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4.5625	• In mathematics, that which is represented by an exponent or index, denoted by a superior numeral. A number or symbol raised to the power of 2 – that is, multiplied by itself – is said to be squared (for example, 32, x2), and when raised to the power of 3, it is said to be cubed (for example, 23, y3). Any number to the power zero always equals 1. Powers can be negative. Negative powers produce fractions, with the numerator as one, as a number is divided by itself, rather than being multiplied by itself, so for example 2-1 = 1/2 and 3-3 = 1/27. The exponent "product rule" tells us that, when multiplying two powers that have the same base, you can add the exponents. In this example, you can see how it works. Adding the exponents is just a short cut! The "power rule" tells us that to raise a power to a power, just multiply the exponents. Here you see that 52 raised to the 3rd power is equal to The quotient rule tells us that we can divide two powers with the same base by subtracting the exponents. You can see why this works if you study the example shown. According to the "zero rule," any nonzero number raised to the power of zero equals 1. The last rule in this lesson tells us that any nonzero number raised to a negative power equals its reciprocal raised to the opposite positive power. Roots and Radicals We use the radical sign : It means "square root". The square root is actually a fractional index and is equivalent to raising a number to the power 1/2. So, for example: 251/2 = √25 = 5 You can also have Cube root: (which is equivalent to raising to the power 1/3), and Fourth root: (power 1/4) and so on. Things to remember If a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0, we have: However, this only works for multiplying. Please note that does not equal Also, this one is often found in mathematics: Two kinds of logarithms are often used : common (or Briggian) logarithms and natural (or Napierian) logarithms. The power to which a base of 10 must be raised to obtain a number is called the common logarithm (log) of the number. The power to which the base e (e = 2.718281828.......) must be raised to obtain a number is called the natural logarithm (ln) of the number. 1) logb(mn) = logb(m) + logb(n) 2) logb(m/n) = logb(m) – logb(n) 3) logb(mn) = n · logb(m) 4) logb = logb x1/y = (1/y )logb x	http://www.slideshare.net/m2699/02prl
4.1875	What Are Epidemics, Pandemics, and Outbreaks? Epidemics, Pandemics, and Outbreaks continued... The World Health Organization (WHO) provides an influenza pandemic alert system, with a scale ranging from Phase 1 (a low risk of a flu pandemic) to Phase 6 (a full-blown pandemic): Phase 1: A virus in animals has caused no known infections in humans. Phase 2: An animal flu virus has caused infection in humans. Phase 3: Sporadic cases or small clusters of disease occur in humans. Human-to-human transmission, if any, is insufficient to cause community-level outbreaks. Phase 4: The risk for a pandemic is greatly increased but not certain. Phase 5: Spread of disease between humans is occurring in more than one country of one WHO region. Phase 6: Community-level outbreaks are in at least one additional country in a different WHO region from phase 5. A global pandemic is under way. How many people die from a pandemic depends upon: - The number of people who become infected - The severity of disease caused by the virus (its virulence) - The vulnerability of affected populations - The effectiveness of preventive steps Prevention: Slowing the Spread of Pandemic Disease There is no foolproof method for preventing the spread of disease during an influenza outbreak, epidemic, or pandemic. Although a vaccine is not likely to be available at first, today it is easier to produce specific vaccines more quickly than in the past. Once a vaccine becomes available, certain individuals and groups will be vaccinated first. If mass vaccination clinics become available in your community, be prepared to provide medical information about your family. In addition to vaccinations, you can take other prevention steps like these: Wash your hands often with soap and water. If these are not available, use an alcohol-based hand cleaner or gel sanitizer. If using a gel, rub your hands until they become dry. - Avoid touching your mouth, nose, or eyes with your hands unless you've just washed your hands. - When you cough or sneeze, cover your mouth and nose with a tissue. Then throw the tissue in the trash. Wash your hands afterward. - Avoid crowded places as much as you can and stay home if you show signs of illness. - Depending on the severity of the pandemic, consider wearing a face mask if you must go into a crowded area or be within 6 feet of others. - Consider wearing a face mask if you must come into close contact with an infected person.	http://www.webmd.com/cold-and-flu/what-are-epidemics-pandemics-outbreaks?page=2
4.0625	Have you ever watched a cat in action? When cats are chasing something, they move very fast. We may comment, “That cat has a lot of energy”. In saying that, we are more correct than we realize. One form of energy is seen when an object is moving and this type of energy is the basis for many chemical processes. SI Kinetic Energy Units An object’s kinetic energy is the energy due to motion. Kinetic energy can be defined mathematically as Energy is defined as the capacity to do work or to produce heat. As discussed previously, kinetic energy is one type of energy and is associated with motion. Another frequently encountered energy is potential energy, a type of energy that is stored in matter and released during a chemical reaction. The joule (J) is the SI unit of energy and is named after English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818-1889). If we go back to the equation for kinetic energy written above, we can put units in (kg for mass and m2/s2 for velocity squared). Then, in terms of SI base units a joule is equal to a kilogram times meter squared divided by a second squared (kg • m2/s2). Another common unit of energy that is often used is the calorie (cal), which is equivalent to 4.184 J. James Prescott Joule. - Energy is the capacity to do work or to produce heat. - Kinetic energy is the energy due to motion. - Potential energy is energy stored in matter. - The joule (J) is the SI unit of energy and equals kg • m2/s2. Use the link below to answer the following questions: - What is kinetic energy dependent upon? - Do molecules at a higher temperature move faster or slower than molecules at a lower temperature? - What happens when a chemical reaction releases energy? - What happens when a chemical reaction absorbs energy? - What is kinetic energy? - What is the mathematical equation for kinetic energy? - What is potential energy? - What is the SI unit for energy?	http://www.ck12.org/chemistry/SI-Kinetic-Energy-Units/lesson/SI-Kinetic-Energy-Units/r7/
4	Commemoration of the American Civil War The Commemoration of the American Civil War is a statement of American memory, with repercussions in local and regional history. People have shaped memories of the war according to their political, social and cultural needs, starting with the Gettysburg Address and dedication of the Gettysburg cemetery in 1863. Confederates, both veterans and women, were especially active in forging the myth of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy. - 1 Memorial Day - 2 Lost Cause of the Confederacy - 3 Grant's Tomb - 4 Gettysburg Battlefield - 5 Lincoln Memorial - 6 American Civil War Centennial (100) - 7 Civil War Sesquicentennial (150) - 7.1 Governmental support - 7.2 Reenactments - 7.3 Other commemoration - 7.4 Art - 7.5 Digital media - 7.6 Controversy - 8 Hollywood - 9 See also - 10 Notes - 11 Further reading Most of the war dead are buried at Arlington National Cemetery and other national cemeteries near the battle zones. Memorial Day (or "Decoration Day") originated shortly after the American Civil War to commemorate the Union and Confederate soldiers who died in the Civil War. The Confederates set up a different day at first but then merged it into the national holiday. By the 20th century, Memorial Day had been extended to honor all Americans who have died while in the military service. Lost Cause of the Confederacy The Lost Cause is the literary and intellectual movement that sought to reconcile the traditional white society of the South to the defeat of their new nation. Gallagher and Nolan say: - The architects of the Lost Cause acted from various motives. They collectively sought to justify their own actions and allow themselves and other former Confederates to find something positive in all-encompassing failure. They also wanted to provide their children and future generations of white Southerners with a 'correct' narrative of the war. The death of General Ulysses S. Grant in 1885 was the occasion for commemoration. A funeral train carried the body to New York City, where a quarter of a million people viewed in the two days prior to the funeral. His pallbearers included Union Generals William Tecumseh Sherman and Philip Sheridan, Confederate Generals Simon Bolivar Buckner and Joseph E. Johnston, Admiral David Dixon Porter, and John A. Logan, the head of the GAR. His body was laid to rest in the General Grant National Memorial ("Grant's Tomb"), the largest mausoleum in North America. Attendance at the New York funeral topped 1.5 million. Ceremonies were held in other major cities around the country. The Gettysburg battlefield, dedicated by President Lincoln who presented his iconic Gettysburg Address there in November 1863, contains hundreds of memorials to the regiments that fought there. Army veterans created the Gettysburg Battlefield Memorial Association in 1864, making it one of the earliest historic preservation organizations in the U.S. The battlefield is under the control of the national park Service and is a major tourist destination. The Lincoln Memorial in Washington was dedicated in 1922. It has become one of the most visited war memorials. It has been the site of many famous celebrations of freedom, most notably Marian Anderson's 1939 Concert and Martin Luther King's 1963 "I Have a Dream" speech. American Civil War Centennial (100) The shadow of ongoing conflict over American civil rights affected implementation of the 100-year commemorative activities. Neither Congress nor President Dwight D. Eisenhower were interested in a risking debate over single, unified, national theme for the commemoration, so the official interpretive work was carried out by the various state commissions. At the national Commission, key members urged different priorities. Emory University Professor Bell I. Wiley recommended a major effort to document and preserving information from historic letters, newspapers and public documents. Ulysses S. Grant III, the first chairman, wanted to emphasize large-scale events that appealed to the public, such as "sham battles" or reenactments. Businessman Karl Betts, the first executive director of the Commission, looked for ways it could spur economic development. They all agreed on a Cold War consensus to the effect that all good Americans were ideologically united, with the result that potentially divisive civil rights issues were not emphasized. The National Park Service was in overall charge; it wanted Congress to appropriate more money to re-landscape and interpret major battlefields along traditional lines. The Post Office issued a series of noncontroversial commemorative stamps to mark the centennial. The state commissions took a sectional perspective, using different key words and phrases to reflect their viewpoints, and sponsored and encouraged different public memorials and activities. Segregation was still in effect but it was under heavy attack by the Civil Rights Movement. The Southern states presented their official view that the infrastructure of Jim Crow and segregation was an organic reflection of a distinctive Southern "way of life." Many white Southerners responded with enthusiasm to invitations to celebrate their heritage, which they saw as one of courage on the battlefield and continuity afterwards. For the first time, many Americans, especially white Southerners, volunteered or were recruited into historical reenactment groups that performed pageants and re-creations of Civil War battles, field maneuvers, and encampments. Civil War Sesquicentennial (150) 2011 marked the 150th anniversary of the beginning of the American Civil War. Many in the American South attempted to incorporate both black history and white perspectives. A Harris Poll given in March 2011 suggested that Americans were still uniquely divided over the results and appropriate memorials to acknowledge the occasion. While traditionally American films of the Civil War feature "brother versus brother" themes, film treatments of the war are evolving to include African American characters. Benard Simelton, president of the Alabama NAACP, said celebrating the Civil War is like celebrating the "Holocaust". In reference to slavery, Simelton said that black "rights were taken away" and that blacks "were treated as less than human beings." National Park Service Acknowledging the need for an internet presence, the National Park Service launched a website about the 150th anniversary and Civil War history featuring a list of NPS events, as well as creating several digital humanities projects. These projects included databases of soldiers, cemeteries, and Medals of Honor awarded; an interactive time line of Civil War events, and a Twitter account featuring the daily accounts of a fictional Civil War newspaper reporter. The NPS and local governments hoped that the sesquicentennial would increase visitation to Civil War battlefield site, and generate revenue. Spotsylvania County made about $68,000 off of the special events for the Battle of Chancellorsville, which it considered insufficient, considering the effort. In honor of the 150th anniversary, the exhibits at the Chancellorsville Visitors Center got a $1.6 million upgrade. The original Visitors Center was originally completed to coincide with both the 100th anniversary of the Civil War and the 50th anniversary of the birth of the National Park Service. The new exhibit will reflect current research and scholarship. The National Park Service intends to create a contemplative space focusing on the sacrifices of those that fought in the war. Several park superintendents have been awarded the Appleman-Jude-Lewis Award for their efforts in commemorating the 150th anniversary of the American Civil War. Eight park service employees received the award, recognizing their work in "preserving the nation's cultural resources" The National Park Service's social media team was commended by a local newspaper for their photojournalism coverage of the Battle of Chancellorsville. Federal funding and grants In spite of the ongoing popularity of the war, there is no national commission to commemorate this sesquicentennial. The Civil War Sesquicentennial Commission Act, from the 107th, 108th, 109th 110th, 111th, 112th Congress all died in committee after being sent for review from other sub/committees. What all these acts have in common for the Civil War Sesquicentennial was to establish a commission to commemorate the sesquicentennial of the American Civil War, and a grant program. This Grant program would have appropriated $3,500,000.00 to the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) for grants for activities relating to the Sesquicentennial Civil War, but NEH is not directly sponsoring any Sesquicentennial projects. State humanities councils may sponsor their own sesquicentennial activities, partly using unrestricted funds that are given to each state by NEH. NPS federal funding National Park Service Budget Justification does not include any direct federal funding for the Civil War Sesquicentennial from FY 2008 through FY 2014. FY 2014 budget of $2.6 Billion FY 2013 budget of $2.6 Billion FY 2012 budget of $2.9 billion FY 2011 budget of $2.7 billion FY 2010 budget of $2.7 billion FY 2008 budget of $2.364 billion FY 2007 budget of $2.156 billion FY 2006 budget of $2.249 billion Civil War Battlefield Preservation Program (CWBPP) The Civil War Battlefield Preservation Program (established 1999) utilizes government matching grants and private funds to permanently protect Civil War battlefields that are not within national park boundaries. When the Interior Appropriations bill for FY 2010 is passed later this week it will include $9 million for the federal Civil War Battlefield Preservation Program (CWBPP). This money, the largest single-year allocation the program has ever received, will come from the federal Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF). Grants totaling $10 million a year are authorized through 2013 (as per the 2009 A BPP authorization (16 U.S.C 46 9k–1)). State funding and grants The Arkansas Civil War Sesquicentennial Commission has established a matching fund grant program for up to $2,000.00 for local commemoration of the Civil War in Arkansas. The Connecticut Civil War Commemoration Commission does not have a grant program, but does have a list of organizational Partners. The Civil War Sesquicentennial Planning Committee & Delaware Heritage Commission show no direct grants or funding for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. Georgia's Civil War Sesquicentennial website was created by the Tourism Division of the Georgia Department of Economic Development as part of the state's efforts to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the Civil War. This website does not talk about any grant program, but does have a partner website. The Illinois Civil War 150th Anniversary lists grant making partners but does not show a specific funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. The Iowa Civil War Sesquicentennial Committee website does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. The Kentucky Civil War Sesquicentennial Commission is creating Civil War heritage tourism development opportunities, educating students, training teachers, developing initiatives for new scholarship and encouraging events and activities across the commonwealth, but does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. The Maine Civil War Sesquicentennial site is hard to navigate and no signs of any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. Civil War Sesquicentennial Resources site gives no signs of any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. Michigan Civil War Sesquicentennial Committee does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. The Mississippi Sesquicentennial of the American Civil War Commission site does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. The Missouri Civil War Sesquicentennial Commission purpose is to increase awareness and understanding of Missouri's role in the Civil War but does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. - New Jersey New Jersey Civil War Sesquicentennial Committee does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. - New York New York State Civil War Sesquicentennial Committee does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. - North Carolina The North Carolina Civil War Sesquicentennial Committee does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. Civil War 150 Advisory Committee does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. Pennsylvania Civil War 150 (PACW 150) is the official statewide program commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Civil War, 2011-2015, which does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. - South Carolina The South Carolina Civil War Sesquicentennial Advisory Board does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. The Tennessee Civil War Sesquicentennial Commission was created to lead the state's efforts in commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Civil War does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. The Virginia Sesquicentennial of the American Civil War Commission has a tax-deductible donation to support the Civil War's 150 year. The Virginia Sesquicentennial of the American Civil War Commission (the Commission) and the Virginia Tourism Corporation (VTC) have created a special American Civil War Sesquicentennial Tourism Marketing Program that has a grant program for a 1 to 1 match up to $5,000.00 in promoting the observance of the 150th anniversary of the American Civil War. - West Virginia West Virginia Sesquicentennial of the American Civil War Commission's mission is to promote awareness, but does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. The Wisconsin Civil War Sesquicentennial Commission site does not show any funding or grant program directly for the Civil War Sesquicentennial. Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site. According to Historian Pam Sanfilippo "Historical societies, museums, and the NPS are all facing cuts in funding regardless of whether they are government or privately run.' Reenactments are a scripted form of educational or entertainment activity in which participants follow a prearranged plan to reconstruct aspects of an event or period which can include living histories, museum exhibits, plays, television, film, travelogues and historiographies. A century later at the Battle of Gettysburg 150th anniversary commemoration from June 28, 2013 to July 7, 2013 came the largest historical reenactment in the United States. There were approximately 12,000 re-enactors from around the world, over 200,000 spectators, 400 Gettysburg Anniversary Committee workers and nearly 500 reporters that attended the sesquicentennial. This 10 day event in a town of 7,800 people is thought to have brought in over $100 million in economic revenue. Reenactments for the American Civil War Sesquicentennial are not that much different from reenactments that have taken place in previous years. Most state that they are doing something extra for the 150th anniversary by adding more special events, more re-enactors, or extending the days they are open. However, despite the fanfare of the 150th anniversary, many of the Sesquicentennial Reenactments are very similar in size and organization to the reenactments held in previous years. The American Civil War reenactments incorporate more than just tactical movements of the specific battle being portrayed. The reenactments taking place are part of a larger living history that is put forth to transport the general public back to the Civil War era. Re-enactors of all backgrounds take part in portraying battles, life in camp, and life as a woman at reenactment events. Most reenactments incorporate an opening ceremony, a ladies tea, Union and Confederate Camps to explore, period appropriate sutlers (vendors), field hospitals, bands, military and Cavalry drills, and the actual battle reenactment. Because the war spanned five years the 150th anniversary reenactments are spread out not only across the country but across time as well, taking place from 2011 through 2015. Location and funding Because "current NPS policy does not allow for battle reenactments (simulated combat with opposing lines and casualties) on NPS property," many reenactments take place on private lands such as Boy Scout campgrounds and privately run parks rather than Historic Battlegrounds. However the National Park Service does make an exception regarding Gettysburg; most other sites for the Sesquicentennial are strictly living history sites. These living history sites still include re-enactors, just not full battle demonstrations. Funding for the sesquicentennial reenactments comes from mainly private sources. Most are local communities starting organizations such as the Gettysburg Anniversary Committee (GAC) formed in 1995 specifically to "promote and host the annual reenactment of the Battle of Gettysburg." Other, smaller reenactments are funded by corporate donations and local charities. For the Sesquicentennial these smaller events are hoping to raise more sponsors for the added traffic organizers are expecting. NPS versus reenactment groups The major clash between the NPS and local reenactment groups is the NPS policy prohibiting re-enactors from portraying opposing lines of battle as well as simulating casualties and deaths. The park service believes that the best way to honor those who died is to remember them in dedication ceremonies, not recreating their deaths. It cites safety as another main reason for leaving out reenactments, stating the black gunpowder used is volatile and can be dangerous to re-enactors as well as spectators. The NPS believes that the story of the American Civil War can be told accurately without the use of dangerous reenactments. Instead, the National Park Service leans heavily on re-enactors for living history events. The NPS is also conscious of the resources wasted in putting on full-scale reenactments. Re-enactors, who are generally amateur history enthusiasts, understand the safety concerns regarding black powder at their events and feel they do a good job at keeping the but public safe by using specific spectator areas. The fundamental issue for the re-enactors, especially for the 150th anniversary, is their belief that the best way to honor the fallen is by educating the public in the horrors that these men faced. In their view, the best way to do that is through battle reenactments and their attention to detail is a sign of respect for those who died. African American reenactors The involvement of Black troops during the war is undisputed, however their re-enactors have been missing from events such as battle reenactments, parades, and ceremonies since the first anniversary of the war. However, in the decades leading up to the sesquicentennial there has been an increasing amount of portrayal of what were called during the Civil War, "Colored Troops" in reenactments, representing soldiers for both the North and the South. This surge of interest in the Civil War by the African-American community is partially attributed to the 1989 movie Glory. As the number of African American re-enactors grows the number of educational events including them grow as well. For the 150th anniversary many events have been included to incorporate this new group of re-enactors, making the history more complete. Many black regiments participated in 2011 kicking off the sesquicentennial. Their reasons for participation are just as varied and personal as their white counterparts. The African American Civil War Memorial Freedom Foundation's charter organization is the Sons and Daughters of United States Colored Troops (USCT). In the Sesquicentennial period of April 2011 through May 2015, this site lists reenactments that are occurring that may include members of the USCT re-enactors. Of these planned re-enactments are the May 22–25, 2014 Fight or Freedom at Eastern Virginia sites of Fort Pocahontas at Wilson's Wharf along the James River where in of May 24, 1864, 2500 Confederate troops attacked a contingent of 1400 USCT who more than ably held their own. The Confederates were repulsed once additional Union forces arrived with the Southern troops taking a 5:1 ratio casualty loss. 23rd Regiment United States Colored Troops(USCT) are "the first colored soldiers to fight in combat against the Confederate army of Northern Virginia on May 15, 1864 during the battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse." Descendants and all interested parties of the history of this fighting group are invited to an organizational meeting of commemoration in January 2012. Finding a positive response, a nucleus of would be re-enactors begins meeting at John J. Wright Civil War Museum in Spotsylvania, Virginia. Monthly gatherings for history lectures on the USCT and the Civil War are often preludes to organizational plans for the formal Presentations of the Colors at historic gatherings, at Cemetery memorials and as a part of Living History Days wearing the full regalia of a 23rd Regiment USCT soldier, circa 1864. These meetings and photos of the public displays are catalogued on the 23rd Regiment Facebook page. Actual re-enactments are on May 19 and 20, 2012 for The Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse; on October 13, 2012 with an encampment at the Appomattox Court House National Historical Park, Virginia; on Memorial Day weekend in 2013 joining 3rd U.S. Regulars and the 13th Virginia Infantry as NPS honor guards at the Fredericksburg National Cemetery, Fredericksburg, Virginia. The idea of women re-enactors on the battlefield can be a touchy subject as not all women want to play the role of a nurse or local civilian; roles that are needed mainly for living history events. Women who want to play a combat roles (which was indeed played by a few women in disguise in the 1860s), find themselves up against history and the men who lead local Civil War Reenactment Regiments. The men who exclude women from their organizations cite historical accuracy as the main reason why women are excluded from their reenactments. However, Nina Brands argues that they are being more hypocritical than they realize. She says that re-enactors are much heavier than historic soldiers, but women are about the right size. Since 2011, the reenactment community is slowly beginning to open its ranks for female recruits in the sesquicentennial. Dual reenactments happened at both Antietam (2012) and Gettysburg (2013) to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the Civil War. Dual reenactments tend to create a division between the hobby's progressive, mainstream and farb re-enactors. They also create confusion about the events dates, times and registration periods. While neither reenactment committee is fighting the other dual reenactments ended up distracting from the entire celebration at hand and creates fights and arguments inside re-enacting regiments. Spectators offered less argumentative problems but insisted that the Gettysburg's tourism bureau tell them which reenactment they should attend. One reenactment is attempting to display historical accuracy, while the other is putting on a show for the spectators. Both are presented by two completely different entities looking to establish themselves as both educational and entertaining. Most re-enactment regiments vote as a group on which reenactment they feel best fits the unit, this is based on the type reenactment, the authenticity, registration and ticket price and the destination of where the profits will go. Academic and independent institutions commemorate the Sesquicentennial of the American Civil War (ACW) in their own manner. Some host memorial gatherings on the grounds of former slave communities; others hold community action street festivals incorporating education, musical presentations and social action job fairs and health clinics while still others arrange lecture series blending issues of the ACW with contemporary racial concerns. Ken Burns' project Noted documentarian Ken Burns has been working on a project to commemorate the Gettysburg Address given by Abraham Lincoln four months after the battle at Gettysburg. Titled "The Address," this documentary is set to be released in April 2014. Burns has an online website, "Learn the Address" that shows videos of noted individuals and ordinary folk alike reciting the Gettysburg Address. The site includes celebrities such as President Obama, former presidents George W. Bush and Bill Clinton, along with Steven Spielberg and Stephen Colbert. On November 9, 2013 President Obama's rendition of Lincoln's address was posted on this site. Obama came under attack from talk radio hosts who noted that his rendition left out the "under God" part (which exists in some but not all versions) White House spokesman Jay Carney explained that Obama had merely read the Nicolay copy of the address that Burns provided. Twenty-five States have formally established Sesquicentennial of the American Civil War committees, commissions or departments within each State that are then linked to the National Park Service website. Those States are: Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Regardless of configuration, they may involve both public and private funding partnerships. States with legislatively designated commissions are: Arkansas, Maine, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Virginia. States whose commemoratives are directed by state heritage agencies or historical societies are: Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, New Jersey, Ohio and Pennsylvania. The States that are relying on their own boards of tourism or economic development to present the Sesquicentennial story are: Georgia, Maryland, Missouri, North Carolina, Tennessee and West Virginia. New York, South Carolina and Utah are drawing from many entities to manage their commemoratives. Central Connecticut State University handles their State's presentations while in Wisconsin the Department of Veterans Affairs manages theirs. The States of Kansas and West Virginia are using the Sesquicentennials of their own States as a co-celebration with the national Civil War commemoratives. The Shiloh Museum of Ozark History as well as the State's Department of Arkansas Heritage brings together a varied group of communicators, professors, historians and even young Arkansas students, selected for their own prize winning essays on the Sesquicentennial. The four- to five-minute audio presentations cover topics as expected of the "Confederate Women of Arkansas" and "Arkansas Battlefield Archeology." The podcasts are also varied with "Unionism in Arkansas," "Medicine in Trans-Mississippi" and "Bats and the Civil War." One particularly egregious event is recounted in the podcast "Racial Atrocities during the Camden Expedition," the April 1864 engagement that commences as a forage for corn around Camden, Arkansas and ends in brutality against USCT. While the 1st Kansas Expeditionary force is setting about their re-supplying, they encounter the 29th Texas Cavalry, who they previously defeat at the engagement at Honey Springs. Now, it is 5000 Confederate troops defeating the almost 1200 Federal troops, among them the 1st Kansas Colored Infantry, in what becomes a part of the larger Battle of Poison Springs, Arkansas legacy. Of the 310 Federal troops killed near Camden, 116 are members of the 1st Kansas Colored Infantry. Nine wounded USCT troops are later sought by roaming members of the 29th Texas Cavalry and shot to death while undergoing treatment at battlefield aid stations, presumably in retaliation for battlefield actions "by Negroes against our Confederate troops." Podcast reader Mark K. Christ, a member of the Arkansas Preservation Board, comments: "This War became one of extermination." The State of Georgia's National Park Service (NPS) linked site offers a resource for examining and understanding the African American experience in the United States. The NPS selects "From the Civil War to Civil Rights" as the Sesquicentennial theme. The intent is to be more inclusive in nature than what has gone before in the Centennial period, when Jim Crow policies are still a factor in many Southern regions of the United States. To discuss issues of "African Americans in the Civil War" this NPS section is further broken into segments of Ethnography, African Reflections on the American Landscape and one focus group research, done under the auspices of Georgia researchers. Entitled "African American Attitudes toward the Civil War: The War of Jubilee: Tell Our Stories and We Will Come," is a partnership of Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park (KEMO) and the Kennesaw State University Center for the Study of the Civil War. Conducted in 2010, with the three goals of understanding the perspectives of the local African American community, inquiring how African Americans would like their history interpreted and finally, facilitating the incorporation of these desired interpretations into KEMO's presentations. Fifty-seven African American Participants with a history of involvement in heritage and/or preservation groups and also member participants with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) interact and discuss with the Facilitators. Questions are posed to get a sense of the Participants' attitudes about the Civil War and also about the displays presently offered at KEMO. The Participant's responses indicate that inclusive representation of the range of African American history remains doubtful. There persists the sense among Black citizens that the Southern White population is resistant to any change in the "Lost Cause" narrative and instead prefers and only supports the marginalization of African Americans by being represented as enslaved persons. The men and women of the Participant group suggest changes in data collection from African American families and communities, preferring more personalized histories be found and represented when telling their history. Facilitators list the inclusion of the USCT history as well as the stories of the diversity of the African American lives and communities both before and after the Civil War is included in an updated KEMO interpretation. The Facilitators are also recommending that the histories of the local, Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) and religious communities that grew from the post-War, mid-19th century are represented and that the educational community will engage in these efforts. Hartwick College in Oneonto, New York hosts a "Sesquicentennial Celebration" concurrent with the academic year from 2011 through 2012. This independent, 1500 undergraduate school with Lutheran roots arranges twenty nine lectures on topics of the Underground Railroad explained for a young audience with storytelling and puppeteers to the Historical Methods students culling college archives for institutional links to the Civil War. The intent of this symposium, among other things, is presumed to be inclusive of the African American experience, the institutional history of Hartwick College and the regional ties to the War. In December 2010, the Secession Ball is held on the 20th of that month in Charleston, South Carolina drew protests from the local National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The event is hosted by the Sons of Confederate Veterans at the Gaillard Municipal Auditorium. Re-enactors representing the Chairman that called for Secession in 1860 display the original "Ordinance of Secession" amidst attendees in antebellum period clothing. Lonnie Anderson of the Charleston NAACP states that the gathering is "nothing more than a celebration of slavery." Commenting on behalf of the Charleston Parks and Recreation Department, set to schedule and manage Sesquicentennial events within that county, Tom O'Rourke admits that "controversy and hard feelings" are expected during this commemorative period. Beyond the confrontations, there is anticipation that this will also open the lines of communication between all parties and the hopes that the Commemorative period will represent all South Carolinians' perspectives of the Civil War. As one of the activities for the State of Texas in this Sesquicentennial era, the city of Galveston has raised funds to erect a marker commemorating Juneteenth. This is significant as on June 19, 1865, Federal troops finally arrived in Galveston, Texas to declare that the Emancipation Proclamation has been signed two and one half years prior and that General Robert Lee has surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia on April 9 of that year. The War is over. A contraction of June 19 becomes Juneteenth, the designation of a day of joyous celebration that slavery is over and is annually commemorated. The Galveston Historical Society is also making available a seventy-two page pamphlet of African Americans in Texas: A Lasting Legacy Timeline that may be Downloaded at this site. This pamphlet includes a multitude of historical sites related to African American history in the State of Texas including churches, school, museums and residential and community districts. Photographs and brief synopsis of the locales are provided. The Commonwealth of Virginia, as a contribution to the 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War, conducts an annual Signature Conference Series commencing in 2009 and presented through 2015. The day-long meetings included panelists of note on topics that correlate to the circumstances leading up to, during and post-Civil War period. 2009 is "America on the Eve of the Civil War;" 2010: "Race, Slavery and the Civil War;" 2011: "Military Strategy;" 2012: "Leadership and Generalship in the Civil War;" 2013: "The Civil War at Home;" 2014: "The American Civil War in a Global Context;" 2015: "The Causes Won and Lost." The events may be by registered attendance at an academic center in Virginia or are available on DVD for purchase. Individual speaker presentations are approximately fifteen minutes in length. The 2010 Conference topic of "Race, Slavery and the Civil War: The Tough Stuff of American History and Memory is held in September of that year at Norfolk State University, Norfolk, Virginia and chaired by historian James O. Horton, PhD. A sampling of that day's panel are: David Pitcaithley, PhD on "Causes of the Civil War and Public History," and Ira Berlin, PhD speaks on "The African American Soldier." Edna Medford, PhD of Howard University discusses that in the quest for Black rights there must be a dismantling of the contemporary social and legal systems within that Southern culture that is maintaining slavery. Contemporary artists have found an opportunity to showcase their works in museums that are putting on exhibits for the Sesquicentennial. Artists like, Dale Gallon, Mort Kuntsler, and Don Troiani have commissioned pieces specifically for this anniversary as a way to capitalize on the revitalized popularity of the Civil War. Dale Gallon- Well- renowned historical artist, Dale Gallon has created 10 new oil paintings for the 150th Anniversary that are currently on display as reproduced murals at the Seminary Ridge Museum in Gettysburg. According to Gallon's website, "The museum will feature 20,000 square feet of interactive exhibit galleries and educational programming…" The 10 new pieces created by Gallon focus on 3 key themes that emphasize life during the Civil War; the first day of combat at the Battle of Gettysburg, hospitalization and treated the wounded, and the moral, spiritual, and civic debates that arose around the Civil War. In a release from the museum the executive director, Barbara Franco, states that the Gallon exhibit, "… will help visitors make a connection to the events on Seminary Ridge and help them understand the voices of duty and devotion focused on [in the exhibit]." The exhibit opened on July 1, 2013 on the 150th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg and is now a permanent feature of the museum. Mort Kuntsler- Kuntsler recently finished an exhibit at the South Carolina State Museum entitled, For Us the Living, that ran until April 7, 2013. The show included, 30 paintings and sketches, which were "a highlight of more than 350 Civil War scenes Kuntsler has painted over the past 25 years." After this show, Kuntsler only plans to paint 8 more Civil War themed pieces before retiring from this genre. This collection will be called, A Tribute to the Legend, and will feature, "historical locations, personalities, and events that are special to Kunstler." For the 150th anniversary of the Civil War, Kuntsler partnered with America Remembers to produce the Mort Kuntsler Civil War Sesquicentennial Tribute Rifle. The tribute rifle, a Henry rifle, which was a reliable gun during the war, is attributed with Kuntsler artwork in 24-karat gold. Don Troiani- Troiani has created a number of commissioned works for the 150th anniversary of the Civil War. Most notably, one oil piece that depicts a pivotal moment of African-American involvement on the battlefront, when Sgt. Maj. Thomas R. Hawkins, First Sgt. Alexander Kelly, and Lt. Nathan Edgerton rush forward and recover the Union colors. The painting was revealed in June 2013 at the Union League of Philadelphia. The Gettysburg Cyclorama- One of the most important preservation projects brought on by the 150th Anniversary was that of the Gettysburg Cyclorama. This huge art piece is 377 ft. long, 42 ft. high, and weighs 12.5 tons. The cyclorama was originally painted with oil on canvas by Paul Philippoteaux to commemorate the Battle of Gettysburg, and it was opened to the public at Chicago in 1883 with critical and popular acclaim. The enormity of the cyclorama surrounded audiences and transported them the height of the battle. After the popularity of cyclorama dwindled around the start of the 20th century with the popularity of motion pictures, it was taken down and stored in abysmal conditions until it was purchased, mended, and hung in 1913. The cyclorama was purchased by the National Park Service in the late 1940s and underwent its first major restoration in 1962, just before the Civil War Centennial. According to the National Park Service's website, the restoration required, "… hours of hand labor to repair water damaged portions of the painting and two large sections faded by years of direct sunlight." For the 150th Anniversary of the Civil War, the cyclorama underwent a five-year restoration project that started in 2003 at a cost of $15 million. For the restoration, "conservators separated the painting's 27 panels and cleaned each one inch by inch with cotton swabs, stabilized brittle areas and removed bad touchups and damaging glue." The painting, for the first time in decades, has been hung correctly so that it bows inward and gives audiences the feeling of 3-dimensionality. When the cyclorama was restored in 1962 a new visitor's center was commissioned to house the piece. Created by well renowned architect, Richard Neutra. Neurta's design was a part of the National Park's Services' Mission 66, which sought to update "deteriorated and dangerous conditions in the national parks." The visitor center he created was situated right on the battlefield. Through Mission 66, parks underwent modernization, and Neutra's design for the Gettysburg Visitor Center reflected that. "Critics claimed the new building represented the idealism that was a part of the modern movent of the 1960's." By 1999, however, the building had become decrepit and the NPS planned its demolition to restore the sight lines of the battleground its original 1863 aesthetic. This stirred a controversy amongst spectators, including Neutra's son, Dion Neutra, who believed the building itself was worthy of preservation and a part of the National Park Service's own history. Neutra's building closed in 2005 and the Cyclorama painting was moved to its new museum and visitor center in 2007, and two years later, in 2009, during the midst of the 150th anniversary of the Civil War, Neutra's building was bulldozed. The new visitor center opened in 2008 and was designed by Cooper, Robertson & Partners to resemble a 19th-century farm. Many states involved with the sesquicentennial incorporated music festivals as a tribute. The Wisconsin band, dressed in both blue and gray uniforms, sounded trumpets to popular military tunes to commemorate the Battle of Chancellorsville. This band modeled itself, among those of other states, after the original bands to each respective area. Commemorators expressed how bands shaped the Civil War by soothing the men who had seen so much death. Frankfort, Kentucky contributed a celebration of the music of the Civil War era in a Cornets and Cannons Festival. This performance includes period instruments and will include some of the best and most experienced brass bands today re-creating the music of the Civil War era. Performers from around the country contributed to the overall performance from September 1 through September 4, 2011. The Friends of Michigan History put on their third annual The Turning Point of the War, 1863 concert as a tribute to the Sesquicentennial. Both the male soldiers and the ladies of the band wear authentic Civil War outfits while 5th Michigan Regiment Band performed pre-1865 compositions on authentic brass instruments. Members of the band discussed their distress how too often historical events such as the sesquicentennial are completely lost in history. In addition to state bands, the sesquicentennial of the Civil war inspired popular band Civil War. Civil War posted a new music video for the track "Gettysburg" as a tribute to the anniversary on their latest album "The Killer Angels." The band commented on the released video as a contribution in respect for the one who lost their loves long ago on the battlefield of Gettysburg. Barter Theatre in Abingdon, Virginia premiered Rappahannock County and the theatre musical Civil War Voices, based on period diaries and letters of the period. In addition, the Shenandoah Valley Wayside Theatre and The Whipping Man, originally produced by Manhattan Theatre Club added to theater contributions around the country. However, controversy over how un-popularized other productions in states who chose to not commemorate the sesquicentennial, such as Chicago, has led supporters of commemoration to speak out to their local government about funding. In addition to theater performances, Decatur, Alabama, The Princess Theatre Center for the Performing Arts commemorated with a lecture of stories of the era, book signing, and a concert "Songs and Stories of the Civil War". The 1891 Fredonia Opera House in New York gave nod to the anniversary with a one-man, multimedia production A Better Band Than Mine. This production, originally created in 2002, is based on the actual letters of Civil War Musician, J. Herbert George, 10th Vermont Infantry. Creator Thomas Loughlin created this play due to his love of history of the Civil War and combining his fascination of digital technology. Numerous document digitization projects, such as the Civil War 150 Legacy Project: Document Digitization and Access, have been produced through legislature created commissions, like the Virginia Sesquicentennial of the American Civil War Commission. The document digitization projects involve the digitization, or computer imaging, of privately owned Civil War documents, such as soldier diaries or letters. Through the digitization of these documents, easier access and search of relevant Civil War information is readily available to the public online. These commissions aim to give scholars and the public information about the social, religious and political beliefs of Civil War Era soldiers. Various sesquicentennial apps for mobile devices have appeared, many of these applications free for use. Many of the apps contain various educational and informational features such as GPS battleground locators and guides as well as interactive photographs and maps. "Tennessee Civil War 150," is an app created by the state of Tennessee, which contains various educational features. These features include people, places, artifacts, events and a "nearby" feature, which uses GPS tracking to locate Civil War battlegrounds near your current location. Features such as its "artifacts" option on the homepage allows users to view photographs of various weapons and clothing items from the Civil War. Upon selecting a photo, a brief description of the item is displayed, educating users of its Civil War use as well as ownership history of the item. State tourism in digital media Digital media has played an important role in Civil War Sesquicentennial tourism. Various states' and battlefield use websites to promote the Civil War sites' activities that have sprouted as part of the sesquicentennial, efficiently and effectively. Organizations such as The Civil War Preservation Trust offer online features that create an itinerary of battlefields and their corresponding events. Through creating itineraries, guests are able to maximize their experience. In line with Civil War Sesquicentennial events, hotels near these events have incorporated the sesquicentennial into their tourism efforts, offering various "Civil War Packages," which include hotel stays, Civil War lectures, art, and battlefield options as well as discounts for purchasing these online packages. The state of Virginia has invested in online sesquicentennial tourism promotions, offering an online trip planner, and promoting less conventional Civil War attractions, such as trail tours, which offer a different story than traditional Civil War events like traditional battle reenactments. The Virginia State tourism website also offers its webpage in various languages, creating a larger audience for its tourism attempts. Many states, particularly Southern states, created special educational repositories for teaching the American Civil War during the Sesquicentennial. Many states utilize various Digital Humanities projects, particularly the National Endowment for the Humanities EDSITEment project The EDSITEment website provides ready-made lesson plans with guiding questions and significant primary sources to expand the curriculum. The inclusion of sourcework into online repositories can be used for gaining an understanding of the American Civil War. Other repositories used are listed below. Many digital educational resources for teachers have developed out of the sesquicentennial, including virtual reality games such as "ValleySim." This digital resource has been adopted by a number of schools, which allows users to virtually experience life of both Northern and Southern soldiers during the Civil War. Many states offer various educational resources for students and teachers on their Civil War Sesquicentennial websites, such as Pennsylvania on their page "Pennsylvania Civil War 150." Through their "Resources for Teachers" link, various resources are available, including interactive timelines and maps. Various institutions of higher education have also participated in sesquicentennial events. Longwood University has created a series of podcasts entitled That a Nation Might Live to commemorate issues, people and events of the Civil War. The University has integrated this project into undergraduate programs, creating active engagement between students and the Civil War through its written research by undergraduate students. There is a guide for middle school aged students that has resources geared specifically for them. The LibGuide is part of a project to encourage middle school and high school students to utilize archival collections for their projects, and to assist in making learning history more enjoyable.[clarification needed] The Gilder Lehrman Institute for American History is a non-profit digital history project for the nation's public school systems. They provide lesson plans but their focus is digitization of valuable primary sources for free viewing. The Library of Congress published a website for general viewing to transmit an American narrative. They offer small synopses of various important events before and during the war effort. The Library of Congress has a memory site. It provides a large database of primary sourcework for public school analysis. Everything is free access and open to anyone wishing to utilize their resources. The National Archives has created a mobile repository of Civil War information and artifacts that circulates to host museums. Commemoration for the Sesquicentennial of the American Civil War can be view through various social media sites like Instagram and Twitter through hashtags such as #CivilWar150, #CW150 and #CivilWar The Sesquicentennial is the first anniversary of the American Civil War that has seen the use of social media technologies. This technology offers a unique insight of the public's perspective on the sesquicentennial by allowing each person the opportunity to voice his or her opinion in a free forum. Typical users on these sites are photojournalists, bloggers and tourists visiting a wide selection of sesquicentennial events across multiple states. The photojournalists on average are above the age of 35 and tend to have a more serious opinion of the events. While many of the tourists appear to below the age of 25 and have a more lighthearted humorous view of the Civil War. The NPS asked President Obama to make some remarks at Gettysburg on the anniversary of Lincoln's speech. However, Obama declined and assigned the United States Secretary of the Interior, Sally Jewell, the task of appearing at Gettysburg on his behalf. In addition, "Gettysburg NMP Law Enforcement Ranger Morgan Brooks" read a prepared statement written by Obama for the event; this letter also appears on the White House website. Retraction of bad critique of Lincoln and reactions: The sesquicentennial of the Gettysburg Address also saw a regional paper called "The Patriot-News" retract a negative editorial it published on November 24, 1863 regarding "the silly remarks of the President." This belated retraction was much discussed in the media, and even became fodder for a Saturday Night Live skit featuring the character "Jebidiah Atkinson," played by Taran Killam. News publication "The Week" mocked the retraction and remarked that it "[wa]sn't the most consequential apology, nor the most belated." 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State Museum features paintings of famous Civil War artist, for The Rock Hill Herald: December 2nd, 2012 - McFarland, Laura, Kuntsler Plans Series, for The Winchester Star: November 30th, 2012 - Honoring the 150th Anniversary of the War Between the States with the Artwork of an American Master, for America Remembers: 2013 - Colimore, Edward, New Painting Honors Key Civil War Moment for African Americans for philly.com: June 20th, 2013 - The Gettysburg Cyclorama, for The National Park Service website: 2013 - Armas, Genaro C. and Livglio, Joann, Gettysburg Cyclorama allows new look at old work, for the Associated Press: June 27th, 2013 - Jonie, Andrew Pete, Interpreting Landscape: Understanding Through a Story of Architectural Experience, 1997. - Weaver, Stephanie, Protestors: Keep Cyclorama Building, for The Daily Record/ Sunday News: 02/25/2013 - Owens, Mitchell, Richard Neutra's Gettysburg Cyclorama to be Demolished, for Architectural Digest: January 25, 2013 - Jones, Meg (2013-04-22). "Band to play at Civil War battle's sesquicentennial". Jsonline.com. Retrieved 2014-04-28. - "Cornets & Cannons- Civil War Sesquicentennial Music Festival". Civilwar.com. 2011-09-04. Retrieved 2014-04-28. - "Band performs in honor of Civil War anniversary". The State News. 2013-06-01. Retrieved 2014-04-28. - "150th Anniversary Of "Gettysburg" Honored In New Civil War Video". Metal Underground. - McCabe, Terry (2011-10-12). "Civil War Sesquicentennial: Civil War plays elsewhere, not in Chicago". Citylitcivilwar.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2014-04-28. - "Decatur's Princess Theatre programs to commemorate Civil War sesquicentennial". AL.com. Retrieved 2014-04-28. - "Entertainment Theater - Opera House Celebrates Civil War Sesquicentennial with Multimedia Production". StarNewsDaily.com. Retrieved 2014-04-28. - Laura Drake Davis and Renee Savits, "Civil War 150 Legacy Project: Document Digitization and Access," Virginia Libraries 56, no. 4 (2010): 17. - Tim Rowland and Elizabeth Roland, " Sesquicentennial Apps," Civil War Times 52, no. 4 (2013): 1. - Designsensory, Inc, "Nearby," Tennessee Civil War 150 App, (2013): 1. - Designsensory, Inc, "Artifacts," Tennessee Civil War 150 App, (2013): Uniforms and Arms. - Jessica Rettig, "Visit a Civil War Battlefield," U.S. News & World Report 147, no. 11 (2010): 60-61. - "Historic Hotels of America Commemorates the Civil War Sesquicentennial with Website Enhancements" Historic Hotels of America, (2011): 1. - "The Civil War in Virginia", Virginia is for Lovers, accessed December 2, 2013. - "Deals and Events" Virginia Capital Region USA, accessed December 8, 2013. http://kr.capitalregionusa.org/explore-region/virginia - Humanities EDSITEment project - Eric Robelen, "Primary Sources Breathe Life into Civil War; Teachers are Using Firsthand Materials and Technology to Bring Deeper Understanding of the Era," Education Week 30, no. 28 (2011): 1 - "Pennsylvania Civil War 150" Pennsylvania Historic Society, accessed December 2, 2013. http://pacivilwar150.com/ExperiencetheCivilWar/Timeline - "Longwood University launches Civil War Sesquicentennial Podcast," Longwood University, November 1, 2010, http://www.longwood.edu/2010releases_29307.htm. - "First Step - Middle School US Civil War Guide - LibGuides Sandbox for Library Schools at Springshare". Libraryschool.libguidescms.com. 2014-04-23. Retrieved 2014-04-28. - "Civil War Trust". civilwar.org. - "Civil War Lesson Plans". Civilwar.org. 2009-04-16. Retrieved 2014-04-28. - "The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History". gilderlehrman.org. - "Civil War (1860-1865)". americaslibrary.gov. - "American Memory from the Library of Congress - Home Page". loc.gov. - "Home - Discovering The Civil War". archives.gov. - "Instagram - Fast, beautiful photo sharing for your iPhone." Instagram. http://instagram.com (accessed December 9, 2013). - Associated Press, "NPS: President May Attend Gettysburg Address Event," Yorkdispatch.com, October 24, 2013, www.yorkdispatch.com/breaking/ci_24380065/nps-president-may-attend-gettysburg-address-event. - Associated Press, "Obama Won't Attend Gettysburg Remembrance," MSN. October 31, 2013, news.msn.com/us/obama-wont-attend-gettysburg-address-remembrance. - NPS, "The Gettysburg Address 150 Years Later," From the Fields of Gettysburg (blog), November 20, 2013, npsgnmp.wordpress.com/2013/11/20/the-gettysburg-address-150-years-later/ - "Retraction for Our 1863 Editorial Calling Gettysburg Address 'Silly Remarks'", The Patriot-News (Harrisburg, PA), November 14, 2013. - Jones, Rebecca, PennLive Retraction of 1863 Gettysburg Address Review Spoofed on Saturday Night Live, The Patriot-News (Harrisburg, PA), November 17, 2013. - Killam, Taran, Update, Television, Saturday Night Live, November 16, 2013. - Weber, Peter, "A 150-Year-Late Gettysburg Address Retraction and Five Other Ridiculously Belated Apologies", The Week, November 15, 2013. - "Senate Congressional Resolution 26 (PDF) (Government Printing Office, Washington D.C., VA, June 18, 2009), 1-5. - Gary W. Gallagher, Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War (2008) - Albanese, Catherine. "Requiem for Memorial Day: Dissent in the Redeemer Nation", American Quarterly, (1974) 26#4 pp. 386–398 in JSTOR - Blight, David W. "Decoration Day: The Origins of Memorial Day in North and South" in Alice Fahs and Joan Waugh, eds. The Memory of the Civil War in American Culture (2004), online edition pp 94–129 - Blight, David W. Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (2000) excerpt and text search - Buck, Paul H. The Road to Reunion, 1865–1900 (1937); examines the reconciliation between the regions by white veterans - Bresnahan, Jim, ed. Revisioning the Civil War: Historians on Counter-Factual Scenarios. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2006. ISBN 978-0-7864-2392-7. - Catton, Bruce. Reflections on the Civil War. Edited by John Leekley. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1981. ISBN 978-0-385-06347-0. - Cook, Robert J. Troubled Commemoration: The Civil War Centennial, 1961–1965. (Louisiana State University Press, 2007) - Connelly, Thomas L. The Marble Man. Robert E. Lee and His Image in American Society (1977). - Gallagher, Gary W. Lee & His Army in Confederate History (University of North Carolina Press, 2001) - Gallagher, Gary W. Lee and His Generals in War and Memory (Louisiana State University Press, 1998) - Gallagher, Gary W. and Alan T. Nolan, eds., The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War History (2000) - Geraghty, Georgie Boge, and Margie Boge (1993). Paving Over the Past: A History and Guide to Civil War Battlefield Preservation. Island Press. - Harris, M. Keith. Across the Bloody Chasm: The Culture of Commemoration Among Civil War Veterans (Louisiana State University Press; 2014) 232 pp - Hattaway, Herman. Reflections of a Civil War Historian: Essays on Leadership, Society, and the Art of War. (University of Missouri Press, 2004) - Janney, Caroline E. Remembering the Civil War: Reunion and the Limits of Reconciliation (2013) excerpt and text search - Janney, Caroline E. Burying the dead but not the past: Ladies' Memorial Associations and the lost cause (2008) - Panabaker, James. Shelby Foote and the Art of History: Two Gates to the City. (University of Tennessee Press, 2004) - Pressly, Thomas. Americans Interpret Their Civil War. 1954; examines different theories on the causes of war - Spielvogel, J. Christian (2013). Interpreting Sacred Ground: The Rhetoric of National Civil War Parks and Battlefields. U. of Alabama Press. - Wilson, Charles Reagan. Baptized in Blood: The Religion of the Lost Cause, 1865–1920 (University of Georgia Press, 1980) - Allred, Randal. "Catharsis, Revision, and Re‐enactment: Negotiating the Meaning of the American Civil War," Journal of American Culture (1996) 19#4 pp 1–13. - Chronis, Athinodoros. "Coconstructing heritage at the Gettysburg storyscape." Annals of tourism research (2005) 32#2 pp 386–406. - Chronis, Athinodoros. "Co-constructing the narrative experience: staging and consuming the American Civil War at Gettysburg," Journal of Marketing Management (2008) 24#1 pp 5–27. - Decker, Stephanie K. "Being period: an examination of bridging discourse in a historical reenactment group," Journal of Contemporary Ethnography (2010) 39#3 pp 273–296. - Gapps, Stephen. "Mobile monuments: A view of historical reenactment and authenticity from inside the costume cupboard of history," Rethinking History (2009) 13#3 pp 395–409. - Hadden, Robert Lee. "Reliving the Civil War: A reenactor's handbook". (Stackpole Books, 1999) - Hall, Dennis. "Civil War reenactors and the postmodern sense of history," Journal of American Culture (1994) 17#3 pp 7–11 - Heiser, John (September 1998). "The Great Reunion of 1913". National Park Service. Retrieved 15 August 2008. - Horwitz, Tony. Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the Unfinished Civil War (1998), an ethnographic study of re-enactors and groups engaged in remembrance. - Teitelman, Emma. "'Knights and Their Ladies Fair': Reenacting the Civil War." (PhD dissertation, Wesleyan University, 2010) Popular culture, novels, films - Aaron, Daniel. The Unwritten War: American Writers and the Civil War (1973) - Browne, Ray B. The Civil War and Reconstruction (American Popular Culture Through History) (2003) - Chadwick, Bruce. The Reel Civil War: Mythmaking in American Film (2009) - Gallagher, Gary W. Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War. 2008. - Sears, Stephen W., ed. Civil War: A Treasury of Art and Literature (1992) - Terman, M. R. Hiram's Honor: Reliving Private Terman's Civil War (2009) and Hiram's Hope: The Return of Isaiah (2014). - Warren, Craig A. Scars to Prove It: The Civil War Soldier and American Fiction. (Kent State University Press, 2009) - Wilson, Edmund. Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War (1962) Art and music - Cornelius, Steven H. Music of the Civil War Era. (Greenwood Press, 2004) - Holzer, Harold and Mark E. Neely, Jr. Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: The Civil War in Art. (Orion Books, 1993) - Kelley, Bruce and Mark A. Snell. Bugle Resounding: Music and Musicians of the Civil War. (University of Missouri Press, 2004) - McWhirter, Christian. Battle Hymns: The Power and Popularity of Music in the Civil War. (University of North Carolina Press, 2012) - Savage, Kirk. Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race, War and Monument in Nineteenth-Century America (1997), looks at public sculptures commemorating the war. - Sears, Stephen W. American Heritage Century Collection of Civil War Art (1983) - (Anonymous) The Civil War Preservation Trust's Civil War Sites: The Official Guide to Battlefields, Monuments, and More. Old Saybrook, Connecticut: Globe Pequot Press, 2003. - Johnson, Clint. Touring the Carolinas' Civil War Sites. (2nd ed. Winston-Salem, NC: John F. Blair, 2011 ISBN 978-0-89587-403-0.) - Johnson, Clint. Touring Virginia's and West Virginia's Civil War Sites (Winston-Salem, NC: John F. Blair, Publisher, 1999. ISBN 978-0-89587-184-8) - Kennedy, Frances H. (1998). The Civil War Battlefield Guide. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. - Lee, Richard McGowan. General Lee's City: An Illustrated Guide to the Historic Sites of Confederate Richmond. (EPM Publications, 1987) - Morgan, Bill. The Civil War Lover's Guide to New York City. (Savas Beatie, LLC, 2013. ISBN 978-1-61121-122-1) - Salmon, John S. The Official Virginia Civil War Battlefield Guide. (Stackpole Books, 2001) - Weeks, Michael (2009). The Complete Civil War Road Trip Guide: 10 Weekend Tours and More than 400 Sites, from Antietam to Zagonyi's Charge. Countryman Press.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commemoration_of_the_American_Civil_War
4	This is the clearest view yet of the distant planet Pluto and its moon, Charon, as revealed by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope (HST). The image was taken by the European Space Agency's Faint Object Camera on February 21, 1994 when the planet was 2.6 billion miles (4.4 billion kilometers) from Earth; or nearly 30 times the separation between Earth and the sun. Hubble's corrected optics show the two objects as clearly separate and sharp disks. This now allows astronomers to measure directly (to within about 1 percent) Pluto's diameter of 1440 miles (2320 kilometers) and Charon's diameter of 790 miles (1270 kilometers). The Hubble observations show that Charon is bluer than Pluto. This means that both worlds have different surface composition and structure. A bright highlight on Pluto suggests it has a smoothly reflecting surface layer. A detailed analysis of the Hubble image also suggests there is a bright area parallel to the equator on Pluto. This result is consistent with surface brightness models based on previous ground-based photometric observations. However, subsequent HST observations will be required to confirm whether the feature is real. Though Pluto was discovered in 1930, Charon wasn't detected until 1978. That is because the moon is so close to Pluto that the two worlds are typically blurred together when viewed through ground-based telescopes. (If our moon were as close to Earth, it would be as big in the night sky as an apple held at arm's length). The new HST image was taken when Charon was near its maximum elongation from Pluto of .9 arc seconds. The two worlds are 12,200 miles apart (19,640 kilometers). Hubble's ability to distinguish Pluto's disk at a distance of 2.6 billion miles (4.4 billion kilometers) is equivalent to seeing a baseball at a distance of 40 miles (64 kilometers). Pluto typically is called the double planet because Charon is half the diameter of Pluto (our Moon is one-quarter the diameter of Earth). This image and other images and data received from the Hubble Space Telescope are posted on the World Wide Web on the Space Telescope Science Institute home page at URL http://oposite.stsci.edu/.	http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00827
4.5625	Implication is a logical operation on two statements, typically represented by the variables P and Q. "P implies Q" is written symbolically as "P → Q". Equivalent statements include "if P then Q", "P is sufficient for Q", and "Q is necessary for P". The statement "if P then Q" is called a conditional statement; P is known as the antecedent and Q the consequent. The statement "P if and only if Q", a biconditional statement, means the same thing as "P implies Q, and Q implies P". Other equivalent meanings include "P is logically equivalent to Q", and "P is a necessary and sufficient condition for Q". The phrase "if and only if" is often abbreviated iff, especially in mathematics. Implication, the result of "P → Q" is defined by the following table: Note that if P is true, then Q must also be true for the implication to hold (be true). However, if P is false, Q may or may not be true and the implication still holds. To illustrate the latter fact, consider a teacher who tells her class that any student who gets 100% on the final exam will pass the class. In other words: - P: A student gets 100% on the final. - Q: That student passes the class. - P → Q: If a student gets 100% on the final, then that student passes the class. Now consider the case in which two students do poorly on the final exam; one of them did well enough on the other exams to pass the course, but the other did not. Did the teacher lie? No. She said nothing about students who do not get 100% on the final (i.e., the case where P is false). Unless there is a student who both got 100% on the final and did not pass the course, the teacher told the truth. For this reason, "P → Q" can be restated as "¬(P ∧ ¬ Q)" or "not (P and not Q)", or "it is not the case that P is true and Q is false". In summary, the following statements are equivalent: \|In symbols\|\|In English\| \|P → Q\|\|P implies Q; if P then Q; P sufficient for Q; Q necessary for P\| \|¬(P ∧ ¬Q)\|\|not(P and not Q)\| \|¬P ∨ Q\|\|(not P) or Q [equivalent by De Morgan's laws]\| \|¬Q → ¬P\|\|not Q implies not P\| Unless and only if The statement "P unless Q" can be translated using implication as "if not Q, then P". It might be more familiar when stated with a negated antecedent: "not P unless Q" means "if not Q then not P". The statement "P only if Q" is equivalent to "if not Q, then not P", or just "if P then Q". Note that it is not equivalent to "P if Q", which means "if Q then P". To illustrate how "only if" and "unless" statements work, consider the statement: - I will pass the class only if I study hard. What this means is: - If I don't study hard, I won't pass the class. Or, equivalently (as explained above): - I can't both not study hard and pass the class. If the last statement were not equivalent to the original, then I might be able to not study and still pass the class — but this contradicts my original assertion that it was only by studying hard that I would pass. Using an "unless" statement to say the same thing: - I won't pass the class unless I study hard. This means I'll want to study hard to give myself a chance to pass, but it doesn't guarantee that I will pass; on the other hand, not studying will guarantee that I don't pass. Symbolically, both the "only if" and "unless" versions of the statement can be written as: - ¬ S → ¬ P: If I don't study hard, I won't pass the class. - S = I study hard. - P = I will pass the course. Note that this is equivalent to: - P → S: If I will pass the class then I study hard. Or, rephrased to make more sense grammatically: - If I end up passing the class then I must have studied hard. Transformations of conditionals Given a conditional statement "if P then Q", there are many ways of transforming the statement to other conditionals that may or may not be logically equivalent. - Original: P → Q ("P implies Q") - Contrapositive: ¬Q → ¬P ("not Q implies not P") — this is logically equivalent - Inverse: ¬P → ¬Q ("not P implies not Q") — not equivalent - Converse: Q → P ("Q implies P") — not equivalent For more information, see Wikipedia:Contraposition. - Statement in predicate logic: All squares are rectangles. - Statement in propositional logic: If a figure is a square, then it is a rectangle. Note how the statement in propositional logic refers to a larger context (figures) that is not explicitly stated in the predicate-logic version. An interesting effect of "all" statements being equivalent to "if" statements is that the following "nonsensical" statement is actually true: - All positive numbers that are both even and odd are divisible by 17. How can this be? Clearly there are no positive numbers that are both even and odd, so how can they be divisible by 17? Well, the above statement is equivalent to the following: - If there is any positive number that is both even and odd, then it will be divisible by 17. The antecedent here (the "if" part) is false, but we have seen that a conditional statement is true when its antecedent is false, no matter what the consequent is; so the statement is true.	http://wiki.ironchariots.org/index.php?title=Implication&oldid=15037
4.25	2 Answers \| Add Yours The correct answer is choice B) UGCA. Transcription is the system that produces a complementary RNA sequence from a strand of DNA. Transcription is initiated when RNA polymerase connects to the DNA template strand in an area called the promoter region and starts stringing together a new complementary RNA strand in the 3' to 5' direction. The resulting new strand of mRNA has complementary base pairs to the original DNA template. DNA has four nitrogenous bases: (A) adenine, (T) thymine, (C) cytosine, and (G) guanine. RNA contains three of these bases - (A),(C), and (G) but not (T). Uracil (U) is found in its place and complements adenine (A) instead. Therefore if the original DNA template strand read ACGT, the RNA strand will attach uracil to adenine so the complementary RNA strand will read UGCA. Th nitrogen bases for DNA are: thymine (T), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and adenine(A) and for RNA they are adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil (U). G pairs with C and U pairs with A during transcription. so the correct answer should be B) UGCA We’ve answered 301,878 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question	http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/dna-strand-has-base-sequence-acgt-what-373115
4.03125	By Terry Bartelt You need to be logged in to use this feature. Log In or Register Well done! simple yet covers all that is necessary first thanks to you and you give more helps about the gates In this learning activity you'll explore the operation of a NAND gate using a truth table, a Boolean Algebra equation, a switch analogy, and a written statement. Students view schematics and truth tables that demonstrate how the AND, OR, and Hex Inverter functions are achieved through the use of only NAND gates. Learners read how the NOR gate can be configured to obtain the other common logic gates. Schematics and Boolean expressions demonstrate how the AND, OR, and Hex Inverter functions are achieved through the use of only NOR gates	https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/career-clusters/manufacturing/dig1302/basic-logic-gates
4.3125	Social Studies for 10th EGB Teacher: Mauricio Torres Life after Muhammad After Muhammad died, they chose Abu Bakr, one of Muhammad’s first converts, to be the next leader of Islam. They named him the first caliph, which is how the highest leaders in Islam are called. It means: They had to lead by setting the example as Abu Bakr soon directed his armies to unify Arabia through a series of battles. The outcome was a unified Muslim After this, they focused their attention elsewhere and defeated Persia and Byzantium, taking land away from them. In these new lands, Muslims set new rules for New places of worship could not be built Even with many restrictions, Jews and Christians could practice their own religion Many early caliphs came from the Umayyad family. They moved the capital to Damascus, in Syria, but also continued to expand the They went to Central Asia, Northern India and In northern Africa, a tribe of people called Berbers, resisted. But soon they converted to In 771, a combination of Arabs and Berbers invaded Spain and quickly conquered it. Next they moved into Frankish territory, but a Christian army defeated them at the Battle of Despite this, Muslims called Moors, continued to rule Spain for the next 700 years. Later, a new dynasty, the Abbasids came to power in 749. They reorganized the government to make it easier to rule such a large region. Islam quickly spread through the lands conquered by the Arabs. Within it, trade As we know, trade doesn’t only move goods but also ideas and culture. This way, Islam spread. In India, Hindu beliefs stayed strong but on the coast, Muslim communities spread quickly. In Africa, both African and Muslim customs coexisted, in which many leaders became devout Through trade, new goods from distant markets arrived to the Arab bazaars: China: Paper and gunpowder India: Cotton, rice and oranges Africa: ivory and slaves. Arabs spread out and met people with different beliefs and cultures. Because of this, they practiced religious tolerance (or acceptance). Because they shared many things in common with Jews and Christians, they respected them, so far as calling them: People of the Still, they had to pay a special tax and were forbidden to convert anyone to their religion. Arabs also adopted other customs and in this way became a multicultural group, which unified others through their language. In the growth of Arab cities, the blend of cultures was visible: there was wealth which supported cultural development. Baghdad became the capital in the year It had more than 300,00 residents, with markets, zoos, hospitals, libraries, public baths and The House of Wisdom. Here, the caliphs supported science and the Córdoba, in Spain also became another showplace for Muslim civilization. In the 900s, it was the largest and most advanced city in Europe! What region did Muslims first unify and what caliph led this unification? Why do you think the Umayyad caliphs moved the capital from Medina to Damascus? Why did Muslims respect Christians and Jews? What kind of goods and from where did Arab merchants bring to the Bazaar? What is “tolerance”? Who were the Berbers and the Moors? Burstein, S. M., & Shek, R. (2012). World History (Teacher´s Edition) (1st Edition ed.). (H. McDougal, Ed.) Orlando, Florida, US.: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Images taken from www.google.com	http://www.slideshare.net/ssclasstorremar/2-1-arab-expansion
