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Picasso moved to Paris in 1901 but where was he born?

The Life of Picasso at Picasso.com Links Life Pablo Ruiz Picasso (b. 1881, d. 1973) is probably the most important figure in 20th Century art. Time magazine art critic Robert Hughes once said that "To say that Pablo Picasso dominated Western art in the 20th century is, by now, the merest commonplace. Before his 50th birthday, the little Spaniard from Malaga had become the very prototype of the modern artist as public figure. No painter before him had had a mass audience in his own lifetime." He was born October 25, 1881 in Malaga, Spain and by the time he died in France in April of 1973, had created a staggering 22.000 works of art in a variety of mediums, including sculpture, ceramics, mosaics, stage design and graphic arts. As critic Hughes notes, "There was scarcely a 20th century movement that he didn't inspire, contribute to or--in the case of Cubism , which, in one of art history's great collaborations, he co-invented with Georges Braque--beget." Quite simply, as well as being a force of culture, Picasso was also a force of nature. Early Life and Work A precocious draftsman, Picasso was admitted to the advanced classes at the Royal Academy of Art in Barcelona at 15. After 1900 he spent much time in Paris, remaining there from 1904 to 1947, when he moved to the South of France. His power is revealed in his very early works, some of which were influenced by Toulouse-Lautrec (such as Old Woman, 1901; Philadelphia Mus. of Art). Picasso's artistic production is usually described in terms of a series of overlapping periods. In his "Blue Period" 1901-4 he depicted the world of the poor. Predominantly in tones of blue, these melancholy paintings (such as The Old Guitarist, 1903; Art Inst. of Chicago) are among the most popular art works of the century. Canvases from Picasso's "Rose Period" 1905-06 are characterized by a lighter palette and greater lyricism, with subject matter often drawn from circus life. Picasso's Parisian studio attracted the major figures of the avant-garde at this time, including Matisse , Braque , Apollinaire , and Gertrude Stein. He had already produced numerous engravings of great power and began his work in sculpture during these years.       Cubism In 1907 Picasso painted Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (Mus. of Modern Art, New York City), a radical departure from the artistic ideas of the preceding ages and now considered the most significant work in the development toward cubism and modern abstraction (see modern art). The influence of Cézanne and of African sculpture is apparent in its fragmented forms and unprecedented distortions. The painting heralded the first phase of cubism, called analytic cubism. This severe, intellectual style was conceived and developed by Picasso, Braque, and Gris c.1909-12. Picasso's Female Nude (1910-11; Philadelphia Mus. of Art) is a representative painting and his Woman's Head (1909; Mus. of Modern Art, New York City) a representative sculpture of this style.     In the synthetic phase of cubism (after 1912) his forms became larger and more representational, and flat, bright decorative patterns replaced the earlier, more austere compositions. The Three Musicians (1921; Mus. of Modern Art, New York City) exemplifies this style. Picasso's cubist works established firmly that the work of art may exist as a significant object beyond any attempt to represent reality. During both periods of cubism experiments by Picasso and others resulted in several new techniques, including collage and papier collé.       Other Stylistic Innovations Picasso's enormous energy and fecundity was manifested by another development. In the 1920s he drew heavily on classical themes and produced magnificent monumental nudes and monsters that were reminiscent of antiquity and rendered with a certain anguished irony. These works appeared simultaneously with synthetic cubist paintings. Picasso was for a time saluted as a forerunner of Surrealism , but his intellectual approach was basically antithetical to the irrational aesthetic of the Surrealist painters.    The artist sought to strengthen the emotional impact of his work and became preoccupied with the delineation of agony. In 1937 the bombing of the Spanish town of Guernica impelled him to produce his second landmark painting, Guernica (Queen Sophia Center of Art, Madrid), an impassioned allegorical condemnation of fascism and war. Long held by the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, the work was transferred to Spain's Prado in 1981, and was moved to the Queen Sofia Center of Art, Madrid, in 1992. The profits Picasso earned from a series of etchings and prints on the Guernica theme made in the 1930s went to help the Republican cause.       Later Life and Work In his later years Picasso turned to creations of fantasy and comic invention. He worked consistently in sculpture, ceramics, and in the graphic arts, producing thousands of superb drawings, illustrations, and stage designs. With unabated vigor he painted brilliant variations on the works of other masters, including Delacroix and Velazquez , and continued to explore new aspects of his personal vision until his death. His notable later works include Rape of the Sabines (1963; Picasso Mus., Paris) and Young Bather with Sand Shovel (1971; private collection, France). By virtue of his vast energies and overwhelming power of invention Picasso remains outstanding among the masters of the ages.       Bibliography See biography by J. Richardson (Vol. I, 1991); catalog of his retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art, New York City (1980); biographical studies by G. Stein (1938), R. Penrose (1981), A. S. Huffington (1988), P. Daix (1993), and N. Mailer (1995); personal reminiscences by J. Sabertés (tr. 1948) and F. Oliver (1965, 1988); R. Penrose, The Sculpture of Picasso (1967); P. Daix and G. Boudaille, Picasso: The Blue and Rose Period (tr. 1967); D. Cooper, Picasso Theatre (1968); C. Czwiklitzer, Picasso's Posters (tr. 1971); J. E. Cirlot, Picasso: Birth of a Genius (1972); R. Penrose and J. Golding, ed., Picasso in Retrospect (1973); P. Leighton, Re-ordering the Universe: Picasso and Anarchism, 1897-1914 (1989); W. Rubin, H. Seckel, and J. Cousins, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1995); Mallen, Enrique, ed. Online Picasso Project. Sam Houston State University. Accessed 2014. 49 Stouts Lane

Spain

Which US President went to the same London university as Mick Jagger?

Pablo Picasso facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Pablo Picasso COPYRIGHT 2004 The Gale Group Inc. Pablo Picasso The Spanish painter, sculptor, and graphic artist Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) was one of the most prodigious and revolutionarys artists in the history of Western painting. As the central figure in developing cubism, he established the basis for abstract art. Pablo Picasso was born Pablo Blasco on Oct. 25, 1881, in Malaga, Spain, where his father, José Ruiz Blasco, was a professor in the School of Arts and Crafts. Pablo's mother was Maria Picasso and the artist used her surname from about 1901 on. In 1891 the family moved to La Coruña, where, at the age of 14, Picasso began studying at the School of Fine Art. Under the academic instruction of his father, he developed his artistic talent at an extraordinary rate. When the family moved to Barcelona in 1896, Picasso easily gained entrance to the School of Fine Arts. A year later he was admitted as an advanced student at the Royal Academy of San Fernando in Madrid; he demonstrated his remarkable ability by completing in one day an entrance examination for which an entire month was permitted. But Picasso found the atmosphere at the academy stifling, and he soon returned to Barcelona, where he began to study historical and contemporary art on his own. At that time Barcelona was the most vital cultural center in Spain, and Picasso quickly joined the group of poets, painters, and writers who gathered at the famous café Quatre Gats. In 1900 Picasso made his first visit to Paris, staying for three months. In 1901 he made a second trip to Paris, and Ambroise Vollard gave him his first one-man exhibition. Although the show was not financially successful, it did arouse the interest of the writer Max Jacob, who subsequently became one of Picasso's closest friends and supporters. For the next three years Picasso stayed alternately in Paris and Barcelona. First Works At the turn of the century Paris was the center of the international art world. In painting it had spawned such masters as Georges Seurat, Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne, Vincent Van Gogh, and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. Each of these artists practiced advanced, radical styles. In spite of obvious stylistic differences, their common denominator lay in testing the limits of traditional representation. While their works retained certain links with the visible world, they exhibited a decided tendency toward flatness and abstraction. In effect, they implied that painting need not be predicated upon the values of Renaissance illusionism. Picasso emerged within this complicated and uncertain artistic situation in 1904 when he set up a permanent studio in an old building called the Bateau Lavoir. There he produced some of his most revolutionary works, and the studio soon became a gathering place for the city's vanguard artists, writers, and patrons. This group included the painter Juan Gris, the writer Guillaume Apollinaire, and the American collectors Leo and Gertrude Stein. Picasso's early work reveals a creative pattern which persisted throughout his long career. Between 1900 and 1906 he worked through nearly every major style of contemporary painting, from impressionism to Art Nouveau. In doing so, his own work changed with unprecedented quickness, revealing a spectrum of feelings that would seem to lie beyond the limits of one human being. In itself this accomplishment was a mark of Picasso's genius. The Moulin de la Galette (1900), the first painting Picasso executed in Paris, presents a scene of urban café society. With its acrid colors and sharp, angular figures, the work exudes a sinister, discomforting aura. The rawness of its sensibility, although not its superficial style, is characteristic of many of his earliest works. Blue and Pink Periods The years between 1901 and 1904 were known as Picasso's Blue Period, during which nearly all of his works were executed in somber shades of blue and contained lean, dejected, and introspective figures. The pervasive tone of the pictures is one of depression; their color is symbolic of the artist's personal hardship during the first years of the century—years when he occasionally burned his own drawings to keep warm—and also of the suffering which he witnessed in his society. Two outstanding examples of this period are the Old Guitarist (1903) and Life (1903). In the second half of 1904 Picasso's style exhibited a new direction. For about a year he worked on a series of pictures featuring harlequins, acrobats, and other circus performers. The most celebrated example is the Family of Saltimbanques (1905). Feeling, as well as subject matter, has shifted here. The brooding depression of the Blue Period has given way to a quiet and unoppressive melancholy, and the color has become more natural, delicate, and tender in its range, with a prevalence of reddish and pink tones. Thus this period was called his Pink Period. In terms of space, Picasso's work between 1900 and 1905 was generally flat, emphasizing the two-dimensional character of the painting surface. Late in 1905, however, he became increasingly interested in pictorial volume. This interest seems to have been stimulated by the late paintings of Cézanne, ten of which were shown in the 1905 Salon d'Automne. In Picasso's Boy Leading a Horse (1905) and Woman with Loaves (1906) the figures are vigorously modeled, giving a strong impression of their weight and three-dimensionality. The same interest pervades the famous Portrait of Gertrude Stein (1906), particularly in the massive body of the figure. But the face of the sitter reveals still another new interest: its mask-like abstraction was inspired by Iberian sculpture, an exhibition of which Picasso had seen at the Louvre in the spring of 1906. This influence reached its fullest expression a year later in one of the most revolutionary pictures of Picasso's entire career, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907). Picasso and Cubism Les Demoiselles d'Avignon is generally regarded as the first cubist painting. Under the influence of Cézanne, Iberian sculpture, and African sculpture (which Picasso first saw in Paris in 1907) the artist launched a pictorial style more radical than anything he had produced up to that date. The human figures and their surrounding space are reduced to a series of broad, intersecting planes which align themselves with the picture surface and imply a multiple, dissected view of the visible world. The faces of the figures are seen simultaneously from frontal and profile positions, and their bodies are likewise forced to submit to Picasso's new and radically abstract pictorial language. Paradoxically, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon was not exhibited in public until 1937. Very possibly the picture was as problematic for Picasso as it was for his circle of friends and fellow artists, who were shocked when they viewed it in his Bateau Lavoir studio. Even Georges Braque, who by 1908 had become Picasso's closest colleague in the cubist enterprise, at first said that "to paint in such a way was as bad as drinking petrol in the hope of spitting fire." Nevertheless, Picasso relentlessly pursued the implications of his own revolutionary invention. Between 1907 and 1911 he continued to dissect the visible world into increasingly small facets of monochromatic planes of space. In doing so, his works became more and more abstract; that is, representation gradually vanished from the painting medium, which correspondingly became an end in itself—for the first time in the history of Western art. The evolution of this process is evident in all of Picasso's work between 1907 and 1911. Some of the most outstanding pictorial examples of the development are Fruit Dish (1909), Portrait of Ambroise Vollard (1910), and Ma Jolie (also known as Woman with a Guitar, 1911-1912). Cubist Collages About 1911 Picasso and Braque began to introduce letters and scraps of newspapers into their cubist paintings, thus giving birth to an entirely new medium, the cubist collage. Picasso's first, and probably his most celebrated, collage is Still Life with Chair Caning (1911-1912). The oval composition combines a cubist analysis of a lemon and a wineglass, letters from the world of literature, and a piece of oilcloth that imitates a section of chair caning; finally, it is framed with a piece of actual rope. As Alfred Barr wrote (1946): "Here then, in one picture, Picasso juggles reality and abstraction in two media and at four different levels or ratios. If we stop to think which is the most 'real' we find ourselves moving from esthetic to metaphysical speculation. For here what seems most real is most false and what seems remote from everyday reality is perhaps the most real since it is least an imitation." Synthetic Cubist Phase After his experiments in the new medium of collage, Picasso returned more intensively to painting. His work between 1912 and 1921 is generally regarded as the synthetic phase of the cubist development. The masterpiece of this style is the Three Musicians (1921). In this painting Picasso used the flat planes of his earlier style in order to reconstruct an impression of the visible world. The planes themselves had become broader and more simplified, and they exploited color to a far greater extent than did the work of 1907-1911. In its richness of feeling and balance of formal elements, the Three Musicians represents a classical expression of cubism. Additional Achievements The invention of cubism represents Picasso's most important achievement in the history of 20th-century art. Nevertheless, his activities as an artist were not limited to this alone. As early as the first decade of the century, he involved himself with both sculpture and printmaking, two media which he continued to practice throughout his long career and to which he made numerous important contributions. Moreover, he periodically worked in ceramics and in the environment of the theater: in 1917 he designed sets for the Eric Satie and Jean Cocteau ballet Parade; in 1920 he sketched a theater interior for Igor Stravinsky's Pulcinella; and in 1924 he designed a curtain for the performance of Le Train Bleu by Jean Cocteau and Darius Milhaud. In short, the range of his activities exceeded that of any artist who worked in the modern period. In painting, even the development of cubism fails to define Picasso's genius. About 1915, and again in the early 1920s, he turned away from abstraction and produced drawings and paintings in a realistic and serenely beautiful classical idiom. One of the most famous of these works is the Woman in White (1923). Painted just two years after the Three Musicians, the quiet and unobtrusive elegance of this masterpiece testifies to the ease with which Picasso could express himself in pictorial languages that seem at first glance to be mutually exclusive. By the late 1920s and the early 1930s surrealism had in many ways eclipsed cubism as the vanguard style of European painting. Launched by André Breton in Paris in 1924, the movement was not one to which Picasso was ever an "official" contributor in terms of group exhibitions or the signing of manifestos. But his work during these years reveals many attitudes in sympathy with the surrealist sensibility. For instance, in his famous Girl before a Mirror (1932), he employed the colorful planes of synthetic cubism to explore the relationship between a young woman's image and self-image as she regards herself before a conventional looking glass. As the configurations shift between the figure and the mirror image, they reveal the complexity of emotional and psychological energies that prevail on the darker side of human experience. Guernica Another of Picasso's most celebrated paintings of the 1930s is Guernica (1937). Barr described the situation within which it was conceived: "On April 28, 1937, the Basque town of Guernica was reported destroyed by German bombing planes flying for General Franco. Picasso, already an active partisan of the Spanish Republic, went into action almost immediately. He had been commissioned in January to paint a mural for the Spanish Government Building at the Paris World's Fair; but he did not begin to work until May 1st, just two days after the news of the catastrophe." The artist's deep feelings about the work, and about the massacre which inspired it, are reflected in the fact that he completed the work, that is more than 25 feet wide and 11 feet high, within six or seven weeks. Guernica is an extraordinary monument within the history of modern art. Executed entirely in black, white, and gray, it projects an image of pain, suffering, and brutality that has few parallels among advanced paintings of the 20th century. No artist except Picasso was able to apply convincingly the pictorial language of cubism to a subject that springs directly from social and political awareness. That he could so overtly challenge the abstractionist trend that he personally began is but another mark of his uniqueness. After World War II Picasso was established as one of the Old Masters of modern art. But his work never paused. In the 1950s and 1960s he devoted his energies to other Old Masters, producing paintings based on the masterpieces of Nicolas Poussin and Diego Velázquez. To many critics and historians these recent works are not as ambitious as Picasso's earlier productions. Picasso Politics Picasso also came out publicly after the war as a communist. When he was asked why he was a communist in 1947, he stated that "When I was a boy in Spain, I was very poor and aware of how poor people had to live. I learned that the communists were for the poor people. That was enough to know. So I became for the communists." Sometimes the communist cause was not as keen on Picasso as Picasso was about being a communist. A 1953 portrait he painted of Joseph Stalin, the then recently deceased Soviet leader, caused a clamor in the Party's leadership. The Soviet government banished his works from their nation after having them locked in the basement of the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg. Picasso appeared amused at this and continued on unaffected. Although Picasso had been in exile from his native Spain since the 1939 victory of Generalissimo Francisco Franco, he gave 800 to 900 of his earliest works to the city and people of Barcelona. For his part, Franco's feelings about Picasso were reciprocated. In 1963, Picasso's friend Jaime Sabartés had given 400 of his Picasso works to Barcelona. To display these works, the Palacio Aguilar was renamed the Picasso Museum and the works were moved inside. But because of Franco's dislike for Picasso, Picasso's name never appeared on the museum. Picasso was married twice, first to dancer Olga Khoklova and then to Jacqueline Roque. He had four children, one from his marriage to Khoklova and three by mistresses. Picasso kept busy all of his life and was planning an exhibit of 201 of his works at the Avignon Arts Festival in France when he died. Picasso died at his 35-room hilltop villa of Notre Dame de Vie in Mougins, France on April 8, 1973. He was remembered as an artist that, throughout his life, shifted unpredictably from one pictorial mode to another. He exhibited a remarkable genius for sculpture, graphics, and ceramics, as well as painting. The sheer range of his achievement, not to mention its quality and influence, made him one of the most celebrated artists of the modern period. Further Reading Because of his long life and unceasing production, Picasso has inspired numerous books. The classic monograph, which no one interested in the master can afford to overlook, is Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Picasso: Fifty Years of His Art (1946). Picasso's early years are discussed in Gertrude Stein, Picasso (1938); Anthony Blunt and Phoebe Pool, Picasso: The Formative Years (1962); Fernande Olivier, Picasso and His Friends (1965); and Pierre Daix and others, Picasso: The Blue and Rose Periods translated by Phoebe Pool (1967). The later years of Picasso are documented in Roberto Otero Forever Picasso: An Intimate Look At His Last Years (1974). For an overall view see Roland Penrose, Portrait of Picasso (1957) and Picasso: His Life and Work (1958). A thoughtful interpretation of the master's themes and major styles is given in Wilhelm Boeck and Jaimé Sabartes, Picasso (1955). Picasso's obituary can be found in the New York Times (April 8, 1973). The most complete catalog of Picasso's work, C. Zervos, Pablo Picasso: Oeuvres (21 vols., 1942-1969), is in French. Specialized studies include Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Picasso: Sixty Years of Graphic Works (1967), and Roland Penrose, The Sculpture of Picasso (1967). For broad surveys of cubism see Robert Rosenblum, Cubism and Twentieth-Century Art (1960; rev. ed. 1966), and Edward F. Fry, Cubism (1966). □ Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. MLA The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright The Columbia University Press Pablo Picasso (Pablo Ruiz y Picasso) (pä´blō pēkä´sō; rōōēth´ ē), 1881–1973, Spanish painter, sculptor, graphic artist, and ceramist, who worked in France. He is generally considered in his technical virtuosity, enormous versatility, and incredible originality and prolificity to have been the foremost figure in 20th-century art. Early Life and Work A precocious draftsman, Picasso was admitted to the advanced classes at the Royal Academy of Art in Barcelona at 15. After 1900 he spent much time in Paris, remaining there from 1904 to 1947, when he moved to the South of France. His power is revealed in his very early works, some of which were influenced by Toulouse-Lautrec (such as Old Woman, 1901; Philadelphia Mus. of Art). Picasso's artistic production is usually described in terms of a series of overlapping periods. In his "blue period" (1901–4) he depicted the world of the poor. Predominantly in tones of blue, these melancholy paintings (such as The Old Guitarist, 1903; Art Inst. of Chicago) are among the most popular art works of the century. Canvases from Picasso's "rose period" (1905–6) are characterized by a lighter palette and greater lyricism, with subject matter often drawn from circus life. Picasso's Parisian studio attracted the major figures of the avant-garde at this time, including Matisse, Braque, Apollinaire, and Gertrude Stein. He had already produced numerous engravings of great power and began his work in sculpture during these years. Cubism In 1907 Picasso painted Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (Mus. of Modern Art, New York City), a radical departure from the artistic ideas of the preceding ages and now considered the most significant work in the development toward cubism and modern abstraction (see modern art ). The influence of Cézanne and of African sculpture is apparent in its fragmented forms and unprecedented distortions. The painting heralded the first phase of cubism, called analytic cubism. This severe, intellectual style was conceived and developed by Picasso, Braque, and Gris c.1909–12. Picasso's Female Nude (1910–11; Philadelphia Mus. of Art) is a representative painting and his Woman's Head (1909; Mus. of Modern Art, New York City) a representative sculpture of this style. In the synthetic phase of cubism (after 1912) his forms became larger and more representational, and flat, bright decorative patterns replaced the earlier, more austere compositions. The Three Musicians (1921; Mus. of Modern Art, New York City) exemplifies this style. Picasso's cubist works established firmly that the work of art may exist as a significant object beyond any attempt to represent reality. During both periods of cubism experiments by Picasso and others resulted in several new techniques, including collage and papier collé. Other Stylistic Innovations Picasso's enormous energy and fecundity was manifested by another development. In the 1920s he drew heavily on classical themes and produced magnificent monumental nudes and monsters that were reminiscent of antiquity and rendered with a certain anguished irony. These works appeared simultaneously with synthetic cubist paintings. Picasso was for a time saluted as a forerunner of surrealism , but his intellectual approach was basically antithetical to the irrational aesthetic of the surrealist painters. The artist sought to strengthen the emotional impact of his work and became preoccupied with the delineation of agony. In 1937 the bombing of the Spanish town of Guernica impelled him to produce his second landmark painting, Guernica (Queen Sophia Center of Art, Madrid), an impassioned allegorical condemnation of fascism and war. Long held by the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, the work was transferred to Spain's Prado in 1981, and was moved to the Queen Sofia Center of Art, Madrid, in 1992. The profits Picasso earned from a series of etchings and prints on the Guernica theme made in the 1930s went to help the Republican cause. Later Life and Work In his later years Picasso turned to creations of fantasy and comic invention. He worked consistently in sculpture, ceramics, and in the graphic arts, producing thousands of superb drawings, illustrations, and stage designs. With unabated vigor he painted brilliant variations on the works of other masters, including Delacroix and Velázquez, and continued to explore new aspects of his personal vision until his death. His notable later works include Rape of the Sabines (1963; Picasso Mus., Paris) and Young Bather with Sand Shovel (1971; private collection, France). By virtue of his vast energies and overwhelming power of invention Picasso remains outstanding among the masters of the ages. Bibliography See biography by J. Richardson (3 vol., 1991–); catalog of his retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art, New York City (1980); biographical studies by G. Stein (1938), R. Penrose (1981), A. S. Huffington (1988), P. Daix (1993), and N. Mailer (1995); personal reminiscences by J. Sabertés (tr. 1948) and F. Oliver (1965, 1988); R. Penrose, The Sculpture of Picasso (1967); P. Daix and G. Boudaille, Picasso: The Blue and Rose Period (tr. 1967); D. Cooper, Picasso Theatre (1968); C. Czwiklitzer, Picasso's Posters (tr. 1971); J. E. Cirlot, Picasso: Birth of a Genius (1972); R. Penrose and J. Golding, ed., Picasso in Retrospect (1973); P. Leighton, Re-ordering the Universe: Picasso and Anarchism, 1897–1914 (1989); W. Rubin et al., Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1995); T. J. Clark, Picasso and Truth (2013). Cite this article World Encyclopedia © World Encyclopedia 2005, originally published by Oxford University Press 2005. Picasso, Pablo (1881–1973) Spanish painter, sculptor, graphic artist, designer, and ceramicist. Art historians often divide his work into separate periods. During his ‘Blue’ and ‘Rose’ periods (1900–07), he turned from portrayals of poor and isolated people to representations of harlequins, acrobats and dancers in warmer colours. In 1904, he settled in Paris and became the centre of a group of progressive artists and writers. In 1906, Picasso began analysing and reducing forms. The result was his spectacular canvas, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (completed 1907), which is now seen as a watershed in the development of contemporary art. The fragmentary forms in the painting also heralded cubism . In the 1920s, he produced solid, classical figures, but at the same time he was exploring surrealism . He started creating more violent and morbid works, which culminated in Guernica (1937). Picasso's sculpture ranks as highly as his painting. He was one of the first to use assembled rather than modelled or carved materials. The most famous example is his Head of a Bull, Metamorphosis (1943), which consists of a bicycle saddle and handlebars. He was also an excellent printmaker and illustrated numerous books. http://www.spanisharts.com/reinasofia/reinasofia.htm; http://www.moma.org; http://www.ir-tmca.com; http://www.nga.gov

