees that message arrived at correct destination.To verify checksum,the receiver must extract this fields from IP Header .12-byte psuedo header is used to compute checksum. It is the application data.or Actual message. The UDP packet can be viewed using Ethereal capture. One such UDP packet is captured and shown below. Figure 7: ethereal capture Communication in UDP In UDP connection,Client set unique source port number based on the program they started connection. UDP is not limited to 1-to-1 interaction. A 1-to-many interaction can be provided using broadcast or multi-cast addressing . A many-to-1 interaction can be provided by many clients communicating with a single server. A many-to-many interaction is just an extension of these techniques. UDP Checksum and Pseudo-Header The main purpose of UDP checksum is to detect errors in transmitted segment. UDP Checksum is optional but it should always be turned on. To calculate UDP checksum a "pseudo header" is added to the UDP header. The field in the pseudo header are all taken from IP Header. They are used on receiving system to make sure that IP datagram is being received by proper computer. Generally , the pseudo-header includes: Figure 8 : UDP Pseudo Header IP Source Address 4 bytes IP Destination Address 4 bytes Protocol 2 bytes UDP Length 2 bytes Sender side : 1. It treats segment contents as sequence of 16-bit integers. 2. All segments are added. Let's call it sum. 3. Checksum : 1's complement of sum.(In 1's complement all 0s are converted into 1s and all 1s are converted into 0s). 4. Sender puts this checksum value in UDP checksum field. Receiver side : 1. Calculate checksum 2. All segments are added and then sum is added with sender's checksum. 3. Check that any 0 bit is presented in checksum. If receiver side checksum contains any 0 then error is detected. So the packet is discarded by receiver. Here we explaine a simple checksum calculation. As an example, suppose that we have the bitstream 0110011001100110 0110011001100110 0000111100001111: This bit stream is divided into segments of 16-bits integers. So, it looks like this: 0110011001100110 (16-bit integer segment) The sum of first of these 16-bit words is: Adding the third word to the above sum gives 1100101011001010 (sum of all segments) Now to calculate checksum 1's complement of sum is taken. As I mentioned earlier , 1's complement is achieved by converting all 1s into 0s and all 0s into 1s. So,the checksum at sender side is : 0011010100110101. Now at the receiver side, again all segments are added . and sum is added with sender's checksum. If no error than check of receiver would be : 1111111111111111. If any 0 bit is presented in the header than there is an error in checksum.So,the packet is discarded. You may wonder why UDP provides a checksum in the first place, as many link-layer protocols (including the popular Ethernet protocol) also provide error checking? The reason is that there is no guarantee that all the links between source and destination provide error checking -- one of the links may use a protocol that does not provide error checking. Because IP is supposed to run over just about any layer-2 protocol, it is useful for the transport layer to provide error checking as a safety measure. Although UDP provides error checking, it does not do anything to recover from an error. Some implementations of UDP simply discard the damaged segment; others pass the damaged segment to the application with a warning. UDP is a transport layer protocol. UDP is a connectionless and unreliable protocol. UDP does not do flow control, error control or retransmission of a bad segment. UDP is faster then TCP. UDP is commonly used for streaming audio and video . UDP never used for important documents like web-page, database information, etc. UDP transmits segments consisting of an 8-byte header. Its contains Source port, Destination port, UDP length and Checksum. UDP checksum used for detect “errors” in transmitted segment. 1. Calculate UDP checksum of the following sequence: 11100110011001101101010101010101. Answer : To calculate checksum follow the following steps: 1. first of all divide the bit stream on to two parts of 16-bit each. So,the two bit stream will be 1110011001100110 and 1101010101010101. 2. Add this two bit stream.So ,the addition will be 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 ---------------------------------- 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 3. Now apply one's complement to this bit stream.one's complement is achieved by converting all 1s into 0s and all 0s into 1s. So, the checksum will be : 0100010001000011. 2. What is the advantage of keeping checksum field turned off and when it is appropriate to keep checksum field turned off? By keeping checksum field turned off,this might save computational load and speed up data transfer. When we are transmitting data over wide area network(WAN) , it is not a good idea to keep checksum off. We can keep checksum turned off when we are transmitting data over a Local Area Network(LAN),because switching infrastructure would catch transmission error in the Ethernet protocol's checksum

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Networks/TCP_and_UDP_Protocols/UDP

Jack Cook, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Learn more about Teaching Climate Literacy and Energy Awareness» See how this Simulation/Interactive supports the Next Generation Science Standards» Middle School: 3 Disciplinary Core Ideas, 3 Cross Cutting Concepts High School: 4 Disciplinary Core Ideas, 3 Cross Cutting Concepts About Teaching Climate Literacy Other materials addressing 2d 4.3 Fossil and bio fuels contain energy captured from sunlight. 2.5 Energy moves between reservoirs. 2.6 Greenhouse gases affect energy flow. 2.7 Effects of changes in Earth's energy system . 3.5 Ecosystems are affected by availability of energy.. Notes From Our Reviewers The CLEAN collection is hand-picked and rigorously reviewed for scientific accuracy and classroom effectiveness. Read what our review team had to say about this resource below or learn more about how CLEAN reviews teaching materials Teaching Tips | Science | Pedagogy | - There is not a scientifically thorough explanation behind each component of the interactive, so this would need to be accompanied with extra notes or other forms of explanation for students. About the Science - Simple diagram of the carbon cycle. - Descriptions of the science at each component are rather brief. - Comments from expert scientist: Accurate description of the carbon cycle from a credible agency. I liked how simple the model was, but I also liked how you could interact with it to find more details. Very good description of the carbon cycle, but lacks depth and could use additional content. Next Generation Science Standards See how this Simulation/Interactive supports: Disciplinary Core Ideas: 3 MS-PS3.D2:Cellular respiration in plants and animals involve chemical reactions with oxygen that release stored energy. In these processes, complex molecules containing carbon react with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and other materials. MS-LS1.C1:Plants, algae (including phytoplankton), and many microorganisms use the energy from light to make sugars (food) from carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water through the process of photosynthesis, which also releases oxygen. These sugars can be used immediately or stored for growth or later use. MS-ESS3.D1:Human activities, such as the release of greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels, are major factors in the current rise in Earth’s mean surface temperature (global warming). Reducing the level of climate change and reducing human vulnerability to whatever climate changes do occur depend on the understanding of climate science, engineering capabilities, and other kinds of knowledge, such as understanding of human behavior and on applying that knowledge wisely in decisions and activities. Cross Cutting Concepts: 3 MS-C4.1: Systems may interact with other systems; they may have sub-systems and be a part of larger complex systems. MS-C4.2: Models can be used to represent systems and their interactions—such as inputs, processes and outputs—and energy, matter, and information flows within systems. MS-C4.3:Models are limited in that they only represent certain aspects of the system under study. Disciplinary Core Ideas: 4 HS-ESS2.D2:Gradual atmospheric changes were due to plants and other organisms that captured carbon dioxide and released oxygen. HS-ESS2.D3:Changes in the atmosphere due to human activity have increased carbon dioxide concentrations and thus affect climate. HS-LS2.B3:Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are important components of the carbon cycle, in which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, atmosphere, oceans, and geosphere through chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. HS-PS3.D2:The main way that solar energy is captured and stored on Earth is through the complex chemical process known as photosynthesis. Cross Cutting Concepts: 3 HS-C4.2:When investigating or describing a system, the boundaries and initial conditions of the system need to be defined and their inputs and outputs analyzed and described using models. HS-C4.3:Models (e.g., physical, mathematical, computer models) can be used to simulate systems and interactions—including energy, matter, and information flows—within and between systems at different scales. HS-C4.4:Models can be used to predict the behavior of a system, but these predictions have limited precision and reliability due to the assumptions and approximations inherent in models.