4.0625	Vog is a form of air pollution that results when sulfur dioxide and other gases and particles emitted by an erupting volcano react with oxygen and moisture in the presence of sunlight. The word is a portmanteau of the words "volcanic", "smog", and "fog". The term is in common use in the Hawaiian islands, where the Kīlauea volcano, on the Island of Hawaiʻi (aka "The Big Island"), has been erupting continuously since January 3, 1983. Based on June 2008 measurements, Kīlauea emits 2,000–4,000 tons of sulfur dioxide every day. Vog is created when volcanic gases (primarily oxides of sulfur) react with sunlight, oxygen and moisture. The result includes sulphuric acid and other sulfates. Vog is made up of a mixture of gases and aerosols which makes it hard to study and potentially more dangerous than either on their own. Vog in Hawaiʻi In Hawaii, the gas plumes of Kīlauea rise up from three locations: Halemaʻumaʻu Crater, Puʻu ʻŌʻō vent, and from along the coastline where lava flows from the East Rift zone enter the ocean. The plumes create a blanket of vog that can envelop the island. Vog mostly affects the Kona coast on the west side of the Island of Hawaiʻi, where the prevailing trade winds blow the vog to the southwest and southern winds then blow it north up the Kohala coast. Prolonged periods of southerly Kona winds, however, can cause vog to affect the eastern side of the Island on rare occasions, and affect islands across the entire state as well. By the time the vog reaches other islands, the sulfur dioxide has largely dissipated, leaving behind ash, smoke, sulfates, and ammonia. Comparing Vog and Smog Vog and smog are different. Vog is formed when sulfur oxides emitted by a volcano react with moisture to form an aerosol. The aerosol scatters light and so makes the vog visible. Smog is formed largely from the incomplete combustion of fuel, reacting with nitrogen oxides and ozone produced from carbon monoxide by reactions with sunlight. The result is also a visible aerosol. When smog levels are high the sky looks yellowish grey because nitrogen oxides are yellow. In contrast, sulfur oxides are colorless and vog looks grey. Once vog dissipates, grey spots in the sky may for a time remain trapped in the inversion layer. It is important to note that several chemicals emitted from cars are not emitted from volcanoes. Most studies of vog have been in areas where vog is naturally present, and not in controlled conditions. Vog contains chemicals that can damage the environment, and the health of plants, humans and other animals. Most of the aerosols are acidic and of a size where they can remain in the lungs to damage the lungs and impair function. Headaches, watery eyes, sore throat, breathing difficulties (including inducing asthma attacks), flu-like symptoms, and general lethargy are commonly reported. These effects are especially pronounced in people with respiratory conditions and children. Vog generally reduces visibility, creating a hazard for drivers, and for air and ocean traffic. The long-term health effects of vog are unknown. Prof. Bernadette Longo has been investigating health impact of vog on Big Island and confirmed cardiac issues, including increased pulse rates associated with thickened blood from PM 2.5 particles. Several studies are underway to measure the air quality near volcanoes more carefully. Sulfur dioxide emissions increased on March 12, 2008, when a new vent opened. The increased vog level has caused evacuations and damaged crops. In the summer of 2008 and in 2012, the County of Hawaiʻi received a disaster designation due to the agricultural damage. - "Frequently Asked Questions about Air Quality in Hawaiʻi". on USGS web site. U.S. Geological Service. Retrieved 2009-12-29. - "Sulfur Dioxide" on US Environmental Protection Agency web site - "Vog: A Volcanic Hazard" on USGS web site - Vog Taints Maui Skies - Hawaii Air Quality Conditions & Forecasts on "Airnow" US Government web site - "Vog: Important Information and Facts" on State of Hawaii Office of the Governor web site	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vog
4.21875	Tornado, a small-diameter column of violently rotating air developed within a convective cloud and in contact with the ground. Tornadoes occur most often in association with thunderstorms during the spring and summer in the mid-latitudes of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. These whirling atmospheric vortices can generate the strongest winds known on Earth: wind speeds in the range of 500 km (300 miles) per hour have been measured in extreme events. When winds of this magnitude strike a populated area, they can cause fantastic destruction and great loss of life, mainly through injuries from flying debris and collapsing structures. Most tornadoes, however, are comparatively weak events that occur in sparsely populated areas and cause minor damage. This article describes tornado occurrence and formation as products of instability within the Earth’s air masses and wind systems. Wind speeds and destructiveness are discussed with special reference to the Enhanced Fujita Scale of tornado intensity. For short, descriptive entries on closely related phenomena not covered in this article, see waterspout, whirlwind, and fire storm. \|wind speed range*\| \|EF number\|\|metres \| \|feet per \| \|This scale was implemented as the standard scale of tornado intensity for the United States on February 1, 2007. \| **Like the Fujita Scale, the Enhanced Fujita Scale is a set of wind estimates (not measurements of wind at the surface). Each level in the Enhanced Fujita Scale is derived from three-second wind gusts estimated at the point of damage to 28 indicators (such as trees, buildings, and various types of infrastructure) and the degree of damage to each indicator. Wind estimates vary with height and exposure. Each value is converted from miles per hour and rounded to the nearest whole number. Source: Modified from the Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage webpage (http://www.spc.noaa.gov/efscale/ef-scale.html), produced by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA). Tornado occurrence and distribution Tornadoes have been reported on all continents except Antarctica. They are most common on continents in the mid-latitudes (between 20° and 60° N and S), where they are frequently associated with thunderstorms that develop in regions where cold polar air meets warm tropical air. Calculating which country has the most tornadoes per year depends on how this measurement is defined. The United Kingdom has the most tornadoes per land size, most of them weak. On average, about 33 tornadoes are reported annually there. In absolute numbers, the United States has the most tornadoes by far (more than 1,000 per year have been reported every year since 1990). It also has the most violent tornadoes (about 10 to 20 per year). Tornadoes of this intensity are very infrequent outside of the United States. Canada reports the second largest number of tornadoes (about 80 to 100 annually). Russia may have many tornadoes, but reports are not available to quantify their occurrence. About 20 tornadoes are reported in Australia each year, though the actual number is likely much higher. Many storms occur in uninhabited areas, and so any tornadoes that they produce are undocumented. Records of tornado occurrences are fragmentary for many areas, making estimates of global tornado frequency difficult. Insurance records show that tornadoes have caused significant losses in Europe, India, Japan, South Africa, and Australia. Rare but deadly tornadoes have occurred in many other countries, including Bangladesh, China, and Argentina. There are few tornado reports from either the Arctic or the equatorial tropics. In the United Kingdom almost all reported tornadoes are associated with vigorous convection occurring in advance of and along a cold frontal boundary. Large temperature differences are associated with early winter cold fronts that move rapidly across the country from the north and west, at times spawning widespread outbreaks of small tornadoes. For example, the passage of a very strong frontal boundary across the United Kingdom on November 23, 1981, produced 105 documented tornadoes. Similar phenomena occur in other European countries such as France and Belgium. Most Southern Hemisphere tornadoes occur in Australia. Many reports come from New South Wales, where there were 173 reported tornadoes from 1901 to 1966. In addition, South Africa and Argentina both reported 191 tornadoes from 1930 to 1979. Because tornado formation is closely tied to the speed and directional shear of the wind with height, tornadoes in the Southern Hemisphere almost exclusively rotate clockwise, opposite to the rotation of their Northern Hemisphere counterparts. Occurrence in the United States Though tornadoes occur in every state, they are most frequent and attain the highest intensities in the central portion of the United States. Texas has the most reported tornadoes each year, about 125 on average for the years 1953–91; Florida, with almost 10 tornadoes per 10,000 square miles per year, has the most per area. However, most Florida tornadoes are very weak and affect extremely small areas. From 1916 through 1998, about 45,000 tornadoes were documented in the United States. From 1916 to 1953, approximately 158 tornadoes were reported per year. After 1953, the beginning of the “modern period” of tornado documentation, the number of reports rose to more than 800 per year. (The modern period is considered to have begun in 1953 because this was the first full year in which the U.S. Weather Bureau issued tornado watches—that is, bulletins reporting that a tornado might be imminent.) The increased number of tornadoes reported was due to improvements in observing and recording (largely because of the establishment of a network of volunteer tornado “spotters”), which allowed a greater number of weak events to be recognized. During the interval from 1953 to 1998, there was an average of 169 “tornado days” (days on which one or more tornadoes were reported) per year. However, the early years of the modern period, with their relatively fewer reports, bias these averages. If only the 15 years 1984 through 1998 were considered, the average number of tornadoes per year would be 1,025, occurring on 173 tornado days per year. These higher numbers are credited to additional improvements in tornado reporting. When the number of tornado occurrences, their intensity, and the area they affect are considered, the centre of tornado activity is unquestionably seen to exist in the western portions of the southern Great Plains. The region of maximum tornado frequency, rightfully called Tornado Alley, extends from west Texas northeast through the western and central portions of Oklahoma and Kansas and across most of Nebraska. Another area of frequent tornado occurrence is found across eastern Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, western Ohio, the southern portions of Wisconsin and Michigan, and the northern part of Kentucky. While this area experiences fewer tornadoes than does Tornado Alley, it has been struck by some of the strongest known tornadoes and has been the site of several large tornado outbreaks (that is, the occurrence of multiple tornadoes from the same weather system). The Gulf states (from east Texas to central Florida) have many weak tornadoes and have had outbreaks. The Gulf states also experience many tornadoes associated with hurricanes. While most tornadoes develop in the spring and summer, tornadoes have occurred every day of the year. Several days have had many occurrences, reflecting large regional and national outbreaks. The distribution of reported tornadoes by month for the period 1916 through 1990 (see the graph) shows that about 74 percent of all tornadoes are reported from March through July. Peak months are April (14 percent), May (22 percent), and June (20 percent). December and January are the months of lowest activity. The main concentration of tornado activity migrates across the central portion of the United States in a seasonal cycle. Toward the end of winter (late February), the centre of tornado activity lies over the central Gulf states. At this time, southward-moving cold air reaches the southern limit of its expansion and encroaches on the Gulf Coast. As spring progresses, the days grow longer and more solar energy is intercepted. Land temperatures rise, and warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico progressively drives back the cold air. The centre of activity then moves eastward to the southeastern Atlantic states, with tornado frequency peaking there in April. As spring advances and gives way to summer, the centre of tornado activity gradually shifts westward and then northward. It moves across the southern Plains in May and June and then into the northern Plains and the Great Lakes states by early summer. Late summer through early fall is usually a relatively quiet time because the temperature and moisture contrasts across the boundary between the two air masses are weak. An extension of the Bermuda high (a centre of high atmospheric pressure that develops over the Atlantic Ocean) dominates the southeastern third of the United States, and, while thunderstorms occur frequently in the warm, moist air, they seldom become severe. In late fall the days grow shorter, the temperature and moisture contrast intensifies again, and the centre of tornado activity retreats south toward the Gulf, completing the annual cycle. Superimposed on this general pattern are large year-to-year variations. These arise because almost all tornado-producing storms are embedded within episodic northward surges of warm, moist air. The distribution of tornadoes in any one year thus reflects the weather patterns—especially the tracks followed by the synoptic-scale low-pressure centres—prevailing in that year. Regional factors must also be taken into account. Along the Gulf Coast, tornadoes can be produced by thunderstorms that come ashore as a hurricane makes landfall. In a few cases, many tornadoes will be produced. For example, on September 20, 1967, thunderstorms in Hurricane Beulah produced 115 tornadoes in south Texas. Although tornadoes can occur at all times of the day, they are most frequent from mid-afternoon to early evening. In the central United States, where most tornadoes occur, tornado frequency is highest between 5:00 and 6:00 pm. Weak and strong tornadoes occur most frequently in this same hour. Violent tornado occurrences peak an hour later, between 6:00 and 7:00 pm. Tornado occurrences peak in the late afternoon to early evening because there must be sufficient time for the Sun strongly to heat the ground and the surface layer of the atmosphere, thus inducing and sustaining severe thunderstorms. Few reports (roughly 1 percent) are from between 5:00 and 6:00 am, the period just around sunrise when the atmosphere is often very stable. A tornado outbreak is the occurrence of several tornadoes over a region, usually due to thunderstorms embedded in the same synoptic-scale weather system. Outbreaks are classified according to the number of tornadoes reported: small (6 to 9 tornadoes), medium (10 to 19), and large (more than 20 tornadoes). Outbreaks are also classified according to the area affected: in local outbreaks, one or only a portion of one state is affected; in regional outbreaks, two or three states contain all or almost all the tornadoes; in national outbreaks, tornadoes are reported in many states. On most tornado days, only a relatively small region has the essential conditions juxtaposed in just the right way to foster tornado development. This alignment usually lasts for only a small portion of an afternoon. As a consequence, only the two or three storms that form in this region are likely to produce tornadoes. Most of these vortices are weak, but one or more may be strong. Most occur in the space of one to two hours in the middle to late afternoon. Situations like this give rise to small local outbreaks several times per year. Most dangerous are national outbreaks. Perhaps once every 10 to 15 years, the synoptic-scale weather pattern produces conditions favourable to the production of strong storms over a large portion of the central United States. The number of conditions required to align over this large an area usually limits the occurrence of such widespread outbreaks to March and April. Many of the tornadoes are likely to be strong or violent. The largest national tornado outbreak was the Super Outbreak of April 26–28, 2011, which spawned more than 300 tornadoes across the eastern United States. The second largest was the Super Outbreak of April 3–4, 1974, which was credited with producing 148 tornadoes in the central and southern United States (though 4 of these were later reclassified as downbursts by the meteorologist T. Theodore Fujita). The third largest was the April 11–12, 1965, Palm Sunday Outbreak. Prediction and detection of tornadoes The first step in predicting the likely occurrence of tornadoes involves identifying regions where conditions are favourable to the development of strong thunderstorms. Essential ingredients for the occurrence of such storms are cool, dry air at middle levels in the troposphere superimposed over a layer of moist, conditionally unstable air near the surface. Conditions commonly leading to thunderstorm development occur along the warm side of the boundary line, or front, that separates cold, dry air from warm, moist air. The degree of instability present in the atmosphere is approximated by the contrasts in temperature and moisture across the frontal boundary that divides the two air masses. For a storm to generate tornadoes, other factors must be present. The most important of these is a veering wind profile (that is, a progressive shifting of the wind, clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, with increasing height) at low and middle levels, along with strong winds at high levels. Both of these wind actions are necessary to provide the required spin in the air that may eventually culminate in a tornado. A veering wind profile can be provided by the same strong temperature contrasts powering the thunderstorm, and high-altitude winds can be provided by the jet stream, the thin ribbon of high-speed air found in the upper half of the troposphere. For the generation of a tornado, the diffuse spin must be concentrated into a small area as an evolving storm goes through several distinct stages of development. The first appearance of rotation in a storm is caused by the interaction of a strong, persistent updraft with the winds that blow through and around the storm. Rotation intensifies as the speed of the wind increases and as its direction veers from southeast to south and then around to west (in the Northern Hemisphere) with increasing height through the lower half of the troposphere. Forecasters in the United States have learned to carefully monitor the wind profile in regions of instability and to estimate how temperatures and winds will evolve through the course of a day, while at the same time tracking the movement and intensity of the jet stream. With the aid of modern observing systems, such as vertically pointing radars (called wind profilers) and imaging systems on satellites that can measure the flow of water vapour through the Earth’s atmosphere, forecasters can usually identify where conditions will be favourable for tornado formation one to seven hours in advance. This information is transmitted to the public as a tornado watch. A tornado warning is issued when a tornado has been spotted either visually or on a weather radar. Once strong thunderstorms begin to form, local offices of the National Weather Service monitor their development using imagery from satellite sensors and, most important, from radars. These allow forecasters to follow the evolution of the storms and to estimate their intensity. In the past, weather surveillance radars provided information only on the intensity of rainfall within the storms. Weather forecasters then had to infer the onset of rotation within a storm’s updraft from circumstantial evidence, such as when the precipitation began to curve around the updraft to produce a “hook echo,” a hook-shaped region of precipitation that flows out of the main storm and wraps around the updraft. Such inferences were highly subjective and prone to false alarms or very short-notice warnings. Today, modern weather surveillance radars not only provide information on the intensity of a storm’s rainfall but also utilize the Doppler principle to sense winds within thunderstorms. Wind speeds are determined from radio waves reflected by raindrops and other particles carried along by the wind. Doppler radars can measure rotation in the updraft and allow forecasters to watch the formation of a mesocyclone (that is, a region of rotating air within a thunderstorm). On Doppler radar, the presence of a well-organized mesocyclone is indicated by a small region of concentrated shear in the wind. On one side of the mesocyclone the rotating winds flow toward the radar; and on the other, they move away. In some cases, the formation of the tornado core can be detected. The tornado core is a roughly cylindrical region of lower atmospheric pressure that is bounded by the maximum tangential winds (the fastest winds circulating around the centre of the tornado). The radar indication of intense concentrated rotation is called the tornado vortex signature, although this area does not always evolve into a tornado core. These improvements have allowed forecasters to increase warning times while reducing false alarms. Death and damage In the period 1916 through 1998, tornadoes claimed 12,282 lives in the United States, an average of 150 deaths per year. For the period 1953 through 1998, tornadoes claimed 4,032 lives, an average of 88 deaths per year. The decrease in fatalities is due to improvements in safety awareness and severe-weather warnings. There have been wide variations in the number of deaths from one year to the next, the minimum being 15 deaths in 1986 and the maximum being 805 in 1925 (due largely to the Great Tri-State Tornado of March 18, 1925). Since the advent of improved warning systems, three years contributed disproportionately to the total number of deaths: 1953, 1965, and 1974. Of the 519 deaths in 1953, 323 were due to strong tornadoes striking three urban areas (Waco, Texas; Flint, Michigan; and Worcester, Massachusetts). The high death counts in 1965 and 1974 (301 and 366, respectively) were the result of large national tornado outbreaks—the April 11–12, 1965, Palm Sunday Outbreak and the April 3–4, 1974, Super Outbreak. Most deaths and injuries in tornadoes result from individuals being struck by flying debris. People are sometimes injured or killed by being rolled across the ground by the high winds. Also, a few people appear to have been killed by being carried aloft and then dropped from a great height. Almost all of the damage caused by tornadoes can be attributed to wind-induced forces tearing structures apart. High-speed air flowing over a building’s roof and around its corners produces forces that pull upward and outward, respectively. Once windows or doors on the windward side of a building break, air rushes in; this pushes outward on the remaining walls and upward on the roof from the inside, adding to the forces induced by the outside airflow. Often a building is torn apart so quickly and dramatically by these forces that it appears to explode. It used to be thought that many buildings “exploded” owing to the development of an extreme difference in pressure between their interiors and the outside air. The rate at which pressure changes at a point on the surface as a tornado approaches may be as great as 100 hectopascals per second (100 hectopascals are equivalent to about 10 percent of atmospheric pressure at sea level). While this is a significant drop, studies have shown that most structures are sufficiently open that, even with the high rate of pressure change associated with a rapidly moving tornado, interior pressure can adjust quickly enough to prevent an explosion. Indeed, since the area of greatly reduced pressure beneath a tornado is small compared with the area of damaging winds, it is likely that a building already will have suffered damage from the winds by the time it experiences a rapid drop in outside pressure.	http://www.britannica.com/science/tornado
4.0625	An amino acid, one of the building blocks of life, has been found on a comet for the first time. Amino acids form the basis of proteins, and are formed when compounds containing carbon and water are given energy. Scientists have been working on the assumption that amino acids exist in space, after analysis of meteorites on Earth showed evidence of the amino acid – but it is the first time that this has been confirmed. Nasa's Stardust mission turned up the evidence, and it all adds to the theory that amino acids were first brought to Earth from space. "It's not necessarily surprising, but it's very satisfying to find it there because it hasn't been observed before," Nasa's Jamie Elsila told New Scientist. "It's been looked for [on comets] spectroscopically with telescopes but the content seems so low you can't see it that way. "We are interested in understanding what was on the early Earth when life got started. "We don't know how life got started... but this adds to our knowledge of the ingredient pool." Via New Scientist Article continues below	http://www.techradar.com/news/world-of-tech/amino-acid-found-on-a-comet-for-first-time-626947
4.0625	What is wheezing? Wheezing is a high-pitched, coarse whistling sound that can occur when a person is breathing. Some wheezes are only heard with a doctor's stethoscope, but it is not uncommon for a wheeze to be heard with the naked ear. The tone of the wheeze can vary depending on which part of the respiratory system is obstructed or narrowed. Narrowing in the upper respiratory system may make for a hoarser wheeze. Lower obstructions may have a more "musical" tone. While wheezing most often is caused by an obstruction or narrowing of the small bronchial tubes in the chest, it can also be caused by an obstruction in the larger airways or vocal chords. Wheezing is most obvious when a person is breathing out (exhaling), but can also be heard when breathing in (inhaling). Who develops wheezing? Anyone from infants to elderly adults can develop wheezing. Children with asthma often develop wheezing. Wheezing is quite common in infants. It is estimated that up to 25 to 30 percent of infants develop wheezing in their first year of life. Wheezing may be more common in babies due to their already smaller airways. Also, children under two are susceptible to a common, but easily treatable condition called bronchiolitis. This is caused by a viral respiratory infection and can cause wheezing. In adults, smokers and individuals with emphysema and heart failure are more likely to develop wheezing. What are the causes of wheezing? The causes of wheezing widely vary. They range from chronic, usually manageable conditions such as asthma to very serious conditions that include heart failure. The most common causes of wheezing include: - Asthma (a chronic respiratory condition that causes spasms in the bronchial tubes) - Bronchitis (inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes) - Bronchiolitis (most common in young children) - Emphysema (a condition in which the air sacs of the lungs are damaged) - Heart failure - Pneumonia (an inflammation of the lungs caused by a virus or bacteria) - Aspirating, or breathing, a foreign object into the lungs - A severe acute allergic reaction called anaphylaxis due to foods or a stinging insect Asthma and bronchitis are among the most common causes of wheezing in adults. Wheezing in these cases will usually be treated by treating the underlying conditions. If you develop wheezing, you should call your health care provider as soon as possible for a consultation. If you are experiencing wheezing along with a severe shortness of breath or a blue tinge on your skin, seek health care right away. What symptoms may occur with wheezing? An audible high pitched whistling sound is the most apparent symptom of wheezing. Other symptoms that may accompany wheezing are: Symptoms vary depending on the cause of your wheezing. How is wheezing diagnosed? Your doctor will begin an exam by asking about how long and how often you have been wheezing. He or she will ask if the wheezing occurs with physical exertion, as when exercising, or if you wheeze all of the time. The doctor will also ask how long your wheezing lasts. Other questions the doctor will need to know include: - Does it always occur in a certain place, where dust or allergens may make you wheeze? - Does it occur at both day and night? Does rest help? - Do you smoke? - Do certain foods seem to cause your wheezing? Your doctor will also perform a physical exam to listen to your breathing and lung sounds. He or she may also prescribe a lung X-ray, lung function tests, and blood tests to check your oxygen levels. If the patient is a child, the doctor may also check to make sure they did not swallow a small object such as a toy or coin that could cause the wheezing. How is wheezing treated? Treatment for wheezing depends on the underlying cause. Immediate treatment may include the use of supplemental oxygen to assist with breathing. Some patients may need to be hospitalized until their breathing improves. If your wheezing is determined to be caused by asthma, you will likely be prescribed a type of inhaler to reduce inflammation and open your airways. Inhaled corticosteroids and pills such as montelukast (Singulair®) are anti-inflammatory medicines used to treat asthma. If your wheezing is determined to be caused by bronchitis, you may be prescribed a bronchodilator such as albuterol (Proair® HFA, Proventil® HFA, Ventolin® HFA) or an antibiotic to deal with a bacterial infection. This should eliminate your wheezing as you heal. Other causes of wheezing may require different treatment. Whatever the cause of your wheezing, using a vaporizer or sitting in an area with moist, heated air such as a shower, can help relieve your symptoms. Your doctor can come up with the best plan for your condition. - Weiss LN. The diagnosing of wheezing in children. Am Fam Physician2008;77:1109–14. www.aafp.org. Accessed April 9, 2013. - Wheezing. The Merck Manuals: The Merck Manual for Healthcare Professionals. www.merck.com. Accessed April 9, 2013. - Braun-Fahrländer C, Riedler J, Herz U, et al.; Allergy and Endotoxin Study Team. Environmental exposure to endotoxin and its relation to asthma in school-age children. N Engl J Med 2002;347:869–77. - Gong H JR. Wheezing and Asthma. In: Walker HK, Hall WD, Hurst JW, editors. Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations. 3rd edition. Boston: Butterworths; 1990. Chapter 37. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov © Copyright 1995-2016 The Cleveland Clinic Foundation. All rights reserved. Can't find the health information you’re looking for? This information is provided by the Cleveland Clinic and is not intended to replace the medical advice of your doctor or health care provider. Please consult your health care provider for advice about a specific medical condition. This document was last reviewed on: 4/15/2013…#15203	http://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases_conditions/hic_Asthma_An_Overview/hic-wheezing
4.34375	Volcanic activity can also produce other interesting structures, such as calderas and lava domes. Calderas, large crater-shaped basins, form when eruptions drain a magma chamber and the volcano edifice collapses into the empty space. These often fill up with water, creating round lakes, such as Crater Lake in Oregon. Lava domes form when most of the gas vesicles escape during an initial eruption, and the remaining viscous lava lacks the necessary pressure to spew out and so it flows out very slowly at the summit crater. This creates a domed plug at the top of the volcano, which may continue to grow over time. There are a startling number of volcanoes on earth -- more than 500 "active" volcanoes in the world, about as many "dormant" volcanoes, and many volcanoes that have been deemed "extinct." As it turns out, these determinations are largely based on subjective interpretation or somewhat arbitrary standards. The traditional criteria for this determination was the date of the last eruption. If the last eruption fell within historic times -- the period people have been recording history -- the volcano was deemed active. If the last eruption occurred before historic times but within 10,000 years, the volcano was considered "dormant" because it likely had the potential to erupt again. Volcanoes that had not erupted in more than 10,000 years were considered extinct, because it seemed unlikely they would erupt again. This is certainly an inexact standard. For one thing, "historic times" is fairly vague, and varies from culture to culture. Additionally, different volcano types have widely varying eruption frequencies. Scientists generally use a more sensible criteria these days, though it's based mostly on subjective assessment. If the volcano is erupting or demonstrating activity in the form of earthquakes or gaseous emissions, it is considered active. If the volcano is not showing any signs of activity, but has erupted within the last 10,000 years and has the potential to erupt again, it is considered dormant. If it has not erupted in 10,000 years or has clearly exhausted any magma supply, the volcano is considered extinct. Of the 500 or so active volcanoes, around 10 are erupting on any given day. For the most part, these eruptions are small and well-contained, so they don't threaten life and limb. From time to time, however, we get a major eruption that either takes lives or, more often, devours property. And while not as catastrophic as life-threatening eruptions, these destructive events can certainly take a heavy financial toll on the victims. There have been, in recorded history, dozens of extremely catastrophic volcanic eruptions -- one may even have wiped out an entire civilization. In fact, in just the last 200 years there have been 19 eruptions that have killed more than 1,000 people. Volcanic activity has certainly played a significant and destructive role in our history, and will continue to do so in the future. This is only half the story, however. As destructive as it is, volcanic activity is one of the most important, constructive geological processes on Earth. After all, as we saw when we looked at plate tectonics, volcanoes are constantly rebuilding the ocean floor. As with most natural forces, volcanoes have a dual nature. They can wreak horrible devastation, but they are also a crucial element of the earth's ongoing regeneration. They are certainly one of the most amazing, awe-inspiring phenomena on the planet.	http://science.howstuffworks.com/nature/natural-disasters/volcano7.htm
4.15625	\|This article needs additional citations for verification. (November 2013)\| \|Part of a series about\| Carbon neutrality, or having a net zero carbon footprint, refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset, or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference. It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation, energy production, and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel. The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases (GHG) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence (CO2e) —the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2. The term "climate neutral" reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change, even if CO2 is the most abundant, encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol, namely: methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), perfluorocarbons (PFC), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article. The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset. Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways: - Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels, with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy, so that the carbon emissions are compensated, or alternatively using only renewable energies that don't produce any carbon dioxide (also called a post-carbon economy). - Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100% of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere – for example by planting trees – or by funding 'carbon projects' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions, or by buying carbon credits to remove (or 'retire') them through carbon trading. While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use, the practice is criticized by some. - 1 Process - 2 Direct and indirect emissions - 3 Simplification of standards and definitions - 4 Pledges - 5 Carbon neutral initiatives - 6 Certification - 7 See also - 8 References - 9 External links Carbon, or climate, neutrality is usually achieved by combining the following steps (although these may vary depending whether the strategy is implemented by individuals, companies, organizations, cities, regions, or countries): In the case of individuals, decision-making is likely to be straightforward, but for more complex set-ups, it usually requires political leadership at the highest level and wide popular agreement that the effort is worth making. Counting and analyzing Counting and analyzing the emissions that need to be eliminated, and the options for doing so, is the most crucial step in the cycle as it enables setting the priorities for action – from the products purchased to energy use and transport – and to start monitoring progress. This can be achieved through a GHG inventory that aims at answering questions such as: - Which operations, activities, units should be included? - Which sources should be included (see section Direct and indirect emissions)? - Who is responsible for which emissions? - Which gases should be included? For individuals, carbon calculators simplify compiling an inventory. Typically they measure electricity consumption in kWh, the amount and type of fuel used to heat water and warm the house, and how many kilometres an individual drives, flies and rides in different vehicles. Individuals may also set various limits of the system they are concerned with, e.g. personal GHG emissions, household emissions, or the company they work for. There are plenty of carbon calculators available online, which vary significantly in their usefulness and the parameters they measure. Some, for example, factor in only cars, aircraft and household energy use. Others cover household waste or leisure interests as well. In some circumstances, actually going beyond carbon neutral (usually after a certain length of time taken to reach carbon breakeven) is an objective. In starting to work towards climate neutrality, businesses and local administrations can make use of an environmental (or sustainability) management system or EMS established by the international standard ISO 14001 (developed by the International Organization for Standardization). Another EMS framework is EMAS, the European Eco Management and Audit Scheme, used by numerous companies throughout the EU. Many local authorities apply the management system to certain sectors of their administration or certify their whole operations. One of the strongest arguments for reducing GHG emissions is that it will often save money. Energy prices across the world are rising, making it harder to afford to travel, heat and light homes and factories, and keep a modern economy ticking over. So it is both common sense and sensible for the climate to use energy as sparingly as possible. Examples of possible actions to reduce GHG emissions are: - Limiting energy usage and emissions from transportation (walking, using bicycles or public transport, avoiding flying, using low-energy vehicles), as well as from buildings, equipment, animals and processes. - Obtaining electricity and other energy from a renewable energy source, either directly by generating it (installing solar panels on the roof for example) or by selecting an approved green energy provider, and by using low-carbon alternative fuels such as sustainable biofuels. The use of Carbon offsets aims to neutralize a certain volume of GHG emissions by funding projects which should cause an equivalent reduction of GHG emissions somewhere else, such as tree planting. Under the premise “First reduce what you can, then offset the remainder”, offsetting can be done by supporting a responsible carbon project, or by buying carbon offsets or carbon credits. Carbon offsetting is also a tool for severals local authorities in the world. Offsetting is sometimes seen as a charged and contentious issue. For example, James Hansen describes offsets as "modern day indulgences, sold to an increasingly carbon-conscious public to absolve their climate sins." Evaluation and repeating This phase includes evaluation of the results and compilation of a list of suggested improvements, with results documented and reported, so that experience gained of what does (and does not) work is shared with those who can put it to good use. Finally, with all that completed, the cycle starts all over again, only this time incorporating the lessons learnt. Science and technology move on, regulations become tighter, the standards people demand go up. So the second cycle will go further than the first, and the process will continue, each successive phase building on and improving on what went before. Being carbon neutral is increasingly seen as good corporate or state social responsibility and a growing list of corporations and states are announcing dates for when they intend to become fully neutral. Events such as the G8 Summit and organizations like the World Bank are also using offset schemes to become carbon neutral. Artists like The Rolling Stones and Pink Floyd have made albums or tours carbon neutral. Direct and indirect emissions To be considered carbon neutral, an organization must reduce its carbon footprint to zero. Determining what to include in the carbon footprint depends upon the organization and the standards they are following. Generally, direct emissions sources must be reduced and offset completely, while indirect emissions from purchased electricity can be reduced with renewable energy purchases. Direct emissions include all pollution from manufacturing, company owned vehicles and reimbursed travel, livestock and any other source that is directly controlled by the owner. Indirect emissions include all emissions that result from the use or purchase of a product. For instance, the direct emissions of an airline are all the jet fuel that is burned, while the indirect emissions include manufacture and disposal of airplanes, all the electricity used to operate the airline's office, and the daily emissions from employee travel to and from work. In another example, the power company has a direct emission of greenhouse gas, while the office that purchases it considers it an indirect emission. Simplification of standards and definitions Carbon neutral fuels are those that neither contribute to nor reduce the amount of carbon into the atmosphere. Before an agency can certify an organization or individual as carbon neutral, it is important to specify whether indirect emissions are included in the Carbon Footprint calculation. Most Voluntary Carbon neutral certifiers such as Standard Carbon in the US, require both direct and indirect sources to be reduced and offset. As an example, for an organization to be certified carbon neutral by Standard Carbon, it must offset all direct and indirect emissions from travel by 1 lb CO2e per passenger mile, and all non-electricity direct emissions 100%. Indirect electrical purchases must be equalized either with offsets, or renewable energy purchase. This standard differs slightly from the widely used World Resource Institute and may be easier to calculate and apply. Much of the confusion in carbon neutral standards can be attributed to the number of voluntary carbon standards which are available. For organizations looking at which carbon offsets to purchase, knowing which standards are robust, credible in permanent is vital in choosing the right carbon offsets and projects to get involved in. Some of the main standards in the voluntary market include; CEB VER Standard, The Voluntary Carbon Standard, The Gold Standard and The California Climate Action Registry. In addition companies can purchase Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) which result from mitigated carbon emissions from UNFCCC approved projects for voluntary purposes. The concept of shared resources also reduces the volume of carbon a particular organization has to offset, with all upstream and downstream emissions the responsibility of other organizations or individuals. If all organizations and individuals were involved then this would not result in any double accounting. Regarding terminology in UK and Ireland, in December 2011 the Advertising Standards Authority (in an ASA decision which was upheld by its Independent Reviewer, Sir Hayden Phillips) controversially ruled that no manufactured product can be marketed as "zero carbon", because carbon was inevitably emitted during its manufacture. This decision was made in relation to a solar panel system whose embodied carbon was repaid during 1.2 years of use and it appears to mean that no buildings or manufactured products can legitimately be described as zero carbon in its jurisdiction. Being carbon neutral is increasingly seen as good corporate or state social responsibility and a growing list of corporations, cities and states are announcing dates for when they intend to become fully neutral. Companies and organizations The original Climate Neutral Network was an Oregon-based non-profit organization founded by Sue Hall and incorporated in 1999 to persuade companies that being climate neutral was potentially cost saving as well as environmentally sustainable. It developed both the Climate Neutral Certification and Climate Cool brand name with key stakeholders such as the US EPA, The Nature Conservancy, Rocky Mountain Institute, Conservation International, and the World Resources Institute and succeeded in enrolling the 2002 Winter Olympics to compensate for its associated greenhouse gas emissions. The non-profit's web site as of March 2011, lists the organization as closing its doors and plans to continue the Climate Cool upon transfer to a new non-profit organization, unknown at this time. Interestingly, the for-profit consulting firm, Climate Neutral Business Network, lists the same Sue Hall as CEO and lists many of the same companies who were participants in the original Climate Neutral Network, as consulting clients. Few companies have actually attained Climate Neutral Certification, applying to a rigorous review process and establishing that they have achieved absolute net zero or better impact on the world's climate. Shaklee Corporation announced it became the first Climate Neutral certified company in April 2000. Climate Neutral Business Network states that it certified Dave Matthews Band's concert tour as Climate Neutral. The Christian Science Monitor criticized the use of NativeEnergy. a for-profit company that sells offsets credits to businesses and celebrities like Dave Matthews. Salt Spring Coffee has become carbon neutral by lowering emissions through reducing long-range trucking and using bio-diesel fuel in delivery trucks, upgrading to energy efficient equipment and purchasing carbon offsets. The company claims to the first carbon neutral coffee sold in Canada. Salt Spring Coffee was recognized by the David Suzuki Foundation in their 2010 report Doing Business in a New Climate. Some corporate examples of self-proclaimed carbon neutral and climate neutral initiatives include Dell, Google, HSBC, ING Group, PepsiCo, Sky, Tesco, Toronto-Dominion Bank, Asos and Bank of Montreal. Under the leadership of Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, the United Nations pledged to work towards climate neutrality in December 2007. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) announced it was becoming climate neutral in 2008 and established a Climate Neutral Network to promote the idea in February 2008. Events such as the G8 Summit and organizations like the World Bank are also using offset schemes to become carbon neutral. Artists like The Rolling Stones and Pink Floyd have made albums or tours carbon neutral, while Live Earth says that its seven concerts held on 7 July 2007 were the largest carbon neutral public event in history. Buildings are the largest single contributor to the production of greenhouse gases. The American Institute of Architects 2030 Commitment is a voluntary program for AIA member firms and other entities in the built environment that asks these organizations to pledge to design all their buildings to be carbon neutral by 2030. In 2010, architectural firm HOK worked with energy and daylighting consultant The Weidt Group to design a 170,735-square-foot (15,861.8 m2) net zero carbon emissions Class A office building prototype in St. Louis, Missouri, U.S. Countries and communities One country has achieved carbon neutrality: Several countries have pledged carbon neutrality, including: - British Columbia (Canadian province) - Costa Rica - New Zealand The Central American nation of Costa Rica aims to be fully carbon neutral by 2021. In 2004, 46.7% of Costa Rica's primary energy came from renewable sources, while 94% of its electricity was generated from hydroelectric power, wind farms and geothermal energy in 2006. A 3.5% tax on gasoline in the country is used for payments to compensate landowners for growing trees and protecting forests and its government is making further plans for reducing emissions from transport, farming and industry. Samsø island in Denmark is the largest carbon-neutral settlement on the planet, with a population of 4200, based on wind-generated electricity and biomass-based district heating. They currently generate extra wind power and export the electricity to compensate for petro-fueled vehicles. There are future hopes of using electric or biofuel vehicles. The ex-president of the Maldives has pledged to make his country carbon-neutral within a decade by moving to wind and solar energy. The Maldives, a country consisting of very low-lying islands, would be one of the first countries to be submerged due to sea level rise. The Maldives presided over the foundation of the Climate Vulnerable Forum. Another nation to pledge carbon neutrality is New Zealand. Its Carbon Neutral Public Sector Initiative aimed to offset the greenhouse gas emissions of an initial group of six governmental agencies by 2012. Unavoidable emissions would be offset, primarily through indigenous forest regeneration projects on conservation land. All 34 public service agencies also needed to have emission reduction plans in place. The Carbon Neutral Public Service programme was discontinued in March 2009. On April 19, 2007, Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg announced to the Labour Party annual congress that Norway's greenhouse gas emissions would be cut by 10 percent more than its Kyoto commitment by 2012, and that the government had agreed to achieve emission cuts of 30% by 2020. He also proposed that Norway should become carbon neutral by 2050, and called upon other rich countries to do likewise. This carbon neutrality would be achieved partly by carbon offsetting, a proposal criticised by Greenpeace, who also called on Norway to take responsibility for the 500m tonnes of emissions caused by its exports of oil and gas. World Wildlife Fund Norway also believes that the purchase of carbon offsets is unacceptable, saying 'it is a political stillbirth to believe that China will quietly accept that Norway will buy climate quotas abroad'. The Norwegian environmental activist Bellona Foundation believes that the prime minister was forced to act due to pressure from anti-European Union members of the coalition government, and called the announcement 'visions without content'. In January 2008 the Norwegian government went a step further and declared a goal of being carbon neutral by 2030. But the government has not been specific about any plans to reduce emissions at home; the plan is based on buying carbon offsets from other countries, and very little has actually been done to reduce Norway's emissions, apart from a very successful policy for electric vehicles Iceland is also moving towards climate neutrality. Over 99% of electricity production and almost 80% of total energy production comes from hydropower and geothermal. No other nation uses such a high proportion of renewable energy resources. In February 2008, Costa Rica, Iceland, New Zealand and Norway were the first four countries to join the Climate Neutral Network, an initiative led by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to catalyze global action towards low carbon economies and societies. In July 2007, Vatican City announced a plan to become the first carbon-neutral state in the world, following the politics of the Pope to eliminate global warming. The goal would be reached through the donation of the Vatican Climate Forest in Hungary. The forest is to be sized to offset the year's carbon dioxide emissions. However, no trees have actually been planted as of 2008. The company KlimaFa is no longer in existence and hasn't fulfilled its promises. In November 2008, the city state also installed and put into operation 2,400 solar panels on the roof of the Paul VI Centre audience hall. In 2013, Vatican City became the world's first carbon neutral country In June 2011, the Canadian Province of British Columbia announced they had officially become the first provincial/state jurisdiction in North America to achieve carbon neutrality in public sector operations: every school, hospital, university, Crown corporation, and government office measured, reported and purchased carbon offsets on all their 2010 Greenhouse Gas emissions as required under legislation. Local Governments across B.C. are also beginning to declare Carbon Neutrality. 2050, Sweden will no longer contribute to the greenhouse effect. The vision is that net greenhouse gas emissions should be zero. The overall objective is that the increase in global temperature should be limited to two degrees, and that the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere stabilizes at a maximum of 400 ppm. Carbon neutral initiatives Many initiatives seek to assist individuals, businesses and states in reducing their carbon footprint or achieving climate neutrality. These include website neutralization projects like CO2Stats and, the similar European initiative CO2 neutral website as well as the Climate Neutral Network, Caring for Climate, and Together campaign. Although there is currently no international certification scheme for carbon or climate neutrality, some countries have established national certification schemes. Examples include Norwegian Eco-Lighthouse Program and the Australian government's National Carbon Offset Standard (NCOS). Climate Neutral Certification \|\|This section contains content that is written like an advertisement. (April 2011)\| Climate Neutral Certification was established and trademarked originally through the Climate Neutral Network, an Oregon-based non-profit organization, not to be confused with the UNEP's Climate Neutral Network. Applications for certification are no longer being accepted according to the non-profit organization's web site, where the organization also states it is closing its doors. The first three companies certified as Climate Neutral were Shaklee Corporation, Interface, Inc., and Saunders Hotels.[not in citation given] Stakeholders in developing and supporting the Climate Neutral Certification are listed as The Nature Conservancy, Conservation International, Rocky Mountain Institute, and the U.S EPA. What is unclear is whether the Climate Neutral certification will be continued by the for-profit consulting firm, Climate Neutral Business Network, or another non-profit organization in the future. Climate Neutral Network also promoted, trademarked, and licensed the brand Climate Cool, for products certified by the organization's Environmental Review Panel and determined to achieve net zero climate impact, by reducing and offsetting associated emissions. The organization's web site promises to transfer the Climate Cool branding to another non-profit organization, upon closing the current organization. - Carbon Neutral - What Does it Mean?, eejitsguides.com, published 2006, accessed 2007-07-03 - Carbon-Neutral Is Hip, but Is It Green?, New York Times, published 2007-04-29, accessed 2007-08-03 - "The Carbon Neutral Myth" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "Carbon Neutral: Oxford Word of the Year". Blog.oup.com. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - Kebe A., V. Bellassen & A. Leseur (2011) "Voluntary carbon offsetting by local authorities: practices and lessons" Climat report n.29, CDC Climat - Geoghegan, Tom (2005-06-07). "The G8 summit promises to be a "carbon-neutral" event". BBC News. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - GreenBiz Admin (2006-06-04). "GreenBiz News \|World Bank Group Goes Carbon-Neutral". Greenbiz.com. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - ClimateBiz Staff (2003-09-04). "GreenBiz News \|Rolling Stones Pledge Carbon-Neutral U.K. Tour". Greenbiz.com. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "Pink Floyd breathe life into new forests". prnewswire.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - Carbon footprints will decrease] - Carbon Neutral Certification Guidelines Archived November 12, 2007 at the Wayback Machine - "Article with references to ASA documentation banning marketing of "Zero Carbon"". Solartwin.com. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - Ellison, Katherine (2002-07-08). "Burn Oil, Then Help A School Out; It All Evens Out". Money.cnn.com. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "www.climateneutralnetwork.org". www.climateneutralnetwork.org. Retrieved 2012-02-09. - "Climate Neutral Business Network". Climateneutral.com. Retrieved 2012-02-09. - "Shaklee Corporation: Providing a healthier life for everyone and a better life for anyone. Health, Wellness, Nature, Opportunity". Shaklee.com. Retrieved 2012-02-09. - "Is Dave Matthews' carbon offsets provider really carbon neutral?". CSMonitor.com. 2010-04-20. Retrieved 2012-02-09. - Smith, Charlie (September 9, 2004). "Biodiesel Revolution Gathering Momentum". The Georgia Straight. Retrieved July 27, 2009. - "Green goes mainstream". The Vancouver Sun. April 15, 2008. Retrieved 2009-07-28. - "Doing Business in a New Climate: A Guide to Measuring, Reducing and Offsetting Greenhouse Gas Emissions \| Publications \| David Suzuki Foundation". Davidsuzuki.org. Retrieved 2012-07-24. - "Dell to go 'carbon neutral' by late 2008". Washingtonpost.com. 2007-09-26. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - Waters, Darren (2007-06-19). "Technology \|Google's drive for clean future". BBC News. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "Official Google Blog: Carbon neutrality by end of 2007". Googleblog.blogspot.com. 2007-06-19. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "Business \|HSBC bank to go carbon neutral". BBC News. 2004-12-06. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "Climate Change and ING". Ceoroundtable.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "Case Studies: Sky CarbonNeutral". Carbonneutral.com. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - Horovitz, Bruce (2007-04-30). "PepsiCo takes top spot in global warming battle". Usatoday.com. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "Business \|Tesco boss unveils green pledges". BBC News. 2007-01-18. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "Tesco wants to be carbon neutral by 2050. How will the retailer do it?". silicon.com. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "TD Greenhouse Gas Emissiona". Td.com. 2011-01-07. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "BMO Meets Carbon Neutral Commitment". Environmentalleader.com. 2010-08-25. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "Offsetting the Vancouver 2010 Olympic Winter Games". Offsetters.ca. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "AIA Introduces 2030 Commitment Program to Reach Goal of Carbon Neutrality by 2030". Dexigner.com. 2009-05-05. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - A Net Zero Office Today Archived December 5, 2010 at the Wayback Machine - UNEP Climate Neutral Network: Costa Rica Retrieved on 2011-10-12. - Share of Total Primary Energy Supply in 2004, International Energy Agency, published 2006, accessed 2007-08-06 - President Aims for Carbon Neutrality, Environmental Entrepreneurs, published 2007-06-28, accessed 2007-08-06 - Kolbert, Elizabeth (2011-08-01). "A Reporter at Large: The Island in the Wind". The New Yorker. Retrieved 2012-02-09. - "Participants > Countries > New Zealand". UNEP Climate Neutral Network. - "Participants > Countries > Iceland". UNEP Climate Neutral Network. - "Public service takes lead in becoming carbon neutral \| Ministry for the Environment". Mfe.govt.nz. 2009-06-12. Retrieved 2012-07-24. - "Speech to the congress of the Labour Party". regjeringen.no. 2007-04-19. Retrieved 2012-02-09. - "Science News \| Technology News - ABC News". Abcnews.go.com. 2011-12-04. Retrieved 2012-02-09. - Archived September 29, 2007 at the Wayback Machine - Rosenthal, Elisabeth (2008-03-22). "Lofty Pledge to Cut Emissions Comes With Caveat in Norway - New York Times". Norway: Nytimes.com. Retrieved 2012-02-09. - "The Vatican to go carbon neutral". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - Thompson, Kalee. "Carbon Discredit \| Popular Science". Popsci.com. Retrieved 2012-02-09. - Doug Struck. "Carbon offsets: How a Vatican forest failed to reduce global warming". Csmonitor.com. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - Pope's first "green audience", Catholic News Service. Archived December 8, 2008 at the Wayback Machine - "Carbon Neutral B.C., LiveSmart BC". Livesmartbc.ca. 2011-06-30. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "Greenhouse Gas Reduction Targets Act, Carbon Neutral Government Regulation, BC Laws". Bclaws.ca. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "B.C. Climate Action Charter \| BC Climate Action Toolkit". Toolkit.bc.ca. Retrieved 2013-11-02. - "2050 Ett koldioxidneutralt Sverige". naturvardsverket.se. 2013-02-30. Retrieved 2016-01-30. Check date values in: - "CEB VER Registry". - "Environmental Standards: Carbon Neutral". carbonneutral.com. Retrieved 2012-05-16. - "Climateneutralnetwork.org". Climate Neutral Network. Retrieved 2012-02-09. - Three US Companies Become Climate Neutral - "Background". Climate Neutral Network. - "CC Brand". Climate Neutral Network. - "National Carbon Offset Standard". climatechange.gov.au.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_neutral
4.09375	A poetry lesson weaves together the past, present and future of Emmett Till's tragic story. In today's multicultural schools and classrooms, resolving conflict means being culturally aware. Teaching Tolerance teamed with Bread and Roses, the cultural arm of local 1199, the National Health & Human Service Employees Union of the AFL-CIO to present the International Women of Hope Project. In this activity, students will explore the perspectives of two Native American authors about the meaning of the Thanksgiving holiday and then write journal entries. In this early grades activity, students learn about unfair practices in a simulation exercise and then create plans to stand up against discrimination. In this lesson, students will study Morgan’s speech to better understand the civil rights movement and the value of speaking out against injustice. Totally Us is a classroom activity developed from Totally Joe. The photo shows two students collecting signatures to protest the treatment of women at the university. This lesson is part of the Using Photographs to Teach Social Justice series. In this lesson, students will analyze a photograph of people protesting what they see as an unjust law: A law prohibiting marriage equality in California. This lesson is part of the Using Photographs to Teach Social Justice series.	http://www.tolerance.org/classroom-resources
4.03125	Cooperative Extension Fact Sheet FS1228 \| February 2014 Rabies is a deadly disease of animals and humans. It is endemic in New Jersey and there are over 300 cases in the state every year. Rabies is a virus that attacks the central nervous system in mammals (warm-blooded animals). The virus is present primarily in the saliva, brain tissue, and spinal fluid of a rabid animal and is transmitted by a bite, contamination of an open cut, or through contact with mucus membranes (nose, mouth, eyes). Rabies typically results in encephalitis (swelling of the brain), which can result in paralysis, blindness, aggression, mood changes, and other symptoms. Left untreated, rabies causes death. There is no treatment for rabies. Rabies is almost always fatal once the animal or human is infected (only two (2) humans have survived rabies in the United States in 16 years). The best way to deal with this disease is by vaccinating animals. There are two forms of rabies: dumb and furious. Dumb rabies is observed as animals that are calmer than normal or expected. They are not affectionate, but they will not run from humans. Dumb rabies is more commonly seen in livestock. Wild animals normally avoid human contact, so if a wild animal does not seem cautious when you approach it, it may be rabid. The other form of rabies, furious rabies, is more commonly seen. This is the stereotypical rabid animal that is vicious and will attack without aggravation. If a mammal acts unusually aggressive, or displays any bizarre behavior, it may be rabid. Foaming at the mouth and excessive saliva are often not present! Rabies is usually transmitted from the bite of an infected animal. However, because it is viral, it can enter through any open wound on the body. It can also enter through mucous membranes (nose, mouth, and eyes) and spread throughout the sensory neurons and salivary glands in the body. The virus is not hardy and cannot survive long outside of its host. Once dry, saliva containing the rabies virus is considered noninfectious. Only mammals, including humans, can get rabies. In the United States, more than 7,000 animals per year, most of them wild, have been diagnosed as having the disease since 1995. In wild animals, rabies is most common in bats, raccoons, skunks, and foxes, but the disease has also been found in deer and in large rodents such as groundhogs and woodchucks. These animals represent 95% of the cases in the United States. (NOTE: It is illegal to keep these animals as pets in New Jersey.) Cats, dogs, and livestock can get rabies, too, if they are not vaccinated. In New Jersey the vast majority of domestic animal rabies is found in cats. Small rodents (such as squirrels, rats, mice, hamsters, guinea pigs, gerbils, and chipmunks) and lagomorphs (such as rabbits and hares) are almost never found to be infected with rabies and have not been known to cause rabies among humans in the United States. Rabies has not been reported in birds, fish, insects, or reptiles. Cats: Cats most consistently develop the furious form of rabies; however the dumb form does occur. The clinical signs include strange and abnormal behavior, abnormal meowing, eye discomfort in light (photophobia), restless aggression, muscle tremors and lack of coordination. Mandibular and laryngeal (relating to the larynx) paralysis is rare in cats. Cattle: Rabies is uncommon in cattle but there are often a few livestock cases when wildlife cases increase. An animal acting out of character is a clue - a normally gentle or tame animal may suddenly become skittish or aggressive or a typically wild animal may be unafraid. A big clue is an animal having trouble eating or drinking because it can’t swallow, a condition often mistaken for an obstruction in the mouth or throat. Signs include excessive salivation, behavior change, muzzle tremors, abnormal posture, bowel movement complications, yawning, abnormal reaction to light, abnormal appetite, sexual excitement, abnormal bellowing, aggression, decreased lactation, increased interest with sound or light, and pharyngeal (relating to the throat) paralysis. As a neurologic disease, many of these animals display a lack of voluntary coordination (ataxia), including instability in the hind end. Dogs: Initial clinical signs in dogs are biting, aggression, hyperestesia (an abnormally acute sense of pain, heat, cold or touch), photophobic (being afraid of or sensitive to light), aggressive pica (appetite for non-nutritious foods), irritation, laryngeal (relating to the larynx) paralysis, muscle paralysis, roaming, abnormal barking, and excessive salivation. Usually infected dogs that are docile turn restless and infected dogs that are restless appear to be docile. Final clinical signs include coma, convulsions, and generalized paralysis. Ferrets: The ferret is a carnivore, but rabies is a rare disease in this species compared to dogs and especially cats. Ferrets have very thick, tough skin, and not all bites will penetrate, decreasing probability of the rabies virus to be transmitted from the rabid animal. Goats: Reports of rabies in goats are rare, but the furious form of rabies appears to be more common. Symptoms in goats include aggressive behavior, excessive bleating, and salivation. Other signs could include drooling, inability to swallow food, depression, aggression, stupor, weakness, circling, excitation, blindness or any repetitive action. Horses: Early clinical signs of infection include muzzle tremors, pharyngeal (relating to the throat) paralysis, anorexia, depression, colic, and ataxia (lack of muscle control and often associated hind-end weekness). As the disease progresses clinical findings include abnormal posture, frequent whinnying, aggressiveness, kicking, biting, striking, head tossing, transient lameness, and apparent blindness. Over half of the clinical cases will be in the dumb form of rabies; however, the furious form will occur in 43% of infected horses. Horses in the finals stages of the disease lay down with head and neck still upright. This progresses to the horse lying flat out with paddling tremors, and eventually systemic paralysis and death. Signs and symptoms of rabies are very similar to other conditions such as Eastern Equine Encephalitis, West Nile, and Equine Herpesvirus (EHV-1). Any horse with neurological signs, especially if not currently vaccinated for rabies, should be considered a rabies suspect. Pigs: Pigs infected with rabies are rare. Early signs may include excitement, aggression, lack of coordination, excessive salivation, backwards walking, phantom chewing, and lethargy. Final stages of disease include depression, convulsions, and lying down. Onset is sudden with nervous twitching of the face muscles, fits and convulsions, rapid chewing, salivation, muscles spasms and posterior paralysis. Rabbits: Although not common in domestic rabbits, they are highly susceptible to rabies virus infection. The symptoms of rabies vary depending on the species affected. The first sign of rabies is usually a change in the animal’s normal behavior. An animal need not be “foaming at the mouth” to have rabies. Some of the signs of rabies in an animal include: a general appearance of sickness, lethargy, fever, blindness, difficulty walking, abnormal salivating or slobbering, difficulty swallowing, loss of movement or partial paralysis of limbs, anxiety or irritability, aggression or other behavioral changes, dropping of the jaw or lack of mobility in the jaw (slack jaw). Sheep: Clinical signs of sheep are very similar to cattle infected with rabies. Typical symptoms include difficulty swallowing, excessive salivating, abnormal behavior, lethargy and lying down, tremors and other neurological symptoms, and paralysis. There may also be aggressive wool pulling and excessive bleating. Small Animals: Small pet mammals such as gerbils, hamsters and guinea pigs are born and raised in captivity and therefore are rarely exposed to the rabies virus. The State Department of Agriculture is recommending rabies vaccinations for all domestic livestock. Please talk with your veterinarian about this recommendation. There are liability implications for animal owners who choose not to follow these recommendations and expose their animals to the public. In New Jersey, rabies vaccination must be performed by a licensed veterinarian. Non-veterinarians cannot legally purchase and administer vaccine. If a vaccine is not administered by a licensed veterinarian, that animal is not legally considered to be vaccinated. If the animal has been in a fight with another animal call your veterinarian. A vaccinated pet may need a booster dose of rabies vaccine and informal observation for a period of time. Euthanasia is typically recommended for an unvaccinated animal with a likely exposure to rabies. However, the animal can be quarantined for a period of up to six months at a secure facility with no direct contact with people or other animals. A quarantined animal cannot leave the quarantine area to go to shows, fairs, etc. If the animal exhibits any signs while quarantined, public health or animal control officials will order euthanasia and subsequent rabies testing. Under current New Jersey state regulations, vaccinated animals known to have been exposed to rabies with or without visible wounds are quarantined for 45 days. For a detailed list of management procedures for vaccinated and unvaccinated animals exposed to rabies, visit tycoanimalcontrol.com/documents/Management_of_exposed_pets.pdf. For regulatory procedures for domestic animal rabies exposures in New Jersey refer to tycoanimalcontrol.com/documents/Animal%20post%20expossure%20Confinement%20guidelines.pdf. If you are bitten by an animal, wash the wound thoroughly with soap and water and seek medical attention immediately. The local health department or the county animal control office also should be notified immediately. The animal should be captured without damaging its head and only if direct contact with the animal can be avoided. If an apparently healthy domestic dog, cat or ferret bites a human, it must be captured, confined and professionally observed for 10 days following the bite. If the animal remains healthy during this period, it would not have transmitted rabies at the time of the bite. There is no reliable observation period established for non-domestic animals. If a person is bitten by a non-domestic animal and it is available for testing, testing should be done immediately. All animal bites should be reported to the local animal control office. Rabies in small animals has been dramatically reduced in the United States since the introduction of rabies vaccination of domestic animals in the 1940s. As a consequence, the number of human deaths caused by rabies has declined to only a few cases per year. However, during the past several years, rabies in wildlife has skyrocketed. Each wildlife species carries its own rabies variant(s). These wildlife epizootics present a constant public health threat in addition to the danger of reintroducing rabies to domestic animals. Vaccination is the key to prevent rabies in animals and rabies transmission to human beings. Rabies is always fatal once the animal is infected. Copyright © 2016 Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. All rights reserved. For more information: http://njaes.rutgers.edu. Cooperating Agencies: Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and County Boards of Chosen Freeholders. Rutgers Cooperative Extension, a unit of the Rutgers New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, is an equal opportunity program provider and employer. Search This Site:	http://njaes.rutgers.edu/pubs/fs1228/
4.125	Beacon Lesson Plan Library Let the Bugs do the Rhyming Lee County School District Students learn about limericks and write their own about a favorite insect. The student uses repetition, rhyme, and rhythm appropriately in oral and written text (for example, choral reading of poems, songs, rhymes, and stories; identifying rhymes, repeated sounds, onomatopoeia). -Book: Silverstein, Shel. [Where the Sidewalk Ends]. New York: HarperCollins, 1973. -Book: Silverstein, Shel. [A Light in the Attic]. New York: HarperCollins, 1981. -Book: Livingston, Myra Cohn. [Lots of Limericks]. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991. -Reference books on insects -Overhead or chalkboard 1. Gather books with limericks in them like Shel Silverstein's, [Where the Sidewalk Ends] or [A Light in the Attic], or a poetry anthology like [Lots of Limericks] listed above. Even Mother Goose has limericks that are fun for the students. 2. Review the limericks so that you have an idea of what they consist of. 3. Gather reference books on insects and encyclopedias. 1. Read a few of the limericks by Shel Silverstein or from the [Lots of Limericks] anthology by Myra Cohn Livingston. 2. Ask the students if they can identify a similarity in the poems. Give the answer if they do not see that the poems rhyme at the end. 3. Once the students notice that the poems end in rhyming words, you can begin explaining that limericks always have words that rhyme at the end of the lines. The first, second and last lines rhyme; then the third and fourth lines rhyme with different rhyming words than the first line. The following examples are from Shel Silverstein's [A Light in the Attic]. “The Dragon of Grindly Grun” (page 33) I'm the dragon of Grindly Grun, I breathe fire as hot as the sun. When a knight comes to fight I toast him on sight, Like a hot crispy cinnamon bun. “The Lost Cat” (page 151) We can't find the cat, We don't know where she's at, Oh, where did she go, Does anyone know? Let's ask this walking hat. 4. Give examples on the chalkboard or overhead and underline the rhyming words. For example, in the limerick below, underline the rhyming words “toes” and “clothes” and “goes” in red to show that they rhyme then underline “hair” and “bare” in black to show that they rhyme together. This helps the students understand how to put together their limericks. “The Beard” (page 164) from Shel Silverstein's [Where the Sidewalk Ends] My beard grows to my toes I never wear no clothes I wrap my hair around my bare and down the road I goes. 5. Work through a few more limericks together on the overhead or chalkboard using limericks selected from the books listed above. Example: by Gelett Burgess I wish that my room had a floor I don't care so much for a door but this walking around without touching the ground is getting to be quite a bore 6. Ask the students to think about their favorite insects and decide which one would be the most fun to write a limerick about. Possible answers include: butterflies, spiders, beetles, mosquitoes, ants, bees, cockroaches, flies, ladybugs and dragonflies. 7. Using a web or other graphic organizer, have the students brainstorm ideas and descriptions about their insect. Books on insects and encyclopedias may be referenced to help spark creative ideas and provide theme-related vocabulary. Try to encourage the students to think about rhyming words as they are brainstorming ideas. Allow ten minutes for this activity. Note: More time might be needed if books and encyclopedias are referenced. 8. Allow students to write their limericks. Walk around the room and help them if they need it. 9. When they have finished their poem, they can draw a picture that goes with their work. 10. Once everyone has finished their poems, pictures or not, they read their limericks aloud to the class. (If students need more time, read alouds can be done the following day so that they can work on their poems overnight.) The learners are assessed on their ability to choose rhyming words by creating one limerick in the correct sequence of first, second, and fifth lines rhyming and the third and fourth lines rhyming. The teacher looks for the students' comprehension of limericks and their ability to create one of their own. Those students who cannot complete the activity need to have more one-on-one instruction.	http://www.beaconlearningcenter.com/lessons/lesson.asp?ID=2308