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Who published the General Theory of Relativity in 1915?

Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity is published | World History Project 1915 Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity is published On the recommendation of Italian mathematician Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began exploring the usefulness of general covariance (essentially the use of tensors) for his gravitational theory. For a while Einstein thought that there were problems with the approach, but he later returned to it and, by late 1915, had published his general theory of relativity in the form in which it is used today.[48] This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of spacetime by matter, affecting the inertial motion of other matter. During World War I, the work of Central Powers scientists was available only to Central Powers academics, for national security reasons. Some of Einstein’s work did reach the United Kingdom and the United States through the efforts of the Austrian Paul Ehrenfest and physicists in the Netherlands, especially 1902 Nobel Prize-winner Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de Sitter of Leiden University. Source: Wikipedia Added by: Kevin Rogers Eleven years after On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, Einstein published his second groundbreaking work on General Relativity, which continues and expands the original theory. A preeminent feature of General Relativity is its view of gravitation. Einstein held that the forces of acceleration and gravity are equivalent. Again, the single premise that General Relativity is based on is surprisingly simple. It states that all physical laws can be formulated so as to be valid for any observer, regardless of the observer's motion. Consequently, due to the equivalence of acceleration and gravitation, in an accelerated reference frame, observations are equivalent to those in a uniform gravitational field. This led Einstein to redefine the concept of space itself. In contrast to the Euclidean space in which Newton’s laws apply, he proposed that space itself might be curved. The curvature of space, or better spacetime, is due to massive objects in it, such as the sun, which warp space around their gravitational centre. In such a space, the motion of objects can be described in terms of geometry rather than in terms of external forces. For example, a planet orbiting the Sun can be thought of as moving along a "straight" trajectory in a curved space that is bent around the Sun. On the following pages we will examine spacetime and other fascinating aspects of Relativity in some detail and see how Relativity leads us to new insights about the structure and the creation of the universe. Source: The Big View Added by: Kevin Rogers In 1907, Einstein said that when he "was sitting in a chair in the patent office at Bern when all of a sudden a thought occurred to me: 'If a person falls freely he will not feel his own weight.' I was startled. This simple thought ... impelled me toward a theory of gravitation. ..." This was the fundamental principle for his General Theory of Relativity, which was published in 1916. Its foundation is that the laws of nature in an accelerating frame are equivalent to the laws of a gravitational field. This is known as the Equivalence Principle. In 1915, Einstein proposed a new theory of gravity, which is now called the General Theory of Relativity: In 1666, Sir Isaac Newton had proposed a theory of gravity called Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation. Newton's Law had worked very well, but there were slight discrepancies between what was observed and what was mathematically predicted. An example is that Newton's theory cannot explain Mercury's peculiar rosette-shaped elliptical orbit. However, Einstein's General Relativity can. General Relativity describes gravity as a warping of space itself, not as a force. Einstein pictured space as a three-dimensional version of a thin rubber sheet. If you put a heavy object on the sheet, it makes a dent, and therefore an object's path would be affected by that dent. So, planets orbit the sun because the space around the sun is curved in the 2-D equivalent of a funnel or basin.

Albert Einstein

In 1968 the Oscars were postponed for 48 hours because of whose death?

BBC Universe - General relativity: Warped space-time and black holes Listen now 45 min Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss the Vacuum of Space. Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss the Vacuum of Space, from the innards of the atom to the outer reaches of space. About General relativity General relativity (GR, also known as the general theory of relativity or GTR) is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern physics. General relativity generalizes special relativity and Newton's law of universal gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time, or spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of partial differential equations. Some predictions of general relativity differ significantly from those of classical physics, especially concerning the passage of time, the geometry of space, the motion of bodies in free fall, and the propagation of light. Examples of such differences include gravitational time dilation, gravitational lensing, the gravitational redshift of light, and the gravitational time delay. The predictions of general relativity have been confirmed in all observations and experiments to date. Although general relativity is not the only relativistic theory of gravity, it is the simplest theory that is consistent with experimental data. However, unanswered questions remain, the most fundamental being how general relativity can be reconciled with the laws of quantum physics to produce a complete and self-consistent theory of quantum gravity. Einstein's theory has important astrophysical implications. For example, it implies the existence of black holes—regions of space in which space and time are distorted in such a way that nothing, not even light, can escape—as an end-state for massive stars. There is ample evidence that the intense radiation emitted by certain kinds of astronomical objects is due to black holes; for example, microquasars and active galactic nuclei result from the presence of stellar black holes and supermassive black holes, respectively. The bending of light by gravity can lead to the phenomenon of gravitational lensing, in which multiple images of the same distant astronomical object are visible in the sky. General relativity also predicts the existence of gravitational waves, which have since been observed directly by physics collaboration LIGO. In addition, general relativity is the basis of current cosmological models of a consistently expanding universe.

i don't know

Who replaced Mary Robinson as president of Ireland in 1997?

Ireland, Republic of: History Ireland, Republic of History After the establishment by treaty with Great Britain of the Irish Free State (Jan., 1922), civil war broke out between supporters of the treaty and opponents, who refused to accept the partition of Ireland and the retention of any ties with Britain. The antitreaty forces, embodied in the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and led by Eamon De Valera , were defeated, although the IRA continued as a secret terrorist organization. William Cosgrave became the first prime minister. De Valera and his followers, the Fianna Fáil party, agreed to take the oath of allegiance to the British crown and entered the Dáil in 1927. In 1932, De Valera became prime minister, and under his administration a new constitution was promulgated (1937), establishing the sovereign nation of Ireland, or Eire, within the Commonwealth of Nations. De Valera's policies aimed at the political and economic independence and union of all of Ireland. The loyalty oath to the crown was abolished, and certain economic provisions of the 1921 treaty with England were repudiated, leading to an "economic war" (1932–38) with Britain. During World War II, Eire remained neutral and vigorously protested Allied military activity in Northern Ireland. The British were denied the use of Irish ports, and German and Japanese agents were allowed to operate in the country. Some 60,000 Irish citizens, however, volunteered to serve with the British armed forces, including some 7,000 who deserted from the Irish army. The people of Eire suffered relatively little hardship during the war and even profited from increased food exports. The postwar period brought a sharp rise in the cost of living and a decline in population, due in great part to steady emigration to Northern Ireland, Great Britain, and other countries. In 1948, Prime Minister Costello demanded total independence from Great Britain and reunification with the six counties of Northern Ireland. The Republic of Ireland was proclaimed on Apr. 18, 1949. The country withdrew from the Commonwealth and formally claimed jurisdiction over the Ulster counties. It was admitted to the United Nations in 1955. Nothing came of the claim to Ulster, and during the 1950s and 60s the republic and Northern Ireland improved their economic relations. The later decade also saw an all-time low in Irish population, 2.82 million in 1961. In the late 1960s the problem of Northern Ireland flared up again in bitter fighting between the Protestant majority and Catholic minority there, aggravated by the actions of the IRA, which was headquartered in the republic. In 1973, Erskine H. Childers succeeded De Valera as president of Ireland, and Liam Cosgrave , at the head of a Fine Gael–Labor coalition, replaced Jack Lynch , of Fianna Fáil, as prime minister. In the same year the republic joined the European Community (now the European Union ). Childers died in 1974 and was succeeded by Cearbhal O. Dalaigh. Lynch led Fianna Fáil back into office in 1977; in 1979 fellow party member Charles Haughey replaced Lynch as prime minister. In 1981 a Fine Gael–Labor coalition headed by Garret FitzGerald defeated Fianna Fáil on an economic platform. Although ousted in 1982, the coalition was governing again six months later. Beginning in the late 1970s the republic's political situation was more fluid than it had been; there were several general elections and a variety of party schisms. In 1987, Haughey again became prime minister. As unemployment soared, especially among young people, outmigration increased, reaching a peak of 44,000 in 1989. During the 1990s, the economy grew significantly, buoyed by EU subsidies and new foreign investment. By the end of the decade, unemployment was below the EU average, although pockets of poverty persisted. In late 1994, after the IRA and Protestant militias agreed to a cease-fire, efforts were begun to negotiate a settlement of the the Northern Ireland issue. Despite some setbacks, agreements were reached in Apr., 1998, and approved by voters in both the Irish Republic and Northern Ireland in May. Women's issues, such as the government's strong antiabortion stance and the constitutional ban on divorce, also became a focus in the 1990s; a referendum legalizing divorce passed by a narrow margin in 1995. In 1991, Ireland elected its first female president, Mary Robinson, and in 1997 Mary McAleese became its first president from Northern Ireland. In 1992, Albert Reynolds , of Fianna Fáil, replaced Charles Haughey as prime minister, and when the governing coalition collapsed, Reynolds successfully formed another. The Reynolds government fell in 1994, and Fine Gael leader John Bruton succeeded him, heading a Fine Gael–Labor coalition. Bertie Ahern became prime minister in 1997, heading a Fianna Fáil–Progressive Democrat coalition; his coalition was returned to office in 2002. Revelations in 2006 that Ahern had received loans from business acquaintances in 1993–94 while he was finance minister and had not yet repaid them sparked controversy. Ahern said his attempts to repay them had been refused; he did repay the loans soon after they were became public. In 2007 Ahern led his party to another victory at the polls, but Progressive Democrat losses led to the addition of the Green party to the governing coalition. Investigation into Ahern's finances revealed he had received additional secret cash payments in the early 1990s, and in May, 2008, he resigned because the investigation was undermining his government. Deputy Prime Minister Brian Cowen succeeded Ahern as Fianna Fáil leader and prime minister. In June, 2008, Irish voters rejected the European Union's Lisbon Treaty amid concerns over the loss of Irish sovereignty. The Irish, who voted in a referendum because of conflicts between the treaty and the Irish constitution, were the only national electorate given a chance to vote on the treaty. A second vote on the Lisbon Treaty in Sept., 2009, following EU guarantees designed to allay Irish concerns, resulted in the treaty's approval. Ireland officially entered what became a prolonged recession in Sept., 2008, ending more than a decade of growth that had earned its economy the nickname "Celtic Tiger." By the end of 2008, the collapse of Ireland's booming property market threatened the Irish banking system, especially the Anglo Irish Bank, which was nationalized in early 2009. In Sept., 2010, the total cost of Ireland's bailout of its banking system was estimated to be ultimately €40 billion , with roughly three fourths of that incurred due to the Anglo Irish Bank. In November the markets had forced Ireland to agree to an €85 billion international rescue package, and the country was forced to adopt additional austerity measures and radically overhaul its banks. The Green party remained in the governing coalition but called for an early election, and Cowen, who resigned as party leader (Jan., 2011), was forced to call for an early election when the Greens quit the government. In the February contest, Fine Gael and Labor placed first and second, with the former almost winning a majority. The two parties formed a coalition government in March, with Fine Gael leader Enda Kenny as prime minister. A government proposal to abolish the Senate was rejected in a referendum in Oct., 2013. The country has experienced slow growth since 2011, but unemployment, which went above 10% for the first time in a decade in 2009, peaked at 15% in 2012. Unemployment has since declined below 13%, and the country emerged from financial rescue program and its restrictions at the end of 2013. Sections in this article:

Mary McAleese

What breed of dog was Barry Manilow's Bagel?

Ireland in 1997 | Britannica.com Ireland in 1997 Originally published in the Britannica Book of the Year. Presented as archival content. Britannica Stories Area: 70,285 sq km (27,137 sq mi) Population (1997 est.): 3,644,000 Chief of state: Presidents Mary Robinson and, from November 11, Mary McAleese Head of government: Prime Ministers John Bruton and, from June 26, Bertie Ahern Political issues past, present, and future merged in 1997, an eventful year dominated by an inconclusive general election. Power changed hands but without any clear shift in voting patterns, and a new government emerged that had to depend not only on the involvement of a partner but also on the uncertain support of independent deputies. Radical change took place in Northern Ireland, with the close involvement of the Dublin government, but there again no clear resolution emerged. Prime Minister John Bruton called the election for June 6 and declared the main plank in his program to be that of his own leadership and the coherent and united performance of what had become known as the "rainbow coalition," a centre-left partnership of his own Fine Gael Party and the Labour and Democratic Left parties. Their performance had undoubtedly been effective, and they were riding on a tide of economic success that was the envy of many larger European countries. This resurgence in growth and economic development justified electoral promises from all candidates, among them reduction in taxation, and led to a keenly fought campaign. It was inconclusive, however, the main loser being the Labour Party, whose fall in public support meant that the Bruton-led administration did not return to power. It was replaced by a centre-right coalition led by Fianna Fail and supported by the Progressive Democrats and independents that included Sinn Fein, the political wing of the Irish Republican Army. On June 26 Parliament voted to replace Bruton as prime minister with Bertie Ahern, leader of Fianna Fail. A major judicial inquiry into corruption focusing on a leading Irish businessman’s cash gifts to politicians was suspended during the election campaign. On its resumption sensational revelations emerged about the former prime minister, Charles Haughey, who had financed his lavish personal life with gifts and possibly with bribes from wealthy Irish businessmen. The country was rocked by unprecedented revelations involving offshore bank accounts in which unnamed Irish people of wealth held funds, apparently in defiance of revenue and taxation laws. The inquiry, under Judge Brian McCracken, not only leveled adverse judgments against Haughey but also raised many additional queries about possible corruption. These were directed at those men and women appointed to the new Ahern administration who had previously been part of governments led by Haughey. Two additional inquiries were established, one of them investigating the newly appointed foreign affairs minister, Ray Burke; under constant siege by opposition parties and the press, he was forced to resign both his appointment and his seat in the legislature. The inquiries destabilized the government, despite protestations to the contrary from the participating parties, and also damaged the standing of Ireland with many Northern Ireland politicians, who felt that the delicate peace talks were not helped by their being conducted by a minister under accusation of wrongdoing. The McCracken tribunal also raised questions about other ministers in the government, and the wrangling about possible corruption continued into the autumn, with few people optimistic about the full-term survival of the Ahern administration. In September Jim Kemmy, a senior member of the Labour Party, died, and the government was confronted with a second by-election. Pres. Mary Robinson announced in March that she would not run for a second term when her seven-year term drew to a close in November. The effect of this news was to throw every political party into confusion. They sought agreement to appoint John Hume, leader of the Northern Ireland Social and Democratic Labour Party, to the office. This would make an election unnecessary. There was, however, considerable controversy over Hume because of his involvement in the Northern Ireland peace process, and he consequently withdrew his name from consideration. As the election neared, there were five candidates for the presidency, four of them women. The leading contender was the Fianna Fail candidate, Mary McAleese, a Catholic nationalist from the North of Ireland and pro-vice chancellor of Queen’s University, Belfast. Attempts by the opposition parties to link her name with Sinn Fein following her endorsement by Gerry Adams, leader of that party, served only to increase her popularity, and in October she was elected president by a large majority. Martial Arts: Fact or Fiction? The nation’s economy prospered throughout the year. It demonstrated its effectiveness by producing generous budgetary surpluses and, at 1%, the lowest annual inflation rate in the European Union. This provided the minister for finance, Charlie McCreevy, with great leeway over tax and development programs for his December budget. It was welcome news for a government otherwise beset with difficulties.

i don't know

How old was Douglas Fairbanks when he married 23-year-old Joan Crawford?