http://cleanet.org/resources/43416.html

* This is the Consumer Version. * Asthma in Children Asthma is a recurring inflammatory lung disorder in which certain stimuli (triggers) inflame the airways and cause them to temporarily narrow, resulting in difficulty breathing. Asthma triggers include viral infections, smoke, perfume, pollen, mold, and dust mites. Wheezing, cough, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and difficulty breathing are symptoms of asthma. The diagnosis is based on a child's repeated wheezing episodes, a family history of asthma, and sometimes the results of tests that measure how well the lungs function. Many children who wheeze in childhood will not have asthma later in life. Asthma symptoms can be prevented by avoiding triggers. Treatment includes bronchodilators and inhaled corticosteroids. Although asthma can develop at any age, it most commonly begins in childhood, particularly in the first 5 years of life. Some children continue to have asthma into the adult years. In other children, asthma resolves. Sometimes, children who doctors thought had asthma actually had another disorder that caused similar symptoms (see Wheezing in Infants and Young Children). Asthma has become much more common in recent decades. Doctors are not sure why this is so, but there are theories. More than 8.5% of children in the United States have been diagnosed with asthma, which is over a 100% increase in recent decades. The rate soars to 25% to 40% among some populations of urban children. Asthma is the leading cause of hospitalization for children and is the number one chronic condition causing elementary school absenteeism. Most children with asthma are able to participate in normal childhood activities, except during flare-ups. A smaller number of children have moderate or severe asthma and need to take daily preventive drugs to enable them to engage in sports and normal play. For unknown reasons, children with asthma respond to certain stimuli (triggers) in ways that children without asthma do not. Children with asthma may have certain genes that may make them more susceptible to react to certain triggers. Most children with asthma also have parents and siblings or other relatives with asthma, which is evidence that genes are important in asthma. There are many potential triggers, and most children respond to only a few. In some children, specific triggers for flare-ups cannot be identified. These triggers all result in a similar response. Certain cells in the airways release chemical substances. These substances cause the airways to become inflamed and swollen and stimulate the muscle cells in the walls of the airways to contract. Repeated stimulation by these chemical substances increases mucus production in the airways, causes shedding of the cells lining the airways, and enlarges the muscle cells in the walls of the airways. Each of these responses contributes to a sudden narrowing of the airways (an asthma attack). In most children, the airways return to normal between asthma attacks. Common Asthma Triggers Doctors do not completely understand why some children develop asthma, but a number of risk factors are recognized: A child with one parent who has asthma has a 25% risk of developing asthma. If both parents have asthma, the risk increases to 50%. Children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy may be more likely to develop asthma. Asthma also has been linked to other factors related to the mother, such as young maternal age, poor maternal nutrition, and lack of breastfeeding. Prematurity and low birth weight are also risk factors. In the United States, children in urban environments are more likely to develop asthma, particularly if they are from lower socioeconomic groups. Although it is not entirely understood, it is believed that poorer living conditions, greater potential exposure to triggers, and less access to health care contribute to the higher incidence of asthma in these groups. Although asthma affects a higher percentage of black children than white, the role that genetic aspects of race play in the increasing rate of asthma is controversial because black children are also more likely to live in urban areas. Children who are exposed to high concentrations of certain allergens, such as dust mites or cockroach feces, at an early age are more likely to develop asthma. However, doctors have noticed that asthma is more common among children in developed countries. Children in these countries tend to live in very clean, hygienic environments and are given antibiotics and vaccines at an earlier age than children who live in less developed countries. Thus, doctors think that perhaps childhood exposure to certain substances and infections may actually help children's immune system learn not to overreact to triggers. Doctors are not sure whether exposure to cigarette smoke increases children's risk of asthma. Most children who are having an asthma attack and 90% of children who have been hospitalized for asthma have a viral infection (usually rhinovirus or the common cold). Children who have bronchiolitis (see Bronchiolitis) at an early age often wheeze with subsequent viral infections. The wheezing may at first be interpreted as asthma, but these children are no more likely than others to have asthma during adolescence. Diet may be a risk factor. Children who do not consume enough of vitamins C and E and omega-3 fatty acids or who are obese may be at risk of asthma. As the airways narrow in an asthma attack, the child develops difficulty breathing, chest tightness, and coughing, typically accompanied by wheezing. Wheezing is a high-pitched noise heard when the child breathes out (see Wheezing in Infants and Young Children). Not all asthma attacks cause wheezing, however. Mild asthma, particularly in very young children, may result only in a cough. Some older children with mild asthma tend to cough only when exercising or when exposed to cold air. Also, children with extremely severe asthma may not wheeze because there is too little air flowing to make a noise. In a severe attack, breathing becomes visibly difficult, wheezing usually becomes louder, the child breathes faster and with greater effort, and the ribs stand out when the child breathes in (inspiration). With very severe attacks, the child gasps for breath and sits upright, leaning forward. The skin is sweaty and pale or blue-tinged. Children who have frequent severe attacks sometimes have slowed growth, but their growth usually is similar to that of other children by adulthood. A doctor suspects asthma in children who have repeated episodes of wheezing, particularly when family members are known to have asthma or allergies. X-rays of the chest are rarely necessary for the diagnosis of asthma in children. X-rays are usually done only if doctors think that the child's symptoms might be caused by a different disorder, such as pneumonia. Doctors sometimes do allergy testing to help determine potential triggers. Children with frequent wheezing episodes may be tested for other disorders, such as cystic fibrosis or gastroesophageal reflux. Older children sometimes undergo tests that are used to measure how well the lungs function (pulmonary function tests—see Pulmonary Function Testing (PFT)). In most children, however, lung function is normal between flare-ups. Older children or adolescents known to have asthma often use a peak flow meter (a small handheld device that records how fast a person can blow out air—see Diagnosis of Lung Disorders:Lung volume and flow rate measurements) to measure the degree of airway narrowing. This device can be used at home. Doctors and parents can use this measurement to assess the child's condition during an attack and between attacks. X-rays are not done during an attack in children known to have asthma unless doctors suspect another disorder such as pneumonia or a collapsed lung. Many children outgrow asthma. However, as many as 1 in 4 children either continue to have asthma attacks or the asthma symptoms resolve only to return (called relapse) when children are older. Children who have severe asthma are more likely to have asthma as adults. Other risk factors for persistence and relapse include female sex, smoking, development of asthma at a younger age, and sensitivity to household dust mites. Although asthma causes a significant number of deaths each year, most of these are preventable with treatment. Thus, the prognosis is good for children who have access to treatment and who are able to follow their treatment plan. It is not yet known how to prevent a child with a family history of asthma from developing asthma. However, because there is evidence that children of mothers who smoked during pregnancy are more likely to have asthma, pregnant women should not smoke, particularly if there is a family history of asthma. On the other hand, there are many things that can be done to prevent asthma symptoms or attacks in children who have asthma. Asthma flare-ups often can be prevented by avoiding or trying to control whatever triggers a particular child's attacks. Children who have allergies should have the following items removed from their room: Other ways to reduce allergens include Using synthetic fiber pillows and impermeable mattress covers Washing bed sheets, pillowcases, and blankets in hot water Using dehumidifiers in basements and in other poorly aerated, damp rooms to reduce mold Using steam to clean the home to reduce dust mite allergens Cleaning the house and pest extermination to eliminate cockroach exposure Eliminating smoking in the home If a particular allergen cannot be avoided, a doctor may try to desensitize the child by using allergy shots, although the benefits of allergy shots for asthma are not well known. Secondhand tobacco smoke often worsens symptoms in children with asthma, so it is important to eliminate smoking in areas where the child spends time. Other triggers, such as strong odors, irritating fumes, cold temperatures, and high humidity, should also be avoided or controlled when possible. Because exercise is so important for a child's development, doctors usually encourage children to maintain physical activities, exercise, and sports participation and use an asthma drug immediately before exercising if needed. Treatment is given to resolve sudden (acute) attacks and sometimes to prevent attacks. Children who have mild, very infrequent attacks usually take drugs only during an attack. Children who have more frequent or severe attacks also need to take drugs even when they are not having attacks. Different drugs are used depending on the frequency and severity of the attacks. Children with infrequent attacks that are not very severe usually use a low dose of an inhaled corticosteroid or a leukotriene modifier (montelukast or zafirlukast) every day to help prevent attacks. These drugs reduce inflammation by blocking the release of the chemical substances that inflame the airways. Treatment of an acute attack consists of A variety of inhaled drugs open the airways (bronchodilators—see Treating Attacks). Typical examples are albuterol and ipratropium. Doctors do not recommend using long-acting bronchodilators, such as salmeterol and formoterol, as the only treatment for children. Older children and adolescents usually can take these drugs using a metered-dose inhaler. Children younger than 5 years (and some older children) are not capable of using a metered-dose inhaler correctly and should only use an inhaler with a spacer or holding chamber attached (see Figure: How to Use a Metered-Dose Inhaler). Infants and very young children sometimes can use an inhaler and spacer if an infant-sized mask is attached. Children who cannot use inhalers may receive inhaled drugs at home through a mask connected to a nebulizer (a small device that creates a mist of the drug by using compressed air). Inhalers and nebulizers are equally effective at delivering the drugs, but most parents find the inhaler and spacer much more efficient and easier to use. Albuterol also can be taken by mouth, but this route is less effective than inhalation and usually is used only in infants who do not have a nebulizer. Children with moderately severe attacks also may be given corticosteroids by mouth or injection. Children with very severe attacks are treated in the hospital with bronchodilators given in a nebulizer or an inhaler at least every 20 minutes initially. Sometimes doctors use injections of epinephrine or terbutaline (bronchodilators) in children with very severe attacks if inhaled drugs are not effective. Doctors usually give corticosteroids by vein to children having a severe attack. Treatment of chronic asthma consists of Infants and children under age 5 who need treatment more than 2 times a week, who have more persistent asthma, or those at risk of frequent or more severe attacks should receive daily anti-inflammatory treatment with inhaled corticosteroids. These children may also be given an additional drug such as a leukotriene modifier (montelukast or zafirlukast), a long-acting bronchodilator, or cromolyn. Drugs are increased or decreased over time to achieve optimal control of the child’s asthma symptoms and to prevent severe attacks. If these drugs do not prevent severe attacks, children may need to take corticosteroids by mouth. Children over age 5 and adolescents with asthma can be treated similarly to adults (see Treating Attacks). Children who have attacks during exercise usually inhale a dose of bronchodilator just before exercising. Children whose asthma is triggered by aspirin or other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) must avoid using these drugs. This reaction, however, is very uncommon in children. There is also evidence that taking acetaminophen (an alternative drug used to treat fever) during a viral infection increases the risk of a flare-up in children who have asthma. To decrease the risk of a flare-up, parents of children with asthma should limit the use of acetaminophen. Instead, an NSAID can be used unless the child is one of the rare individuals with aspirin sensitivity. Because asthma is a long-term disorder with a variety of treatments, doctors work with parents and children to make sure they understand the disorder as well as possible. Adolescents and mature younger children should participate in developing their own asthma management plans and establishing their own goals for therapy to improve adherence to treatment. Parents and children should learn how to determine the severity of an attack, when to use drugs and a peak flow meter, when to call the doctor, and when to go to the hospital. Parents and doctors should inform school nurses, child care providers, and others of the child's disorder and the drugs being used. Some children may be permitted to use inhalers in school as needed, and others must be supervised by the school nurse. Generic NameSelect Brand Names aspirinNo US brand name formoterolFORADIL AEROLIZER, PERFOROMIST * This is the Consumer Version. *

http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/children-s-health-issues/respiratory-disorders-in-children/asthma-in-children