4.1875	Are bacteria cells like our cells? Yes and no. Bacteria cells are similar to our cells in some ways. Like our cells, bacteria cells have DNA and a plasma membrane. But bacteria are unique in other ways. They are called prokaryotic cells because of these differences. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic There are two basic types of cells, prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. The main difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells is that eukaryotic cells have a nucleus. The nucleus is where cells store their DNA, which is the genetic material. The nucleus is surrounded by a membrane. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. Instead, their DNA floats around inside the cell. Organisms with prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes. All prokaryotes are single-celled (unicellular) organisms. Bacteria and Archaea are the only prokaryotes. Organisms with eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes. Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes. All multicellular organisms are eukaryotes. Eukaryotes may also be single-celled. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have structures in common. All cells have a plasma membrane, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and DNA. The plasma membrane, or cell membrane, is the phospholipid layer that surrounds the cell and protects it from the outside environment. Ribosomes are the non-membrane bound organelles where proteins are made, a process called protein synthesis. The cytoplasm is all the contents of the cell inside the cell membrane, not including the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells usually have multiple chromosomes, composed of DNA and protein. Some eukaryotic species have just a few chromosomes, others have close to 100 or more. These chromosomes are protected within the nucleus. In addition to a nucleus, eukaryotic cells include other membrane-bound structures called organelles. Organelles allow eukaryotic cells to be more specialized than prokaryotic cells. Pictured below are the organelles of eukaryotic cells (Figure below), including the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. These will be discussed in additional concepts. Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and various other special compartments surrounded by membranes, called organelles. The nucleus is where the DNA (chromatin) is stored. Organelles give eukaryotic cells more functions than prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells (Figure below) are usually smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells. They do not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles. In prokaryotic cells, the DNA, or genetic material, forms a single large circle that coils up on itself. The DNA is located in the main part of the cell. Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus. Instead, their genetic material is located in the main part of the cell. \|\|Single circular piece of DNA \|\|Plants, animals, fungi - All cells have a plasma membrane, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and DNA. - Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound structures. - Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound structures called organelles. Use the resource below to answer the questions that follow. - What does "naked" DNA mean? What kinds of organisms have "naked" DNA? - Where do you find membrane bound organelles? Are plasmids membrane bound organelles? - What is the function of mitochondria in prokaryotes? - What do all cells have in common? - What are organelles? - Compare the location of the genetic material of eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells. - What are ribosomes? - What are the only prokaryotes? - Which prokaryotes are multicellular?	http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Life-Science-Concepts-For-Middle-School/section/2.2/
4.21875	Grades 1 - 4 Grade level Equivalent: 3 Lexile® Measure: AD720L Guided Reading: O - Animal Structure and Movement About This Book Polar bears can smell a seal through three feet of ice, while grizzlies can smell a dead animal ten miles away. But would this sense of smell matter in a fight? What would happen if a polar bear and a grizzly bear fought each other? With this book, readers can study the stats, predict the winner, and then witness the imaginary battle! This book is packed with amazing and fun facts about where the bears live, how they hunt, and what they eat. Readers will study the bears’ physical features, from teeth to claws, and fill in a checklist about who has the advantage when it comes to size, hunting skills, sense of smell, speed, and more. Which bear will be the final victor? Find out in this gripping nonfiction read! This innovative science series introduces young readers to animal species by pitting two creatures against one another and asking kids to predict which one would prevail. Each book is illustrated with vivid, full-color pictures and features two animals that rarely, if ever, meet in the wild. Readers use information about each animal's physical attributes, nearest relatives, diet, survival tactics, and more to determine which creature would win in a fight. With easy-to-navigate layouts and just a few key facts per page, these books encourage kids to draw scientific conclusions by using reasoning skills and creative thinking.	http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/book/polar-bear-vs-grizzly-bear
4.3125	The Sino-Tibetan languages have in common several features, which are exhibited to a greater or lesser extent in the individual tongues. For example, they show a tendency to be monosyllabic and isolating and to use tones or musical pitch. In an isolating language the words do not change their form or show inflection. Because of the relative absence of inflection, word order is the key to expressing grammatical relationships. A monosyllabic language has a limited number of syllables since the sound combinations that are possible are also limited in number. Because there are so many words that sound alike, two words of similar meaning are often used together to make the sense clearer. Combinations of two or more monosyllabic words also increase the vocabulary. Classifiers, which vary according to the sense of the words with which they are used, aid in making root meanings clear. For instance, one classifier is employed with round articles, and another with items of clothing. The use of different tones for each monosyllable has two striking benefits. It increases the vocabulary by multiplying the number of possible monosyllables, and it also is helpful in distinguishing among homophones. The number of tones differs in each language; three tones are found in Burmese, five in Thai, four in Mandarin Chinese, and nine in Cantonese Chinese.	http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/society/sino-tibetan-languages-common-features.html
4.03125	Who Are the Tuskegee Airmen? Who are the Tuskegee Airmen? ALCOS: 9.2, 6th Grade: Describe the changing role of African Americans in the society of the United States during World War II Duration: 1-2 days - Identify the purpose of the Tuskegee Experiment (military)? - Explain the difference between the Tuskegee Experiment (medical) and the Tuskegee Experiment (military)? - Define the term, "Tuskegee Airmen." - ·List some of the specific job responsibilities of Negro pilots and support personnel. Two famous Tuskegee Experiments were conducted in the small town of Tuskegee, Alabama between 1932 and 1972. One conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service (Public Health) beginning in 1932, later called the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. The other conducted by the U.S. Army Air Corps (Air Corps) beginning in 1941, the participants of which were later dubbed "Tuskegee Airmen" The purpose of the experiment conducted by Public Health was to observe the progression of a number of diseases, particularly syphilis, untreated in black males. The official name of the study was the, "Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male." This study involved 660 men who agreed to participate in exchange for meals, transportation, health care, and burial payments to their widows. At the beginning of the study no effective treatment was available for syphilis patients. By 1947 penicillin was readily available, but this treatment option was not made available to the unknowing participants. The travesty was that although treatment was then available, Public Health withheld this information from them and continued the program in the same vein. The study ended abruptly and inconclusively in 1972 when the Associated Press broke the news of the unethical experiment in New York and in Washington, D.C.. In 1972 a class action lawsuit was filed against Public Health in behalf of the men, their wives, children, and family members, which ended in a $9 million settlement for the victims. In 1941, the Air Corps began a military "experiment" to see if Negroes could be trained as combat pilots and support personnel. This experiment served to test out the findings of a 1925 War Department study that asserted that "the Negro is fundamentally inferior" to whites. The study further claimed that Negroes lacked the intelligence, courage, and physical ability to operate complicated military equipment, such as combat aircraft. The first to be trained as participants in this experiment were the Mechanics who began their training in March 1941 at Chanute Field, near Rantoul, Illinois. On July 19, 1941, twelve aviation cadets and one student officer, Captain Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., reported to Tuskegee Institute (Tuskegee University) to begin primary flight training as the first Negro pilot candidates in the United States Army. By November, four cadets and the student officer had demonstrated the necessary skills, completed the rigors of training, and were transferred to Tuskegee Army Air Field for basic and advanced training courses. On March 7, 1942, the first class of cadets graduated from Tuskegee Army Air Field to become the nation's first African American military pilots. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. retained his rank as Captain, and four others graduated with the rank of 2nd Lieutenant. The significance of this event should not be minimized after years of struggle by African-Americans for opportunities to serve in non-subservient roles in the U.S. military. As the pilot training program expanded it would eventually include participants from 29 states, foreign countries, 7 historically black colleges, and the Coffey School of Aeronautics. The majority of those accepted into the program had completed the Civilian Pilot Training Program authorized by the U.S. Congress in 1938, administered through the Civil Aeronautics Administration. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, HI in December 1941, the United States entered World War II. At that time no plans were made or thought given to using the Negro pilots in combat. At the insistence of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, the War Department gave them an assignment in North Africa, where they would have no contact with soldiers of the Axis Powers. Because they had no contact with the enemy, the War Department concluded that they were ineffective and decided to return the Negro units to America. After testimony before Congress by Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., they were given an opportunity to provide escort cover for white bomber crews to and from their targets. They performed exceedingly well, to the point that they began to be requested as bomber escorts by white bomber pilots. Of the more than 400 pilots who saw combat, 66 of their number died during combat and 33 were taken as prisoners of war. Other Tuskegee trained pilots fought another war, not in a foreign land, but on US soil. These were part of the 477th Bombardment Group who, in 1945, successfully staged a non-violent sit-in to integrate the "White Only" officers' club at Freemen Field, Indiana. In the process they overturned an illegal Base Order designed to keep the "status quo" of segregation although military regulations prohibited this practice. Through it all, they proudly served their country, both on American and foreign soil, not as Negroes, but as American citizens. Some of the challenges they faced included: the program being located in the racially segregated South; the prevalence of Jim Crow laws designed to keep them "in their place"; the intense opposition from the majority white citizens of the City of Tuskegee; threats of arrest for venturing to walk down the city streets of Tuskegee; racially biased Air Corps personnel who reflected the same racial attitudes as the local white community; the ease of which a cadet could be "washed" out of the program by a supposed infraction, whether real or imaginary; the pressure to perform well, oftentimes, with used or dilapidated aircraft; the concern of whether the Air Corps was really committed to providing training equal to those of their white counterparts; whether their credentials would be recognized throughout the military community; and, whether America would recognize their sacrifices and performance and embrace them as full citizens entitled to equal and civil rights under the U.S. Constitution. On June 8, 1946, the last class of aviation cadets graduated from Tuskegee Army Air Field. At the time they completed their requirements 2,483 persons had entered the Tuskegee pilot training program, of which, 994 completed the rigors and earned their pilot wings. Altogether, the participants in the Tuskegee military experiment (later called Tuskegee Airmen) numbered between 15,000 – 19,000 including pilots, mechanics, cooks, doctors, nurses, parachute riggers, gate guards, flight instructors, firemen, radio operators, etc. Their unit formations consisted of the 99th, 100th, 301st, and, 302nd Fighter Squadrons, the combined 332nd Fighter Group, and 477th Bombardment Group, along with their service units. Major Vocabulary Introduced: \|Jim Crow Laws\|\|Integrate\| Activity 1 - Quadrant Cards Vocabulary Activity Objective: Students will define key vocabulary terms as a pre-activity assignment using information provided by the teacher Supplies needed: Writing utensil, paper, and vocabulary list 1. Divide a sheet of paper into four parts 2. List the word to be learned in the top left quadrant 3. Write the definition in the top right quadrant 4. Write associations for the word in the bottom left quadrant 5. Draw an illustration in the bottom right corner Activity 2 – Historical Figures Objective: Students will learn significant contributions of some of the men and women who were Tuskegee Airmen Supplies needed: Paper, writing utensil, biographical information, classroom notes 2. Review information on how this person contributed to the success of the Experiment 3. Teacher will provide a handout that will allow students to match the role or individual with the correct description Discussion questions—Teacher can divide students into groups for a short period of discussion. Each group will be graded for participation. 1 .Explain the difference between the two Tuskegee Experiments 2. When did the Tuskegee Airmen training program begin? 3. Identify some obstacles faced by the program participants 4 .How did the Tuskegee Airmen support the cause for racial integration of the U.S. military? The Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site was the primary flight training facility for Negro military pilots in Tuskegee during World War II. Support personnel, such as mechanics, parachute riggers, fire personnel, military officers, fabric stretchers, clerks, technicians, etc. were stationed here. Aircraft was housed and maintained here. This is where cadets took their first solo flight as military pilots. Original buildings and other historic structures still exist on site. The first aircraft hangar/base operations building constructed on site in 1941 serves as the park museum/staff office space. The museum exhibits are designed to enable visitors to take a "walk back in time" to the 1940's period of significance. 1. Students will receive a blank outline map of the United States. They will be asked to use classroom resources to show which states Negro pilots were chosen from. 2. To further help the students to understand the concept of support personnel. The students will be divided into groups based on job assignment. They will be required to communicate with one another through group representatives to illustrate how important it was for every individual to perform their responsibility, which contributed to the overall success of the group. - African American History and Culture, Aviation, Civil Rights Movement, Education, Government, Military and Wartime History, Social Studies, World War II - National/State Standards: - ALCOS: 9.2, 6TH GRADE	http://www.nps.gov/tuai/learn/education/classrooms/lesson-one-who-were-the-tuskegee-airmen.htm
4.09375	Hours: 10 a.m. - 4 p.m., Admission: $12 Adults, $7 Child. Lesson Plan 1 By: Beth Krogh Skills: Identification and classification -Jellyfish on exhibit at zoo -Handout: Jellyfish Exhibit -What makes a jellyfish a living organism? -Follow the movement of one jellyfish for one minute. Trace the path it takes over two minutes. -How fast do you think the jellyfish travels in one minute? You will need to estimate the distance travelled in one minute in meters. -Velocity or speed = distance(meters)/time(seconds) -Draw a picture of a jellyfish. -Describe the motion of a jellyfish. - Students will have prior knowledge of the classification system. The different phylums of animals, examples of animals and characteristics of living things as well as animal groups. - Zoo Field Experience- visit the jellyfish exhibit - Students will fill out handout as part of zoo experience. Assessment: Informal evaluation: students will share information in the classroom back at school orally. Lesson Plan 2 By: Peggy Owens Skills: research, drawing presentations -Fact sheet given by teacher -Information from zoo trip -Science packet given during zoo trip - Boys will prepare facts about male sea horses. - Girls will prepare facts about female sea horses. - Habitat, What they eat, size (male/female), who carries babies?, how many babies?, how many survive? - Draw a diagram using these facts - Draw a picture of the different size sea horses (male vs. female) Assessment: Students will share their findings with the class Lesson Plan 3 By: Beth Reogh Skills: animal classification, recognizing adaptations and differences in animals, and identifying habitats -Reading on reptile characteristics, Order of reptiles and differences between crocodiles and alligators -Pictures of Crocodiles/ Alligators -Zoo Exhibit of Caiman -Activity Sheet for Zoo 1. Before attending the zoo do pre-reading strategy on what they know about reptiles. 2. Read about reptiles-do Froya Model with definition, characteristics, and types of reptiles 3. Do a Venn Diagram on Alligators/Crocodiles 4. Look at pictures of Alligators/Crocodiles 5. Visit Zoo- Caiman Exhibit 6. Fill out sheet on Caimans- next page a) Picture/Drawing of Caiman b) List characteristics of Caiman c) Kingdom, Plybeen, Class, Order d) Habitat of Caiman 7. Back at school, compare and contrast the caiman with alligator and crocodile. Use the following analysis matrix (On hand written lesson plan) · Share in small groups their understanding of the analysis matrix. Add to matrix as necessary. Peer review. · Teacher assessment by moving group to group-informal evaluation · Show pictures of 3 animals and ask students to identify Lesson Plan 4 By: Peggy Owens Skill: drawing, writing Procedure: 7th grade students will be taking a field trip to the Blank Park Zoo. Explore the Discovery Center and start an art project. Students will draw a fresh water aquarium, include 5 living animals in your picture. Then write a paragraph regarding the animals’ habitat, what they eat, what is in the water (living/growing.) The students will have an understanding of fresh water animals as discussed in class. Pre-taught. Assessment: Students will complete the art project and a paragraph.	http://www.blankparkzoo.com/en/education/resources/7th_grade_lesson_plans/
4.34375	Multiplicative Property of Zero Teacher Resources Find Multiplicative Property of Zero educational ideas and activities Showing 1 - 20 of 44 resources Using Order of Operations and Exploring Properties If you need some creative ways to teach the order of operations, use a series of activities that focus on properties. Each lesson uses different materials and works as a stand-alone activity, or can build upon the concepts of the last... 5th - 6th Math Middle School Mathematics Vocabulary Word Wall Cards Having a good working knowledge of math vocabulary is so important for learners as they progress through different levels of mathematical learning. Here is 125 pages worth of wonderfully constructed vocabulary and concept review cards.... 5th - 9th Math Follow That Sign! A Review in Using Appropriate Mathematical Symbols Kids gain a deeper understanding of mathematical symbols, by playing an interactive game using flash cards. They complete an attached Missing Symbols Worksheet, flash card and an assessment are also included. 1st Math CCSS: Adaptable Got These Properties? (Commutative in Addition/Zero in Addition and Subtraction) Second graders examine the commutative property of addition and the property of zero in addition and subtraction. They complete an asessment worksheet to gain practice reading and working number sentences horizontally and vertically.	http://www.lessonplanet.com/lesson-plans/multiplicative-property-of-zero
4.15625	New research from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology reveals that marine cyanobacteria, whose body mass forms the base of the ocean food chain, also feed marine organisms in another way - they deliver "food parcels" packed with carbon and other nutrients. The bacteria release lipid vesicles - spherical sacs containing proteins and genetic material in the form of DNA - and RNA, which the researchers suggest provide a means of gene transfer in bacterial communities and could also act as decoys for viruses. Marine cyanobacteria are like tiny ocean plants in that they make their own carbon-rich food from photosynthesis, which uses sunlight and CO2. Thus, through their own body mass, they provide the ocean's food chain with organic compounds and also with oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis. In a recent issue of Science, Sallie W. Chisholm, a professor in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's (MIT's) department of civil and environmental engineering, and colleagues report how they discovered large numbers of extracellular vesicles - each measuring about 100 nanometers across - linked to the two most abundant types of cyanobacteria, Prochlorococcus and Synechoccocus. First time extracellular vesicles linked to ocean bacteria The knowledge that bacteria release extracellular vesicles has been around since the 1960s, but this is the first time it has been observed in ocean bacteria. The team found the vesicles in cultures of cyanobacteria and also in samples taken from the nutrient-rich waters around the coast of New England, as well as the nutrient-sparse waters of the Sargasso Sea, in the middle of the North Atlantic Gyre. When they tested them in the lab, they found the vesicles to be stable and able to last 2 weeks or more, offering enough carbon to sustain the growth of bacteria that do not use photosynthesis. Discovery will change the way we think about ocean's food cycle Finding these vesicles are so abundant in the oceans means we have to change the way we think about them and their role in the ocean's food cycle - a key message from the study. We know little about how they contribute to the circulation and supply of dissolved organic carbon in marine ecosystems. They could be an important way that organisms in the sea exchange genes and other essential materials, energy and information. When they analyzed the genetic material in the vesicles taken from the seawater, the team found DNA from a wide range of bacteria, suggesting many of them produce vesicles. Just Prochlorococcus's global production amounts to some billion billion billion vesicles per day - contributing a significant amount of carbon-rich material to the sparse nutrient pool of the open seas, they note. What is the evolutionary advantage of giving away food in vesicles? But why is a bacterial cell prepared to release a packet one-sixth of its own size every day, especially in the nutrient-sparse environment of the open seas? The researchers wondered why they would take such a risk. Prof. Chisolm says: "Prochlorococcus is the smallest genome that can make organic carbon from sunlight and carbon dioxide and it's packaging this carbon and releasing it into the seawater around it. There must be an evolutionary advantage to doing this. Our challenge is to figure out what it is." One explanation might lie in the fact Prochlorococcus relies on non-photosynthetic bacteria to break down chemicals that are toxic to it - it has lost the ability to do it for itself. So perhaps, by sending tasty little snack parcels to its non-photosynthetic neighbours, Prochlorococcus is keeping the relationship mutually beneficial. Another idea the researchers suggest is that the vesicles act as a decoy for predators. Under electron microscopes they could see how phages - viruses that attack bacteria - became attached to vesicles. Once a phage injects its DNA into a vesicle, it is effectively disarmed and rendered ineffective - it cannot then reproduce itself in a living cell. It is as though the bacteria release the vesicles in a similar way to fighter jets that release chaff to divert missile attacks. The MIT Energy Initiative, along with grants from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation and the National Science Foundation's Center for Microbial Oceanography, helped finance the study. Meanwhile, scientists from the University of Copenhagen have reported a study where they showed how marine bacteria can help fight tough infections, such as those caused by Staphylococci.	http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/271155.php
4	\|The NTP FAQ and HOWTO: Understanding and using the Network Time Protocol (A first try on a non-technical Mini-HOWTO and FAQ on NTP)\| This section tries to introduce and explain the most basic features of NTP, the Network Time Protocol. The discussion here will be limited to the more theroretical aspects of NTP, while the next section (Section 5) will go further towards real life. NTP stands for Network Time Protocol, and it is an Internet protocol used to synchronize the clocks of computers to some time reference. NTP is an Internet standard protocol originally developed by Professor David L. Mills at the University of Delaware. SNTP (Simple Network Time Protocol) is basically also NTP, but lacks some internal algorithms that are not needed for all types of servers. See Q: 9.4. for more and detailed information. As a full implementation of the NTP protocol seemed too complicated for many systems, a simplified version of the protocol, namely SNTP had been defined. Time usually just advances. If you have communicating programs running on different computers, time still should even advance if you switch from one computer to another. Obviously if one system is ahead of the others, the others are behind that particular one. From the perspective of an external observer, switching between these systems would cause time to jump forward and back, a non-desirable effect. As a consequence, isolated networks may run their own wrong time, but as soon as you connect to the Internet, effects will be visible. Just imagine some EMail message arrived five minutes before it was sent, and there even was a reply two minutes before the message was sent. Even on a single computer some applications have trouble when the time jumps backwards. For example, database systems using transactions and crash recovery like to know the time of the last good state. Therefore, air traffic control was one of the first applications for NTP. There exist several protocols to synchronize computer clocks, each having distinguished features. Here is a list of NTP's features: NTP needs some reference clock that defines the true time to operate. All clocks are set towards that true time. (It will not just make all systems agree on some time, but will make them agree upon the true time as defined by some standard.) NTP uses UTC as reference time (See also What is UTC?). NTP is a fault-tolerant protocol that will automatically select the best of several available time sources to synchronize to. Multiple candidates can be combined to minimize the accumulated error. Temporarily or permanently insane time sources will be detected and avoided. NTP is highly scalable: A synchronization network may consist of several reference clocks. Each node of such a network can exchange time information either bidirectional or unidirectional. Propagating time from one node to another forms a hierarchical graph with reference clocks at the top. Having available several time sources, NTP can select the best candidates to build its estimate of the current time. The protocol is highly accurate, using a resolution of less than a nanosecond (about 2^-32 seconds). (The popular protocol used by rdate and defined in [RFC 868] only uses a resolution of one second). Even when a network connection is temporarily unavailable, NTP can use measurements from the past to estimate current time and error. For formal reasons NTP will also maintain estimates for the accuracy of the local time. The implementation described in Which Implementations are available for UNIX? works for most popular UNIX operating systems. Among those are: AIX, FreeBSD, HP-UX, Irix, Linux, NetBSD, SCO UNIX, OpenBSD, OSF/1, Solaris, System V.4. According to a message in news://comp.protocols.time.ntp there's also a supported implementation for VMS: "UCX (the VMS TCP stack) has a full implementation of NTP built-in. As of v5 it's pretty much vanilla NTP, prior to that the command syntax and control file formats were proprietary. Check the manuals." See Q: 184.108.40.206. for more details. In addition there are efforts to make it run on Windows/NT (see Q: 220.127.116.11.3.). Currently there are problems with time resolution, reference clock drivers, authentication and name resolution. For more detailed information see Section 4.3. According to A Survey of the NTP Network there were at least 175,000 hosts running NTP in the Internet. Among these there were over 300 valid stratum-1 servers. In addition there were over 20,000 servers at stratum 2, and over 80,000 servers at stratum 3. Unfortunately the answer to this question is not quite easy: Currently there are version three and version four implementations of NTP available. The latest software release being worked on is NTPv4, but the official Internet standard is still NTPv3. In addition, some vendors of operating systems customize and deliver their own versions. If you rely on support, you should also consider that. If you are worried with compatibility issues, older version clients can generally talk to newer version servers automagically (as newer servers know how to answer the queries, hopefully), but the other direction requires manual interference (See html/confopt.htm about the version keyword). NTPv4 introduces some new features that you may find desirable (See Q: 4.1.9.). For example, if you use dial-up connections, version four can increase its polling interval above one day if the clock is stable enough. In addition the new algorithms can deal with high delay variations a bit better than the LAN-oriented version three. On the other hand, NTPv4 uses floating point operations where NTPv3 used integer arithmetic. This should not be a problem for current hardware, but might be an issue for older systems without a floating point unit. There is also a security issue with all versions probably older than 4.0.99k23 that may allow denial of service or even unauthorized system access. Still vendors supplying older versions may have fixed their particular version. See also Section 6.4 Obviously the difference is an x, and its meaning some years ago was (according to Professor David L. Mills): Dennis Fergusson intended the "x" as "experimental". I got maybe twenty messages over the years suggesting the x was not appropriate for code in use over a decade and I dropped it for NTPv4. See the paper on NTP history at http://www.eecis.udel.edu/~mills/papers.htm. In practice xntp refers to an implementation of version three or older while ntp refers to implementation of version four (or later). According to the NTP Version 4 Release Notes found in release.htm, the new features of version four (as compared to version three) are: The official specification of NTP version 3 is [RFC 1305]. Specifically, there is no specification for version 4 yet. Despite of some arguments to update the specification, there won't be one in the near future. There was a recent discussion on the subject. Hans P. Reiser wrote: Several slides and papers on NTP illustrate the NTP Interval Intersection Algorithm with an example of 4 peers, A to D, showing two confidence intervals labeled "Correct DTS" and "Correct NTP". (Also shown in Appendix of RFC-1305, Fig. 16). While it is easy to understand the DTS case, I have some problems matching the shown NTP interval with the specified algorithms. According to the algorithm as specified, e.g., in RFC-1305: f=0 (no falsetickers) will fail, so f=1 scan for low endpoint will yield left end of interval C (condition i>=3 holds), by that time c=1 (incremented at midpoint of D) scan for high endpoint starts with c=1, f=1, i=0 condition i>=3 holds as soon as the right end of interval B is reached, by that time c=2 (incremented at midpoint of C) Now, c>f, so no success yet. Increment f to value 2 Some documents now say "declare failure if f>=m/2", which is the case now. Even if you make another pass with f=2, you will get an interval from left end of A to right end of A, thus again different from what ss shown in RFC's Fig 16. Do I get something really wrong here (and I really tried hard to locate any flaw in my argument), or is there really a error in the RFC example and all other places which use this example? The answer written by Professor David L. Mills reads: (...) What's more, you exposed a significant error in both the documentation and the implementation. See slide 15 from the architecture and protocol briefing on the NTP project page linked from www.ntp.org. The statements preceeding the algorithm are correct; that is the intent of its design according to the set of formal correctness assertions worked out with the computer science theory community. Unfortunately, in my haste to bottle the algorithm in quick and easy gulps, something got lost in the description. The actual algorithm is constructed differently, but accomplishes the same thing. Pseudo code for the correctness model is in rfc1305 but (sigh) there is a leetle buggie in that description. Just to be honest I rechecked the actual NTPv4 code and found a nasty surprise. The code is broken and does not exactly implement the formal model. Under some conditions it allows a falseticker to masquerade as a truechimer. Not to panic; the masquerade is subtle and will not result in significant error. However, I don't know how this happened; the core code is 14 years old, may have been noodled (but not by me) and hasn't been carefully reviewed since. I repaired the code as per rfc1305 and bugfix and verified it does what the formal model intended. The repair is in the development version here and should be in the repository when other known bugs are fixed. Meanwhile, I fixed the description in the briefing; it should be on the project page in the morning. The clock selection algorithm is at the very heart of the NTP design. While a formal description of its operation is now in the briefing, an informal description may be of interest to folks in this group. I know there are many skeptics who complain when the algorithm does something they don't like, rather than what the correctness assertions require. If a candidate presented to the algorithm is reliably synchronized to UTC, its time offset value seen from afar cannot exceed an error bound equal to plus-minus half the roundtrip propagation delay to that candidate plus a little wiggle due to statistical variations (jitter). Once the offset value has been determined, the error bound increases at a fixed rate due to the maximum credible frequency error of the clock oscillator. The error bound, called the root synchronization distance, is continuously calculated by ntpd. The correctness interval is defined as twice this bound with midpoint equal to the offset value. Now consider a number of correctness intervals aligned along the time axis at their respective offset values. Obviously, those points where the intervals all overlap form a clique representing the correct UTC time. If some interval does not overlap the others, there must be more than one clique, but only one clique can contain the correct time. If there is a clique containing more than half the number of intervals, its members must all be truechimers and the other cliques must contain only falsetickers. If there is no clique containing more than half the intervals, a correct time cannot be determined and the Byzantines lose the war. Consider the common case of two intervals that do not overlap due to a systematic error. According to principle, one of the two must not be synchronized to UTC, but there is no way for the selection algorithm to know which one. So, by the above, a correct time cannot be determined. In prinicple, you could choose one based on other characteristics, like the size of the interval, but this would seriously complicate the algorithm and probably cause the theory community to disown me. While the corrected code is strict to principle, it may be too strict for some who don't care that much about correctness principles. There may be a need for a tinker switch with appropriate warning disclaimers. Even if a database like Oracle uses integer numbers for transaction sequencing internally, users may want to perform time-based recovery. There's a document numbered 1013279.6 from Oracle that discusses the issue. A Survey of the NTP Network by Nelson Minar is available via http://www.media.mit.edu/~nelson/research/ntp-survey99/.	http://www.ntp.org/ntpfaq/NTP-s-def.htm
4	Lines: Two Points Change the line by dragging either point directly in the graph. THINGS TO TRY Lines: Two Points Wolfram Demonstrations Project Published: September 28, 2007 Embed Interactive Demonstration More details » Download Demonstration as CDF » Download Author Code » More by Author Two Points Determine a Line Equation of a Line Game Sergio Hannibal Mejía (Yokohama International School) Shaoni Bandyopadhya, Alyssa Beck, Cindy Piao and Karen Ye (Torrey Pines High School) Floor, Ceiling, and Round Ed Pegg Jr Multiplying with Lines Simple Best-Fit Line Line through Two Points High School Algebra I High School Mathematics Middle School Mathematics Browse all topics Related Curriculum Standards US Common Core State Standards, Mathematics The #1 tool for creating Demonstrations and anything technical. Explore anything with the first computational knowledge engine. The web's most extensive Course Assistant Apps » An app for every course— right in the palm of your hand. Wolfram Blog » Read our views on math, science, and technology. Computable Document Format » The format that makes Demonstrations (and any information) easy to share and STEM Initiative » Programs & resources for educators, schools & students. Join the initiative for modernizing Step-by-step Solutions » Walk through homework problems one step at a time, with hints to help along the way. Wolfram Problem Generator » Unlimited random practice problems and answers with built-in Step-by-step solutions. Practice online or make a printable study sheet. Wolfram Language » Knowledge-based programming for everyone. Note: Your message & contact information may be shared with the author of any specific Demonstration for which you give feedback. © 2016 Wolfram Demonstrations Project & Contributors \| Note: To run this Demonstration you need Mathematica 7+ or the free Mathematica Player 7EX Download or upgrade to Mathematica Player 7EX I already have	http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/LinesTwoPoints/
4.1875	A new study of one of the most fundamental molecules in the universe has given scientists clues into how the very first stars were formed. For the first time, researchers have calculated the vibration patterns of a compound called H3+ (also known as a triatomic hydrogen ion), which consists of three hydrogen atoms sharing two electrons. Knowing how the molecule can vibrate allows scientists to predict which wavelengths of lightit will emit, giving them a way to identify its signature in astronomical observations. H3+ is important because it is thought to have been prevalent in the universe just after the Big Bang that started things off around 13.7 billion years ago. "Most of the universe consists of hydrogen in various forms," University of Arizona chemist Ludwik Adamowicz said in a statement, "but the H3+ ion is the most prevalent molecular ion in interstellar space. It's also one of the most important molecules in existence."[Wacky Physics: The Coolest Little Particles in Nature] H3+'s vibration and light-emitting qualities may have enabled it to transfer heat away from the first stars as they were in the process of forming, allowing them to coalesce without overheating and bursting apart. "There wouldn't be any star formation if there weren't molecules that slowly cool down the forming star by emitting light," said Michele Pavanello, who was a University of Arizona graduate student when he worked on the project. "Astronomers think that the only molecule that could cool down a forming star in that particular time is H3+." Adamowicz and Pavanello used a computer simulation to model the behavior of H3+, based on quantum mechanics. "One has to involve a large amount of computations at the quantum mechanical level to predict those vibrations," Adamowicz said. "The role of theory is essentially to simulate those vibrations in the computer and then describe how the molecule is swinging or dancing." Their simulations predicted numerous potential vibrations that would cause H3+ to emit photons of specific wavelengths, or energies. If telescope observations of a particular cloud in space reveal light of these wavelengths, then astronomers will know the cloud contains H3+. The calculations should also help scientists understand the complicated physics of how stars form, especially the earliest stars in the universe. "The only way we can predict how the stars form is if we know very well what the cooling abilities of H3+ are, and we cannot know its cooling ability until we know its vibrational spectrum," Pavanello said. "We need to know what these energy levels are. With this paper, we have pinpointed the energy levels up to a certain energy threshold that is already good enough to generate accurate predictions of the cooling ability of H3+." The results of the study were reported in a recent issue of the journal Physical Review Letters.	http://www.space.com/15306-molecule-universe-stars.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+spaceheadlines+%28SPACE.com+Headline+Feed%29
4.09375	U.S. satellite data since 1979 has revealed that the troposphere--the weather-bearing layer of our atmosphere that extends more than seven miles up--warmed the most, by roughly 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit, in the middle latitudes. This band of warming crosses the southern U.S. as well as southern China and North Africa in the Northern Hemisphere and southern Australia, South Africa and lower South America in the Southern Hemisphere. This warmer air expands the reach of the tropics and pushes the jet streams toward the poles. "We estimate that the jet streams in both hemispheres have shifted poleward by roughly 1 degree latitude in both summer and winter seasons," the researchers, led by Qiang Fu of the University of Washington, write in today's Science. Each degree of latitude represents roughly 70 miles. "The jet streams mark the edge of the tropics, so if they are moving poleward that means the tropics are getting wider," explains John Wallace, Fus colleague at the University of Washington and coauthor of the report. "If they move another two to three degrees poleward in this century, very dry areas such as the Sahara Desert could nudge farther toward the pole, perhaps by a few hundred miles." It remains unclear what specifically is driving the move, though climate change is a likely suspect, along with depletion of the ozone layer. "Regardless of the cause," the authors note, "the poleward shift of the jet streams and the associated subtropical dry zone, if it continues, could have important societal implications."	http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/warming-atmosphere-expand/
4.375	Vernalization (from Latin vernus, "of the spring") is the induction of a plant's flowering process by exposure to the prolonged cold of winter, or by an artificial equivalent. After vernalization, plants have acquired the ability to flower, but they may require additional seasonal cues or weeks of growth before they will actually flower. Vernalization can also refer to herbal (non-woody) plants requiring a cold dormancy to produce new shoots and leaves. Many plants grown in temperate climates require vernalization and must experience a period of low winter temperature to initiate or accelerate the flowering process. This ensures that reproductive development and seed production occurs in spring and summer, rather than in autumn. The needed cold is often expressed in chill hours. Typical vernalization temperatures are between 5 and 10 degrees Celsius (40 and 50 degrees Fahrenheit). For many perennial plants, such as fruit tree species, a period of cold is needed first to induce dormancy and then later, after the requisite period of time, re-emerge from that dormancy prior to flowering. Many monocarpic winter annuals and biennials, including some ecotypes of Arabidopsis thaliana and winter cereals such as wheat, must go through a prolonged period of cold before flowering occurs. History of vernalization research In the history of agriculture, farmers observed a traditional distinction between "winter cereals," whose seeds require chilling (to trigger their subsequent emergence and growth), and "spring cereals," whose seeds can be sown in spring, thence they germinate, and then flower soon thereafter. The word "vernalization" is a translation of "яровизация" ("jarovization") a word coined by Trofim Lysenko to describe a chilling process he used to make the seeds of winter cereals behave like spring cereals ("Jarovoe" in Russian). Scientists had also discussed how some plants needed cold temperatures to flower, as early as the 18th century, with the German plant physiologist Gustav Gassner often mentioned for his 1918 paper. Lysenko's 1928 paper on vernalization and plant physiology drew wide attention due to its practical consequences for Russian agriculture. Severe cold and lack of winter snow had destroyed many early winter wheat seedlings. By treating wheat seeds with moisture as well as cold, Lysenko induced them to bear a crop when planted in spring. Later however, Lysenko inaccurately asserted that the vernalized state could be inherited - i.e., that the offspring of a vernalized plant would behave as if they themselves had also been vernalized and would not require vernalization in order to flower quickly. Early research on vernalization focused on plant physiology; the increasing availability of molecular biology has made it possible to unravel its underlying mechanisms. For example, a lengthening daylight period (longer days), as well as cold temperatures are required for winter wheat plants to go from the vegetative to the reproductive state; the three interacting genes are called VRN1, VRN2, and FT (VRN3). In Arabidopsis thaliana Arabidopsis thaliana, also known as "thale cress," is a much-studied model for plant species responsive to vernalisation. In 2000, the entire genome of its five chromosomes was completely sequenced. Some variants, called "winter annuals", have delayed flowering without vernalization; others ("summer annuals") do not. The genes that underlie this difference in plant physiology have been intensively studied. The reproductive phase change of A. thalliana occurs by a sequence of two related events: first, the bolting transition (flower stalk elongates), then the floral transition (first flower appears). Bolting is a robust predictor of flower formation, and hence a good indicator for vernalization research. In arabidopsis winter annuals, the apical meristem is the part of the plant that needs to be chilled. Vernalization of the meristem appears to confer competence to respond to floral inductive signals on the meristem. A vernalized meristem retains competence for as long as 300 days in the absence of an inductive signal. Before vernalization, flowering is repressed by the action of a gene called Flowering Locus C (FLC). Prolonged exposure to cold induces expression of VERNALIZATION INSENSTIVE3, which interacts with the VERNALIZATION2 polycomb-like complex to reduce FLC expression through chromatin remodeling. The epigenetic silencing of FLC by chromatin remodeling involves down-regulation of FLC expression by cold-induced expression of antisense FLC COOLAIR transcripts. It is also clear that FLC silencing must be achieved at the whole plant level by an appropriate proportion of individual cells switching into a stable FLC-silenced state. In order that vernalization is reset in the next generation, FLC repression is removed during embryogenesis by a mechanism involving a H3K27 methylase It is possible to devernalize a plant by exposure to high temperatures subsequent to vernalization. For example, commercial onion growers store seeds at low temperatures, but devernalize them before planting, because they want the plant's energy to go into enlarging its bulb (underground stem), not making flowers. - K. Sokolski, A. Dovholuk, L. Dovholuk and P. Faletra Selbyana Vol. 18, No. 2, ORCHIDS (1997), pp. 172-182 - Sibum Sung; Yuehui He; Tifani W Eshoo; Yosuke Tamada; Lianna Johnson; Kenji Nakahigashi; Koji Goto; Steve E Jacobsen; Richard M Amasino (June 2006). "Epigenetic maintenance of the vernalized state in Arabidopsis thaliana requires LIKE HETEROCHROMATIN PROTEIN 1". Nature Genetics (Nature) 38 (6): 706–710. doi:10.1038/ng1795. PMID 16682972. - Michaels, Sd; He, Y; Scortecci, Kc; Amasino, Rm (Aug 2003). "Attenuation of FLOWERING LOCUS C activity as a mechanism for the evolution of summer-annual flowering behavior in Arabidopsis." (Free full text). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100 (17): 10102–7. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10010102M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1531467100. PMC 187779. PMID 12904584 - P. Chouard (June 1960). "Vernalization and its relations to dormancy". Annual Reviews of Plant Physiology (Annual Reviews) 11: 191–238. doi:10.1146/annurev.pp.11.060160.001203. Retrieved 2011-01-25. - Nils Roll-Hansen (1985). "A new perspective on Lysenko?". Annals of Science (Taylor & Francis) 42 (3): 261–278. doi:10.1080/00033798500200201. PMID 11620694. Retrieved 2015-02-18. - Richard Amasino (October 2004). "Vernalization, Competence, and the Epigenetic Memory of Winter". Plant Cell (American Society of Plant Biologists) 16 (10): 2553–2559. doi:10.1105/tpc.104.161070. PMC 520954. PMID 15466409. - Ben Trevaskis; Megan N. Hemming; Elizabeth S. Dennis (August 2007). "The molecular basis of vernalization-induced flowering in cereals". Trends in Plant Science (Elsevier) 12 (8): 352–357. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2007.06.010. PMID 17629542. - "New genetic model predicts plant flowering in different environments". eScienceNews. Retrieved 2011-01-25. - Walbot, Virginia (2000). "A green chapter in the book of life". Nature 408 (6814): 794–795. doi:10.1038/35048685. PMID 11130710. Retrieved 28 January 2011. - "Vernalisation response". Plant Biology. Retrieved 2011-01-26. - Pouteau, Sylvie; Catherine Albertini (2009). "The significance of bolting and floral transitions as indicators of reproductive phase change in Arabidopsis". J. Exp. Bot. 60 (12): 3367–3377. doi:10.1093/jxb/erp173. PMID 19502535. Retrieved 29 January 2011. - Sung, Sibum; Amasino, Richard M. (2004). "Vernalization in Arabidopsis thaliana is mediated by the PHD finger protein VIN3". Nature 427 (6970): 159–163. Bibcode:2004Natur.427..159S. doi:10.1038/nature02195. - Tibor Csorba; Julia I. Questa; Qianwen Sun; Caroline Dean (2014). "Antisense COOLAIR mediates the coordinated switching of chromatin states at FLC during vernalization". PNAS USA 111: 16160–5. doi:10.1073/pnas.1419030111. - Andrew Angel; Jie Song; Caroline Dean; Martin Howard (2011). "A Polycomb-based switch underlying quantitative epigenetic memory". Nature 476: 105–108. doi:10.1038/nature10241. - Pedro Crevillen; H. Yang; X. Cui; C. Greeff; M. Trick; Q. Qiu; X. Cao; C. Dean (2014). "Epigenetic reprogramming that prevents transgenerational inheritance of the vernalized state". Nature 515: 587–90. doi:10.1038/nature13722. - "Vernalisation pathway". Plant Biology. Retrieved 2011-01-26. - "Vernalization". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2011-01-24. vernalization, the artificial exposure of plants (or seeds) to low temperatures in order to stimulate flowering or to enhance seed production. By satisfying the cold requirement of many temperate-zone plants, flowering can be induced to occur earlier than normal or in warm climates lacking the requisite seasonal chilling.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernalization
4.71875	If you like us, please share us on social media, tell your friends, tell your professor or consider building or adopting a Wikitext for your course. Stereoisomers are isomers that have the same molecular formula and ligands, but differ in the arrangement of those ligands in 3D space. Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula but differ in the way the atoms are arranged around the central atom. For example, a molecule with the formula AB2C2, has two ways it can be drawn: Isomer 1: Isomer 2: The above two pictures are examples of isomers, specifically cis-trans isomers which we will discuss below. One thing to remember whenever talking about stereoisomers is that all other options that may come to mind are just rotations of the existing isomers. For example, a molecule that has both C's on the top right plane and both B's on the bottom left plane is not another isomer. Instead it is just a 180o rotation of isomer 2. Stereoisomers are isomers that mainly differ in the way the ligands or atoms are placed relative to the central atom. There are two types of stereoisomers: In terms of their differences, geometric isomers show much more activity than optical isomers. What this statement means is that optical isomers often display similar properties and do not seem all that different. That is until they react with other optical isomers or when they react with light. As discussed later on, one of the main ways optical isomers are detected is their ability to polarize or change the direction of light. Geometric isomers on the other hand exhibit different properties from one isomer to another. To understand stereoisomers, one must understand all the possible molecular geometries. For stereoisomers, only these geometries will be relevant: It is also important to remember the coordination number associated with these geometries. Coordination numbers refer to the number of ligands or atoms bound to the central atom. Thus, linear has a coordination number of 2 because it consists of 2 atoms bound to the central atom. Square planar and tetrahedral have a coordination number of 4 while octahedral has a coordination number of 6. These geometries are very important as they dictate whether or not certain isomers exist. An example of linear geometry is provided below of the molecule Xenon Difluoride (XeF2). Recall that linear is the geometry where the molecule looks like a line. Square planar is the geometry where the molecule looks like it is a square plane. An example of the molecule Xenon Tetrafluoride (XeF4) is provided below. Tetrahedral is the geometry where the molecule looks like a pyramid. An example of the molecule Methane (CH4) is provided below. Octahedral is the geometry where the bases of two pyramids are stuck together. Alternatively, it can also be though as where the center consists of a square plane with a ligand sticking out above it and another ligand sticking out below it. An example of the molecule Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) is provided below. A quick note on octahedral geometry: sometimes an octahedral molecule may contain polydentate ligands. Polydentate ligands are ligands that "bite" the central atom in several locations. In other words, polydentate ligands have the ability to form more than one bond with the central metal, unlike other ligands. An example of a polydentate ligand is ethylenediamine, a bidentate ligand, which is abbreviated as en. Stereoisomers have a lot of applications in biology as well as our day to day lives. Surprisingly, our own tongue contains chiral molecules that help us discern the taste of some of the foods we eat. For example, we may eat two of the same leaves but one may taste bitter and the other may taste sweet because of chirality. As discussed above, optical isomers also have the ability to rotate light in certain directions. In biological terms, chirality is key to the proper functioning of an enzyme. This is because chirality allows the enzyme to function efficiently by being able to bind to only certain substrates. 1) MnCl2F2 has no geometric isomers because recall that tetrahedral molecules do not have geometric isomers. 2) The molecule, FeBr2I2 pictured in problem 3 is a cis isomer, or cis-FeBr2I2, because both the Br and I ligands are on the same side. There is one more stereoisomer for this molecule: trans-FeBr2I2, pictured below: 3) This molecule has two isomers: mer-CrF3I3 and fac-CrF3I3, both are pictured below. The mer isomer is where the ligands are not on the same plane and there exists a 90-90-180 degree bond angle between the 3 same ligands. The fac isomer is where the ligands are on the same plane and there exists a 90-90-90 degree bond angle between the 3 same ligands. 4) A dextrorotatory optical isomer is a isomer that can rotate light in the right direction. A levorotatory optical isomer on the other hand is a isomer that can rotate light in the left direction. 5) In the molecule Fe(en)3, recall that the en ligand, ethylenediamine is a bidentate ligand. The 2D structure of this molecule is shown below: Note, the black lines represent the bonds and the blue lines represent the bonds ethylenediamine binds to. Using either the symmetry method or the mirror image method, one can observe that this molecule has a chiral center and that the mirror image is not superimposable on the original molecule. Thus, this molecule is optically active because it has optical isomers. 6) True. Octahedral geometry as well as square planar geometry can have cis-trans isomers. The only geometry that cannot have cis-trans isomers is tetrahedral. Prof. Robert J. Lancashire (The Department of Chemistry, University of the West Indies)	http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Inorganic_Chemistry/Coordination_Chemistry/Isomers/Stereoisomers
4.34375	What it is: Net exports are the difference between a country's total value of exports and total value of imports. Depending on whether a country imports more goods or exports more goods, net exports can be a positive or negative value. How it works (Example): Net exports are measured by comparing the value of the goods imported over a specific time period to the value of similar goods exported during that period. The formula for net exports is: Net Exports = Value of Exports - Value of Imports For example, let's suppose Canada purchased $3 billion of gasoline from other countries last year, but it also sold $7 billion of gasoline to other countries last year. Using the formula above, Canada's net gasoline exports are: Net Exports = $7 billion - $3 billion = $4 billion Why it Matters: Net exports is an important variable used in the calculation of a country's GDP. When the value of goods exported is higher than the value of goods imported, the country is said to have a positive balance of trade for the period. When taken as a whole, this in turn can be an indicator of a country's savings rate, future exchange rates, and to some degree its self-sufficiency (though economists constantly debate the idea).	http://www.investinganswers.com/financial-dictionary/economics/net-exports-2424
4.28125	Scientists measuring the changing shape of a volcano. Click on image for full size Image copyright 1997 by the American Geophysical Union. Further electronic distribution is not allowed. This image shows scientists monitoring the changing shape of a shield volcano with lasers. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! Learn about Earth and space science, and have fun while doing it! The games section of our online store includes a climate change card game and the Traveling Nitrogen game You might also be interested in: Ash is formed as a volcano erupts when rocks made by the volcano blow apart into millions of tiny pieces. The rocks are still very hot, because they just formed from lava. If the hot rocks come into contact...more Cinder cones are simple volcanoes which have a cone shape and are not very big. Compare the size of this volcano to the strato-volcano in this image. They are usually made of piles of lava, not ash. During...more Lava can move in two ways, wide flat lava flows, or through channels which squeeze the lava into a small area. The fastest lava flows move at about 6 mi/hr, an easy jog, but they average between 2/3 and...more Plates at our planet’s surface move because heat in the Earth’s core causes molten rock in the mantle layer to flow. We used to think the Earth’s plates just surfed on top of the moving mantle, but now...more Many kinds of surface features are clues to a sliding lithosphere. Two types of features can form when plates move apart. At ocean ridges, the crust splits apart to make room for molten mantle rock. Continental...more When magma is erupted onto the surface in the form of lava, it becomes silicate rock. With each different eruption of the volcano, lava which comes to the surface is made of slightly different chemicals,...more As the Earth cools, hot material from the deep interior rises to the surface. Hot material is red in this drawing, under an ocean shown in blue green. The hotter material raises the nearby layers, and...more	http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/interior/volcano_measuring.html&edu=elem
4.03125	The three forms of communication are written, verbal and non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is further broken down into listening skills and body language, while ve... Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying meaning in the form of non-word messages. Examples of nonverbal communication include ... Communication can be categorized into three basic types: (1) verbal communication, in which you listen to a person to understand their meaning; (2) The three different types of communication are verbal, nonverbal and visual. The two major forms of verbal communication are written and oral. The major type of ... This lesson distinguishes between the various methods of communication used by managers, including interpersonal communication, nonverbal... Mar 8, 2009 ... Types of communication. Verbal Communication: Written communication & Oral Communication. Nonverbal communication, formal ... There are three types of communication, including: verbal communication involving listening to a person to understand the meaning of a message, written ... Jul 15, 2013 ... types of communication Communication is key to maintaining successful business relations. For this reason, it is paramount that professionals ... Learn more about types of communication: verbal, written, and nonverbal in the Boundless open textbook.	http://www.ask.com/web?q=Forms+of+Communication&oo=2603&o=0&l=dir&qsrc=3139&gc=1&qo=popularsearches
4.25	According to traditional accounts, the Albany Movement began in fall 1961 and ended in summer 1962. It was the first mass movement in the modern civil rights era to have as its goal the desegregation of an entire community, and it resulted in the jailing of more than 1,000 African Americans in Albany and surrounding rural counties. Martin Luther King Jr. was drawn into the movement in December 1961 when hundreds of black protesters, including himself, were arrested in one week, but eight months later King left Albany admitting that he had failed to accomplish the movement's goals. When told as a chapter in the history of the national civil rights movement, Albany was important because of King's involvement and because of the lessons he learned that he would soon apply in Birmingham, Alabama. Out of Albany's failure, then, came Birmingham's success. Recent historians, however, have suggested that extending the narrative of the Albany Movement chronologically and geographically and treating the movement on its own terms—as a local movement with deep roots—rather than viewing it as one brief failure in the long saga of the national civil rights movement, creates a very different picture of the freedom struggle in the southwest corner of the state. Although the struggle for civil rights in Albany can be said to have started during Reconstruction, when thousands of politically active black men elected fellow African Americans to local and state offices, the roots of the modern movement can be traced to the early-twentieth-century Jim Crow era, when fewer than thirty African Americans were registered to vote in Albany. In the immediate wake of World War I (1917-18), returning black veteran C. W. King founded a local branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in Albany. Although dormant within years, it was revitalized in the 1940s. The perennial desire to gain more control over their own lives led some middle-class blacks to organize voter registration drives in the 1940s and 1950s. Others petitioned local governments to make improvements in the infrastructure of African American neighborhoods. C. W. King's son, C. B. King, went to law school and used his talents on behalf of African Americans in the segregated courtrooms of southwest Georgia. In 1961 Albany witnessed the intersection of some of these local efforts with those of three young Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) workers—Charles Sherrod, Cordell Reagon, and Charles Jones—who had come to the Albany area to conduct a voter registration drive. William G. Anderson, a young black physician. Mass meetings were called, protestors marched, and by mid-December more than 500 demonstrators had been jailed. The leaders decided to call in Martin Luther King Jr. to keep the momentum going and to secure greater national publicity for the cause. In December King spoke at a mass meeting, marched the next day, and was arrested and jailed. In Albany, King witnessed the power of song to inspire and empower the crowds attending the mass meetings. Out of Albany emerged the SNCC Freedom Singers, including Albany native Bernice Johnson Reagon, who brought this rich musical tradition, borrowed from the rural Baptist churches, to other communities around the nation. Convinced that city officials had agreed to certain concessions, King accepted bail only to discover that the white leadership refused to consider any of the movement's demands. King returned to Albany the following summer for sentencing on the convictions relating to the December marches. Although he and fellow civil rights leader Ralph Abernathy chose jail over paying a fine, a white attorney anonymously paid their fines, and they were released against their will. Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) staff to coordinate the campaign. He had a formidable opponent in Albany police chief Laurie Pritchett. Pritchett ostensibly practiced the nonviolence that King preached, ordering his officers to avoid brutality, at least when the TV cameras and news reporters were present. Prepared for the waves of marchers King encouraged, Pritchett had them arrested and sent off to jails in the surrounding counties, including Baker, Mitchell, and Lee. In the end King ran out of willing marchers before Pritchett ran out of jail space. Once again King got himself arrested, and once again he was let go. By early August it was clear that King had proved ineffective in bringing about change in Albany, but he had learned the important lessons that he and the SCLC would carry to Birmingham. From King's perspective the Albany Movement was a failure, but African Americans in Albany disagreed. Americus and Moultrie, and African Americans in other southwest Georgia towns and counties were inspired to challenge their local white power structures. The civil rights movement went through several stages in the Albany area. Once the segregation laws were challenged and overturned, movement leaders turned to school integration in the late 1960s and 1970s. When court-ordered integration required many school boards in and around Albany to bus students, white parents established private academies, many of which still flourish in the region. In the 1980s civil rights efforts shifted to politics and the attempt to end at-large voting in city and county elections. By the Albany Civil Rights Institute, which opened in 1998. And supporting all of these efforts was the Albany Herald, which in the early 1960s campaigned vigorously against King and the black struggle to destroy segregation. Media Gallery: Albany Movement	http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/albany-movement
4.25	Mathematical Proof/Methods of Proof/Proof by Contradiction The method of proof by contradiction is to assume that a statement is not true and then to show that that assumption leads to a contradiction. In the case of trying to prove this is equivalent to assuming that That is, to assume that is true and is false. This is known by its latin reductio ad absurdum (reduction to absurdity), since it ends with a statement that cannot be true. Proof by contradiction is viewed as a logical consequence of the following series of steps to the question, "How can we show that P does not imply Q?" - We must show that the predicate not only not imply but it cannot, or else logic breaks down. - To begin, we show that does not imply . This results in showing that - The statement above is equivalent to the statement - This actually only proves that an implication is not true. - Contradictions show that both statements cannot be true at the same time, or else logic breaks down by claiming a logical impossibility: . - Thus, a proof by contradiction requires us to show, initially assuming that does not imply , either: - Which, when substituted back into the logical statement yields either - a true contradiction. A contradiction proof is one of the strongest types of proof, since it proves not just that some given does not imply some , which does not discredit other attempts at proving a statement—only the one that shows your version of does not imply , but that can never imply ; and can never coexist together. If you are in mathematics, this type of proof is desired and sought after for exactly its quality of being such a strong argument. It is straightforward to prove a contradiction and can be easily done by following the following steps: - Prove separately these two claims - is valid. - (The original claim) - (The contrapositive of the original claim) - (whichever one is easier) - Put the two together; . You have a contradiction. Below are some examples where you see how this method is put into effect. Square root of 2 A good example of this is by proving that is irrational. Proving this directly (via constructive proof) would probably be very difficult (if not impossible). However, by contradiction we have a fairly simple proof. - Proposition 2.3.1. Proof: Assume is rational. Then , where and are relatively prime integers (a and b have no common factors). and . So But since is even, must be even as well, since the square of an odd number is also odd. Then we have , or The same argument can now be applied to to find . However, this contradicts the original assumption that a and b are relatively prime, and the above is impossible. Therefore, we must conclude that is irrational. Of course, we now note that there was nothing in this proof that was special about 2, except the fact that it was prime. That's what allowed us to say that was even since we knew that was even. Note that this would not work for 4 (mainly because ) because does not imply that In English, the procedure is this: Assert that a statement is false, and then prove yourself wrong. (Thereby proving the original statement was true.) This is a form of Modus Tollens. For many students, the method of proof by contradiction is a tremendous gift and a trojan horse, both of which follow from how strong the method is. In fact, the apt reader might have already noticed that both the constructive method and contrapositive method can be derived from that of contradiction. However, its reach goes farther than even that, since the contradiction can be anything. Even if we ignore the criticisms from constuctivism, this broad scope hides what you lose; namely, you lose well-defined direction and conclusion, both of which have to be replaced with intuition. Lastly, even in nonconstructive company, using the method in the first row of the table above is considered bad form (that is, proving something by pseudo-constructive proof), since the proof-by-contradiction part of it is nothing more than excess baggage. - It is a simple exercise to see that any rational number may be written in this form.	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Mathematical_Proof/Methods_of_Proof/Proof_by_Contradiction
4.0625	On this blog, we’ve discussed the challenges facing tropical frogs, especially those susceptible to chytrid fungus. Little discussed, however, are the amazing amphibian survivors in drier climates like deserts, grasslands and savannahs. These frogs and toads have adapted to survive in an environment that’s very different from the tropical rainforest. Unlike the rainforest, frogs in a dry environment have to seek out rare pools of water to breed. They also have to find ways to prevent massive water loss through their thin skin during extended dry spells. There are several species of frogs and toads that have developed amazing adaptations to survive in some pretty extreme environments. One of the most common adaptations is called aestivation (also “estivation”). During aestivation, an animal becomes dormant during a dry period to better conserve water or keep cool. Think of it like the dry weather counterpart to cold weather hibernation. The water-holding frog (Litoria platycephala) of western Australia is a prime example of aestivation. Western Australia is prone to dry spells lasting months or even years. When rain does come, it’s usually in the form of tropical moisture, which means a lot of it and all at once. The water-holding frog takes advantage of this short breeding period to lay their eggs in the pools that form. Once all the water is gone, they bury themselves underground and shed several layers of skin that are thick enough to not only prevent dehydration but also store water. A convenient hole in the skin near the nostrils allows the frog to breathe slowly waiting out the next rainy period. Aborigines discovered that these frogs could be used as an emergency source of water by squeezing the frog and emptying the almost fresh water for drinking. This doesn’t immediately kill or harm the frog, but it does make it harder for them to survive to the next rainfall. Around the world, there are other species of frogs that aestivate in the same or similar manner to the water-holding frog. These include the African bullfrog (Pyxicephalus adspersus), cane toad (Bufo marinus) and plains spadefoot toad (Spea bombifrons). All three species are currently listed as “Least Concern” by the IUCN. Despite their incredible ability to survive dry seasons, there is a limit to how much stress these frog species can handle. Climate change is likely to increase weather extremes, both floods and droughts. Increased drought length or severity could push some of these frogs to the edge where parasites or diseases could severely impact an already weakened population. In order to save all frog species, we’ll have to look high, low and even underground in some pretty dry places! —Andrew Franks, Zoo New England Photo by Brian Gratwicke, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute - Aestivation – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aestivation - Water-holding frog – http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Litoria_platycephala/ - African bullfrog – http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Pyxicephalus_adspersus/ - Cane toad – http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Rhinella_marina/ - Spadefoot toad – http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Spea_bombifrons/ - IUCN – www.redlist.org - Climate change	http://amphibianrescue.org/tag/plains-spadefoot-toad/