LA Times, 1929: Young Doug Weds Joan YOUNG DOUG WEDS JOAN Film Pair Marry in New York Mother of Fairbanks Jr., at Church as Son Espouses Miss Crawford; Father Telegraphs Approval; Plans for Ceremony Secret to Last     NEW YORK June 3. (Exclusive) --  Douglas Fairbanks. Jr. and Joan Crawford, motion-picture  players, were married today in St. Malachy's Roman Catholic Church by Rev. Edward F. Leonard. Fairbanks� mother, Beth Sully, the first wife of Douglas Fairbanks, Sr. was present at the ceremony. The wedding was the culmination of an engagement for the last two years, during which time there were many rumors linking the two is marriage, but which were subsequently denied. TOLD HIS FATHER Even when applying for the license today Fairbanks had asserted that they would not be married until some time in the fall. Fairbanks said he had told his father of his intentions before he left Hollywood and that the latter had given his blessing and followed it with a telegram of congratulation today. An hour after the ceremony the couple was back at the Algonquin Hotel. Miss Crawford was at a writing desk penning a letter to her mother, which, she said, started with "Dear Mother, it is but an hour since�� Fairbanks fidgeted in his chair and explained how his affair had been a "romantic and sweet one." "I suppose I�m expected to say that I�m the happiest and proudest, and so forth," he said. �But it's true." "As for me," interrupted his wife, �I love you so." JOAN SHOWS RING "Marriage is a wonderful thing," soliloquized young Fairbanks, �but it certainly scares you.� Mrs. Fairbanks turned nonchalantly to her writing again. She ate huge red cherries out of a glass pitcher. Suddenly she ran to the lamp and held her hand so that the light was reflected from the large diamond ring she wore. "Isn't it gorgeous?" she demanded. "We bought it today." WILL HONEYMOON ABROAD Mr. Fairbanks went on to tell about his wedding. How he had watched some one crying in a mirror. How his knees shook. How his gaze had been fixed on a blotter on the floor. The couple arrived in New York Thursday and plan to leave for California next Tuesday. They will take up their separate motion-picture careers in different studios. Mrs. Fairbanks will keep her name of Joan Crawford on the screen. She has three more pictures to make thus year and Mr. Fairbanks has four. After these are finished, it was explained, they intend to come east and then sail for Europe on a honeymoon. WEDDING RUMOR DENIED OFTEN IN HOLLYWOOD When Joan Crawford and Douglas Fairbanks. Jr. left Hollywood several days ago for a vacation trip to the East, they declared they were not to be married until August 23. While their marriage was not unexpected in Hollywood, the news of the ceremony came as somewhat of a surprise. The romance has been watched with interest for many months in Hollywood and it was not long ago that they admitted their engagement after consistent rumors they had been married in Mexico more than a year ago. These reports they consistently denied. Joan's mother said last night In Hollywood that the marriage was a surprise to her as she had been helping her daughter prepare her trousseau and was making plans for the wedding here. "I received a wire from Joan," she said, "telling of her marriage and it certainly was news to me. When they left here they did not intend being married. I am only sorry that I wasn't there to witness the ceremony. But I am happy for them. He is such a nice boy."     August 25, 1929 Joan Crawford stretched and squirmed until the little yellow white spot on her shoulder that just wouldn't take on the "high yaller" compliments of old man Sol was revealed. She was lolling on the sand, half in, half out of the shade supplied by a giant umbrella. A crimson bathing suit revealed a tan that challenged the best efforts of all the cocoa butters and olive oils on the market. But outside of letting her hair grow, furnishing her new home, and burning a light mahogany color � only three things in the world, at the present writing, interest Joan Crawford: Douglas Fairbanks Jr., alias Doug, alias Dodo. "Have you seen `Our Modern Maidens'?" At the mention of this picture showing at Loew's State, Joan came completely to life, in spite of the sun's endeavors to exact the last ounce of pep. "Wasn't Dodo marvelous?" she beamed. "He gave one of his finest characterizations! It has been awarded an `outstanding performance of the month' distinction. It was his first. He was so thrilled." "Why, I couldn't really tell you what I thought of my role. You see, I was so busy watching Dodo. Just wait until you see him. He's wonderful. "He does his characterizations � his father, John Barrymore, Jack Gilbert. He's really more like them than they are," she added enthusiastically. "'Modern Maidens' is undoubtedly a good picture. I don't know that it will be as successful as "our Dancing Daughters' � sequels seldom are. But then it should be � Dodo's in it." "No, I don't think it's a good thing to play the same picture with one's husband. People seem to lose interest. Of course, we weren't married when `Modern Maidens' was taken. That makes a difference �" "Swim, Joan?" A group of friends, who were about to hit the briny in self-protection from the sun, broke into the conversation. "Not without Dodo," she called back. "Thanks awfully, but I'm scared when he isn't with me." "You know, Dodo is a marvelous swimmer," getting back to the conversation. "I don't mind swimming anywhere when he's along. Even out to the raft. I do wish work on his picture was finished. It's getting dreadfully lonesome." And in truth time is hanging heavily on the hands of this young lady. Fate ruled that, in spite of their recent marriage, she and Doug should not vacation together. And so when the final scenes on "Jungle," her first talkie for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer were shot � Doug began kicking a pigskin from the hither to the yon for "The Forward Pass," in production at First National. But Joan isn't the type to remain idle long. So that she won't lose her precious tan, she is spending one day on the sand, and the next shopping for furniture. When it comes to shopping, as well as a good many other things, Joan knows exactly what she wants. There was a time, for example, when an interior decorator insisted upon a French bed for an Italian room. Joan balked. Result: a cabinet maker is now carving a bed after an Italian design that Joan unearthed in the library. Practically all the furniture in her home, however, is being worked out from sketches planned by the Fairbanks Jrs. "And in the meantime � we sit on the floor," Joan demurred. "Any modern furniture?" "No, I despise it. It's too much like a movie set," Joan answered. Indeed, Joan seems to be very much Mrs. Douglas Fairbanks Jr. and very little Joan Crawford, motion picture star � on her vacation, at least. She doesn't know what her next picture is to be � but she hopes it won't start the day Dodo finishes his. It will be a talkie, she's sure of that. "You've heard Dodo in talkies, haven't you? He's grand. I don't see how anyone can pay attention to others when he's on the screen. I can't."     MATE WANTS REMOVED TIES WIFE TRIPPED ON Marriage was a stumbling block to the artistic career of Jessie Beryl LeSueur but Hollywood parties were not. Her husband, Hal Hays LeSueur, brother of Joan Crawford, asserted in his divorce complaint on file yesterday. �She insisted on going to parties at all times," the plaintiff declared, "and when I wouldn't take her, she went alone. She told me a career was the biggest thing in life and marriage was only a stumbling block." According to LeSueur's complaint, which was prepared by Attorney Milton Golden, the defendant insisted on having her own apartment and her own friends and announced she would see the plaintiff only by appointment. When LeSueur refused to put his home on a companionate basis, she left him and wouldn't come back, he said. The couple was married in 1925 and separated May 15, last.  

nineteen

"Who said, ""The only placed a man wants depth in a woman is in her decolletage?"""