There is no single best way to draw good mathematics models to help you or your kids solve the problems on hand, choose the one that appeals to you most or rather one that you can understand best. Do bear in mind that the model drawn is merely a tool to help you break down the problem into smaller parts, see the relationship between the parts and arrive at the number sentence (i.e. 3 + 4 = ?). The questions presented here are intentionally made simple to assist you in your understanding. You can proceed to more complicated questions once you are comfortable with the method. To add 3 + 4, draw two boxes, one to represent 3 and the other to represent 4. For this model, there are a few ways to draw it. They are presented below. You may choose the one that you like most. From the model, we arrived at the conclusion that the unknown value (?) can be calculated by adding the two boxes with known values (3 and 4). Hence, we formulate the number sentence ======> 3 + 4 = ? Other ways to draw the add model are presented below.

http://www.teach-kids-math-by-model-method.com/addition.html

Statics/Two-Dimensional Equilibrium< Statics There are six equations expressing the equilibrium of a rigid body in 3 dimensions. Sum of Forces: , , Sum of Moments: , , In two dimensions one direction of force and two directions of moments can be ignored. When forces exist only in the x and y directions, there cannot be a moment in any direction except z. The equations of concern when forces only exist in the x and y directions are shown below. Sum of Forces: , Sum of Moments: To solve two dimensional statics problems: - Write equations for force equilibrium - Write equations for moment equilibrium - Once you have the same number of equations as unknowns the problem can be solved, you may have to strategically pick points to write moment equations etc. A couple exerts the same moment at every point as demonstrated in this section. After looking at the picture to the right the following equations can be written. Counter clockwise moments are considered positive and clockwise negative. F1 = F2 The moment about all points is the force multiplied by the distance between the forces. If you found the moment about D, or any other point you would continue to find the same moment. All points have the same moment, even points that aren't in the x-y plane. The picture to the right shows the forces acting on a parked car. If the weight of the car acts exactly halfway between the two wheels and the weight is 1000 lbs how much force is exerted on the rear wheel? What about the front wheel? Writing the force equations There are no forces in the x direction Writing moment equation about front wheel subbing back into the Please note that and are distributed over two wheels. Each front wheel supports half of and each back wheel supports half of . - A uniform ring of mass and radius carries an eccentric mass at a radius and is in equilibrium position on an incline, which makes an angle with the horizontal. If the contacting surfaces are rough enough to prevent slipping, write the expression for the angle which defines the equilibrium position.

https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Statics/Two-Dimensional_Equilibrium