4.21875	Python Programming/Lists< Python Programming A list in Python is an ordered group of items (or elements). It is a very general structure, and list elements don't have to be of the same type: you can put numbers, letters, strings and nested lists all on the same list. - 1 Overview - 2 List creation - 3 List Attributes - 4 Combining lists - 5 Getting pieces of lists (slices) - 6 Comparing lists - 7 Sorting lists - 8 Iteration - 9 Removing - 10 Aggregates - 11 Copying - 12 Clearing - 13 List methods - 14 operators - 15 Subclassing - 16 Exercises - 17 External links Lists in Python at a glance: list1 = # A new empty list list2 = [1, 2, 3, "cat"] # A new non-empty list with mixed item types list1.append("cat") # Add a single member, at the end of the list list1.extend(["dog", "mouse"]) # Add several members if "cat" in list1: # Membership test list1.remove("cat") # Remove AKA delete #list1.remove("elephant") - throws an error for item in list1: # Iteration AKA for each item print item print "Item count:", len(list1) # Length AKA size AKA item count list3 = [6, 7, 8, 9] for i in range(0, len(list3)): # Read-write iteration AKA for each item list3[i] += 1 # Item access AKA element access by index isempty = len(list3) == 0 # Test for emptiness set1 = set(["cat", "dog"]) # Initialize set from a list list4 = list(set1) # Get a list from a set list5 = list4[:] # A shallow list copy list4equal5 = list4==list5 # True: same by value list4refEqual5 = list4 is list5 # False: not same by reference list6 = list4[:] del list6[:] # Clear AKA empty AKA erase print list1, list2, list3, list4, list5, list6, list4equal5, list4refEqual5 print list3[1:3], list3[1:], list3[:2] # Slices print max(list3 ), min(list3 ), sum(list3) # Aggregates There are two different ways to make a list in Python. The first is through assignment ("statically"), the second is using list comprehensions ("actively"). To make a static list of items, write them between square brackets. For example: [ 1,2,3,"This is a list",'c',Donkey("kong") ] - The list contains items of different data types: integer, string, and Donkey class. - Objects can be created 'on the fly' and added to lists. The last item is a new instance of Donkey class. Creation of a new list whose members are constructed from non-literal expressions: a = 2 b = 3 myList = [a+b, b+a, len(["a","b"])] See also Tips and Tricks Using list comprehension, you describe the process using which the list should be created. To do that, the list is broken into two pieces. The first is a picture of what each element will look like, and the second is what you do to get it. For instance, let's say we have a list of words: listOfWords = ["this","is","a","list","of","words"] To take the first letter of each word and make a list out of it using list comprehension, we can do this: >>> listOfWords = ["this","is","a","list","of","words"] >>> items = [ word for word in listOfWords ] >>> print items ['t', 'i', 'a', 'l', 'o', 'w'] List comprehension supports more than one for statement. It will evaluate the items in all of the objects sequentially and will loop over the shorter objects if one object is longer than the rest. >>> item = [x+y for x in 'cat' for y in 'pot'] >>> print item ['cp', 'co', 'ct', 'ap', 'ao', 'at', 'tp', 'to', 'tt'] List comprehension supports an if statement, to only include members into the list that fulfill a certain condition: >>> print [x+y for x in 'cat' for y in 'pot'] ['cp', 'co', 'ct', 'ap', 'ao', 'at', 'tp', 'to', 'tt'] >>> print [x+y for x in 'cat' for y in 'pot' if x != 't' and y != 'o' ] ['cp', 'ct', 'ap', 'at'] >>> print [x+y for x in 'cat' for y in 'pot' if x != 't' or y != 'o' ] ['cp', 'co', 'ct', 'ap', 'ao', 'at', 'tp', 'tt'] In version 2.x, Python's list comprehension does not define a scope. Any variables that are bound in an evaluation remain bound to whatever they were last bound to when the evaluation was completed. In version 3.x Python's list comprehension uses local variables: >>> print x, y #Input to python version 2 r t #Output using python 2 >>> print x, y #Input to python version 3 NameError: name 'x' is not defined #Python 3 returns an error because x and y were not leaked This is exactly the same as if the comprehension had been expanded into an explicitly-nested group of one or more 'for' statements and 0 or more 'if' statements. List creation shortcutsEdit You can initialize a list to a size, with an initial value for each element: >>> zeros=5 >>> print zeros [0, 0, 0, 0, 0] This works for any data type: >>> foos=['foo']3 >>> print foos ['foo', 'foo', 'foo'] But there is a caveat. When building a new list by multiplying, Python copies each item by reference. This poses a problem for mutable items, for instance in a multidimensional array where each element is itself a list. You'd guess that the easy way to generate a two dimensional array would be: listoflists=[ 4 ] 5 and this works, but probably doesn't do what you expect: >>> listoflists=[ 4 ] 5 >>> print listoflists [[0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0]] >>> listoflists=1 >>> print listoflists [[0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0]] What's happening here is that Python is using the same reference to the inner list as the elements of the outer list. Another way of looking at this issue is to examine how Python sees the above definition: >>> innerlist=4 >>> listoflists=[innerlist]5 >>> print listoflists [[0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0]] >>> innerlist=1 >>> print listoflists [[0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0]] Assuming the above effect is not what you intend, one way around this issue is to use list comprehensions: >>> listoflists=[*4 for i in range(5)] >>> print listoflists [[0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0]] >>> listoflists=1 >>> print listoflists [[0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0]] To find the length of a list use the built in len() method. >>> len([1,2,3]) 3 >>> a = [1,2,3,4] >>> len( a ) 4 Lists can be combined in several ways. The easiest is just to 'add' them. For instance: >>> [1,2] + [3,4] [1, 2, 3, 4] Another way to combine lists is with extend. If you need to combine lists inside of a lambda, extend is the way to go. >>> a = [1,2,3] >>> b = [4,5,6] >>> a.extend(b) >>> print a [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] The other way to append a value to a list is to use append. For example: >>> p=[1,2] >>> p.append([3,4]) >>> p [1, 2, [3, 4]] >>> # or >>> print p [1, 2, [3, 4]] However, [3,4] is an element of the list, and not part of the list. append always adds one element only to the end of a list. So if the intention was to concatenate two lists, always use extend. Getting pieces of lists (slices)Edit Like strings, lists can be indexed and sliced. >>> list = [2, 4, "usurp", 9.0,"n"] >>> list 'usurp' >>> list[3:] [9.0, 'n'] Much like the slice of a string is a substring, the slice of a list is a list. However, lists differ from strings in that we can assign new values to the items in a list. >>> list = 17 >>> list [2, 17, 'usurp', 9.0,'n'] We can even assign new values to slices of the lists, which don't even have to be the same length >>> list[1:4] = ["opportunistic", "elk"] >>> list [2, 'opportunistic', 'elk', 'n'] It's even possible to append things onto the end of lists by assigning to an empty slice: >>> list[:0] = [3.14,2.71] >>> list [3.14, 2.71, 2, 'opportunistic', 'elk', 'n'] You can also completely change contents of a list: >>> list[:] = ['new', 'list', 'contents'] >>> list ['new', 'list', 'contents'] On the right-hand side of assignment statement can be any iterable type: >>> list[:2] = ('element',('t',),) >>> list ['element', ('t',), , 'contents'] With slicing you can create copy of list because slice returns a new list: >>> original = [1, 'element', ] >>> list_copy = original[:] >>> list_copy [1, 'element', ] >>> list_copy.append('new element') >>> list_copy [1, 'element', , 'new element'] >>> original [1, 'element', ] but this is shallow copy and contains references to elements from original list, so be careful with mutable types: >>> list_copy.append('something') >>> original [1, 'element', ['something']] It is also possible to get non-continuous parts of an array. If one wanted to get every n-th occurrence of a list, one would use the :: operator. The syntax is a:b:n where a and b are the start and end of the slice to be operated upon. >>> list = [i for i in range(10) ] >>> list [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] >>> list[::2] [0, 2, 4, 6, 8] >>> list[1:7:2] [1, 3, 5] Lists can be compared for equality. >>> [1,2] == [1,2] True >>> [1,2] == [3,4] False Lists can be compared using a less-than operator, which uses lexicographical order: >>> [1,2] < [2,1] True >>> [2,2] < [2,1] False >>> ["a","b"] < ["b","a"] True Sorting lists is easy with a sort method. >>> list = [2, 3, 1, 'a', 'b'] >>> list.sort() >>> list [1, 2, 3, 'a', 'b'] Note that the list is sorted in place, and the sort() method returns None to emphasize this side effect. If you use Python 2.4 or higher there are some more sort parameters: cmp : method to be used for sorting key : function to be executed with key element. List is sorted by return-value of the function reverse : sort(reverse=True) or sort(reverse=False) Python also includes a sorted() function. >>> list = [5, 2, 3, 'q', 'p'] >>> sorted(list) [2, 3, 5, 'p', 'q'] >>> list [5, 2, 3, 'q', 'p'] Note that unlike the sort() method, sorted(list) does not sort the list in place, but instead returns the sorted list. The sorted() function, like the sort() method also accepts the reverse parameter. Iteration over lists: Read-only iteration over a list, AKA for each element of the list: list1 = [1, 2, 3, 4] for item in list1: print item Writable iteration over a list: list1 = [1, 2, 3, 4] for i in range(0, len(list1)): list1[i]+=1 # Modify the item at an index as you see fit print list From a number to a number with a step: for i in range(1, 13+1, 3): # For i=1 to 13 step 3 print i for i in range(10, 5-1, -1): # For i=10 to 5 step -1 print i For each element of a list satisfying a condition (filtering): for item in list: if not condition(item): continue print item See also Python Programming/Loops#For_Loops. Removing aka deleting an item at an index (see also #pop(i)): list = [1, 2, 3, 4] list.pop() # Remove the last item list.pop(0) # Remove the first item , which is the item at index 0 print list list = [1, 2, 3, 4] del list # Remove the 2nd element; an alternative to list.pop(1) print list Removing an element by value: list = ["a", "a", "b"] list.remove("a") # Removes only the 1st occurrence of "a" print list Keeping only items in a list satisfying a condition, and thus removing the items that do not satisfy it: list = [1, 2, 3, 4] newlist = [item for item in list if item >2] print newlist This uses a list comprehension. There are some built-in functions for arithmetic aggregates over lists. These include minimum, maximum, and sum: list = [1, 2, 3, 4] print max(list), min(list), sum(list) average = sum(list) / float(len(list)) # Provided the list is non-empty # The float above ensures the division is a float one rather than integer one. print average The max and min functions also apply to lists of strings, returning maximum and minimum with respect to alphabetical order: list = ["aa", "ab"] print max(list), min(list) # Prints "ab aa" Copying AKA cloning of lists: Making a shallow copy: list1= [1, 'element'] list2 = list1[:] # Copy using "[:]" list2 = 2 # Only affects list2, not list1 print list1 # Displays 1 # By contrast list1 = [1, 'element'] list2 = list1 list2 = 2 # Modifies the original list print list1 # Displays 2 The above does not make a deep copy, which has the following consequence: list1 = [1, [2, 3]] # Notice the second item being a nested list list2 = list1[:] # A shallow copy list2 = 4 # Modifies the 2nd item of list1 as well print list1 # Displays 4 rather than 2 Making a deep copy: import copy list1 = [1, [2, 3]] # Notice the second item being a nested list list2 = copy.deepcopy(list1) # A deep copy list2 = 4 # Leaves the 2nd item of list1 unmodified print list1 # Displays 2 See also #Continuous slices. - 8.17. copy — Shallow and deep copy operations at docs.python.org Clearing a list: del list1[:] # Clear a list list1 = # Not really clear but rather assign to a new empty list Clearing using a proper approach makes a difference when the list is passed as an argument: def workingClear(ilist): del ilist[:] def brokenClear(ilist): ilist = # Lets ilist point to a new list, losing the reference to the argument list list1=[1, 2]; workingClear(list1); print list1 list1=[1, 2]; brokenClear(list1); print list1 Keywords: emptying a list, erasing a list, clear a list, empty a list, erase a list. Add item x onto the end of the list. >>> list = [1, 2, 3] >>> list.append(4) >>> list [1, 2, 3, 4] Remove the item in the list at the index i and return it. If i is not given, remove the the last item in the list and return it. >>> list = [1, 2, 3, 4] >>> a = list.pop(0) >>> list [2, 3, 4] >>> a 1 >>> b = list.pop() >>>list [2, 3] >>> b 4 The operator 'in' is used for two purposes; either to iterate over every item in a list in a for loop, or to check if a value is in a list returning true or false. >>> list = [1, 2, 3, 4] >>> if 3 in list: >>> .... >>> l = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4] >>> 3 in l True >>> 18 in l False >>>for x in l: >>> print x 0 1 2 3 4 In a modern version of Python [which one?], there is a class called 'list'. You can make your own subclass of it, and determine list behaviour which is different from the default standard. - Use a list comprehension to construct the list ['ab', 'ac', 'ad', 'bb', 'bc', 'bd']. - Use a slice on the above list to construct the list ['ab', 'ad', 'bc']. - Use a list comprehension to construct the list ['1a', '2a', '3a', '4a']. - Simultaneously remove the element '2a' from the above list and print it. - Copy the above list and add '2a' back into the list such that the original is still missing it. - Use a list comprehension to construct the list ['abe', 'abf', 'ace', 'acf', 'ade', 'adf', 'bbe', 'bbf', 'bce', 'bcf', 'bde', 'bdf']	https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Python_Programming/Lists
4.03125	Definition of Strep test, rapid Strep test, rapid: A diagnostic test commonly used to demonstrate whether streptococcus bacteria ("strep") are present in the throat. A throat infection with strep needs to be treated with an antibiotic. The traditional test for a strep throat has been a throat culture; the major drawback is that the results of the throat culture take 2 to 3 days. The rapid strep test is much quicker. It can produce results within minutes to hours. A cotton swab is rubbed against the back of the throat to gather a sample of mucous. This takes only 1 to 2 seconds. It makes some people feel a brief gagging or choking sensation. The mucus sample is then tested for a protein that comes from the strep bacteria. There are several different types of rapid strep tests. They can only detect the presence of what are called "Group A" strep, the type most likely to cause serious throat infections. They do not detect other kinds of strep or other bacteria. Last Editorial Review: 6/14/2012 Back to MedTerms online medical dictionary A-Z List Need help identifying pills and medications? - Allergic Skin Disorders - Bacterial Skin Diseases - Bites and Infestations - Diseases of Pigment - Fungal Skin Diseases - Medical Anatomy and Illustrations - Noncancerous, Precancerous & Cancerous Tumors - Oral Health Conditions - Papules, Scales, Plaques and Eruptions - Scalp, Hair and Nails - Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) - Vascular, Lymphatic and Systemic Conditions - Viral Skin Diseases - Additional Skin Conditions	http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=10519
4.125	An international team of researchers and archaeologists, led by Oxford University has new dating evidence indicating when the earliest fully modern humans arrived in the Near East, the region known as the Middle East today. They have obtained the radiocarbon dates of marine shell beads found at Ksar Akil, a key archaeological site in Lebanon, which allowed them to calculate that the oldest human fossil from the same sequence of archaeological layers is 42,400–41,700 years old. This is significant because the age of the earliest fossils, directly and indirectly dated, of modern humans found in Europe is roughly similar. This latest discovery throws up intriguing new possibilities about the routes taken by the earliest modern humans out of Africa, says the study published online by the journal PLOS ONE. The research team radiocarbon dated 20 marine shells from the top 15 metres of archaeological layers at Ksar Akil, north of Beirut. The shells were perforated, which indicates they were used as beads for body or clothes decoration by modern humans. Neanderthals, who were living in the same region before them, were not making such beads. The study confirms that the shell beads are only linked to the parts of the sequence assigned to modern humans and shows that through direct radiocarbon dating they are between 41,000–35,000 years old. The Middle East has always been regarded as a key region in prehistory for scholars speculating on the routes taken by early humans out of Africa because it lies at the crossroads of three continents – Africa, Asia and Europe. It was widely believed that at some point after 45,000 years ago early modern humans arrived in Europe, taking routes out of Africa through the Near East and, from there, along the Mediterranean rim or along the River Danube. However, this dating evidence suggests populations of early modern humans arrived in Europe and the Near East at roughly the same time, sparking a new debate about where the first populations of early humans travelled from in their expansion towards Europe and which alternative routes they may have taken. In Ksar Akil, the Lebanese rockshelter, several human remains were found in the original excavations made 75 years ago. Unfortunately, since then the most complete skeleton of a young girl, thought to be about 7–9 years of age and buried at the back of the rock shelter, has been lost. Lost also are the fragments of a second individual, found next to the buried girl. However, the team was able to calculate the age of the lost fossil at 40,800–39,200 years ago, taking into account its location in the sequence of archaeological layers in relation to the marine shell beads. Another fossil of a recently rediscovered fragment of the upper jaw of a woman, now located in a museum in Beirut, had insufficient collagen to be dated by radiocarbon methods. A method using statistical modelling was used to date by association the jaw fragment at 42,400–41,700 years old. Ksar Akil is one of the most important Palaeolithic sites in Eurasia. It consists of a 23-metre-deep sequence of archaeological layers that lay undisturbed for thousands of years until a team of American Jesuit priests excavated the rockshelter in 1937–38, and again after the end of the Second World War, in 1947–48. The cave layers were found to contain the human fossils and hundreds of shell beads, as well as thousands of stone tools and broken bones of hunted and consumed animals. Study lead author Dr Katerina Douka, from the School of Archaeology at the University of Oxford, said: ‘This is a region where scholars have been expecting to find early evidence of anatomically and behaviourally modern humans, like us, leaving Africa and directly replacing Eurasian Neanderthal populations that lived there for more than 150,000 years. The human fossils at Ksar Akil appear to be of a similar age to fossils in other European contexts. It is possible that instead of the Near East being the single point of origin for modern humans heading for Europe, they may also have used other routes too. A maritime route across the Mediterranean has been proposed, although evidence is scarce. A wealth of archaeological data now pinpoints the plains of Central Asia as a particularly important but relatively unknown region which requires further investigation.’ The earliest European modern fossil, from Romania, dates to between 42,000–38,000 years before the present time, and specialists have estimated the age of Kent’s Cavern maxilla from southern England, between 44,000–41,000 years, and that of two milk teeth in southern Italy, at 45,000–43,000 years old. The new dating evidence from Ksar Akil is largely comparable to these ages, if not slightly younger. The work was led by Dr Katerina Douka of Oxford University, along with Professor Robert Hedges and Professor Tom Higham (Oxford), American Palaeolithic archaeologist Dr Christopher Bergman from URS Corporation, Cincinnati, and Frank P Wesselingh from the Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, the Netherlands. Header Image : Beads from the site of Ksar Akil (Lebanon) found closely associated with the skeleton of an early modern girl dating to between 39-41 thousand years ago. The beads shown here are made of the shell of a small marine snail (Nassarius gibbosulus/circumcinctus). The large Glycymeris valve in the centre, was not pierced, but its surface preserved bright red pigmentation. Credit: Katerina Douka and Natural History Museum London.	http://www.heritagedaily.com/2013/09/dating-of-beads-sets-new-timeline-for-early-humans/98979?+Palaeontology+News)
4.15625	Scientific Inquiry is the basic experimentation category where a question is asked, a hypothesis is created, an investigation is performed, and a conclusion is reached. Scientific Inquiry requires students to use higher order thinking skills as they learn science using a hands-on minds-on approach. Please be sure to read the Entry Rules and General Requirements for all participants, available here Pertinent Information and Definitions The Scientific Method is a fundamental part of this category. It is, in essence, a sequence of operation for any Scientific Inquiry. The steps are: - Ask a testable question. - Research the topic. - Make a hypothesis about the outcome based on that research and/or the entrant’s own knowledge. - Design the investigation. - Conduct the investigation. - Collect data. - Make sense of the data and draw a conclusion. Entry, Review, and Judging An entry in this category will be reviewed and judged on the following: - Entry rules and general requirements judging points - The scientific method (including completeness of thought processes and presentation of cause and effect) - Preparation and display of information about the entry Additional items which will affect the review and judging conclusions - Presentation of the inquiry findings for peer review. - Understanding of how the inquiry relates to broader scientific principles and real world applications - Originality and/or innovative approaches or concepts The presented display will be evaluated for consideration as part of the Creative Arts award category Please review the judging rubric for this category, and the entry rules and general requirements for other items that may be considered.	http://stemexpo.org/category/ScientificInquiry
4.28125	Questions remain unresolved as to whether the Neanderthals died out because of competition with modern people or because of deteriorating climatic conditions. Although scientists have gained increased knowledge of past climate it has been difficult to pinpoint the climatic character at the time of the Neanderthal disappearance. A new study by an international team of researchers, published this week in the prestigious journal Nature, has developed a breakthrough approach to address this issue (Nature, September 13, 2007). "Our findings suggest that there was no single climatic event that caused the extinction of the Neanderthals" says palaeoanthro-pologist Katerina Harvati. Only a controversial date for very late Neanderthal survival places their disappearance just before a major environmental shift. "Even in this case" continues Harvati "the role of climate would have been indirect, perhaps promoting competition with other human groups". "There are three main limitations to understanding the role of climate in the Neanderthal extinction" explains palaeoecologist Chronis Tzedakis: uncertainty over the exact timing of the Neanderthal disappearance; uncertainties in converting radiocarbon dates to actual calendar years; and the chronological imprecision of the ancient climate record. "Our novel method circumvents the last two problems" adds palaeoclimatologist Konrad Hughen. "We were therefore able to provide a much more accurate picture of the climatic background at the time of the Neanderthal disappearance". "More generally," continues Hughen "our approach offers the huge potential to unravel the role of climate in critical events of the recent fossil record as it can be applied to any radiocarbon date from any deposit". The new method was applied by the researchers to three possible dates for the Neanderthal extinction obtained from Gorham's cave, Gibraltar - a site thought to have been occupied by some of the latest surviving Neanderthals. The first two of these dates (~32 and ~28 thousand radiocarbon years ago) relate to conditions that are not distinct from the general climatic instability of the last glacial period. The much more controversial date of ~24 thousand radiocarbon years ago places the last Neanderthals just before a major environmental shift, with an expansion of ice sheets and onset of cold conditions in northern Europe. Gibraltar's climate, however, remained relatively unaffected "perhaps as a result of warm water from the subtropical Atlantic entering the western Mediterranean" according to palaeoceanographer Isabel Cacho. \|Contact: Dr. Katerina Harvati\|	http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Climate----no-smoking-gun-for-Neanderthals-374-1/
4.15625	* This is the Professional Version. * Overview of Gastroenteritis Gastroenteritis is inflammation of the lining of the stomach and small and large intestines. Most cases are infectious, although gastroenteritis may occur after ingestion of drugs and chemical toxins (eg, metals, plant substances). Acquisition may be foodborne, waterborne, or via person-to-person spread. In the US, an estimated 1 in 6 people contracts foodborne illness each year. Symptoms include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal discomfort. Diagnosis is clinical or by stool culture, although PCR and immunoassays are increasingly used. Treatment is symptomatic, although some parasitic and some bacterial infections require specific anti-infective therapy. Gastroenteritis is usually uncomfortable but self-limited. Electrolyte and fluid loss is usually little more than an inconvenience to an otherwise healthy adult but can be grave for people who are very young (see Dehydration in Children), elderly, or debilitated or who have serious concomitant illnesses. Worldwide, an estimated 1.5 million children die each year from infectious gastroenteritis; although high, this number represents one half to one quarter of previous mortality. Improvements in water sanitation in many parts of the world and the appropriate use of oral rehydration therapy for infants with diarrhea are likely responsible for this decrease. Infectious gastroenteritis may be caused by viruses, bacteria, or parasites. Many specific organisms are discussed further in the Infectious Diseases section. The viruses most commonly implicated are Viruses are the most common cause of gastroenteritis in the US. They infect enterocytes in the villous epithelium of the small bowel. The result is transudation of fluid and salts into the intestinal lumen; sometimes, malabsorption of carbohydrates worsens symptoms by causing osmotic diarrhea. Diarrhea is watery. Inflammatory diarrhea (dysentery), with fecal WBCs and RBCs or gross blood, is uncommon. Four categories of viruses cause most gastroenteritis: rotavirus and calicivirus (predominantly the norovirus [formerly Norwalk virus]) cause the majority of viral gastroenteritis, followed by astrovirus and enteric adenovirus. Rotavirus is the most common cause of sporadic, severe, dehydrating diarrhea in young children (peak incidence, 3 to 15 mo). Rotavirus is highly contagious; most infections occur by the fecal-oral route. Adults may be infected after close contact with an infected infant. The illness in adults is generally mild. Incubation is 1 to 3 days. In temperate climates, most infections occur in the winter. Each year in the US, a wave of rotavirus illness begins in the Southwest in November and ends in the Northeast in March. Norovirus most commonly infects older children and adults. Infections occur year-round, but 80% occur from November to April. Norovirus is the principal cause of sporadic viral gastroenteritis in adults and of epidemic viral gastroenteritis in all age groups; large waterborne and foodborne outbreaks occur. Person-to-person transmission also occurs because the virus is highly contagious. This virus causes most cases of gastroenteritis epidemics on cruise ships and in nursing homes. Incubation is 24 to 48 h. Astrovirus can infect people of all ages but usually infects infants and young children. Infection is most common in winter. Transmission is by the fecal-oral route. Incubation is 3 to 4 days. Adenoviruses are the 4th most common cause of childhood viral gastroenteritis. Infections occur year-round, with a slight increase in summer. Children < 2 yr are primarily affected. Transmission is by the fecal-oral route. Incubation is 3 to 10 days. In immunocompromised patients, additional viruses (eg, cytomegalovirus, enterovirus) can cause gastroenteritis. The bacteria most commonly implicated are Bacterial gastroenteritis is less common than viral. Bacteria cause gastroenteritis by several mechanisms. Certain species (eg, Vibrio cholerae , enterotoxigenic strains of E. coli) adhere to intestinal mucosa without invading and produce enterotoxins. These toxins impair intestinal absorption and cause secretion of electrolytes and water by stimulating adenylate cyclase, resulting in watery diarrhea. C. difficile produces a similar toxin (see Clostridium difficile –Induced Diarrhea). Some bacteria (eg, Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus cereus , Clostridium perfringens—see Clostridium perfringens Food Poisoning) produce an exotoxin that is ingested in contaminated food. The exotoxin can cause gastroenteritis without bacterial infection. These toxins generally cause acute nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea within 12 h of ingestion of contaminated food. Symptoms abate within 36 h. Other bacteria (eg, Shigella , Salmonella , Campylobacter , some E. coli subtypes—see Gram-Negative Bacilli) invade the mucosa of the small bowel or colon and cause microscopic ulceration, bleeding, exudation of protein-rich fluid, and secretion of electrolytes and water. The invasive process and its results can occur whether or not the organism produces an enterotoxin. The resulting diarrhea contains WBCs and RBCs and sometimes gross blood. Salmonella and Campylobacter are the most common bacterial causes of diarrheal illness in the US. Both infections are most frequently acquired through undercooked poultry; unpasteurized milk is also a possible source. Campylobacter is occasionally transmitted from dogs or cats with diarrhea. Salmonella can be transmitted by consuming undercooked eggs and by contact with reptiles, birds, or amphibians. Species of Shigella are the 3rd most common bacterial cause of diarrhea in the US and are usually transmitted person to person, although foodborne epidemics occur. Shigella dysenteriae type 1 (not present in the US) produces Shiga toxin, which can cause hemolytic-uremic syndrome (see Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura (TTP) and Hemolytic-Uremic Syndrome (HUS)). Several different subtypes of E. coli cause diarrhea. The epidemiology and clinical manifestations vary greatly depending on the subtype: (1) Enterohemorrhagic E. coli is the most clinically significant subtype in the US. It produces Shiga toxin, which causes bloody diarrhea (hemorrhagic colitis). E. coli O157:H7 is the most common strain of this subtype in the US (see Infection by Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Other Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)). Undercooked ground beef, unpasteurized milk and juice, and contaminated water are possible sources. Person-to-person transmission is common in the day care setting. Outbreaks associated with exposure to water in recreational settings (eg, pools, lakes, water parks) have also been reported. Hemolytic-uremic syndrome is a serious complication that develops in 2 to 7% of cases, most commonly among the young and old. (2) Enterotoxigenic E. coli produces two toxins (one similar to cholera toxin) that cause watery diarrhea. This subtype is the most common cause of traveler’s diarrhea in people visiting the developing world. (3) Enteropathogenic E. coli causes watery diarrhea. Once a common cause of diarrhea outbreaks in nurseries, this subtype is now rare. (4) Enteroinvasive E. coli causes bloody or nonbloody diarrhea, primarily in the developing world. It is rare in the US. In the past, C. difficile infection occurred almost exclusively in hospitalized patients receiving antibiotics. With the emergence of the hypervirulent NAP1 strain in the US in the late 2000s, many community-associated cases are now occurring. Several other bacteria cause gastroenteritis, but most are uncommon in the US. Yersinia enterocolitica (see Plague and Other Yersinia Infections) can cause gastroenteritis or a syndrome that mimics appendicitis. It is transmitted by undercooked pork, unpasteurized milk, or contaminated water. Several Vibrio species (eg, V. parahaemolyticus—see Noncholera Vibrio Infections) cause diarrhea after ingestion of undercooked seafood. V. cholerae (see Cholera) sometimes causes severe dehydrating diarrhea in the developing world and is a particular concern after natural disasters or in refugee camps. Listeria causes food-borne gastroenteritis (see Listeriosis). Aeromonas is acquired from swimming in or drinking contaminated fresh or brackish water. Plesiomonas shigelloides can cause diarrhea in patients who have eaten raw shellfish or traveled to tropical regions of the developing world. The parasites most commonly implicated are Certain intestinal parasites, notably Giardia intestinalis ( lamblia—see Giardiasis), adhere to or invade the intestinal mucosa, causing nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and general malaise. Giardiasis occurs in every region of the US and throughout the world. The infection can become chronic and cause a malabsorption syndrome. It is usually acquired via person-to-person transmission (often in day care centers) or from contaminated water. Cryptosporidium parvum (see Cryptosporidiosis) causes watery diarrhea sometimes accompanied by abdominal cramps, nausea, and vomiting. In healthy people, the illness is self-limited, lasting about 2 wk. In immunocompromised patients, illness may be severe, causing substantial electrolyte and fluid loss. Cryptosporidium is usually acquired through contaminated water. It is not easily killed by chlorine and is the most common cause of recreational waterborne illness in the US, accounting for about three fourths of outbreaks. Other parasites that can cause symptoms similar to those of cryptosporidiosis include Cyclospora cayetanensis and, in immunocompromised patients, Cystoisospora (Isospora) belli, and a collection of organisms referred to as microsporidia (eg, Enterocytozoon bieneusi , Encephalitozoon intestinalis). Entamoeba histolytica(amebiasis—see Amebiasis) is a common cause of subacute bloody diarrhea in the developing world but is rare in the US. The character and severity of symptoms vary. Generally, onset is sudden, with anorexia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea (with or without blood and mucus). Malaise, myalgias, and prostration may occur. The abdomen may be distended and mildly tender; in severe cases, muscle guarding may be present. Gas-distended intestinal loops may be palpable. Hyperactive bowel sounds (borborygmi) are present on auscultation even without diarrhea (an important differential feature from paralytic ileus, in which bowel sounds are absent or decreased). Persistent vomiting and diarrhea can result in intravascular fluid depletion with hypotension and tachycardia. In severe cases, shock, with vascular collapse and oliguric renal failure, occurs. If vomiting is the main cause of fluid loss, metabolic alkalosis with hypochloremia can occur. If diarrhea is more prominent, acidosis is more likely. Both vomiting and diarrhea can cause hypokalemia. Hyponatremia may develop, particularly if hypotonic fluids are used in replacement therapy. In viral infections, watery diarrhea is the most common symptom; stools rarely contain mucus or blood. Rotavirus gastroenteritis in infants and young children may last 5 to 7 days. Vomiting occurs in 90% of patients, and fever >39° C (> 102.2° F) occurs in about 30%. Norovirus typically causes acute onset of vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea, with symptoms lasting only 1 to 2 days. In children, vomiting is more prominent than diarrhea, whereas in adults, diarrhea usually predominates. Patients may also experience fever, headache, and myalgias. The hallmark of adenovirus gastroenteritis is diarrhea lasting 1 to 2 wk. Affected infants and children may have mild vomiting that typically starts 1 to 2 days after the onset of diarrhea. Low-grade fever occurs in about 50% of patients. Astrovirus causes a syndrome similar to mild rotavirus infection. Bacteria that cause invasive disease (eg, Shigella , Salmonella) are more likely to result in fever, prostration, and bloody diarrhea. E. coli O157:H7 infection usually begins with watery diarrhea for 1 to 2 days, followed by bloody diarrhea. Fever is absent or low grade. The spectrum of illness with C. difficile infection ranges from mild abdominal cramps and mucus-filled diarrhea to severe hemorrhagic colitis and shock. Bacteria that produce an enterotoxin (eg, S. aureus , B. cereus , C. perfringens) usually cause watery diarrhea. Parasitic infections typically cause subacute or chronic diarrhea. Most cause nonbloody diarrhea; an exception is E. histolytica , which causes amebic dysentery. Fatigue and weight loss are common when diarrhea is persistent. Other GI disorders that cause similar symptoms (eg, appendicitis, cholecystitis, ulcerative colitis) must be excluded. Findings suggestive of gastroenteritis include copious, watery diarrhea; ingestion of potentially contaminated food (particularly during a known outbreak), untreated surface water, or a known GI irritant; recent travel; or contact with certain animals or similarly ill people. E. coli O157:H7–induced diarrhea is notorious for appearing to be a hemorrhagic rather than an infectious process, manifesting as GI bleeding with little or no stool. Hemolytic-uremic syndrome may follow as evidenced by renal failure and hemolytic anemia (see Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura (TTP) and Hemolytic-Uremic Syndrome (HUS)). Recent oral antibiotic use (within 3 mo) must raise suspicion for C. difficile infection (see Clostridium difficile –Induced Diarrhea). However, about one fourth of patients with community-associated C. difficile infection do not have a history of recent antibiotic use. If a rectal examination shows occult blood or if watery diarrhea persists > 48 h, stool examination (fecal WBCs, ova, parasites) and culture are indicated. However, for the diagnosis of giardiasis or cryptosporidiosis, stool antigen detection using an enzyme immunoassay has a higher sensitivity. Rotavirus and enteric adenovirus infections can be diagnosed using commercially available rapid assays that detect viral antigen in the stool, but these assays are usually done only to document an outbreak. Norovirus can be detected by PCR in reference laboratories; this test is sometimes indicated to determine the cause of persistent diarrhea in an immunocompromised patient. All patients with grossly bloody diarrhea should be tested for E. coli O157:H7, as should patients with nonbloody diarrhea during a known outbreak. Specific cultures must be requested because this organism is not detected on standard stool culture media. Alternatively, a rapid enzyme assay for the detection of Shiga toxin in stool can be done; a positive test indicates infection with E. coli O157:H7 or one of the other serotypes of enterohemorrhagic E. coli. (Note: Shigella species in the US do not produce Shiga toxin.) However, a rapid enzyme assay is not as sensitive as culture. PCR is used to detect Shiga toxin in some centers. Adults with grossly bloody diarrhea should usually have sigmoidoscopy with cultures and biopsy. Appearance of the colonic mucosa may help diagnose amebic dysentery, shigellosis, and E. coli O157:H7 infection, although ulcerative colitis may cause similar lesions. Patients with a history of recent antibiotic use or other risk factors for C. difficile infection (eg, inflammatory bowel disease, use of proton pump inhibitors) should have a stool assay for C. difficile toxin, but testing should also be done in patients with significant illness even when these risk factors are not present because about 25% of cases of C. difficile infection currently occur in people without identified risk factors. Historically, enzyme immunoassays for toxins A and B were used to diagnose C. difficile infection. However, nucleic acid amplification tests targeting one of the C. difficile toxin genes or their regulator have been shown to have higher sensitivity and are now the diagnostic tests of choice. Serum electrolytes, BUN, and creatinine should be obtained to evaluate hydration and acid-base status in patients who appear seriously ill. CBC is nonspecific, although eosinophilia may indicate parasitic infection. Renal function tests and CBC should be done about a week after the start of symptoms in patients with E. coli O157:H7 to detect early-onset hemolytic-uremic syndrome. Supportive treatment is all that is needed for most patients. Bed rest with convenient access to a toilet or bedpan is desirable. Oral glucose-electrolyte solutions, broth, or bouillon may prevent dehydration or treat mild dehydration. Even if vomiting, the patient should take frequent small sips of such fluids; vomiting may abate with volume replacement. For patients with E. coli O157:H7 infection, rehydration with isotonic IV fluids may attenuate the severity of any renal injury should hemolytic-uremic syndrome develop. Children may become dehydrated more quickly and should be given an appropriate rehydration solution (several are available commercially—see Oral Rehydration). Carbonated beverages and sports drinks lack the correct ratio of glucose to Na and thus are not appropriate for children < 5 yr. If the child is breastfed, breastfeeding should continue. If vomiting is protracted or if severe dehydration is prominent, IV replacement of volume and electrolytes is necessary (see Intravenous Fluid Resuscitation). When the patient can tolerate fluids without vomiting and the appetite has begun to return, food may be gradually restarted. There is no demonstrated benefit from restriction to bland food (eg, cereal, gelatin, bananas, toast). Some patients have temporary lactose intolerance. Antidiarrheal agents are safe for patients > 2 yr with watery diarrhea (as shown by heme-negative stool). However, antidiarrheals may cause deterioration of patients with C. difficile or E. coli O157:H7 infection and thus should not be given to any patient with recent antibiotic use or heme-positive stool, pending specific diagnosis. Effective antidiarrheals include loperamide 4 mg po initially, followed by 2 mg po for each subsequent episode of diarrhea (maximum of 6 doses/day or 16 mg/day), or diphenoxylate 2.5 to 5 mg tid or qid in tablet or liquid form. For children, loperamide is used. The dose for children 13 to 20 kg is 1 mg po tid; for children 20 to 30 kg, 2 mg po bid; and for children > 30 kg, up to age 12, 2 mg po tid. Adults and children ≥ 12 yr may receive 4 mg po after the first loose stool and then 2 mg after each subsequent loose stool, not to exceed 16 mg in any 24-h period. If vomiting is severe and a surgical condition has been excluded, an antiemetic may be beneficial. Drugs useful in adults include prochlorperazine 5 to 10 mg IV tid or qid, or 25 mg per rectum bid and promethazine 12.5 to 25 mg IM tid or qid, or 25 to 50 mg per rectum qid. These drugs are usually avoided in children because of lack of demonstrated efficacy and the high incidence of dystonic reactions. Ondansetron is safe and effective in decreasing nausea and vomiting in children and in adults, including those with gastroenteritis, and is available as an standard tablet, oral disintegrating pill, or IV formulation. The dose for children ≥ 2 yr is 0.15 mg/kg po or IV tid, with a maximum single dose of 8 mg. The dose for adults is 4 or 8 mg po or IV tid. Although probiotics appear to briefly shorten the duration of diarrhea, there is insufficient evidence that they affect major clinical outcomes (eg, decrease the need for IV hydration and/or hospitalization) to support their routine use in the treatment or prevention of infectious diarrhea. Empiric antibiotics are generally not recommended except for certain cases of traveler’s diarrhea or when suspicion of Shigella or Campylobacter infection is high (eg, contact with a known case). Otherwise, antibiotics should not be given until stool culture results are known, particularly in children, who have a higher rate of infection with E. coli O157:H7 (antibiotics increase the risk of hemolytic-uremic syndrome in patients infected with E. coli O157:H7). In proven bacterial gastroenteritis, antibiotics are not always required. They do not help with Salmonella and prolong the duration of shedding in the stool. Exceptions include immunocompromised patients, neonates, and patients with Salmonella bacteremia. Antibiotics are also ineffective against toxic gastroenteritis (eg, S. aureus , B. cereus , C. perfringens). Indiscriminate use of antibiotics fosters the emergence of drug-resistant organisms. However, certain infections do require antibiotics (see Selected Oral Antibiotics for Infectious Gastroenteritis). Initial management of C. difficile colitis involves stopping the causative antibiotic if possible. Mild cases are treated with oral metronidazole. More severe cases should be treated with oral vancomycin. Unfortunately, recurrences are common with either regimen, occurring in about 20% of patients. A newer drug, fidaxomicin, may have a slightly lower relapse rate but is expensive. Many centers are using fecal microbial transplantation for patients with multiple recurrences of C. difficile colitis. This treatment has been shown to be safe and effective (see Clostridium difficile –Induced Diarrhea). For cryptosporidiosis, nitazoxanide may be helpful in immunocompetent patients. The dose is 100 mg po bid for children 1 to 3 yr, 200 mg po bid for children 4 to 11 yr, and 500 mg po bid for children ≥ 12 yr and adults. Selected Oral Antibiotics for Infectious Gastroenteritis Two live-attenuated oral rotavirus vaccines are available that are safe and effective against the majority of strains responsible for disease. Rotavirus immunization is part of the recommended infant vaccination schedule (see Table: Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 0–6 yr). Prevention of infection is complicated by the frequency of asymptomatic infection and the ease with which many agents, particularly viruses, are transmitted from person to person. In general, proper procedures for handling and preparing food must be followed. Travelers (see Traveler’s Diarrhea) must avoid potentially contaminated food and drink. To prevent recreational waterborne infections, people should not swim if they have diarrhea. Infants and toddlers should have frequent diaper checks and should be changed in a bathroom and not near the water. Swimmers should avoid swallowing water when they swim. Infants and other immunocompromised people are particularly predisposed to develop severe cases of salmonellosis and should not be exposed to reptiles, birds, or amphibians, which commonly carry Salmonella. Breastfeeding affords some protection to neonates and infants. Caregivers should wash their hands thoroughly with soap and water after changing diapers, and diaper-changing areas should be disinfected with a freshly prepared solution of 1:64 household bleach (¼ cup diluted in 1 gallon of water). Children with diarrhea should be excluded from child care facilities for the duration of symptoms. Children infected with enterohemorrhagic E. coli or Shigella should also have two negative stool cultures before readmission to the facility. Drug NameSelect Brand Names paromomycinNo US brand name * This is the Professional Version. *	http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gastrointestinal-disorders/gastroenteritis/overview-of-gastroenteritis
4.125	Trustworthiness and honesty are two central factors in the persuasive process. In a life where people are often deceived to the point of unspeakable losses, it is understandable that the area of influence that has captured the attention of managers, negotiators, researchers and the general public in recent years is the act of lying. Knapp and Hall (2005), discuss detection of lies in the following categories: The three major questions in this area are: (1) What behaviors distinguish liars from truth-tellers? (2) What thinking and emotional processes are at work during acts of lying? (3) How accurate are we at detecting lies? 1. The Difference between liars and truth tellers People have, until recently mainly focused on non-verbal signals (body language) in the detection of liars. They thought that liars could manipulate their speech and words easily, but could not control their ‘body language’ to the same extent. Even Freud observed, many years ago: “He that has eyes to see and ears to hear may convince himself that no mortal can keep a secret. If his lips are silent, he chatters with his fingertips; betrayal oozes out of him at every pore”. Some researchers believed it was more likely that clues to deception would be found in the feet and legs area first, the hands next, and the face last. They thought that the face is more likely to be controlled by the liar, yet later they seem to agree that the face can reveal deception in many ways, for example, smiles made when people were trying to cover up and traces small muscular actions around the facial area. Types of Lies Attempts to develop a list of behaviors that distinguish liars from truth-tellers always have faced the problem that there are many types of lies such as prepared lies, short lying answers or extended ones, reactions when interrogated, and many reasons for lying such as protecting oneself or someone else, getting out of an obligation or promise, avoiding conflict. In addition, no behaviour occurring during a lie is completely unique to lying (i.e. only happens during a lie). Someone put it this way: “There is no sign specific to deceit itself – no gesture, facial expression, or muscle twitch that in and of itself means that a person is lying.” The ‘sure’ Signs What we do know is that; when compared with truth-tellers, liars often smile less; have more hesitations during speech, more speech errors, and higher pitch. Verbally, the response length is often shorter; more “allness” terms (all, every, always, none, nobody) are used; and there are fewer detailed reactions. More blinking, pupil dilation, and more acts of nervous self-touching are also commonly reported. One behaviour that many people expect of liars is a sharp decrease in eye gaze (shifting eyes). Although this behaviour may occur with some liars in some situations, it has become so stereotypically associated with lying in some cultures that liars often consciously seek to control it. Therefore, the ability to display a normal pattern of gaze (fixed eyes) could signal that something is wrong just as too little eye contact does! The Thinking and Feeling of Liars If it is difficult to find behaviors that always characterize liars, it is easier to identify behaviors associated with key underlying thinking and emotional processes that occur during lies. In other words, what are liars thinking and feeling when they express a lie? Normal people who know they are lying and who know there will be important consequences if they are caught, are likely to experience tension in the way they feel and think. Their body language will possibly also show signs of pupil dilation, blinking, speech errors and higher voice pitch. Their words and voice might change noticeably, e.g. “Why do you have to always question me?” and there may be extremes in language usage. Obviously, people experience aroused feelings for reasons other than lying, but aroused truth-tellers and aroused liars do not seem to behave the same. Liars commonly experience speech hesitations, shorter responses, pupil dilation, speech errors, conflicting verbal and nonverbal behaviour (they say ‘yes’ while their heads nod ‘no’), and lack of detailed explanations. Two other visible reactions of liars are their attempt to control their emotions (while lying). They over-control their feelings to the point where they become ‘poker-faced’ or are rehearsing a poem. In 1991, military prisoners of war who were forced to make anti-U.S. statements on Iraqi television were reportedly trained prior to their capture to speak and behave in a wooden and mechanical manner to indicate they were lying. They do, though, often experience anxiety associated by fidgeting, stammering, and the like. Other emotional states are also relevant to deception. Anger is very common and is reflected in liars’ tendencies to be reactive and defensive in their responses. Some liars feel enough guilt so that looking away for long periods or covering their eyes with their hands is not uncommon. Some may even experience delight (pleasure in deceiving others) and may smile at the wrong time or exhibit feelings of triumph and contempt! The more important the lie is to the deceiver, the easier (paradoxically) it is for others to detect it through nonverbal (the less controllable) channels. Given what we have said about the nature of liar behavior, it should be no surprise that strangers, without the aid of any mechanical equipment such as a polygraph, are only about 50 to 60 percent accurate in identifying liars. Overly ambitious lie detectors may find smiles that are not there and sometimes even elicit lies from people who might not have otherwise intended to lie. It is hoped that these and other issues related to truth and deception will continue to be hotly debated. Only when we stop searching for answers to questions of truth and deception will we be morally bankrupt. Polygraphs usually have a higher rate of detecting liars (usually reported to be between eighty and ninety percent), but they can be beaten. People whose lies were detected at about eighty percent then received either feedback or relaxation training. After they were better able to control their bodily responses, the accuracy of the polygraphs was reduced to about twenty percent! Lies in Marriage and Friendship What about people in close relationships? Shouldn’t they be more accurate at detecting lies? Since trust is the fundamental reason couples have close relationships, either party is likely to get away with lying quite easily at first. But once suspicion is aroused, those who know a person’s behaviour best are likely to be the best detectors. However; it is not uncommon for people to detect deception. They may not want to confront the lie, or they may be afraid of destroying intimancy if they show distrust by their close ‘checking’. Effective detectors have been shown to have fewer friends and less satisfying relationships. People can be trained to be better detectors, but without training, people often use cues for detecting deception that are unrelated to actual liar and truth-teller behaviour. Summarised and adapted from: Knapp, M L and Hall, J A; 2005; Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc, N.Y.	http://www.mediate.com/articles/spoelstra3.cfm
4.21875	Skip over navigation Skip over navigation Terms and conditions Guide and features Guide and features Featured Early Years Foundation Stage; US Kindergarten Featured UK Key Stage 1&2; US Grades 1-5 Featured UK Key Stage 3-5; US Grades 6-12 Featured UK Key Stage 1, US Grade 1 & 2 Featured UK Key Stage 2; US Grade 3-5 Featured UK Key Stages 3 & 4; US Grade 6-10 Featured UK Key Stage 4 & 5; US Grade 11 & 12 Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Teachers' Guide to Getting Started Stage: 3, 4 and 5 Article by Steve Hewson Published February 2011. NRICH tasks are specially designed to encourage rich mathematical thinking and problem solving, and there are usually many different ways in which our rich tasks can be used in the classroom. Our Teachers' Notes pages will outline a set of possible approaches and outcomes, but it is important to understand that a problem might evolve in many different ways and be subject to analysis by many different methods at a range of levels of sophistication. Our Teachers' notes should therefore be considered as 'a' way to consider the task, rather than 'the' way. Leading a class in a rich mathematical task might call for a more open, reactive style than is traditionally seen in some mathematics classrooms. Luckily, there are several general ways in which rich thinking can be encouraged. Possible approach to a rich task How the problem is used will depend on the needs of the class or individual. You might try these approaches: It could be solved individually or discussed as a group. There is no need to stop once an answer is found: Students could discuss their methods of solution with others. Can the listeners spot flaws or gaps in the argument? Does a sense of a most efficient or elegant solution emerge? Are there many different approaches which have been used? There is no need to rush: the problem could be introduced to the students and then left for a period of time, for students to return to, giving them a chance to think things through at their own pace. What questions emerge for the solvers as they consider the problem? Perhaps you could provide the context and ask the students to suggest the questions they would like to ask or pursue. Key questions to open up rich thinking It is always good to ask the following sorts of question, especially if the solver is unsure as to where to start: Have you read the problem carefully? What information in the problem seems particularly important? What areas of mathematics does the question seem to make use of? How will you represent the information? Using numbers, diagrams, algebra .... ? Can you try out any special cases of the numbers and variables to get a feel for the structure of the problem? Possible extensions to rich tasks Students, for any problem, can always: Consider variants of the problem with changed values of the numbers. Where do these explorations lead? Try to find alternative ways to do the problem. Study the contents of the Solution tab to see if any solutions have been done in another way. If there is no solution present, then the student can describe their own problem solving process and submit their own solution, which we will show on the website. Try to invent a similar problem on the same theme. Search by Topic link to find similar problem on the same topic, perhaps with more stars or a higher stage? Explore the ideas discovered on the internet or through Possible support for learners in rich tasks Students struggling to get started could: Try to explain as clearly and precisely in words exactly what it is that they do not understand. Often this simple device will help students to see a way forward. Student guide to getting started with rich tasks. Try warming up with a similar problem which is perhaps a little easier. Use the Search by topic link to search for questions on the same topic with fewer stars or a lower stage. Meet the team The NRICH Project aims to enrich the mathematical experiences of all learners. To support this aim, members of the NRICH team work in a wide range of capacities, including providing professional development for teachers wishing to embed rich mathematical tasks into everyday classroom practice. More information on many of our other activities can be found here. Register for our mailing list Copyright © 1997 - 2016. University of Cambridge. All rights reserved. NRICH is part of the family of activities in the Millennium Mathematics Project	http://nrich.maths.org/6306/index
4	Mutiny is a criminal conspiracy among a group of people (typically members of the military; or the crew of any ship, even if they are civilians) to openly oppose, change, or overthrow a lawful authority to which they are subject. The term is commonly used for a rebellion among members of the military against their superior officer(s), but can also occasionally refer to any type of rebellion against an authority figure. During the Age of Discovery, mutiny particularly meant open rebellion against a ship's captain. This occurred, for example, during Ferdinand Magellan's journeys around the world, resulting in the killing of one mutineer, the execution of another, and the marooning of others, and on Henry Hudson's Discovery, resulting in Hudson and others being set adrift in a boat. The mutiny on the Bounty remains notorious. Until 1689, mutiny was regulated in England by Articles of War, instituted by the monarch and effective only in a period of war. In 1689, the first Mutiny Act was passed, passing the responsibility to enforce discipline within the military to Parliament. The Mutiny Act, altered in 1803, and the Articles of War defined the nature and punishment of mutiny, until the latter were replaced by the Army Discipline and Regulation Act in 1879. This, in turn, was replaced by the Army Act in 1881. Mutiny means a combination between two or more persons subject to service law, or between persons two at least of whom are subject to service law— - (a) to overthrow or resist lawful authority in Her Majesty's forces or any forces co-operating therewith or in any part of any of the said forces, - (b) to disobey such authority in such circumstances as to make the disobedience subversive of discipline, or with the object of avoiding any duty or service against, or in connection with operations against, the enemy, or - (c) to impede the performance of any duty or service in Her Majesty's forces or in any forces co-operating therewith or in any part of any of the said forces. The military law of England in early times existed, like the forces to which it applied, in a period of war only. Troops were raised for a particular service, and were disbanded upon the cessation of hostilities. The crown, by prerogative, made laws known as Articles of War, for the government and discipline of the troops while thus embodied and serving. Except for the punishment of desertion, which was made a felony by statute in the reign of Henry VI, these ordinances or Articles of War remained almost the sole authority for the enforcement of discipline until 1689, when the first Mutiny Act was passed and the military forces of the crown were brought under the direct control of parliament. Even the Parliamentary forces in the time of Charles I and Oliver Cromwell were governed, not by an act of the legislature, but by articles of war similar to those issued by the king and authorized by an ordinance of the Lords and Commons, exercising in that respect the sovereign prerogative. This power of law-making by prerogative was however held to be applicable during a state of actual war only, and attempts to exercise it in time of peace were ineffectual. Subject to this limitation it existed for considerably more than a century after the passing of the first Mutiny Act. From 1689 to 1803, although in peace time the Mutiny Act was occasionally suffered to expire, a statutory power was given to the crown to make Articles of War to operate in the colonies and elsewhere beyond the seas in the same manner as those made by prerogative operated in time of war. In 1715, in consequence of the rebellion, this power was created in respect of the forces in the kingdom, but apart from and in no respect affected the principle acknowledged all this time that the crown of its mere prerogative could make laws for the government of the army in foreign countries in time of war. The Mutiny Act of 1803 effected a great constitutional change in this respect: the power of the crown to make any Articles of War became altogether statutory, and the prerogative merged in the act of parliament. The Mutiny Act 1873 was passed in this manner. So matters remained till 1879, when the last Mutiny Act was passed and the last Articles of War were promulgated. The Mutiny Act legislated for offences in respect of which death or penal servitude could be awarded, and the Articles of War, while repeating those provisions of the act, constituted the direct authority for dealing with offences for which imprisonment was the maximum punishment as well as with many matters relating to trial and procedure. The act and the articles were found not to harmonize in all respects. Their general arrangement was faulty, and their language sometimes obscure. In 1869 a royal commission recommended that both should be recast in a simple and intelligible shape. In 1878 a committee of the House of Commons endorsed this view and made recommendations as to how the task should be performed. In 1879 passed into law a measure consolidating in one act both the Mutiny Act and the Articles of War, and amending their provisions in certain important respects. This measure was called the Army Discipline and Regulation Act 1879. After one or two years experience finding room for improvement, it was superseded by the Army Act 1881, which hence formed the foundation and the main portion of the military law of England, containing a proviso saving the right of the crown to make Articles of War, but in such a manner as to render the power in effect a nullity by enacting that no crime made punishable by the act shall be otherwise punishable by such articles. As the punishment of every conceivable offence was provided, any articles made under the act could be no more than an empty formality having no practical effect. Thus the history of English military law up to 1879 may be divided into three periods, each having a distinct constitutional aspect: (I) prior to 1689, the army, being regarded as so many personal retainers of the sovereign rather than servants of the state, was mainly governed by the will of the sovereign; (2) between 1689 and 1803, the army, being recognized as a permanent force, was governed within the realm by statute and without it by the prerogative of the crown and (3) from 1803 to 1879, it was governed either directly by statute or by the sovereign under an authority derived from and defined and limited by statute. Although in 1879 the power of making Articles of War became in effect inoperative, the sovereign was empowered to make rules of procedure, having the force of law, to regulate the administration of the act in many matters formerly dealt with by the Articles of War. These rules, however, must not be inconsistent with the provisions of the Army Act itself, and must be laid before parliament immediately after they are made. Thus in 1879 the government and discipline of the army became for the first time completely subject either to the direct action or the close supervision of parliament. A further notable change took place at the same time. The Mutiny Act had been brought into force on each occasion for one year only, in compliance with the constitutional theory: that the maintenance of a standing army in time of peace, unless with the consent of parliament, is against law. Each session therefore the text of the act had to be passed through both Houses clause by clause and line by line. The Army Act, on the other hand, is a fixed permanent code. But constitutional traditions are fully respected by the insertion in it of a section providing that it shall come into force only by virtue of an annual act of parliament. This annual act recites the illegality of a standing army in time of peace unless with the consent of parliament, and the necessity nevertheless of maintaining a certain number of land forces (exclusive of those serving in India) and a body of royal marine forces on shore, and of keeping them in exact discipline, and it brings into force the Army Act for one year. Until 1998 mutiny, and another offence of failing to suppress or report a mutiny, were each punishable with death. Section 21(5) of the Human Rights Act 1998 completely abolished the death penalty in the United Kingdom. (Prior to this, the death penalty had already been abolished for murder, but it had remained in force for certain military offences and treason, although no executions had been carried out for several decades.) This provision was not required by the European Convention on Human Rights, since Protocol 6 of the Convention permitted the death penalty in time of war, and Protocol 13, which prohibits the death penalty for all circumstances, did not then exist. The UK government introduced section 21(5) as a late amendment in response to parliamentary pressure. - Art. 94. (§ 894.) 2004 Mutiny or Sedition. - (a) Any person subject to this code (chapter) who— - (1) with intent to usurp or override lawful military authority, refuses, in concert with any other person, to obey orders or otherwise do his duty or creates any violence or disturbance is guilty of mutiny; - (2) with intent to cause the overthrow or destruction of lawful civil authority, creates, in concert with any other person, revolt, violence, or other disturbance against that authority is guilty of sedition; - (3) fails to do his utmost to prevent and suppress a mutiny or sedition being committed in his presence, or fails to take all reasonable means to inform his superior commissioned officer or commanding officer of a mutiny or sedition which he knows or has reason to believe is taking place, is guilty of a failure to suppress or report a mutiny or sedition. - (b) A person who is found guilty of attempted mutiny, mutiny, sedition, or failure to suppress or report a mutiny or sedition shall be punished by death or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct. U.S. military law requires obedience only to lawful orders. Disobedience to unlawful orders (see Superior orders) is the obligation of every member of the U.S. military, a principle established by the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials following World War II and reaffirmed in the aftermath of the My Lai Massacre during the Vietnam War. However, a U.S. soldier who disobeys an order after deeming it unlawful will almost certainly be court-martialed to determine whether the disobedience was proper. In addition, simple refusal to obey is not mutiny, which requires collaboration or conspiracy to disobedience. - Sack of Antwerp, one of the many mutinies in the Spanish Army of Flanders during the Eighty Years' War; this mutiny caused the provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands to temporarily unite in rebellion against Philip II of Spain and sign the Pacification of Ghent. - Sack of Rome (1527), military event carried out by the mutinous troops of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. - Batavia was a ship of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), built in 1628 in Amsterdam, which was struck by mutiny and shipwreck during her maiden voyage. - Second English Civil War - HMS Hermione was a 32-gun fifth-rate frigate of the British Royal Navy, launched in 1782, notorious for the mutiny which took place aboard her. - Mutiny aboard HMS Bounty, a mutiny aboard a British Royal Navy ship in 1789 that has been made famous by several books and films. - Quibéron mutinies was major mutinies in the French fleet in 1793. - Spithead and Nore mutinies were two major mutinies by sailors of the British Royal Navy in 1797. - Vlieter Incident was a mutiny of a squadron of the fleet of the Batavian Republic which caused it to be surrendered to the British without a fight in 1799 at the start of the Anglo-Russian Invasion of Holland. - The Froberg mutiny by the Froberg Regiment in Fort Ricasoli, Malta in 1807. The mutiny was suppressed and 30 men were executed. - The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a period of armed uprising in India against British colonial power, and was popularly remembered in Britain as the Indian Mutiny or Sepoy Mutiny. It is remembered in India as the First War of Independence. - La Amistad, in 1839. A group of captured African slaves being transported in Cuba mutinied against the crew, killing the captain. - The Sharon, a New England whaler, was subject to multiple mass desertions, mutinies, and the murder and dismemberment of a cruel (and from the record, sociopathic) captain by four Polynesians who had been pressed into service on the Sharon. - The US whaler Globe mutiny of 1824. - In 1857 on the whaleship Junior, Cyrus Plummer and several accomplices engineered a mutiny that resulted in the murder of Captain Archibald Mellen and Third Mate John Smith. The mutineers were captured and found guilty in the Fall of 1858. Plummer was sentenced to be hanged and his accomplices received life sentences. The story made national and international news and Plummer was able to garner a stay of execution from President James Buchanan. - The Cavite Mutiny of 1872 in the Philippines. - The brig USS Somers had a mutiny plotted onboard on her first voyage. Three men were accused of conspiring to commit mutiny, and were hanged. - The Brazilian Naval Revolt was the occasion of two mutinies in 1893 and 1894. - Mutiny aboard the Russian battleship Potemkin, a rebellion of the crew against their officers in June 1905 during the Russian Revolution of 1905. It was made famous by the film The Battleship Potemkin. - The Revolta da Chibata was a Brazilian naval mutiny of 1910, where Afro-Brazilian crewmen rose up against oppressive white officers who frequently beat them. Their goal was to have their living conditions improved and the chibata (whips or lashes) banned from the navy. - Guaymas Mutiny On February 22, 1914, Mexican Navy sailors under Lieutenant Hialrio Malpica seized control of gunboat Tampico off Guaymas, Mexico. This event led to a naval campaign off Topolobampo during the Mexican Revolution. - Curragh Incident, also known as the Curragh Mutiny of July 20, 1914 occurred in the Curragh, Ireland, where British officers threatened to resign rather than enforce the Home Rule Act 1914. - Etaples Mutiny by British troops, 1917 - French Army mutinies in 1917. The failure of the Nivelle Offensive in April and May 1917 resulted in widespread mutiny in many units of the French Army. - Wilhelmshaven mutiny broke out in the German High Seas Fleet on 29 October 1918. The mutiny was one of the factors leading to the end of the First World War, to the collapse of the monarchy and to the establishment of the Weimar Republic. - Black Sea mutiny (1919) by crews aboard the French dreadnoughts Jean Bart and France, sent to assist the White Russians in the Russian Civil War. The ringleaders (including André Marty and Charles Tillon) received long prison sentences. - Kronstadt rebellion, an unsuccessful uprising of Soviet sailors, led by Stepan Petrichenko, against the government of the early Russian SFSR in the first weeks of March in 1921. It proved to be the last large rebellion against Bolshevik rule. - Army Mutiny, an Irish Army crisis in March 1924 provoked by a proposed reduction in army numbers in the immediate post-Civil War period. - Invergordon Mutiny, an industrial action by around a thousand sailors in the British Atlantic Fleet, that took place on 15–16 September 1931. For two days, ships of the Royal Navy at Invergordon were in open mutiny, in one of the few military strikes in British history. - Mutiny aboard the Dutch warship the De Zeven Provinciën as a result of salary cuts in early February 1933. - Cocos Islands Mutiny, a failed mutiny by Sri Lankan servicemen on the then-British Cocos (Keeling) Islands during the Second World War. - Port Chicago mutiny on August 9, 1944, three weeks after the Port Chicago disaster. 258 out of the 320 African-American sailors in the ordnance battalion refused to load any ammunition. See also African-American mutinies in the United States armed forces. - Terrace mutiny, a mutiny by French-Canadian soldiers in Terrace, British Columbia, in November 1944. After World War II - Post–World War II demobilization strikes occurred within Allied military forces stationed across the Middle East, India and South-East Asia in the months and years following World War II. - The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny encompasses a total strike and subsequent mutiny by the Indian sailors of the Royal Indian Navy on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay (Mumbai) harbour on 18 February 1946. - SS Columbia Eagle incident occurred on 14 March 1970 during the Vietnam War when sailors aboard an American merchant ship mutinied and hijacked the ship to Cambodia. - Unit 684 Mutiny occurred when members of South Korean black ops Unit 684 mutinied for unclear reasons. - The Storozhevoy Mutiny occurred on 9 November 1975 in Riga, Latvia. The political officer locked up the Soviet Navy captain and sailed the ship toward Leningrad. - The Velos mutiny On 23 May 1973, the captain of HNS Velos, refused to return to Greece after a NATO exercise. - Following Operation Blue Star against Sikh militants holed in the Golden Temple in the Sikh holy city of Amritsar, many soldiers and officers of Indian Army's Sikh Regiment mutinied or resigned. - 2003 Oakwood mutiny – A group of 321 officers and personnel of the Armed Forces of the Philippines took over the Oakwood Premier Ayala Center serviced apartment tower in Makati City to show the Filipino people the alleged corruption of Pres. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. - 2003 Fort Bonifacio Crisis – Members of the Philippine Marines staged a protest over the removal of their Commandant Maj. Gen. Renato Miranda. - 2009 Bangladesh Rifles revolt – A group of Bangladesh border guards revolted, demanding equal rights to the regular army, and killed several of their officers. - 2013 1st Battalion Yorkshire Regiment, British Army Sixteen soldiers were jailed after a court martial for staging a 'sit-in' protest against their Captain and Colour Sergeant - 2014 Nigerian Army. A total of 56 soldiers were sentenced to death by a court martial by firing squad in two separate trials after they had refused to fight to recapture a town that had been captured by the Boko Haram insurgents. The sentences are subject to the approval of senior officers. - Army Act (1955) c.18 - Part II Discipline and Trial and Punishment of Military Offences: Mutiny and insubordination, The UK Statute Law Database. - Army Act (1955) c.18 Part II Discipline and Trial and Punishment of Military Offences, UK Statute Law Database. - Parker, G. (2004) The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road 1567–1659. Second edition. Cambridge U.P., ISBN 978-0-521-54392-7, ch.8 - "Unidentified Young Man". World Digital Library. 1839–1840. Retrieved 2013-07-28. - Garret FitzGerald Reflections On The Foundation of the Irish State, University College Cork, April 2003 - Irish Times March 10th, 1924 10 Mar 2012 - Though 50 sailors were convicted of mutiny after the Port Chicago disaster, there is some question as to whether there was a conspiracy, a prerequisite of mutiny, rather than simple refusal to obey a lawful order. All of the sailors were willing to do any other task except load ammunition under unsafe conditions. - AP (1984-07-02). "General Promises To Punish Sikh Mutineers". New York Times. India; Amritsar (India); Punjab State (India). Retrieved 2012-06-10. - "Operation Blue Star 1984 Golden Temple Attack Sikhs". Sikhmuseum.com. 1984-06-11. Retrieved 2012-06-10. - "Yorkshire Regiment soldiers jailed for sit-in protest". BBC News. 2013-12-10. Retrieved 2014-04-07. - This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mutiny". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. - Leonard F. Guttridge, Mutiny: A History of Naval Insurrection, United States Naval Institute Press, 1992, ISBN 0-87021-281-8	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutiny
4.53125	I teach ninth graders who arrive to high school without a solid foundation in all the prerequisite math skills. Sometimes I have to correct firmly held misconceptions - students are sure their teacher last year did it that way. Other times students are equally sure they've never seen a topic before. So when I teach a concept that students may have seen before I aim to be as clear as possible. Many teachers think that the best way to be clear is to provide very detailed step by step directions on how to complete a process. But my version of clear is providing the bare minimum information for students to be successful. After we played with pennies, I boiled that experience down to two pieces of information to solve one variable equations: - Combine like terms - Use opposite operations As I continued, I recognized that students needed a bit more clarity on when to use opposite operations (they were continuing to subtract from the same expression twice) so I modified it to: - Combine like terms - Use opposite operations when terms are in different expressions Now when I encounter a student who is stuck when solving an equation, I ask them "where are your like terms?" If they're in the same expression - combine. If they're in different expressions - combine using opposite operations. If they're inside parentheses or absolute value - uh oh, they're trapped! Then students can either choose a different pair of like terms or apply knowledge of the distributive property, definition of absolute value, etc. Limiting my instructions to two items means students have a chance of remembering them. It means students learn to make choices: some kids like have the variable on the left side - go for it! Some kids want to combine all like terms within an expression first - awesome! Some kids don't think ahead and move terms back and forth across the equal sign several times - you're making progress! It's really important to me to value all my students ideas. Later in the unit I might stop a kid and say - you're moving all the numbers to the same expression as the variable, it's legal algebra but it's not the fastest way to get there. But at the beginning? Yes! That's a great idea! Well done recognizing like terms! When we get to inequalities - same rules and one additional note on how to shade. When we get to equations in more than one variable - same rules and a note that an expression is a valid answer. By giving students the bare necessities I'm making it easier to see the connections. It still takes an awful lot of practice and some students struggle at first with paralysis of choice - it really doesn't matter whether I combine the numbers or variables first?? - but it's important for them to start making some decisions as early as possible so they aren't entirely paralyzed when they reach trig identities and the only way to solve them is just trying a substitution to see what works.	http://drawingonmath.blogspot.com/
4.03125	Scientists have for the first time measured how fast large-scale evolution can occur in mammals, showing it takes 24 million generations for a mouse-sized animal to evolve to the size of an elephant. Research published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences describes increases and decreases in mammal size following the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago Led by Dr Alistair Evans of Monash University's School of Biological Sciences a team of 20 biologists and palaeontologists discovered that rates of size decrease are much faster than growth rates. It takes only 100,000 generations for very large decreases, leading to dwarfism, to occur. Dr Evans, an evolutionary biologist and Australian Research Fellow, said the study was unique because most previous work had focused on microevolution, the small changes that occur within a species. "Instead we concentrated on large-scale changes in body size. We can now show that it took at least 24 million generations to make the proverbial mouse-to-elephant size change -- a massive change, but also a very long time," Dr Evans said. "A less dramatic change, such as rabbit-sized to elephant-sized, takes 10 million generations." The paper looked at 28 different groups of mammals, including elephants, primates and whales, from various continents and ocean basins over the past 70 million years. Size change was tracked in generations rather than years to allow meaningful comparison between species with differing life spans. Dr Erich Fitzgerald, Senior Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology at Museum Victoria and a co-author, said changes in whale size occurred at twice the rate of land mammals. "This is probably because it's easier to be big in the water -- it helps support your weight," Dr Fitzgerald said. Dr Evans said he was surprised to find that decreases in body size occurred more than ten times faster than the increases. "The huge difference in rates for getting smaller and getting bigger is really astounding -- we certainly never expected it could happen so fast!" Dr Evans said. Many miniature animals, such as the pygmy mammoth, dwarf hippo and 'hobbit' hominids lived on islands, helping to explain the size reduction. "When you do get smaller, you need less food and can reproduce faster, which are real advantages on small islands," Dr Evans said. The research furthers understanding of conditions that allow certain mammals to thrive and grow bigger and circumstances that slow the pace of increase and potentially contribute to extinction. Cite This Page:	http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/01/120130171909.htm