Joan Crawford - Biography - IMDb Joan Crawford Biography Showing all 225 items Jump to: Overview  (5) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (4) | Trade Mark  (4) | Trivia  (101) | Personal Quotes  (79) | Salary  (31) Overview (5) 5' 3" (1.6 m) Mini Bio (1) Joan Crawford was born Lucille Fay LeSueur on March 23, 1905, in San Antonio, Texas, to Anna Belle (Johnson) and Thomas E. LeSueur, a laundry laborer. By the time she was born, her parents had separated, and by the time she was a teenager, she'd had three stepfathers. It wasn't an easy life; Crawford worked a variety of menial jobs. She was a good dancer, though, and -- perhaps seeing dance as her ticket to a career in show business -- she entered several contests, one of which landed her a spot in a chorus line. Before long, she was dancing in big Midwestern and East Coast cities. After almost two years, she packed her bags and moved to Hollywood. Crawford was determined to succeed, and shortly after arriving she got her first bit part, as a showgirl in Pretty Ladies (1925). Three films quickly followed; although the roles weren't much to speak of, she continued toiling. Throughout 1927 and early 1928, she was cast in small parts, but that ended with the role of Diana Medford in Our Dancing Daughters (1928), which elevated her to star status. Crawford had cleared the first big hurdle; now came the second, in the form of talkies. Many stars of the silents saw their careers evaporate, either because their voices weren't particularly pleasant or because their voices, pleasing enough, didn't match the public's expectations (for example, some fans felt that John Gilbert 's tenor didn't quite match his very masculine persona). But Crawford wasn't felled by sound. Her first talkie, Untamed (1929), was a success. As the 1930s progressed, Crawford became one of the biggest stars at MGM. She was in top form in films such as Grand Hotel (1932), Sadie McKee (1934), No More Ladies (1935), and Love on the Run (1936); movie patrons were enthralled, and studio executives were satisfied. By the early 1940s, MGM was no longer giving her plum roles; newcomers had arrived in Hollywood, and the public wanted to see them. Crawford left MGM for rival Warner Bros., and in 1945 she landed the role of a lifetime. Mildred Pierce (1945) gave her an opportunity to show her range as an actress, and her performance as a woman driven to give her daughter everything garnered Crawford her first, and only, Oscar for Best Actress. The following year she appeared with John Garfield in the well-received Humoresque (1946). In 1947, she appeared as Louise Graham in Possessed (1947); again she was nominated for a Best Actress from the Academy, but she lost to Loretta Young in The Farmer's Daughter (1947). Crawford continued to choose her roles carefully, and in 1952 she was nominated for a third time, for her depiction of Myra Hudson in Sudden Fear (1952). This time the coveted Oscar went to Shirley Booth , for Come Back, Little Sheba (1952). Crawford's career slowed after that; she appeared in minor roles until 1962, when she and Bette Davis co-starred in What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962). Their longstanding rivalry may have helped fuel their phenomenally vitriolic and well-received performances. (Earlier in their careers, Davis said of Crawford, "She's slept with every male star at MGM except Lassie," and Crawford said of Davis, "I don't hate [her] even though the press wants me to. I resent her. I don't see how she built a career out of a set of mannerisms instead of real acting ability. Take away the pop eyes, the cigarette, and those funny clipped words, and what have you got? She's phony, but I guess the public really likes that".) Crawford's final appearance on the silver screen was in a flop called Trog (1970). Turning to vodka more and more, she was hardly seen afterward. On May 10, 1977, Joan died of cancer in New York City. She was 72 years old. She had disinherited her adopted daughter Christina and son Christopher; the former wrote a tell-all book called "Mommie Dearest", published in 1978. The book cast Crawford in a negative light and was cause for much debate, particularly among her friends and acquaintances, including Douglas Fairbanks Jr. , Crawford's first husband. (In 1981, 'Faye Dunaway' starred in _Mommie Dearest (1981)' which did well at the box office.) Crawford is interred in the same mausoleum as fellow MGM star Judy Garland, in Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. Frequently played women put through an extensive amount of suffering Later in her career, her large eyebrows and "smear" lipstick Shoulder pads Trivia (101) Entered Stephens College, a posh university for women in Columbia, Missouri, in 1922, but left before her first academic year was over as she felt she was not academically prepared for university. Worked as an elevator operator at Harzfeld's Department Store in downtown Kansas City, Missouri. Each time Crawford married, she changed the name of her Brentwood estate and installed all new toilet seats. Interred at Ferncliff Cemetery, Hartsdale, New York, USA. Was asked to take over Carole Lombard 's role in They All Kissed the Bride (1942) after Lombard died in an airplane crash returning from a war bond tour. Crawford then donated all of her salary to the Red Cross, which found Lombard's body, and promptly fired her agent for taking his usual 10%. She was so dedicated to her fans that she always personally responded to her fan mail by typing responses on blue paper and autographing it. A great deal of her spare time and weekends were spent doing this. After her friend Steven Spielberg hit it big, Joan sent him periodic notes of congratulations. The last one came two weeks before her death. She taught director Steven Spielberg how to belch while filming their episode of Night Gallery (1969). Cartoonist Milton Caniff claimed he based the character of "Dragon Lady" in his popular "Terry and the Pirates" comic strip on Crawford. At the time of her death, the only photographs displayed in her apartment were of Barbara Stanwyck and President John F. Kennedy . One-time daughter-in-law of Douglas Fairbanks . Former cousin-in-law of Lucile Fairbanks . Former niece-in-law of Robert Fairbanks . Born at 10:00 PM. She had a cleanliness obsession. She used to wash her hands every ten minutes and follow guests around her house wiping everything they touched, especially doorknobs and pieces from her china set. She would never smoke a cigarette unless she opened the pack herself, and would never use another cigarette out of that pack if someone else had touched it. Was forced by MGM boss Louis B. Mayer to drop her real name Lucille LeSueur because it sounded too much like "sewer". Her 1933 contract with MGM was so detailed and binding, it even had a clause in it indicating what time she was expected to be in bed each night. She was named as "the other woman" in at least two divorces. Whenever she stayed in a hotel, no matter how good or reputable it was, she always scrubbed the bathroom herself before using it. In the early 1930s, tired of playing fun-loving flappers, she wanted to change her image. Thin lips would not do for her; she wanted big lips. Ignoring Crawford's natural lip contours, Max Factor ran a smear of color across her upper and lower lips; it was just what she wanted. To Max, the Crawford look, which became her trademark, was always "the smear". To the public it became known as "Hunter's Bow Lips". Crawford is often credited as helping to rout America's prejudice against lipstick. After hearing that a plumber had used a toilet after installing it in her Brentwood home, she immediately had the fixture and pipes ripped out and replaced. Her cleanliness obsession led her to prefer showers to tubs, as she abhorred sitting in her own bathwater. Despite being a big star, Crawford really didn't appear in that many film classics. One she missed out on was From Here to Eternity (1953) in 1953. When the domineering actress insisted that her costumes be designed by Sheila O'Brien , studio head Harry Cohn replaced her with Deborah Kerr . In her final years at MGM, Crawford was handed weak scripts in the hopes that she'd break her contract. Two films she hungered to appear in were Random Harvest (1942) and Madame Curie (1943). Both films went to bright new star Greer Garson instead, and Crawford left the studio soon after. "Joan Arden" was chosen as the young star's screen name after a write-in contest was held in the pages of "Movie Weekly" magazine, but a bit player came forward and said she was already using it. Mrs. Marie M. Tisdale, a crippled woman living in Albany, New York, won $500 for submitting the runner-up name "Joan Crawford". She disliked her "new" name and initially encouraged others to pronounce it Jo-Anne Crawford. In private, she liked to be referred to as Billie. A 2002 TV biography revealed that her hatred of wire hangers derived from her poverty as a child and her experiences working with her mother in what must have been a grim job in a laundry. She always considered The Unknown (1927) a big turning point for her. She said it wasn't until working with Lon Chaney in this film that she learned the difference between standing in front of a camera and acting in front of a camera. She said that was all due to Chaney and his intense concentration, and after that experience she said she worked much harder to become a better actress. Sister of actor Hal Le Sueur . She was bullied and shunned at Scaritt Elementary School in Kansas City by the other students due to her poor home life (after she became a star, she answered every single piece of fan mail she received in her lifetime except those from former classmates at Scaritt). She worked with her mother in a laundry and felt that her classmates could smell the chemicals and cleaners on her. She said that her love of taking showers and being obsessed with cleanliness had begun early in life as an attempt to wash off the smell of the laundry. Decided to adopt children after suffering a series of miscarriages with her husbands and being told by doctors that she would never be able to have a baby. Drank excessively and smoked until she began practicing Christian Science, at which time she abruptly quit smoking. The amount she drank decreased substantially for decades, but then increased during the 1960s and 1970s as her career wound down and health problems increased. During her later years, Crawford was drinking up to a quart of vodka a day. When her daughter Christina Crawford decided to become an actress, Joan demanded that she change her last name, so it wouldn't appear that Christina was using it to further her career. Christina refused. Adopted all of her children except Christopher Crawford while she was unmarried. Since the state of California did not allow single men and women to adopt children at that time, Joan had to search for agencies in the eastern United States. The agency in charge of the adoption of Christina was later exposed as part of a black market baby ring. As a child, Joan was playing in the front yard of her home in Texas when she got a large piece of glass lodged in her foot. After it was removed, doctors told her she would likely never walk again without a limp. Joan was determined to be a dancer, so she practiced walking and dancing every day for over six months until she was able to walk without pain. Not only did she make a full recovery, she also fulfilled her dream of becoming a chorus dancer. Was dancing in a chorus line in 1925 when she was spotted by MGM and offered a screen test. Although she wanted more than anything to continue dancing, she turned down the offer at first. Another chorus girl persuaded her to try the test, however, and a few weeks later she was put under contract. When she adopted her eldest daughter, Christina Crawford , she first named her "Joan Jr.". Baby pictures from the book "Mommie, Dearest" show baby Christina lying on a towel with "Joan, Jr." monogrammed on it. Later, for reasons that can only be speculated, Joan changed the baby's name to Christina. Joan did the same thing to her adopted son, who was named "Phillip Terry, Jr." after actor Phillip Terry , to whom she was married at the time he was adopted. After her divorce from Terry was finalized, she changed the boy's name to Christopher. Adopted another son in the early 1940s, but during a magazine interview she disclosed the location of his birth, and his biological mother showed up at her Brentwood home wanting the baby back. Thinking that a fight would hurt the well-being of the child, Joan gave him back to his mother, who then sold him to another family. Never liked the name "Crawford", saying to her friend William Haines that it sounded too much like "Crawfish". He replied that it was much better than "Cranberry," which became the nickname he used for Crawford for over 50 years. Blue Öyster Cult wrote a song about her, titled "Joan Crawford". Adopted four children: Christina Crawford , Christopher Crawford , and twins Cindy Crawford and Cathy Crawford . Her little tap dancing in The Hollywood Revue of 1929 (1929) was the first audible tap dance on the screen. Her Oscar statuette for Mildred Pierce (1945) went on auction after her death and sold for $68,000. The auction house had predicted a top bid of $15,000. Her popularity grew so quickly after her name was changed to Joan Crawford that two films in which she was still billed as Lucille Le Sueur: Old Clothes (1925) and The Only Thing (1925) were recalled, and the billings were altered. WAMPAS Baby of 1926 She was a favorite model of Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks for their early experiments in animation ("The Hand Behind the Mouse," by Leslie Iwerks). Met her biological father only once when he visited her on the set of Chained (1934). She would never see him again. One of the original MGM contract stars from the studio's early period. She was voted the 47th Greatest Movie Star of all time by Entertainment Weekly. After being signed by MGM, someone attempted to extort money from the studio by claiming they had a pornographic film that featured a young Crawford. The attempt failed when MGM pointed out they could not definitely prove the actress in the film was Crawford. The incident was mentioned in a couple of biographies. Was approached twice by the producers of the Airport disaster movie series. She was offered two different roles in both Airport 1975 (1974) and Airport '77 (1977), but refused. Comedic actress Betty Hutton , who lived near Crawford for a time, stated that she saw some of the abuse claimed by Joan's daughter Christina Crawford . Hutton would often encourage her own children to spend some time with "those poor children," as she felt they needed some fun in their lives. After her husband Alfred Steele died, she continued to set a place for him at the dinner table. Although she claimed her youngest daughters Cathy and Cindy were twins, most sources--including her two older children--claim they were just two babies born about a month apart. Her two older children claimed they couldn't be twins because they looked nothing alike. In the early 1990s Cathy found their birth certificate, which proved that they were indeed twins, born on January 13, 1947. The fact that they were fraternal twins, rather than identical, can account for the fact that they did not look alike. The twins eventually met their birth father and other biological relatives. They found out that their birth mother had died of kidney failure soon after birth and that their father, who had not been married to their mother, did not find out about them until after it was too late. They were sold illegally to Crawford by Tennessee Children's Home Society director Georgia Tann. She has a granddaughter, Chrystal, from son Christopher. She has a granddaughter Carla, born c. 1970, from daughter Cathy. She has eight grandchildren altogether (four from Christopher and two each from Cindy and Cathy). She has a grandson, Casey LaLonde, by her daughter Cathy. He was born c. 1972. Is portrayed by Barrie Youngfellow in The Scarlett O'Hara War (1980) and by Faye Dunaway in Mommie Dearest (1981) She had English, as well as small amounts of French (the origin of her surname) and Welsh, ancestry. In AFI's 100 Years 100 Stars, she was ranked the #10 Female Greatest Screen Legend. Often wore shoulder pads. Was very close friends with William Haines and his partner Jimmy Shields from very early in her career until Haines' death. An up-and-coming actor, Haines had refused MGM's demand of a sham marriage to divert attention from his long-standing relationship with Shields. Crawford often referred to them as one of the longest, happiest marriages in Hollywood. Her performance as Mildred Pierce Beragon in Mildred Pierce (1945) is ranked #93 on Premiere Magazine's 100 Greatest Performances of All Time (2006). Adopted four children. Her two oldest children, Christina Crawford and Chistopher were completely excluded from her will. The other two received the modest amount of $77,500 each out of Crawford's $2 million estate. Mentioned in thanks by Courtney Love in the liner notes of Hole 's album "Celebrity Skin". In Italy, almost all of her films were dubbed by Tina Lattanzi and in the fifties mainly by Lidia Simoneschi . She was once dubbed by Gemma Griarotti in the second dubbing of Grand Hotel (1932). She was Fred Astaire 's first on-screen dance partner. They appeared in Dancing Lady (1933). Salary for 1941, $195,673. Had once said that Clark Gable was the only man she had ever truly loved. In 1933 she appeared in a Coca-Cola print advertisement. Twenty-two years later she married Pepsi-Cola board chairman Alfred Steele . In 1959, upon the death of her husband Alfred Steele , CEO of the Pepsi-Cola Company, she refused to give up her seat on the board of directors until her forced retirement in 1973. She earned $60,000 per year as a board member and was a tireless supporter of the product, demanding that it receive prominent placement in her films, and traveled extensively as a goodwill ambassador for the company. While touring the talk show circuit to promote What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962), Bette Davis told one interviewer that when she and Crawford were first suggested for the leads, Warner Bros. studio head Jack L. Warner replied: "I wouldn't give a plugged nickel for either of those two old broads." Recalling the story, Davis laughed at her own expense. The following day, she received a telegram from Crawford: "In future, please do not refer to me as an old broad!". She was awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1752 Vine St. Her daughter Christina Crawford suffered from an ovarian cyst in 1968 while appearing on the soap opera The Secret Storm (1954). While Christina was recovering from surgery, Joan--63 years old at the time--temporarily took over Christina's role as a 28-year-old on the show. Christina wrote in her book "Mommie Dearest" that when she watched her mother's scenes on the telecast, it was obvious to her that Crawford had been drinking during the taping. Former mother-in-law of Harvey Medlinsky . Was in consideration for the part of Hildy Johnson in His Girl Friday (1940), but Rosalind Russell was cast instead. After joining Warner Bros., she was looking for her first role at the studio. Jack L. Warner had her in mind for the role of Kathryn Mason in Conflict (1945) and sent the script for the film to her. However, after reading the script, she told her agent to tell Warner that "Joan Crawford never dies in her movies, and she never ever loses her man to anyone". She was an active member of the Hollywood Democratic Committee and was very liberal all her life. She was a supporter of Franklin D. Roosevelt , Harry Truman , Lyndon Johnson , Adlai Stevenson , John F. Kennedy and Jimmy Carter . Her biggest pet peeve was being told by rising starlets that she was their mother's favorite actress. Joan suffered from bacillophobia, the fear of germs. The Disneyland attraction "It's A Small World" was donated to the famed theme-park courtesy of Joan. During the 1964 World's Fair, Joan, who at the time was member of the board of directors of Pepsi Cola, approached Walt Disney with the suggestion to create a ride dedicated to the children of the world. The musical boat ride was a smash hit and once the fair ended "It's A Small World" was transferred in its entirety to Disneyland and was officially reopened to park guests on May 28, 1966, with Crawford in attendance. She was friends with: Van Johnson , Cesar Romero , Barbara Stanwyck , Myrna Loy , Ann Blyth , Gary Gray , Marlene Dietrich , Anita Loos , Rosalind Russell , Virginia Bruce , and George Cukor . She once said in an interview that she and her arch-rival Bette Davis had nothing in common. In reality, they had a handful of similarities in their personal lives. They both had fathers who abandoned their families at a young age, they rose from poverty to success while breaking into films during the late 1920s and early 1930s, had siblings and mothers who milked them financially once they became famous, became Oscar-winning leading ladies, were staunch liberal Democrats and feminists, and had daughters who wrote books denouncing them as bad mothers. Her favorite musician was Glenn Miller and she especially loved his 1939 song "Moonlight Serenade". A personal friend of President Lyndon Johnson , she was attending a White House dinner on January 17, 1967, and caused quite a tabloid stir when she implied that Cathy Douglas, the recent widow of Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas , failed to show "proper breeding" by not knowing how to correctly use her finger bowl. Release of the book, "Joan Crawford: Hollywood Martyr" by David Bret. [2006] In January 2014, she was honored as Turner Classic Movies Star of the Month. Was considered for the role of Scarlett O'Hara in Gone with the Wind (1939). Her favorite actress was Agnes Moorehead . She was a fan of the TV show Bewitched (1964). Is one of 14 Best Actress Oscar winners to have not accepted their Academy Award in person, Crawford's being for Mildred Pierce (1945). The others are Katharine Hepburn , Claudette Colbert , Judy Holliday , Vivien Leigh , Anna Magnani , Ingrid Bergman , Sophia Loren , Anne Bancroft , Patricia Neal , Elizabeth Taylor , Maggie Smith , Glenda Jackson and Ellen Burstyn . Was the 26th actress to receive an Academy Award; she won the Best Actress Oscar for Mildred Pierce (1945) at The 18th Academy Awards on March 7, 1946. Paramount was the one major studio Crawford never made a film for, although she came very close. In early 1953 she was in talks to star as Sylvia Merril in the Irving Asher production of "Lisbon", an international spy tale adapted from a short story by 'Martin Rackin' (qv(. However, the film was shelved when after several rewrites Asher and Crawford weren't sure about the strength of the script. She and director Nicholas Ray (who had been hired to direct "Lisbon") both went on to film the 1954 western Johnny Guitar (1954) for Republic Pictures. It was Republic that ended up making Lisbon (1956) with Maureen O'Hara playing Sylvia Merril. In 1934, Crawford contacted the doctor who had performed her dental and facial operations in 1928, William Branch, for which there were follow-up procedures in 1932 and 1933. She asked him to help her develop a program through which she would underwrite the hospital bills for destitute patients who had once worked in any capacity in the film industry. These people would receive all necessary treatment at the Hollywood Presbyterian Hospital, where she endowed many rooms and a surgical suite. All the bills were sent to her and promptly and privately paid for, without referring them to her business manager. The arrangement was made on condition that her name not be used, and that she receive no credit or publicity for her charitable work in any way. Years later, when her donations were discovered and she was publicly praised, Crawford feigned ignorance of the entire enterprise. According to a confidential hospital report made in 1939, "In the two years after 1937, more than 390 major surgeries were completed. Joan Crawford paid the bills, she never