A magnetar is a type of neutron star with an extremely powerful magnetic field. The magnetic field decay powers the emission of high-energy electromagnetic radiation, particularly X-rays and gamma rays. The theory regarding these objects was proposed by Robert Duncan and Christopher Thompson in 1992, but the first recorded burst of gamma rays thought to have been from a magnetar had been detected on March 5, 1979. During the following decade, the magnetar hypothesis has become widely accepted as a likely explanation for soft gamma repeaters (SGRs) and anomalous X-ray pulsars (AXPs). Like other neutron stars, magnetars are around 20 kilometres (12 mi) in diameter and have a greater mass than the Sun. The density of the interior of a magnetar is such that a thimble full of its substance would have a mass of over 100 million tons. Magnetars are differentiated from other neutron stars by having even stronger magnetic fields, and rotating comparatively slowly, with most magnetars completing a rotation once every one to ten seconds, compared to less than one second for a typical neutron star. This magnetic field gives rise to very strong and characteristic bursts of X-rays and gamma rays. The active life of a magnetar is short. Their strong magnetic fields decay after about 10,000 years, after which activity and strong X-ray emission cease. Given the number of magnetars observable today, one estimate puts the number of inactive magnetars in the Milky Way at 30 million or more. Starquakes triggered on the surface of the magnetar disturb the magnetic field which encompasses it, often leading to extremely powerful gamma ray flare emissions which have been recorded on Earth in 1979, 1998, and 2004. Magnetars are characterized by their extremely powerful magnetic fields of 108 to 1011 tesla. These magnetic fields are hundreds of millions of times stronger than any man-made magnet, and quadrillions of times more powerful than the field surrounding Earth. Earth has a geomagnetic field of 30–60 microteslas, and a neodymium-based, rare-earth magnet has a field of about 1.25 tesla, with a magnetic energy density of 4.0×105 J/m3. A magnetar's 1010 tesla field, by contrast, has an energy density of 4.0×1025 J/m3, with an E/c2 mass density >104 times that of lead. The magnetic field of a magnetar would be lethal even at a distance of 1000 km due to the strong magnetic field distorting the electron clouds of the subject's constituent atoms, rendering the chemistry of life impossible. At a distance of halfway from earth to the moon, a magnetar could strip information from the magnetic stripes of all credit cards on Earth. As of 2010[update], they are the most powerful magnetic objects detected throughout the universe. As described in the February 2003 Scientific American cover story, remarkable things happen within a magnetic field of magnetar strength. "X-ray photons readily split in two or merge together. The vacuum itself is polarized, becoming strongly birefringent, like a calcite crystal. Atoms are deformed into long cylinders thinner than the quantum-relativistic de Broglie wavelength of an electron." In a field of about 105 teslas atomic orbitals deform into rod shapes. At 1010 teslas, a hydrogen atom becomes a spindle 200 times narrower than its normal diameter. Origins of magnetic fields The strong fields of magnetars are understood as resulting from a magnetohydrodynamic dynamo process in the turbulent, extremely dense conducting fluid that exists before the neutron star settles into its equilibrium configuration. These fields then persist due to persistent currents in a proton-superconductor phase of matter that exists at an intermediate depth within the neutron star (where neutrons predominate by mass). A similar magnetohydrodynamic dynamo process produces even more intense transient fields during coalescence of pairs of neutron stars. When in a supernova, a star collapses to a neutron star, its magnetic field increases dramatically in strength. Halving a linear dimension increases the magnetic field fourfold. Duncan and Thompson calculated that when the spin, temperature and magnetic field of a newly formed neutron star falls into the right ranges, a dynamo mechanism could act, converting heat and rotational energy into magnetic energy and increasing the magnetic field, normally an already enormous 108 teslas, to more than 1011 teslas (or 1015 gauss). The result is a magnetar. It is estimated that about one in ten supernova explosions results in a magnetar rather than a more standard neutron star or pulsar. On March 5, 1979, a few months after the successful dropping of satellites into the atmosphere of Venus, the two Soviet spacecraft, Venera 11 and 12, that were then drifting through the Solar System were hit by a blast of gamma radiation at approximately 10:51 EST. This contact raised the radiation readings on both the probes from a normal 100 counts per second to over 200,000 counts a second, in only a fraction of a millisecond. This burst of gamma rays quickly continued to spread. Eleven seconds later, Helios 2, a NASA probe, which was in orbit around the Sun, was saturated by the blast of radiation. It soon hit Venus, and the Pioneer Venus Orbiter's detectors were overcome by the wave. Seconds later, Earth received the wave of radiation, where the powerful output of gamma rays inundated the detectors of three U.S. Department of Defense Vela satellites, the Soviet Prognoz 7 satellite, and the Einstein Observatory. Just before the wave exited the Solar System, the blast also hit the International Sun–Earth Explorer. This extremely powerful blast of gamma radiation constituted the strongest wave of extra-solar gamma rays ever detected; it was over 100 times more intense than any known previous extra-solar burst. Because gamma rays travel at the speed of light and the time of the pulse was recorded by several distant spacecraft as well as on Earth, the source of the gamma radiation could be calculated to an accuracy of about 2 arcseconds. The direction of the source corresponded with the remnants of a star that had gone supernova around 3000 B.C.E. It was in the Large Magellanic Cloud and the source was named SGR 0525-66, the event itself was named GRB 790305b, the first observed SGR megaflare. On February 21, 2008 it was announced that NASA and researchers at McGill University had discovered a neutron star with the properties of a radio pulsar which emitted some magnetically powered bursts, like a magnetar. This suggests that magnetars are not merely a rare type of pulsar but may be a (possibly reversible) phase in the lives of some pulsars. On September 24, 2008, ESO announced what it ascertained was the first optically active magnetar-candidate yet discovered, using ESO's Very Large Telescope. The newly discovered object was designated SWIFT J195509+261406. On September 1, 2014, ESA released news of a magnetar close to supernova remnant Kesteven 79. Astronomers from Europe and China discovered this magnetar, named 3XMM J185246.6+003317, in 2013 by looking at images that had been taken in 2008 and 2009. In 2013, a magnetar PSR J1745-2900 was discovered, which orbits the black hole in the Sagittarius A* system. This object provides a valuable tool for studying the ionized interstellar medium toward the Galactic Center. As of November 2013[update], 21 magnetars are known, with five more candidates awaiting confirmation. A full listing is given in the McGill SGR/AXP Online Catalog. Examples of known magnetars include: - SGR 0525-66, in the Large Magellanic Cloud, the first found (in 1979) - SGR 1806-20, located 50,000 light-years from Earth on the far side of the Milky Way in the constellation of Sagittarius. - SGR 1900+14, located 20,000 light-years away in the constellation Aquila. After a long period of low emissions (significant bursts only in 1979 and 1993) it became active in May–August 1998, and a burst detected on August 27, 1998 was of sufficient power to force NEAR Shoemaker to shut down to prevent damage and to saturate instruments on BeppoSAX, WIND and RXTE. On May 29, 2008, NASA's Spitzer telescope discovered a ring of matter around this magnetar. It is thought that this ring formed in the 1998 burst. - SGR 0501+4516 was discovered on 22 August 2008. - 1E 1048.1−5937, located 9,000 light-years away in the constellation Carina. The original star, from which the magnetar formed, had a mass 30 to 40 times that of the Sun. - As of September 2008[update], ESO reports identification of an object which it has initially identified as a magnetar, SWIFT J195509+261406, originally identified by a gamma-ray burst (GRB 070610). - CXO J164710.2-455216, located in the massive galactic cluster Westerlund 1, which formed from a star with a mass in excess of 40 solar masses. - SWIFT J1822.3 Star-1606 discovered on 14 July 2011 by Italian and Spanish researchers of CSIC and Catalonia's space studies institute. This magnetar contrary to previsions has a low external magnetic field. - 3XMM J185246.6+003317 Discovered by international team of astronomers, looking at data from ESA's XMM-Newton X-ray telescope. A recent progress in theory suggests that the energy deposition from these magnetars into the expanding supernova remnant could possibly explain some observed cases of unusually bright supernovae. Traditionally such bright events are thought to come from very large stars when they become pair-instability supernova (or pulsational pair-instability supernova). However, two papers published in 2010 by astrophysicists at the University of California, Berkeley, University of California, Santa Cruz and University of California, Santa Barbara provided semi-analytical and numerical models to explain some of the brightest events ever seen, such as SN 2005ap and SN 2008es. A research led by Matt Nicholl, of the Astrophysics Research Centre at Queen's School of Mathematics and Physics of Queen's University Belfast, the results of which were published on October 17, 2013 in Nature, has explained the newly discovered luminous transient PTF 12dam through the same mechanism. - Ward; Brown lee, p.286 - Kouveliotou, C.; Duncan, R. C.; Thompson, C. (February 2003). "Magnetars". Scientific American; Page 35. - "Magnetars, Soft Gamma Repeaters and Very Strong Magnetic Fields". Robert C. Duncan, University of Texas at Austin. March 2003. Retrieved 2007-05-23. - Kouveliotou, C.; Duncan, R. C.; Thompson, C. (February 2003). "Magnetars". Scientific American; Page 36. - "McGill SGR/AXP Online Catalog". Retrieved 2 Jan 2014. - "HLD user program, at Dresden High Magnetic Field Laboratory". Retrieved 2009-02-04. - Naeye, Robert (February 18, 2005). "The Brightest Blast". Sky & Telescope. Retrieved 17 December 2007. - Duncan, Robert. "`MAGNETARS', SOFT GAMMA REPEATERS & VERY STRONG MAGNETIC FIELDS". University of Texas. Retrieved 2013-04-21.[dead link] - Wanjek, Christopher (February 18, 2005). "Cosmic Explosion Among the Brightest in Recorded History". NASA. Retrieved 17 December 2007. - Dooling, Dave (May 20, 1998). ""Magnetar" discovery solves 19-year-old mystery". Science@NASA Headline News. Retrieved 17 December 2007. - Price, Daniel J.; Rosswog, Stephan (May 2006). "Producing Ultrastrong Magnetic Fields in Neutron Star Mergers". Science 312 (5774): 719–722. arXiv:astro-ph/0603845. Bibcode:2006Sci...312..719P. doi:10.1126/science.1125201. PMID 16574823. - Kouveliotou, p.237 - Popov, S. B.; Prokhorov, M. E. (April 2006). "Progenitors with enhanced rotation and the origin of magnetars". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 367 (2): 732–736. arXiv:astro-ph/0505406. Bibcode:2006MNRAS.367..732P. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09983.x. - Cline, T. L., Desai, U. D., Teegarden, B. J., Evans, W. D., Klebesadel, R. W., Laros, J. G., (Apr 1982). "Precise source location of the anomalous 1979 March 5 gamma-ray transient". Journal: Astrophysical Journal 255: L45–L48. Bibcode:1982ApJ...255L..45C. doi:10.1086/183766. - "Biggest Explosions in the Universe Powered by Strongest Magnets". Retrieved 9 July 2015. - Shainblum, Mark (21 February 2008). "Jekyll-Hyde neutron star discovered by researchers]". McGill University. - "The Hibernating Stellar Magnet: First Optically Active Magnetar-Candidate Discovered". ESO. 23 September 2008. - "Magnetar discovered close to supernova remnant Kesteven 79". ESA/XMM-Newton/ Ping Zhou, Nanjing University, China. 1 September 2014. - "Strange Ring Found Around Dead Star". - Francis Reddy, European Satellites Probe a New Magnetar (NASA SWIFT site, 06.16.09) - Westerlund 1: Neutron Star Discovered Where a Black Hole Was Expected - Magnetar Formation Mystery Solved, eso1415 - Science Release (14 May 2014) - Wood, Chris. "Very Large Telescope solves magnetar mystery" GizMag, 14 May 2014. Accessed: 18 May 2014. - Kasen, D.; L. Bildsten. (1 Jul 2010). "Supernova Light Curves Powered by Young Magnetars". ApJ 717: 245–249. arXiv:0911.0680. Bibcode:2010ApJ...717..245K. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/717/1/245. - Woosley, S. (20 Aug 2010). "Bright Supernovae From Magnetar Birth". ApJl 719 (2): L204. arXiv:0911.0698. Bibcode:2010ApJ...719L.204W. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/719/2/L204. - Queen's University, Belfast (16 October 2013). "New light on star death: Super-luminous supernovae may be powered by magnetars". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 21 October 2013. - M. Nicholl, S. J. Smartt, A. Jerkstrand, C. Inserra, M. McCrum, R. Kotak, M. Fraser, D. Wright, T.-W. Chen, K. Smith, D. R. Young, S. A. Sim, S. Valenti, D. A. Howell, F. Bresolin, R. P. Kudritzki, J. L. Tonry, M. E. Huber, A. Rest, A. Pastorello, L. Tomasella, E. Cappellaro, S. Benetti, S. Mattila, E. Kankare, T. Kangas, G. Leloudas, J. Sollerman, F. Taddia, E. Berger, R. Chornock, G. Narayan, C. W. Stubbs, R. J. Foley, R. Lunnan, A. Soderberg, N. Sanders, D. Milisavljevic, R. Margutti, R. P. Kirshner, N. Elias-Rosa, A. Morales-Garoffolo, S. Taubenberger, M. T. Botticella, S. Gezari, Y. Urata, S. Rodney, A. G. Riess, D. Scolnic, W. M. Wood-Vasey, W. S. Burgett, K. Chambers, H. A. Flewelling, E. A. Magnier, N. Kaiser, N. Metcalfe, J. Morgan, P. A. Price, W. Sweeney, C. Waters. (17 Oct 2013). "Slowly fading super-luminous supernovae that are not pair-instability explosions". Nature. 7471 502 (346): 346–9. arXiv:1310.4446. Bibcode:2013Natur.502..346N. doi:10.1038/nature12569. PMID 24132291. - Books and literature - Ward, Peter Douglas; Brownlee, Donald (2000). Rare Earth: Why Complex Life Is Uncommon in the Universe. Springer. ISBN 0-387-98701-0. - Kouveliotou, Chryssa (2001). The Neutron Star-Black Hole Connection. Springer. ISBN 1-4020-0205-X. - Mereghetti, S. (2008). "The strongest cosmic magnets: soft gamma-ray repeaters and anomalous X-ray pulsars". Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 15 (4): 225–287. arXiv:0804.0250. Bibcode:2008A&ARv..15..225M. doi:10.1007/s00159-008-0011-z. - Schirber, Michael (2 February 2005). "Origin of magnetars". CNN. - Naeye, Robert (18 February 2005). "The Brightest Blast". Sky and Telescope. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to:|

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetar

Table of Contents How is hemoglobin measured? Several methods exist for measuring hemoglobin, most of which are done currently by automated machines designed to perform different tests on blood. Within the machine, the red blood cells are broken down to get the hemoglobin into a solution. The free hemoglobin is exposed to a chemical containing cyanide that binds tightly with the hemoglobin molecule to form cyanomethemoglobin. By shining a light through the solution and measuring how much light is absorbed (specifically at a wavelength of 540 nanometers), the amount of hemoglobin can be determined. Continue Reading - How Is Atrial Fibrillation Affecting You? - Men and Iron Supplements - Are We Close to a Cure for Cancer? - Early Care for Your Premature Baby - What to Eat When You Have Cancer - When to Take More Pain Medication

http://www.rxlist.com/hemoglobin/page2.htm

Proportional representation (PR) characterizes electoral systems by which divisions in an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body. Seen and Heard. What made you want to look up proportional representation? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible). HOW PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION ELECTIONS WORK Douglas J. Amy We in the United States are very used to our single-member district, winner-take-all style of elections. proportional representation definition. An electoral system in which seats in a legislature are awarded to each party on the basis of its share of the popular vote. Party List Voting. Party list voting systems are by far the most common form of proportional representation. Over 80% of the PR systems used worldwide are some form ... Proportional representation, electoral system that seeks to create a representative body that reflects the overall distribution of public support for each political party proportional representation n. Representation of all parties in a legislature in proportion to their popular vote. proportional representation n (Government, Politics ... A presentation of arguments critical of geographical orientation electoral systems and suggesting pure proportional representation as viable alternative. The Constitutional Convention addressed multiple concerns in the process of designing the new Congress. The first was the relationship of the least populous states to ... Proportional representation is a type of electoral system that decides the make-up of a parliament by allocating seats on the basis of the number of votes each party ...