4	Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom \|Part of a series on\| Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom became a national movement in the nineteenth century. Women were not explicitly banned from voting in Great Britain until the 1832 Reform Act and the 1835 Municipal Corporations Act. Both before and after 1832, establishing women's suffrage on some level was a political topic, although it would not be until 1872 that it would become a national movement with the formation of the National Society for Women's Suffrage and later the more influential National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). The movement shifted sentiments in favour of woman suffrage by 1906. It was at this point that the militant campaign began with the formation of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). Some have argued the militant suffragettes turned to violence and discredited and postponed votes for women. The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 led to a suspension of all politics, including the militant suffragette campaigns. Lobbying did take place quietly. In 1918, a coalition government passed the Representation of the People Act 1918, enfranchising women over the age of 30 who met minimum property qualifications. Ten years later, in 1928, the Conservative government passed the Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act giving the vote to all women over the age of 21. Both before and after the 1832 Reform Act there were some who advocated that women should have the right to vote. After the enactment of the Reform Act enactment the MP Henry Hunt argued that any woman who was single, a tax payer and had sufficient property should be allowed to vote. One such wealthy woman, Mary Smith, was used in this speech as an example. Lilly Maxwell made a high profile vote in Britain in 1867 after the Great Reform Act of 1832. She was not however the first woman to vote in Britain. Maxwell, a shop owner, met the property qualifications that otherwise would have made her eligible to vote had she been male. In error, however, her name had been added to the election register and on that basis she succeeded in voting in a by-election – her vote however was later declared illegal by the Court of Common Pleas. The case, however, gave women's suffrage campaigners great publicity. The Chartist Movement, which began in the late 1830s, has also been suggested to have included supporters of female suffrage. There is some evidence to suggest William Lovett, one of the authors of the People's Charter wished to include female suffrage as one of the campaign's demands but chose not to on the grounds that this would delay the implementation of the charter. Although there were female Chartists, they largely worked toward universal male suffrage. At this time most women did not have aspirations to gain the vote. Outside pressure for women's suffrage was at this time diluted by feminist issues in general. Women's rights were becoming increasingly prominent in the 1850s as some women in higher social spheres refused to obey the gender roles dictated to them. Feminist goals at this time included the right to sue an ex-husband after divorce (achieved in 1857) and the right for married women to own property (fully achieved in 1882 after some concession by the government in 1870). The issue of parliamentary reform declined along with the Chartists after 1848 and only reemerged with the election of John Stuart Mill in 1865. He stood for office showing direct support for female suffrage and was an MP in the run up to the second Reform Act. In local government elections, single women ratepayers received the right to vote in the Municipal Franchise Act 1869. This right was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1894 and extended to include some married women. - 1 Early suffragist societies - 2 The formation of a national movement - 3 Suffrage as a sex war - 4 Legacy - 5 Timeline - 6 See also - 7 References - 8 Further reading - 9 Primary sources - 10 External links Early suffragist societies In the same year that John Stuart Mill was elected, the first Ladies Discussion Society was formed, debating whether women should be involved in public affairs. Although a society for suffrage was proposed, this was turned down on the grounds that it might be taken over by extremists. However, later that year Leigh Smith Bodichon formed the first Women's Suffrage Committee and within a fortnight collected 1,500 signatures in favour of female suffrage in advance to the second Reform Bill. The Manchester Suffrage Committee was founded in February 1867. The secretary, Lydia Becker, wrote letters both to Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli and to The Spectator. She was also involved with the London group, and organised the collection of more signatures. However, in June the London group split, partly a result of party allegiance, and partly the result of tactical issues. Conservative members wished to move slowly to avoid alarming public opinion, while Liberals generally opposed this apparent dilution of political conviction. As a result, Helen Taylor founded the London National Society for Women's Suffrage which set up strong links with Manchester and Edinburgh. In Scotland one of the earliest societies was the Edinburgh National Society for Women's Suffrage. Although these early splits left the movement divided and sometimes leaderless, it allowed Lydia Becker to have a stronger influence. The suffragists were known as the parliamentaries. In Ireland, the Dublin Women's Suffrage Association was established in 1874. As well as campaigning for women's suffrage, it sought to advance women's position in local government. In 1898 it changed its name to the Irish Women's Suffrage and Local Government Association. The formation of a national movement Women's political groups Although women's political party groups were not formed with the aim to achieve women's suffrage, they did have two key effects. Firstly, they showed women who were members to be competent in the political arena and as this became clear, secondly, it brought the concept of female suffrage closer to acceptance. The Primrose League The Primrose League was set up to promote Conservative values through social events and supporting the community. As women were able to join, this gave females of all classes the ability to mix with local and national political figures. Many also had important roles such as bringing voters to the polls. This removed segregation and promoted political literacy amongst women. The Women's Liberal Associations Although there is evidence to suggest that they were originally formed to promote female franchise (the first being in Bristol in 1881), WLAs often did not hold such an agenda. They did, however, operate independently from the male groups. They became more active when they came under the control of the Women's Liberal Federation, and canvassed all classes for support of women's suffrage and male domination. The campaign first developed into a national movement in the 1870s. At this point, all campaigners were suffragists, not suffragettes. The term suffragette is only used to describe those who used violent protest, although the term is widely misused to describe all campaigners. Up until 1903, all campaigning took the constitutional approach. It was after the defeat of the first Women's Suffrage Bill that the Manchester and London committees joined together to gain wider support. The main methods of doing so at this time involved lobbying MPs to put forward Private Member's Bills. However such bills rarely pass and so this was an ineffective way of actually achieving the vote. In 1868, local groups amalgamated to form a series of close-knit groups with the founding of the National Society for Women's Suffrage (NSWS). This is notable as the first attempt to create a unified front to propose women's suffrage, but had little effect due to several splits, once again weakening the campaign. Up until 1897, the campaign stayed at this relatively ineffective level. Campaigners came predominantly from the landed classes and joined together on a small scale only. However, 1897 saw the foundation of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) by Millicent Fawcett. This society linked smaller groups together and also put pressure on non-supportive MPs using various peaceful methods. Founded in 1903, the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) was tighly controlled by the three Pankhursts. It specialized in highly visible publicity campaigns such as large parades. This had the effect of energizing all dimensions of the suffrage movement. While there was a majority of support for suffrage in parliament, the ruling Liberal Party refused to allow a vote on the issue; the result of which was an escalation in the suffragette campaign. The WSPU, in contrast to its allies, embarked on a campaign of violence to publicize the issue, even to the detriment of its own aims. Its violent tactics (shouting down speakers, stone-throwing, window-smashing, hunger-strikes and arson of unoccupied churches and country houses), most historians agree, "clearly damaged the cause." Whitfield says, "the overall effect of the suffragette militancy, however, was to set back the cause of women's suffrage." The Cat and Mouse Act was passed by Parliament in an attempt to prevent suffragettes from obtaining public sympathy; it provided the release of those whose hunger strikes had brought them sickness, as well as their re-imprisonment once they had recovered. The greater suffrage efforts halted with the outbreak of WWI. While some activity continued, with the NUWSS continuing to lobby peacefully, Emmeline Pankhurst, convinced that Germany posed a danger to all humanity, convinced the WSPU to halt all militant suffrage activity. During the war, a serious shortage of able-bodied men ("manpower") occurred, and women were required to take on many of the traditional male roles. This led to a new view of what a woman was capable of doing. Political movement towards women's suffrage began during the war and in 1918, the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed an act granting the vote to: women over the age of 30 who were householders, the wives of householders, occupiers of property with an annual rent of £5, and graduates of British universities. About 8.4 million women gained the vote. In November 1918, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 was passed, allowing women to be elected into Parliament. By 1928 the consensus was that votes for women had been successful. With the Conservative Party in full control in 1928, it passed the Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act that extended the voting franchise to all women over the age of 21, granting women the vote on the same terms as men. Women in prominent roles Emmeline Pankhurst was a key figure in the women's suffrage movement. Pankhurst, alongside her two daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, founded and led the Women's Social and Political Union, an organisation which was focused on direct action to win the vote. Her husband, Richard Pankhurst, also supported women suffrage ideas since he was the author of the first British woman suffrage bill and the Married Women’s Property Acts in 1870 and 1882. After her husband’s death, Emmeline decided to move to the forefront of the suffrage battle. Along with her two daughters, Christabel Pankhurst and Sylvia Pankhurst, she joined the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). With her experience with this organisation, Emmeline founded the Women's Franchise League in 1889 and the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903. Frustrated with years of government inactivity and false promises, the WSPU adopted a militant stance, which was so influential it was later imported into suffrage struggles worldwide, most notably by Alice Paul in the United States. After many years of struggle and adversity, women finally gained suffrage but Emmeline died shortly after this. Another key figure was Millicent Fawcett. She had a peaceful approach to issues presented to the organisations and the way to get points across to society. She supported the Married Women's Property Act and the social purity campaign. Two events influenced her to become even more involved: her husband’s death and the division of the suffrage movement over the issue of affiliation with political parties. Millicent, who supported staying independent of political parties, made sure that the parts separated came together to become stronger by working together. Because of her actions, she was made president of the NUWSS. In 1910–1912, she supported a bill to give vote rights to single and widowed females of a household. By supporting the British in World War I, she thought women would be recognised as a prominent part of Europe and deserved basic rights such as voting. Millicent Fawcett came from a radical family. Her sister was Elizabeth Garrett Anderson an English physician and feminist, and the first woman to gain a medical qualification in Britain. Elizabeth was elected mayor of Aldeburgh in 1908 and gave speeches for suffrage. Emily Davies became an editor of a feminist publication, Englishwoman's Journal. She expressed her feminist ideas on paper and was also a major supporter and influential figure during the twentieth century. In addition to suffrage, she supported more rights for women such as access to education. She wrote works and had power with words. She wrote texts such as Thoughts on Some Questions Relating to Women in 1910 and Higher Education for Women in 1866. She was a large supporter in the times where organisations were trying to reach people for a change. With her was a friend named Barbara Bodichon who also published articles and books such as Women and Work (1857), Enfranchisement of Women (1866), and Objections to the Enfranchisement of Women (1866), and American Diary in 1872. Suffrage as a sex war \|\|The neutrality of this article is disputed. (June 2015)\| The campaign for suffrage was closely tied to what many referred to as a sex war between men and women. With the feminist movement, and suffrage in particular, women were rebelling against historical male sexual tyranny and their historical objectification in British society. No longer willing to be defined solely by their biology, women craved to rid British society of the separate sphere ideology [public vs. private], which led to their powerlessness in both spheres. Women devoted themselves to the Cause of acquiring the right to vote on issues of importance to their country, despite direct individual repercussions – societal contempt and ridicule and mistreatment (at time sexually) at the hands of men that sought to contain them. In doing so, the suffragettes simultaneously sought to free themselves of their culturally imposed sexual identity. The militant actions of the suffragettes were direct responses to a real sex war. The suffrage movement campaigned against the forced conscription of women to a sexual identity through the withholding of her education and her right to vote. As Kent discusses, the Contagious Disease Acts "crystallized for women their status as sexual objects" (9) and illustrated the double standard and male vice embedded in Victorian society (8–9). It sought to accomplish this task by providing women opportunities which would establish them as individuals: in education and employment; in the rights to own property or obtain a divorce; in the right to vote. However, before acquiring these rights, the suffragettes would have to engage in an epic sex war, one which was often fought on the individual women's body. As the militant suffragette, Emily Wilding Davison, depicts, suffragettes willingly sacrificed their bodies and their reputations for the Cause in order to achieve the "Pearl of Freedom for her sex". As Elizabeth Robbins, an influential suffragette and writer, depicts in her novel The Convert, responses to their protests were met with sexual humiliation at the hands of both men and the police. This sentiment of sexual-antagonism pervaded much of the suffragette struggle. Men, when threatened with female power (militancy) and the potential for female liberation, took to sexual humiliation as a tool against the movement. The suffragettes of that time period, were seemingly made aware of this element upon recruitment, despite it being noticeably absent from contemporary historical accounts of the period. Robbins explains that this was how the movement got many wives and mothers to join the Cause: older women felt the need to protect the younger generation against that sort of treatment. This was particularly meaningful given the time period in which it occurred. Patriarchal society used the tools of sex-antagonism and sex-humiliation as a means of containment for the spread of the Suffrage movement, even during the early years of the new century. Hunger striking and force-feeding, particularly, were undertaken by individual people and served as points of battle carried out on the individual body. Starting in the summer of 1909, Suffragettes employed the hunger-strike as a method of protest while they served time in British prisons against the government that imprisoned and mistreated them. Hunger striking, as Jane Marcus points out, was a way for the British woman to refuse her role of mother and nurturer of the country. Authorities responded to their protest with force-feeding, an invasive and painful procedure performed within the confines of their cells. The resistance of the suffragettes to this procedure caused such encounters to be extremely violent and painful in nature – prisoners were held down while their mouths were pried open and instrumentation for force-feeding was shoved into their throats by male doctors. Looking to the firsthand accounts of the force-feedings, as evident in June Purvis' work, "The Prison Experiences of the Suffragettes", one can easily start to see where this form of response took on a quality of rape. This element of forced sexuality was exacerbated in the incidents when these forcible feedings were conducted through the rectum or vagina of the prisoners. So great was the trauma of such an experience, that several women were permanently scarred – mentally and/or physically. Whitfield concludes that the militant campaign had some positive effects in terms of attracting enormous publicity, and forcing the moderates to better organize themselves, while also stimulating the organization of the antis. He concludes: - The overall effect of the suffragette militancy, however, was to set back the cause of women's suffrage. For women to gain the right to vote it was necessary to demonstrate that they had public opinion on their side, to build and consolidate a parliamentary majority in favour of women's suffrage and to persuade or pressure the government to introduce its own franchise reform. None of these objectives was achieved. - 1818: Jeremy Bentham advocates female suffrage in his book A Plan for Parliamentary Reform - 1832: Great Reform Act – confirmed the exclusion of women from the electorate. - 1851: The Sheffield Female Political Association is founded and submits a petition calling for women's suffrage to the House of Lords. - 1864: The first Contagious Disease Act is passed in England, which is intended to control venereal disease by having prostitutes and women believed to be prostitutes be locked away in hospitals for examination and treatment. When information broke to the general public about the shocking stories of brutality and vice in these hospitals, Josephine Butler launched a campaign to get them repealed. Many have since argued that Butler's campaign destroyed the conspiracy of silence around sexuality and forced women to act in protection of others of their gender. In doing so, clear linkages emerge between the Suffrage movement and Butler's campaign. - 1865: John Stuart Mill elected as an MP showing direct support for women's suffrage. - 1867: Second Reform Act – Male franchise extended to 2.5 million - 1869: Municipal Franchise Act gives single women ratepayers the right to vote in local elections. - 1883: Conservative Primrose League formed. - 1884: Third Reform Act – Male electorate doubled to 5 million - 1889: Women's Franchise League established. - 1894: Local Government Act (women who owned property could vote in local elections, become Poor Law Guardians, act on School Boards) - 1894: The publication of C.C. Stopes's British Freewomen, staple reading for the suffrage movement for decades. - 1897: National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies NUWSS formed (led by Millicent Fawcett). - 1903: Women's Social and Political Union WSPU is formed (led by Emmeline Pankhurst) - 1904: Militancy begins. Emmeline Pankhurst interrupts a Liberal Party meeting. - February 1907: NUWSS "Mud March" – largest open air demonstration ever held (at that point) – over 3000 women took part. In this year, women were admitted to the register to vote in and stand for election to principal local authorities. - 1907: The Artists' Suffrage League founded - 1907: The Women's Freedom League founded - 1908: in November of this year, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, a member of the small municipal borough of Aldeburgh, Suffolk, was selected as mayor of that town, the first woman to so serve. - 1907, 1912, 1914: major splits in WSPU - 1905, 1908, 1913: Three phases of WSPU militancy (Civil Disobedience; Destruction of Public Property; Arson/Bombings) - 5 July 1909: Marion Wallace Dunlop went on the first hunger strike – was released after 91 hours of fasting - 1909 The Women's Tax Resistance League founded - September 1909: Force feeding introduced to hunger strikers in English prisons - 1910: Lady Constance Lytton disguised herself as a working class seamstress, Jane Wharton, and was arrested and endured force feeding to prove prejudice in prisons against working class women. Lady Constance was instrumental in reforming conditions in prisons. The brutal force feeding she was subjected to is believed to have shortened her life span considerably - February 1910: Cross-Party Conciliation Committee (54 MPs). Conciliation Bill (that would enfranchise women) passed its 2nd reading by a majority of 109 but Asquith refused to give it more parliamentary time - November 1910: Herbert Henry Asquith changed Bill to enfranchise more men instead of women - 18 November 1910: Black Friday - October 1912: George Lansbury, Labour MP, resigned his seat in support of women's suffrage - February 1913: David Lloyd George's house burned down by WSPU (despite his support for women's suffrage). - April 1913: Cat and Mouse Act passed, allowing hunger-striking prisoners to be released when their health was threatened and then re-arrested when they had recovered - 4 June 1913: Emily Davison walked in front of, and was subsequently trampled and killed by, the King’s Horse at the Epsom Derby. - 13 March 1914: Mary Richardson slashed the Rokeby Venus painted by Diego Velázquez in the National Gallery with an axe, protesting that she was maiming a beautiful woman just as the government was maiming Emmeline Pankhurst with force feeding - 4 August 1914: World War declared in Britain. WSPU activity immediately ceased. NUWSS activity continued peacefully – the Birmingham branch of the organisation continued to lobby Parliament and write letters to MPs. - 1918: The Representation of the People Act of 1918 enfranchised women over the age of 30 who were either a member or married to a member of the Local Government Register. About 8.4 million women gained the vote. - November 1918: the Eligibility of Women Act was passed, allowing women to be elected into Parliament. - 1928: Women received the vote on the same terms as men (over the age of 21) as a result of the Representation of the People Act 1928. - Feminism in the United Kingdom - Lobbying in the United Kingdom - The Women's Library (London)—holds an extensive collection of material relating to the women's suffrage movement - List of suffragists and suffragettes - List of women's rights activists - Timeline of women's suffrage - Alice Paul - See NUWSS - Pugh 2012, pp. 150–3. - Martin Pugh (2000). The March of the Women: A Revisionist Analysis of the Campaign for Women's Suffrage, 1866-1914. Oxford University Press. pp. 21–. ISBN 978-0-19-820775-7. - "Women's rights". The National Archives. Retrieved 11 February 2015. - "Which Act Gave Women the Right to Vote in Britain?". Synonym. Retrieved 11 February 2015. - "Edinburgh National Society for Women's Suffrage". 1876. - Pugh 2012, p. 152. - Bob Whitfield (2001). The Extension of the Franchise, 1832-1931. Heinemann. pp. 152–60. - Fawcett, Millicent Garrett. The Women's Victory – and After. p.170. Cambridge University Press - Malcolm Chandler (2001). Votes for Women C.1900-28. Heinemann. p. 27. - D. E. Butler, The Electoral System in Britain 1918-1951 (1954) pp 15-38 - Diane Atkinson The Purple, White and Green: Suffragettes in London, Museum of London, 1992, p 7 - The Time 100: Emmeline Pankhurst - A biography of Millicent Garrett Fawcett - A biography of Elizabeth Garrett Anderson - A biography of Emily Davies - A biography of Barbara Bodichon - Kent 2014, pp. 4–5. - Kent 2014, p. 5. - Kent 2014, p. 8. - Purvis 1995, p. 122. - Qtd. in Purvis 111 - Robbins, Elizabeth. The Convert. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/26420/26420-h/26420-h.htm> - Robbins 163 - Marcus, Jane. Suffrage and the Pankhursts, 1–2 - Purvis 1995, p. 123. - Whitfield (2001). The Extension of the Franchise, 1832-1931. p. 160. - Kent 2014, p. 7. - Mayall 2000, p. 350. - Purvis 1995, p. 120. - BBC Radio 4 – Woman's Hour – Women's History Timeline: 1910 – 1919 - Rowland, Peter (1978). David Lloyd George:a biography. Macmillan. p. 228. - D. E. Butler, The Electoral System in Britain 1918-1951 (1954) pp 7-12 - D. E. Butler, The Electoral System in Britain 1918-1951 (1954) pp 15-38 - Cowman, Krista (2004). "Mrs. Brown is a Man and a Brother!": Women in Merseyside's Political Organisations, 1890–1920. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-0-853-23748-8. - Crawford, Elizabeth (1999). The Women's Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide 1866–1928. London: UCL Press. ISBN 978-1-841-42031-8. - Crawford, Elizabeth (2013). The Women's Suffrage Movement in Britain and Ireland: A Regional Survey. Routledge. - Griffin, Ben (2012). The Politics of Gender in Victorian Britain: Masculinity, Political Culture and the Struggle for Women's Rights. Cambridge University Press. - Kent, Susan Kingsley (2014) . Sex and Suffrage in Britain, 1860–1914. Princeton Legacy Library. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-60655-2. - Mayall, Laura E. Nym (2000). "Defining Militancy: Radical Protest, the Constitutional Idiom, and Women's Suffrage in Britain, 1908–1909". The Journal of British Studies 39 (3): 340–371. JSTOR 175976. - Nelson, Carolyn Christensen, ed. (2004). Literature of the Women's Suffrage Campaign in England. Broadview Press. - Pugh, Martin (2012). State and Society: A Social and Political History of Britain Since 1870 (4th ed.). London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-780-93041-1. - Purvis, June (1995). "The Prison Experiences of the Suffragettes in Edwardian Britain". Women's History Review 4 (1): 103–133. doi:10.1080/09612029500200073. - Purvis, June (2013). "Gendering the Historiography of the Suffragette Movement in Edwardian Britain: some reflections". Women's History Review 22 (4): 576–590. doi:10.1080/09612025.2012.751768. - Purvis, Jane; Sandra, Stanley Holton, eds. (2000). Votes For Women. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-21458-2. - Smith, Harold L. (2010). The British Women's Suffrage Campaign, 1866–1928 (Revised 2nd ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-408-22823-4. - Wallace, Ryland (2009). The Women's Suffrage Movement in Wales, 1866–1928. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-708-32173-7. - Whitfield, Bob (2001). The Extension of the Franchise, 1832–1931. Oxford: Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-435-32717-0. - Wingerden, Sophia A. van (1999). The Women's Suffrage Movement in Britain, 1866–1928. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-66911-2. - Lewis, J., ed. Before the Vote Was Won: Arguments for and Against Women's Suffrage (1987) - McPhee, C. and A. Fitzgerald, eds. The Non--Violent Militant: Selected Writings of Teresa Billington-Greig (1987) - Marcus, J., ed. Suffrage and the Pankhursts (1987) \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom.\| - The struggle for democracy – information on the suffragettes at the British Library learning website - https://www.sheffield.gov.uk/libraries/archives-and-local-studies/research-guides/womens-suffrage.html Sources for the Study of Women's Suffrage in Sheffield, UK produced by Sheffield City Council's Libraries and Archives. - Gladstone, William Ewart (1892). Female suffrage. A letter from the Right Hon. W.E. Gladstone. London: John Murray.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_Kingdom
4.40625	This Month in Physics History June, ca. 240 B.C. Eratosthenes Measures the Earth By around 500 B.C., most ancient Greeks believed that Earth was round, not flat. But they had no idea how big the planet is until about 240 B.C., when Eratosthenes devised a clever method of estimating its circumference. It was around 500 B.C. that Pythagoras first proposed a spherical Earth, mainly on aesthetic grounds rather than on any physical evidence. Like many Greeks, he believed the sphere was the most perfect shape. Possibly the first to propose a spherical Earth based on actual physical evidence was Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), who listed several arguments for a spherical Earth: ships disappear hull first when they sail over the horizon, Earth casts a round shadow on the moon during a lunar eclipse, and different constellations are visible at different latitudes. Around this time Greek philosophers had begun to believe the world could be explained by natural processes rather than invoking the gods, and early astronomers began making physical measurements, in part to better predict the seasons. The first person to determine the size of Earth was Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who produced a surprisingly good measurement using a simple scheme that combined geometrical calculations with physical observations. Eratosthenes was born around 276 B.C., which is now Shahhat, Libya. He studied in Athens at the Lyceum. Around 240 B.C., King Ptolemy III of Alexandria appointed him chief librarian of the library of Alexandria. Known as one of the foremost scholars of the time, Eratosthenes produced impressive works in astronomy, mathematics, geography, philosophy, and poetry. His contemporaries gave him the nickname “Beta” because he was very good, though not quite first-rate, in all these areas of scholarship. Eratosthenes was especially proud of his solution to the problem of doubling a cube, and is now well known for developing the sieve of Eratosthenes, a method of finding prime numbers. Eratosthenes’ most famous accomplishment is his measurement of the circumference of Earth. He recorded the details of this measurement in a manuscript that is now lost, but his technique has been described by other Greek historians and writers. Eratosthenes was fascinated with geography and planned to make a map of the entire world. He realized he needed to know the size of Earth. Obviously, one couldn’t walk all the way around to figure it out. Eratosthenes had heard from travelers about a well in Syene (now Aswan, Egypt) with an interesting property: at noon on the summer solstice, which occurs about June 21 every year, the sun illuminated the entire bottom of this well, without casting any shadows, indicating that the sun was directly overhead. Eratosthenes then measured the angle of a shadow cast by a stick at noon on the summer solstice in Alexandria, and found it made an angle of about 7.2 degrees, or about 1/50 of a complete circle. He realized that if he knew the distance from Alexandria to Syene, he could easily calculate the circumference of Earth. But in those days it was extremely difficult to determine distance with any accuracy. Some distances between cities were measured by the time it took a camel caravan to travel from one city to the other. But camels have a tendency to wander and to walk at varying speeds. So Eratosthenes hired bematists, professional surveyors trained to walk with equal length steps. They found that Syene lies about 5000 stadia from Alexandria. Eratosthenes then used this to calculate the circumference of the Earth to be about 250,000 stadia. Modern scholars disagree about the length of the stadium used by Eratosthenes. Values between 500 and about 600 feet have been suggested, putting Eratosthenes’ calculated circumference between about 24,000 miles and about 29,000 miles. The Earth is now known to measure about 24,900 miles around the equator, slightly less around the poles. Eratosthenes had made the assumption that the sun was so far away that its rays were essentially parallel, that Alexandria is due north of Syene, and that Syene is exactly on the tropic of cancer. While not exactly correct, these assumptions are good enough to make a quite accurate measurement using Eratosthenes’ method. His basic method is sound, and is even used by schoolchildren around the world today. Other Greek scholars repeated the feat of measuring the Earth using a procedure similar to Eratosthenes’ method. Several decades after Eratosthenes measurement, Posidonius used the star Canopus as his light source and the cities of Rhodes and Alexandria as his baseline. But because he had an incorrect value for the distance between Rhodes and Alexandria, he came up with a value for Earth’s circumference of about 18,000 miles, nearly 7,000 miles too small. Ptolemy included this smaller value in his treatise on geography in the second century A.D. Later explorers, including Christopher Columbus, believed Ptolemy’s value and became convinced that Earth was small enough to sail around. If Columbus had instead known Eratosthenes larger, and more accurate, value, perhaps he might never have set sail. ©1995 - 2016, AMERICAN PHYSICAL SOCIETY APS encourages the redistribution of the materials included in this newspaper provided that attribution to the source is noted and the materials are not truncated or changed. Associate Editor: Jennifer Ouellette Staff Writer: Ernie Tretkoff	http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200606/history.cfm
4	Giant Panda Teacher Resources Find Giant Panda educational ideas and activities Showing 1 - 20 of 96 resources The Giant Panda: ELL Vocabulary Activity In this vocabulary worksheet, students read a short article on the giant panda. Words in the article in bold letters appear in a word box and students match definitions and words, then write one sentence about something they would like... 3rd - 6th English Language Arts Getting ready for a peer editing session? Want to ensure that your class knows what your marks on their essays stand for? Provide your class with the list of standard editing marks. Pupils get to know the list by marking up a paragraph... 5th - 8th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Saxon Math: Algebra 2 (Section 6) New ReviewSection six in this series of twelve units takes a turn toward modeling, with lessons on exponential growth and decay, determining angle of rotation, and linear programming. Theory isn't neglected, however, as learners also confront... 9th - 12th Math CCSS: Adaptable Section One: What is Biodiversity? Four intriguing and scientific activities invite learners to explore the natural resources of their town. The activities cover concepts such as genetic traits, organizing species in a taxonomy, the differences between different species... 3rd - 5th Science CCSS: Adaptable	http://www.lessonplanet.com/lesson-plans/giant-panda
4	Mexican peso crisis Part of a series on the \|History of Mexico\| The Mexican peso crisis (also known as the Tequila crisis or December mistake crisis) was a currency crisis sparked by the Mexican government's sudden devaluation of the peso against the U.S. dollar in December 1994, which became one of the first international financial crises ignited by capital flight.:50–52 During the 1994 presidential election, the incumbent administration embarked on expansionary fiscal and monetary policy. The Mexican treasury began issuing short-term debt instruments denominated in domestic currency with a guaranteed repayment in U.S. dollars, attracting foreign investors. Mexico enjoyed investor confidence and new access to international capital following its signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). However, a violent uprising in the state of Chiapas, as well as the assassination of the presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio, resulted in political instability, causing investors to place an increased risk premium on Mexican assets. In response, the Mexican central bank intervened in the foreign exchange markets to maintain the Mexican peso's peg to the U.S. dollar by issuing dollar-denominated public debt to buy pesos. The peso's strength caused demand for imports to increase, resulting in a trade deficit. Speculators recognized an overvalued peso and capital began flowing out of Mexico to the United States, increasing downward market pressure on the peso. Under election pressures, Mexico purchased its own treasury securities to maintain its money supply and avert rising interest rates, drawing down the bank's dollar reserves. Supporting the money supply by buying more dollar-denominated debt while simultaneously honoring such debt depleted the bank's reserves by the end of 1994. The central bank devalued the peso on December 20, 1994, and foreign investors' fear led to an even higher risk premium. To discourage the resulting capital flight, the bank raised interest rates, but higher costs of borrowing merely hurt economic growth. Unable to sell new issues of public debt or efficiently purchase dollars with devalued pesos, Mexico faced a default. Two days later, the bank allowed the peso to float freely, after which it continued to depreciate. The Mexican economy experienced hyperinflation of around 52% and mutual funds began liquidating Mexican assets as well as emerging market assets in general. The effects spread to economies in Asia and the rest of Latin America. The United States organized a $50 billion bailout for Mexico in January 1995, administered by the IMF with the support of the G7 and Bank for International Settlements. In the aftermath of the crisis, several of Mexico's banks collapsed amidst widespread mortgage defaults. The Mexican economy experienced a severe recession and poverty and unemployment increased. With 1994 being the final year of his administration's sexenio (the country's six-year executive term limit), then-President Carlos Salinas de Gortari endorsed Luis Donaldo Colosio as the Institutional Revolutionary Party's (PRI) presidential candidate for the Mexico's 1994 general election. In accordance with party tradition during election years, Salinas de Gortari began an unrecorded spending spree. Mexico's current account deficit grew to roughly 7% of GDP that same year, and Salinas de Gortari allowed the Secretariat of Finance and Public Credit, Mexico's treasury, to issue short-term peso-denominated treasury bills with a guaranteed repayment denominated in U.S. dollars, called "tesobonos". These bills offered a lower yield than Mexico's traditional peso-denominated treasury bills, called "cetes", but their dollar-denominated returns were more attractive to foreign investors.:8–10:14 Investor confidence rose after the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was signed. Upon NAFTA's entry into force on January 1, 1994, Mexican businesses as well as the Mexican government enjoyed access to new foreign capital thanks to foreign investors eager to lend more money. International perceptions of Mexico's political risk began to shift, however, when the Zapatista Army of National Liberation declared war on the Mexican government and began a violent insurrection in Chiapas. Investors further questioned Mexico's political uncertainties and stability when PRI presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio was assassinated while campaigning in Tijuana in March 1994, and began setting higher risk premia on Mexican financial assets. Higher risk premia initially had no effect on the peso's value because Mexico had a fixed-exchange rate.:375 Mexico's central bank, Banco de México, maintained the peso's value through an exchange rate peg to the U.S. dollar, allowing the peso to appreciate or depreciate against the dollar within a narrow band. To accomplish this, the central bank would frequently intervene in the open markets and buy or sell pesos to maintain the peg. The central bank's intervention strategy partly involved issuing new short-term public debt instruments denominated in U.S. dollars, then using the borrowed dollar capital to purchase pesos in the foreign exchange market, thereby causing its value to appreciate. The bank's aim in mitigating the peso's depreciation was to protect against inflationary risks of having a markedly weaker domestic currency. With the peso stronger than it ought to have been, domestic businesses and consumers began purchasing increasingly more imports, and Mexico began running a large trade deficit.:179–180 Speculators began recognizing that the peso was artificially overvalued and led to speculative capital flight that further reinforced downward market pressure on the peso.:179–180 Mexico's central bank deviated from standard central banking policy it fixed the peso to the dollar in 1988. Instead of allowing its monetary base to contract and its interest rates to rise, the central bank purchased treasury bills to prop up its monetary base and prevent rising interest rates—especially given that 1994 was an election year. Additionally, servicing the tesobonos with U.S. dollar repayments further drew down the central bank's foreign exchange reserves.:8–10:375:451–452 Consistent with the macroeconomic trilemma in which a country with a fixed exchange rate and free flow of financial capital sacrifices monetary policy autonomy, the central bank's interventions to revalue the peso caused Mexico's money supply to contract (without an exchange rate peg, the currency would have been allowed to depreciate). The central bank's foreign exchange reserves began to dwindle and it completely ran out of U.S. dollars in December 1994.:375 On December 20, 1994, newly inaugurated President Ernesto Zedillo announced the Mexican central bank's devaluation of the peso between 13% and 15%.:50:10:179–180 Devaluing the peso after previous promises not to do so led investors to be skeptical of policymakers and fearful of additional devaluations. Investors flocked to foreign investments and placed even higher risk premia on domestic assets. This increase in risk premia placed additional upward market pressure on Mexican interest rates as well as downward market pressure on the Mexican peso.:375 Foreign investors anticipating further currency devaluations began rapidly withdrawing capital from Mexican investments and selling off shares of stock as the Mexican Stock Exchange plummeted. To discourage such capital flight, particularly from debt instruments, the Mexican central bank raised interest rates, but higher borrowing costs ultimately hindered economic growth prospects.:179–180 When the time came for Mexico to roll over its maturing debt obligations, few investors were interested in purchasing new debt.:375 To repay tesobonos, the central bank had little choice but to purchase dollars with its severely weakened pesos, which proved extremely expensive.:179–180 The Mexican government faced an imminent sovereign default.:375 On December 22, the Mexican government allowed the peso to float, after which the peso depreciated another 15%.:179–180 The value of the Mexican peso depreciated roughly 50% from 3.4 MXN/USD to 7.2, recovering only to 5.8 MXN/USD four months later. Prices in Mexico rose by 24% over the same four months, and by the end of 1995 Mexico's hyperinflation had reached 52%.:10 Mutual funds, which had invested in over $45 billion worth of Mexican assets in the several years leading up to the crisis, began liquidating their positions in Mexico and other developing countries. Foreign investors not only fled Mexico but emerging markets in general, and the crisis led to financial contagion throughout other financial markets in Asia and Latin America.:50 The impact of Mexico's crisis on the Southern Cone and Brazil became known as the "Tequila effect" (Spanish: efecto tequila). Motivated to deter a potential surge in illegal immigration and to mitigate the spread of investors' lack of confidence in Mexico to other developing countries, the United States coordinated a $50 billion bailout package in January 1995, to be administered by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) with support from the G7 and the Bank for International Settlements (BIS). The package established loan guarantees for Mexican public debt aimed at alleviating its growing risk premia and boosting investor confidence in its economy. The Mexican economy experienced a severe recession and the peso's value deteriorated substantially despite the bailout's success in preventing a worse collapse. Growth did not resume until the late 1990s.:52:10:376 The conditionality of the bailout required the Mexican government to institute new monetary and fiscal policy controls, although the country refrained from balance of payments reforms such as trade protectionism and strict capital controls to avoid violating its commitments under NAFTA. The loan guarantees allowed Mexico to restructure its short-term public debt and improve market liquidity.:10–11 Of the approximately $50 billion assembled in the bailout, $20 billion was contributed by the United States, $17.8 billion by the IMF, $10 billion by the BIS, $1 billion by a consortium of Latin American nations, and CAD$1 billion by Canada.:20 The Clinton administration's efforts to organize a bailout for Mexico were met with difficulty. It drew criticism from members of the U.S. Congress as well as scrutiny from the news media.:52 The administration's position centered on three principal concerns: potential unemployment in the United States in the event Mexico would have to reduce its imports of U.S. goods (at the time, Mexico was the third-largest consumer of U.S. exports); political instability and violence in a neighboring country; and a potential surge in illegal immigration from Mexico. Some congressional representatives agreed with American economist and former Chairman of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, L. William Seidman, that Mexico should just negotiate with creditors without involving the United States, especially in the interest of deterring moral hazard. On the other hand, supporters of U.S. involvement such as Fed Chair Alan Greenspan argued that the fallout from a Mexican sovereign default would be so devastating that it would far exceed the risks of moral hazard.:16 Following the U.S. Congress's failure to pass the Mexican Stabilization Act, the Clinton administration reluctantly approved an initially dismissed proposal to designate funds from the U.S. Treasury's Exchange Stabilization Fund as loan guarantees for Mexico.:159 These loans returned a handsome profit of $600 million and were even repaid ahead of maturity.:10–11 Then-U.S. Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin's appropriation of funds from the Exchange Stabilization Fund in support of the Mexican bailout was scrutinized by the United States House Committee on Financial Services, which expressed concern about a potential conflict of interest because Rubin had formerly served as co-chair of the board of directors of Goldman Sachs, which had a substantial share in distributing Mexican stocks and bonds. Mexico's economy experienced a severe recession as a result of the peso's devaluation and the flight to safer investments. The country's GDP declined by 6.2% over the course of 1995. Mexico's financial sector bore the brunt of the crisis as banks collapsed, revealing low-quality assets and fraudulent lending practices. Thousands of mortgages went into default as Mexican citizens struggled to keep pace with rising interest rates, resulting in widespread repossession of houses. In addition to declining GDP growth, Mexico experienced hyperinflation and extreme poverty skyrocketed as real wages plummeted and unemployment nearly doubled. Prices increased by 35% in 1995. Nominal wages were sustained, but real wages fell by 25-35% over the same year. Unemployment climbed to 7.4% in 1995 from its pre-crisis level of 3.9% in 1994. In the formal sector alone, over one million people lost their jobs and average real wages decreased by 13.5% throughout 1995. Overall household incomes plummeted by 30% in the same year. Mexico's extreme poverty grew to 37% in 1996 from 21% in 1994, undoing the previous ten years of successful poverty reduction initiatives. The nation's poverty levels would not begin returning to normal until 2001.:10 Mexico's growing poverty affected urban areas more intensely than rural areas, in part due to the urban population's sensitivity to labor market volatility and macroeconomic conditions. Urban citizens relied on a healthy labor market, access to credit, and consumer goods. Consumer price inflation and a tightening credit market during the crisis proved challenging for urban workers, while rural households shifted to subsistence agriculture.:11 Mexico's gross income per capita decreased by only 17% in agriculture, contrasted with 48% in the financial sector and 35% in the construction and commerce industries. Average household consumption declined by 15% from 1995 to 1996 with a shift in composition toward essential goods. Households saved less and spent less on healthcare. Expatriates living abroad increased remittances to Mexico, evidenced by average net unilateral transfers doubling between 1994 and 1996.:15–17 Households' lower demand for primary healthcare led to a 7% hike in mortality rates among infants and children in 1996 (from 5% in 1995). Infant mortality increased until 1997, most dramatically in regions where women had to work as a result of economic need.:21–22 - Eun, Cheol S.; Resnick, Bruce G. (2011). International Financial Management, 6th Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. ISBN 978-0-07-803465-7. - Hufbauer, Gary C.; Schott, Jeffrey J. (2005). NAFTA Revisited: Achievements and Challenges. Washington, D.C.: Peterson Institute for International Economics. ISBN 0-88132-334-9. - Carmen M. Reinhart; Kenneth S. Rogoff (2009). This Time is Different: Eight Centuries of Financial Folly. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14216-6. - Mankiw, N. Gregory (2013). Macroeconomics, 8th Edition. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. ISBN 978-1-42-924002-4. - Jeff Madura (2007). International Financial Management (Abridged 8th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson South-Western. ISBN 0-324-36563-2. - Victoria Miller (2000). "Central bank reactions to banking crises in fixed exchange rate regimes". Journal of Development Economics 63 (2): 451–472. doi:10.1016/s0304-3878(00)00110-3. Retrieved 2014-08-31. - "Tequila Effect". Investopedia. Retrieved 2014-07-06. - Lustig, Nora (1995). "The Mexican Peso Crisis: The Foreseeable and the Surprise" (PDF). Brookings Institution: 1–27. Retrieved 2014-07-08. - Joseph A. Whitt, Jr. (1996). "The Mexican Peso Crisis" (PDF). Economic Review (Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta): 1–20. Retrieved 2014-07-08. - Alan Greenspan (2007). The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World. London, UK: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-1-59420-131-8. - Keith Bradsher (March 2, 1995). "House Votes to Request Clinton Data on Mexico". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-07-12. - "The peso crisis, ten years on: Tequila slammer". The Economist. 2004-12-29. Retrieved 2014-07-08. - "The Tequila crisis in 1994". Rabobank. 2013-09-19. Retrieved 2014-07-27. - Pereznieto, Paola (2010). The Case of Mexico's 1995 Peso Crisis and Argentina's 2002 Convertibility Crisis: Including Children in Policy Responses to Previous Economic Crises (PDF) (Report). UNICEF. Retrieved 2014-07-27.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_economic_crisis_in_Mexico
4.0625	Abraham Lincoln and Frederick Douglass: A Compare and Contrast Lesson Plan Use historical texts and biographies to introduce your students to two of the most influential men of the 19th century - Grades: 3–5, 6–8 Abraham Lincoln and Frederick Douglass were born nine years apart — the former on a humble farm, the latter as a slave — and became two of the most influential figures of their time. After he escaped from slavery, Douglass became a celebrated writer, speaker, and leader of the abolitionist movement. Lincoln — who was elected president in 1860, issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, and led the country through the Civil War — referred to Douglass as the most meritorious man of the nineteenth century. In this lesson, students will gain an understanding of each man’s pivotal role in American history. Introduce the class to Lincoln and Douglass by reading aloud from historical texts and biographies in Language Arts or Social Studies instructional time. This lesson plan is suitable for Presidents’ Day, Black History Month, or during a study of abolition or the Civil War. - Students will research the lives of Abraham Lincoln and Frederick Douglass by reading historical texts and biographies. Students will identify and then record key concepts about each man. - Students will develop an understanding of Lincoln and Douglass by comparing and contrasting both their life experiences and their major accomplishments. - A class set of the Lincoln and Douglass: Compare and Contrast Chart (PDF). The chart will also need to be displayed for group work using an interactive whiteboard, projector, or chart paper. - A collection of historical texts and biographies of Lincoln and Douglass. Suggested titles include: Step 1: Read aloud from your selected texts, identifying key concepts. Either post or project photographs of Lincoln and Douglass. Or, provide table baskets to your students, and have them work in partnerships to read about each historical figure. Step 2: Distribute photocopies of the Lincoln and Douglass: Compare and Contrast Chart (PDF). Have students work in partnerships or groups to locate and record the necessary information. Step 3: After the students fill in the chart, gather the class for group work at the interactive whiteboard or chart paper. Review all the elements, assessing the students’ understanding and helping them where necessary. Step 4: As a homework assignment or reader’s notebook extension, have your students write an entry reflecting on the facts they learned in this lesson. What surprised them? What impressed them? It may be helpful to model how to write this type of response. Outline an essay response. Distribute the Lincoln and Douglass Essay Planner (PDF) to help your students create an outline. They should focus on the similarities and differences between Lincoln and Douglass. Students should use the knowledge they have recorded on the Lincoln and Douglass: Compare and Contrast Chart handout. Write the essay response. After filling in the Essay Planner, your students can use it write an essay, paragraph by paragraph.	http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/lesson-plan/abraham-lincoln-and-frederick-douglass-compare-and-contrast-lesson-plan
4.03125	This thing called Australia Can you think of an event in our history that has helped shape our nation? What about an event in your lifetime that has changed Australia? In Making a Nation students investigate the theme of nationhood by handling objects and exploring the Museum's galleries. Students also use an iPad to photograph objects that illustrate an aspect of Australia's development as a nation, that they view as important. \|Year levels\|\|5–12 (6–12 in Qld, WA and SA)\| \|Group size\|\|40 students – two groups can run concurrently \|Cost\|\|$6 per student\| \|Availability\|\|Tuesday–Friday at 10am and 1pm Alternate times may be available for local schools. Please contact [email protected] for further information. \|\|Australian History curriculum links to our programs (225kb PDF) - Give students an opportunity to explore key events and periods that have shaped Australia, through object handling and gallery exploration. - Help students understand time, continuity and change through the construction and examination of timelines, and gallery exploration. - Introductory activity – students explore objects that relate to key events and ideas in Australia's history, and then construct a timeline to discuss change in Australia. - Gallery activity – working in groups, students explore the Museum's galleries and photograph objects that illustrate an aspect of Australia's development as a nation that they view as important. - Reflection – students gather to discuss their selected objects and explain why their stories are important to Australian history. They also discuss how the pictures might be used for further research and reflection on Australian history and our national identity back at school. Exploring the MuseumFor everything you need to know about visiting, see Plan and book a visit. These activity ideas might be useful in your classroom. You may also be interested in these teacher resources: - The 1967 Referendum – a unit of work investigating the significance and impact of the 1967 Referendum - Life at the Time of Federation – using a time capsule this unit of work explores life in Australia in 1901 - Women and Equality as Citizens – a unit of work investigating the significant moments that contributed to women's equality as citizens in Australia - What Impacts has Immigration had on Australia? – a unit of work investigating the stories and impact migrants have had on Australian society over time - Nation: Investigating Images of a Nation – a unit of work exploring the meanings of significant symbols of Australia or this interactive: - Citizens' Arch – explore the symbols and designs on the 1901 Citizen's Arch You can also see the full list of resources related to Australian history.	http://www.nma.gov.au/engage-learn/schools/on-site-programs/creating_a_nation
4.1875	\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \| \|\| \|\| \| Watching the Video Before You Watch Respond to the following questions. - How do you go about selecting pieces of literature, art, dance, music, or theatre as elements of a unit of study? What makes a work a strong candidate? - Would you rather work with a historical play or a historical novel in your curriculum? What are benefits or drawbacks to each? - How might studying a play lend itself to an interdisciplinary unit of study? What purposes might integrating the study of a historical play into your curriculum serve? Watch the Program As you watch, note how the themes in Our Town surface in each discipline. Write down what you find interesting, surprising, or especially important about the teaching, learning, and collaboration you see in this unit. Consider these questions as you watch: - How does each art form deepen students’ understanding of the historical context of the play? - How does the unit help students relate to the time period and setting of the play? In what ways are students making connections between the play and their own lives? - How do the culture and resources of this particular school help support the type of instruction shown? - How did the collaboration between teachers make this unit possible? Reflect on the Program - How did the key teacher connect with so many other arts and non-arts subject areas? Could you accomplish this? Why or why not? - What parts of the teaching stood out for you as especially strong? - Which parts are, for any reasons, not compatible with your own teaching approaches? NEXT: Connecting to Your Teaching \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \| \| \| \| \| © Annenberg Foundation 2016. All rights reserved. Legal Policy	http://www.learner.org/libraries/connectarts68/06_exploring/06program_video.html
4.125	Life on Earth is in the throes of a new wave of mass extinction, unlike anything since the demise of the dinosaurs. In the last 500 years, 844 species – like the passenger pigeon, auk, thylacine, and quagga – are known to have died out, and up to 16,000 others are now known to be threatened. Two thirds of turtles could be gone by the 2025, great apes have recently declined by over 50% in parts of Africa, half of marsupials and one in three amphibians are in jeopardy, and a staggering 40% of Asia’s plants and animals could soon be lost. But this may only be a fraction of the true number facing extinction. Though only 1.5 million species have been described, there could be between 5 to 30 million in total. Of these, some experts predict that one could be falling extinct every 20 minutes – or 27,000 a year. Conservationists argue that humans have an ethical obligation to protect other species, that diversity and natural beauty are highly prized by mankind, and that biodiversity is a vital resource: we rely on ecosystems to provide food, oxygen and natural resources, recycle wastes and fertilise soils for agriculture. The total value of services provided to man by nature has been estimated at $33 trillion annually. Natural disasters and processes were behind the five major mass extinctions in geological history, but the current “sixth extinction” is caused by success of one species – humans. The six billion (and counting) people crowding the Earth, are driving out biodiversity in a variety of ways. Species form and die out naturally as a part of evolution. However, many experts argue the current extinction rate is as much as 100 or 1000 times higher than the “background” rate. Bird extinctions were the first to hint at this, but in 2004, studies of declining butterflies and plants confirmed it. Humans began to destroy ecosystems in a major way about 10,000 years ago with the development of agriculture. But within the last 100,000 years, the hunting and burning practices of Palaeolithic people, along with climate change, drove many large mammals and birds to extinction. North- and South America and Australia lost up to 86% of large mammals soon after humans arrived – species such as giant wombats, killer ducks, ground sloths, mammoths, sabre-tooth cats and moas. The most common reason for extinction is habitat loss. Ecosystems from wetlands to prairies and cloud forests to coral reefs are being cleared or degraded for crops, cattle, roads and development. Even fragmenting habitats with roads or dams can make species more vulnerable. Fragmentation reduces population size and increases inbreeding, increases disease and opens access for poachers. The Amazonian rainforest is today being cleared at rate of 24,000 km2 per year – equivalent to New York City’s Central Park being destroyed every hour. Worldwide, 90,000 km2 of forest is cleared annually. In East Africa deforestation is destroying game parks, Singapore has lost 95% of its tropical forests, South East Asia may lose 74% by 2100. More than quarter of Earth’s land is under cultivation and in 54 countries 90% of forests have been felled. Some endangered species also have to contend with exotic invaders – the second biggest threat to rare species. Introduced species prey on them, eat their food, infect them or otherwise disrupt them. Human seafarers have spread cats, dogs, rats, foxes, rabbits and weasels to new places, contributing to the McDonaldisation of Earth’s biota. In Australia, rabbits and foxes are driving native marsupials to extinction; In New Zealand, weasels have been pushing the flightless Kakapo parrot to its doom; In North America, tiny European zebra mussels arrived in the 1980s with shipping, and clog waterways; In the US, once-ubiquitous chestnuts were decimated by an introduced blight. In Kenya’s Lake Victoria, the Nile perch has miraculously managed to eat its way through 200 cichlid fish species since 1959.And in Maryland, US, the voracious south-east Asian snakehead fish has been chomping its way through native fish and waterfowl since 2002. Often exotic species, such as the cane toad, have even been introduced intentionally, to control other species with disastrous consequences. One unusual way to eradicate invaders could be for people to eat them. Exploitation – hunting, collecting, fishing or trading – is another factor driving extinctions. American bison were hunted down from a population of 30 million before Europeans arrived, to just 750 animals in 1890. Whales were exploited so fiercely that the International Whaling Commission voted in 1986 to place a moratorium on most whaling. Blue whales, for example, were hunted down from a population of perhaps 300,000 to just a few thousand by the 1960s. Today we continue to rape the oceans through overfishing. The UN claims that 15 of the top 17 fisheries are in decline. Exploited species include: the tuna, swordfish, red snapper, Atlantic salmon, Atlantic cod, sharks and lobsters. Now, overfishing of the smaller species that fleets have switched to may inhibit the recovery of the more-prized species that prey on them. Other species are unintentionally killed as bycatch, by drift nets, longlines and deep-sea trawlers. Surveys reveal that 300,000 dolphins and small whales and as many as half of all remaining turtles are snared as bycatch each year. Overfishing could even put a strain on terrestrial wildlife. Another significant challenge to conservation is the international trade in rare species. Second only to the illegal drug trade, it is thought to be worth more than illegal arms, and may net $10 billion a year. Tropical fish, birds (particularly parrots), and other animals are captured and sold as pets. Some – like turtles, whales and sharks – are prized as delicacies. Others – such as tigers, rhinos and saiga – are killed to supply bones, gall bladders, horns and other body parts for traditional medicine. Horns, feathers, eggs and other trophies are smuggled to unscrupulous collectors. Trade in elephant ivory was banned in 1990, but despite the ban 4000 are still killed illegally each year. The UN’s Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was set up in 1975 to stem the flow. Another body, TRAFFIC, monitors trade in rare species. One US forensics lab is dedicated to uncovering the illegal trade. Detection kits for bear tissue and different kinds of fur may help uncover illegal imports. However, some experts argue that we must allow limited trade of species in order to save them. Mercury, dioxins, flame retardants, synthetic hormone, pesticides and other hydrocarbons such as DDT and PCBs are ubiquitous and carried far and wide. Carcinogenic pollutants are behind cancers in Canadian beluga whales. Sewage is ravaging Caribbean corals, while acid rain is killing fish and trees in Europe. Radioactive waste is found throughout oceans and ecosystems. Oil spills continue to kill seabirds, marine and coastal life in regions such as Spain, Pakistan and the Galapagos islands. Between 1993 and 2002, 580,000 tonnes of oil spilt into the sea in 470 separate accidents. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) publishes the Red List – an annual index of threatened species. The IUCN, governments and conservationists try to protect these species by fencing them off and educating local people. In 1872 Yellowstone National Park, in the US, became the world’s first modern reserve. During the last century 44,000 protected areas were designated, covering 10% of Earth’s land. Marine reserves only cover 1% of oceans, and more are needed. The identification of biodiversity hotspots may help focus resources. Ecotourism may also be part of the solution, but could be part of the problem too. Returning the stewardship of forest reserves and other habitats to their indigenous inhabitants could help. In Africa, 2 million km2 is designated as protected: reserves such as Aberdare, Tsavo and the Masai Mara in Kenya; Quiçama in Angola; Kruger in South Africa; Garamba and Virunga in Congo; Queen Elizabeth in Uganda and the Serengeti in Tanzania. In 2002 Brazil created the vast Tumucumaque National Park, the largest tropical forest reserve in the world, the same year that Australia created the world’s largest marine reserve. Reintroducing species such as golden tamarin moneys, wolves and condors, has been a success. Some researchers even advocate reintroducing large animals such as lions and elephants to the US and wolves to the UK. Failing these methods, if we collect genetic material now, we may be able to reincarnate extinct species by cloning them in the future. More on these topics:	https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9961-introduction-endangered-species/
4	When you imagine cold, icy Pluto, orbiting in the distant regions of the Solar System, you imagine snowy white ball. You can also look through these books from Amazon.com if you want more information about Pluto. But images of Pluto, captured by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown that Pluto’s surface isn’t just pure ice. Instead, it has a dirty yellow color, with darker and brighter regions across its surface. Hubble studied the entire surface of Pluto as it rotated through a 6.4 day period. The images revealed almost a dozen distinctive features never before seen by astronomers. This included a “ragged” northern polar cap cut in half by a dark strip, a bright spot seen to rotate around the dwarf planet, and a cluster of dark spots. The images also confirmed the presence of icy-bright polar cap features. Some of the variations seen on Pluto’s surface could be topographic features, like basins and fresh impact craters. But most of them are probably caused by the complex distribution of frosts that move across Pluto’s surface during its orbital and seasonal cycles. The surface area of Pluto is 1.795 x 107 square kilometers; about 0.033% the surface area of Earth. When Pluto is furthest away from the Sun, gases like nitrogen, carbon monoxide and methane partially freeze onto its surface. All will be revealed when NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft finally arrives at Pluto in 2015, finally capturing close-up pictures of Pluto and its moon Charon.	http://www.universetoday.com/13901/surface-of-pluto/
4.125	•Heat flows from warmer objects to cooler objects. Whena warmer object is in contact with a cooler object, it willtransfer heat to the cooler object.•This will go on until both objects have the sametemperature. At this point, they are in the state ofthermal equilibrium.•For example, a bottle of soda is taken out fromrefrigerator and placed on a table. The table which is atroom temperature, will transfer heat to the bottle.Eventually, their temperature will be equal and thermalequilibrium will be achieved. •Most matter expands when heated and contractswhen cooled.•Two common examples of the effects of heat area boiled egg and a thick glass cracking when hotwater is poured onto them.•The increase in size of objects when they are hotis called expansion. The decrease in their sizewhen they are cooled is called contraction. •The atoms or molecules in a solid vibrate at alltemperatures.•As the temperature increases, they vibrate morevigorously and this pushes the atoms furtherapart. The volume of the solid increases and theexpansion is said to occur. cold hot Arrangement of particles in a solid•When the solid is cooled, the atoms vibrate moreslowly and they become closer together. The volumeof the solid decreases and contraction occurs. •When a liquid is heated, the molecules of the liquidhave more energy and move more vigorously. Themovement of the molecules gradually overcomes theforces of attraction between molecules, allowing themto have greater freedom to move over greatervolumes. Thus, the liquid expands. cold hot Arrangement of particles in a liquid •At a lower temperature, the molecules of theliquid have less energy and move closer to eachother. This causes the volume of the liquid todecreases and the liquid contrasts. •The molecules of a gas are far part compared with themolecules in a solid and a liquid. The gas moleculesmove at a high speeds in all direction.•If a gas is confined in a container whose volume isvariable, the volume of the gas will increase withincreasing temperature. The volume will decrease asthe temperature drops. cold hot Arrangement of particles in gas•When the gas is heated, the molecules become moreenergetic, move faster and are further apart. Thiscauses the volume of the gas to increase and expansionis said to occur. At a lower temperature, the moleculesmove very much slower due to less energy. They arecloser together, causing the volume to decrease andcontraction occurs. •The effect of expansion and contraction of matter canbe very troublesome. Precautions have to be takenagainst these effects. We can also apply the principleof expansion and contraction of matter in makinginstruments that are useful in our daily life.•The following are some examples to show the use ofexpansion and contraction of matter. a. Mercury in a thermometer- Mercury is a liquid metal that can expand and contract when there is a change in temperature.- This make it suitable for temperature measurement and it is used in a thermometer. Mercury in a laboratory thermometer b. Bimetallic strip in a fire alarm-An automatic fire alarm uses a bimetallic strip toswitch on the electric bell when there is a fire.-The heat from the fire causes the bimetallic strip tobent towards the contact point.-When the bending strip touches the contact point tocomplete the circuit, the fire alarm rings. c. Bimetallic strip as a thermostat-The bimetallic strip is also used as thermostat in anelectric iron for controlling and maintainingtemperature.-As temperature rises, the bimetallic strip bends awayfrom the contact point and cuts off the current.-When the bimetallic strip cools down, contact is madeagain and current flows once more to heat up the iron. d. Bimetallic thermometer-A bimetallic strip wound in a spiral can be used tomake a thermometer.-In the figure below, the metals used are brass andinvar, with brass on the outside. As the temperaturedecreases, the spiral is wound tighter and the pointerwill move to the left. •When laying railways tracks, gaps have to be leftbetween successive lengths of rail to allow for expansionon the hot days. Without the gaps, the tracks bucklesand this affects the safety of the trains. A gap in railway tracks •When concrete roads are laid down, gaps (normallyfilled with bitumen) are left between sections in order toallow for expansion on hot days. Gaps between concrete sections •Structures like steel bridges and overhead bridges andbuilt with gaps to allow for expansion . Sometimes,one end is supported by rollers which allow the bridgesto expand easily when heated. •Rollers of steel bridge •Electric transmission cable and cable cars’ cable sagon hot day and tighten during a cold night. Therefore,allowances have to be made for the expansion andcontraction of the cables. •Overhead cable sag in hot weather and tighten during a cold night Rivetsa.Rivets are steel pins used to join pieces of metalslightly together.b.They are heated before being inserted through twopieces of metal.c.While the rivet is still hot, the end is hammered flat.d.When the rivet cools, it contracts, pulling the twopieces of metal tightly together. A very tight bottle cap can removed easily by immersingit in hot water. The cap expand much faster than thebottle and so, the cap can be removed easily when itexpands.The hub of a wheel us usually slightly smaller than thesize of its axle. To fix the axle into the hub of the wheel,the axle has to be put in liquid nitrogen (at -190 C) tocool it so that it contracts until it can be fitted into thehub. •Metallic tiresThe metallic wheels of a train are fitted with metaltires. To ensure a tight fit, the tire is slightly smaller indiameter than the wheel. Before fitting, the tire isheated uniformly and the resulting expansion enablesthe tire to be slipped over the wheel. Upon cooling,the steel tire contracts and make a tight fit. •All objects can absorb and give out (radiate) heat. Butsome objects absorb or give out heat better thanothers.•The ability of an object to absorb and give out heatdepends on the type and color of its surface (dull orshiny and light colored or dark- colored)•The rate of which heat is absorbed and given out alsodepends on the surrounding temperature of anobject. •Most of the buildings and houses are painted with whiteor brightly colored paint so that less heat is absorbed andthe interior can be kept cool. White and bright surfacesare good reflectors of heat and poor absorbers of heat.•The oil tank of an oil tanker is painted silver so that itbecomes good reflectors of heat. This is safer as less heatwill be absorbed by the petrol inside the tank. Oil storagetanks are also painted with shiny aluminium paint toreflect the radiated heat away so as to keep the contents(oil cool). •The base of the heating utensil or a pot is usually dulland black. This makes it good absorber of heat. Kitchen utensils A particular slide catching your eye? Clipping is a handy way to collect important slides you want to go back to later.	http://www.slideshare.net/MaiMorales/lesson-6-effects-of-heat-on-matter
4.15625	Common bacteria or viruses that can cause meningitis can spread through coughing, sneezing, kissing, or sharing eating utensils, a toothbrush or a cigarette. These steps can help prevent meningitis: - Wash your hands. Careful hand-washing helps prevent germs. Teach children to wash their hands often, especially before eating and after using the toilet, spending time in a crowded public place or petting animals. Show them how to vigorously and thoroughly wash and rinse their hands. - Practice good hygiene. Don't share drinks, foods, straws, eating utensils, lip balms or toothbrushes with anyone else. Teach children and teens to avoid sharing these items too. - Stay healthy. Maintain your immune system by getting enough rest, exercising regularly, and eating a healthy diet with plenty of fresh fruits, vegetables and whole grains. - Cover your mouth. When you need to cough or sneeze, be sure to cover your mouth and nose. - If you're pregnant, take care with food. Reduce your risk of listeriosis by cooking meat, including hot dogs and deli meat, to 165 F (74 C). Avoid cheeses made from unpasteurized milk. Choose cheeses that are clearly labeled as being made with pasteurized milk. Some forms of bacterial meningitis are preventable with the following vaccinations: - Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine. Children in the United States routinely receive this vaccine as part of the recommended schedule of vaccines, starting at about 2 months of age. The vaccine is also recommended for some adults, including those who have sickle cell disease or AIDS and those who don't have a spleen. - Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13). This vaccine also is part of the regular immunization schedule for children younger than 2 years in the United States. Additional doses are recommended for children between the ages of 2 and 5 who are at high risk of pneumococcal disease, including children who have chronic heart or lung disease or cancer. - Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23). Older children and adults who need protection from pneumococcal bacteria may receive this vaccine. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends the PPSV vaccine for all adults older than 65, for younger adults and children age 2 and up who have weak immune systems or chronic illnesses such as heart disease, diabetes or sickle cell anemia, and for those who don't have a spleen. Meningococcal conjugate vaccine. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that a single dose be given to children ages 11 to 12, with a booster shot given at age 16. If the vaccine is first given between ages 13 and 15, the booster shot is recommended between ages 16 and 18. If the first shot is given at age 16 or older, no booster is necessary. This vaccine can also be given to younger children who are at high risk of bacterial meningitis or who have been exposed to someone with the disease. It's approved for use in children as young as 9 months old. It's also used to vaccinate healthy but previously unvaccinated people who have been exposed in outbreaks. Jan. 12, 2016 - Meningitis and encephalitis fact sheet. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/encephalitis_meningitis/detail_encephalitis_meningitis.htm. Accessed Nov. 19, 2015. - Bacterial meningitis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/meningitis/bacterial.html. Accessed Nov. 19, 2015. - Bartt R. Acute bacterial and viral meningitis. Continuum Lifelong Learning in Neurology. 2012;18:1255. - Viral meningitis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/meningitis/viral.html. Accessed Nov. 19, 2015. - Fungal meningitis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/meningitis/fungal.html. Accessed Nov. 19, 2015. - Derber CJ, et al. Head and neck emergencies. Medical Clinics of North America. 2012;96:1107. - Longo DL, et al., eds. Meningitis, encephalitis, brain abscess, and empyema. In: Harrison's Principals of Internal Medicine. 19th ed. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill Education; 2015. http://www.accessmedicine.com. Accessed Nov. 19, 2015. - Acute bacterial meningitis. Merck Manual Professional Version. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic_disorders/meningitis/acute_bacterial_meningitis.html. Accessed Nov. 19, 2015. - Prevention — Listeriosis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/listeria/prevention.html. Accessed Nov. 19, 2015. - Subacute and chronic meningitis. Merck Manual Professional Version. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic_disorders/meningitis/subacute_and_chronic_meningitis.html. Accessed Nov. 19, 2015. - Van de Beek D, et al. Advances in treatment of bacterial meningitis. The Lancet. 2012;380:1693. - Recommended immunization schedules for persons aged 0 through 18 years — United States, 2012. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/downloads/child/0-18yrs-11x17-fold-pr.pdf. Accessed Nov. 19, 2015. - Recommended adult immunization schedule — United States, 2012. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/downloads/adult/adult-schedule.pdf. Accessed Nov. 19, 2015. - Meningococcal vaccine: Who and when to vaccinate. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd-vac/mening/who-vaccinate-hcp.htm. Accessed Nov. 19, 2015. - Sexton D. Approach to the patient with chronic meningitis. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Nov. 20, 2015. - Johnson R. Aseptic meningitis in adults. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Nov. 20, 2015. - Di Pentima C. Viral meningitis: Management, prognosis, and prevention in children. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Nov. 20, 2015. - Rabinstein AA (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. Dec. 1, 2015.	http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/meningitis/manage/ptc-20169618