knew the people for whom she was paying, and she didn't care.". In his autobiography, Jackie Cooper claims he had an affair with Crawford when he was her teenage neighbor. At the Academy Awards presentation for 1961 (1962), Crawford presented Maximilian Schell with his "Best Actor" Oscar; the following year, Schell, as presenter of the "Best Actress" award, presented the Oscar to Crawford, who was accepting for absent winner Anne Bancroft . Appeared alongside Diane Baker in three films: The Best of Everything (1959), Della (1964) and Strait-Jacket (1964). In the latter two, she played Baker's mother. During her time on the Pepsi-Cola board of directors, whenever she and the current president of Coca-Cola happened to be in the same restaurant at the same time, each of them would send the other a bottle of the other's product. During filming of her episode of Night Gallery (1969), its director, the then-unknown Steven Spielberg , presented her with the gift of a single red rose in a Pepsi-Cola bottle. At the time, she was still a member of the soft drink giant's board of directors. The death of her fourth husband, Alfred Steele , devastated her financially as well as emotionally. After he died it was discovered that he had borrowed money from Pepsi-Cola against his future salary, and when he passed away she was left with massive debts to cover. Her dire financial situation is one of the main reasons--aside from the fact that she simply loved working--for the increasingly lackluster projects she signed on for in her later career. She considered This Woman Is Dangerous (1952) to be the worst film she ever starred in. Profiled in the book "Johnny Mack Brown's Saddle Gals" by Bobby Copeland. According to Joan, "You manufacture toys. You don't manufacture stars" (cited in 'A Tribute to Joan Crawford', in Film Fan Monthly # 138, December 1972). Personal Quotes (79) I need sex for a clear complexion, but I'd rather do it for love. [In The Women (1939)] Norma Shearer made me change my costume sixteen times because every one was prettier than hers. I love to play bitches and she helped me in this part. If you start watching the oldies, you're in trouble. I feel ancient if Grand Hotel (1932) or The Bride Wore Red (1937) comes on. I have a sneaking regard for Mildred Pierce (1945), but the others do nothing for me. [regarding the films she made after What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962)] They were all terrible, even the few I thought might be good. I made them because I needed the money or because I was bored or both. I hope they have been exhibited and withdrawn and are never heard from again. If I weren't a Christian Scientist, and I saw Trog (1970) advertised on a marquee across the street, I'd think I'd contemplate suicide. I realized one morning that Trog (1970) was going to be my last picture. I had to be up early for the shoot and when I looked outside at the beautiful morning sky I felt that it was time to say goodbye. I think that may have been a prophetic thought because when I arrived on the set that morning the director told me that due to budget cuts we would wrap up filming today. The last shot of that film was a one-take and it was a very emotional moment for me. When I was walking up that hill towards the sunset I was flooded with memories of the last 50 years, and when the director yelled cut I just kept on walking. That for me was the perfect way to end my film career; however, the audiences who had to sit through that picture may feel differently. I hate being asked to discuss those dreadful horror pictures I made the mistake of starring in. They were all just so disappointing to me, I really had high expectations for some of them. I thought that William Castle and I did our best on Strait-Jacket (1964) but the script was ludicrous and unbelievable and that destroyed that picture. I even thought that Berserk (1967) would be good but that was one of the worst of the lot. The other one William Castle and I did [ I Saw What You Did (1965)] was the most wretched of them all and I just wasn't good at playing an over-the-hill nymphomaniac. Ha! Then came Trog (1970). Now you can understand why I retired from making motion pictures. Incidentally, I think at that point in my career I was doing my best work on television. Della was a good television role for me, and I really liked working on that pilot episode of Night Gallery: Night Gallery (The Cemetery/Eyes/The Escape Route) (1969) with young Steven Spielberg . He did a great job and I am very satisfied with my performance on that show. Funny, every time a reporter asks me about my horror pictures they never talk about that one, and it's the only one I liked! Love is fire. But whether it is going to warm your hearth or burn down your house, you can never tell. Nobody can imitate me. You can always see impersonations of Katharine Hepburn and Marilyn Monroe . But not me. Because I've always drawn on myself only. I think the most important thing a woman can have -- next to talent, of course, is -- her hairdresser. [regarding the ongoing feud between Joan and her daughter Christina Crawford ] Mother-and-daughter feuds make for reams in print; they also make for reams of inaccuracies: the greatest inaccuracy is the feud itself. It takes two to feud and I'm not one of them. I only wish the best for Tina. Women's Lib? Poor little things. They always look so unhappy. Have you noticed how bitter their faces are? You have to be self-reliant and strong to survive in this town. Otherwise you will be destroyed. Recently I heard a "wise guy" story that I had a party at my home for 25 men. It's an interesting story, but I don't know 25 men I'd want to invite to a party. [speaking of Marilyn Monroe ] Look, there's nothing wrong with my tits, but I don't go around throwing them in people's faces! Send me flowers while I'm alive. They won't do me a damn bit of good after I'm dead. Not that anyone cares, but there's a right and wrong way to clean a house. There was a saying around MGM: " Norma Shearer got the productions, Greta Garbo supplied the art, and Joan Crawford made the money to pay for both". Of all the actresses . . . to me, only Faye Dunaway has the talent and the class and the courage it takes to make a real star. I'd like to think every director I've worked with has fallen in love with me; I know Dorothy Arzner did. If I can't be me, I don't want to be anybody. I was born that way. [speaking to director George Cukor after learning of Marilyn Monroe 's death] You're right. She was cheap, and an exhibitionist. She was never professional, and that irritated the hell out of people. But for God's sake, she needed help. She had all these people on her payroll. Where the hell were they when she needed them? Why in the hell did she have to die alone? I love playing bitches. There's a lot of bitch in every woman--a lot in every man. Hollywood is like life, you face it with the sum total of your equipment. If you've earned a position, be proud of it. Don't hide it. I want to be recognized. When I hear people say, "Joan Crawford!" I turn around and say, "Hi! How are you?" If you're going to be a star, you have to look like a star, and I never go out unless I look like Joan Crawford the movie star. If you want to see the girl next door, go next door. [on working with Bette Davis in What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962) at Legendary Ladies of the Movies, Town Hall (1973)] It was one of the greatest challenges I ever had. [pauses to allow the laughter from the audience to taper off] I meant that kindly. Bette is of a different temperament than I. Bette had to yell every morning. I just sat and knitted. I knitted a scarf from Hollywood to Malibu. [on director George Cukor ] Mr. Cukor is a hard task-master, a fine director and he took me over the coals giving me the roughest time I have ever had. And I am eternally grateful. [commenting on the remake of The Women (1939), The Opposite Sex (1956)] It's ridiculous. Norma [ Norma Shearer ] and I might not ever have been bosom buddies, but we towered compared to those pygmies in the remake! [on Greta Garbo ] She's let herself go all to hell. She walks along the sidewalk and runs across the street through the cars when somebody notices her, like an animal, a furtive rodent. It's a wonder anybody notices her--she looks like a bag lady. I heard that she's simply stopped bathing. [on Greta Garbo ] To this day I deplore the fact that she is unable to share herself with the world. What a waste! . . . If only she hadn't been so afraid, she wouldn't today be a lonely stranger on Fifth Avenue, fleeing before recognition. [on Bette Davis during the filming of Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964)] She acted like [ What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962)] was a one-woman show after they nominated her [for an Academy Award as Best Actress]. What was I supposed to do, let her hog all the glory, act like I hadn't even been in the movie? She got the nomination. I didn't begrudge her that, but it would have been nice if she'd been a little gracious in interviews and given me a little credit. I would have done it for her. [on Bette Davis and What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962)] Sure, she stole some of my big scenes, but the funny thing is, when I see the movie again, she stole them because she looked like a parody of herself, and I still looked like something of a star. [on Bette Davis ] She has a cult, and what the hell is a cult except a gang of rebels without a cause. I have fans. There's a big difference. [on Bette Davis and Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964)] I have always believed in the Christian ethic, to forgive and forget. I looked forward to working with Bette again. I had no idea of the extent of her hate, and that she planned to destroy me. [on Bette Davis ] So I had no great beginnings in legitimate theater, but what the hell had she become if not a movie star? With all her little gestures with the cigarette, the clipped speech, the big eyes, the deadpan? I was just as much an actress as she was, even though I wasn't trained for the stage. [on Bette Davis and The Star (1952)] Of course I had heard she was supposed to be playing me, but I didn't believe it. Did you see the picture? It couldn't possibly be me. Bette looked so old, and so dreadfully overweight. [on Judy Garland ] Over the years I've heard and read so many stories about the way Judy Garland was so badly treated at Metro she ended up a mess. I did not know her well, but after watching her in action a few times I didn't want to know her well. I think her problems were caused by the fact that she was a spoiled, indulgent, selfish brat--plus a stage mother who had to be something of a monster, and a few husbands whose egos absolutely dominated hers. There were times when I felt sorry for Judy, but there were more times when I thought, "For Christ's sake, get off your ass!" . . . but when she put her mind to it, she was good. And I mean damned good. Even in her silly pictures she came off. [commenting on sex in films] I find suggestion a hell of a lot more provocative than explicit detail. You didn't see [ Clark Gable ] and [ Vivien Leigh ] rolling around in bed in Gone with the Wind (1939), but you saw that shit-eating grin on her face the next morning and you knew damned well she'd gotten properly laid . . . In my fallen-woman roles . . . nobody saw me do the actual falling . . . but they knew I'd fallen, and when it happened again--well, they got the point, and maybe the pornography that went on inside their heads was better than the actual thing would have been on screen. Censorship was a pain in the ass--when it was moral or political--but in the long run, considering what I see now, I think it served a purpose. Marlon Brando . . . Oh, what was the film [ Last Tango in Paris (1972)] . . . anyway the nude scene. He's at least 40 pounds overweight, and I think the only sex appeal he has would be to a meat packer. That's art? The emphasis seems to be on the seamier side of real life, as though we should be more interested in what happened in the bathroom and the bedroom instead of living room, kitchen and office. The perspective is crazy. If we think about our lives, and divide time into the portions spent on making a living, eating, talking, reading, being entertained by TV or movies or radio or theater or whatever, and having sex, I think we'd find sex coming out on the short end of the stick. Unless you're a whore it doesn't give you the wherewithal to survive. Good God, isn't it more fun doing it or imagining it than watching it? . . . I know I sound like some sort of old Puritan, but I still think back to "Gone with the Wind", and that morning scene with Scarlett O'Hara. It was a hell of a lot more sexually stimulating than a glimpse of fat Marlon Brando. Be afraid of nothing. When we were making [ What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962)], Bette [ Bette Davis ] admitted to me she was "absolutely smitten" with Franchot [ Franchot Tone ], who had made Dangerous (1935) with her, but Franchot and I were already very much involved. That proves that Bette did have some good taste in men. Franchot said he thought Bette was a good actress, but he never thought of her as a woman. Our marriage didn't last, but we had some wonderful years. I wouldn't give them back for anything, and we remained friends as long as he lived. Sensitive husbands don't like second billing. I don't believe Franchot [ Franchot Tone ] ever for a moment resented the fact that I was a star. Possibly he resented Hollywood's refusal to let him forget it. There was never a doubt in my mind that his talent was greater than mine. Franchot [ Franchot Tone ] was an extremely loving, intelligent, considerate man, but he was also very haunted. He was one hell of a fine actor, but he loved the theatre and despised Hollywood. He very seldom got the parts he deserved, and I think this bugged him a lot. I wasn't as nice to him, as considerate, as I should have been. I was extremely busy during those years, and I didn't realize that his insecurities and dissatisfactions ran so deeply. His sex life diminished considerably, which didn't help matters, and there finally came a time when we only had things to argue about, not to talk about, and after hundreds of running arguments and a few physical rows we decided to call it quits. I missed him a lot, for a long, long time. He was so mature and stimulating. I think I can safely say that the break-up was another career casualty. If I'd tried a little harder - who knows. [on The David Frost Show (1969), (1970)] I feel that if you have one ounce of good sense and one good friend, you'll never have to go to a psychiatrist. [The 1930s] Hollywood was capable of hurting me so much. The things about Hollywood that could hurt me (when I first came) can't touch me now. I suddenly decided that they shouldn't hurt me--that was all. When television killed comedy and love stories, the movie makers went in slugging. They offered the downbeat, the degenerate as competition. This seems to me to be a sad campaign for Hollywood to use to combat box office disaster. [on Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964) (1973)] I still get chills when I think of the treachery that Miss Davis [ Bette Davis ] indulged in on that movie, but I refused to ever let anger or hate enter my heart. [on Bette Davis ]: There was one thing where Bette was one up on me. She'd had a baby, a child of her own. I wanted one, and Bette was so lucky to have been able to have her own daughter. [on her children Christina Crawford and Christopher Crawford ] You know the troubles I've had with my two older children. I can't understand why it turned out so badly. I tried to give them everything. I loved them and tried to keep them near me, even when they didn't return my love. Well, I couldn't make them love me, but they could have shown some respect. I couldn't insist on love, but I could insist on respect. [on the red carpet treatment Norma Shearer attracted at MGM] What do you expect? She sleeps with the boss [Shearer's husband Irving Thalberg was production head of MGM]. [To Spencer Tracy , made up with curled hair for Captains Courageous (1937)] Oh, my God, it's Harpo Marx ! I had always known what I wanted, and that was beauty . . . in every form . . . a beautiful house, beautiful man, a beautiful life and image. I was ambitious to get the money which would attain all that for me. I hate this fucking picture [ What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962)], but I need the money, and if it goes over I'll get a nice percentage of the profits. [after seeing Greta Garbo for the first time on the MGM lot] My knees went weak. She was breathtaking. If ever I thought of becoming a lesbian, that was it. [commenting on her final days at Warner Brothers] They were grooming Doris Day to take over the top spot. [ Jack L. Warner ] asked me to play her sister in one picture [ Storm Warning (1951)]. I said, "Come on, Jack. No one could ever believe that I would have Doris Day for a sister". [on Planet of the Apes (1968)] Sure, I'd play an ape if they asked me. Maurice Evans did. I absolutely will not allow anyone to call me grandmother. They can call me Auntie Joan, Dee-Dee, Cho-Cho, anything but grandmother. It pushes a woman almost to the grave. [on What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962) and whether she hid weights on her body so that Bette Davis would have a hard time lifting her off the bed when she takes her out of the house for their trip to the beach] Weights! And have Bette tell everyone I was as heavy as an elephant. Absolutely not. I may not have made it as easy for her to lift me out of the bed as I could have, at least at first, but when you're a pro you get over any animosity you may feel and help your fellow player out. It simply didn't happen. [on her son, Christopher Crawford ] I remember most clearly when a teenage Christopher spat in my face. He said, "I hate you". It's pretty hard to overlook that. I couldn't. I used to wash my hands every ten minutes. I couldn't step out of the house unless I had gloves on. I wouldn't smoke a cigarette unless I opened the pack myself, and I would never use another cigarette out of that pack if someone else had touched it. While making Possessed (1947), I wept each morning on my drive to the studio, and I wept all the way back home. I found it impossible to sleep at night, so I'd lie in bed contemplating the future. I fear it with all my heart and soul even as I fear the dark. [on filming the bath scene in The Women (1939)] It took ten hours to shoot. The suds lasted only fifteen minutes under the hot lights. Once, the water began to leak out and the crew had to toss me a towel to clothe myself. It could have been so embarrassing. [on The Women (1939)] It was like a fucking zoo at times. If you let down your guard for one moment you would have been eaten alive. The Democratic party is one that I've always observed. I have struggled greatly in life from the day I was born and I am honored to be a part of something that focuses on working-class citizens and molds them into a proud specimen. Mr. Roosevelt [ Franklin D. Roosevelt ] and Mr. Kennedy [ John F. Kennedy ] have done so much in that regard for the two generations they've won over during their career course. [on why she declined Airport '77 (1977)] I wanted Joel McCrea to play opposite me, and anyway, they actually asked me to fly out there with only one week's notice! Why, that is hardly enough time for makeup tests or rehearsals . . . and when I asked about costume fittings, they said they wanted me to wear my own clothes! [ The Story of Esther Costello (1957)] It was one hell of a demanding role and I played it in my own pitch, the way I thought it should be played, and I was right. The complexities of the part were staggering and I have nothing but very fond memories of it--plus the usual nagging question, why the hell didn't more pictures like this come along? Why did I get stuck in freak shows? Everything clicked on Autumn Leaves (1956). The cast was perfect, the script was good, and I think Bob [director Robert Aldrich ] handled everything well. I really think Cliff [ Cliff Robertson ] did a stupendous job; another actor might have been spitting out his lines and chewing the scenery, but he avoided that trap. I think the movie on a whole was a lot better than some of the romantic movies I did in the past. It did all right at the box office, but somehow it just never became better known. It was eclipsed by the picture I did with Bette Davis . [on being dubbed "box-office poison in 1938] Box-office poison? Mr.Mayer [MGM chief Louis B. Mayer ] always asserted that the studio had built Stage 22, Stage 24 and the Irving Thalberg Building, brick by brick, from the income on my pictures. [on Mildred Pierce (1945)] The character I played was a composite of the characters I'd always played, and there were a few elements from my own personality and character, too. In a way, I think I was getting ready for "Mildred Pierce" when I was a kid, waiting on tables and cooking. But there was not a single Crawford mannerism in my performance. I sailed into [it] with all the gusto I'd been saving for three years. The role was a delight to me, because it rescued me from what was known at MGM as the Joan Crawford formula. I had become so hidden in clothes and sets that nobody could tell whether I had talent or not. [on Possessed (1947)] I worked harder on it than on any other picture. Don't let anyone tell you it's easy to play a madwoman, particularly a psychotic. It was a heavy, heavy picture, not very pleasant, and I was emotionally and physically exhausted when we finished shooting. [on This Woman Is Dangerous (1952)] At the moment when I needed a blockbuster, my next picture could easily have been my swan song. It was the type of improbable corn that had gone out with Adrian 's shoulder pads. [on This Woman Is Dangerous (1952)] I must have been awfully hungry. The kids were in school, the house had a mortgage. And so I did this awful picture that had a shoddy story, a cliché script and no direction to speak of. The thing just blundered along. I suppose I could have made it better, but it was one of those times when I was so disgusted with everything that I just shrugged and went along with it. It was the worst picture I ever made. [on acting] One of the scary things is the effects a really heavy or demanding role will have on your personal life. During The Women (1939), I'm afraid I was as much of a bitch offscreen as I was on. Elizabeth Taylor said that she actually became Martha [in Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1966) in private life, with rather disastrous consequences. I can understand that. I always wondered how Charlton Heston acted offscreen while he was playing Moses. [on Queen Bee (1955)] I had a chance to play the total bitch, a worse bitch than I had played in The Women (1939) - and for a solid ninety minutes, too. I ended up hating myself, honestly feeling that in my death scene I was getting precisely what I deserved. [on William Haines and his partner, Jimmie Shields] The happiest married couple I ever knew. [on returning to MGM to work on Torch Song (1953)] It was like a homecoming. I loved doing that film. It gave me a chance to dance again. All the right elements were there. It was a field day for an actress, particularly one who'd reached a certain age. They don't write pictures like this anymore, do they? [on The Gorgeous Hussy (1936)] I had read the criticisms of me and my movies and they were discerning. They said that Crawford needs a new deal, and they asked if I was doomed to explore forever the emotional misfortunes of the super-sexed modern young woman. And so, to break away from the pattern, I wanted to do "The Gorgeous Hussy". [ David O. Selznick ] laughed at me: "You can't do a costume picture. You're too modern". But I begged and begged and begged, and so they let me do it. I was totally miscast. [on Elizabeth Taylor ] Miss Taylor is a spoiled, indulgent child, a blemish on public decency. You know, I was terrified of flying until Alfred talked me out of it. Salary (31)