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Stand up too quickly and you might see stars. Analysing the area of the brain that creates these tiny flashes of light could help blind people to see. If certain areas of the brain that process visual information are activated – by a blow to the head, for example – tiny stars of light appear in vision. People experience such “phosphenes” even if their eyes are closed or they are blind. Peter Schiller of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge and his colleagues stimulated these brain areas in monkeys to determine what the phosphenes look like to them and where they appear in line of sight. First, they trained rhesus macaques to stare at two dots on a computer screen and direct their gaze towards the larger dot or the dot of higher contrast to the background. Schiller then implanted electrodes in each monkey’s primary visual cortex (V1), the main region responsible for processing visual information. Schiller then removed one of the two dots on the computer screen and replaced it with a phosphene by stimulating an area of the V1. If the monkey’s gaze moved towards the phosphene, Schiller knew the star must be larger or of higher contrast than his programmed dot. By varying the size of the dot on the screen, as well as the darkness and colour of the background, Schiller worked out that the stars were between 9 to 26 arc minutes (1 arc minute is 1/60th of a degree) in diameter and appeared in a variety of colours, including pink, blue, green and yellow. “We want to understand the brain to help the blind,” Schiller says. His goal is to pair electrical stimulation of the visual cortex with a small camera – this would allow researchers to stimulate the visual cortex with a pattern of activity that translates the information captured by the camera, giving a kind of sight to blind people. “There is growing interest in developing and applying brain-machine interfaces and neural prostheses, but there is not a whole lot of foundation in terms of understanding the coupling of physical signals you put into the brain and perceptual experiences you get out of the brain,” says John Maunsell of Harvard Medical School. “Studies like this allow you to move forward. Imagine if you could give vision back to people who have lost function of their eyes but have a perfectly intact brain.” Journal reference: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1108337108 More on these topics:

https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21033-stars-in-your-eyes-to-help-blind-people-see/

Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are gamma globulin proteins that are found in blood or other bodily fluids of vertebrates, and are used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects, such as bacteria and viruses. They are typically made of basic structural units—each with two large heavy chains and two small light chains—to form, for example, monomers with one unit, dimers with two units or pentamers with five units. Antibodies are produced by a kind of white blood cell called a plasma cell. There are several different types of antibody heavy chains, and several different kinds of antibodies, which are grouped into different isotypes based on which heavy chain they possess. Five different antibody isotypes are known in mammals, which perform different roles, and help direct the appropriate immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter. Although the general structure of all antibodies is very similar, a small region at the tip of the protein is extremely variable, allowing millions of antibodies with slightly different tip structures, or antigen binding sites, to exist. This region is known as the hypervariable region. Each of these variants can bind to a different target, known as an antigen. This huge diversity of antibodies allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide diversity of antigens. The unique part of the antigen recognized by an antibody is called an epitope. These epitopes bind with their antibody in a highly specific interaction, called induced fit, that allows antibodies to identify and bind only their unique antigen in the midst of the millions of different molecules that make up an organism. Recognition of an antigen by an antibody tags it for attack by other parts of the immune system. Antibodies can also neutralize targets directly by, for example, binding to a part of a pathogen that it needs to cause an infection. The large and diverse population of antibodies is generated by random combinations of a set of gene segments that encode different antigen binding sites (or paratopes), followed by random mutations in this area of the antibody gene, which create further diversity. Antibody genes also re-organize in a process called class switching that changes the base of the heavy chain to another, creating a different isotype of the antibody that retains the antigen specific variable region. This allows a single antibody to be used by several different parts of the immune system. Production of antibodies is the main function of the humoral immune system. Subscribe to rss feed

http://medicalxpress.com/tags/antibodies/sort/date/6h/

Radiation levels on the International Space Station are as high as they were on the antiquated Russian space station Mir, in spite of NASA’s attempts to clad the ISS with better shielding. If NASA can’t protect astronauts, its vision of sending a crew into deep space may come to nothing. Data collected by NASA and a Russian-Austrian collaboration show that astronauts on the ISS are subjected to about 1 millisievert of radiation per day, about the same as someone would get from natural sources on Earth in a whole year. Spending three months in these conditions translates into about one-tenth the long-term cancer risk incurred by regular smokers. While this may be an acceptable risk, sending astronauts beyond the Earth’s protective magnetic field will vastly increase their exposure. “If you sent two people to Mars, one of them would die,” says Marco Durante of the Federico II University in Naples, who has studied the health effects of radiation in Mir astronauts for ESA. Radiation inside the ISS, and the now defunct Mir, is caused when the fast, heavy ions that make up cosmic rays collide with the aluminium hull, releasing a shower of secondary particles into the living quarters. To mitigate this effect, the ISS has been fitted with additional polyethylene shielding that contains lighter atomic nuclei, which are less likely to throw out neutrons when hit by cosmic rays. The data shows this lowers astronaut exposure by a few per cent, but this is not as much as was hoped, says Thomas Berger of the Austrian Universities’ Atom Institute in Vienna. Entirely new technologies The shielding could be scaled up to cut out up to 30 per cent of the dose at the Lagrangian point, where NASA envisages setting up a space station (see NASA prepares to boldly go). But that is not enough, says Frank Cucinotta, head of NASA’s ISS radiation group at the Jet Propulsion Lab in Pasadena, California. “It doesn’t get rid of the whole exposure unless you put in so much it’s incredibly heavy.” Entirely new shielding technologies will have to be developed, he says, and no one knows how long that might take. The effects of this kind of radiation on the body are not well understood. NASA works with the same exposure limits as those set by the US Environmental Protection Agency for radiation workers on Earth – no one should receive a dose that increases their relative risk of dying of cancer by over 15 per cent. Cucinotta says the radiation risk on the ISS is 5 per cent. But Durante disagrees. In a study of eight astronauts who had spent 70 days or longer on Mir, he found three with chromosomal abnormalities that might be precancerous. From this he calculates that there is a 20 per cent higher risk of dying from cancer – above NASA’s limits. There is even less of a consensus on how to convert radiation dose into cancer risk for the three to fourfold increase in radiation levels that exist beyond low-Earth orbit. That makes it impossible for authorities or the astronauts to make an informed decision about what they are letting themselves in for. And while it might be worth taking a higher risk for a one-off mission, it’s not acceptable to send dozens of astronauts routinely into high-risk situations, like those that could exist at the Lagrangian points.

https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2956-space-station-radiation-shields-disappointing

Geoboards Teacher Resources Find Geoboards educational ideas and activities Showing 1 - 20 of 292 resources Awesome Area - Geometry and Measurement Break out those math manipulatives, it's time to teach about area! Capturing the engagement of young mathematicians, this three-instructional activity series supports children with learning how to measure the area of squares, rectangles,... 2nd - 4th Math CCSS: Adaptable Unit of Measures used in Measuring the Area of a Triangle/Parallelogram Third, fourth, and fifth graders explore area measurement. First, they define and identify parallelograms. They then construct parallelograms on a geoboard and determine the area by covering it with paper square centimeters. They also... 3rd - 5th Math

http://www.lessonplanet.com/lesson-plans/geoboards

Students will read the comic book, "A Penny Saved" published by the New York Federal Reserve Bank. Students will make the information relevant through projects, graphic organizers, teacher instruction, and problems. Consumers are faced with tough choices because so many innovative and exciting products and services are available. Therefore, engraining a decision-making process that includes considering of opportunity cost is necessary to shape future consumer behavior. How do banks calculate the amount of interest paid on a loan? In this lesson, students will view a Livescribe Pencast to learn how to find the dollar amount in interest that is due at maturity. This lesson uses different time periods such as days, months, and years in the calculation as well as varying interest rates. The following lessons come from the Council for Economic Education's library of publications. Clicking the publication title or image will take you to the Council for Economic Education Store for more detailed information. This publication contains complete instructions for teaching the lessons in Capstone. When combined with a textbook, Capstone provides activities for a complete high school economics course. 45 exemplary lessons help students learn to apply economic reasoning to a wide range of real-world subjects. 7 out of 45 lessons from this publication relate to this EconEdLink lesson. This publication helps students analyze energy and environment issues from an economics perspective. 6 out of 10 lessons from this publication relate to this EconEdLink lesson. This publication contains lessons for teaching personal finance concepts to 9-12 students. Lessons for older students illustrate certain uses of more abstract representations. 4 out of 24 lessons from this publication relate to this EconEdLink lesson.

http://www.econedlink.org/economic-standards/EconEdLink-related-publications.php?lid=570

Combined-Cycle Power Plant - How It Works Inner Workings of a Combined-Cycle Power Plant A combined-cycle power plant uses both a gas and a steam turbine together to produce up to 50 percent more electricity from the same fuel than a traditional simple-cycle plant. The waste heat from the gas turbine is routed to the nearby steam turbine, which generates extra power. How a Combined-Cycle Power Plant Produces Electricity This is how a combined-cycle plant works to produce electricity and captures waste heat from the gas turbine to increase efficiency and electrical output. Gas turbine burns fuel. - The gas turbine compresses air and mixes it with fuel that is heated to a very high temperature. The hot air-fuel mixture moves through the gas turbine blades, making them spin. - The fast-spinning turbine drives a generator that converts a portion of the spinning energy into electricity. Heat recovery system captures exhaust. - A Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) captures exhaust heat from the gas turbine that would otherwise escape through the exhaust stack. - The HRSG creates steam from the gas turbine exhaust heat and delivers it to the steam turbine. Steam turbine delivers additional electricity. - The steam turbine sends its energy to the generator drive shaft, where it is converted into additional electricity.