4.125	The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs that are located in the back of the abdomen, and that have many important functions essential for life. Among the most important are filtrating the blood, removing waste products from the blood and ensuring that the electrolytes within the blood are correctly balanced. The excess waste becomes urine. In addition, the kidneys produce erythropoietin, a hormone responsible for the production of oxygen carrying red blood cells, and a hormone called rennin, which helps control blood pressure. Each of the kidneys can be divided into two main functional parts - the cortex and renal pelvis. The outer region of the kidney is called the cortex. The cortex consists of a series of tubes (called collecting tubules) and is responsible for the filtration of blood. The inner region of the kidney is called the renal pelvis. The renal pelvis contains medullary pyramids that collect the filtrate (urine) from collecting tubules in the cortex and send it through the ureters to the urinary bladder. Different types of cancers develop from the two different regions of the kidneys. The kidneys are located in the back of the abdomen, directly in front of where the lowest ribs can be felt on a person's back. A physician can feel them in the abdomen at times, though often only if the kidney is enlarged or has a mass on it. The definition of a tumor is a mass of abnormally growing cells. Tumors can be either benign or malignant. Benign tumors have uncontrolled cell growth, but without any invasion into normal tissues and without any ability to spread to distant parts of the body. A tumor is called malignant, or cancer, if tumor cells are able to invade tissues and spread locally, as well as to distant parts of the body. Therefore, kidney cancer occurs when cells in either the cortex of the kidney, or cells in the renal pelvis, grow uncontrollably and form tumors that can invade normal tissues and spread to other parts of the body. Renal cell carcinoma is the most common type of kidney cancer and accounts for about 9 out of 10 cases of kidney cancer. In renal cell cancer, malignant tumors can be growing in either one or both kidneys and there may be multiple tumors. There are several types of renal cell cancer. The type is determined by the appearance of the cancer cell under a microscope. Types of renal cell cancer include: Transitional cell carcinomas, also known as urothelial carcinomas, account for about 5 to 10 out of every 100 diagnoses of kidney cancer. Transitional cell carcinoma is cancer in the lining of the renal pelvis where urine is stored before it enters the ureter to then travel to the bladder. This type of kidney cancer looks similar to bladder cancer cells when viewed under a microscope. Wilms Tumor is a tumor commonly found in children and that is very rare in adults. It can affect either one or both kidneys and prior to being diagnosed the tumors are usually quite large. Renal Sarcoma is a rare type of kidney cancer that begins in the blood vessels or connective tissue of the kidney and accounts for less than 1% of kidney cancers. Benign kidney tumors are non-cancerous, but can grow very large and have an effect on the body. These include renal adenoma, oncocytoma and angiomyolipoma. They are treated using surgery, radiofrequency ablation and/or arterial embolization. The American Cancer Society estimates that in 2015 about 61,560 new cases of kidney cancer, inclusive of all types, will be diagnosed. It is estimated that there will be 14,080 deaths from kidney cancer in 2015. The average age of a person when diagnosed is 64 and kidney cancer is uncommon in people younger than 45. Kidney cancer is more common in men than women. African Americans and American Indians/Alaska Natives have slightly higher rates of renal cell carcinomas than do Caucasians. As cigarette smoking doubles the risk of kidney cancer, the best way to decrease your risk of developing kidney cancer is to quit smoking or never start. Maintain a healthy weight. Avoid toxins known to lead to cancer. The only other substantial risk factors for the development of kidney cancer are related to family history. The risk factor of having someone in the family with a history of kidney cancer, or rare genetic syndromes such as von Hippel Lindau and polycystic disease cannot be prevented. If you have this history, be sure your healthcare providers are aware. There are no screening tests for kidney cancer that are akin to mammography for breast cancer or colonoscopy for colorectal cancer. However, the use of CT scans and ultrasounds have enhanced the early detection of kidney cancer once signs or symptoms have developed (see below). Intravenous pyelograms (IVP) are used to assess kidney function. IVPs are done by injecting dye into a patient's arm and then taking x-rays of the abdomen to see that dye subsequently excreted by the kidneys as urine. Cytology is simply looking at urine under a microscope and looking for cancerous cells within the urine. Because they may cause early symptoms that lead to testing, kidney cancers that develop in the area of the collecting system may be detected earlier than those in other regions. With the advent of CT scans and ultrasounds, 25-40% of kidney cancers are now detected incidentally during the work up of a different problem. These tumors are more likely to be smaller (hence causing no symptoms), and hence more likely to result in a cure. Kidney cancer presents as signs and symptoms of either the local tumor in the kidney or as signs and symptoms resulting from spread of disease to other locations in the body (metastatic disease). Symptoms resulting from local tumor growth include hematuria (blood in the urine), abdominal pain, and a flank mass. Hematuria, abdominal pain and a flank mass are the classic “triad” of symptoms of kidney cancer, though most patients will not have all three. Hematuria is the most common symptom and presents as either gross hematuria, where the blood is visible in the urine, or as microscopic hematuria, where the blood is only detected by laboratory testing. Therefore, any presence of blood in the urine that is detected in a urine sample should be investigated. Symptoms caused by metastatic disease include fever, weight loss, and night sweats (drenching sweats that require changing of clothes or bedsheets). Other symptoms include hypertension, increased calcium in the blood, and liver problems. These more unique symptoms are thought to be caused by chemical signals released by the tumor cells into the bloodstream and the body's reaction to them. Work up of a kidney cancer usually starts after the patient develops symptoms, with the exception of those cancers that are found incidentally. Tests done prior to treatment of kidney cancer are used to determine the extent of disease that is present so that treatment can be prescribed accordingly. This includes documenting the extent of disease both locally, in the tissues and lymph nodes surrounding the kidney, as well as ensuring there is no spread distantly, outside the area of the kidney (called metastases). The most sensitive test to document local disease is the CT scan. MRI scans may be used to ensure the tumor has not involved any of the large blood vessels that are in the vicinity of the kidney. Other tests, including basic laboratory blood tests and analysis of the urine may be used to evaluate general health and the extent of the cancer. In addition, chest x-ray and bone scan may be done, to ensure that metastatic spread to the lungs and bones, respectively, has not occurred. All of these tests are helpful, however, to confirm a diagnosis of any cancer, tissue or cells must be examined by a pathologist. Therefore, to obtain a diagnosis of kidney cancer, a biopsy is often done by inserting a needle into the presumed tumor mass. There are also times that the CT scan and/or MRI is so convincing that the mass is a tumor, that the initial biopsy is done during a surgical procedure, which is done to ultimately remove the kidney as treatment for the kidney cancer. The most appropriate surgical approach must be determined on an individual basis. The results of these tests are put together to determine the stage of the cancer. The staging of a cancer documents the extent of disease and is often extremely important in terms of what treatment is offered to each individual patient. Before the staging systems are introduced, we will first describe some of the ways that cancers may grow and spread. Cancers cause problems because they spread and can disrupt the functioning of normal organs. One way kidney cancer can spread is by local extension to invade through the normal structures. This initially includes the kidney, hence causing hematuria, a mass, and abdominal pain. If more growth occurs, cancer can grow to involve the main vein that leaves the kidney (the renal vein), the large vein that returns blood from the bottom half of the body to the heart (the inferior vena cava), or into other organs-most commonly the adrenal glands which sit atop the kidneys. Kidney cancer can also spread by accessing the lymphatic system. The lymphatic circulation is a complete circulation system in the body (somewhat like the blood circulatory system) that drains into various lymph nodes. When cancer cells access this lymphatic circulation, they can travel to lymph nodes and start new sites of cancer. This is called lymphatic spread. Kidney cancer can spread, at times, into the lymph nodes surrounding the kidney, called the perirenal lymph nodes. Kidney cancers can also spread through the bloodstream. Cancer cells gain access to distant organs via the bloodstream and cause distant metastases. Cancers of the kidney generally spread locally into the fat surrounding the kidney, the adrenal glands, or the veins prior to spreading via the lymphatic system or the bloodstream. However, tumors, especially larger tumors, can access the bloodstream and spread to the lungs and bones, most commonly. Kidney tumors have also been known to spread to the testis and ovaries through the testicular or ovarian veins that are in close proximity to the kidney. The staging system used today in kidney cancer is designed to describe the extent of disease within the area of the kidney, in the surrounding lymph nodes, and distantly. This staging system is the "TNM system", as described by the American Joint Committee on Cancer. The TNM systems are used to describe many types of cancers. They have three components: T-describing the size of the "primary" tumor (the tumor in the kidney itself); N-describing the spread to the lymph nodes; M-describing the spread to other organs (metastases). The numbers 0-4 indicate increasing severity. The "T" stage is as follows: TX: The primary tumor cannot be assessed. T0: No evidence of a primary tumor. T1: The tumor is only in the kidney and is no larger than 7 centimeters. T1a: The tumor is 4 cm across or smaller and is only in the kidney. T1b: The tumor is larger than 4 cm but not larger than 7 cm across and is only in the kidney. T2: The tumor is larger than 7 cm across but is still only in the kidney. T2a: The tumor is more than 7 cm but not more than 10 cm across and is only in the kidney. T2b: The tumor is more than 10 cm across and is only in the kidney. T3: The tumor is growing into a major vein or into tissue around the kidney, but it is not growing into the adrenal gland (on top of the kidney) or beyond Gerota’s fascia (the fibrous layer that surrounds the kidney and nearby fatty tissue). T3a: The tumor is growing into the main vein leading out of the kidney (renal vein) or into fatty tissue around the kidney. T3b: The tumor is growing into the part of the large vein leading into the heart (vena cava) that is within the abdomen. T3c: The tumor has grown into the part of the vena cava that is within the chest or it is growing into the wall of the vena cava. T4: The tumor has spread beyond Gerota’s fascia and may have grown into the adrenal gland (on top of the kidney). The "N" stage is as follows: NX-Regional lymph nosed cannot be assessed. N0-no spread to lymph nodes. N1-tumor spread to a single or multiple lymph nodes. The "M" stage is as follows: M0-no tumor spread to other organs. M1-tumor spread to other organs. The overall stage is based on a combination of these T, N, and M parameters: Though complicated, these staging systems help oncology providers determine the extent of the cancer, and therefore make treatment decisions regarding a patient's cancer. Once your cancer is staged your care team will determine the best options for treatment. Your care team will be multidisciplinary; including providers from various specialties, such as a primary oncologist, urologist, radiation oncologist, pathologist, nutritionist, social worker and nurses. Your care team will take into consideration the stage of your disease, your overall health, possible side effects of treatment, probability of curing the disease and relief of symptoms when creating your care plan. Treatment options for kidney cancer include: surgery, radiation and chemotherapy. Less frequently used treatments include: ablation, active surveillance (monitoring the disease without active treatment), biologic therapy and targeted therapy. More than one treatment may be prescribed. Surgery is the primary choice of treatment for kidney cancer. There are two types of surgical approaches associated with treatment of kidney cancer. A radical nephrectomy is the removal of the entire kidney, the adrenal gland that sits a top the kidney and the fatty tissue around the kidney. The removal of the kidney may be done through a large incision on the abdomen or back or may be done through a laparoscopic technique in which several small incisions are made rather than one large incision. A second surgical treatment option is a nephron-sparing nephrectomy, also known as a partial nephrectomy. Only the part of the kidney affected by cancer is removed. It is the preferred treatment for early stage kidney cancer and is often used to remove T1a tumors and some T1b and T2a tumors. The benefit of a partial nephrectomy is to maintain as much kidney function as possible. A partial nephrectomy can be done through an open incision or through a laparoscopic procedure, the same as a radical nephrectomy. Each has benefits and risks associated, but the goal of these surgeries is good long-term renal function and cancer-free survival. During both a radical and partial nephrectomy the surgeon may choose to perform a regional lymphadenectomy. In this procedure lymph nodes in the same region of the kidney are removed and checked for cancer cells. An adrenalectomy, removal of the adrenal gland, is always done in a radical nephrectomy but is performed during a partial nephrectomy at the surgeon’s discretion. With any surgery, there are risks and side effects to take into consideration prior to making surgery part of the treatment plan. Possible side effects include: uncontrollable bleeding, blood clots, infections, pain, damage to surrounding organs, hernia, kidney failure, leakage of urine from the kidney, pneumothorax (unwanted air in the chest cavity, and reaction to anesthesia. Radiation is the use of high-energy x-rays to kill the tumor. This treatment is very complex and should be performed by a radiation team trained in this specialty. Radiation can be given by two different ways: external beam (from a machine outside the body) or brachytherapy (also called internal radiation, from an internally implanted radioactive source). Kidney cancer is not very sensitive to radiation but can be the treatment of choice for a patient who is not healthy enough to withstand surgery. Radiation can also be used to ease symptoms and side effects of kidney cancer including pain and bleeding. Side effects of radiation include skin changes at the site where the radiation is given, nausea, diarrhea and fatigue. Chemotherapies are medications, given either orally or intravenously, that are used to kill tumor cells. Kidney cancer cells are often resistant to standard chemotherapy, so it is not considered a standard treatment for kidney cancer. If your care team decides that chemotherapy will be part of your treatment plan, you may be participating in a clinical trial. Immunotherapy is the use of medications to enable the body’s immune system to fight and destroy cancer cells. The two immunotherapy medications primarily used to treat kidney cancer are interleukin-2 and interferon-alfa. Potential side effects of interleukin-2 include fatigue, hypotension (low blood pressure), difficulty breathing, heart attack, internal bleeding, fever and chills. Interferon is often used in conjunction with the targeted therapy agent bevacizumab (Avastin) and can cause fever, chills, muscle aches, fatigue and nausea. Targeted therapies are medications used to treat cancer that “target” a protein or receptor found on the cancer cell and interfere with the cell’s activity or growth. They may cause fewer, yet different, side effects than traditional chemotherapy. These therapies are typically used for metastatic disease, with the goal of shrinking the tumor, slowing the growth of the cancer, and giving patients periods of “stable” disease. Each targeted therapy “targets” a different receptor or cellular function (you can learn more about each therapy at the following links). Some of these medications include: sorafenib, sunitinib, temsirolimus, everolimus, bevacizumab, pazopanib and axitinib. The goal of your treatment plan will be to cure your kidney cancer or to slow the cancers growth while maintaining quality of life. Your oncology team will determine the best treatment plan based on the extent of the cancer, your health and available therapies. Your follow-up care will be determined by your care team and will vary depending upon the type of treatment you received for your kidney cancer. If surgery was part of your treatment it is recommended that you have doctor visits, including a physical exam and blood work, every six months for the first two years and then yearly. A CT scan may be ordered three to six months after surgery to monitor for a recurrence of the cancer. Your care provider will determine a post treatment course that will vary if your cancer has been treated with a technique other than surgery. It is important to attend all of your appointments and to keep a list of any new side effects or symptoms you are experiencing. After treatment, talk with your oncology team about receiving a survivorship care plan, which can help you manage the transition to survivorship and learn about long-term concerns and life after cancer. You can create your own survivorship care plan on OncoLink. Niederhuber, J. E., Armitage, J. O., Doroshow, J. H., Kastan, M. B., Tepper, J. E., & Abeloff, M. D. (2014). Abeloff's clinical oncology, 5th edition (2186 p.). American Urological Association. Follow-up Care for Renal Cancer. The American Cancer Society. www.cancer.org National Comprehensive Cancer Network. www.nccn.org OncoLink is designed for educational purposes only and is not engaged in rendering medical advice or professional services. The information provided through OncoLink should not be used for diagnosing or treating a health problem or a disease. It is not a substitute for professional care. If you have or suspect you may have a health problem or have questions or concerns about the medication that you have been prescribed, you should consult your health care provider. Information Provided By: www.oncolink.org \| © 2016 Trustees of The University of Pennsylvania	https://www.oncolink.org/includes/print_article.cfm?Page=2&id=9487&Section=Cancer_Types
4.3125	ALTERNATING CURRENT [ A.C ] Refers to the flow of electric charge that reverses periodically( opposite to direct current ) . It starts from zero, grows to a maximum, decreases to zero, reverses, reaches a maximum in the opposite direction, returns again to zero, and repeats the cycle indefinitely. Here , period is the time taken to complete one cycle and Frequency is the number of cycles per second .The maximum value in either direction is the current’s amplitude. While low frequencies (50 – 60 cycles per second) are used for domestic and commercial power, frequencies of around 100 million cycles per second (100 megahertz) are used in television and of several thousand megahertz in radar and microwave communication. An important advantage of alternating current is that the voltage can be increased and decreased by a transformer for more efficient transmission over long distances. A current or voltage is called alternating if – - its amplitude is constant and - its half cycle alternates between positive and negative In case the current or voltage changes periodically as the sin or cos function of time , its said to be sinusoidal. The functions are – v = V sin ω t or v = V cos ω t . Here , v – instantaneous potential difference , V – maximum potential difference [voltage amplitude ] and ω is the angular frequency [ = 2π x frequency ]. Also, i = I cos ω t or i = I sin ω t , where i – instantaneous current and I – maximum current [ current amplitude ] . Points to note – - A rectifier is used to convert AC into a DC . For the reverse process , [ DC to AC ] an inverter is used. - AC current is not useful for chemical processes like electroplating and electrolysis as large ions cannot follow the frequency of AC current. PHASOR DIAGRAMS – Rotating vector diagrams used to represent sinusoidally varying voltages / currents are referred to as phasor diagrams . Here , the instantaneous value of a quantity that varies sinusoidally with time is represented by projecting onto a horizontal axis of a vector with a length equal to the amplitude of the quantity and its angle with the x-axis at any instant representing the phase . The term ‘ phasor ‘ refers to the vector which rotates counter-clockwise with a constant angular speed ω. As the projection of the phasor into the horizontal axis at time is I cos ω t , it’s the cosine function which is used. The ‘vector’ term related to phasor , is not a real vector like velocity or momentum. It’s basically a geometric method to evaluate physical quantities that changes sinusoidally with time. In the case of a simple harmonic motion , we deal with a single phasor. In this sense , sinusoidal quantities can be combined with phase differences by means of vector addition . Average / Mean of A.C – For an alternating current / voltage , if the average or mean value is taken for a full cycle , it would be zero as ∫γ0 sin ωt dt or ∫γ0 cos ωt dt is zero. Hence the values are taken for a half cycle , which is either negative or positive. Iav = ∫γ/20 I dt / ∫γ/20 dt = ∫π/ω0 I0 sin ωt dt / ∫π/ω0 dt = Iav = 2 I0/ π ROOT MEAN SQUARE ( RMS ) values of AC Current – A quantity having either positive or negative values is better expressed by its rms values . This is because , even if i is negative , i² would be positive and hence Irms will never be zero . Here , the average or mean value of i is taken after squaring it , and thereafter the square root of that average is taken . Now , i or instantaneous current = I cos ωt . Therefore , – i² = I² cos² ωt = I² ½ ( 1 + cos 2 ωt ) [ as cos² A = ½ ( 1 + cos 2A) ] = i² = ½ I² + ½ I² cos 2 ωt . As cos 2 ωt represents the positive half and the negative half of the time , its average is zero . Hence the average of i² is I² /2 . Therefore , Irms = √ I² /2 = I / √2 the same can be applied for a sinusoidal voltage , i.e , Vrms = V /√2 . AC Circuit Constituents – - Resistance – Consider a sinusoidal current i = I cos ωt passing through a resistor with a resistance R . The current amplitude or the maximum current will be I , and the positive direction of the current will be counter-clockwise around the circuit . Now , the instantaneous voltage across the resistor , from Ohm’s law will be VR = iR = (IR) cos ωt . Now , the voltage amplitude or the maximum voltage will be the coefficient of the cosine function,i.e, VR = IR . This means the equation can also be written as VR = VR cos ωt . It indicates that the current is in phase with the voltage as both the current i and the voltage VR are proportional to cos ωt . On the left is the phasor diagram for a resistor in an ac circuit . Note that as the i and VR are in phase and hsve the same frequency , their ( current and voltage ) phasors rotate together. In addition , they are parallel at each instant . - Inductance – Consider an AC ciruit having an inductor of self inductance L and no resistance through which a current i = I cos ωt flows. Here again , the positive direction of the current is counter-clockwise around the circuit. Eventhough there is no resistance , a potential difference ( VL ) exists between the inductor terminals a and b as the current changes with time . The electro-motive force , ε = – L di/dt is not equal to VL. as the inductor current ( in the counter-clockwise direction , i.e from a to b ) is increasing , and hence the di/dt is positive and the induced emf acts in the left to oppose the increase of current . The net result is that the point a is at a higher potential than point b . Hence the potential at a is VL = L di/dt . VL = L di/dt = L d( I cos ωt ) /dt = Hence , VL = – I ωL sin ωt	http://www.physicsmynd.com/?page_id=1588
4.03125	Click HERE for the Write, Read, Sing, Play Project Sheet! Song Choices for Write, Read, Sing, Play MUST come from our Music textbooks. No exceptions. Please be aware that this document link has 60+ pages--be careful to only print the page you want! If the song your child chose is not present, please email me at [email protected] Below is a helper video. You should be able to find everything you need on this post! Deadlines & Things to Note: - Students may perform their project and turn in this Reflection & labeled song sheet any time between now and your Music class day during the week of March 1. DO NOT WAIT UNTIL THE DEADLINE to complete your performance parts! Start getting ready now! - If students wish to do their performance during class or during recess they must sign up at least 2 school days in advance—there will be limited class time available. Sign-up sheets will be on the tables outside of the Music room. - Students may submit their work via video, but a live performance is better so I can give immediate feedback and allow kids to keep polishing their work. I go by "Angry Bird Grading" for this project, so kids can keep trying until they receive 3 stars for each component. - Don’t forget to turn in the Reflection and your labeled song sheet! "I'm sending a video. What should I include?" A. M. included singing on the words, the solfege (with hand signals) and guitar. Below are some Music reading helpers: C Major Solfege and finger numbers (up to 5) F Major Solfege and finger numbers (up to 5) G Major Solfege and finger numbers 1 2 3 4 5 Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti D Major Scale G Major scale F Major scale all of the keyboard notes on the staff Music Georgia Performance Standards Covered in this project: - M_GM.1 a. Sing melodies expressively using appropriate head voice accompanied and unaccompanied. - M_GM.1 c. The student will sing from memory multiple songs representing various genres, tonalities, meters, and cultures including at least one song in a foreign language. - M_GM.2 a. Perform melodic patterns on an instrument from a major scale with appropriate technique. - M_GM.2 b. Perform instrumental parts while other students sing or play contrasting parts. - M_GM.3 a. Read rhythmic patterns including quarter note, quarter rest, eighth note, half note, dotted half note and whole note using traditional symbols in 2/4, ¾ and 4/4 meter. - M5GM.3 b. Notate rhythmic patterns including the use of quarter notes, quarter rests, eighth notes, half notes, dotted half notes and whole notes in response to teacher performance. - M_GM.3 c. Read melodies within a treble clef staff. - M5GM.3 d. Notate simple melodies within a treble clef staff.	http://springdaleparkmusic.blogspot.com/
4.15625	Sol. ex J.Ellis 1768 The Venus flytrap (also referred to as Venus's flytrap or Venus' flytrap), Dionaea muscipula, is a carnivorous plant native to subtropical wetlands on the East Coast of the United States in North Carolina and South Carolina. It catches its prey—chiefly insects and arachnids—with a trapping structure formed by the terminal portion of each of the plant's leaves, which is triggered by tiny hairs on their inner surfaces. When an insect or spider crawling along the leaves contacts a hair, the trap closes if a different hair is contacted within twenty seconds of the first strike. The requirement of redundant triggering in this mechanism serves as a safeguard against wasting energy by trapping objects with no nutritional value. The Venus flytrap is a small plant whose structure can be described as a rosette of four to seven leaves, which arise from a short subterranean stem that is actually a bulb-like object. Each stem reaches a maximum size of about three to ten centimeters, depending on the time of year; longer leaves with robust traps are usually formed after flowering. Flytraps that have more than 7 leaves are colonies formed by rosettes that have divided beneath the ground. The leaf blade is divided into two regions: a flat, heart-shaped photosynthesis-capable petiole, and a pair of terminal lobes hinged at the midrib, forming the trap which is the true leaf. The upper surface of these lobes contains red anthocyanin pigments and its edges secrete mucilage. The lobes exhibit rapid plant movements, snapping shut when stimulated by prey. The trapping mechanism is tripped when prey contacts one of the three hair-like trichomes that are found on the upper surface of each of the lobes. The mechanism is so highly specialized that it can distinguish between living prey and non-prey stimuli, such as falling raindrops; two trigger hairs must be touched in succession within 20 seconds of each other or one hair touched twice in rapid succession, whereupon the lobes of the trap will snap shut, typically in about one-tenth of a second. The edges of the lobes are fringed by stiff hair-like protrusions or cilia, which mesh together and prevent large prey from escaping. These protrusions, and the trigger hairs (also known as sensitive hairs) are likely homologous with the tentacles found in this plant’s close relatives, the sundews. Scientists have concluded that the snap trap evolved from a fly-paper trap similar to that of Drosera. The holes in the meshwork allow small prey to escape, presumably because the benefit that would be obtained from them would be less than the cost of digesting them. If the prey is too small and escapes, the trap will usually reopen within 12 hours. If the prey moves around in the trap, it tightens and digestion begins more quickly. Speed of closing can vary depending on the amount of humidity, light, size of prey, and general growing conditions. The speed with which traps close can be used as an indicator of a plant's general health. Venus flytraps are not as humidity-dependent as are some other carnivorous plants, such as Nepenthes, Cephalotus, most Heliamphora, and some Drosera. The Venus flytrap exhibits variations in petiole shape and length and whether the leaf lies flat on the ground or extends up at an angle of about 40–60 degrees. The four major forms are: 'typica', the most common, with broad decumbent petioles; 'erecta', with leaves at a 45-degree angle; 'linearis', with narrow petioles and leaves at 45 degrees; and 'filiformis', with extremely narrow or linear petioles. Except for 'filiformis', all of these can be stages in leaf production of any plant depending on season (decumbent in summer versus short versus semi-erect in spring), length of photoperiod (long petioles in spring versus short in summer), and intensity of light (wide petioles in low light intensity versus narrow in brighter light). When grown from seed, plants take around four to five years to reach maturity and will live for 20 to 30 years if cultivated in the right conditions. The plant's common name refers to Venus, the Roman goddess of love. The genus name, Dionaea ("daughter of Dione"), refers to the Greek goddess Aphrodite, while the species name, muscipula, is Latin for "mousetrap". Most carnivorous plants selectively feed on specific prey. This selection is due to the available prey and the type of trap used by the organism. With the Venus flytrap, prey is limited to beetles, spiders and other crawling arthropods. In fact, the Dionaea diet is 33% ants, 30% spiders, 10% beetles, and 10% grasshoppers, with fewer than 5% flying insects. Given that Dionaea evolved from an ancestral form of Drosera (carnivorous plants that use a sticky trap instead of a snap trap) the reason for this evolutionary branching becomes clear. Whilst Drosera consume smaller, aerial insects, Dionaea consume larger terrestrial bugs. From these larger bugs, Dionaea are able to extract more nutrients. This gives Dionaea an evolutionary advantage over their ancestral sticky trap form. Mechanism of trapping The mechanism by which the trap snaps shut involves a complex interaction between elasticity, turgor and growth. The trap only shuts when the trigger hair is stimulated twice: this is to avoid inadvertent triggering of the mechanism by dust and other wind-borne debris. In the open, untripped state, the lobes are convex (bent outwards), but in the closed state, the lobes are concave (forming a cavity). It is the rapid flipping of this bistable state that closes the trap, but the mechanism by which this occurs is still poorly understood. When the trigger hairs are stimulated, an action potential (mostly involving calcium ions — see calcium in biology) is generated, which propagates across the lobes and stimulates cells in the lobes and in the midrib between them. It is hypothesized that there is a threshold of ion buildup for the Venus flytrap to react to stimulation. After closing, the flytrap counts additional stimulations of the trigger hairs, to five total, to start the production of digesting enzymes. The acid growth theory states that individual cells in the outer layers of the lobes and midrib rapidly move 1H+ (hydrogen ions) into their cell walls, lowering the pH and loosening the extracellular components, which allows them to swell rapidly by osmosis, thus elongating and changing the shape of the trap lobe. Alternatively, cells in the inner layers of the lobes and midrib may rapidly secrete other ions, allowing water to follow by osmosis, and the cells to collapse. Both of these mechanisms may play a role and have some experimental evidence to support them. If the prey is unable to escape, it will continue to stimulate the inner surface of the lobes, and this causes a further growth response that forces the edges of the lobes together, eventually sealing the trap hermetically and forming a 'stomach' in which digestion occurs. Digestion is catalysed by enzymes secreted by glands in the lobes. Oxidative protein modification is likely to be a pre-digestive mechanism used by Dionaea muscipula. Aqueous leaf extracts have been found to contain quinones such as the naphthoquinone plumbagin that couples to different NADH-dependent diaphorases to produce superoxide and hydrogen peroxide upon autoxidation. Such oxidative modification could rupture animal cell membranes. Plumbagin is known to induce apoptosis, associated with the regulation of the Bcl-2 family of proteins. When the Dionaea extracts were pre-incubated with diaphorases and NADH in the presence of serum albumin (SA), subsequent tryptic digestion of SA was facilitated. Since the secretory glands of Droseraceae contain proteases and possibly other degradative enzymes, it may be that the presence of oxygen-activating redox cofactors function as extracellular pre-digestive oxidants to render membrane-bound proteins of the prey (insects) more susceptible to proteolytic attacks. The carnivorous diet is a very specialized form of foliar feeding, and is an adaptation found in several plants that grow in nutrient-poor soil. Carnivorous traps were naturally selected to allow these organisms to compensate for the nutrient deficiencies of their harsh environments by supplementing ordinary photosynthate with animal proteins. The "snap trap" mechanism characteristic of Dionaea is shared with only one other carnivorous plant genus, Aldrovanda. For most of the 20th century, this relationship was thought to be coincidental, more precisely an example of convergent evolution. Some phylogenetic studies even suggested that the closest living relatives of Aldrovanda were the sundews. It was not until 2002 that a molecular evolutionary study, by analyzing combined nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences, indicated that Dionaea and Aldrovanda were closely related and that the snap trap mechanism evolved only once in a common ancestor of the two genera. A 2009 study presented evidence for the evolution of snap traps of Dionaea and Aldrovanda from a flypaper trap like Drosera regia, based on molecular data. The molecular and physiological data imply that Dionaea and Aldrovanda snap traps evolved from the flypaper traps of a common ancestor with Drosera. Pre-adaptations to the evolution of snap traps were identified in several species of Drosera, such as rapid leaf and tentacle movement. The model proposes that plant carnivory by snap trap evolved from the flypaper traps, driven by increasing prey size. Bigger prey provides greater nutritional value, but large insects can easily escape the sticky mucilage of flypaper traps; the evolution of snap traps would therefore prevent escape and kleptoparasitism (theft of prey captured by the plant before it can derive benefit from it), and would also permit a more complete digestion. Proposed evolutionary history Carnivorous plants are generally herbs, and their traps the result of primary growth. They generally do not form readily fossilizable structures such as thick bark or wood. As a result, there is no fossil evidence of the steps that might link Dionaea and Aldrovanda, or either genus with their common ancestor, Drosera. Nevertheless, it is possible to infer an evolutionary history based on phylogenetic studies of both genera. Researchers have proposed a series of steps that would ultimately result in the complex snap-trap mechanism: - Larger insects usually walk over the plant, instead of flying to it, and are more likely to break free from sticky glands alone. Therefore, a plant with wider leaves, like Drosera falconeri, must have adapted to move the trap and its stalks in directions that maximized its chance of capturing and retaining such prey - in this particular case, longitudinally. Once adequately "wrapped", escape would be more difficult. - Evolutionary pressure then selected for plants with shorter response time, in a manner similar to Drosera burmannii or Drosera glanduligera. The faster the closing, the less reliant on the flypaper model the plant would be. - As the trap became more and more active, the energy required to "wrap" the prey increased. Plants that could somehow differentiate between actual insects and random detritus/rain droplets would have an advantage, thus explaining the specialization of inner tentacles into trigger hairs. - Ultimately, as the plant relied more on closing around the insect rather than gluing them to the leaf surface, the tentacles so evident in Drosera would lose their original function altogether, becoming the "teeth" and trigger hairs — an example of natural selection utilizing pre-existing structures for new functions. - Completing the transition, the plant eventually developed the depressed digestive glands found inside the trap, rather than using the dews in the stalks, further differentiating it from genus Drosera. The Venus flytrap is found in nitrogen- and phosphorus-poor environments, such as bogs and wet savannahs. Small in stature and slow-growing, the Venus flytrap tolerates fire well, and depends on periodic burning to suppress its competition. Fire suppression threatens its future in the wild. It survives in wet sandy and peaty soils. Although it has been successfully transplanted and grown in many locales around the world, it is native only to the coastal bogs of North and South Carolina in the United States, specifically within a 60-mile radius of Wilmington, North Carolina. One such place is North Carolina's Green Swamp. There also appears to be a naturalized population of Venus flytraps in northern Florida as well as an introduced population in western Washington. The nutritional poverty of the soil is the reason that the plant relies on such elaborate traps: insect prey provide the nitrogen for protein formation that the soil cannot. The Venus flytrap is not a tropical plant and can tolerate mild winters. In fact, Venus flytraps that do not go through a period of winter dormancy will weaken and die after a period of time. Venus flytraps are popular as cultivated plants, but have a reputation for being difficult to grow. Successfully growing these specialized plants requires recreating a close approximation to the plant's natural habitat. Healthy Venus flytraps will produce scapes of white flowers in spring; however, many growers remove the flowering stems early (2–3 inches), as flowering consumes some of the plant's energy and thereby reduces the rate of trap production. If healthy plants are allowed to flower, successful pollination will result in seeds. Plants can be propagated by seed, although seedlings take several years to mature. More commonly, they are propagated by clonal division in spring or summer. Venus flytraps are by far the most commonly recognized and cultivated carnivorous plant, and they are frequently sold as houseplants. Various cultivars (cultivated varieties) have come into the market through tissue culture of selected genetic mutations, and these plants are raised in large quantities for commercial markets. The species is classified as "vulnerable" by the National Wildlife Federation. In 2015, there were estimated to be fewer than 33,000 plants in the wild, all within 120 kilometers of the city of Wilmington, North Carolina, and all on sites owned by The Nature Conservancy, the North Carolina state government, or the US military. In 2014, the state of North Carolina passed legislation to classify the theft of naturally growing Venus flytraps in some counties as a felony. In alternative medicine Venus flytrap extract is available on the market as an herbal remedy, sometimes as the prime ingredient of a patent medicine named "Carnivora". According to the American Cancer Society, these products are promoted in alternative medicine as a treatment for a variety of human ailments including HIV, Crohn's disease and skin cancer, but "available scientific evidence does not support the health claims made for Venus flytrap extract". - Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., et al. (2000). Dionaea muscipula. 2006. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. www.iucnredlist.org. Retrieved on 11 May 2006. Listed as Vulnerable (VU A1acd, B1+2c v2.3) - Schlauer, J. (N.d.) Dionaea muscipula. Carnivorous Plant Database. - Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families - "Venus flytraps". The Carnivorous Plant FAQ. Retrieved 2005-06-13. - Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray Franklin; Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). W.H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2. - Forterre, Yoël; Skotheim, Jan M.; Dumais, Jacques; Mahadevan, L. (27 January 2005). "How the Venus flytrap snaps" (PDF). Nature 433 (7024): 421–425. doi:10.1038/nature03185. PMID 15674293. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2007. - Cameron, Kenneth M.; Wurdack, Kenneth J.; Jobson, Richard W. (2002). "Molecular evidence for the common origin of snap-traps among carnivorous plants". American Journal of Botany 89 (9): 1503–1509. doi:10.3732/ajb.89.9.1503. PMID 21665752. - D'Amato, Peter (1998). The Savage Garden: Cultivating Carnivorous Plants. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0-89815-915-6. - "Background Information on Venus Fly Traps—Venus Fly Trap naming and history". FlyTrapCare.com. 2008-04-04. Archived from the original on 17 December 2008. - Rice, Barry (January 2007). "How did the Venus flytrap get its name?". The Carnivorous Plant FAQ. - Ellison, DM; Gotelli, NJ (2009). "Energetics and the evolution of carnivorous plants—Darwin's 'Most Wonderful plants in the world'" (PDF). Experiment Botany 60 (1): 19–42. doi:10.1093/jxb/ern179. PMID 19213724. - Gibson, TC; Waller, DM (2009). "Evolving Darwin's 'most wonderful' plant: ecological steps to a snap-trap". New Phytologist 183 (1): 575–587. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02935.x. PMID 19573135. - Hodick, Dieter; Sievers, Andreas (1989). "The action potential of Dionaea muscipula Ellis". Planta 174 (1): 8–18. doi:10.1007/BF00394867. - Ueda, Minoru (2010). "The trap snaps shut: Researchers isolate the substance that causes venus flytraps to close". ChemBioChem. Wiley. doi:10.1002/cbic.201000392. Retrieved November 29, 2012. - Böhm, Jennifer; Scherzer, Sönke; Krol, Elzbieta; Kreuzer, Ines; von Meyer, Katharina; Lorey, Christian; Mueller, Thomas D.; Shabala, Lana; Monte, Isabel; Solano, Roberto; Al-Rasheid, Khaled A.S.; Rennenberg, Heinz; Shabala, Sergey; Neher, Erwin; Hedrich, Rainer (2016). "The Venus Flytrap Dionaea muscipula Counts Prey-Induced Action Potentials to Induce Sodium Uptake". Current Biology. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.11.057. ISSN 0960-9822. - Williams, S. E. 2002. Comparative physiology of the Droseraceae sensu stricto—How do tentacles bend and traps close? Proceedings of the 4th International Carnivorous Plant Society Conference. Tokyo, Japan. pp. 77–81. - Hodick, Dieter; Sievers, Andreas (1988). "On the mechanism of closure of Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula Ellis)". Planta 179 (1): 32–42. doi:10.1007/BF00395768. - Galek H, Osswald WF, Elstner EF (1990). "Oxidative protein modification as predigestive mechanism of the carnivorous plant Dionaea muscipula: an hypothesis based on in vitro experiments". Free Radic Biol Med. 9 (5): 427–34. doi:10.1016/0891-5849(90)90020-J. PMID 2292436. - Hsu YL, Cho CY, Kuo PL, Huang YT, Lin CC (Aug 2006). "Plumbagin (5-Hydroxy-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone) Induces Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest in A549 Cells through p53 Accumulation via c-Jun NH2-Terminal Kinase-Mediated Phosphorylation at Serine 15 in Vitro and in Vivo". J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 318 (2): 484–94. doi:10.1124/jpet.105.098863. PMID 16632641. - Produced by Neil Lucas (2009-12-07). "Plants". Life. BBC. BBC One. - AM Ellison (2006). "Nutrient limitation and stoichiometry of carnivorous plants" (PDF). Biology 8: 740–747. doi:10.1055/s-2006-923956. - Gibson, T. C.; Waller, D. M. (2009). "Evolving Darwin's 'most wonderful' plant: ecological steps to a snap-trap" (PDF). New Phytologist 183 (3): 575–587. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02935.x. PMID 19573135. - Cameron, K. M.; Wurdack, K. J.; Jobson, R. W. (2002). "Molecular evidence for the common origin of snap-traps among carnivorous plants". American Journal of Botany 89 (9): 1503–1509. doi:10.3732/ajb.89.9.1503. PMID 21665752. - Rivadavia, F., K. Kondo, M. Kato, and M. Hasebe (2003). "Phylogeny of the sundews, Drosera (Droseraceae), based on chloroplast rbcL and nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA Sequences". American Journal of Botany 90 (1): 123–130. doi:10.3732/ajb.90.1.123. PMID 21659087. - "Venus flytrap origins uncovered". BBC News. 2009. - W. Schulze, E.D. Schulze, I. Schulze, and R. Oren (2001). "Quantification of insect nitrogen utilization by the venus fly trap Dionaea muscipula catching prey with highly variable isotope signatures". Journal of Experimental Botany 52 (358): 1041–1049. doi:10.1093/jexbot/52.358.1041. PMID 11432920. - Leege, Lissa. "How does the Venus flytrap digest flies?". Scientific American. Retrieved 2008-08-20. - Darwin, C. R. 1875. Insectivorous Plants. - Schnell, D. E. (2002). Carnivorous Plants of the United States and Canada (2nd ed.). Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-540-3. - Giblin, D. Nd. Dionaea muscipula. Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture. - "International Carnivorous Plant Society". Carnivorousplants.org. Retrieved 2013-08-26. - "Venus Flytrap". National Wildlife Federation. Retrieved 2015-07-10. - John R. Platt (2015-01-22). "Venus Flytraps Risk Extinction in the Wild at the Hands of Poachers". Scientific American. Retrieved 2015-07-10. - "Venus Flytrap". American Cancer Society. November 2008. Retrieved 22 September 2013. \|Wikispecies has information related to: Dionaea muscipula\| \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dionaea muscipula.\| - Images and movies of the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) at ARKive - How to grow a Venus flytrap - The Carnivorous Plant FAQ - The Mysterious Venus flytrap - Discovery explains how the Venus flytrap snaps. - How Venus flytraps Work - Venus flytrap evolution - Botanical Society of America, Dionaea muscipula—The Venus flytrap - Criminal Podcast Episode Five: Dropping Like Flies	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionaea_muscipula
4	For some children with autism, human contact is threatening, but when music becomes a part of the communication process, children diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder often begin to relax, focus, and improve in ways that parents, clinicians, and the children themselves find astonishing. The dramatic improvements in autistic children who receive music therapy has instigated numerous research studies over the past several years, studies that have helped musical therapists develop effective musical interventions and techniques. These advancements have increased the demand for music therapy programs targeting autistic individuals, increasing exposure to this type of treatment in schools, community organizations, and in private practice. What are Autistic Spectrum Disorders? Autistic disorders are neurodevelopmental conditions characterized by social and communication problems, and restricted interests and behaviors. Because these disorders range in severity, and the problems exhibited by autistic children are highly individualized, the disorders are diagnosed along a spectrum - from low functioning to high functioning individuals. How does Music Therapy Help? Music therapy has been shown to be effective in treating autism in two key areas: - Improving communication and language skills - Improving socio-behavioral skills Improving Communication and Language Skills For reasons still not clearly known, the neural pathways of individuals with autism prevent them from understanding and processing human speech. The tonal and pitch variations in speech go undetected, also causing a barrier in detecting emotions, such as happiness and sadness. In addition, autistic individuals can't interpret the facial and body language cues that accompany expressions of differing emotional states. But the brain processes music in a much different way than language. Whereas an autistic individual cannot process emotional content through spoken words, they do process emotions through music, such as melodies and tones depicting sadness, and those signaling more upbeat, happy emotions. Scientists continue to investigate why this occurs, but many recent studies point to music's regularity and reliability of rhythms, tones, and pitches. For instance, a drum beat played over and over in the same rhythm presents a certain regularity that speech doesn't employ. Music therapists use these musical rhythms as aides for learning and memory in autism. Many autistic children are able to learn words easier when they are sung rather than spoken, for example. Music therapists use singing musical games to encourage speech and vocalizations, as well as musical instruments to strengthen the use of the lips, tongues, jaws and teeth. In fact, it's only through music therapy that many autistic children learn to speak and talk at all. Learning to talk with music therapy A 2009 article in The New Jersey Star Ledger, "Using the Language of Music to Speak to Children With Autism," recounted the story of a 4-year-old autistic boy who came to music therapy unable to speak, only pointing at objects to express himself. Several months later, the boy had started using words. Writer Julie Cirelli-Heurich explained how this nonverbal child progressed from making absolutely no sounds to being able to speak as a result of music therapy. She wrote: The music therapist ended all group therapy sessions by singing "Happy Trails," instructing all nonverbal children to use their tongues to make clucking sounds like horse's hooves. The boy learned the clucking sound, and then began using it to indicate to the therapist that he wanted to sing the song. This clucking sound was the first type of "speech" sound he had ever used to indicate a need or want. After several months of music therapy, the boy asked to sing another song by using the four words "one, two, three, ball game" - words of another favorite song he had learned. Teaching this young boy to speak through music therapy was an accomplishment that other more conventional therapies couldn't replicate. Improving Socio-Behavioral Skills The book Music and the Mind by Anthony Storr emphasizes the communal and collective properties of music to bring people together - as apparent in cultures all over the world that ritualize singing, dancing, and playing instruments. The communal aspect of music combined with its regular rhythms and melodies provides a powerful behavioral intervention for autistic children, who tend to escape into themselves, staying withdrawn and isolated. A trained therapist knows how to draw the withdrawn child first to the instrument, or music, then bridges that connection to the therapist, and the instrument that the therapist plays. Finally, the child connects to other therapy patients and parents. This can take several sessions before the child shows progress. Once bonding with the therapist and others takes place, the therapist then has the opportunity to begin teaching appropriate social skills. Socially autistic individuals struggle, but social delays experience some of the most effective outcomes with music therapy interventions. The article, "Why Does Music Therapy Help in Autism?" published in Empirical Musicology Review stated that introducing a musical "entrainment" intervention for an autistic girl improved her erratic classroom behaviors. In music, entrainment - a process where two rhythmic processes interact and sync together - means brain waves interacting with musical sound waves, matching each others' frequencies. So in this case, author Neha Khetraphal of the University of Bielefeld, Germany, said that by using relaxing rhythms, the girl was able to entrain with the rhythms, relax and slow herself down, decreasing her acting out and problematic behaviors. A powerful intervention only applied by music therapists Music is powerful, according to noted author and physician Oliver Sacks. It can become irresistible and perhaps coercive, stated Sacks, also professor of neurology and psychiatry at Columbia University Medical Center. In an article for the journal Brain, Sacks said that an example of the coercive power of music is exemplified at rock concerts, where thousands can be taken over, engulfed or entrained by the music. Sacks also cautions against the "overflow of music into the motor system," which he states can go too far. Music therapists know the power of music, appreciating its value while recognizing its potential to overwhelm and potentially cause harm - especially when working with autistic populations. The vast degree of differences within the autistic population means that no universal rules of therapy exist, differences that can result in positive outcomes for one individual, while another can respond quite negatively. And autistic individuals are extremely sensitive to sensory overload, which can exacerbate motility - or rapid and unpredictable body movements characteristic of autism. Music itself can become an obsession, another trait of autism that reinforces withdrawal and isolation. Instead of drawing out the individual, music therapy interventions applied incorrectly can make the child move deeper inwards. For these reasons, music therapy for autistic children and individuals should only be practiced by individuals who have completed an approved music therapy program (including an internship), and have passed the national examination offered by the Certification Board for Music Therapists. If you have a desire to help autistic individuals and children adjust to their environments by developing good communication and social skills, consider a degree in music therapy. Contact schools with degrees in music therapy for more information.	http://www.allpsychologycareers.com/topics/autism-music-therapy.html
4.0625	The Curiosity rover team announced yesterday that they’d found the mission’s first potentially habitable environment on Mars: an ancient river bed. But why do they think flowing water created the formation? What exactly did the rover find? Curiosity’s telephoto camera snapped shots of three rocky outcrops not far from the rover’s landing site inside Gale Crater. One of them, called “Goulburn”, had been excavated by the rover’s own landing gear. The other two were natural outcrops dubbed “Link” and “Hottah”. All three, and Hottah in particular, were made of thin layers of rock that had been cemented together. When the rover zoomed in, it saw rounded pebbles in the conglomerates and in surrounding gravel that were fairly large – up to a few centimetres in diameter. On Earth, roundness is a tell-tale sign that rocks have been transported a long way, since their angular edges got smoothed out as they tumbled. The Mars rocks are too big to have been blown by wind, so the team concluded it must have been flowing water. This dovetails with orbital images hinting that the rover landed in an alluvial fan, a feature that is formed on Earth by water flows. Let’s not be H2O-centric here. Could the liquid have been something other than water? The chemical evidence for hydrated minerals at Gale Crater and elsewhere means water is definitely the top contender – although one team member likes to joke that, for all we know, the liquid could have been beer. Some Mars scientists have suggested quickly evaporating carbon dioxide ice could have triggered rockslides, forming gullies elsewhere on the planet, but that’s a less popular theory, says team member Sanjeev Gupta of Imperial College London. Also, such bursts of CO2 vapour probably couldn’t have transported these rocks all the way from the rim of Gale Crater, where the river seems to have begun, adds Bill Dietrich of the University of California, Berkeley. It’s possible the water could have been quite salty or briny, which would make it more viscous. It could have been slushy or icy as well. “Whether pure water or salty water, it would all behave similarly in terms of sediment transport,” says team member Rebecca Williams of the Planetary Science Institute in Tucson, Arizona. How long ago was the water there? On Earth, the most reliable way to measure the ages of alluvial fans is by radiocarbon dating – but that requires organic carbon, which we haven’t yet found on Mars. And even if it found some, Curiosity’s on-board chemistry lab isn’t quite up to the task. The best Mars scientists can do is estimate the age of the surrounding surface based on counting craters. On a large scale, the older an area is, the more craters it likely accumulates over time. “We think what we’re looking at is several billion years old,” Dietrich says of the region around Gale Crater. “How to get better than that, I don’t know. This is a common discussion point.” How deep was the stream? How fast was it flowing? Dietrich calculated that it was probably between ankle and hip deep, and flowed at about a metre per second. How can he possibly know that? The key was knowing the size of the rocks: “Up until now, no one knew what the size of the material in the bed was,” Dietrich says. “That affects when grains start to move and the velocity. It propagates through all the calculations.” The equations for calculating river depth on Earth apply just as well on Mars, despite Mars’ weaker gravity. The amount of water needed to push a rock down a slope depends on the weight of the rock and the steepness of the slope. The team knew the slope’s angle, at least roughly, based on measurements of Gale Crater taken from orbit. Curiosity’s new images gave size estimates for the rocks, which translated to a range of depths. Then Dietrich could plug the depth into equations for flow speed, which do depend on gravity. The river flows more slowly on Mars than it would on Earth, he says. Its speed could change depending on how cold the water was – cold water is about twice as viscous as warm water. Another uncertainty is how dirty the water was, since carrying a lot of small particles would slow down the stream. With the data we have now, though, a metre per second is a pretty safe estimate, Dietrich says. “Based on a mixture of hydraulic calculations and field experience, this is typically what we would find.” What does this mean for life? The team’s project scientist, John Grotzinger of Caltech, called the river bed the rover’s first potentially habitable environment. “But these fluvial environments aren’t the best habitable environments,” Gupta says. “They’re not the best at preserving evidence of life.” That’s part of why the rover has already left the outcrops behind and is now heading first toward a spot called Glenelg, where three different rock types come together, and then full speed towards the mountain in the middle of the crater, alternately called Aeolis Mons or Mount Sharp. Orbital images show tantalising evidence of clays in the mountain’s layers, and clays are known to better preserve organics. “The longer-term aim is to get to Mount Sharp,” Gupta says. “That’s always on our mind. We can’t get too distracted.” But if they run across something else that’s more exciting on the way, might they change course? “Absolutely!” says Williams. “This mission is responsive to discoveries.” More on these topics:	https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22319-why-do-we-think-curiosity-found-an-old-mars-riverbed/
4.21875	\|This article relies largely or entirely upon a single source. (September 2011)\| A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in the form of symbols and formulae, wherein the reactant entities are given on the left-hand side and the product entities on the right-hand side. The coefficients next to the symbols and formulae of entities are the absolute values of the stoichiometric numbers. The first chemical equation was diagrammed by Jean Beguin in 1615. A chemical equation consists of the chemical formulas of the reactants (the starting substances) and the chemical formula of the products (substances formed in the chemical reaction). The two are separated by an arrow symbol (, usually read as "yields") and each individual substance's chemical formula is separated from others by a plus sign. - 2 HCl + 2 Na → 2 NaCl + H This equation would be read as "two HCl plus two Na yields two NaCl and H two." But, for equations involving complex chemicals, rather than reading the letter and its subscript, the chemical formulas are read using IUPAC nomenclature. Using IUPAC nomenclature, this equation would be read as "hydrochloric acid plus sodium yields sodium chloride and hydrogen gas." This equation indicates that sodium and HCl react to form NaCl and H2. It also indicates that two sodium molecules are required for every two hydrochloric acid molecules and the reaction will form two sodium chloride molecules and one diatomic molecule of hydrogen gas molecule for every two hydrochloric acid and two sodium molecules that react. The stoichiometric coefficients (the numbers in front of the chemical formulas) result from the law of conservation of mass and the law of conservation of charge (see "Balancing Chemical Equation" section below for more information). Symbols are used to differentiate between different types of reactions. To denote the type of reaction: - "" symbol is used to denote a stoichiometric relation. - "" symbol is used to denote a net forward reaction. - "" symbol is used to denote a reaction in both directions. - "" symbol is used to denote an equilibrium. The physical state of chemicals is also very commonly stated in parentheses after the chemical symbol, especially for ionic reactions. When stating physical state, (s) denotes a solid, (l) denotes a liquid, (g) denotes a gas and (aq) denotes an aqueous solution. If the reaction requires energy, it is indicated above the arrow. A capital Greek letter delta () is put on the reaction arrow to show that energy in the form of heat is added to the reaction. is used if the energy is added in the form of light. Other symbols are used for other specific types of energy or radiation. Balancing chemical equations The law of conservation of mass dictates that the quantity of each element does not change in a chemical reaction. Thus, each side of the chemical equation must represent the same quantity of any particular element. Likewise, the charge is conserved in a chemical reaction. Therefore, the same charge must be present on both sides of the balanced equation. One balances a chemical equation by changing the scalar number for each chemical formula. Simple chemical equations can be balanced by inspection, that is, by trial and error. Another technique involves solving a system of linear equations. Balanced equations are written with smallest whole-number coefficients. If there is no coefficient before a chemical formula, the coefficient 1 is understood. The method of inspection can be outlined as putting a coefficient of 1 in front of the most complex chemical formula and putting the other coefficients before everything else such that both sides of the arrows have the same number of each atom. If any fractional coefficient exists, multiply every coefficient with the smallest number required to make them whole, typically the denominator of the fractional coefficient for a reaction with a single fractional coefficient. As an example, seen in the above image, the burning of methane would be balanced by putting a coefficient of 1 before the CH4: - 1 CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O Since there is one carbon on each side of the arrow, the first atom (carbon) is balanced. Looking at the next atom (hydrogen), the right-hand side has two atoms, while the left-hand side has four. To balance the hydrogens, 2 goes in front of the H2O, which yields: - 1 CH4 + O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O Inspection of the last atom to be balanced (oxygen) shows that the right-hand side has four atoms, while the left-hand side has two. It can be balanced by putting a 2 before O2, giving the balanced equation: - CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O This equation does not have any coefficients in front of CH4 and CO2, since a coefficient of 1 is dropped. An ionic equation is a chemical equation in which electrolytes are written as dissociated ions. Ionic equations are used for single and double displacement reactions that occur in aqueous solutions. For example, in the following precipitation reaction: - CaCl2(aq) + 2 AgNO3(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 AgCl(s) the full ionic equation is: - Ca2+(aq) + 2 Cl−(aq) + 2 Ag+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) + 2 AgCl(s) In this reaction, the Ca2+ and the NO3− ions remain in solution and are not part of the reaction. That is, these ions are identical on both the reactant and product side of the chemical equation. Because such ions do not participate in the reaction, they are called spectator ions. A net ionic equation is the full ionic equation from which the spectator ions have been removed. The net ionic equation of the proceeding reactions is: - 2 Cl−(aq) + 2 Ag+(aq) → 2 AgCl(s) or, in reduced balanced form, - Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq) → AgCl(s) - H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l) There are a few acid/base reactions that produce a precipitate in addition to the water molecule shown above. An example is the reaction of barium hydroxide with phosphoric acid, which produces not only water but also the insoluble salt barium phosphate. In this reaction, there are no spectator ions, so the net ionic equation is the same as the full ionic equation. - 3 Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2 H3PO4(aq) → 6 H2O(l) + Ba3(PO4)2(s) - 3 Ba2+(aq) + 6 OH−(aq) + 6 H+(aq) + 2 PO43−(aq) → 6 H2O(l) + Ba3(PO4)2(s) Double displacement reactions that feature a carbonate reacting with an acid have the net ionic equation: - 2 H+(aq) + CO32−(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2(g) If every ion is a "spectator ion" then there was no reaction, and the net ionic equation is null.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_equation
4.28125	Nucleic acid test \|This article does not cite any sources. (December 2015)\| A nucleic acid test, often called a "NAT", (or nucleic acid amplification test / "NAAT") is a molecular technique used to detect a virus or a bacterium. These tests were developed to shorten the window period, a time between when a patient has been infected and when they show up as positive by antibody tests. The term includes any test that directly detects the genetic material of the infecting organism or virus. In 1999, new screening methods involving nucleic acid amplification and that protocol approved by FDA. - Detects low levels of viral RNA or DNA. - Provides additional layer of safety to the blood supply because it allows the detection of infectious agents during their incubation period. - Have the ability to detect viral mutants and occult infections. - Highly sensitive and specific for viral nucleic acid. There are multiple methods that fall in this group, including: - Methods based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). These tests use a primer to rapidly make copies of the genetic material. - Branched DNA (quantiplex bDNA) tests use a molecule that links to the specific genetic material. - Ligase chain reaction - Transcription mediated amplification (TMA). It uses a slightly different molecular method than PCR but has the same basic principle. - Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA) \|This medical diagnostic article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_amplification_test
4.03125	4 Answers \| Add Yours The previous thoughts were very strong. The Second Continental Congress' fundamental importance was that it was one of the first times that the colonists were acting like a real government, responsive to the needs of the nation. The Congress braced for war, selecting Washington as the commander of troops. They also ordered the printed Continentals, the first national currency of the new nation. Additionally, the Congress began the process of committing itself to winning the military conflict with England, as opposed to seeking to find ways to avoid it. There was a sense that the Second Continental Congress was beginning to give shape and definition to the new nation in one of its most intense hours fraught with peril. The Second Continental Congress, presided over by John Hancock, consisted of delegates from the thirteen colonies. It occurred shortly after the Revolutionary War had started. A couple more notable figures who were delegates were Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. Here are some major contributions: - Military-Congress took control of the army outside Boston-George Washington became Commander in Chief of the Continental Army. - Statements of Position-Olive Branch Petition and Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms. - Financing the War-paper certificates were issued and money was borrowed from domestic and foreign sources. Money was a problem during the war because of deflation. - Declaration of Independence The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It started meeting in May of 1775 and continued until the Articles of Confederation were ratified in 1781. So, given those dates, you can imagine that it did quite a bit. Perhaps its most famous action was to write and sign the Declaration of Independence. This, of course, declared that the American colonies were independent from Great Britain. After that, the main accomplishment of the Congress was to help get the colonies through the Revolutionary War successfully. This meant that it had to raise money for armies and it had to, for example, get France to enter the war on the American side. I should also mention that the Congress wrote and passed the US's first constitution -- the Articles of Confederation. Continental Congress refers to a convention of delegates from the American Colonies. This coming together of colonies was the expression of their desire for unity which had spread through the colonies, in view of threat to their interests by the acts of the British Parliament aimed against the colony of Massachusetts, especially the Boston Port Bill. The First Continental Congress, held on September 5, 1774, was attended by 56 delegates representing 12 colonies. Second Continental Congress. officially called "Congress of the Confederation", met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. This Congress took on the duties of a government, uniting the colonies for the war effort. The Congress issued a declaration on July 8, 1775 outlining the need to take up arms and two days later made a final appeal to Britain to set matters right to avoid war. With the outbreak of war, on July 4, 1776, adopted the Declaration of Independence. Subsequently it addressed the task of preparing for permanent union of states. This resulted in preparation of the Articles of Confederation. The second Congress continued to work until March 1, 1781, till a Congress authorized by the Articles of Confederation took over. We’ve answered 300,957 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question	http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/where-when-was-second-continental-congress-held-165075
4.03125	The first triple asteroid near Earth has been discovered. Astronomers have found plenty of double, or binary asteroids. Triples are known to exist, too (the first triple was found in 2005). But the system called 2001 SN263 is the closest triple, at just 7 million miles (11.2 million kilometers) from Earth. It was originally found in 2001, but new observations with the radar telescope at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico reveal it is three gravitationally bound rocks. The main rock is spherical and about 1.5 miles (2 kilometers) wide. Another is about half that size. The smallest is about 1,000 feet across, or about the size of the Arecibo telescope, astronomers said. "This discovery has extremely important implications for ideas about the origins of near-Earth asteroids and the processes responsible for their physical properties," said Cornell University and Arecibo astronomer Michael C. Nolan. "Double, or binary, asteroid systems are known to be fairly common — about one in six near-Earth asteroids is a binary — but this is the first near-Earth triple system to be discovered." Most asteroids orbit the sun between Mars and Jupiter. But some are closer in. One recently missed Mars by a cosmic smidgeon. Near-Earth asteroids are of particular interest because of the possibility they might cross our path some day, as has happened many times in the past. One flew past Earth just last month, in fact. However, 2001 SN263 is not on a collision course with our planet. Yet asteroids hold many mysteries for astronomers. Nolan said this finding prompts several questions: Are the objects orbiting in the same plane? How rapidly are the orbits changing with time? Did the smaller objects, which Nolan calls moons, form when this asteroid system formed in the main asteroid belt, or after it arrived in near-Earth space? "Examining the orbits of the moons as we continue to observe 2001 SN263 over the next few weeks may allow us to determine the density of the asteroid and type of material from which it is made," he said. "We will also be studying its shape, surface features and regolith [blanketing material] properties." The new observations were made Feb. 11 and the discovery announced Wednesday evening. Arecibo is operated for the National Science Foundation by Cornell's National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center. - Video: Asteroid Hunting - Asteroids Often Travel, and Strike, in Pairs - Image Gallery: Asteroids	http://www.space.com/4973-triple-asteroid-earth.html