i don't know

Which future President made the famous Checkers Speech in 1952?

The History Place - Great Speeches Collection: Richard Nixon Checkers Speech At the 1952 Republican national convention, a young Senator from California, Richard M. Nixon, was chosen to be the running mate of presidential candidate Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon had enjoyed a spectacular rise in national politics. Elected to Congress in 1946, he quickly made a name for himself as a militant anti-Communist while serving on the House Un-American Activities Committee. In 1950, at age 38, he was elected to the Senate and became an outspoken critic of President Truman's conduct of the Korean War. He also cited wasteful spending by the Democrats, and alleged that Communists had infiltrated the U.S. government. But Nixon's rapid rise in American politics nearly came to a crashing halt after a sensational headline appeared in the New York Post stating, "Secret Rich Men's Trust Fund Keeps Nixon in Style Far Beyond His Salary." The headline appeared just a few days after Eisenhower had chosen him as his running mate. Amid the shock and outrage that followed, many Republicans urged Eisenhower to dump Nixon from the ticket before it was too late. Nixon, however, in a brilliant political maneuver, took his case directly to the American people via the new medium of television. During a nationwide broadcast, with his wife Pat sitting stoically nearby, Nixon offered an apologetic explanation of his finances, including the now-famous lines regarding his wife's "respectable Republican cloth coat." Additionally, he told of a little dog named Checkers that was given as a present to his young daughters. "I want to say right now that regardless of what they say, we're going to keep it." He turned the last section of his address into a political attack, making veiled accusations about the finances of his political opponents and challenging them to provide the same kind of open explanation. Although it would forever be known as Nixon's "Checkers Speech," it was actually a political triumph for Nixon at the time it was given. Eisenhower requested Nixon to come to West Virginia where he was campaigning and greeted Nixon at the airport with, "Dick, you're my boy." The Republicans went on to win the election by a landslide. My Fellow Americans, I come before you tonight as a candidate for the Vice-presidency and as a man whose honesty and integrity has been questioned. Now, the usual political thing to do when charges are made against you is to either ignore them or to deny them without giving details. I believe we have had enough of that in the United States, particularly with the present administration in Washington D.C. To me, the office of the Vice-presidency of the United States is a great office, and I feel that the people have got to have confidence in the integrity of the men who run for that office and who might attain them. I have a theory, too, that the best and only answer to a smear or an honest misunderstanding of the facts is to tell the truth. And that is why I am here tonight. I want to tell you my side of the case. I am sure that you have read the charges, and you have heard it, that I, Senator Nixon, took $18,000 from a group of my supporters. Now, was that wrong? And let me say that it was wrong. I am saying it, incidentally, that it was wrong, just not illegal, because it isn't a question of whether it was legal or illegal, that isn't enough. The question is, was it morally wrong? I say that it was morally wrong if any of that $18,000 went to Senator Nixon, for my personal use. I say that it was morally wrong if it was secretly given and secretly handled. And I say that it was morally wrong if any of the contributors got special favors for the contributions that they made. And to answer those questions let me say this--not a cent of the $18,000 or any other money of that type ever went to me for my personal use. Every penny of it was used to pay for political expenses that I did not think should be charged to the taxpayers of the United States. It was not a secret fund. As a matter of fact, when I was on "Meet the Press"--some of you may have seen it last Sunday--Peter Edson came up to me after the program, and he said, "Dick, what about this fund we hear about?" And I said, "Well, there is no secret about it. Go out and see Dana Smith who was the administrator of the fund," and I gave him his address. And I said you will find that the purpose of the fund simply was to defray political expenses that I did not feel should be charged to the government. And third, let me point out, and I want to make this particularly clear, that no contributor to this fund, no contributor to any of my campaigns, has ever received any consideration that he would not have received as an ordinary constituent. I just don't believe in that, and I can say that never, while I have been in the Senate of the United States, as far as the people that contributed to this fund are concerned, have I made a telephone call to an agency, nor have I gone down to an agency on their behalf. And the records will show that--the records which are in the hands of the administration. Well, then, some of you will say, and rightly, "Well, what did you use the fund for, Senator? Why did you have to have it?" Let me tell you in just a word how a Senate office operates. First of all, the Senator gets $15,000 a year in salary. He gets enough money to pay for one trip a year, a round trip, that is, for himself, and his family between his home and Washington D.C. And then he gets an allowance to handle the people that work in his office to handle his mail. And the allowance for my State of California, is enough to hire 13 people. And let me say, incidentally, that this allowance is not paid to the Senator. It is paid directly to the individuals, that the Senator puts on his payroll, but all of these people and all of these allowances are for strictly official business--business, for example, when a constituent writes in and wants you to go down to the Veteran's Administration and get some information about his GI policy--items of that type for example. But there are other expenses that are not covered by the government. And I think I can best discuss those expenses by asking you some questions. Do you think that when I or any other Senator makes a political speech, has it printed, should charge the printing of that speech and the mailing of that speech to the taxpayers? Do you think, for example, when I or any other Senator makes a trip to his home state to make a purely political speech that the cost of that trip should be charged to the taxpayers? Do you think when a Senator makes political broadcasts or political television broadcasts, radio or television, that the expense of those broadcasts should be charged to the taxpayers? I know what your answer is. It is the same answer that audiences give me whenever I discuss this particular problem. The answer is no. The taxpayers should not be required to finance items which are not official business but which are primarily political business. Well, then the question arises, you say, "Well, how do you pay for these and how can you do it legally?" And there are several ways, that it can be done, incidentally, and it is done legally in the United States Senate and in the Congress. The first way is to be a rich man. So I couldn't use that. Another way that is used is to put your wife on the payroll. Let me say, incidentally, that my opponent, my opposite number for the Vice-presidency on the Democratic ticket, does have his wife on the payroll and has had her on his payroll for the past ten years. Now let me just say this--That is his business, and I am not critical of him for doing that. You will have to pass judgment on that particular point, but I have never done that for this reason: I have found that there are so many deserving stenographers and secretaries in Washington that needed the work that I just didn't feel it was right to put my wife on the payroll--My wife sitting over there. She is a wonderful stenographer. She used to teach stenography and she used to teach shorthand in high school. That was when I met her. And I can tell you folks that she has worked many hours on Saturdays and Sundays in my office, and she has done a fine job, and I am proud to say tonight that in the six years I have been in the Senate of the United States, Pat Nixon has never been on the government payroll. What are the other ways that these finances can be taken care of? Some who are lawyers, and I happen to be a lawyer, continue to practice law, but I haven't been able to do that. I am so far away from California and I have been so busy with my senatorial work that I have not engaged in any legal practice, and, also, as far as law practice is concerned, it seemed to me that the relationship between an attorney and the client was so personal that you couldn't possibly represent a man as an attorney and then have an unbiased view when he presented his case to you in the event that he had one before government. And so I felt that the best way to handle these necessary political expenses of getting my message to the American people and the speeches I made--the speeches I had printed for the most part concerned this one message of exposing this administration, the Communism in it, the corruption in it--the only way I could do that was to accept the aid which people in my home state of California, who contributed to my campaign and who continued to make these contributions after I was elected, were glad to make. And let me say that I am proud of the fact that not one of them has ever asked me for a special favor. I am proud of the fact that not one of them has ever asked me to vote on a bill other than my own conscience would dictate. And I am proud of the fact that the taxpayers by subterfuge or otherwise have never paid one dime for expenses which I thought were political and should not be charged to the taxpayers. Let me say, incidentally, that some of you may say, "Well, that is all right, Senator, that is your explanation, but have you got any proof?" And I would like to tell you this evening that just an hour ago we received an independent audit of this entire fund. I suggested to Governor Sherman Adams, who is the chief of staff of the Eisenhower campaign, that an independent audit and legal report be obtained, and I have that audit in my hand. It is an audit made by Price Waterhouse & Co. firm, and the legal opinion by Gibson, Dunn, & Crutcher, lawyers in Los Angeles, the biggest law firm, and incidentally, one of the best ones in Los Angeles. I am proud to report to you tonight that this audit and legal opinion is being forwarded to General Eisenhower and I would like to read to you the opinion that was prepared by Gibson, Dunn, & Crutcher, based on all the pertinent laws, and statutes, together with the audit report prepared by the certified public accountants. It is our conclusion that Senator Nixon did not obtain any financial gain from the collection and disbursement of the funds by Dana Smith; that Senator Nixon did not violate any federal or state law by reason of the operation of the fund; and that neither the portion of the fund paid by Dana Smith directly to third persons, nor the portion paid to Senator Nixon, to reimburse him for office expenses, constituted income in a sense which was either reportable or taxable as income under income tax laws. Signed--Gibson, Dunn, & Crutcher, by Elmo Conley That is not Nixon speaking, but it is an independent audit which was requested because I want the American people to know all the facts and I am not afraid of having independent people go in and check the facts, and that is exactly what they did. But then I realized that there are still some who may say, and rightly so--and let me say that I recognize that some will continue to smear regardless of what the truth may be--but that there has been understandably, some honest misunderstanding on this matter, and there are some that will say, "Well, maybe you were able, Senator, to fake the thing. How can we believe what you say--after all, is there a possibility that maybe you got some sums in cash? Is there a possibility that you might have feathered your own nest?" And so now, what I am going to do--and incidentally this is unprecedented in the history of American politics--I am going at this time to give to this television and radio audience, a complete financial history, everything I have earned, everything I have spent and everything I own, and I want you to know the facts. I will have to start early, I was born in 1913. Our family was one of modest circumstances, and most of my early life was spent in a store out in East Whittier. It was a grocery store, one of those family enterprises. The only reason we were able to make it go was because my mother and dad had five boys, and we all worked in the store. I worked my way through college, and, to a great extent, through law school. And then in 1940, probably the best thing that ever happened to me happened. I married Pat who is sitting over here. We had a rather difficult time after we were married, like so many of the young couples who might be listening to us. I practiced law. She continued to teach school. Then, in 1942, I went into the service. Let me say that my service record was not a particularly unusual one. I went to the South Pacific. I guess I'm entitled to a couple of battle stars. I got a couple of letters of commendation. But I was just there when the bombs were falling. And then I returned. I returned to the United States, and in 1946, I ran for Congress. When we came out of the war--Pat and I--Pat during the war had worked as a stenographer, and in a bank, and as an economist for a government agency--and when we came out, the total of our savings, from both my law practice, her teaching and all the time I was in the war, the total for that entire period was just less than $10,000--every cent of that, incidentally, was in government bonds--well, that's where we start, when I go into politics. Now, whatever I earned since I went into politics--well, here it is. I jotted it down. Let me read the notes. First of all, I have had my salary as a Congressman and as a Senator. Second, I have received a total in this past six years of $1,600 from estates which were in my law firm at the time that I severed my connection with it. And, incidentally, as I said before, I have not engaged in any legal practice, and have not accepted any fees from business that came into the firm after I went into politics. I have made an average of approximately $1,500 a year from nonpolitical speaking engagements and lectures. And then, unfortunately, we have inherited little money. Pat sold her interest in her father's estate for $3,000, and I inherited $1,500 from my grandfather. We lived rather modestly. For four years we lived in an apartment in Parkfairfax, Alexandria Virginia. The rent was $80 a month. And we saved for a time when we could buy a house. Now that was what we took in. What did we do with this money? What do we have today to show for it? This will surprise you because it is so little. I suppose as standards generally go of people in public life. First of all, we've got a house in Washington, which cost $41,000 and on which we owe $20,000. We have a house in Whittier, California which cost $13,000 and on which we owe $3,000. My folks are living there at the present time. I have just $4,000 in life insurance, plus my GI policy which I have never been able to convert, and which will run out in two years. I have no life insurance whatever on Pat. I have no life insurance on our two youngsters, Patricia and Julie. I own a 1950 Oldsmobile car. We have our furniture. We have no stocks and bonds of any type. We have no interest, direct or indirect, in any business. Now that is what we have. What do we owe? Well, in addition to the mortgages, the $20,000 mortgage on the house in Washington and the $10,000 mortgage on the house in Whittier, I owe $4,000 to the Riggs Bank in Washington D.C. with an interest at 4 percent. I owe $3,500 to my parents, and the interest on that loan, which I pay regularly, because it is a part of the savings they made through the years they were working so hard--I pay regularly 4 percent interest. And then I have a $500 loan, which I have on my life insurance. Well, that's about it. That's what we have. And that's what we owe. It isn't very much. But Pat and I have the satisfaction that every dime that we have got is honestly ours. I should say this, that Pat doesn't have a mink coat. But she does have a respectable Republican cloth coat, and I always tell her she would look good in anything. One other thing I probably should tell you, because if I don't they will probably be saying this about me, too. We did get something, a gift, after the election. A man down in Texas heard Pat on the radio mention the fact that our two youngsters would like to have a dog, and, believe it or not, the day before we left on this campaign trip we got a message from Union Station in Baltimore, saying they had a package for us. We went down to get it. You know what it was? It was a little cocker spaniel dog, in a crate that he had sent all the way from Texas, black and white, spotted, and our little girl Tricia, the six year old, named it Checkers. And you know, the kids, like all kids, loved the dog, and I just want to say this, right now, that regardless of what they say about it, we are going to keep it. It isn't easy to come before a nation-wide audience and bare your life, as I have done. But I want to say some things before I conclude, that I think most of you will agree on. Mr. Mitchell, the Chairman of the Democratic National Committee, made this statement that if a man couldn't afford to be in the United States Senate, he shouldn't run for senate. And I just want to make my position clear. I don't agree with Mr. Mitchell when he says that only a rich man should serve his government in the United States Senate or Congress. I don't believe that represents the thinking of the Democratic Party, and I know it doesn't represent the thinking of the Republican Party. I believe that it's fine that a man like Governor Stevenson, who inherited a fortune from his father, can run for President. But I also feel that it is essential in this country of ours that a man of modest means can also run for President, because, you know--remember Abraham Lincoln--you remember what he said--"God must have loved the common people, he made so many of them." And now I'm going to suggest some courses of conduct. First of all, you have read in the papers about other funds, now, Mr. Stevenson apparently had a couple. One of them in which a group of business people paid and helped to supplement the salaries of state employees. Here is where the money went directly into their pockets, and I think that what Mr. Stevenson should do should be to come before the American people, as I have, give the names of the people that contributed to that fund, give the names of the people who put this money into their pockets, at the same time that they were receiving money from their state government and see what favors, if any, they gave out for that. I don't condemn Mr. Stevenson for what he did, but until the facts are in, there is a doubt that would be raised. And as far as Mr. Sparkman is concerned, I would suggest the same thing. He's had his wife on the payroll. I don't condemn him for that, but I think that he should come before the American people and indicate what outside sources of income he has had. I would suggest that under the circumstances both Mr. Sparkman and Mr. Stevenson should come before the American people, as I have, and make a complete financial statement as to their financial history, and if they don't, it will be an admission that they have something to hide. And I think you will agree with me--because, folks, remember, a man that's to be President of the United States, a man that is to be Vice President of the United States, must have the confidence of all the people. And that's why I'm doing what I'm doing. And that is why I suggest that Mr. Stevenson and Mr. Sparkman, if they are under attack, that should be what they are doing. Now let me say this: I know this is not the last of the smears. In spite of my explanation tonight, other smears will be made. Others have been made in the past. And the purpose of the smears, I know, is this, to silence me, to make me let up. Well, they just don't know who they are dealing with. I'm going to tell you this: I remember in the dark days of the Hiss trial some of the same columnists, some of the same radio commentators who are attacking me now and misrepresenting my position, were violently opposing me at the time I was after Alger Hiss. But I continued to fight because I knew I was right, and I can say to this great television and radio audience that I have no apologies to the American people for my part in putting Alger Hiss where he is today. And as far as this is concerned, I intend to continue to fight. Why do I feel so deeply? Why do I feel that in spite of the smears, the misunderstanding, the necessity for a man to come up here and bare his soul? And I want to tell you why. Because, you see, I love my country. And I think my country is in danger. And I think the only man that can save America at this time is the man that's running for President, on my ticket, Dwight Eisenhower. You say, why do I think it is in danger? And I say look at the record. Seven years of the Truman-Acheson administration, and what's happened? Six hundred million people lost to Communists. And a war in Korea in which we have lost 117,000 American casualties, and I say that those in the State Department that made the mistakes which caused that war and which resulted in those losses should be kicked out of the State Department just as fast as we can get them out of there. And let me say that I know Mr. Stevenson won't do that because he defends the Truman policy, and I know that Dwight Eisenhower will do that, and he will give America the leadership that it needs. Take the problem of corruption. You have read about the mess in Washington. Mr. Stevenson can't clean it up because he was picked by the man, Truman, under whose Administration the mess was made. You wouldn't trust the man who made the mess to clean it up. That is Truman. And by the same token you can't trust the man who was picked by the man who made the mess to clean it up and that's Stevenson. And so I say, Eisenhower who owes nothing to Truman, nothing to the big city bosses--he is the man who can clean up the mess in Washington. Take Communism. I say as far as that subject is concerned the danger is greater to America. In the Hiss case they got the secrets which enabled them to break the American secret State Department code. They got secrets in the atomic bomb case which enabled them to get the secret of the atomic bomb five years before they would have gotten it by their own devices. And I say that any man who called the Alger Hiss case a red herring isn't fit to be President of the United States. I say that a man who, like Mr. Stevenson, has pooh-poohed and ridiculed the Communist threat in the United States--he has accused us, that they have attempted to expose the Communists, of looking for Communists in the Bureau of Fisheries and Wildlife. I say that a man who says that isn't qualified to be President of the United States. And I say that the only man who can lead us into this fight to rid the government of both those who are Communists and those who have corrupted this government is Eisenhower, because General Eisenhower, you can be sure, recognizes the problem, and knows how to handle it. Let me say this, finally. This evening I want to read to you just briefly excerpts from a letter that I received, a letter, which after all this is over, no one can take away from us. It reads as follows: Dear Senator Nixon, Since I am only 19 years of age, I can't vote in this presidential election, but believe me if I could, you and General Eisenhower would certainly get my vote. My husband is in the Fleet Marines in Korea. He is in the front lines. And we have a two month old son he has never seen. And I feel confident that with great Americans like you and General Eisenhower in the White House, lonely Americans like myself will be united with their loved ones now in Korea. I only pray to God that you won't be too late. Enclosed is a small check to help you with your campaign. Living on $85 a month it is all I can do. Folks, it is a check for $10, and it is one that I shall never cash. And let me just say this: We hear a lot about prosperity these days, but I say why can't we have prosperity built on peace, rather than prosperity built on war? Why can't we have prosperity and an honest government in Washington D.C. at the same time? Believe me, we can. And Eisenhower is the man that can lead the crusade to bring us that kind of prosperity. And now, finally, I know that you wonder whether or not I am going to stay on the Republican ticket or resign. Let me say this: I don't believe that I ought to quit, because I am not a quitter. And, incidentally, Pat is not a quitter. After all, her name is Patricia Ryan and she was born on St. Patrick's day, and you know the Irish never quit. But the decision, my friends, is not mine. I would do nothing that would harm the possibilities of Dwight Eisenhower to become President of the United States. And for that reason I am submitting to the Republican National Committee tonight through this television broadcast the decision which it is theirs to make. Let them decide whether my position on the ticket will help or hurt. And I am going to ask you to help them decide. Wire and write the Republican National Committee whether you think I should stay on or whether I should get off. And whatever their decision, I will abide by it. But let me just say this last word. Regardless of what happens, I am going to continue this fight. I am going to campaign up and down America until we drive the crooks and the Communists and those that defend them out of Washington, and remember folks, Eisenhower is a great man. Folks, he is a great man, and a vote for Eisenhower is a vote for what is good for America. Richard M. Nixon - September 23, 1952

Richard Nixon

Who succeeded Lal Bahadur Shasrtri as Prime Minister of India?