https://powergen.gepower.com/resources/knowledge-base/combined-cycle-power-plant-how-it-works.html

Northeast Ohio was shaped by mountains of ice, and the impacts on land, water and plant communities linger today. Starting about 300,000 years ago, Northeast Ohio was covered several times by massive sheets of glacial ice that expanded from the north. The most recent advance of ice, the Wisconsinan, arrived from Canada about 24,000 years ago and lasted until about 14,000 years ago. The ice sheets may have been a mile thick over the Erie basin, and they extended over northern, central and western portions of Ohio. They bulldozed the land and blanketed it with a layer of glacial deposits—rocks, sand, silt and clay that had been scraped up by the ice on its way southward. This glacial topography is well preserved today because, from a geological perspective, so little time has passed for erosion and weathering to occur. The glaciers changed the course of rivers and shaped Lake Erie. They also changed the ecology of Northeast Ohio, bringing plants of the northern boreal forest—spruce, fir, tamarack, cedar, hemlock—to this region. When the last glacier retreated and the climate warmed, species quickly migrated from the south and established the deciduous forest we see today. These great transformations occured just a few thousand years ago. Thus, on the surface we have a very young landscape. Ohioans have made great use of resources deposited or created by the glaciers, including: - Rich agricultural soils - Surface waterways and groundwater stored in aquifers of glacial sediments - Sand and gravel for construction - Peat for use as a mulch and soil conditioner - Clays for making bricks and pottery For more on glacial history, see "The Ice Age in Ohio" by Michael C. Hansen of the Ohio Division of Geological Survey. The best bike trails > Find out where are the most interesting bike rides in Northeast Ohio Maple sugaring as spring rite > See sugar maples tapped for syrup and celebrate this old local tradition Find local food > Explore local food resources and a map of farmers markets in Northeast Ohio

http://www.gcbl.org/explore/land/glacial-legacies

NASA’s asteroid-hunting ship came out of hibernation last month, and it has already spotted its first space rock. The asteroid — 2013 YP139 — lacks a catchy name, but it’s a marker of progress in NASA’s mission to locate, land on, and reroute an asteroid by 2025. Its spotter, a spacecraft known as NEOWISE, emerged from two years of dormancy in December to continue searching the sky for potential targets. It found 34,000 asteroids in its first run, so the latest find should be the first of many more discoveries. A few facts about 2013 YP139: It’s currently 27 million miles from Earth, but could come within 300,000 miles of our planet’s orbit — nearly as close as the moon — making it a potentially hazardous asteroid. Scientists estimate its diameter at .4 miles. By comparison, the meteor that streaked over Russia last year, exploding with the force of 20 atomic bombs, injuring 1,500 people, and damaging thousands of buildings, measured only about 65 feet. NASA says impact by an asteroid bigger than a half-mile in diameter would have “worldwide effects.” It’s as dark as a piece of coal, but gives off high amounts of infrared light. The asteroid — unlike the super-hot stars that provide its backdrop — is close to room temperature. Separately, NASA also announced Tuesday that it has found the first asteroid of 2014 to reach planet Earth: a 6-to-9-foot rock that entered the atmosphere on New Year’s Day before it broke up over the Atlantic Ocean.

https://www.nationaljournal.com/tech/2014/01/07/nasas-asteroid-hunter-has-its-first-target

The first permanent residents of Zanzibar seem to have been the ancestors of the Hadimu and Tumbatu, who began arriving from the E African mainland c.A.D. 1000. They had belonged to various mainland ethnic groups, and on Zanzibar they lived in small villages and did not coalesce to form larger political units. Because they lacked central organization, they were easily subjugated by outsiders. Traders from Arabia, the Persian Gulf region of modern Iran (especially Shiraz), and W India probably visited Zanzibar as early as the 1st cent.; they used the monsoon winds to sail across the Indian Ocean and landed at the sheltered harbor located on the site of present-day Zanzibar town. Although the islands had few resources of interest to the traders, they offered a good point from which to make contact with the towns of the E African coast. Traders from the Persian Gulf region began to settle in small numbers on Zanzibar in the late 11th or 12th cent.; they intermarried with the indigenous Africans and eventually a hereditary ruler (known as the Mwenyi Mkuu or Jumbe), emerged among the Hadimu. A similar ruler, called the Sheha, was set up among the Tumbatu. Neither rulers had much power, but they helped solidify the ethnic identity of their respective peoples. The Chinese admiral Cheng Ho (Zheng He) moored his vast trading fleet in the Zanzibar harbor early in the 15th cent. The first European to visit Zanzibar was the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama in 1499; by 1503 the Portuguese had gained control of Zanzibar, and soon they held most of the E African coast. The Portuguese established a trading station and a Roman Catholic mission in Zanzibar and dominated the island for some 200 years. Nonetheless, their cultural impact proved to be minimal. In 1698, Arabs from Oman ousted the Portuguese from E Africa, including Zanzibar. The Omanis gained nominal control of the islands, but until the reign of Sayyid Said (1804–56) they took little interest in them. Said recognized the commercial value of E Africa and increasingly turned his attention to Zanzibar and Pemba. In 1840 he permanently moved his court to Zanzibar town, and proceeded to exploit the natural resources of the island by planting thousands of clove trees. Said brought many Arabs with him, and they gained control of Zanzibar's fertile soil, forcing most of the Hadimu to migrate to the eastern part of Zanzibar island. The Hadimu were also obligated to work on the clove plantations. Said controlled much of the E African coast, and Zanzibar became the main center of the E African ivory and slave trade. Some of the slaves were used on the clove plantations, and others were exported to other parts of Africa and overseas. Zanzibar's trade was run by Omanis, who organized caravans into the interior of E Africa; the trade was largely financed by Indians resident on Zanzibar, many of whom were agents of Bombay firms. On Said's death in 1856 his African and Omani holdings were separated, with his son Majid becoming sultan of Zanzibar. Majid was succeeded as sultan by Barghash in 1870, by Khalifa in 1888, by Ali ibn Said in 1890, by Hamid ibn Thuwain in 1893, by Hamoud ibn Muhammad in 1896, by Ali in 1902, by Khalifa ibn Naroub in 1911, by Abdullah ibn Khalifa in 1960, and by Jamshid ibn Abdullah in 1963. From the 1820s, British, German, and U.S. traders were active on Zanzibar. As early as 1841 the representative of the British government on Zanzibar was an influential adviser of the sultan. This was especially the case under Sir John Kirk, the British consul from 1866 to 1887. In a treaty with Great Britain in 1873, Barghash agreed to halt the slave trade in his realm. During the scramble for African territory among European powers, Great Britain gained a protectorate over Zanzibar and Pemba by a treaty with Germany in 1890. The sultan's mainland holdings were incorporated in German East Africa (later Tanganyika), British East Africa (later Kenya), and Italian Somaliland. The British considered Zanzibar an essentially Arab country and maintained the prevailing power structure. The office of sultan was retained (although stripped of most of its power), and Arabs, almost to the exclusion of other groups, were given opportunities for higher education and were recruited for bureaucratic posts. The chief government official during the period 1890 to 1913 was the British consul general, and from 1913 to 1963 it was the British resident. From 1926 the resident was advised by a legislative assembly. After World War II political activity in Zanzibar increased. In the 1950s three main political parties were established—the Zanzibar Nationalist party (ZNP) and its offshoot the Zanzibar and Pemba People's party (ZPPP), both of which principally represented the Arabs, and the Afro-Shirazi party (ASP), whose followers were Africans. In 1957 popularly elected representatives sat on the legislative council for the first time, and in 1961, they were given a majority of seats. In June, 1963, Zanzibar gained internal self-government, and a ZNP-ZPPP coalition emerged victorious in elections held in July. On Dec. 10, 1963, Zanzibar (including Pemba) became independent, with Sultan Jamshid ibn Abdullah as head of state and Prime Minister Muhammad Shamte Hamadi, also an Arab, as the leader of government. On Jan. 12, 1964, this arrangement was overthrown by a violent leftist revolt of the Africans led by John Okello. A republic was declared, with Abeid Karume of the ASP as its president and as head of the Revolutionary Council (the country's chief governmental body). The sultan was forced into exile, all land was nationalized, the ZNP and ZPPP were banned, and numerous Arabs were imprisoned. Subsequently, many other Arabs and some Indians left the country. Three months later Zanzibar and Tanganyika agreed to merge, and the resulting republic was renamed Tanzania in Oct., 1964. Zanzibar retains considerable independence in internal affairs, but its foreign relations and defense are handled by the central government. Zanzibar's chief executive serves as the first vice president of Tanzania when Tanzania's president is Tanganyikan, and as second vice president when Tanzania's president is Zanzibari. In 1979 a separate constitution was approved for Zanzibar. In 1984, Zanzibar's president, Aboud Jumbe, resigned, as the Tanzanian government appeared to be seeking greater control over Zanzibar. Ali Hassan Mwinyi, a mainland loyalist, took over as president and several secessionists were arrested. Mwinyi went on to introduce liberal reforms in Zanzibar and in the mainland and became president of Tanzania in 1986. In 1990, Dr. Salmin Amour became president of Zanzibar; he was returned to office in a 1995 vote that observers said was rigged. Amani Karume was elected president in 2000 in an election with such blatant irregularities that international observers denounced it as showing contempt for Zanzibar's citizens; the opposition, which favored greater independence, had been expected to do well. An accord signed in 2001 called for a number of electoral and governmental reforms that were designed to end political tensions. Karume was reelected in 2005 in an election that was criticized for some irregularites and political violence and denounced by the opposition, but it was also regarded as an improvement over previous elections. Subsequent negotiations to establish a coalition government that would include the opposition, which is especially strong on Pemba, proved unsuccessful, but in 2010 voters in a referendum approved the formation of proportionally based power-sharing coalition governments. A 2006 court challenge by Zanzibari activists to the legality of the 1964 Act of Union that formed Tanzania was dismissed by the High Court of Zanzibar. Ali Mohamed Shein, the ruling party candidate, was narrowly elected president in 2010. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/world/zanzibar-semi-autonomous-archipelago-island-tanzania-history.html