4.3125	\|This article relies largely or entirely upon a single source. (December 2010)\| An interglacial period (or alternatively interglacial) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age. The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene, about 11,700 years ago. Interglacials during the Pleistocene During the 2.5 million year span of the Pleistocene, numerous glacials, or significant advances of continental ice sheets in North America and Europe, have occurred at intervals of approximately 40,000 to 100,000 years. These long glacial periods were separated by more temperate and shorter interglacials. During interglacials, such as the present one, the climate warms and the tundra recedes polewards following the ice sheets. Forests return to areas that once supported tundra vegetation. Interglacials are identified on land or in shallow epicontinental seas by their paleontology. Floral and faunal remains of species pointing to temperate climate and indicating a specific age are used to identify particular interglacials. Commonly used are mammalian and molluscan species, pollen and plant macro-remains (seeds and fruits). However, many other fossil remains may be helpful: insects, ostracods, foraminifera, diatoms, etc. Recently, ice cores and ocean sediment cores provide more quantitative and accurately dated evidence for temperatures and total ice volumes. The interglacials and glacials coincide with cyclic changes in the Earth's orbit. Three orbital variations contribute to interglacials. The first is a change in the Earth's orbit around the sun, or eccentricity. The second is a shift in the tilt of the Earth's axis, the obliquity. The third is precession, or wobbling motion of Earth's axis. Warm summers in the northern hemisphere occur when that hemisphere is tilted toward the sun and the Earth is nearest the sun in its elliptical orbit. Cool summers occur when the Earth is farthest from the sun during that season. These effects are more pronounced when the eccentricity of the orbit is large. When the obliquity is large, seasonal changes are more extreme. Brief periods of milder climate that occurred during the last glacial are called interstadials. Most (not all) interstadials are shorter than interglacials. Interstadial climate may have been relatively warm but this is not necessarily so. Because the colder periods (stadials) have often been very dry, wetter (so not necessarily warmer) periods have been registered in the sedimentary record as interstadials as well. An interglacial optimum, or climatic optimum of an interglacial, is the period within an interglacial that experienced the most 'favourable' climate that occurred during that interglacial, often during the middle part. The climatic optimum of an interglacial follows, and is followed by, phases that are within the same interglacial and that experienced a less favourable climate (but nevertheless a 'better' climate than during the preceding/succeeding glacials). During an interglacial optimum, sea levels rise to their highest values, but not necessarily exactly at the same time as the climatic optimum. In the present interglacial, the Holocene, the climatic optimum occurred during the Subboreal (5 to 2.5 ka BP, which corresponds to 3000 BC-500 BC) and Atlanticum (9 to 5 ka, which corresponds to roughly 7000 BC-3000 BC). Our current climatic phase following this climatic optimum is still within the same interglacial (the Holocene). This warm period was followed by a gradual decline until about 2,000 years ago, with another warm period until the Little Ice Age (1250-1850). The preceding interglacial optimum occurred during the Late Pleistocene Eemian Stage, 131–114 ka. During the Eemian the climatic optimum took place during pollen zone E4 in the type area (city of Amersfoort, Netherlands). Here this zone is characterized by the expansion of Quercus (oak), Corylus (hazel), Taxus, Ulmus (elm), Fraxinus (ash), Carpinus (hornbeam), and Picea (spruce). During the Eemian Stage sea level was about 8 meters higher than today and the water temperature of the North Sea was about 2 °C higher than at present. - Eldredge, S. "Ice Ages – What are they and what causes them?". Utah Geological Survey. Retrieved 2 March 2013. - Rieke, G. "Long Term Climate". - Kottak, Conard Phillip (2005). Window on Humanity. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-289028-2.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interglacial
4.21875	Your 5th grade spelling activities should fifth grade, your students' interests and abilities are varying more and more from student to student. By allowing students to explore information in their areas of interest, it will be easier to keep your students engaged in learning. See our list of typical 5th grade spelling words here. By this age, no doubt you'll be asking students to write about their new areas of interest. And so, they need to learn to spell the words they're using. Here's a super-simple idea that's great for board work or a worksheet. Make a list of spelling words like this: __ a v __ __ i t __ (favorite) d __ t __ r __ __ n e (determine) c __ __ t i __ __ n t (continent) students to fill in the blanks to complete the spelling/vocabulary words. For extra practice, ask them to write each complete word again and also use it in a sentence. Students can write or type word lists like this for each other. This not only saves you a lot of work, it also gives students extra practice as they both make and solve these spelling words. Dictionary skills go hand in hand with spelling skills. Here's another simple idea that challenges vocabulary and spelling skills. Write two guide words on the board. You can think of your own guide words or get them from a dictionary. Examples: 1) canyon - cat 2) strange - strike Ask students to write one set of guide words on their papers. Give students 2 minutes to write as many words as possible that come between the two guide words alphabetically. When time is up, have students exchange papers to check each other's accuracy. Questionable spellings should be checked in a dictionary. Words that might be added: 1) cap, capsize, carpet, castle, carriage, cascade, capital 2) stray, strap, strength, street, stream, streak, stress, strict Or make the activity into a classroom game. Arrange students into two teams. Write a different set of guide words on the board for each team. Set a time period of 5 or 10 minutes. Have 1 player from each team come to the board and write 1 word under the team's guide words. As soon as the player returns to his seat, the next player writes another word, and so on. At the end of the time period, the team with the most correct words wins the round. These unique puzzles use important words from our fourth grade spelling word list. Lots of puzzling fun! Spelling word puzzlers: Students chose the correctly spelled words to complete an interesting story or eliminate extra letters to solve a word puzzle. Based on our sixth grade spelling word list. For more fun spelling practice, try our AnyWord Spelling Practice Series. In these three eBooks, you'll find word play worksheets, writing prompts and partner games and activities that work with almost any list of spelling words! Fifty-Fifty - Fun word game for kids. Older students earn points as they engage in word play and spelling fun. Spelling Bee Games - Try one of our new Silent Spelling Bee variations. A fun--and quiet--twist on a classic game! AnyWord Spelling Practice Series Worksheets, games & prompts that work with almost ANY spelling words Spelling Bee Toolboxes for Grades 3/5 and 6/8 All the resources you need for a successful bee! On Sale! Monumental Spelling Bee Lists with definitions, sentences and language of origin Colossal Spelling Bee Word Lists Definitions, parts of speech & sentences included for 600 words, at two levels 100 Difficult Spelling Bee Words, Definitions & Sentences Our toughest list, for upper grades and adults! 600 Spelling Bee Words & Sentences for Gr 3/5 & 6/8 Extra words & sentences at two levels 101 Word Play Puzzlers Build spelling and vocab skills in upper grade and adult students. Lots of fun for word-play fans!	http://www.spelling-words-well.com/5th-grade-spelling.html
4.09375	1 week 2 days How To Measure Seafloor Spreading Rates in the Classroom Submitted by Educator Ideas on Wed, 05/04/2011 - 15:25 In this blog, learn about an activity that allows high school age students to use real data from previous JOIDES Resolution research expeditions to compare the spreading rates in different areas of the seafloor and find out how fast is “superfast.” To understand the research the Superfast Spreading Rate Crust 4 scientists are currently conducting requires an understanding of seafloor spreading. Seafloor spreading is mainly the result of convection currents dragging the ocean plate along with them, but that is not the only force pushing (or pulling) the seafloor, nor does it necessarily occur at a constant rate. There is a great range of factors and forces affecting the direction and rate of seafloor spreading (to get an idea of the variability read this blog). Another way students can get an idea of the variability of seafloor spreading is through the “The Race Is On…With Sea Floor Spreading!” activity from the Deep Earth Academy. This activity for high school students uses real data from previous JOIDES Resolution research expeditions, including expeditions that have drilled hole 1256, the same hole the JOIDES Resolution is drilling right now. The data is presented on a map that shows different ages of seafloor in this part of the Pacific (the map in the activity is almost identical to the one in the scientific prospectus for our current expedition). The students use the map to measure and calculate the spreading rates at different locations. The activity is presented in a very straightforward lesson plan that includes everything an educator would need to successfully facilitate this activity. For another, more introductory, activity about seafloor spreading that also makes use of real ocean drilling data, read this blog.	http://joidesresolution.org/node/1895
4.15625	fair-trade laws, in the United States, a former group of statutes that permitted manufacturers to specify the minimum retail price of a commodity. The first fair-trade law was adopted (1931) by California. Intended to protect independent retailers from the price-cutting competition of large chain stores, such statutes were originally nullified by the courts, which found most fair-trade rules in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. As a result, Congress passed (1937) the Miller-Tydings Act in order to exempt fair trade from antitrust legislation. In the late 1950s, however, many manufacturers began to abandon the practice of setting minimum retail prices, largely because of the difficulties involved in enforcing such agreements. With the post–World War II rise of bargain outlets for a wide range of consumer products, fair-trade laws became increasingly unpopular and were repealed in many jurisdictions. In 1975, federal legislation eliminated the remaining fair-trade laws. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.	http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/business/fair-trade-laws.html
4.125	2 Answers \| Add Yours Both Black holes and neutron stars are product of a dying star. When a star dies, it spent all of its energy and then collapses. Their difference lies on their parent star. For the purpose of this discussion, we compare them with the mass of the sun. If a star similar to that of the sun's mass dies, it will form a white dwarf. When a dying star has a mass which is 1.4 to 3 times that of the sun, it will form a neutron star. Stars with a mass greater than thrice the sun's mass, black hole is formed. Black hole: Has a density of 2x10^30 kg/m^3, has high gravitational field that even light cannot escape. This is also the reason why black holes are hard to find. Physical manifestation of the objects around them can be a proof that they exist. Neutron star: Has a density of 3x10^17 kg/m^3. Black Hole: An object with a gravitational field so strong, not even light can escape. Has a mass ranging anywhere from 1.5 solar masses (stellar-mass) to billions of solar masses (supermassive black holes). Now, the density varies just as much. An earth sized black hole would have a density around 2 x 10^30 kg/m^3, while a supermassive black hole (believed to be at the center of most galaxies) would have a density similar to that of water. Neutron Star: Collapsed remnant of a supernova. Has a mass ranging from about 1.35 solar masses to 2.1 solar masses. They typically have densities varying from 8 x 10^13 g/cm^3 - 2 x 10^15 g/cm^3, or about the density of an atomic nucleus. We’ve answered 302,640 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question	http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-difference-between-black-holes-neutron-stars-370318
4.03125	How to multiply higher degree polynomials. How to measure angles using degrees or radians. How we define polynomial functions, and identify their leading coefficient and degree. How to talk about polynomials. How to graph a first degree polynomial How to factor a third degree polynomial by grouping. Vocabulary of classifying polynomials by degree and number of terms How to apply the triangle angle sum theorem. How to quickly find the limit of a rational function as x goes to infinity. How to recognize when y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote of a rational function. How to recognize when a rational function has a horizontal asymptote, and how to find its equation. How to find the oblique asymptote of a rational function, if it has one. How to define rotational symmetry and identify the degree of rotational symmetry of common regular polygons. How to understand the vocabulary of polynomials. How we identify the end behavior of a polynomial functions.	https://www.brightstorm.com/tag/degree/
4.40625	The Shape of the Moon A paper published in the July 30 issue of Nature by Ian Garrick-Bethell – an assistant professor of Earth and planetary sciences at University of California Santa Cruz – examines the shape of the Moon as it would be had not millions of meteorite collisions knocked chunks off it, and ponders how it got that way. "If you imagine spinning a water balloon, it will start to flatten at the poles and bulge at the equator," Garrick-Bethell said. "On top of that you have tides due to the gravitational pull of the Earth, and that creates sort of a lemon shape with the long axis of the lemon pointing at the Earth." The Moon formed about four billion years ago and was initially much closer to Earth, and spinning rather more than it does today. As the Moon cooled and hardened, the effects of tidal forces exerted by Earth froze the surface into a slightly elongated shape with a bulge pointing towards Earth and a corresponding bump on the other side. I think she's just as rotational and spherical as she was at two billion. Article printed from PJ Lifestyle: https://pjmedia.com/lifestyle URL to article: https://pjmedia.com/lifestyle/2014/8/3/the-shape-of-the-moon	https://pjmedia.com/lifestyle/2014/08/03/the-shape-of-the-moon/
4.3125	Hypertension -- an overview By Vicki G. Mozo Biology Online Contributor Hypertension is a clinical term for the high blood pressure. An individual is said to have hypertension when blood pressure is higher than the normal range most of the time. A normal blood pressure is when most of the time the blood pressure readings are 120/80 mmHg (or slightly lower). Blood pressure measurement is comprised of two components: the systolic blood pressure, which is the pressure reading when the heart pumps blood, and the diastolic blood pressure, which is the pressure reading when the heart is at rest (not pumping blood). The systolic blood pressure is that part of blood pressure measurement that may vary depending on the type and extent of physical activities that a person is doing. Mental stress due to work, for instance, can lead to increased blood pressure at values beyond the normal (e.g. 122/80 mmHg). Physical activity or workout can also elevate a person's blood pressure to as high as 150/80 mmHg. However, high blood pressure in a healthy person can easily return to normal through physiological mechanisms. But when it remains high for over a long period of time and occurs frequently, then, it can be hypertension. Blood pressure readings of 140/90 mmHg or above most of the time is clear indication of hypertension. If the readings are mostly above the normal but below 140/90 it is referred to as pre-hypertension. Hypertension -- a silent killer Hypertension is sometimes described as a ''silent killer'' because it is symptomless. The person may not be aware that he or she is hypertensive because most of the times there are no clear signs. As a result, hypertension may lead to more serious health conditions while the hypertensive individual is unaware of it. Hypertension, when chronic, affects important body organs. The most commonly affected organs are the heart and kidneys. Hypertension can lead to heart failure as well as kidney failure. Damage to these organs largely involves damage to tiny vessels that greatly obstructs smooth flow of blood to these organs. This is also the underlying cause of stroke when a significant part of the brain is unable to receive adequate blood and oxygen supply due to blockage of arteries. Pregnant women are also in danger of preeclampsia when she is hypertensive. The growth and birth weight of the fetus in her womb are also significantly affected. Hypertension and risk factors There are different risk factors that increase the chances of hypertension. Some of them are sedentary lifestyle, lack of physical activity, family history of hypertension, consumption of alcohol, high intake of salty foods, and smoking. Knowing what is hypertension is important so that the condition can be managed or controlled as soon as possible. In that way, the chances of developing health complications due to hypertension may be avoided soon. Disclaimer: This article is intended to provide information and individual opinion of the author (and not of the site). Any information contained in this article should not be used to replace professional or medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. rating: 0.00 from 0 votes \| updated on: 7 Apr 2014 \| views: 402 \|	http://www.biology-online.org/articles/hypertension----overview.html
4.4375	Synopses & Reviews Simple Chemistry presents information and investigations on these six concepts:7 Objects can be described by the properties of the materials from whichthey are made.7 Substances can exist in different states -- solid, liquid, or gas.7 Substances have characteristic properties.7 Mixtures can sometimes be separated into the original substances using characteristic properties.7 Elements are organized in the Periodic Table.7 When substances react chemically, they can form new substances. These resource books provide the busy teacher with science lessons that are appropriate and doable. Step-by-step lessons aligned with National Science Education Standards, make science relevant to real life. There are hands-on activities with student record sheets.	http://www.powells.com/book/simple-chemistry-scienceworks-for-kids-9781557998347
4.125	2013 State of the Climate: Stratospheric temperature Why It Matters Observing temperature patterns in the lower stratosphere—about 6-10 miles above Earth’s surface—gives scientists clues about our planet’s changing climate. Short-term spikes in stratospheric temperatures occur in response to major volcanic eruptions. Increasing greenhouse gases and the decline of stratospheric ozone cool the stratosphere. A long-term cooling trend in the lower stratosphere is one of many signs that increasing levels of greenhouse gases are changing our planet's climate. Conditions in 2013 Global average temperatures in the lower stratosphere for 2013 were slightly below the 1981–2010 average. A range of satellite and radiosonde datasets determined that 2013 was warmer than 2012—a year that ranked, just barely, as the coldest year or nearly the coldest on record in the lower stratosphere. Cold temperatures dominated the lower stratosphere in the lower mid-latitudes, and subtropics, with a region of region of cooler-than-usual temperatures extending across the atmosphere above central Canada to Alaska in the Northern Hemisphere, and from the latitudes of southern America to New Zealand in the Southern Hemisphere. Meanwhile, warmer stratospheric temperatures settled in the equatorial zone and poleward of the mid-latitudes. Colder temperatures in the lower stratosphere can allow reactive, ozone-destroying chemicals to build up, contributing to ozone holes over the polar regions, which expose people to harmful UV radiation. Warmer-than-average temperatures in the lower stratosphere over the southern pole from September-December resulted in a smaller-than-average ozone hole in 2013. Change Over Time From 1979 to 1995, satellite and radiosonde measurements show a cooling trend in lower stratospheric temperatures, although that trend was interrupted by episodes of warming due to the El Chichón and Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruptions. For most of the last two decades, there has been a near-neutral or very slight warming trend, depending on the range of satellite and radiosonde datasets used. Both the cooling trend through 1995, and the neutral-to-warming trend since, are smallest near the equator and largest at the polar latitudes. C. S. Long and J. R. Christy, 2014: [Temperature] Lower Stratospheric Temperature [in “State of the Climate in 2013”]. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society (BAMS), S14-S15. State of the Climate: 2011 Stratospheric Temperature	https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/2013-state-climate-stratospheric-temperature
4.03125	About 77,000 years ago, in a cave overlooking the Indian Ocean, a group of early people were using bone tools for leatherwork, grinding red ocher into powder, probably for use as body decoration, and even carving geometric designs. At their site, about 150 miles from present-day Cape Town, they used fire contained in small hearths, and hunted a variety of animals and fish. This small band of early Africans were, a group of scientists excavating the Blombos Cave site believes, thoroughly modern people, capable of abstract thought and probably language. Evidence from their settlement could have important implications for theories about the emergence of modern people. "The Blombos Cave, along with evidence from other sites elsewhere, is showing us that modern human behavior existed long before we originally thought," says Chris Hensilwood, a researcher at the Iziko Museum of Cape Town and the lead archaeologist at Blombos. "It brings into question the theory that modern human behavior develops late and might really have flourished in Europe only around 35,000 years ago." Africa or Europe? For years, many archaeologists believed that abstract thought and sophisticated communication first developed in Europe in a "creative explosion" between 40,000 and 50,000 years ago, sometime after anatomically modern homo sapiens migrated from Africa to Europe and replaced existing Neanderthal populations. The finds at the Blombos Caves on South Africa's southern coast, however, show that modern human behavior may have first appeared in Africa far earlier. Among the important finds at Blombos is a large cache of 28 bone tools, which are not usually found in African sites more than 40,000 years old. The site has also yielded 8,000 pieces of ocher, with marks that indicate they might have been ground to make a powder, and evidence of a fishing culture that required sophisticated tools and cooperation. Archaeologists believe the ocher powder was used as a body decoration, a sign of religious or ceremonial beliefs. Most compelling, however, is the discovery of two small pieces of red ocher, smoothed flat and carved with cross-hatch designs, that may be the earliest pieces of human art ever found. The creation of art requires abstract thought and is believed to be one of the most important signs of modern behavior. "We don't know what they mean," says Mr. Hensilwood. "But they're very complex designs that are clearly meant to mean something. You see similar designs engraved and painted elsewhere at much later dates." The search for the origins of modern behavior is one of archaeology's most perplexing puzzles. The key question for scientists is whether modern behavior first began more than 120,000 years ago when humans became anatomically modern, or whether it followed tens of thousands of years later as the result of genetic, environmental, or cultural changes. The conclusion has important ramifications for understanding human evolution and for theories about the spread of humans from	https://www.questia.com/newspaper/1P2-32593888/the-art-behind-modern-behavior
4.0625	The Oak Savanna is a transition zone between the big woods to the east and prairies to the west. Fire would rip across the prairie and into a wooded area. At this interface, scattered groves of bur oaks became the dominant vegetation because their corky bark gives them the ability to withstand fire. As a result of limited competition for sun, the oaks were majestic with wide canopies and wide low branches. Under the dappled shade of these trees, a special combination of prairie and forest groundlayer plants and animals coexist. Less then 0.01% of Oak Savanna is left in Minnesota due to settling and lack of fire. The Oak Savanna at Saint John's Abbey Arboretum was used for grazing cattle, which kept invading tree growth minimal, but damaged the ground layer vegetation. The ground layer vegetation has been planted to native prairie grasses and forbs.	http://www.csbsju.edu/outdooru/abbeyarboretum/maps/virtualtourboardwalk/19-oaksavanna
4.40625	2-D and 3-D Shapes - CCSS 7.G.A.2, 7.G.A.3 Links verified on 12/24/2015 - 3-D Object Viewer - Explore a variety of 3-D objects and their accompanying 2-D views. - Building Houses with Side View - Construct a block figure to match 10 different figures. - Coloring 3-D Sides - [UK spelling on this site] Find the red sides shown in a series of 2-D drawings and click on the right face of the 3-D model to color it red. (20 questions) - Coloring 2-D Sides - Use the colored portion of the 3-D object to color the correct side of the 2-D drawing. - Cube - Find out which colors will be on opposite faces of a cube whose faces are shown unfolded. - Geometry 3D Shapes - [Don't use your real name] Try a quiz of thirty-nine questions from Annenberg Media. - Guess the View - Students are given a 3-D view of an object and then given a 2-D view of the object. Students must choose which of 6 views is being displayed from a list. - Plot Plans and Silhouettes - Your task is to come up with plot plans that would match given silhouettes. - Quick Images - Stretch both your visualization and drawing muscles with this shape drawing activity. - Rotating Houses - 3-D figures created with blocks can be rotated and flipped using a mouse. The figure must be rotated until it matches a 2-D representation of one of the views.	http://www.internet4classrooms.com/skill_builders/2d_and_3d_math_eighth_8th_grade.htm
4.125	A new global geologic map of Mars is the most thorough representation of the "Red Planet's" surface, bringing together observations and scientific findings from four orbiting spacecraft that have been acquiring data for more than 16 years. Mars is the solar system’s most Earth-like planet and the only other one in our Sun’s “habitable zone.” The U.S. Geological Survey-led mapping effort reveals that the Martian surface is generally older than previously thought. Three times as much surface area dates to the first major geologic time period - the Early Noachian Epoch - than was previously mapped. This timeframe is the earliest part of the Noachian Period, which ranges from about 4.1 to about 3.7 billion years ago, and was characterized by high rates of meteorite impacts, widespread erosion of the Martian surface and the likely presence of abundant surface water. The map also confirms previous work that suggests Mars had been geologically active until the present day. There is evidence that major changes in Mars’ global climate supported the temporary presence of surface water and near-surface groundwater and ice. These changes were likely responsible for many of the major shifts in the environments where Martian rocks were formed and subsequently eroded. This new map will serve as a key reference for the origin, age and historic change of geological materials anywhere on Mars. A new global geologic map of Mars depicts the most thorough representation of the “Red Planet’s” surface. Credit: USGS "Spacecraft exploration of Mars over the past couple decades has greatly improved our understanding of what geologic materials, events and processes shaped its surface," said USGS scientist and lead author, Dr. Kenneth Tanaka. “The new geologic map brings this research together into a holistic context that helps to illuminate key relationships in space and time, providing information to generate and test new hypotheses.” "Findings from the map will enable researchers to evaluate potential landing sites for future Mars missions that may contribute to further understanding of the planet’s history," said USGS Acting Director Suzette Kimball. "The new Mars global geologic map will provide geologic context for regional and local scientific investigations for many years to come." The Martian surface has been the subject of scientific observation since the 1600s, first by Earth-based telescopes, and later by fly-by missions and orbiting spacecraft. The Mariner 9 and Viking Orbiter missions produced the first planet-wide views of Mars’ surface, enabling publication of the first global geologic maps (in 1978 and 1986-87, respectively) of a planetary surface other than the Earth and the Moon. A new generation of sophisticated scientific instruments flown on the Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey, Mars Express and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter spacecraft has provided diverse, high quality data sets that enable more sophisticated remapping of the global-scale geology of Mars. The production of planetary cartographic products has been a focal point of research at the USGS Astrogeology Science Center since its inception in the early 1960s. USGS began producing planetary maps in support of the Apollo Moon landings, and continues to help establish a framework for integrating and comparing past and future studies of extraterrestrial surfaces. In many cases, these planetary geologic maps show that, despite the many differences between bodies in our solar system, there are many notable similarities that link the evolution and fate of our planetary system together. The new geologic map of Mars is available for download online. The project was funded by NASA through its Planetary Geology and Geophysics Program. - PHYSICAL SCIENCES - EARTH SCIENCES - LIFE SCIENCES - SOCIAL SCIENCES Subscribe to the newsletter Stay in touch with the scientific world! Know Science And Want To Write? - Double Dose Of Bad Earthquake News - From The Great Wall To The Great Collider - Why This New "Planet X" Is No Threat To Earth :). - Would New Planet X Clear Its Orbit? - And Any Better Name Than "Planet Nine"? - Top Secret: On Confidentiality On Scientific Issues, Across The Ring And Across The Bedroom - Glyphosate Now Most Popular Weed Killer In History, Laments Economist Chuck Benbrook - The Greenhouse Effect Fallacy - "Joe, just to say, I think you were right. He is just a troll. I've had several days of conversation..." - "Yes, I think he is just a silly troll with nothing better to do with his time than try to raise..." - "Panic? It was ONE person and ONE tiny meteorite -_- It is of course a tragedy that the person in..." - "Person killed by meteorite: http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/vellore-explosion..." - " Not to put words in the authors mouth I believe what he is referring to is the attribution of..." - Here’s Why Surge in Hepatitis B Cases is No Surprise - Whooping Cough Booster Declines Rapidly Over 4 Years - Unapproved Stem Cell Therapies, a Public Health Menace - Enjoying the Sun’s Vitamin D, While Blocking Skin Cancer - Norovirus: From Satan’s Biohazard Lab To Your Duodenum - Health Briefs: What You Missed Over the Weekend	http://www.science20.com/news_articles/red_planet_global_geologic_map_of_mars_shows_its_older_than_thought-140909
4.25	Sediment and sedimentary rocksssssssssssssssssssssss begin here Email this and start at page 63-to 99 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks This page last updated on 01-Feb-2012 Rivers, oceans, winds, and rain runoff all have the ability to carry the particles washed off of eroding rocks. Such material, called detritus, consists of fragments of rocks and minerals. When the energy of the transporting current is not strong enough to carry these particles, the particles drop out in the process of sedimentation. This type of sedimentary deposition is referred to as clasticsedimentation. Another type of sedimentary deposition occurs when material is dissolved in water, and chemically precipitates from the water. This type of sedimentation is referred to as chemical sedimentation. A third process can occur, wherein living organisms extract ions dissolved in water to make such things as shells and bones. This type of sedimentation is called biochemical sedimentation. The accumulation of plant matter, such as at the bottom of a swamp, is referred to as organic sedimentation. Thus, there are 4 major types of sedimentary rocks: Clastic Sedimentary Rocks, Chemical Sedimentary Rocks, Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks, and Organic Sedimentary Rocks. Clastic Sedimentsand Sedimentary Rocks The formation of a clastic sediment and sedimentary rocks involves five processes: 1. Weathering - The first step is transforming solid rock into smaller fragments or dissolved ions by physical and chemical weathering as discussed in the last lecture. 2. Erosion - Erosion is actually many process which act together to lower the surface of the earth. In terms of producing sediment, erosion begins the transpiration process by moving the weathered products from their original location. This can take place by gravity (mass wasting events like landslides or rock falls), by running water. by wind, or by moving ice. Erosion overlaps with transpiration. 3. Transportation - Sediment can be transported by sliding down slopes, being picked up by the wind, or by being carried by running water in streams, rivers, or ocean currents. The distance the sediment is transported and the energy of the transporting medium all leave clues in the final sediment that tell us something about the mode of transportation. 4. Deposition - Sediment is deposited when the energy of the transporting medium becomes too low to continue the transport process. In other words, if the velocity of the transporting medium becomes too low to transport sediment, the sediment will fall out and become deposited. The final sediment thus reflects the energy of the transporting 5. Lithification (Diagenesis) - Lithification is the process that turns sediment into rock. The first stage of the process is compaction. Compaction occurs as the weight of the overlying material increases. Compaction forces the grains closer together, reducing pore space and eliminating some of the contained water. Some of this water may carry mineral components in solution, and these constituents may later precipitate as new minerals in the pore spaces. This causes cementation, which will then start to bind the individual particles together. Classification - Clastic sedimentary particles and sedimentary rocks are classified in terms of grain size and shape, among other factors. Size Range Loose Boulder >256 mm Gravel Conglomerate or Breccia (depends on Cobble 64 - 256 mm Gravel Pebble 2 - 64 mm Gravel Sand 1/16 - 2mm Sand Sandstone Silt 1/256 - 1/16 mm Silt Siltstone Clay <1/256 mm Clay Claystone, mudstone, and shale In general, the coarser sediment gets left behind by the transportation process. Thus, coarse sediment is usually found closer to its source and fine grained sediment is found farther from Textures of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks When sediment is transported and deposited, it leaves clues to the mode of transport and deposition. For example, if the mode of transport is by sliding down a slope, the deposits that result are generally chaotic in nature, and show a wide variety of particle sizes. Grain size and the interrelationship between grains gives the resulting sediment texture. Thus, we can use the texture of the resulting deposits to give us clues to the mode of transport and deposition. Sorting - The degree of uniformity of grain size. Particles become sorted on the basis of density, because of the energy of the transporting medium. High energy currents can carry larger fragments. As the energy decreases, heavier particles are deposited and lighter fragments continue to be transported. This results in sorting due to density. If the particles have the same density, then the heavier particles will also be larger, so the sorting will take place on the basis of size. We can classify this size sorting on a relative basis - well sorted to poorly sorted. Sorting gives clues to the energy conditions of the transporting medium from which the sediment was deposited. o Beach deposits and wind blown deposits generally show good sorting because the energy of the transporting medium is usually constant. o Stream deposits are usually poorly sorted because the energy (velocity) in a stream varies with position in the stream and time. Rounding - During the transportation process, grains may be reduced in size due to abrasion. Random abrasion results in the eventual rounding off of the sharp corners and edges of grains. Thus, rounding of grains gives us clues to the amount of time a sediment has been in the transportation cycle. Rounding is classified on relative terms as well. Sediment Maturity refers to the length of time that the sediment has been in the sedimentary cycle. Texturally mature sediment is sediment that is well rounded, (as rounding increases with transport distance and time) and well sorted (as sorting gets better as larger clasts are left behind and smaller clasts are carried away. Because the weathering processes continues during sediment transport, mineral grains that are unstable near the surface become less common as the distance of transport or time in the cycle increases. Thus compositionally mature sediment is composed of only the most stable minerals. For example a poorly sediment containing glassy angular volcanic fragments, olivine crystals and plagioclase is texturally immature because the fragments are angular, indicating they have not been transported very far and the sediment is poorly sorted, indicating that little time has been involved in separating larger fragments from smaller fragments. It is compositionally immature because it contains unstable glass along with minerals that are not very stable near the surface - olivine and plagioclase. On the other hand a well sorted beach sand consisting mainly of well rounded quartz grains is texturally mature because the grains are rounded, indicating a long time in the transportation cycle, and the sediment is well sorted, also indicative of the long time required to separate the coarser grained material and finer grained material from the sand. The beach sand is compositionally mature because it is made up only of quartz which is very stable at the earth's Types of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks We next look at various clastic sedimentary rocks that result from lithification of sediment. Conglomerates and Breccias Conglomerate and Breccia are rocks that contain an abundance of coarse grained clasts (pebbles, cobbles, or boulders). In a conglomerate, the coarse grained clasts are well rounded, indicating that they spent considerable time in the transportation process and were ultimately deposited in a high energy environment capable of carrying the large clasts. In a breccia, the coarse grained clasts are very angular, indicating the theclasts spent little time in the A Sandstone is made of sand-sized particles and forms in many different depositional settings. Texture and composition permit historic interpretation of the transport and depositional cycle and sometimes allows determination of the source. Quartz is, by far, the dominant mineral in sandstones. Still there are other varieties. A Quartz arenite – is nearly 100% quartz grains. An Arkose contains abundant feldspar. In a lithic sandstone, the grains are mostly small rock fragments. A Wacke is a sandstone that contains more than 15% mud (silt and clay sized grains).. Sandstones are one of the most common types of sedimentary rocks. Mudrocks are made of fine grained clasts (silt and clay sized) . A siltstone is one variety that consists of silt-sized fragments. A shale is composed of clay sized particles and is a rock that tends to break into thin flat fragments (See figure 7.4e in your text). A mudstone is similar to a shale, but does not break into thin flat fragments. Organic-rich shales are the source of Fine grained clastics are deposited in non-agitated water, calm water, where there is little energy to continue to transport the small grains. Thus mudrocks form in deep water ocean basins and lakes. Biochemical and Organic Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks Biochemical and Organic sediments and sedimentary rocks are those derived from living organisms. When the organism dies, the remains can accumulate to become sediment or sedimentary rock. Among the types of rock produced by this process are: Biochemical Limestone - calcite (CaCO3) is precipitated by organisms usually to form a shell or other skeletal structure. Accumulation of these skeletal remains results in a limestone. Sometimes the fossilized remains of the organism are preserved in the rock, other times recrystallization during lithification has destroyed the remains. Limestones are very common Biochemical Chert - Tiny silica secreting planktonic organism like Radiolaria and Diatoms can accumulate on the sea floor and recrystallize during lithification to form biochemical chert. The recrystallization results in a hard rock that is usually seen as thin beds (see figure 7.22a in Diatomite - When diatoms accumulate and do not undergo recrystallization, they form a white rock called diatomite as seen if the White Cliffs of Dover (see figure 7.20b in your text). Coal - Coal is an organic rock made from organic carbon that is the remains of fossil plant matter. It accumulates in lush tropical wetland settings and requires deposition in absence of Oxygen. It is high in carbon and can easily be burned to obtain energy. Chemical Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks Dissolved ions released into water by the weathering process are carried in streams or groundwater. Eventually these dissolved ions end in up in the ocean, explaining why sea water is salty. When water evaporates or the concentration of the ions get too high as a result of some other process, the ions recombine by chemical precipitation to form minerals that can accumulate to become chemical sediments and chemical sedimentary rocks. Among these are: Evaporites - formed by evaporation of sea water or lake water. Produces halite (salt) and gypsum deposits by chemical precipitation as concentration of solids increases due to water loss by evaporation. This can occur in lakes that have no outlets (like the Great Salt Lake) or restricted ocean basins, like has happened in the Mediterranean Sea or the Gulf of Mexico in Travertine - Groundwater containing dissolve Calcium and bicarbonate ions can precipitate calcite to form a chemically precipitated limestone, called travertine. This can occur in lakes, hot springs, and caves. Dolostones- Limestone that have been chemically modified by Mg-rich fluids flowing through the rock are converted to dolostones. CaCO3 is recrystallized to a new mineral dolomite Chemical Cherts - Groundwater flowing through rock can precipitate SiO2 to replace minerals that were present. This produces a non-biogenic chert. There are many varsities of such chert that are given different names depending on their attributes, For example: Flint – Black or gray from organic matter. Jasper – Red or yellow from Fe oxides. Petrified wood – Wood grain preserved by silica. Agate – Concentrically layered rings As mentioned previously, all stages of the sedimentary cycle leave clues to processes that were operating in the past. Perhaps the most easily observable clues are structures left by the depositional process. We here discuss sedimentary structures and the information that can be obtained from these structures. Stratification and Bedding Because sediment is deposited in low lying areas that often extend over wide areas, successive depositional events produce layers called bedding or stratification that is usually the most evident feature of sedimentary rocks. The layering can be due to differences in color of the material, differences in grain size, or differences in mineral content or chemical composition. All of these differences can be related to differences in the environment present during the depositional events. (see figure 7.10 in your text). A series of beds are referred to as strata. A sequence of strata that is sufficiently unique to be recognized on a regional scale is termed a formation. A formation is the fundamental geologic mapping unit. (See figure 7.11 in your text). Rhythmic Layering - Alternating parallel layers having different properties. Sometimes caused by seasonal changes in deposition (Varves). i.e. lake deposits wherein coarse sediment is deposited in summer months and fine sediment is deposited in the winter when the surface of the lake is frozen. Cross Bedding - Sets of beds that are inclined relative to one another. The beds are inclined in the direction that the wind or water was moving at the time of deposition. Boundaries between sets of cross beds usually represent an erosional surface. Very common in beach deposits, sand dunes, and river deposited sediment. Graded Bedding - As current velocity decreases, first the larger or more dense particles are deposited followed by smaller particles. This results in bedding showing a decrease in grain size from the bottom of the bed to the top of the bed. Sediment added as a pulse of turbid water. As pulse wanes, water loses velocity and sediments settle. Coarsest material settles first, medium next, then fine. Multiple graded-bed sequences called turbidites (see figure 7.14 in your text). Non-sorted Sediment - Sediment showing a mixture of grain sizes results from such things as rockfalls, debris flows, mudflows, and deposition from melting ice. Ripple Marks - with the flow. Bedforms are linked to flow velocity and sediment size. Ripples are characteristic of shallow water deposition and can also be caused by wind. blowing over the surface. Sand dunes are similar, but on a larger scale. Ripples are commonly preserved in sedimentary rocks. Asymmetric ripples (as shown above) indicate flow direction,with the steep slope on the down - current direction. Ripples persevered in ancient rocks can also be indicators of up/down direction in the original sediment. Symmetric ripples form as a result of constant wave energy oscillating back and forth. Mudcracks - result from the drying out of wet sediment at the surface of the Earth. The cracks form due to shrinkage of the sediment as it dries. When present in rock, they indicate that the surface was exposed at the earth's surface and then rapidly buried. Sole Marks -Flutes are troughs eroded in soft sediment that can become filled with mud. Both the flutes and the resulting casts (called flute casts) can be preserved in rock. Raindrop Marks - pits (or tiny craters) created by falling rain. If present, this suggests that the sediment was exposed to the surface of the Earth just prior to burial. Fossils - Remains of once living organisms. Probably the most important indicator of the environment of deposition. o Different species usually inhabit specific environments. o Because life has evolved - fossils give clues to relative age of the sediment. o Can also be important indicators of past climates. o Sulfides along with buried organic matter give rocks a dark color. Indicates deposition in a reducing environment. o Deposition in oxidizing environment produces red colored iron oxides and is often indicative of deposition in a non-marine environment. Such red colored rocks are often referred to as red beds. If we look at various environments now present on Earth, we can find characteristics in the sediment that are unique to each environment. If we find those same characteristics in sedimentary rocks, it allows us to interpret the environment of the past. Each environment has its own energy regime and sediment delivery, transport and depositional conditions that are reflected in the sediment deposited. Sedimentary Environments can be divided into the following Terrestrial (Non-marine) environments o Alluvial fans o Sand Dunes o Mountain Streams o Coastal Beaches o Shallow Marine Clastics o Shallow Marine Carbonates o Deep Marine We will cover most of these environments in more detail later in the course. For now familiarize yourself with each of these by reading pages 202 to 206 in your text. Transgressions and Regressions Throughout geologic history sea level has risen and fallen by as much as a few hundred meters many times. These changes are the result of changes earth's climate or changes in the shape of the sea floor as a result of tectonics. When sea level rises, the coast migrates inland. This is called a Transgression. Beach sand gets buried by marine sediments and the sea floor subsides due to the weight of the sediment. During a transgression, the beach sand forms an extensive layer, but does not all have the same age. When sea level falls, the coast migrates seaward. This is called a Regression. The sedimentary sequence then repeats itself in a vertical sense as the sedimentary environment migrates back and forth. See figure 7.21 in your text. LIthification of sediment into sedimentary rocks takes place after the sediment has been deposited and buried. The processes by which the sediment becomes lithified into a hard sedimentary rock is called diagenesis and includes all physical, chemical and biological processes that act on the sediment. The first step in diagenesis is the compaction of the sediment and loss of water as a result of the weight of the overlying sediment. Compaction and burial may cause recrystallization of the minerals to make the rock even harder. Fluids flowing through the rock and organisms may precipitate new minerals in the pore spaces between grains to form a cement that holds the sediment together. Common cements include quartz, calcite, and hematite. Other conditions present during diagenesis, such as the presence of absence of free oxygen may cause other alterations to the original sediment. In an environment where there is excess oxygen (Oxidizing Environment) organic remains will be converted to carbon dioxide and water. Iron will change from Fe2+ , and will change the color of the sediment to a deep red (rust) color. In an environment where there is a depletion of oxygen (Reducing Environment), organic material may be transformed to solid carbon in the form of coal, or may be converted to hydrocarbons, the source of petroleum. Diagenesis is also a response to increasing the temperature and pressure as sediment gets buried deeper. As temperature increases beyond about 200o C, we enter the realm of metamorphism, the subject of our next discussion. Questions on this material that might be asked on an exam 1. What are the four types of sedimentary rocks.? Give some examples of each. there are 4 major types of sedimentary rocks: Clastic Sedimentary Rocks, Chemical Sedimentary Rocks, Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks, and Organic Sedimentary Rocks. 2. How are clastic sedimentary rocks classified? 3. What characteristics of sediment would tell you that the sediment is texturally and compositionally mature or immature? 4. Define the following (a) evaporites, (b) coal, (c) travertine, (d) varves, (e) fossils, (f) transgression, (g) regression. 5. What information can be obtained about the depositional processes when one finds the following features in sediment or sedimentary rocks (a) cross-beds, (b) ripple marks, (c) mudcracks, (d) sole marks? 6. What is the significance of red colored sediment? What is the significance of black colored sediment with high amounts of organic material? 7. How does sediment turn into hard sedimentary rock? Return to EENS 1110 Page	http://www.slideshare.net/RobertCraig2/sediment-and-sedimentary-rocksssssssssssssssssssssss-begin-here
4.0625	How Do Fish Detect Sound? Table of Contents Until relatively recently, fish were considered to be silent creatures; they clearly do not have external ears and even though they do have some internal hearing apparatus, it lacks some basic structures. But experiments performed early in the 20th century showed that fish could be trained to emerge to feed on hearing a whistle. Water is an excellent medium for conducting sound; it travels much fester (over four times as fast at about 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) per second) and much farther in water than in air, so fish can exploit this to get their message across. How do fish hear? Sound travels as a series of waves or vibrations through the water. Because a fish's body is a similar density to the surrounding water, the waves pass through it. However, in the fish's inner ear there are a number of ear bones known as otoliths. Being bones, these are of a different density to much of the rest of the fish's body. The sound waves cause the otoliths to vibrate and it is this vibration that is picked up by sensory cells in the inner ear and transmitted to the brain. In some species, the swimbladder acts to amplify underwater sounds by picking up the pressure waves of the sound — if you have ever stood near to a loudspeaker and been able to “feel” the sound, especially the low frequency bass, this is essentially the same thing. Can fish make noise as well as listen to it? Fish lack a voice box and so must find other means of making themselves heard. To do this, freshwater fish use two main methods: “stridulation” where they rub their teeth, spines or other skeletal parts together, and “drumming” where muscles around the swimbladder contract rapidly and, as the name suggests, use the swimbladder just like a drum. The fishe's “songs” can range from the quite simple “click” made by loaches (using a similar process to people cracking their knuckles) to the buzzing and growling common among cichlids. Croaking gouramis produce their eponymous sounds using specially adapted pectoral fins. What are they telling each other? Most fish use their sounds for two main purposes: aggression and courtship. Cichlids, such as the jewel (Hemichromis spp.) and the convict (Archocentrus nigrofasciatus), growl if an intruder enters their territory when they are defending young. The click noise produced by some loaches can be heard well beyond the aquarium. This again is an aggressive signal, warning other loaches not to approach the territory. Male croaking gouramis produce sound as they square up to a rival — the depth of the sound that each fish is able to produce is related to its size and ultimately its strength. The stronger the fish, the deeper the aggressive call. But not ail fish vocalizations are concerned with aggression; indeed, some evidence suggests that submissive fish produce “appeasement” sounds to try to dissuade an aggressor from launching an attack. Fish may also make sounds during courtship to impress a mate. Talking catfish, which make a surprising noise when taken out of water, may do so to frighten a predator. It is thought that the shock of the found may just occasionally save the fish's life by causing the predator to drop its prey.	http://infolific.com/pets/fish-in-the-wild/sound-detection/
4.1875	A defective script is a writing system that does not represent all the phonemic distinctions of a language. It is different from an irregular script, which can distinguish all the phonemes of the language even if in practice it does not always do so. For example, Italian has seven vowels, but the Italian alphabet has only five vowel letters to represent them; in general, the differences between /e, ɛ/ and /o, ɔ/ are simply ignored, though when stress marks are used they may distinguish them. Among the consonants, both /s/ and /z/ are written ⟨s⟩, and both /ts/ and /dz/ are written ⟨z⟩, though not many words are distinguished by the latter. Stress and hiatus are not reliably distinguished. Such imperfections are nothing new. The Greek alphabet was defective during its early history. Classical Greek had distinctive vowel length: five short vowels, /i e a o u/, and seven long vowels, /iː eː ɛː aː ɔː oː uː/. When the Phoenician alphabet was adapted to Greek, the names of five letters were pronounced with initial vowels by the Greeks and used acrophonically to represent vowels. These were alpha, e (later called e psilon), iota, o (later called o micron), and u (later called u psilon): five letters for twelve vowel sounds. Later the [h] dropped from the Eastern Greek dialects, and the letter heta (now pronounced eta) became available; it was used for /ɛː/. About the same time the Greeks created an additional letter, omega, probably by writing omicron with an underline, that was used for /ɔː/. Digraphs ei and ou were devised for /eː/ and /oː/. Thus Greek entered its classical era with seven letters and two digraphs for twelve vowel sounds. Long /iː aː uː/ were never distinguished from short /i a u/, even though the distinction was meaningful. Although the Greek alphabet was a good match to the consonants of the language, it was defective when it came to some vowels. A famously defective script is the Arabic one. The modern script does not normally write short vowels, but for the first few centuries of the Islamic era, long vowels were not written and many consonant letters were ambiguous as well. The Arabic script derives from the Aramaic, and not only did the Aramaic language have fewer phonemes than Arabic, but several originally distinct Aramaic letters had conflated (become indistinguishable in shape), so that in the early Arabic writings 28 consonants phonemes were represented by only 18 letters—and in the middle of words, only 15 were distinct. For example, medial ⟨ٮ⟩ represented /b, t, θ, n, j/, and ⟨ح⟩ represented /ǧ, ħ, x/. A system of diacritic marks, or pointing, was later developed to resolve the ambiguities, and over the centuries became nearly universal. However, even today unpointed texts of a style called mašq are found, where these consonants are not distinguished. Without short vowels or geminate consonants being written, modern Arabic نظر nẓr could represent /naðˤara/ 'he saw', /naðˤːara/ 'he compared', /nuðˤira/ 'he was seen', /nuðˤːira/ 'he was compared', /naðˤar/ 'a glance', or /niðˤr/ 'similar'. However, in practice there is little ambiguity, as the vowels are more easily predictable in Arabic than they are in a language like English. Moreover, the defective nature of the script has its benefits: the stable shape of the root words, despite grammatical inflection, results in quicker word recognition and therefore faster reading speeds; and the lack of short vowels, the sounds which vary the most between Arabic dialects, makes texts more widely accessible to a diverse audience. However, in mašq and those styles of kufic writing which lack consonant pointing, the ambiguities are more serious, for here different roots are written the same. ﯨطر could represent the root nẓr 'see' as above, but also nṭr 'protect', bṭr 'pride', bẓr 'clitoris' or 'with flint', as well as several inflections and derivations of each of these root words. The Arabic alphabet has been adopted by many Muslim peoples to write their languages. In them, new consonant letters have been devised for sounds lacking in Arabic (e.g. /p/, /g/, /tʃ/, and /ʒ/ in Persian; all the aspirate and retroflex stops in Sindhi). But rarely have the full set of vowels been represented in those new alphabets: Ottoman Turkish had eight vowels, but used only three letters to note them. However, two adaptions of the Arabic alphabet do unambiguously mark all vowels: that for Kashmiri and that for Kurdish. When a defective script is written with diacritics or other conventions to indicate all phonemic distinctions, the result is called plene writing. Defectiveness is a cline: the Semitic abjads do not indicate (all) vowels, but there are also alphabets which mark vowels but not tone (e.g. many African languages), or vowel quality but not vowel length (e.g. Latin). Even if English orthography were regularized, the English alphabet would still be incapable of unambiguously conveying intonation, though since this is not expected of scripts, it is not normally counted as defectiveness. - Danesi, Marcel (1996). Italian the Easy way. - Swiggers, "Transmission of the Phoenician Script to the West"; Threatte, "The Greek Alphabet"; in Daniels & Bright, eds., 1996. The World's Writing Systems. - Daniels & Bright, p. 561-3 - Bell and Watt, 1970. Bell's introduction to the Qurʼān - Bauer, 1996. "Arabic Writing". In Daniels & Bright, eds, The World's Writing Systems. - Daniels & Bright, p. 747 - Daniels & Bright, p. 757 - Daniels & Bright, p. 758 - Daniels & Bright, p. 753 - Daniels & Bright, p. 748 - Weinberg, 1985. The history of Hebrew plene spelling - Sampson, 1990. Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defective_script
4	Is moonlight dangerous? It depends on what you are, according to a study published online recently in the Journal of Animal Ecology. "Ecologists have long viewed the darkness of a moonless night as a protective blanket for nocturnal prey species," said Laura Prugh, a wildlife biologist at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. In the dark, creatures of the night can go about their business in relative safety from lurking predators. Moonlight, according to this logic, helps predators find their prey and is risky if you are a prey species trying not to get eaten. That's not always so, says Prugh, a researcher with the UAF Institute of Arctic Biology, and colleague Christopher Golden of Harvard University. "The theory that moonlight increases predation risk ignores the fact that prey animals also have eyes, and they often use them to detect predators," said Prugh. If moonlight helps predators to find prey, it could also help prey species to detect approaching predators. To find out if moonlit nights are dangerous, Prugh and Golden compiled the effects of moonlight reported in existing studies of 58 nocturnal mammal species. If moonlight is dangerous for prey species, they expected predators to be more active on moonlit nights and prey species to be less active. The researchers found that species ranged widely in their affinity for moonlight, from the moon-loving or lunar-philic lemurs of Madagascar to the lunar-phobic kangaroo rats in the southwestern United States. And, responses to moonlight were related to the sensory systems of species rather than their positions in the food chain. Prey animals that use vision as their main sensory system, such as primates, were generally more active on bright nights. Prey species that rely mainly on senses like smell or echolocation, such as many rodents and bats, were generally less active. And contrary to expectations, predators such as African lions were less active on moonlit nights. "Moonlight is indeed risky for some prey species, but only those that use vision as a backup system rather than their first line of defense," said Prugh. "Our synthesis shows that moonlight can benefit visually oriented prey." And as for those lurking predators, the moon may often hurt rather than help their chances of catching prey. This study is the first to examine moonlight effects across a diverse assemblage of species. Nearly half of all mammals are nocturnal, experiencing lunar cycles that cause light levels to change by three orders of magnitude every month. "Our results suggest that moonlight alters predator-prey relations in more complex ways than previously thought," said Prugh, who added that she hopes this study will stimulate further research. "Do lunar cycles affect population growth rates? How do artificial lights affect the hunting success and vulnerability of nocturnal species? These are important questions that we do not currently have answers to," Prugh said. \|Contact: Marie Thoms\| University of Alaska Fairbanks	http://bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Study-3A-Death-by-moonlight-3F-Not-always-31987-1/
4.40625	Log In to abcteach Free Account (Settings) This fun winter activity uses a numeral, number word, ten frame, and tally marks to build a snowman for each number from 1-10. Includes printables, sample illustration, and directions. This penguin theme unit is a great way to practice counting and adding to 20. This 21 page unit includes; tracing numbers, cut and paste, finding patterns, ten frame activity, in and out boxes and much more! CC: Math: K.CC.B.4 This chart has a variety of uses for your counting and place value lessons. Students can color the penguins for patterning, cut and paste in order, and use for addition and subtraction. This set includes penguins with a number in each shape, up to twenty. Also, included are math symbols: plus sign, minus sign and equals sign. Print off as many as you need for counting, adding or subtracting. Print off two copies to create a matching game. Interactive .notebook activity that asks students to represent a number (1-10) in five different ways; numberal, ten frame, tally marks, picture and number line. Common Core: Math: K.CC.3, K.CC.4 These posters are used to show students 4 differnt ways a number of objects can be represented; numeral, word form, ten frame and domino pattern. Common Core Math: K.CC.3, K.CC.4 These posters are used to show students 4 different ways a number of objects can be represented; numeral, word form, ten frame and domino pattern. This supports students learning numbers based on the Common Core Standards for kindgarten. Common Core Math: K.CC.3, K.CC.4	http://www.abcteach.com/directory/prek-early-childhood-mathematics-number-sense-2999-4-0
4.03125	A boundary layer is a thin layer of viscous fluid close to the solid surface of a wall in contact with a moving stream in which (within its thickness δ) the flow velocity varies from zero at the wall (where the flow “sticks” to the wall because of its viscosity) up to Ue at the boundary, which approximately (within 1% error) corresponds to the free stream velocity (see Figure 1). Strictly speaking, the value of δ is an arbitrary value because the friction force, depending on the molecular interaction between fluid and the solid body, decreases with the distance from the wall and becomes equal to zero at infinity. The fundamental concept of the boundary layer was suggested by L. Prandtl (1904), it defines the boundary layer as a layer of fluid developing in flows with very high Reynolds Numbers Re, that is with relatively low viscosity as compared with inertia forces. This is observed when bodies are exposed to high velocity air stream or when bodies are very large and the air stream velocity is moderate. In this case, in a relatively thin boundary layer, friction Shear Stress (viscous shearing force): τ = η[∂u/∂y] (where η is the dynamic viscosity; u = u(y) – “profile” of the boundary layer longitudinal velocity component, see Figure 1) may be very large; in particular, at the wall where u = 0 and τw = η[∂u/∂y]w although the viscosity itself may be rather small. It is possible to ignore friction forces outside the boundary layer (as compared with inertia forces), and on the basis of Prandtl’s concept, to consider two flow regions: the boundary layer where friction effects are large and the almost Inviscid Flow core. On the premises that the boundary layer is a very thin layer (δ << L, where L is the characteristic linear dimension of the body over which the flow occurs or the channel containing the flow, its thickness decreasing with growth of Re, Figure 1), one can estimate the order of magnitude of the boundary layer thickness from the following relationship: For example, when an airplane flies at Ue = 400 km/hr, the boundary layer thickness at the wing trailing edge with 1 meter chord (profile length) is m. As was experimentally established, a laminar boundary layer develops at the inlet section of the body. Gradually, under the influence of some destabilizing factors, the boundary layer becomes unstable and transition of boundary layer to a Turbulent Flow regime takes place. Special experimental investigations have established the existence of a transition region between the turbulent and laminar regions. In some cases (for example, at high turbulence level of the external flow), the boundary layer becomes turbulent immediately downstream of the stagnation point of the flow. Under some conditions, such as a severe pressure drop, an inverse phenomenon takes place in accelerating turbulent flows, namely flow relaminarization. In spite of its relative thinness, the boundary layer is very important for initiating processes of dynamic interaction between the flow and the body. The boundary layer determines the aerodynamic drag and lift of the flying vehicle, or the energy loss for fluid flow in channels (in this case, a hydrodynamic boundary layer because there is also a thermal boundary layer which determines the thermodynamic interaction of Heat Transfer). Computation of the boundary layer parameters is based on the solution of equations obtained from the Navier–Stokes equations for viscous fluid motion, which are first considerably simplified taking into account the thinness of the boundary layer. The solution suggested by L. Prandtl is essentially the first term of power series expansion of the Navier–Stokes equation, the series expansion being performed for powers of dimensionless parameter (δ/L). The smaller parameter in this term is in zero power so that the boundary layer equation is the zero approximation in an Asymptotic Expansion (at large Re) of the boundary layer equation (asymptotic solution). A transformation of the Navier–Stokes equation into the boundary layer equations can be demonstrated by deriving the Prandtl equation for laminar boundary layer in a two-dimensional incompressible flow without body forces. In this case, the system of Navier–Stokes equations will be: After evaluating the order of magnitude of some terms of Eq. (2) and ignoring small terms the system of Prandtl equations for laminar boundary layer becomes: in which x, y are longitudinal and lateral coordinates (Figure 1); v is the velocity component along “y” axis; p, pressure; t, time; and n the kinematic viscosity. The boundary layer is thin and the velocity at its external edge Ue can be sufficiently and accurately determined as the velocity of an ideal (inviscid) fluid flow along the wall calculated up to the first approximation, without taking into account the reverse action of the boundary layer on the external flow. The longitudinal pressure gradient [∂p/∂x] = [dp/dx] (at p(y) = const) in Eq. (3) can be depicted from the Euler equation of motion of an ideal fluid. From the above, Prandtl equations in their finite form will be written as: This is a system of parabolic, nonlinear partial differential equations of the second order which are solved with initial and boundary conditions The system of equations (4) is written for actual values of velocity components u and v. To generalize the equations obtained for turbulent flow, the well-known relationship between actual, averaged and pulsating components of turbulent flows parameters should be used. For example, for velocity components there are relationships connecting actual u and v, average ū and and pulsating u' and v' components: After some rearrangements, it is possible to obtain another system of equations [Eq. (6)] from system (3), in particular for steady flow: Using the following relation for friction shear stress in the boundary layer: and taking into account that in the laminar boundary layer u = u' and it is possible to rewrite the Prandtl equations in a form valid for both laminar and turbulent flows: The simplest solutions have been obtained for a laminar boundary layer on a thin flat plate in a two-dimensional, parallel flow of incompressible fluid (Figure 1). In this case, the estimation of the order of magnitude of the equations terms: x ~ L, y ~ δ, δ ~ allows combining variables x and y in one relation and to reduce the solution of Eq. (8) (at dp/dx = 0) to determining the dependencies of u and v upon the new parameter ξ. On the other hand, using well-known relations between velocity components u, v and stream function ψ it is possible to obtain one ordinary nonlinear differential equation of the third order, instead of the system of partial differential equations (8) Here, f(ξ) is the unknown function of ξ variable: f = ƒ = The first numerical solution of Eq. (10) was obtained by Blasius (1908) under boundary conditions corresponding to physical conditions of the boundary layer at y = 0: u = 0, v = 0; at y → ∞; u → Ue (Blasius boundary layer). Figure 2 compares the results of Blasius solution (solid line) with experimental data. Using these data, it is possible to evaluate the viscous boundary layer thickness. At ξ 2.5, (u/Ue 0.99) (Figure 2); consequently from Eq. (9) we obtain: From the Blasius numerical calculations of the value of the second derivative of f(ξ) function at the wall friction shear stress, the relationship in this case is: Friction force R, acting on both sides of the plate of L length (Figure 1), is also determined from Eq. (11): as in the friction coefficient for flat plates: Despite the fact that Prandtl equations are much simpler than Navier–Stokes equations, their solutions were obtained for a limited number of problems. For many practical problems, it is not necessary to determine velocity profiles in the boundary layer, only thickness and shear stress. This kind of information may be obtained by solving the integral momentum equation The integral relationship (12) is valid both for the laminar and turbulent boundary layer. Functions which were not known a priori but which characterize distribution of fluid parameters across the layer thickness δ are under the integral in Eq. (12). And the error of calculating the integral is less than the error in the approximately assumed integrand function ρu = ρu(y). These create conditions for developing approximate methods of calculating boundary layer parameters which are less time-consuming than the exact methods of integrating Prandtl equations. The fundamental concept was first suggested by T. von Karman, who introduced such arbitrary layer thickness δ* and momentum displacement thickness δ** thus, we can transform Eq. (12) for two-dimensional boundary layer of incompressible fluid to: There are three unknown functions in Eq. (15), namely, δ* = δ(x), δ* = δ*(x) and τw = τw(x) [functions of Ue(x) and correspondingly which are known from computations of flow in the inviscid flow core]. The solution of an ordinary differential equation like Eq. (15) usually requires assumption (or representation) of velocity distribution (velocity profile) across the boundary layer thickness as the function of some characteristic parameters (form-parameters), and it also requires the use of empirical data about the relationship between friction coefficient Cf = 2τw/(ρU2e) and the arbitrary thickness of the boundary layer (friction law). Some definite physical explanations can be given as far as the values of δ and δ** are concerned. The integrand function in Eq. (13) contains after rearrangement, a term (Ue – u) which characterizes the velocity decrease. The integral in Eq. (14) can thus be considered as a measure of decreasing the flow rate across the boundary layer, as compared with the perfect fluid flow at the velocity Ue. On the other hand, the value of δ* can be considered as the measure of deviation along a normal to the wall (along “y” axis) of the external flow stream line under the influence of friction forces. From this consideration of the integral structure of Eq. (14), it is possible to conclude that δ characterizes momentum decrease in the boundary layer under the influence of friction. The following relations are valid: where H is the form-parameter of the boundary layer velocity profile. For example, for linear distribution u = ky, At present, so-called semi-empirical theories are widely used for predicting turbulent boundary layer parameters. In this case, it is assumed that total friction stress τ in a turbulent boundary layer is a sum Here, τT is additional (turbulent or Reynolds) friction stress, in particular, in an incompressible flow see Eq. (7). This representation is directly connected with the system of equations of motion in the boundary layer (6). In the compressible boundary layer, density pulsations can be considered to be the result of temperature pulsations where β = (1/T) is the volumetric expansion coefficient. Additional semi-empirical hypotheses about turbulent momentum transfer are used for determining τT. For example, where ηT is the dynamic coefficient of turbulent viscosity introduced by J. Boussinesq in 1877. On the basis of the concept of similarity of molecular and turbulent exchange (similarity theory) Prandtl introduced the mixing length (die Mischungsweg) hypothesis. The mixing length 1 is the path a finite fluid volume (“mole”) passes from one layer of average motion to another without changing its momentum. In accordance with this condition, he derived an equation which proved to be fundamental for the boundary layer theory: For turbulent region of the near wall flow boundary layer, L. Prandtl considered the length 1 proportional to y where κ is an empirical constant. Close to the wall, where ηT << η, viscous molecular friction [the first term in Eq. (15)] is a determining factor. The thickness of this part of the boundary layer δ1, which is known as laminar or viscous sublayer, is . Outside the sublayer, the value of ηT increases, reaching several orders of magnitude larger than η. Correspondingly, in this zone of the boundary layer known as the turbulent core τT > 0 = η[∂ū/∂y]. Sometimes the turbulent core is subdivided into the buffer zone, where the laminar and turbulent friction are the comparable value, and the developed zone, where τT >> τ0. For this region, after integrating Eq. (18) and taking into account Eq. (19), it is possible to derive an expression for logarithmic velocity profile: If dimensionless (or universal) coordinates are used. where is the so-called dynamic velocity (or Friction Velocity), Eq. (20) can be rewritten in the following form: Velocity distribution representation in universal coordinates and mathematical models for turbulent viscosity coefficient are dealt with in greater detail in the section of Turbulent Flow. One of the current versions of the semi-empirical theory of turbulent boundary layer developed by S. S. Kutateladze and A. I. Leontiev is based on the so-called asymptotic theory of turbulent boundary layers at Re → ∞ where the thickness of laminar (viscous) sublayer δ1 decreases at a higher rate than δ as a result of which (δ1/δ) → 0. Under these conditions, a turbulent boundary layer with “vanishing viscosity” is developing. In this layer, η → 0 but is not equal to zero and in this respect, the layer differs from perfect fluid flow. The concept of relative friction law, introduced by S. S. Kutateladze and A. I. Leontiev (1990), indicates The law is defined as the ratio of friction coefficient Cf for the condition under consideration to the value of Cf0 for “standard” conditions on a flat, impermeable plate flown around by incompressible, isothermal flow, both coefficients being obtained for Re = Ueδ/ν. It is shown that at Re → ∞; η → 0; and Cf → 0, the relative variation of the friction coefficient under the influence of such disturbing factors as pressure gradient, compressibility, nonisothermicity, injection (suction) through a porous wall etc., has a finite value. The equations derived for calculating the value of Ψ have one important characteristic which makes Ψ independent of empirical constants of turbulence. In accordance with the fundamental concept of the integral “approach”, the integral momentum equation is transformed into: Here, ReL = UeL/ν, b = (2/Cf0)(ρwUw)/(ρeUe) are the permeability parameters for the case of injecting a gas at density ρw through a permeable wall at the velocity of vw. For determining the function Re = Re** , it is necessary to calculate the distribution For this purpose, the principle of superposition of disturbing factors applies In Eq. 24, each multiplier represents the relative friction law, taking into account the effect of one of the factors, among them compressibility ΨM, temperature (or Enthalpy) head ΨT, injection ΨB, pressure gradient ΨP and others. The fundamental concepts of the boundary layer create conditions for explaining such phenomena as flow separation from the surface under the influence of the flow inertia, deceleration of viscous flow by the wall and adverse pressure gradient acting in the upstream direction [∂p/∂x] = [dp/dx[ >] 0 or [∂u/x∂] < 0. If pressure gradient is adverse on the surface location between sections ‘1–4’ (see Figure 3), the velocity distribution u = u(x,y) in the boundary layer changes gradually; becoming “less full,” decreasing the inclination in the fluid jets which are closer to the wall and possessing less amount of kinetic energy (see velocity profile shapes in Figure 3) which penetrate far downstream into the region of increased pressure. In some sections, for example section ‘4’, fluid particles which are on the ‘a-a’ stream line (dotted line in Figure 3) — having completely exhausted their supply of kinetic energy become decelerated (ua = 0). Static pressure and pressure gradient value do not vary across boundary layer thickness. Therefore, fluid particles which are closer to the wall than line ‘a–a’ and possessing still less amount of energy begin to move in the opposite direction under the influence of the pressure gradient in ‘4–4’ section (see Figure 3). Thus, the relationship: In this way, at some locations of the surface, the velocity profile changes. This change is characterized by the alteration of the sign of the derivative [∂u/∂y]w from positive (section 2, Figure 3) to negative (section 4). Of course, it is also possible to define the section where [∂u/∂y]w = 0 (section 3, Figure 3). This is referred to as the boundary layer separation section (correspondingly point ‘S’ on the surface of this section is the separation point). It is characterized by the development of a reverse flow zone — the flow around the body is no longer smooth, the boundary layer becomes considerably thicker and the external flow stream lines deviate from the surface of the body flown around. Downstream of the separation point, the static pressure distribution across the thickness of the layer is not steady and the static pressure distribution along the surface does not correspond to the pressure distribution in the external, inviscid flow. The separation is followed by the development of reverse flow zones and swirls, in which the kinetic energy supplied from the external flow transforms into heat under the influence of friction forces. The flow separation, accompanied by energy dissipation in the reverse flow swirl zones, results in such undesirable effects as increases in the flying vehicles’ drag or hydraulic losses in channels. On the other hand, separated flows are used in different devices for intensive mixing of fluid (for example, to improve mixing of fuel and air in combustion chambers of engines). When viscous fluids flow in channels with a variable cross-section (alternating pressure gradient), the separation zone may be local if the diffusor section is followed by the confusor section, where the separated flow will again reattach to the surface (see Figure 4a). When the flow separates from the trailing edge of the body (for example, from the wing trailing edge), the so-called wake is formed by “linking” boundary layers (see Figure 4b). Prandtl, L. (1904) Über Flüssingkeitsbewegungbeisehr Kleiner Reibung: Verhandl. III Int. Math. Kongr. — Heidelberg. Blasius, H. (1908) Grenzschichten in Flüssigkeiten mit Kleiner Reibung: Z. Math. Phys., 56:1–37. Kutateladze, S. S. and Leontiev, A. I. (1990) Heat Transfer, Mass Transfer and Turbulent Boundary Layers, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York, Washington, Philadelphia, London.	http://www.thermopedia.com/content/595/