Latest Entertainment News | Richard Nixon Checkers Speech Fallacies 2016 | Smart Wiki Space Cheer Up, Remember history repeats itself Richard was often painful. Nixon's meteoric rise from the unemployment line to the vice presidency in six quick years would never have happened if TV had come along 10 years earlier. He got away with his sleazy "my dog Checkers" speech in 1952 because

i don't know

Which Russian imposed a reign of terror during the 30s and 40s?

Russian History Michael Report 1600s-1700s Russian General Overview of Seventeenth Century [RU06] By Michael Johnathan McDonald RUS 17th  CENTURY Background: People, Culture, Cites, Towns, Expansion, Foreigners, Slavery, Art, Thought, Expression, government, and whatever else makes up an energizing civilization. Imperialism: Subjugation of Siberia For the 1600s Imperialism of the former Khanates, and Ivan The Fearsome, see RU01. Religious Battles: Russian was not modern bureaucracy, the service was to the severing the tsar ( the king), not the state-like in the west. But this would change at the close of the century and the pubic body of the office of the ruler will become more like the west. Do not pick a date in the 17th century as a turning point ; the whole 17th century is a turning point? Professor J. Kollman: There were continuity and changes going back and forth. Rus (Russian) Background PART I pomest'e (or pomestie) system: Service tenure land given by the central authorities to servitors in return for service to the state. It was conditional, an economic base for the aristocracy,  and tied all strata of servitors in varying degrees to the sovereign. It could be revoked if the service tenure landholder (pomeshchik) failed to render service. Increasingly, from the fifteenth to the sixteenth centuries, it replaced or operated alongside the patrimonial land (votchina) owned outright by its lord who could will it to descendants without approval. [1] Begun toward end of fifteenth century, becoming widespread after the annexation of Novgorod, Ivan III confiscated Novgorod boyar’s votchiny and extensive church landholdings.  By the time of Ivan IV onward (decree 10/3/1550), deti boiarskie made up the majority responsible for rendering military service to the sovereign.  It contributed to a single integrated army for a newly unified Russian state. It acted like a system of rewarding a noble’s work for a state with land. As it grew, it played a major factor in the seventeenth century diminishing differences between landlords and service class gentry as the Ulozhenie code indicated. Peter I’s reforms founded a permanent army and a civil service and this system was no longer needed.   Mestnichestvo: system of places, was part of the honor and shame society and ceremonial role-playing that determined the relative standing of each prince, boyar and upper servitor in the Muscovite system: record keeping determined an importance of whom had served where, and when in wars.   Restricted during regimental service in 1550s (decree 10/3/1550), during campaigns against Kazan and Astrakhan with the objective of improving discipline, [2] this system in general lasted until 1682. The Tsar was constrained by custom to observe this hierarchy when appointing military commanders, administrators and other officials. In social relevance this system created lawsuits, and disagreements among its members. This led to clans in the sixteenth century onward keeping extensive genealogy books, therefore becoming part of the evidence in the litigations. Another weakness was a rigidity of assignments in military commands which kept the best men from filling those positions. This ultimately led to poor performance on the battlefield.  On the other hand, mestnichestvo may have helped knit together a large, widely dispersed servitor elite.   Boyar Duma: Boyars developed in the eleventh century in Kievan Rus’ and wielded considerable power through their military and support of the Kievan princes. They received extensive grants of land and, as members of the Boyars' Duma (by Muscovite times, in the sixteenth century, there were four ranks of Duma status, and boyars were at the top) they represented more than mere councilors to the grand prince/tsar.  The boyar elite, closely intermarried with each other's clans and with the royal family, constituted the government in Muscovy (15th-17th cc.). They formed concentric circles of power around the grand prince/tsar, and their objective was to position themselves to be within the “bright eyes” of the grand prince/tsar. Some historians have downgraded them to dependent status under the grand princes/tsars, but collectively they were co-rulers and usually met daily in a small room with the grand prince/tsar to manage the realm.   zemskie sobory, a.k.a. Assemblies of the Land, are difficult to explain. They arose in the mid-sixteenth century and Muscovite sources reveal little of their true nature. There were no records of meetings, only passing reference in the chronicles. Foreigners noted that these gatherings sometimes consisted of as many as 300-600 members and included many different types of people. The agenda of a meeting was typically set in advance and had no institutional permanence or defined authority. They typically met to decide only one issue: ‘shall we go to war,’ ‘shall we increase the tax,’ ‘who shall we elect?’ Not really a formal institution, it met only sporadically and estimates vary widely, from a half dozen times to scores of times.  Some historians have seen them as proto-democracies, but; they were not truly representative. Merchants apparently gained in numbers in seventeenth century meetings of the zemskie sober.  Unanimity was always the goal either perceived or forced as an ideology: a theoretical union of Church/tsar/people all coming in union – the coming together of the forces of Rus’ to make this wise decision.   St. Sergii (Sergius) of Radonezh (1321?-1392): A Russian Saint, the moral head of the Russian church, and founder of the Holy Trinity-St. Sergius Monastery north of Moscow, and was a leading participant of the monastic revival in the Muscovite period. Born in Rostov to a boyar family, his family moved to Radonezh northeast of Moscow. Sergii tried to become a hermit, but instead found his calling at the monastery of the Epiphany in Moscow where he joined Metropolitan Aleksii helping re-identify the Russian church with the grand princes of Moscow who were consolidating Muscovy during the later stages of the Russo-Mongol-Tatar period. Sergii became abbot and confessor to boyars and the grand prince, but refused the position of metropolitan. Instead he became a moral leader of the Russian church. Having less official business to attend too, he founded the Trinity Monastery forty-five miles northeast of Moscow at what came to be known as Sergiev Posad (Zagorsk in Soviet times). It became a model for many other Muscovite monasteries and in some sense the most important religious center in Russian history. The Monastery became an important Russian pilgrimage destination and a flourishing spiritual and cultural center. Sergii’s influence of the Muscovite period can be traced back to his life’s model represented in the Domostroi, a mid-sixteenth century book on rules for Russian households.   PART II   Oprichnina was a seven-year period in which Ivan IV divided up the land (1565-72) into two main parts, formed a personal court, separate administration, a personal army, and conducted a notorious “reign of terror” designed to purge his enemies – but ended up affecting everyone in Muscovy. This represented something dramatically different and was not a reform. Some historians have discerned a purpose in the Oprichnina period that it was directed against the old boyars, or the Church, or Novgorod.  Russian historian Richard Hellie in the introduction to the English translation of Russian historian S. F. Platonov’s (1860-1933) book on Ivan IV, entitled Ivan the Terrible, described Russian historian S.M. Soloviev’s view of the Oprichnina period as Ivan IV struggling “to strengthen the new middle service class at the expense of the old boyar class.” [3] Richard Hellie in the same introduction explained his interpretation for the views of the best known nineteenth-century Russian historian, Vasily O. Kliuchevsky (1841-1911): “the Oprichnina was directed against men, not against the prevailing system, and consequently it was politically aimless.” [4]  It is hard to make sense of this chaotic period, when so many suffered, not just one group. Ivan’s psychological and physical problems might have been part of the cause. It was more likely a dramatic need of the tsar to escape from rulership, for which there was no precedence (although he apparently tried to abdicate). The social, political, and economic results were a genuine disaster. Ivan may have killed his son Ivan Ivanovich, leaving a feeble-minded son Feodor on the throne that died childless -- leading to a dynastic crisis which ultimately led to the unfortunate events of the Time of Troubles.   The Dmitriis were a phenomenon of pretenderism during the Time of Troubles which arose after the childless tsar Feodor (d. January 7, 1598), of the Moscow line of Riurikovichi, died leaving a dynastic vacuum. Opposition to the election of Boris Godunov led to a general discontent possibly over Godunov's Tatar heritage. The very moment of Godunov's election, he was accused of having ordered the murder of Prince Dimitrii Ivanovich (d.1591, Ivan IV's son of his seventh wife; could not rule according to Orthodoxy). Investigation headed by Shuiskiis, claimed the boy was murdered and Ivan's widow blamed Godunov. Quickly buried and forgotten, Godunov's enemies created a self-styled Uglich prince "Tsarevich Dimitrii" and circulated pamphlets in 1600 of rumors of his survival. Three false-Dmitriis arose, two of them gaining significant power. The first false Dmitrii, generally associated with the runaway monk Grishka Otrep'ev, appeared in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1603. He gained support, notably from Ivan Isayevich Bolotnikov, and was crowned in July, 1605; a year later he was murdered in the Kremlin.   A second false-Dimitrii appeared 1607 at Starodub, garnered a massive force, won the allegiance of Yaroslavl and other cities, and raised Philaret Romanov to rank of patriarch but was later killed by a Tatar in 1610. In 1611 in the town of Ivangorod, another proclaimed himself Dmitrii and had partial influence for one year before he was captured and killed. These claims to the throne produced armies acting in the names of these Dmitriis, wreaking havoc throughout the Muscovite state. Ivan Timofeev (?-1631), a secretary in the Great Russian Chancery, author of a Journal (Vremennik) that is an important primary source for the history of Russia during the Time of Troubles, said, “the country was bound to suffer when ruled by pretenders, of whom Boris Godunov was the first.” [5] The phenomenon of pretenderism showed how conservative and inflexible the Moscow political system was:  the only legitimate ruler was a son of the previous tsar.   The Time of Troubles (l598 or l604 to l613 or 1618) marked a period of turbulence beginning with a dynastic crisis and ending with the establishment of the Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917), and the expelling of the foreign occupation. One of the unfortunate events of the dynastic crisis was the phenomenon of pretenderism. In part this led to foreign invasions, mainly Sweden and Poland, promoting potential rulers and occupying Russia, including Poland's occupation of the Kremlin. The period can be said to have ended with the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617, and finally in 1619 with the Peace of Deulino. However, the treaties heavily favored the foreigners. This demonstrated an apparent need for military innovations, mainly from the adoption of western technology that would follow under a policy of Tsar Alekseii Mikhailovich. The Time of Troubles was probably not a turning point in Russian history, but it opened windows to international changes, and stimulated changes that shaped Muscovy in the seventeenth century into something different.   Siberia: In the eleventh century, the people of the Grand Principality of Novgorod had known the northern region of the western part of Siberia. During the consolidation of the Muscovy in the fifteenth century, periodic campaigns undertaken into Siberia established diplomatic relations between Ibak, the Khan of Tiumen and the Russian government. Developing over the sixteenth century, several Yugorian tribes began to pay tribute to the Russians in the lower courses of the Ob River.  The last quarter of the sixteenth century Russia consolidated relations with the Khanate of Siberia.  Conditions were right for the Russian state to consider the possibility of acquiring Siberia.[6] The conquest of Siberia was an economic and not a religious undertaking. Much of the attraction came from discoveries of mineral deposits and a wide range of animals that could meet a Muscovite foreign demand for exotic furs. Siberia represented the rise of the Stroganov clan -- a merchant family who obtained holdings in the wild upper Kama region, where they maintained a garrison and imported colonists, to protect their new mining operations. During the seventeenth century the Muscovite central authority began to subjugate Siberian natives for their interests in the international fur trade. Despite central authorities allowing certain rights to newly incorporated people, natives often were economic slaves. Part of the reason was the Muscovite government’s lack of oversight which allowed lawlessness to go unchecked. However, native’s rights did eventually improve over time as the central authority sought to win the favor of the wealthy and influential natives.  Siberia's significance brought Russia new responsibilities of having an Empire.   Simon Ushakov (1626-86): A celebrated Russian master of art and craftsmanship who headed up the Tsar’s painters in Moscow, and helped to developed in Russia an appreciation of a western artistic style in the seventeenth century.  His life represented a man exploring many avenues of artistic expression. To name a few, he designed maps, painted frescos, icons, and banners and worked on artifacts. Also, his ‘pictures on paper’ are the earliest Russian prints which show an understanding of the western techniques of copper-plate engraving. [7] His interpretation of painting in the western style did not reflect the contemporary Baroque art of Italy or France, but a sixteenth century archaic style of Flanders, Germany and Holland. His celebrated images of the Vernicle (c. 1660) [8] reflected this style of painting which demonstrated Ushakov’s understanding of the use of light and shade. However, his mastery can also be demonstrated when he reproduced the original technique of the Vladimir, Mother of God, icon, in his version. He was promoted to be the head of the icon-painting studio at the age of twenty-two in the royal Armory with the title of ‘Tsar’s Icon-Painter.’ There he helped develop a monumental style exploring, perspective, landscapes and anatomy.  This school was located in Moscow and allowed Ushakov to execute or supervised numerous projects of repainting frescos in the Kremlin. He also helped to pioneer Russian commercialization of art. The Tsar’s school employed many Ukrainian and Belorussian artists. One example was a division of labor to speed up the production process. Ushakov specialized in “face painting.” He would apply his expertise after the icon assistant completed the figure and landscape. Like the Stroganovs' art school, he began to sign his work, ending the anonymous medieval practice and moving toward secular professional artistry which arose in the eighteenth century. He did not lead a secular art movement, but he was a vital step in that direction.   PART III                           1649 Ulozhenie: was a set of regulations or a code of law promulgated by the central authorities of the Muscovite state. It lasted nearly two centuries in its original form, and in a lesser sense, until 1917. Approximately 1,200 copies of the Ulozhenie were printed. It was brought about by a need for controlling social problems after Russia witnessed riots in Moscow and a dozen towns in June of 1648. Its 25 chapters are subdivided into 967 articles. Most of the articles were borrowed from foreign sources and have there origins in Byzantine law via the Kormchaia kniga, and may be traced to the Lithuanian Statue of 1588. Roughly one-twentieth of the articles can be traced to the Sudebnik of 1550.[9] One of the major effects of the code was that it fully established serfdom by tying the peasants and their progeny permanently to the land.  Serfs were defined as anyone who tilled the soil. The code did recognize the serfs as legal subjects; however, increasingly for over a century, they were bought, sold, and traded by landlords as virtual slaves.   Patriarch Nikon (1605-1681) was the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia. In Russian Orthodox practices religious figures acted in political matters. Nikon performed baptism on notable figures as Sophia Alekseevna and conducted religious functions for the most important political figures of his day.  In political matters, he gained Aleksii Mikhailovich’s confidence and ruled with the boyar Duma while the Tsar was out on campaign. As a talented and notably influential figure, Aleksii bestowed upon him the title of “Great Sovereign.” Nikon is most remembered for his ecclesiastical reforms which lead to his downfall and to the Great Schism. Nikon’s life represents an ambitious figure caught between two competing ideas. The incorporation of the left-bank Ukraine brought to Muscovy new people exposed to western thought.  Secular ideas had entered the Muscovite social sphere and Nikon received pressure from Orthodox traditionalists to react.  His early decisions garnered the support of the Zealots of Piety by burning art-works of western style and restricting alcohol vending locations and banning consumption during certain times.  Other reforms included the return to the canonical five domes over a church, disallowing the construction of tent-like churches. Later in Nikon’s career the churchmen from Ukraine, schooled in classical Greek and Latin, pointed out discrepancies in Muscovite church books and called for a fundamental need for unifying ecclesiastical matters. Nikon recognized the Ukrainian churchmen’s call for ecumenical reforms. The Most significant of these ecumenical reforms were fundamental to Nikon.  Bibles and service books, which centuries before had been translated from Greek into old Slavonic, had become corrupted over time.  In effort to bring the Russian Church into conformity with the Greek Church, Nikon consulted many Greek and Ukrainian churchmen. Although this had been discussed prior to Nikon, the patriarch decreed changes to make Muscovite service books conform to Greek and Ukrainian texts and rituals.  One of the changes included the Greek three-fingered sign of the cross. Russians had learned to make the sign with two fingers.  The implication that generations of Russians may have gone to Hell by crossing themselves incorrectly was disturbing to believers. Orthodox scholars could not debate with the Ukrainian churchmen, due to a lack of a classical Greco-Latin education. They remained confused and became reactionary.   Nikon's reforms angered the Zealots, who believed the Time of Troubles were a result of Russia moving away from the "true Orthodox Faith." The 1654 plague in Moscow was blamed on Nikon's reforms by the Old Believers. As a reaction to the accusation, Nikon blamed the Ulozhenie code. Charges of crassness and ambition led to his downfall. Some charged him with ambitions to become co-ruler. This concerned Aleksii who sympathized with the Old Believers. Nikon was defrocked in 1666, but his reforms were upheld.  Anyone who was against the reforms was condemned. This led to a split in the Russian Orthodox Church.   Sofiia (Sophia) Alekseevna (1657-1704), Regent of Russia from 1682 to 1689 and half-sister of Peter the Great, she was the fourth daughter of Tsar Aleksii Mikhailovich with his wife Mariia Miloslavskaia. Part of her significance in history comes from the story of her half-brother’s untraditional upbringing. Tsar Alekseii married a second time to Natal’ia Naryshkina. After Feodor III died, disputes between the Miloslavskii and Naryshkin clans paved the way for two potential heirs. Sophiia -- daughter of Aleksei's first wife, Mariia Miloslavskaia -- became the regent (reg. 1682-1689) of the two young boys, Ivan , whose mother was Mariia, and Peter, whose mother was Natal'ia Naryshkina. As woman, Sophia could not rule directly, because of the tradition that a son of the tsar was the only legitimate ruler.  Sophia had no incentive to marry and have children, because her children could not occupy the throne.  For his protection during tensions between the Miloslavskie and Naryshkiny, Natal'ia Naryshkina moved Peter away from the court. Subsequently this allowed Peter to grow up away from the tradition of Russian rulers.  Peter grew up in the company of foreigners which influenced him for the rest of his life.   Cathedral of the Intercession on the Moat, a.k.a. St. Basil's, Moscow, was commissioned by Ivan IV and was constructed between the years 1555-60.  It is located on the southern side of Red Square. The materials used were stone, masonry and wood. The centrally planned Cathedral symbolized a central state. The central church is an octagonal tower surrounded by four large octagonal chapels, and four smaller polygonal chapels. It combined both Italian and Russian architecture. Barma and Posnik, the two Russian architects who erected the cathedral, were not blinded by Ivan. It has been said this myth was popularized by eighteenth century travelers as a way to account for its fantastic appearance. Some have described it as a fabulously flowing fruit basket.  Ivan had it built in commemoration of the conquest of Kazan. It exemplified a continuing Muscovite tradition of dynastic rulers to create great works of architecture.   Church of the Ascension, Kolomenskoe was possible built during the years from 1530 to 1532. It was a dynastic estate and was one of the earliest votive churches. Presumably it was built by Vasily III as a thank-offering for the birth of his son Ivan. The material used was brick, with white stone trim. It was built on a sloping hillside providing a picturesque view. The plan was axially symmetrical in both directions, yet it had three unequal galleries which avoided a true balanced look.  This church was without precedence and as a vanguard and harbinger of what was to come in Muscovite architecture, it can be said St. Basil was one example of an outgrowth of this design.   PART IV   Nemetskaia Sloboda was an enclosed district in Moscow during 17th and 18th centuries where western Europeans were required to live at night while in the day they worked in the district or out side of it. Beginning in the reign of Tsar Aleksii, the Muscovite central authority hired Germans, Swedes, Dutchmen, Englishmen and other foreigners who provided expertise in cannon making, iron works, and an arrangement of technical skills. After the Time of Troubles, Russians fearing similar circumstances of foreign invasions and occupations searched out Europeans with expertise mainly in military technology. This could explain a 1665 census that revealed the majority of settlements belonged to foreign military advisors. Over time the district also included a variety of industry and contributed to an economic viability for Russia. The district solved the problem of Russia’s lack of scientific and technological knowledge, mainly due to a non-existent educational system. The district also acted as barrier to keep out foreign culture. The gates were shut at night in fear of cross-cultural contamination. However, Russian nobles often ventured secretly to the forbidden district at night to catch a glimpse of European culture. The stage was now set for a figure to emerge of the likes of Peter the Great.   Table of Ranks: In 1722, Peter I created a “classification” of orders known as Tables of Ranks. This was part of Peter’s reforms of state service dependent on merit.  It ended an already declining mestnichestvo system – precedence that was determined by birth, declining by the later decades of the seventeenth century. It was divided into three main and lateral classes: military, naval, and civil services; and contained 14 hierarchical ranks. This reform ensured the service to the Emperor, a weakening of the boyar’s power, and provided an orderly advancement to all echelons of society. However, the majority of the Russian population never emerged from serfdom and poverty. Modified by Catherine I, this ranking system lasted in various forms until 1917. This essentially made up the Russian privilege class -- the upper 5-10% of Russians, living and speaking a different lifestyle and languages.   Catherin I (1684-1727) was the Empress of Russia from 1726 to 1727.  Second wife of Emperor Peter the Great, she became the first woman to rule Imperial Russia. Her intent to pass the crown to her daughter Anna, and her heirs, eventually led to a legal measure allowing women to dominate the Russian throne for most of the century. During her brief rule she made some important decisions. She joined the Union of Vienna, thereby upsetting the balance of power in the Baltic, in support for her son-in-law’s interests against England.  She sought to improve the condition of the simple people by lowering taxes.  She established the Russian Academy of Sciences, continuing the work of her husband. However, during her rule, the central authority established the Supreme Privy Council in February of 1726 as a body of advisors for Catherine. After Peter II's death in 1730, the Privy Council, dominated by conservative forces, monopolized power and raised the Privy Council to the supreme authority in the land. This act by conservative forces abolished the supreme governing power of the Twelve Colleges and made it dependant on the Supreme Privy Council. This set the stage for the ascension of Anna who could be easily manipulated by the conservative boyar clans that returned the central authority and supreme power of government back to Moscow.  The most inspiring aspect of the story of Catherin I’s life was her rise to power.  Peter I’s first wife was arranged by his mother, but he was not in love. Peter in search for a companion to calm his rages and sooth his troubled spirit found a servant girl Martha, Catherin's name at the time, in 1705. He took her from her lover Aleksandr Menshikov, and the couple bore two daughters, Anna (b. 1708), and Elizabeth (b. 1709). Avoiding church authority for many years, Martha eventually converted to Orthodoxy, took the Christian name Catherine, and married Peter in 1712. Their love became the model for Russia. They became almost inseparable; Peter took her to parades, banquettes, firework displays and out on campaigns. This love brought in new ideas of parental guidance and divorce became more difficult to attain. Toward the end of her husband’s life, a dynastic crisis loomed. Catherine failed to produce a male heir which was the job of the tsar’s wife. Peter’s son, Aleksei Petrovich, was not like his father and was refused succession by him. Peter ended primogeniture (1722) allowing an Emperor to appoint an heir; he died without making a decision. However, he had confided to close associates of his desire to have his wife take his place. This left Catherine in a position to rule. The decision came from her supporters after the Emperor’s death who knew of Peter's desires to have her enthroned.   The Great Northern War (1700–21) was a military conflict in which the Northern Union, an alliance of Russia, Denmark, and Poland-Saxony, challenged the supremacy of Sweden for control over the Baltic region. Participation of Sweden in the Thirty Years’ War had strengthened their position in the Baltic region. They controlled territories that extended from Finland to northern Germany, including former Russian lands Ingermanland and Karelia. The war was declared in January of 1700 by Augustus II of Saxony, and then Denmark and Russia followed his example and declared war on Sweden within a year (Poland would later join the war).  The Alliance’s main opponent was Charles XII who turned out to be a military genius. Russia suffered a massive defeat by Sweden at Narva in 1700. Sweden decided not to further pursue Russia but instead to turn its focus on Augustus II and his forces. Peter I quickly reorganize the military and begin building a navy fleet for the Baltic Sea. By 1702 the Russians began to take land and fortresses on the upper Neva River. In 1703 the Russians captured the key fortress Nienchanz and in May founded St Petersburg. Peter I then built the fortress Peter and Paul on the Neva delta for the defense of the new city. By 1708 Sweden had defeated Russia’s allies and invaded the Russian state. A victory for Russia at Poltava on June 27 (July 8) brought a pause in the war in 1709. Russia, Denmark, Prussia used this time to reform the Northern Union against Sweden (after a withdrawing of the alliance because of Augustus II’s renouncement of the Polish crown in 1706).  This shifted the conflict of the Baltic region to northern Prussia -- this allowed Peter I to build St. Petersburg and the navy on Swedish territory without constant military threats. For the next ten years Peter would advance his Russian forces into the Baltic region and begin dominating Sweden for Russian interests. Sweden capitulated to Russia the newly gained lands including St. Petersburg with the signing of the Nystadt Treaty on August 30, 1721. The Russians acquired Livonia, Estonia, Ingermanland, part of Karelia, and certain islands. Russia retuned the bulk of Finland and paid two million rix-dollars to Sweden to conclude the treaty. The Senate bestowed upon Peter the titles of “Great,” “Father of the Fatherland,” and “Emperor.” In this manner Russia formally became an Empire. [10]   Twelve Colleges, ordered by Peter I in 1718, built on the island of Vasilievsky, was to house the twelve government bodies with the Senate as the supreme body under the authority of the Tsar. Its main purpose was to replace the overlapping Pritkazy (administration offices) in effort to simplify and modernize Russian administration.  Its core idea was to take away power from any one individual official. This way, Peter thought, it would bring good order and a just government. Construction begun in 1722 and was completed in 1742. It contained 12 individual buildings set side by side spanning 440 yards.  Peter envisioned the Colleges as the main government headquarters of Russia. But for a lack of legal and constitutional framework it never developed into its original purpose. This could be explained for the lack of purpose to continue Peter’s reforms after he died, and the return of conservative forces controlling the Russian central authority.    [1] Platonov, S. F., Ivan the Terrible, trans. & ed., Joseph L. Wieczynski (Gulf Breeze, Florida: Academic International Press, 1974), 51. [8] Ibid. [9] Hellie, Richard, in Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. Joseph L. Wieczynski, vol., 40 (Gulf Breeze, Florida: Academic International Press, 1982), 194. [10] Riasanovsky, Nicholas V & Mark D. Steinberg, History of Russia, vol. I., 7th ed. (Oxford: Oxford Unity Press, 2005), 208.   I. 17th-century Muscovite culture: sources of change Muscovy’s “Time of Troubles” and its legacies Cathedral Square, Kremlin, Coronation of Mikhail Romanov; Ham. 169 Foreigners’ district (Nemetskaia sloboda, or German Suburb); Ham. 180 Ukrainian Baroque architecture Holy Sophia Cathedral, Kiev; Ham. 4 cf. Novodevichii Convent, Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki, Moscow; Ham. 146-147 Patriarch Nikon’s reaction: “correcting” Muscovite architecture cf. Nikon’s church in the Monastery of New Jerusalem, Istra; Ham. 155-156 Church of the Trinity and the Georgian Mother of God; Ham. 148 “Moscow Baroque” style; Nikitniki family Nikon’s Church of the 12 Apostles, Kremlin; Ham. 154 oil ptg.: Nikon w/Ukrainian advisors wooden palace of Aleksei Mikhailovich, Kolomenskoe; Ham. 175-177 Church of the Trinity at Ostankino, Moscow; Ham. 149 Church of the Resurrection, Kadashi, Moscow Church of Elijah the Prophet, Iaroslavl’ Church of St. John Chrysostom and bell tower at Korovniki, laroslavi’; Ham. 150 Church of St. John Baptist in Tolchkovo, Iaroslavl’; Ham. 151 Borisoglebsk Monastery (near Rostov Velikii); Ham. 153 cf. Rostov Metropolia Church of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki, Moscow Church of the Intercession (or Protection, Pokrov) in Fili, Moscow; Ham. 159-160 Church of the Virgin of the Sign in Dubrovitsy; Ham. 161-162 III. The new art Rublev, early 15th c.; Ham. 77 Simon Ushakov, 1671 (see similar Ham. 189) chiarascuro (lit., light/dark: 3-dimensional modeling of flesh) metal icon covers (rizy, vestments) Our Lady of Vladimir (or the Vladimir Mother of God) early 12th C.; Ham. 54 w/tree of Muscovite state, by Simon Ushakov, 1668 an Old Testament scene: Elisha and the Shunammite woman, 2 Kings 4 Piscator Bible engraving, 1674; Ham. 190 fresco, 1680-81, Church of Elijah the Prophet, laroslavi’; Ham. 191 misc. examples, cf. early w/ 17th c. perspective; chiaroscuro Lord’s Prayer, late 17th c.; Ham. 186 Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich (father of Peter I the Great) Peter Alekseevich Peter I the Great Patriarch Nikon (mid-17th  century:) Nikon wanted to become a co-ruler, but he came from a peasant background, and his behavior was crass. Possibly this was do to the hard edge of the peasant upbringing, and the aristocracy did not favor having a peasant telling them he wanted to become co-sovereign like Michael Romanov’s father was allowed too – which was only an anomaly, not a standard. Understandably, Nikon pushed Rus’ reforms, and he paid the price, but after his demise, the Rus’ leadership understood most of his suggestions as sound in social and political principle – thus they followed them. Nikon’s life signified a man contending with outside political influences at the center of Muscovy and traditional backlashes—contending cultures and the push to unite vast cultures and peoples.  Zagorsk, Cathedral of the Dormition in the trinity-Sergius Monastery, 1559-85. This represented and symbolized Nikon’s insistence of Orthodox style. Dormitions were usually monastic or cathedral structures. Cube churches were also a reflection of the reforms of Nikon ( Ham. 181). Patriarch Nikon, (1605-1681) was the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia. He lived in a crucial time during the incorporation of Ukraine into the Muscovy, premonition of the apocalypse year, 1666 and the 1654 plague which hit Moscow.   Initially his favor with Tsar Aleksie allowed him to govern in his absence, Nikon received the title Great Sovereign. He built his palace next to the Dormition Cathedral -- Nikon wanted to become co-sovereign like Michael Romanov’s father, but he was from peasant stock. He was ambitious. His reforms first garnered the support of the Zealots, by burning art-works of western style, and restricting alcohol locations and banning consumption during certain times. Then came a drastic change. He disallowed tent-like Cathedrals.  Bibles and service books were initially translated from Greek into old Slavonic but had become corrupted over time.  