Asperger's Syndrome, now called autism spectrum disorder, level 1 in the DSM-V, affects a person's ability to communicate and socialize. People with Asperger's have medium to high IQs and may achieve great success in life, but they struggle with social awkwardness and limited nonverbal communication skills. The symptoms of Asperger's are shared by people with a range of other disorders, so it can be tricky to diagnose. Recognizing the Signs 1Look for unusual nonverbal communication skills. Starting from early childhood, people with Asperger’s exhibit marked differences in the way they communicate. These differences are the most noticeable symptoms, especially during childhood, before they have been taught tools they can use to communicate more effectively. Look for the following differences in communication style: - A tendency to avoid eye contact. - Limited use of varying facial expressions, and/or monotone voice. - Limited use of expressive body language, such as hand gestures and nodding. 2Watch for signs of selective mutism. Selective mutism is when someone speaks only to those with whom he feels comfortable, and stays silent around everyone else. This is common among people with Asperger’s. They may speak openly with their parents and siblings, but stay silent at school and around people they don't know very well. In many cases, selective mutism can be overcome later in life. - Sometimes people find it difficult or impossible to speak during sensory overload, a meltdown, or in general. This may not necessarily be selective mutism; however, it is also a symptom of Asperger's Syndrome. 3Determine if the person has trouble reading the social cues of others. A person with Asperger’s may have difficulty imagining how others feel, and difficulty picking up on nonverbal cues. She may be confused about facial expressions or body language that conveys happiness, sadness, fear, or pain. Here are some ways this difficulty might manifest itself: - The person might not recognize when she has said something hurtful, or when she’s making someone uncomfortable in a conversation. - A child might play too rough, not realizing that pushing or other aggressive physical contact can be painful. - The person constantly asks about people's feelings (e.g. "Are you sad?" "Are you sure that you're tired?") because she isn't sure how the other person feels. If the other person answers dishonestly, she may become very confused and try to seek an honest answer instead of letting it be. - The person will act very surprised, sad, and apologetic when told that her actions were inappropriate. It seems that she had absolutely no idea. She may feel worse than the person whose feelings were hurt. 4Notice one-sided conversations. Individuals with Asperger's may not always know how to maintain a back-and-forth conversation, especially when it comes to subjects of interest to them, or moral topics like human rights. He might become so wound up in the subject matter that he misses signs that the person he's talking to has something to say or is bored with the conversation. - Some people with Asperger’s realize that they monopolize conversations sometimes, and are thus afraid to talk about their interests at all. If someone is hesitant to talk about his favorite subject, and seems to expect the other person to get upset or bored with him, then he may be trying to suppress this impulse for fear of social repercussions. 5See if the person has intense passions. Many people with Asperger's take a special, almost obsessive interest in a few subjects. For example, a person with Asperger’s who is interested in baseball might memorize the name and stats of every player on every Major League team. Other people with Asperger’s might love writing, writing novels and spouting nuanced writing advice from a young age. Later in life, these passions can develop into successful and enjoyable careers. 6See if the person has trouble making friends. People with Asperger’s may have trouble making friends, since they have a hard time communicating effectively. Many people with Asperger’s want to make friends with others, but lack the social skills to do so. Their avoidance of eye contact and awkward conversation attempts can be misread as rudeness or being antisocial, when really they would like to get to know people better. - Some people with Asperger’s, especially young children, may not demonstrate an interest in interacting with others. This usually changes as they age, and they develop the desire to get along and fit in with a group. - People with Asperger's might end up with just a few close friends who really understand them, or they may surround themselves with acquaintances they don't connect with on a deep level. - People with autism are more likely to be bullied, and trust people who take advantage of them. 7Notice the person's physical coordination. People with Asperger's often lack coordination skills, and may be a little clumsy. They might often trip or bump into walls and furniture. They may not excel at performing heavy physical activity or sports. Confirming the Diagnosis 1Read up on Asperger's Syndrome to help you make decisions. Medical and psychological researchers are still in the process of learning how to correctly diagnose the disorder, as well as how it should be treated. You are likely to see different doctors and therapists take different approaches to treatment, and that can be very confusing. Reading up on your own will help you better understand the varying approaches and make decisions as to which ones are best for you or your family member. - Read things written by people with autism. There is a lot of misinformation about autism, and people with autism can offer the deepest insight about how it works and which treatments are the most effective. Read literature from autism-friendly organizations. - Organizations like the National Autistic Society or MAAP publish up-to-date information about diagnosing, treating and living with Asperger's. - Reading a book written by someone with Asperger's about that experience is a good way to get insight into the disorder. Try Nerdy, Shy, and Socially Inappropriate by Cynthia Kim or Loud Hands: Autistic People, Speaking, an anthology of essays by autistic writers. 2Keep a diary of symptoms you observe. Everyone exhibits social awkwardness and some of the other symptoms of Asperger's from time to time, but if you keep a diary and take note of each instance, you'll start to pick up on patterns. If the person really does have Asperger's, you're likely to see the same symptoms happening again and again, not just once or twice. - Write down detailed descriptions of what you observe. That way, you'll be able to give potential doctors and therapists as much information as possible to help get a correct diagnosis. - Keep in mind that many symptoms of Asperger's are shared by other disorders, like OCD or ADHD. It's important to be open to the possibility that it's something else (or multiple things), so this person can receive the right kind of treatment. 3Take an online test. There are several online tests designed to determine whether a person might have Asperger's. The test taker is asked a series of questions related to their social activities, favorite ways to spend time, and strengths and weaknesses to see if the common symptoms of Asperger's seem to be present. - The results of an online test for Asperger's syndrome are in no way the same as a diagnosis. Rather, it's a way to determine whether further testing might be necessary. If the test reveals a tendency towards autism, you might want to make an appointment with the family doctor to find out more. 4Get your family doctor's opinion. After you've taken an online test and you're reasonably sure that a disability is present, start by making an appointment with your general practitioner. Bring your symptom journal and share your concerns. The doctor will likely ask you a series of questions and ask you to elaborate on the specifics. If the doctor shares your feeling that Asperger's or another developmental disability might be at play, ask for a referral to a specialist. - Having that first conversation with a professional can be an intense experience. Thus far, you may have kept your concerns mostly private. Sharing them with a doctor might change everything. But whether the person you're concerned about is yourself or your child, you're doing the right thing by acting instead of ignoring what you've observed. 5See a specialist for a full evaluation. Before the appointment, do research on the psychiatrist or psychologist to whom you are referred. Make sure the person specializes in working the autism spectrum. The appointment will probably consist of an interview and a test with questions similar to the questions on the online tests. Once a diagnosis is given, the specialist will give recommendations as to how to proceed. - During your meeting, don't be afraid to ask a lot of questions about the person's experience, diagnosis and treatment approach. - If you aren't completely confident that the diagnosis is correct, seek a second opinion. Taking the Next Steps 1Work with a team of professionals you trust. Dealing with Asperger's requires a multi-pronged approach with teachers, caretakers, physicians, and therapists. It's very important to get outside help from experienced and compassionate professionals. First and foremost, find a psychologist or therapist you connect with and trust – someone you'll be glad to have in your life for years to come as you work through the challenges that accompany autism. - If something feels off or uncomfortable after a few therapy sessions, don't hesitate to find someone who's a better match for you or your child. Trust is an important element when it comes to treating Asperger's. - In addition to finding a trusted therapist, you might want the insight of specialized educators, nutritionists, and other professionals who can help you navigate the special needs of you or your child. - Never go to a specialist who supports Quiet Hands, uses corporal punishment, physically restrains people, withholds food, insists that "a little crying" (panic) is normal, doesn't allow you to monitor the session, or supports organizations that the autistic community considers destructive. People with autism can develop PTSD from this treatment. - In general, if the person with autism enjoys the therapy and looks forward to going, then it's probably good. If he seems more anxious, disobedient, or panicked, then it's probably hurting instead of helping. 2Seek out emotional support. Living as a person with autism can be challenging, and learning to cope can be a lifelong process. In addition to meeting with doctors and therapists to figure out the best course of treatment, consider seeking support from the Autism NOW, ASAN, or a local Asperger's support group. Find people you can call when you have questions, or when you just need someone to talk to who understands what you're going through. - Do an online search for Asperger's support groups in your town. There may be one associated with the schools in your area. - Consider attending a conference put on by the US Autism and Asperger's Association, ASAN, or another prominent group. You'll gain access to a wealth of resources, learn about cutting-edge treatment methodologies, and meet people with whom you might want to keep in touch. - Join an organization run for and by people with autism, such as ASAN or the Autism Women's Network. You can meet other people with autism while making a positive difference in the world. 3Organize your life to meet your unique needs. People with Asperger’s face more challenges than neurotypicals, especially in the arena of social interaction. However, people with Asperger’s can have full, wonderful relationships – many marry and have children – and highly successful careers. Being mindful of the person's unique needs, helping her overcome her setbacks and celebrating her strengths can give her the best chance to have a fulfilling life. - One essential way to make life better for a person with Asperger's is to have a routine you stick to, since this can help her feel more secure. When you do have to switch things up, take the time to explain exactly why so the person understands. - Modeling social skills for someone with Asperger's can help her learn by example. For example, you can teach the person to say hello and shake hands while making eye contact. The therapist you work with will give you the right tools to do this effectively. - Celebrating the person's passion and allowing her to run with it is a good way to support someone with Asperger's. Nurture the person's interest and help her excel at it. - Show the person that you love her and her autism too. The best gift to give a person with Asperger’s is accepting her for who she is. Questions and Answers Give us 3 minutes of knowledge! - When telling people about your disability, it might be beneficial to explain the symptoms that affect you most, and add that these symptoms are especially intense for people with Asperger’s. (For example, everyone makes social mistakes sometimes, but people with Asperger’s do it more often.) - Offer to share some links to articles. Read through the blogs of autistic writers, find your favorite articles, and bookmark them so that you can email or print them for curious people. This might be useful for people who aren't experienced with developmentally disabled people, who are curious, or who are giving you a hard time due to ignorance. - If you think you or someone else has Asperger's, look for the symptoms, do multiple online tests, and do research. - Asperger's syndrome may be coupled with other disabilities, including OCD, anxiety, epilepsy, depression, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, etc. If you suspect you have any of these disorders, bring it to the attention of someone close, or a medical consultant. - If people refuse to believe you, do not give up. Asperger's Syndrome is a neurological difference that should be diagnosed and supported accordingly, and consulting a medical advisor is vital. Sources and Citations - ↑ http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/asperger/detail_asperger.htm - ↑ http://www.iidc.indiana.edu/?pageId=472 - ↑ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2861522/ - ↑ http://psychcentral.com/lib/aspergers-syndrome/ - ↑ https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/asp.html - ↑ http://www.iidc.indiana.edu/pages/Making-and-Keeping-Friends-A-Model-for-Social-Skills-Instruction - ↑ http://kidshealth.org/parent/medical/brain/asperger.html - ↑ http://www.aspergersyndrome.org/Home.aspx - ↑ http://psychcentral.com/quizzes/autism.htm - ↑ http://www.autism.org.uk/about-autism/all-about-diagnosis/diagnosis-information-for-adults/how-do-i-get-a-diagnosis.aspx - ↑ http://psychcentral.com/lib/how-aspergers-disorder-is-diagnosed/ - ↑ http://www.aane.org/about_asperger_syndrome/asperger_syndrome_diagnosis_adults.html - ↑ http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/autism-spectrum-disorder/basics/definition/con-20021148?reDate=28092015 - ↑ Unstrange Mind: ABA When is your child fine, and when do you need to worry? - ↑ Quiet Hands by Julia Bascom - ↑ What Does Helpful vs. Harmful Therapy Look Like? - ↑ An Open Letter to Families Considering Intensive Behavioral Therapy for their Child with Autism - ↑ http://www.usautism.org/ - ↑ http://www.parenting.com/article/ask-dr-sears-coping-with-asperger-syndrome Categories: Autism Diagnosis Process In other languages: Español: hacerte una prueba para saber si tienes el síndrome de Asperger, Italiano: Diagnosticare la Sindrome di Asperger, Deutsch: Auf Asperger‐Syndrom testen, Français: détecter le syndrome d'Asperger, Português: Examinar a Síndrome de Asperger, Русский: выявить синдром Аспергера, Bahasa Indonesia: Menguji Sindrom Asperger, 中文: 测试是否患有亚斯伯格症候群 Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 55,873 times.