4	\|Part of the Politics series\| A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government. They agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to promote the collective good or to further their supporters' interests. While there is some international commonality in the way political parties are recognized, and in how they operate, there are often many differences, and some are significant. Many political parties have an ideological core, but some do not, and many represent very different ideologies than they did when first founded. In democracies, political parties are elected by the electorate to run a government. Many countries have numerous powerful political parties, such as Germany and India and some nations have one-party systems, such as China. The United States is a two-party system, with its two most powerful parties being the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. - 1 Historical dimensions - 2 Structure - 3 Regulation - 4 Partisan style - 5 Party funding - 6 Colors and emblems for parties - 7 International organizations of political parties - 8 Types of political parties - 9 See also - 10 References - 11 Bibliography - 12 External links The first political factions, cohering around a basic, if fluid, set of principles emerged from the Exclusion Crisis and Glorious Revolution in late-17th-century England. The Whigs supported Protestant constitutional monarchy against absolute rule and the Tories, originating in the Royalist (or "Cavalier") faction of the English Civil War, were conservative royalist supporters of a strong monarchy as a counterbalance to the republican tendencies of Whigs, who were the dominant political faction for most of the first half of the 18th century; they supported the Hanoverian succession of 1715 against the Jacobite supporters of the deposed Roman Catholic Stuart dynasty and were able to purge Tory politicians from important government positions after the failed Jacobite rising of 1715. The leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government in the period 1721–1742; his protégé was Henry Pelham (1743–1754). As the century wore on, the factions slowly began to adopt more coherent political tendencies as the interests of their power bases began to diverge. The Whig party's initial base of support from the great aristocratic families, widened to include the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants. As well as championing constitutional monarchy with strict limits on the monarch's power, the Whigs adamantly opposed a Catholic king as a threat to liberty, and believed in extending toleration to nonconformist Protestants, or dissenters. A major influence on the Whigs were the liberal political ideas of John Locke, and the concepts of universal rights employed by Locke and Algernon Sidney. Although the Tories were dismissed from office for half a century, for most of this period (at first under the leadership of Sir William Wyndham), the Tories retained party cohesion, with occasional hopes of regaining office, particularly at the accession of George II (1727) and the downfall of the ministry of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742. They acted as a united, though unavailing, opposition to Whig corruption and scandals. At times they cooperated with the "Opposition Whigs", Whigs who were in opposition to the Whig government; however, the ideological gap between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs prevented them from coalescing as a single party. They finally regained power with the accession of George III in 1760 under Lord Bute. Emergence of the party When they lost power, the old Whig leadership dissolved into a decade of factional chaos with distinct "Grenvillite", "Bedfordite", "Rockinghamite", and "Chathamite" factions successively in power, and all referring to themselves as "Whigs". Out of this chaos, the first distinctive parties emerged. The first such party was the Rockingham Whigs under the leadership of Charles Watson-Wentworth and the intellectual guidance of the political philosopher Edmund Burke. Burke laid out a philosophy that described the basic framework of the political party as "a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed". As opposed to the instability of the earlier factions, which were often tied to a particular leader and could disintegrate if removed from power, the party was centred around a set of core principles and remained out of power as a united opposition to government. A coalition including the Rockingham Whigs, led by the Earl of Shelburne, took power in 1782, only to collapse after Rockingham's death. The new government, led by the radical politician Charles James Fox in coalition with Lord North, was soon brought down and replaced by William Pitt the Younger in 1783. It was now that a genuine two-party system began to emerge, with Pitt leading the new Tories against a reconstituted "Whig" party led by Fox. By the time of this split the Whig party was increasingly influenced by the ideas of Adam Smith, founder of classical liberalism. As Wilson and Reill (2004) note, "Adam Smith's theory melded nicely with the liberal political stance of the Whig Party and its middle-class constituents." The modern Conservative Party was created out of the 'Pittite' Tories of the early 19th century. In the late 1820s disputes over political reform broke up this grouping. A government led by the Duke of Wellington collapsed amidst dire election results. Following this disaster Robert Peel set about assembling a new coalition of forces. Peel issued the Tamworth Manifesto in 1834 which set out the basic principles of Conservatism; – the necessity in specific cases of reform in order to survive, but an opposition to unnecessary change, that could lead to "a perpetual vortex of agitation". Meanwhile, the Whigs, along with free trade Tory followers of Robert Peel, and independent Radicals, formed the Liberal Party under Lord Palmerston in 1859, and transformed into a party of the growing urban middle-class, under the long leadership of William Ewart Gladstone. American political parties Although the Founding Fathers of the United States did not originally intend for American politics to be partisan, early political controversies in the 1790s over the extent of federal government powers saw the emergence of two proto-political parties- the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party, which were championed by Framers Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively. However, a consensus reached on these issues ended party politics in 1816 for a decade, a period commonly known as the Era of Good Feelings. Party politics revived in 1829 with the split of the Democratic-Republican Party into the Jacksonian Democrats led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, led by Henry Clay. The former evolved into the modern Democratic Party and the latter was replaced with the Republican Party as one of the two main parties in the 1850s. Spread of political parties The second half of the nineteenth century saw the adoption of the party model of politics across Europe. In Germany, France, Austria and elsewhere, the 1848 Revolutions sparked a wave of liberal sentiment and the formation of representative bodies and political parties. The end of the century saw the formation of large socialist parties in Europe, some conforming to the teaching of Karl Marx, others adapting social democracy through the use of reformist and gradualist methods. At the same time, the political party reached its modern form, with a membership disciplined through the use of a party whip and the implementation of efficient structures of control. The Home Rule League Party, campaigning for Home Rule for Ireland in the British Parliament was fundamentally changed by the great Irish political leader Charles Stewart Parnell in the 1880s. In 1882, he changed his party's name to the Irish Parliamentary Party and created a well-organised grass roots structure, introducing membership to replace "ad hoc" informal groupings. He created a new selection procedure to ensure the professional selection of party candidates committed to taking their seats, and in 1884 he imposed a firm 'party pledge' which obliged MPs to vote as a bloc in parliament on all occasions. The creation of a strict party whip and a formal party structure was unique at the time. His party's efficient structure and control contrasted with the loose rules and flexible informality found in the main British parties; – they soon came to model themselves on the Parnellite model. An individual who either volunteers for, is employed by, or helps to establish and operate a political party is known as a party organizer, also known as the party activist or party worker. A political party is typically led by a party leader (the most powerful member and spokesperson representing the party), a party secretary (who maintains the daily work and records of party meetings), party treasurer (who is responsible for membership dues) and party chair (who forms strategies for recruiting and retaining party members, and also chairs party meetings). Most of the above positions are also members of the party executive, the leading organization which sets policy for the entire party at the national level. The structure is far more decentralized in the United States because of the separation of powers, federalism and the multiplicity of economic interests and religious sects. Even state parties are decentralized as county and other local committees are largely independent of state central committees. The national party leader in the U.S. will be the president, if the party holds that office, or a prominent member of Congress in opposition (although a big-state governor may aspire to that role). Officially, each party has a chairman for its national committee who is a prominent spokesman, organizer and fund-raiser, but without the status of prominent elected office holders. In parliamentary democracies, on a regular, periodic basis, party conferences are held to elect party officers, although snap leadership elections can be called if enough members opt for such. Party conferences are also held in order to affirm party values for members in the coming year. American parties also meet regularly and, again, are more subordinate to elected political leaders. Depending on the demographic spread of the party membership, party members form local or regional party committees in order to help candidates run for local or regional offices in government. These local party branches reflect the officer positions at the national level. It is also customary for political party members to form wings for current or prospective party members, most of which fall into the following two categories: - identity-based: including youth wings, women's wings, ethnic minority wings, LGBT wings, etc. - position-based: including wings for candidates, mayors, governors, professionals, students, etc. The formation of these wings may have become routine but their existence is more of an indication of differences of opinion, intra-party rivalry, the influence of interest groups, or attempts to wield influence for one's state or region. These are useful for party outreach, training and employment. Many young aspiring politicians seek these roles and jobs as stepping stones to their political careers in legislative and/or executive offices. The internal structure of political parties have to be democratic in some countries. In Germany Art. 21 Abs. 1 Satz 3 GG establishes a command of inner-party democracy. Parliamentary party structure When the party is represented by members in the lower house of parliament, the party leader simultaneously serves as the leader of the parliamentary group of that full party representation; depending on a minimum number of seats held, Westminster-based parties typically allow for leaders to form frontbench teams of senior fellow members of the parliamentary group to serve as critics of aspects of government policy. When a party becomes the largest party not part of the Government, the party's parliamentary group forms the Official Opposition, with Official Opposition frontbench team members often forming the Official Opposition Shadow cabinet. When a party achieves enough seats in an election to form a majority, the party's frontbench becomes the Cabinet of government ministers. The freedom to form, declare membership in, or campaign for candidates from a political party is considered a measurement of a state's adherence to liberal democracy as a political value. Regulation of parties may run from a crackdown on or repression of all opposition parties, a norm for authoritarian governments, to the repression of certain parties which hold or promote ideals which run counter to the general ideology of the state's incumbents (or possess membership by-laws which are legally unenforceable). Furthermore, in the case of far-right, far-left and regionalism parties in the national parliaments of much of the European Union, mainstream political parties may form an informal cordon sanitarian which applies a policy of non-cooperation towards those "Outsider Parties" present in the legislature which are viewed as 'anti-system' or otherwise unacceptable for government. Cordon Sanitarian, however, have been increasingly abandoned over the past two decades in multi-party democracies as the pressure to construct broad coalitions in order to win elections – along with the increased willingness of outsider parties themselves to participate in government – has led to many such parties entering electoral and government coalitions. Starting in the second half of the 20th century modern democracies have introduced rules for the flow of funds through party coffers, e.g. the Canada Election Act 1976, the PPRA in the U.K. or the FECA in the U.S. Such political finance regimes stipulate a variety of regulations for the transparency of fundraising and expenditure, limit or ban specific kinds of activity and provide public subsidies for party activity, including campaigning. Partisan style varies according to each jurisdiction, depending on how many parties there are, and how much influence each individual party has. In a nonpartisan system, no official political parties exist, sometimes reflecting legal restrictions on political parties. In nonpartisan elections, each candidate is eligible for office on his or her own merits. In nonpartisan legislatures, there are no typically formal party alignments within the legislature. The administration of George Washington and the first few sessions of the United States Congress were nonpartisan. Washington also warned against political parties during his Farewell Address. In the United States, the unicameral legislature of Nebraska is nonpartisan but is elected and votes on informal party lines. In Canada, the territorial legislatures of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut are nonpartisan. In New Zealand, Tokelau has a nonpartisan parliament. Many city and county governments[vague] are nonpartisan. Nonpartisan elections and modes of governance are common outside of state institutions. Unless there are legal prohibitions against political parties, factions within nonpartisan systems often evolve into political parties. Single dominant party In one-party systems, one political party is legally allowed to hold effective power. Although minor parties may sometimes be allowed, they are legally required to accept the leadership of the dominant party. This party may not always be identical to the government, although sometimes positions within the party may in fact be more important than positions within the government. North Korea and China are examples; others can be found in Fascist states, such as Nazi Germany between 1934 and 1945. The one-party system is thus usually equated with dictatorships and tyranny. In dominant-party systems, opposition parties are allowed, and there may be even a deeply established democratic tradition, but other parties are widely considered to have no real chance of gaining power. Sometimes, political, social and economic circumstances, and public opinion are the reason for others parties' failure. Sometimes, typically in countries with less of an established democratic tradition, it is possible the dominant party will remain in power by using patronage and sometimes by voting fraud. In the latter case, the definition between dominant and one-party system becomes rather blurred. Examples of dominant party systems include the People's Action Party in Singapore, the African National Congress in South Africa, the Cambodian People's Party in Cambodia, the Liberal Democratic Party in Japan, and the National Liberation Front in Algeria. One-party dominant system also existed in Mexico with the Institutional Revolutionary Party until the 1990s, in the southern United States with the Democratic Party from the late 19th century until the 1970s, in Indonesia with the Golkar from the early 1970s until 1998. Two political parties Two-party systems are states such as Jamaica, Malta, Ghana and the United States in which there are two political parties dominant to such an extent that electoral success under the banner of any other party is almost impossible. One right wing coalition party and one left wing coalition party is the most common ideological breakdown in such a system but in two-party states political parties are traditionally catch all parties which are ideologically broad and inclusive. The United States has become essentially a two-party system. Since a conservative (such as the Republican Party) and liberal (such as the Democratic Party) party has usually been the status quo within American politics. The first parties were called Federalist and Republican, followed by a brief period of Republican dominance before a split occurred between National Republicans and Democratic Republicans. The former became the Whig Party and the latter became the Democratic Party. The Whigs survived only for two decades before they split over the spread of slavery, those opposed becoming members of the new Republican Party, as did anti-slavery members of the Democratic Party. Third parties (such as the Libertarian Party) often receive little support and are very rarely the victors in elections. Despite this, there have been several examples of third parties siphoning votes from major parties that were expected to win (such as Theodore Roosevelt in the election of 1912 and George Wallace in the election of 1968). As third party movements have learned, the Electoral College's requirement of a nationally distributed majority makes it difficult for third parties to succeed. Thus, such parties rarely win many electoral votes, although their popular support within a state may tip it toward one party or the other. Wallace had weak support outside the South. More generally, parties with a broad base of support across regions or among economic and other interest groups, have a great chance of winning the necessary plurality in the U.S.'s largely single-member district, winner-take-all elections. The tremendous land area and large population of the country are formidable challenges to political parties with a narrow appeal. The UK political system, while technically a multi-party system, has functioned generally as a two-party (sometimes called a "two-and-a-half party") system; since the 1920s the two largest political parties have been the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Before the Labour Party rose in British politics the Liberal Party was the other major political party along with the Conservatives. Though coalition and minority governments have been an occasional feature of parliamentary politics, the first-past-the-post electoral system used for general elections tends to maintain the dominance of these two parties, though each has in the past century relied upon a third party to deliver a working majority in Parliament. (A plurality voting system usually leads to a two-party system, a relationship described by Maurice Duverger and known as Duverger's Law.) There are also numerous other parties that hold or have held a number of seats in Parliament. Multiple political parties Multi-party systems are systems in which more than two parties are represented and elected to public office. Australia, Canada, People's Republic of Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, Ireland, United Kingdom and Norway are examples of countries with two strong parties and additional smaller parties that have also obtained representation. The smaller or "third" parties may hold the balance of power in a parliamentary system, and thus may be invited to form a part of a coalition government together with one of the larger parties; or may instead act independently from the dominant parties. More commonly, in cases where there are three or more parties, no one party is likely to gain power alone, and parties work with each other to form coalition governments. This has been an emerging trend in the politics of the Republic of Ireland since the 1980s and is almost always the case in Germany on national and state level, and in most constituencies at the communal level. Furthermore, since the forming of the Republic of Iceland there has never been a government not led by a coalition (usually of the Independence Party and one other (often the Social Democratic Alliance). A similar situation exists in the Republic of Ireland; since 1989, no one party has held power on its own. Since then, numerous coalition governments have been formed. These coalitions have been exclusively led by one of either Fianna Fáil or Fine Gael. Political change is often easier with a coalition government than in one-party or two-party dominant systems.[dubious ] If factions in a two-party system are in fundamental disagreement on policy goals, or even principles, they can be slow to make policy changes, which appears to be the case now in the U.S. with power split between Democrats and Republicans. Still coalition governments struggle, sometimes for years, to change policy and often fail altogether, post World War II France and Italy being prime examples. When one party in a two-party system controls all elective branches, however, policy changes can be both swift and significant. Democrats Woodrow Wilson, Franklin Roosevelt and Lyndon Johnson were beneficiaries of such fortuitous circumstances, as were Republicans as far removed in time as Abraham Lincoln and Ronald Reagan. Barack Obama briefly had such an advantage between 2009 and 2011. Political parties are funded by contributions from - party members and other individuals, - organizations, which share their political ideas (e.g. trade union affiliation fees) or which could benefit from their activities (e.g. corporate donations) or - governmental or public funding. Political parties, still called factions by some, especially those in the governmental apparatus, are lobbied vigorously by organizations, businesses and special interest groups such as trade unions. Money and gifts-in-kind to a party, or its leading members, may be offered as incentives. Such donations are the traditional source of funding for all right-of-centre cadre parties. Starting in the late 19th century these parties were opposed by the newly founded left-of-centre workers' parties. They started a new party type, the mass membership party, and a new source of political fundraising, membership dues. From the second half of the 20th century on parties which continued to rely on donations or membership subscriptions ran into mounting problems. Along with the increased scrutiny of donations there has been a long-term decline in party memberships in most western democracies which itself places more strains on funding. For example, in the United Kingdom and Australia membership of the two main parties in 2006 is less than an 1/8 of what it was in 1950, despite significant increases in population over that period. In some parties, such as the post-communist parties of France and Italy or the Sinn Féin party and the Socialist Party, elected representatives (i.e. incumbents) take only the average industrial wage from their salary as a representative, while the rest goes into party coffers. Although these examples may be rare nowadays, "rent-seeking" continues to be a feature of many political parties around the world. In the United Kingdom, it has been alleged that peerages have been awarded to contributors to party funds, the benefactors becoming members of the House of Lords and thus being in a position to participate in legislating. Famously, Lloyd George was found to have been selling peerages. To prevent such corruption in the future, Parliament passed the Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act 1925 into law. Thus the outright sale of peerages and similar honours became a criminal act. However, some benefactors are alleged to have attempted to circumvent this by cloaking their contributions as loans, giving rise to the 'Cash for Peerages' scandal. Such activities as well as assumed "influence peddling" have given rise to demands that the scale of donations should be capped. As the costs of electioneering escalate, so the demands made on party funds increase. In the UK some politicians are advocating that parties should be funded by the state; a proposition that promises to give rise to interesting debate in a country that was the first to regulate campaign expenses (in 1883). In many other democracies such subsidies for party activity (in general or just for campaign purposes) have been introduced decades ago. Public financing for parties and/ or candidates (during election times and beyond) has several permutations and is increasingly common. Germany, Sweden, Israel, Canada, Australia, Austria and Spain are cases in point. More recently among others France, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands and Poland have followed suit. There are two broad categories of public funding, direct, which entails a montetary transfer to a party, and indirect, which includes broadcasting time on state media, use of the mail service or supplies. According to the Comparative Data from the ACE Electoral Knowledge Network, out of a sample of over 180 nations, 25% of nations provide no direct or indirect public funding, 58% provide direct public funding and 60% of nations provide indirect public funding. Some countries provide both direct and indirect public funding to political parties. Funding may be equal for all parties or depend on the results of previous elections or the number of candidates participating in an election. Frequently parties rely on a mix of private and public funding and are required to disclose their finances to the Election management body. In fledgling democracies funding can also be provided by foreign aid. International donors provide financing to political parties in developing countries as a means to promote democracy and good governance. Support can be purely financial or otherwise. Frequently it is provided as capacity development activities including the development of party manifestos, party constitutions and campaigning skills. Developing links between ideologically linked parties is another common feature of international support for a party. Sometimes this can be perceived as directly supporting the political aims of a political party, such as the support of the US government to the Georgian party behind the Rose Revolution. Other donors work on a more neutral basis, where multiple donors provide grants in countries accessible by all parties for various aims defined by the recipients. There have been calls by leading development think-tanks, such as the Overseas Development Institute, to increase support to political parties as part of developing the capacity to deal with the demands of interest-driven donors to improve governance. Colors and emblems for parties Generally speaking, over the world, political parties associate themselves with colors, primarily for identification, especially for voter recognition during elections. Conservative parties generally use blue or black. Pink sometimes signifies moderate socialist. Yellow is often used for libertarianism or classical liberalism. Red often signifies social democratic, socialist or communist parties. Green is the color for green parties, Islamist parties, Nordic agrarian parties and Irish republican parties. Orange is sometimes a color of nationalism, such as in the Netherlands, in Israel with the Orange Camp or with Ulster Loyalists in Northern Ireland; it is also a color of reform such as in Ukraine. In the past, Purple was considered the color of royalty (like white), but today it is sometimes used for feminist parties. White also is associated with nationalism. "Purple Party" is also used as an academic hypothetical of an undefined party, as a Centrist party in the United States (because purple is created from mixing the main parties' colors of red and blue) and as a highly idealistic "peace and love" party—in a similar vein to a Green Party, perhaps. Black is generally associated with fascist parties, going back to Benito Mussolini's blackshirts, but also with Anarchism. Similarly, brown is sometimes associated with Nazism, going back to the Nazi Party's tan-uniformed storm troopers. Color associations are useful for mnemonics when voter illiteracy is significant. Another case where they are used is when it is not desirable to make rigorous links to parties, particularly when coalitions and alliances are formed between political parties and other organizations, for example: Red Tory, "Purple" (Red-Blue) alliances, Red-green alliances, Blue-green alliances, Traffic light coalitions, Pan-green coalitions, and Pan-blue coalitions. Political color schemes in the United States diverge from international norms. Since 2000, red has become associated with the right-wing Republican Party and blue with the left-wing Democratic Party. However, unlike political color schemes of other countries, the parties did not choose those colors; they were used in news coverage of 2000 election results and ensuing legal battle and caught on in popular usage. Prior to the 2000 election the media typically alternated which color represented which party each presidential election cycle. The color scheme happened to get inordinate attention that year, so the cycle was stopped lest it cause confusion the following election. The emblem of socialist parties is often a red rose held in a fist. Communist parties often use a hammer to represent the worker, a sickle to represent the farmer, or both a hammer and a sickle to refer to both at the same time. Symbols can be very important when the overall electorate is illiterate. In the Kenyan constitutional referendum, 2005, supporters of the constitution used the banana as their symbol, while the "no" used an orange. International organizations of political parties During the 19th and 20th century, many national political parties organized themselves into international organizations along similar policy lines. Notable examples are The Universal Party, International Workingmen's Association (also called the First International), the Socialist International (also called the Second International), the Communist International (also called the Third International), and the Fourth International, as organizations of working class parties, or the Liberal International (yellow), Hizb ut-Tahrir, Christian Democratic International and the International Democrat Union (blue). Organized in Italy in 1945, the International Communist Party, since 1974 headquartered in Florence has sections in six countries. Worldwide green parties have recently established the Global Greens. The Universal Party, The Socialist International, the Liberal International, and the International Democrat Union are all based in London. Some administrations (e.g. Hong Kong) outlaw formal linkages between local and foreign political organizations, effectively outlawing international political parties. Types of political parties French political scientist Maurice Duverger drew a distinction between cadre parties and mass parties. Cadre parties were political elites that were concerned with contesting elections and restricted the influence of outsiders, who were only required to assist in election campaigns. Mass parties tried to recruit new members who were a source of party income and were often expected to spread party ideology as well as assist in elections.Socialist parties are examples of mass parties, while the British Conservative Party and the German Christian Democratic Union are examples of hybrid parties. In the United States, where both major parties were cadre parties, the introduction of primaries and other reforms has transformed them so that power is held by activists who compete over influence and nomination of candidates. Klaus von Beyme categorized European parties into nine families, which described most parties. He was able to arrange seven of them from left to right: communist, socialist, green, liberal, Christian democratic, conservative and libertarian. The position of two other types, agrarian and regional/ethnic parties varied. - Elite party - Index of politics articles - List of political parties - List of ruling political parties by country - Particracy (a political regime dominated by one or more parties) - Party class - Party line (politics) - UCLA School of Political Parties - J. R. Jones, The First Whigs. The Politics of the Exclusion Crisis. 1678–1683 (Oxford University Press, 1961), p. 4. - Hamowy, Ronald, ed. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Cato Institute. p. 542. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. - Richard Ashcraft and M. M. Goldsmith, "Locke, Revolution Principles, and the Formation of Whig Ideology," Historical Journal, Dec 1983, Vol. 26 Issue 4, pp. 773–800 - Melinda S. Zook, "The Restoration Remembered: The First Whigs and the Making of their History," Seventeenth Century, Autumn 2002, Vol. 17 Issue 2, pp. 213–34 - Robert Lloyd Kelley (1990). The Transatlantic Persuasion: The Liberal-Democratic Mind in the Age of Gladstone. Transaction Publishers. p. 83. - "ConHome op-ed: the USA, Radical Conservatism and Edmund Burke". - "The History of Political Parties in England (1678–1914)". - Parliamentary History, xxiv, 213, 222, cited in Foord, His Majesty's Opposition, 1714–1830, p. 441 - Ellen Wilson and Peter Reill, Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment (2004) p. 298 - Washington's Farewell Address - Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780–1840 (1970) - William Nisbet Chambers, ed. The First Party System (1972) - Stephen Minicucci, Internal Improvements and the Union, 1790–1860, Studies in American Political Development (2004), 18: pp. 160–85, (2004), Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/S0898588X04000094 - Busky, Donald F. (2000), Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey, Westport, Connecticut, USA: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., p. 8, The Frankfurt Declaration of the Socialist International, which almost all social democratic parties are members of, declares the goal of the development of democratic socialism - Cf. Brettschneider, Nutzen der ökonomischen Theorie der Politik für eine Konkretisierung des Gebotes innerparteilicher Demokratie - McDonnell, Duncan and Newell, James (2011) 'Outsider Parties'. - Redding 2004 - Abizadeh 2005. - "General Election results through time, 1945–2001". BBC News. Retrieved 19 May 2006. - Duverger 1954 - See Heard, Alexander, 'Political financing'. In: Sills, David I. (ed.) International Emcyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 12. New York, NY: Free Press – Macmillan, 1968, pp. 235–41; Paltiel, Khayyam Z., 'Campaign finance – contrasting practices and reforms'. In: Butler, David et al. (eds.), Democracy at the polls – a comparative study of competitive national elections. Washington, DC: AEI, 1981, pp. 138–72; Paltiel, Khayyam Z., 'Political finance'. In: Bogdanor, Vernon (ed.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Institutions. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1987, pp. 454–56; 'Party finance', in: Kurian, George T. et al. (eds.) The encyclopedia of political science. vol 4, Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2011, pp. 1187–189. - Foresti and Wild 2010. Support to political parties: a missing piece of the governance puzzle. London: Overseas Development Institute - For details you may want to consult specific articles on Campaign finance in the United States, Federal political financing in Canada, Party finance in Germany, Political donations in Australia, Political finance, Political funding in Japan, Political funding in the United Kingdom. - ACEproject.org ACE Electoral Knowledge Network: Comparative Data: Political Parties and Candidates - ACEproject.org ACE Electoral Knowledge Network: Comparative Data: Political Parties and Candidates - ACEproject.org ACE Encyclopaedia: Public funding of political parties - Why is the Conservative Party Blue, BBC, 20 April 2006 - Farhi, Paul (2 November 2004), Elephants Are Red, Donkeys Are Blue, Washington Post - Ware, Political parties, pp. 65–67 - Ware, Political parties, p. 22 - Abizadeh, Arash, 2005. "Democratic Elections without Campaigns? Normative Foundations of National Baha'i Elections." World Order Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 7–49. - Aldrich, John. 1995. Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. - Brettschneider, Jörg, Nutzen der ökonomischen Theorie der Politik für eine Konkretisierung des Gebotes innerparteilicher Demokratie, Beschreibung innerparteiliche Entscheidungsprozesse als Wettbewerb eigennütziger Akteure und daraus folgende Regulierungsanforderungen, Berlin 2014. - Duverger, Maurice. 1954. Political Parties. London: Methuen. - Gunther, Richard and Larry Diamond. 2003. "Species of Political Parties: A New Typology," Party Politics, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 167–99. - McDonnell, Duncan and James Newell. 2011. 'Outsider Parties', Special edition of Party Politics, Vol. 17, No. 4. - Neumann, Sigmund (ed.). 1956. Modern Political Parties. IL: University of Chicago Press. - Omojola, O. "Audience Mindset and Influence on Personal Political Branding." Journal of Social Sciences, 16.2 (2008), 127-134. Kre Publishers. Print. - Redding, Robert. 2004. Hired Hatred. RCI. - Smith, Steven S. 2007. Party Influence in Congress. Cambridge University Press. - Sutherland, Keith. 2004. The Party's Over. Imprint Academic. ISBN 0-907845-51-7 - Triepel, Heinrich, Die Staatsverfassung und die politischen Parteien, Berlin 1928. - Ware, Alan. 1987. Citizens, Parties and the State: A Reappraisal. Princeton University Press. - Ware, Alan. Political Parties and Party Systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-878076-1 - U.S. Party Platforms from 1840 to 2004 at The American Presidency Project: UC Santa Barbara - Political resources on the net	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_affiliation
4.15625	Harriet Tubman’s Florida Legacy Many might assume that the Underground Railroad traveled in one direction: north to freedom, away from slavery and the plantations of the South. Few realize that runaway slaves also fled south into Florida for almost two centuries before the Civil War. In recognition of Black History Month, this three-part series of blog posts will introduce aspects of resistance to slavery in Florida history. We begin towards the end of the story with the Moses of the Underground Railroad. Harriet Tubman, from a woodcut (ca. 1865) Harriet Tubman, known as “The Conductor” of the Underground Railroad, spent time in Florida during her years of fighting for freedom. Born into slavery in Maryland, circa 1820, Tubman escaped in 1849 or 1850. She made numerous return trips to the South in order to free relatives and complete strangers alike. Tubman and her associates relied on a series of safe houses along the Underground Railroad. These stopping points represented a network of Abolitionists committed to aiding escaped slaves in pursuit of freedom. Scholars estimate that Tubman personally conducted at least 300 slaves to freedom in the 1850s and 1860s. Excerpt from the letterhead of the British & Foreign Antislavery Society on a letter to Florida Governor John Branch, October 8, 1844 Because of the Fugitive Slave Act, passed in 1850, the final destination for many runaways was Canada. Enforcement of the Act in northern cities and towns meant living in fear of roving slave catchers and the possibility of re-enslavement. Tubman’s reputation for successfully transporting slaves to freedom became such that the Maryland Legislature at one point offered $12,000 for her capture; slave owners in the area raised the bounty to $40,000. Tampa newspaper advertisement offering a reward for the return of a runaway slave (November 17, 1860) In addition to her clandestine activities, Tubman served in an official capacity during the Civil War as a nurse, cook, and spy for the Union War Department. She cared for soldiers with herbal treatments and using skills honed on the Underground Railroad she helped emancipate African-American men for service in the Union Army. Excerpt from “Atlas to Accompany the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 1861-1865: General Topographical Map, Sheet XII” (ca. 1865), showing northeast Florida In Florida and South Carolina, the men recruited by Tubman conducted raids and guerilla warfare against plantations along the St. Marys and St. Johns Rivers. They carried off additional slaves as well as goods to aid in the war effort and in several instances exchanged fire with Confederate troops. Tubman accompanied the men on some of these expeditions and reported the intelligence gathered to Union officers. So valuable was her service, the federal government authorized a pension for Tubman after the Civil War. Harriet Tubman would have been a remarkable person during any period in history. It is especially significant that a woman, illiterate and born into slavery, accomplished so much and that field commanders during the Civil War sought the knowledge and assistance of an African-American in the war to end slavery.	http://www.floridamemory.com/blog/tag/underground-railroad/
4	Obesity means having too much body fat. It is not the same as overweight, which means weighing too much. Obesity is becoming much more common in childhood. Most often, it begins between the ages of 5 and 6 and in adolescence. Child health experts recommend that children be screened for obesity at age 2. If needed, they should be referred to weight-management programs. Measuring Body Fat Your child's mass index (BMI) is calculated using height and weight. A health care provider can use BMI to estimate how much body fat your child has. Measuring body fat and diagnosing obesity in children is different than measuring these things in adults. In children: - The amount of body fat changes with age. Because of this, a BMI is harder to interpret during puberty and periods of rapid growth. - Girls and boys have different amounts of body fat. A BMI level that says a child is obese at one age may be normal for a child at a different age. To determine if a child is overweight or obese, experts compare BMI levels of children at the same age to each other. They use a special chart to decide whether a child’s weight is healthy or not. - If a child’s BMI is higher than 85% (85 out of 100) of other children their age and sex, they are considered at risk of being overweight. - If a child’s BMI is higher than 95% (95 out of 100) of other children their age and sex, they are considered overweight or obese. Gahagan S. Overweight and obesity. In: Kliegman RM, Stanton BF, St. Geme JW III, et al., eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 19th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2011:chap 44. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for obesity in children and adolescents: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Pediatrics. 2010;125:361-367. PMID: 20083515 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20083515. Update Date 8/30/2014 Updated by: Neil K. Kaneshiro, MD, MHA, Clinical Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Isla Ogilvie, PhD, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team.	https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/patientinstructions/000384.htm
4.34375	“And when the seasons are less extreme,” Barnes said, “so when the summers are cooler and the winters are warmer, there’s more snow and less melted off, and that’s what causes the glaciers to form and the ice ages. So even that one degree tilt causes these huge shifts in the earth’s climate, into glaciated and non-glaciated states." And without the moon’s stabilizing gravitational influence, the earth’s axial plane would vary by 10 degrees, Barnes said, which would have huge consequences for life on earth. Ice ages could potentially be 10 times as bad as they have been. With climate shifts that dramatic, glaciers would cover the entire planet except for possibly a small band at the equator. Whatever life did exist would exist in a concentrated band at the equator. But that’s just the beginning of the many ways that the moon stabilizes the earth’s climate. Without the moon, the earth’s days would be only six to eight hours long, explains Neil Comins in his book, "What if the Moon Didn't Exist?" The moon was created about 4.5 billion years ago when a small planet traveling through space collided with the earth at 25,000 miles per hour. The collision sprayed more than 5 billion cubic miles of the earth’s outer layers into space. This material eventually gravitated into the moon. As mentioned above, the earth would still have tides caused by the sun, but they’d be about a third the size as they are today. And the moon’s larger tides, over millions of years, have slowed down the earth’s rotation, says Comins. “The motion of the water pushing against the continent and the friction generated by that water rubbing against the ocean bottom would both act to slow down the earth’s rotation,” he wrote. Scientists estimate that without the tides, the earth would spin about three to four times faster than it does. And that would have big implications on its life forms. First, winds on earth would be so fast and powerful that few things could grow. Winds are generated by a planet’s rotation and the cooling and heating of its air. For example, Comins said, “Jupiter and Saturn have 10-hour days. They rotate so rapidly that the friction between their surfaces and atmospheres pulls the air into narrow, streaming belts of wind.” They have winds up to 300 miles an hour. They have hurricanes that last for years and even centuries. Earth, without the stabilizing effects of its moon, would be the same. If plants did exist, they would be short, deeply rooted and ground-hugging. And any land animals that existed on such a planet would be all short, squat and stout. Birds and any flying insects would be impossible. If you have a science subject you'd like Steven Law to explore in a future article, send him your idea at [email protected]. - Smithfield teen makes Valentine's Day special... - Scalia's death leaves major void in high... - France bestows highest honor on Utah veteran - Giant Kennecott dump trucks are sporting an... - Utah delegation urges Obama to refrain from... - Race heating up as congressional Democrats... - Logan man killed in Idaho car crash - 3 seriously injured in multi-vehicle crash on... - Utah delegation urges Obama to refrain... 40 - Manti man indicted in Oregon... 36 - Scalia's death leaves major void in... 36 - IRS raids properties with possible... 22 - Lee, Stewart urge action on behalf of... 18 - State: EPA didn't clue in Utah on San... 12 - Summit County wants rewrite of Bishop's... 11 - Race heating up as congressional... 11	http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865556238/Without-the-moon-life-on-Earth-would-be-much-different.html?pg=2
4.125	\|This article does not cite any sources. (February 2008)\| Usurpers are individuals or groups of individuals who obtain and maintain the power or rights of another by force and without legal authority. Usurpation was endemic during Roman imperial era, especially from the crisis of the third century onwards, when political instability became the rule. The first dynasty of the Roman Empire, the Julio-Claudians (27 BC – 68 AD), justified the imperial throne by familial ties, namely with the connection (although only through adoption) with Augustus, the first emperor. Eventually conflicts within the Julio-Claudian family triggered a series of murders, which led to the demise of the line. Nero died with public enemy status, and following his suicide a short civil war began, known as the Year of the four emperors. The Flavian dynasty started with Vespasian only to end with the assassination of his second son Domitian. The 2nd century was a period of relative peace marked by the rule of the so-called Five good emperors, but the next century would be characterized by endemic political instability, one of the factors that eventually contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire in the West. Commodus, the last emperor of the Antonine dynasty, remembered by contemporaneous chronicles as an unpopular ruler notorious for his extravagance and cruelty, was assassinated in 192. Without sons to be his heir, a struggle for power immediately broke out amongst the governors of the most important provinces. Pertinax was elevated to the purple and recognized by his peers, but following his murder by a restive Praetorian Guard, Septimius Severus decided to make his bid for power and usurped the throne. Although initially a usurper, Severus managed to remain in power for the next 18 years and died a natural death while campaigning in northern Britain. The death of Severus Alexander (the last emperor of the Severan dynasty) in 235 triggered what historians call the crisis of the third century. In this period, from 235 to the accession of Diocletian and the establishment of the Tetrarchy in 286, Rome saw 28 emperors of whom only two had a natural death (from the plague). However, there were also 38 usurpers who raised revolts across the Empire, a clear sign that the security of the frontiers was not the only problem within the Roman world. Usurpation attempts were a constant worry for the emperors in this period; it was a too common method of acceding the throne. Successful usurpers were usually either provincial governors, commanders of a large grouping of Roman legions, or prefects of the Praetorian Guard, which had control of Rome, where the Imperial palace still lay. The danger of usurpation was greater following the death of an emperor, when his successor was not accepted by all provinces. Usually the legions acclaimed their own commander as emperor on news of the accession of a less popular man. The acclaimed emperor, usually a provincial governor, would then march to Italy or where the opponent was stationed, in order to contest for the purple. But legionaries disliked fighting against their brothers in arms, so battles between legions rarely transpired. Two main factors decided the success of a usurpation attempt: loyalty of the legionaries, heavily dependent on the amount of booty or monetary prizes promised on victory; and trust of the military abilities of the commander, upon which depended morale. Failure of either part to fulfill one or two of the criteria normally resulted in a mutiny and death at the hands of their own soldiers. Since the emperors had the status quo and political credibility behind them, the usurper had to be a charismatic man to avoid doubts in his ranks and an untimely death. Valerian, who defeated Aemilianus (himself a usurper) is an example of this kind. Other usurpers, like the emperor Philip the Arab, ascended the throne by a planned murder directed at an established sovereign (in his case Gordian III). However successful, the usurpation procedure always left the new emperor in a somewhat fragile political position, since the throne had been attained by violent means. The danger of another usurper was always present and the first measures taken were inevitably to put trusted men into important commands. Frequently, the emperor embellished his ancestry and his early life in order to enhance his credibility or the right to the throne. Mentions of obscure genealogical relations with previous popular emperors were common, and certainly confused historians. But most of all the usurper manoeuvred to keep his legions happy, since he owed his power to their continued loyalty. The usurpation mania of the 3rd century had profound effects in the bureaucratic and military organization of the Empire. Fear of potential rivals was to be the main driving force for the evolution of the Roman world from the early to the late Empire. One of the most striking changes was the division and multiplication of the Roman provinces. Provinces were ruled by a governor, either a proconsul, propraetor or procurator, and were ascribed a certain number of legions, according to the degree of pacification they required. This meant that the governors of, for instance, Moesia or Pannonia in the Danubian border had huge military contingents on their hands. The greater the number of legions a provincial governor had, the greater the temptation to make a bid to the throne. And indeed, the majority of usurpation attempts came from the Asian province of Syria, and the Rhine and Danube provinces, frontier provinces with large military presence. Thus, provinces were slowly divided into smaller units to avoid concentration of power and military capacity in the hands of one man. Syria is a perfect example: a single province in AD 14, in the middle of the 3rd century it was divided in four different administrative regions: Tres Daciae, Cappadocia, Syria Coele and Syria Palestina. In a similar way, Moesia and Pannonia were divided in Superior and Inferior (Upper and Lower) halves; Dardania was later separated from Moesia, and Pannonia was further divided into Prima, Valeria, Savia and Secunda. As the fear of civil war increased, the emperor felt the need of legions permanently in his reach, to be deployed against possible internal threats. This caused the geographic division of the army into limitanei legions, which remained in the borders, and comitatenses, which were stationed in strategic points within the Empire. Legio II Parthica, which was garrisoned in the Alban mountains outside of Rome from the time of Septimius Severus, was among the first comitatenses created. Men had to be removed from the frontier garrisons to create these internal legions. A smaller number of border legions meant less secure borders and eventually raids from the Germanic and Gothic tribes against the Rhine and the Danube became more frequent. In the East, the Persian Empire grew bolder in their attacks on the Roman communities. Moreover, in a time when individual initiative was a common way to assume the imperial purple, giving important commands to competent generals was asking for trouble. Jealousy and fear often prevented the presence of the right man to deal with a specific threat, and, in consequence, marginal provinces were often raided, sacked or conquered. Assessment of usurpers The only usurpers whose early life and specific circumstances of rebellion are known with reasonable certainty are the ones who later became emperors. The unsuccessful usurpation attempts inevitably ended with the rebel's execution, murder or suicide and subsequent erasure of his life from all records. This often causes confusion in the contemporaneous sources which are contradictory in the details of a certain rebellion. For instance the usurper Uranius is placed by some in the reign of Elagabalus and by others in the time of Gallienus. Every new emperor, either legal or illegal, marked the beginning of his rule by minting new coins, both for the prestige of declaring oneself as Augustus and to pay the loyal soldiers their share. Thus coinage is often the only evidence of a determined usurpation. But the number of coin types with the effigy of a usurper might not be equal to the total number of usurpations. The presence of minting facilities certainly allowed short term usurpers to release their coinage, but on the other hand, a man capable of sustaining a rebellion for a couple of months in a remote area might fail to produce his own coins due to the lack of access to the instruments of minting technology. Later assessment of usurpation events demonstrated that some are questionable or even fictitious. Gallienus was the emperor who suffered greatest number of usurpations, with a record of fourteen attempts (excluding the Gallic Empire secession) in fifteen years of rule. However, three of these are clear fabrications, either contemporaneous to show the invincibility of the emperor or added by later writers to embellish their own prose.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_usurper
4.09375	Randall Jackson, for NASA Learn more about Teaching Climate Literacy and Energy Awareness» See how this Video supports the Next Generation Science Standards» Middle School: 5 Disciplinary Core Ideas, 1 Cross Cutting Concept High School: 3 Disciplinary Core Ideas, 2 Cross Cutting Concepts About Teaching Climate Literacy Other materials addressing 4c Notes From Our Reviewers The CLEAN collection is hand-picked and rigorously reviewed for scientific accuracy and classroom effectiveness. Read what our review team had to say about this resource below or learn more about how CLEAN reviews teaching materials Teaching Tips \| Science \| Pedagogy \| About the Science - This video interactive educates the viewer on the role that satellites play in studying the topography and temperature of sea water. It also shows how satellites can provide useful information for understanding and predicting major oceanographic events. - Digital satellite imagery is used throughout to show changes in sea surface height and temperature. - Background information is available by clicking on the "find out more" button. - Comments from expert scientist: This activity presents a good overview over space missions that are concerned with sea level hights, as well as introduces good examples of why this is a relevant topic of research. About the Pedagogy - The video interactive educates the viewer on the roles satellites have played in understanding how sea-level data can be used to understand and predict oceanographic phenomena. - It is a unique resource showing the relationship between water temperature and sea-level height. - The video has several components that can be examined separately from a computer. - There are no prerequisite skills needed. - It has well-organized information and lay-out. - There is no suggested teaching sequence and no teachers' guide is provided. - Students would be engaged. Next Generation Science Standards See how this Video supports: Disciplinary Core Ideas: 5 MS-ESS2.C1:Water continually cycles among land, ocean, and atmosphere via transpiration, evaporation, condensation and crystallization, and precipitation, as well as downhill flows on land. MS-ESS2.C2:The complex patterns of the changes and the movement of water in the atmosphere, determined by winds, landforms, and ocean temperatures and currents, are major determinants of local weather patterns. MS-ESS2.C3:Global movements of water and its changes in form are propelled by sunlight and gravity. MS-ESS2.C4:Variations in density due to variations in temperature and salinity drive a global pattern of interconnected ocean currents. MS-ESS2.D1:Weather and climate are influenced by interactions involving sunlight, the ocean, the atmosphere, ice, landforms, and living things. These interactions vary with latitude, altitude, and local and regional geography, all of which can affect oceanic and atmospheric flow patterns. Disciplinary Core Ideas: 3 HS-ESS2.C1:The abundance of liquid water on Earth’s surface and its unique combination of physical and chemical properties are central to the planet’s dynamics. These properties include water’s exceptional capacity to absorb, store, and release large amounts of energy, transmit sunlight, expand upon freezing, dissolve and transport materials, and lower the viscosities and melting points of rocks. HS-ESS2.D1:The foundation for Earth’s global climate systems is the electromagnetic radiation from the sun, as well as its reflection, absorption, storage, and redistribution among the atmosphere, ocean, and land systems, and this energy’s re-radiation into space. HS-ESS2.E1:The many dynamic and delicate feedbacks between the biosphere and other Earth systems cause a continual co-evolution of Earth’s surface and the life that exists on it.	http://cleanet.org/resources/42754.html
4.15625	Leptothorax acervorum ants live all over the Northern hemisphere, but their reproductive strategy depends on habitat. Colonies are polygynous (more than one queen) in the forest of Siberia and central Europe, but functionally monogynous (only one queen reproduces) on sun-exposed slopes in Alaska, Hokkaido and the mountains of central Spain. New research published in BioMed Central's open access journal BMC Ecology demonstrates that when a colony is functionally monogynous not only do queen ants fight by antennal boxing to become the reproductive queen, but that worker ants reinforce queen behaviour by feeding dominant females and expelling, or killing, their weaker sisters. Researchers from University of Regensburg studied the behaviour of L. acervorum in Spain. In these colonies only a single queen was able to reproduce. All the other queens either did not yet have active ovaries, or their ovaries had reverted to an inactive state. The ants were observed fighting, both queen to queen, and worker ants to queens. However the inter-queen fighting involved ritualistic antennal boxing and mandible threats, while the workers were more vicious, and also pulled and bit low ranking queens. The top queen was decided by the infighting between the queens. However queen reproductive status was not predicted by worker ants' violence but rather was reinforced by the workers feeding and grooming the more dominant queens. Juergen Trettin, the lead scientists involved in the research said: "These ants live high on mountain slopes -- which makes dispersal and colony formation difficult. Under these circumstances the colony cannot support more than one reproductive queen and limited resources make it inadvantageous for the colony to allow low ranking queens to leave and start their own colonies. Destruction of habitat, for instance due to climate change, may cause this behaviour to become extinct." Cite This Page:	http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/09/110929235154.htm
4.09375	Some people may tell you that there are far more than just ten rules of capitalization in English, and with everything that you have to remember, that may be true. Others may say that there are only three rules, and they are also correct. The truth is that, depending on how you organize the rules, the rules of capitalization may be many or few. Most of the things we capitalize in English are what we call proper nouns. They are the names of specific, unique things. Capitals are not used for articles (a, an, the) or prepositions (of, on, for, in, to, with, etc.). 1. Names or titles of people This one may seem obvious, but there’s also a catch. Of course, you capitalize the first letters of a person’s first, middle and last names (John Quincy Adams), but you also capitalize suffixes (Jr., the Great, Princess of Power, etc.) and titles. Titles can be as simple as Mr., Mrs. or Dr., but they also apply to situations wherein you address a person by his or her position as though it’s their first name. For example, when we talk about President Lincoln, we are using his role as though it were a part of his name. We don’t always capitalize the word president. Indeed, we could say, "During the Civil War, President Lincoln was the president of the United States." Another way to look at capitalizing job titles is to look at the position of the job title in the sentence in reference to the person's name. For example: "Dr. Rogers was the Cardiac Surgeon." "The cardiac surgeon allowed me to come into the room and observe the patient." 2. Names of mountains, mountain ranges, hills and volcanoes Again, we’re talking about specific places. The word ‘hill’ is not a proper noun, but Gellert Hill is because it’s the name of one specific hill. Use a capital letter to begin each word in the name of a mountain (Mt. Olympus), mountain range (the Appalachians), hill (San Juan Hill) or volcano (Mt. Vesuvius). 3. Names of bodies of water (rivers, lakes, oceans, seas, streams and creeks) From here, it gets pretty easy. The same rules that apply to mountain names also apply to water names. A river is just a river, but the Mississippi River is a proper noun and must be capitalized, just like Lake Erie, the Indian Ocean and the Dead Sea. 4. Names of buildings, monuments, bridges and tunnels 5. Street names Capitalize both the actual name part of the name (Capital) and the road part of the name (Boulevard); both are necessary for forming the entire name of the street (Capital Boulevard). 6. Schools, colleges and universities All of the words in the name of the educational institution should be capitalized. For example, Harvard University, Wilkesboro Elementary School, Cape Fear Community College. 7. Political divisions (continents, regions, countries, states, counties, cities and towns) As is the case with regions of a country, the divisions may not always be political, but you get the idea. When you refer to New England, the Midwest, the Pacific Northwest or the South as a region (as opposed to a compass direction), you capitalize it. Also, continents (South America), countries (Belgium), states (Wisconsin), counties (Prince William County), cities (London) and towns (Lizard Lick) get capitalized. 8. Titles of books, movies, magazines, newspapers, articles, songs, plays and works of art This one’s a little tricky when ‘and,’ articles or prepositions are involved. If ‘the’ is the first word in the given name of a work, it must be capitalized (The Washington Post, The Glass Menagerie). If ‘a’ or ‘an’ is the first word, it too is capitalized (A Few Good Men), and if a preposition leads the way, you guessed it: Capitalized (Of Mice and Men). However, if any of these words come in the middle of the title, it is not capitalized. 9. The first letter in a sentence The last two rules are easy. Always capitalize the first letter of a sentence. If the sentence is a quotation within a larger sentence, capitalize it, but only if it’s a complete sentence. If it’s merely a phrase that fits neatly into the larger sentence, it does not require capitalization. Study the following two examples for clarification: 10. The pronoun I It’s only necessary to capitalize other pronouns when they begin a sentence, but ‘I’ is always capitalized. How can you possibly remember all these rules? Well, first of all, you should ask yourself three questions: And if you want to remember all the specific categories, try memorizing one of the following sentences. The first letter of each word stands for a category: And there you have it. Whether you think of English as having ten rules of capitalization, thirty, or just three, You should now be able to remember them all.	http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/capitalization/10-rules-of-capitalization.html
4.15625	, or typhoid fever, is a serious and potentially fatal illness caused by specific bacteria. Typhoid can be prevented by a vaccine. Although the typhoid vaccine is effective, it cannot prevent 100% of typhoid infections. Typhoid fever does occur within the US; however, it is more common in developing countries where water is likely to be contaminated by bacteria. It is important, particularly when traveling in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, to be aware of possible bacteria contamination of food and water. is contracted through drinking water that has been contaminated with sewage. It can also be ingested by eating food that has been washed in bacteria-laden water. The most common symptoms of typhoid include: High fever, usually up to 103˚F or 104˚FWeaknessFatigueStomach painsLoss of appetiteHeadacheRash Typhoid is treated with antibiotics. Without treatment, fever and symptoms may continue for weeks or months, and death may occur as a result of complications from the bacterial infection. There are 2 types of typhoid vaccines: An inactivated vaccine that is injectedA live, weakened vaccine given orally The inactivated vaccine is given as a shot. It should not be given to children younger than 2 years old. A single dose should be given at least 14 days before traveling abroad. Booster shots are needed every 2 years for those who continue to be in parts of the world where they would be exposed to typhoid fever. The live typhoid vaccine is given orally. It should not be given to children younger than 6 years old. Four doses, with a day separating each dose, are needed. A booster dose is needed every 5 years. Although the typhoid vaccine is not given routinely in the US, the following individuals should be vaccinated: People who are traveling to areas outside the US where typhoid commonly existsPeople who are in close contact with an individual who has or carries typhoidPeople who work with the bacterium—typically laboratory workers Boosters of the inactive vaccine are required every 2 years for people at risk of contracting typhoid, and every 5 years for those at risk who take the oral vaccine. For maximum effectiveness, the vaccine should be taken 2-3 weeks prior to the potential exposure the bacterium. Common side effects of the vaccine given by injection include: FeverHeadacheRedness or swelling at injection site (inactivated only) Common side effects of the oral vaccine include: FeverHeadacheAbdominal painNausea or vomitingRash Side effects that may indicate a serious allergic reaction include: Changes in behaviorExtremely high feverDifficulty breathing, hoarse voice, and wheezingHivesPale skinWeaknessRapid heartbeatLightheadedness For the shot, the following individuals should not get vaccinated. Those who: Have had a severe allergic reaction to a previous typhoid vaccine or any of its componentsAre under age 2 years For the oral vaccine, the following individuals should not get vaccinated. Those who: Have had a severe allergic reaction to a previous typhoid vaccine or its componentsAre under age 6 yearsAre currently taking certain antibiotics Have a weakened immune systems, including HIV/AIDSAre being treated with drugs that can compromise the immune system, such as steroids cancerAre undergoing treatment for cancer with medication or Consult your doctor if you are traveling and are at risk for acquiring typhoid fever, especially if you have any of the above conditions. Below are some ways to decrease your risk of getting typhoid: Frequent and thorough hand washing, particularly before handling foodProperly cleaning and preparing food to ensure no contaminationAvoiding uncooked vegetables or fruit that cannot be peeledBoiling water before drinking or usingAvoiding potentially contaminated food or water If the suspected cause comes from a commercial food-service facility, the facility and employees should be investigated within 24 hours of determining the suspected source. If the suspected source is a daycare facility, the facility and employees should be investigated and questioned about recent travel and symptoms. Also, in the event of an outbreak, government agencies should educate the public on ways to prevent the transmission of typhoid, including proper hygiene habits and careful food preparation.	http://www.svmh.com/Health/content.aspx?chunkiid=187054
4.09375	In geometry, a cevian is any line segment in a triangle with one endpoint on a vertex of the triangle and the other endpoint on the opposite side. Medians, altitudes, and angle bisectors are special cases of cevians. The name cevian comes from the Italian engineer Giovanni Ceva, who proved a well-known theorem about cevians which also bears his name. The length of a cevian can be determined by Stewart's theorem: in the diagram, the cevian length d is given by the formula Hence in this case If the cevian happens to be an angle bisector, its length obeys the formulas where the semiperimeter s = (a+b+c)/2. The side of length a is divided in the proportion b:c. where the semiperimeter s = (a+b+c) / 2. There are various properties of the ratios of lengths formed by three cevians all passing through the same arbitrary interior point::177-188 Referring to the diagram at right, These last two properties are equivalent because summing the two equations gives the identity 1 + 1 + 1 = 3. Three of the area bisectors of a triangle are its medians, which connect the vertices to the opposite side midpoints. Thus a uniform-density triangle would in principle balance on a razor supporting any of the medians. If from each vertex of a triangle two cevians are drawn so as to trisect the angle (divide it into three equal angles), then the six cevians intersect in pairs to form an equilateral triangle, called the Morley triangle. Area of inner triangle formed by cevians Routh's theorem determines the ratio of the area of a given triangle to that of a triangle formed by the pairwise intersections of three cevians, one from each vertex. - Coxeter, H. S. M.; Greitzer, S. L. (1967). Geometry Revisited. Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of America. p. 4. ISBN 0-883-85619-0. - Lightner, James E. (1975). "A new look at the 'centers' of a triangle". The Mathematics Teacher 68 (7): 612–615. JSTOR 27960289. - Johnson, Roger A., Advanced Euclidean Geometry, Dover Publ., 2007 (orig. 1929), p. 70. - Alfred S. Posamentier and Charles T. Salkind, Challenging Problems in Geometry, Dover Publishing Co., second revised edition, 1996. - Ross Honsberger (1995). Episodes in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Euclidean Geometry, pages 13 and 137. Mathematical Association of America. - Vladimir Karapetoff (1929). "Some properties of correlative vertex lines in a plane triangle." American Mathematical Monthly 36: 476–479. - Indika Shameera Amarasinghe (2011). “A New Theorem on any Right-angled Cevian Triangle.” Journal of the World Federation of National Mathematics Competitions, Vol 24 (02), pp. 29–37.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cevian
4	The Herschel Space Observatory is the largest telescope in space. It's capable of detecting longer-wavelength light than the human eye can, light in the far-infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, which is the type emitted by galaxies lined up behind other ones in the foreground. The result is that scientists are discovering hundreds of new galaxies through brighter galaxies in front of them that deflect their faint light back to the massive Herschel telescope, an effect identified by Albert Einstein a century ago known as cosmic gravitational lensing. When such a lineup occurs, it creates a cosmic magnifying lens, with a massive galaxy or cluster of galaxies bending light from the more distant galaxy into a warped and enlarged image. Sometimes, light from the farther galaxy is so distorted that it appears as a ring – called an Einstein ring because he first predicted the phenomenon. The effect is similar to what happens when you look through the bottom of a glass bottle or into a fun house mirror. The new galaxies are in the far reaches of outer space and are being viewed at a time when the universe was only 2 billion to 4 billion years old, less than a third of its current age. The galaxies have dust so thick they cannot be seen at all with visible-light telescopes but Herschel can detect the faint warmth of the dust because it glows at far-infrared and sub-millimeter wavelengths. With these galaxies magnified, astronomers can dig deep into their dusty reaches to learn more about how the universe was created. University of California-Irvine astronomer Asantha Cooray in front of an image of galaxies he and the team helped unearth with the Herschel telescope. Credit: Michelle S. Kim / University Communications A new study reports that five new galaxies have been found using this technique, but astronomers suspect they've just scratched the surface. "We can probably pick out hundreds of new lensed galaxies in the Herschel data," said Paul Goldsmith, the U.S. project scientist for Herschel at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena. The researchers estimate that 200 more have been discovered since the article went to press, all awaiting confirmation by ground-based telescopes. Numerous telescopes around the world helped verify the initial findings, including the National Radio Astronomy Observatory's Green Bank Telescope in West Virginia and three telescopes in Hawaii at the W.M. Keck Observatory, the California Institute of Technology's Submillimeter Observatory and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory's Submillimeter Array. Citation: Mattia Negrello, R. Hopwood, G. De Zotti, A. Cooray, A. Verma, J. Bock, D. T. Frayer, M. A. Gurwell, A. Omont, R. Neri, H. Dannerbauer, L. L. Leeuw, E. Barton, J. Cooke, S. Kim, E. da Cunha, G. Rodighiero, P. Cox, D. G. Bonfield, M. J. Jarvis, S. Serjeant, R. J. Ivison, S. Dye, I. Aretxaga, D. H. Hughes, E. Ibar, F. Bertoldi, I. Valtchanov, S. Eales, L. Dunne, S. P. Driver, R. Auld, S. Buttiglione, A. Cava, C. A. Grady, D. L. Clements, A. Dariush, J. Fritz, D. Hill, J. B. Hornbeck, L. Kelvin, G. Lagache, M. Lopez-Caniego, J. Gonzalez-Nuevo, S. Maddox, E. Pascale, M. Pohlen, E. E. Rigby, A. Robotham, C. Simpson, D. J. B. Smith, P. Temi, M. A. Thompson, B. E. Woodgate, D. G. York, J. E. Aguirre, A. Beelen, A. Blain, A. J. Baker, M. Birkinshaw, R. Blundell, C. M. Bradford, D. Burgarella, L. Danese, J. S. Dunlop, S. Fleuren, J. Glenn, A. I. Harris, J. Kamenetzky, R. E. Lupu, R. J. Maddalena, B. F. Madore, P. R. Maloney, H. Matsuhara, M. J. Michaowski, E. J. Murphy, B. J. Naylor, H. Nguyen, C. Popescu, S. Rawlings, D. Rigopoulou, D. Scott, K. S. Scott, M. Seibert, I. Smail, R. J. Tuffs, J. D. Vieira, P. P. van der Werf, and J. Zmuidzinas, 'The Detection of a Population of Submillimeter-Bright, Strongly Lensed Galaxies', Science 5 November 2010 330: 800-804 DOI: 10.1126/science.1193420 - PHYSICAL SCIENCES - EARTH SCIENCES - LIFE SCIENCES - SOCIAL SCIENCES Subscribe to the newsletter Stay in touch with the scientific world! Know Science And Want To Write? - Stop Using BMI To Determine Health - Why Diamonds Are More Of A Scientific Miracle Than You Think - Would New Planet X Clear Its Orbit? - And Any Better Name Than "Planet Nine"? - Why Rest Is Critical After A Concussion - First-semester GPA A Better Predictor Of College Success Than ACT Score - Glyphosate Now Most Popular Weed Killer In History, Laments Economist Chuck Benbrook - Wiki Woes: Websites For Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis Are Inaccurate And Outdated - "Very interesting discussion! That we are seeing these issues exposed in astronomy so prominently..." - "I just wrote: Either way will produce enough food to feed people. 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Claims Are All Over The Field - Mid-Life Crisis Clusters Found In 4 US Cities - Studies link healthy workforces to positive stock market performance - Pioneering discovery leads to potential preventive treatment for sudden cardiac death - Online shopping might not be as green as we thought - Gene family turns cancer cells into aggressive stem cells that keep growing - NASA's GPM satellite examines violent thunderstorms	http://www.science20.com/news_articles/cosmic_alignment_not_just_ancient_religions_any_more