http://www.wikihow.com/Test-for-Asperger's

Bitwise Shift Operators The shift operators shift their first operand left (<<) or right (>>) by the number of positions the second operand specifies. shift-expression << additive-expression shift-expression >> additive-expression Both operands must be integral values. These operators perform the usual arithmetic conversions; the type of the result is the type of the left operand after conversion. For leftward shifts, the vacated right bits are set to 0. For rightward shifts, the vacated left bits are filled based on the type of the first operand after conversion. If the type is unsigned, they are set to 0. Otherwise, they are filled with copies of the sign bit. For left-shift operators without overflow, the statement expr1 << expr2 is equivalent to multiplication by 2expr2. For right-shift operators, expr1 >> expr2 is equivalent to division by 2expr2 if expr1 is unsigned or has a nonnegative value. The result of a shift operation is undefined if the second operand is negative, or if the right operand is greater than or equal to the width in bits of the promoted left operand. Since the conversions performed by the shift operators do not provide for overflow or underflow conditions, information may be lost if the result of a shift operation cannot be represented in the type of the first operand after conversion. unsigned int x, y, z; x = 0x00AA; y = 0x5500; z = ( x << 8 ) + ( y >> 8 ); In this example, x is shifted left eight positions and y is shifted right eight positions. The shifted values are added, giving 0xAA55, and assigned to z. Shifting a negative value to the right yields half the original value, rounded down. For example, –253 (binary 11111111 00000011) shifted right one bit produces –127 (binary 11111111 10000001). A positive 253 shifts right to produce +126. Right shifts preserve the sign bit. When a signed integer shifts right, the most-significant bit remains set. When an unsigned integer shifts right, the most-significant bit is cleared.

https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/f96c63ed.aspx

On this page you will find 52 free, printable worksheets on mass media. This mass-media worksheet encourages intermediate and upper intermediate learners to consider the positive and negative effects of television, complete some comprehension exercises, and think about the future of mass media. There are a variety of activities and the short article could be used to lead into a discussion too. You could even create your own true or false questions to further test student comprehension. There is a lot of variety in the activities dealing with this topic so for lower level learners or even more advanced material, look through the rest of the section. Mass media plays a prominent role in the lives of many people today while others are entirely without the things many of us take for granted. You can talk to your students about mass media when discussing habits. Ask “How many hours of TV do you watch?” and compare that to how many hours they spend reading. Ask them to imagine what they would do with that time if the TV suddenly broke and see what they have to say. Remember not to criticize their lifestyles because that is not the point of the exercise and many people enjoy sitting down to several hours of mindless TV in the evening after a long day of work or school. Students in some countries are just as stressed by their studies as adults are with their jobs so that downtime is precious to them. Movie Worksheet: President Obama's Statement on the Paris Attacks Channel One News The Oxford English Dictionary - New Words for 2015 Types of Media Media Habits Quiz Movie Worksheet: Media's Manipulative Influence Movie Worksheet: Mad City (the Media) Graphic Novel Worksheet: The Influencing Machine - on the Media Debate: Should the Media Be Regulated by the Government? Game, Tic Tac Toe Information Gap Task 2/4: City Events Television Reality Series Entertainment Listening Task Movie Worksheet: TED- The Key to Media's Hidden Codes Write and Present the News Got a great worksheet on Mass-media? Tell us about it and become a BusyTeacher contributor!

http://busyteacher.org/classroom_activities-vocabulary/massmedia-worksheets/

The basic unit is obviously the day: 24 hours, 1440 minutes, 86400 seconds, each second slightly longer than the average heartbeat. The day is defined by the motion of the Sun across the sky, and a convenient benchmark is noon, the time when the Sun is at its highest (i. e. most distant from the horizon) and is also exactly south or north of the observer. “One day" can therefore be conveniently defined as the time from one noon to the next. A sundial can track the Sun's motion across the sky by the shadow of a rod or fin (“gnomon") pointing to the celestial pole (See the chapter “Making a Sundial" in the From Stargazers to Starships FlexBook® resource on www.ck12.org for construction of a folded-paper sundial), allowing the day to be divided into hours and smaller units. Noon is the time when the shadow points exactly south (or north) and is at its shortest. What then is the period of the Earth's rotation around its axis? A day, you might guess? Not quite. Suppose we observe the position of a star in the sky --- for instance Sirius, the brightest of the lot. One full rotation of the Earth is the time it takes for the star to return to its original position (of course, we are the ones that move, not the star). That is almost how the day is defined, but with one big difference: for the day, the point of reference is not a star fixed in the firmament, but the Sun, whose position in the sky slowly changes. During the year the Sun traces a full circle around the sky, so that if we keep a separate count of “Sirius days" and “Sun days,” at the end of the year the numbers will differ by 1. We will get 366. 2422 “star days" but only 365. 2422 Sun days. It is the “star day" (sidereal day) which gives the rotation period of the Earth, and it is about 4 minutes shy of 24 hours. A clockwork designed to make a telescope follow the stars makes one full rotation per sidereal day. The clocks we know and use, though, are based on the solar day --- more precisely, on the average solar day, because the time from noon to noon can vary as the Earth moves in its orbit around the Sun. By Kepler's laws (discussed in a later section:http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Skeplaws.htm) that orbit is slightly elliptical. The distance from the Sun therefore varies slightly, and by Kepler's second law, the motion speeds up when nearer to the Sun and slows down when further away. Such variations can make “sundial time" fast or slow, by up to about 15 minutes. Very precise atomic clocks nowadays tell us that the day is gradually getting longer. The culprits are the tides, twin waves raised in the Earth's ocean by (mainly) the Moon's gravitational pull. As the waves travel around the Earth, they break against shorelines and shallow seas, and thus give up their energy: theory suggests that this energy comes out of the (kinetic) energy of the Earth's rotational motion.

http://www.ck12.org/book/Physics---From-Stargazers-to-Starships/section/14.1/