In effort to bring the Russian Church into conformity of the Greek Church, Nikon consulted many Greek prelates. Although this had been discuss prior, Nikon's action set about to finally conform rituals to the custom of Constantinople and the books to the Greek originals. One of the changes included the Greek three fingers sign of the cross. The Russians learned to make the sign with two fingers. This demonstrated that Russian ancestors were tricked and now were viewed damned to Hell. His reforms angered the Zealots who believed the Time of Troubles were a result of Russia moving away from the "true Orthodox Faith." The 1654 plague in Moscow was blamed on Nikon's reforms by the Old Believers. Orthodox scholars who didn't know Greek remained confused over the subjects in the reforms. The Ambitious metropolitan fell out of favor with the Tsar and was defrocked in 1666, but his reforms were upheld and anyone who were against them were condemned, like Avvakum and the Old Believers. These circumstances led to the Great Schism. Avvakum He fell out of favor with the Tsar, His severity gained him powerful enemies, including the Tsar himself when he didn't support the tsar's pro-Muscovite candidate for the Metropolitan of Kiev. He gained further enmity with the Zealots when Nikon consulted Greek prelates and found out the Muscovite service-books were incorrect. His reforms angered the Zealots who believed the Time of Troubles were a result of Russia moving away from the "true Orthodox Faith." Russians had learned to make the sign of the cross with two fingers instead of three, as the Greeks did. This resulted in reforms. Some of the reforms were drastic including the changing of the sign of the cross, and he was blamed by the Old Believers for his reforms. This brought for political and religious reasons the Russian Church back into conformity of the Greek Church. He served in the place of Tsar Aleksei when the ruler was out on campaign and the tsar bestowed upon his the title of Great Sovereign.  He had his palace built next to the Dormition Cathedral in the Greek style. Nikon wanted to become co-sovereign like Michael Romanov’s father. However, He was of peasant stock which led to a contention within the traditional power circles. Nikon ruled in a crucial period. After the incorporation of Ukraine into the Muscovy, political and religious reasons brought the Russian Church into conformity of the Greek Church. Many of the measures taken by Nikon, were initially supported by the Zealots (Avvakum), but ultimately led to the Great Schism as pressures grew around him. His lasting measures can be seen in the three-five dome codes of cathedrals.  Russian Religious Changes Remains a issue today in Russia Many layers, many outcomes, strands, and depends what you look at. Separate stories.   THE SCHISM OF THE RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH, AND CULTURAL CHANGE IN THE 17TH CENTURY I. Reform in Orthodoxy in seventeenth-century Ukraine Lviv (=L’vov=L’wow=Lemberg) and Kyiv 1.        Reacting to Catholicism and Protestantism 2.        Mohyla Academy in Kyiv 3.        Union of Brest, 1596: Greek Rite Catholics, or Uniates 4.        Khmelnytski Rebellion, 1648 5.        Muscovy absorbs left bank (Dnepr River) Ukraine ( brings in Greco-scholars who tell Rus officials that their bibles and religious books need up to date editing, this creates confusion, and overturns traditions interpretations that create social backlashes, as well as shock to past discrepancy interpretations. Nikon played a main role in the reform, his efforts led to his downfall but his ideas were finally, later that is, accepted. 6.        II. Post-T of T developments 7.        reaction to T of T 8.        Fedor Romanov > Patriarch Filaret, de facto ruler with son Mikhail Fedorovich Zealots of Piety: including Ivan Neronov, Ivan Nasedka, and Archpriest Avvakum state infringes on church autonomy 9.       III. Complexity of Schism 10.     State pressure on church re: revenues and land 11.     1649 Law Code; Ministry for Monasteries (abolished 1677) 12.     Schism complex (like Oprichnina, Time of Troubles (T of T)) 13.     conflict within the church re: content and pace of change 14.     conflict between changing official church and populace 15.     conflict between patriarch and tsar over authority and power 16.     social unrest intertwined with the Schism 17.     IV. Conflict within the church; Patriarch Nikon (in office 1652-58/1667) 18.     Nikon’s reforms and the new books 19.     influence of Ukrainian clerics 20.     3-fingered sign of the cross; triple alleluia 21.     Nikon forces immediate adoption of new service books, alienating many “Schismatics” = Raskol’niki (splitters, dividers -- cf. Raskol’nikov, the protaganist in Doesteovsky’s “Crime and Punishment,” who splits the head of the old lady pawn broker). 22.     “Old Believers,” or “Old Ritualists” = Staroobriadtsy 23.     V. Conflict between Patriarch Nikon and Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich 24.     Nikon’s resignation and arguments re: church power 25.     Nikon’s arguments re: “two swords” and “sun and moon” (Catholic sources) 26.     VI. Internal opposition in the church: e.g., Archpriest Avvakum was advocating against Nikon’s reforms and support for the newly adopted Ukrainian scholars—the revision of the interpretations of older Rus’ religious books. Many people associated with Orthodox Russian Church affiliations were confused about the re interpretations and thought that they may go to Hell because of past interpretations were evidently incorrect. It was a battle over updating the translation of old Rus religious books which help split the Rus’ lands –pitting groups against each other. 27.     Reaction against foreign influences, a result of the Dynastic troubles and in conjunction to religious struggles. 28.     VII. The Schism as mass movement 29.     frontier areas, resistance to central authority, fringe social groups 30.     local spirit of independence, esp. far north (Solovetskii Monastery), steppe, and Siberia issues of power and authority, not only religious differences 31.     some rebels = criminals -- example, seizure of monastery in Karelia by Vtorogo family 32.     VIII. The cultural system of the Old Belief 33.     genuine religious communal movement 34.     preach life of prayer, self-discipline, moderation, good works as a community 35.    IX. Conclusions 36.     Weakness of government control over the empire. Simply the expanse into Siberia and the west had thinned out the very small ruling bodies of Rus’ officials. Influence and opportunity by foreigners lay at an advantage.  Raw materials toward the Ural Mountains may have been coveted by the foreign rulers. Controlling Rus’ therefore, could be seen as a vital economic hegemonic global position – at least in wishful night dreams of many of ambitious princes and rulers. 37.    Split in church: parallels with Protestant Reformation. This cannot be underestimated at the significance. 38.     Russian Orthodox Church similar to Roman Catholic Church: intervene in society, affirm and enforce authority of official church, special power of priests and bishops, church as sole repository of Gods faith 39.     Old Believers as “Protestants’: reject authority of official church, priests, and bishops; 40.     focus on bringing individual believer in closer contact with God, less emphasis on 41.     ritual and charismatic authority of the priest 42.     if church is split, what happens to idea of symphony of church and state? 43.     groundwork laid for idea of secular ruler independent of church support: Peter the Great 44.     Cultural Change in 17th c. 45.     I. Literature in late 17th century 46.     medieval Russian literature: didactic, absolute, uncritical, anonymous, ecclesiastical. non-secular 47.     A new “model of communication” in literature: Ivan IV did away with the only printing press Muscovy came to own. In the seventeenth century, slowly the use of communication was connected to printing presses – but this was not wide spread as in the west, more controlled and paper and paper-supplies connection to production of reading functions were expensive still. There were no cheap sources of paper industry that Rus could rely on for a steady flow of reading materials. Yet, efforts and costs of production were made at this time by certain wealthy groups and individuals – such as was the case in the west in the first centuries of the printing press and book productions.   48.     New humanistic sensibility: Letter and literacy among a few highly educated help formulate spoken and written symbols of new understandings of the world around them.  It is a myth that the west at this time was highly educated. In the U.S.A. during the formations of cities, most citizens spoke their languages well, but were illiterate and relied on signs, symbols, and artwork to relate to what area of the city, the business of patronism, and societal necessities to social organization. Rus’ people were also mostly illiterate counterparts of the west. Issues in Russian historiography to why that Russia lay behind the west in industrialization have been condensed to an issue of social-mass-education; I do not hold this view. Most westerners of the industrial societies did not read and write well or at all. It will not be until the eighteenth century that education is taken up on a global scale to its benefits for social modernity. 49.     poetry: secular literacy and the “Printing Office (Pechatnyi Dvor) poets” (1630s-50s) Kotoshikhin 50.     Vita: St. Juliana Lazarevskaia (Osorina) (ca. 1620s-30s) 51.     “everywoman” as saint.   52.     autobiography: “Life of Archpriest Avvakum by Himself’ (1670s) 53.     in defense of Old Belief; vernacular language; everyday life 54.     a picaresque tale: “Frol Skobeev. the Rogue” (1680s-90s) 55.     purely secular literature, for entertainment; no moral lesson 56.     II. Changes in political culture 57.     public vs. private spheres 58.     more secular definition of politics 59.     new groups seeking political voice (e.g., bureaucrats) 60.     transition from theocratic concept of state to secular, this-worldly 61.     Semyon Polotskii (1629-1680) 62.     more utilitarian role for ruler; rule of law, for the good of society less patrimonial attitude towards political leaders 63.     a new individualism 64.     furnishings, wardrobe, imported finery, “lifestyle” 65.     panegyrics and portraits 66.     humanism, book collecting, foreign languages 67.     Vasilii Vasil’evich Golitsyn: 216 books, half of them secular -- in Dutch, Latin, Polish, German, Slavic 68.     Sil’vestr Medvedev: 651 books, 133 of them secular 69.     secular and pietistic literature for private consumption 70.     1680s: Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy 71.     emergence of new arena for “politics” 72.     new, secular image-making by rulers: commemorative medals, coins, portraits, panegyrics 73.     politics no longer God- and salvation oriented: now a public sphere, engaged in by individuals with differing viewpoints, focused on public and state welfare 74.     Next: art and architecture: the 16th-c. “synthesis” shattered   Remains a issue today in Russia Many layers, many outcomes, strands, and depends what you look at. Separate stories.  17th century changes, beginning with the Church schism, background, Ukraine & L’viv (Russian L’vov, German L’wow. Part of Lithuania, and undergone a different life than Kiev, exposed to Parliamentary institutions, democracy rites, noble rights, and different economic experience, Poland landholders, and in the 17th  cent. The religious circumstances was Ukraine, shifted first to Protestantism, then to Catholicism. New clerics were brought to Moscow. In 1596 Greek Right Catholics, recognize the Pope as the Uniates church from the Union of Brest, 1596. Many Ukrainian Orthodox people reject the Union to Catholic. 1620s, breakdown, so who to control and who to flirt with? Turkey, Russia, Europeans all want to influence. This turns up to be Monuments for Russia, and opens up a new culture to a whole new view ( This was like a reformation movement period, but was not like in the west).Fedor Romonov, the father, forced to Tonsure by Boris Godunov, to embarrassed him, placed in a Poland prison, Romonov then came back to support his son, who started the Romanov dynasty, and his son named him to a high clerical position. His new name was Patriarch Filaret. This dynasty solved continual fragmentation and disorganization, it was back-room affair and was not a real popular vote, although the sources tend to paint history in this manner. As a result, a certain stability was established which was the main principle behind the assertion of a new dynasty. 1620-30s Zealots of Piety: ( Small group; core group 6-10 people)Including Ivan Neronov, Ivan Nesedka, and Atchbishop Avvakum, these people were convinced that sense the ToT the Russians lands had been vexed with foreign culture. So they thought a program to purify them. Process: Don’t know Latin or Greek, but went about revising texts, liturgy and publishing books on their views. Zealots found a champion in Patriarch Nikon. So now a movement to find people that could read and write ( Ukrainian Clerics) Greek and Latin to correct the books, and they were sophisticated, even to the extent to argue against both Catholicism, and Protestantism. This leads to an influx to a foreign Orthodox text.1589, The Patriarch was created, so the old office of Archbishop of Novgorod became Patriarch (Metropolitan?) of Novgorod. Law codes of 1649, tried to take away church lands and turn them over to trade corporations. It was called Ministry for Monasteries ( abolished in 1677). The fiscal rights of abolishing the Patriarch Rights and put a layman over the same jurisdiction. So the church was being challenged over their monopoly. The schismatics were the Old Believers. Three general Things to consider 1)     Conflict in the church officialdom over the church change Patriarch Nikon, ruled 1652-56 (ruled sometime afterward) short and tumultuous reign, his background was a peasant, and this was a reason he had trouble getting along with the tsar and the higher-born. It was the pesant background, a backlash, of no respect from the high-born. Got the Tsar to lower the sales of liquored, and this was revenue the gov. Nikon decreed that church tops not be crowned by tents, but 3-4-5 crowns. He got the German Solobada to be isolated, and insisted the ritual of thc church be changed and be insink with the Ukrainian Orthodox church. He wanted to standardized the Orthodox church, but so many diversities? He leaned on Ukrainian advisors, because he didn’t read Latin or Greek, and they knew things he didn’t. So how to make choices. Nikon, asked them was ancient rituals, and the recounted Ukrainian practices, so this of course, was different with tradition of the Russian ritual practices. Does this cause problems? Sure. One difference:   was how to abbreviate and spell Jesus’ name. Nikon, Ordered older books to be burned, although Russians refused. Changes to go quickly, new prays, new bowing techniques, minor word changes, and so Russian ritual and reform was quick and wide with people understanding little of what was going on. Remember most were not literate so they couldn’t read articles and argues significances of historical things. 8 pages, folio, 8 pages, folio ( This is the four folded on two sides and not bound together text books. These were called folios. 16 pages were two folios. The familiar prayer sounded strange, people found this really hard to follow. These things sounded strange to the ears. 1650s, new catalyst, a new service book. The categorical nature of his rule by decree, go Nikon, alienated the previous tsar. Now Nikon developing an increasing bureaucratic church, and the state was going bureaucratic and people couldn’t understand bureaucratic things or comprehend. Nikon, called himself called himself “ The Great Sovering” only for the tsar, and only Filaret was only allowed to use. Nikon Fled Moscow: 1658, He fled, and apparently he calculated his desertions to flee post would make Tsar Alexei  acknowledge to carry out his reforms. Didn’t happen. Church council, charges “Tsar disobedience>So Nikon fired back with the two sword theory: The two swords, Church and State, and Sun and the Moon, and Sun is the Church and Moon is the state. The moon gets the reflections of the Sun. The Church is superior to the Church. 1198 Innocent III, letter referees to the Sun and Moon, and even before Innocent in the 11th century these analogies were read to him by the Ukrainian clerics. This is where he got this analogy. OK, the crown wins and this council, the Church didn’t have power, and the Patriarch put down, but as things go, ironically, his proposals are approved and pushed hard by the government. His reforms were needed, but his irascible character was a challenge to the tsar himself. The tsar needed the glory and not the Patriarch. So intellect loses to the passions of the throne. This was 1677 reforms if you cannot do what the tsar said for reforming the books and rituals as Nikon suggested you were executed by the government. So this was big problem. It wasn’t only Nikon who now forced this issues of reform, but it was Tsar Aleksei now the irascible. There probably an ongoing fear of disobedience to the central gov, so cracking downs were looked on by the state as justification. Many in the church that didn’t agree with Aleksei’s reforms or Nikon, the person who first thrust the concerns on the state, didn’t want cow-towing to foreign translations, they were executed and were called the Old Believers, the ones that followed them. First resisters were called Schematics  ( Splinters), Old Believers, or Old Ritualizes. One U.C. Riverside, argue that there were more than one schism, but many, people differed on many reforms, why? Russian were never properly Christianized, and people were set in their ways, and many developed into quasi-heretical communities in religions interpretation, and many communities didn’t listen to the Patriarch office, and they didn’t just say OK all adapt. Small hermitages and monasteries were challenged up north, a place far away from the central. Large Monasteries up north were ruled by strong Abbots. Many criminals jumped on the bandwagon because it was seen as state verses state (tradition) church, and mean anarchy, an excuse for them to act out their angst.  So Old Belief was to hold on to old power, it was the essence of the cause. This is opposite of the reformation in Europe people that were not the church but who wanted to change the church. Here the church wants to change, and the state, but the peasants and people resisted. The similarities only rest on the reform ritual parts and the knowledge of using scholars to read to the Russian clergy who couldn’t read Latin and Greek and therefore could not read the real Bibles – such was in Europe as well. But after this the similarities differed considerably. People burring, executed and these incidence show us that there were histories of people rebelling against the government. Like local Mafia leaders, when the social instability arise over a fight between the church and state, the crime organizations, that is the small mafia-like families jumped on the bandwagon to exploit social discontent. Many of the Don cossacks arise against the central authorities, so they jump in on the social discontent continuity. And excuse for local power centers to show opposition to the state. So this remains a part of the disputes and lasts to the present days in the memories. Social killings and regional persecutions erupted not directly connected to the central government but the local strongmen as cited above. All these uprising showed the weakness of government control over the empire. While the central government was just about to take control, the schism erupts and fragments it, and the schism shows how far reaching their new people had different religious beliefs within their new empire. Orthodox lost many rituals and people that promoted the traditional Orthodox, like collective community rituals and many prayers. The Old Believers and spoke out on their traditional moderation views and not extremism as the new system. This was opposite to the roles of the Protestant and Catholics. The new Orthodox system was a complicated system, such as was blamed on the Catholic Church by the Protestants who wanted to simplify things and communalize people. Stalin, forcible rule was the only way to keep the Soviet Union together. Where are the origins of this thought? Here the central governments were using force to unify the people. There was a vision of this monolithic state. Model of ritualism of church, downs plays the role of the church, bring the individual to the grown by getting the person closer to the books, an individualism, this was the individualism of Russia, and now the NEW Orthodox Church was all the non-individualism with much rituals seen today in the likeness of the complexities of the Catholic Church’s programs. Some old believers, the priestess group, still in existence today. The Old believer communities were the ones that kept the Russian history alive, because they still practiced their old Russia religion. No Symphony of Church and State as they are forced to change? This is a plurality and begins and lays the ground for conceding the ruler to allow the ruler to style himself as a secular tsar, and the not a religious tsar. So how does this change help the Russians to modernize? Over the last 15 years, some reexaminations have been great. Section 63, “Provisions of Russian Protectorate over Ukraine in 1654,” pp. 442- 450: Zaporozhie Host have come under the protection our exalted sovereign arm (448) The Charter of the Zaporozhie Host, April 6, 1654 Ukrainian Cossacks, who were the leaders of the Zaporozhie Host, signed an agreement which temporarily formed the basis of Ukrainian-Russian relations. (442) Peace and reconciliation. Ukr. Natives will get high-offices. One theme was enserfment of Polish peasants had begun by the Polish nobility, this led to flights of the peasantry and a crackdown. Where did they go? Zaporozhian Sich, established by the Dnieper Cossacks.  Theses also contained an element of fights over the western and Eastern Church doctrines were concerns for the powerful and wealthy. The peasants were more and more forced to choose. Kievan memory of Orthodoxy will play a role. Provisions not to go to the Sultan or Polish leaders and maintain relations demands of the Russians. (449) Swear allegiance. The Charter of the Zaporozhie Host, April 6, 1654: Introduced a measure not to violate the previous rights of the high-clergy, which was important because they had a different interpretation of the rituals of Christianity than in Russia. Also guarantees that lands of the inhabitants ( Kozak Estates, 449) keep their rights and to their inheritors. This was a protectorate treaty, where cooperation was the key to its success. Russia will appoint officials, and collect monies |Here Aleksei is called “ great sovereign.” (449) : Did the Ukrainians receive the freedoms promised in the Pereyaslav treaty? 1654 Russian Tsar Aleksei (1645-’72) singed an agreement which temporarily formed the basis of Ukrainian-Russian relations with the leaders of Zaporoshie Host. Russia inherited a rich vital area. scholarship of Ukrainian, new leaders, new administrations thoughts were brought into the sphere of Russia. Russia formed resolutions for protections of Ukraine from Poland and local threats. Russian gets the Left-Bank Ukraine. In 1648, Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a large Cossack uprisings against king John II Casimir: results, partition of Ukraine between Poland and Russia. Russian gets the Left-Bank Ukraine. Catholicism/Protestantism and Orthodoxy. “A Biography of Boyarina Morozova,” in Basil Dmytryshyn, ed., Medieval Russia: A Source Book, 850-1700, 3rd ed., Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1991, pp. 489-497 : Theme: pressures for change vs. continuity; protests against Rel. changes, human treatment,  new ( three-bar-cross) some of her patrimonies were taken from her. She was of the Old Believers? ( see top of page 490). Arresting then torturing people for refusing to cross themselves in the new fashion is hard to believe (see 494). Making an example for reform - dissenters or a hit piece on Russian leaders shown as inhuman tyrants? (496-8) torture episodes. If someone believes this then the Tsar and his ruling religious men were evil and sinister people. The text doesn’t mention Feodosii [name after conversion to a monk]  was a threat to the state by being an inciter for an opposition movement against the tsar? This story sounds reminiscent of the black-legends (Spanish Inquisition stories by northerners ( Dutch, English, German)? – gov. forcing people to follow a strict religious code by intimidation, to take their wealth, and the entire government is concerned only in trying to make people submit to religious rituals for profit). Notice the many passages where the tsar and his men take days and days out of their busy lives to address this minor aversion to one of Nikon’s reforms for one then three persons? Sig: Basic point was a rise in secular writings, (See Kiaser 205) some by anonymous persons. This was more likely a government protest piece similar to autonomous authors (mostly anonymous; some not)  of the 17th century Spain?   Literacy changes The writer is a conduit for God’s truth, and few people could read in Muscovite chronicles. Saint’s vita would be read to the congregation, Icon were to teach the people about life and saints, and by the 17th century a little changes start to begin with a few secular writings, and only a little percentage were truly were literate: Mid-to-Late 17th century, 1-2% (Gary Marker) were truly literate, but many people had a pre-literate knowledge, to write names and possibly know the alphabet. By end of century, there were two new printing offices. One was the tsar and the other in Ukraine.  The later came secular books out, and the primers and literary teach books were beginning to start a production. One person (maybe more) models of Vita to teach people which were secular, and contemplations on the times. “ Today there can mot be anymore saints because the church has gone astray.”  Individuals were described in the round, not all good, but not all bad. Books like this talked about everyday subjects, and even had criticisms. But this was suppressed by the tsars, not published into the 19th century. The Picaresque  book(s) comes out, this is to entertain. Secular poetry…Politics began to be implied a wider process, a talk about critical culture widens as in a European sense. People started to talk politics in a new objective way. 17th century in general: See transitions: One sees public and private spheres, not all theocratic, self conscious definition beginning to emerge from the state. The state is here and now, not in the hereafter. Still a God appointed Tsar, but do not have to obey him in such words. Does a new Law come into play over the Tsar’s office of decree?  [The Tale of] Frol Skobeev, the Rogue,” in Serge A. Zenkovsky, ed. and transi., Medieval Russia’s Epics, Chronicles, and Tales, 2nd ed., New York: E.P. Dutton, pp. 474-486 Theme: Social mobility/story-telling. Contrast:  station ( Domain) in life was important in honor of the community: Here it breaks down to semblance of acceptance: possibly a rare case, none the less. Relevance: drastic change in life and mentality in the 17th century. Story: man falls for girl, then schemes, then Frol forced her against her will: raped? (477) She later started to care for him. “Never…regain my chastity.” (478). Skobeev was a poor nobleman (job: litigation solicitation) , and was not wealthy enough to offer his hand. She gave him money, but father found time to offer her daughter to  nobles in Moscow. He mortgage house to raise money to go to Moscow attempt to marry the women he loves: Coach episode funny, lovers secretly marry; He marries upwards: to a new domain?  father tells the tsar he cannot find her, tsar orders the missing daughter made public, upon death if someone is holding her hostage. It was tradition for the family to be involved in marriage of their daughter. This caused conflict with tradition? Lovchikov intervenes as promised. Send icon as blessing (this was a marriage tradition, see marriage/gifts Diss. 5) but here was for her heath? Frol and Annushka obviously do not care about their different ‘ domains.’ She being from a wealthier family and he quite poor, but still a noble. Bitter satire, picaresque-like theme comes in to play as someone can say he did all this scheming for access to Annushka’s parents money (secular writing/ As well as the comic-like satire) . Could be like a picaresque novel, absent of the boy-meets disaster upon disaster themes? Did Frol find happiness?   """""At last the matter was submitted to an ecumenical council, or the nearest approach to it attainable in the circumstances, which opened its sessions on the November 18, 1666 in the presence of the tsar. On the 12th of December the council pronounced Nikon guilty of reviling the tsar and the whole Muscovite Church, of deposing Paul, bishop of Kolomna, contrary to the canons, and of beating and torturing his dependants. His sentence was deprivation of all his sacerdotal functions; henceforth he was to be known simply as the monk Nikon. The same day he was put into a sledge and sent as a prisoner to the far northern Ferapontov monastery. Yet the very council which had deposed him confirmed all his reforms and anathematized all who should refuse to accept them, like protopope Avvakum. Nikon survived the tsar (with whom something of the old intimacy was resumed in 1671) five years and was allowed to return to Moscow, expiring on his way thither, after crossing the Kotorosl River in Yaroslavl, the August 17, 1681."""""WIKI The Zealots of Piety (Russian: Кружок ревнителей благочестия) was a circle of ecclesiastical and secular individuals beginning in the late 1630s in Russia, which gathered around Stefan Vonifatiyev, the confessor of tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The impetus to the group's formation was the Times of Trouble. The members believed the massacres and conflagrations of the time to be the manifestation of a wrathful God, angry with the Russian people's lack of "religiosity." In response, the group called for the rebirth of the Russian Orthodox faith, and a renewal of the religious piety of the masses. The Zealots of Piety included Fyodor Rtishchev, Archmandrite Nikon of the Novospassky Monastery (future Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia), Abbot Ivan Neronov of the Kazan Cathedral, archpriests Avvakum, Loggin, Lazar, and Daniil. The members of the Zealots of Piety wanted to enhance the authority of the Russian Orthodox Church and increase its influence upon the people. Among other goals of the circle were the struggle against the shortcomings and vices of the clergy, revival of church sermons and other means for influencing the masses. They also aimed to assist the needy and weak in Russian society, protecting them from social injustice, and to spread the Gospel to the Russian people, making faith more integral in daily life. The Zealots of Piety soon became the actual rulers of the Russian Orthodox Church, thanks to the support from the tsar, who had paid much attention to the advice of his confessor. After Nikon had been elected patriarch in 1652, the groups turned against their former member, protesting several of his reforms. Over time, the group began to dissolve, as many of its members became active figures in the Raskol movement. In 1564 Nikon explained his liturgical changes…and he was Still trusted by the Tsar, Nikon….Nikon wanted to become co-sovereign like Michael Romanov’s father.His legislations angered the Zelots. He promoted legislation to restrict the sale of alcohol to one government location in each town and on Sunday during Lent and major fasts to ban the sale of alcohol. 1654 plague in Moscow was blamed on Nikon's reforms by the Old Believers. Nikon blamed the plague on the ecclesiastical intrusions of the 1645 Ulozhenie code. (Which is it two of three is the change) Local icons had their fingers changed, so the hands are stubs, or cannot discern the fingers. Imagine that your ancestors got into heaven with certain numbers of  fingers ( when crossing themselves)  and foreigners come in a say change fingers – your old way is from the devil, you need to use this many?  This implies your ancestors are in hell. So the schism had real ramifications. Over time the Old believers got in trouble over political stuff, and the rituals were not the issue. (like not paying taxes… etc…) The Old Believers became accepted members and never died off, so there was this sense of this violence. And in Oregon and Alaska have Old Believers in The United States. Persecutions, Picks up under Peter when they resist conscription, and tax reforms.   Class systems in Russia are like stones, unmovable.               Rows of the iconostasis called chiny, is like your caste in Russian system,  and you are born into it and you die into it. Social mobility is for those rare occasions -- people – very talented and noticed could be promoted, by a patron, or the state --  and or beautiful women or men, according to desire of a wealthy bachelor – all of this is in theory. No middle class in Russia, it was a system in Russia where the rich gets richer and the poor gets poorer in 17th century, In Europe, the middle class was forming, but in Russia it was never there. Short growing season, soil is bad, boggy weather, and forestry of the land, The land is not that productive, so the agrarian people of the land do not have much economic power. Virgins in 17th century called ‘ in tact’ the sources. (Social changes beginning in the mid-sixteenth century) The individual is called upon to become the scholar, and individual is called upon to become one with god, he or she doesn’t need the priest. How is collectivity contrasted with individuality?  How did the posad escape the hearth tax, they just build add-ons to their peasant houses and said they didn’t have to pay taxes, and their families and relatives would live basically under the same roof. This would end when Peter issues the head-tax. Peter goads them to the soul tax, a poll-tax-like in South of the United States and, Dūsha, in Russia, a head-tax.     People: Lived in hamlets, 3-4, and villages and the two banded together in communes, Peasants were free in the 15th century. Over time the peasants became tied to the land. Everything, in kind ( barter system) in cash, no money at this time. “Payment in Kind. Dues an obligations, peasants owes pay taxes, tribute to the Khan, maybe corn to local governor general who fed off the local population, and the postal system, upkeep of the militia and transportation system, there was no case. And some peasants could band together and pay in a lump some. Corvée work. Later part of 16th century an economic crises, increase the tax burden, rose steadily in the 16th century.   Barshchina labor services. “Payment in kind.” Why a payment in kind? there always was a lack of money in Moscow. Plots were decreasing, government giving out lands. Rare uprisings. Option was flight. Kama River by Urals, and to the southern boarder, Volga and to the White Sea, north of Moscow. 83% of settlements were disserted. 1580s, low level economic stabilities, then again problems began again at the Time of Troubles, the dynastic troubles.      Voluntary Slavery: 10% of population sold themselves into a contract like slavery. No taxation or military service if one becomes a legal slave, just work for your owner. Military slaves: get out of service by declaring bankruptcy. Cannot support the poor, this state was poor, not a subsistence state, like socialism. In this kinship based society, slavery was the few safty nets for someone at the bottom. How did the government react to the economic crisis? State took steps to secure peasants to the land. The state didn’t have money to pay military servitors. 1580, peasants couldn’t switch landlords, the law codes, “forbidden Years” originally temporary, but permanent  and in 1601-2 people fled in famine, state could not stop them. Less enserfment the more away from the center of the state. Plight of the peasant is not a pretty picture. Times of Troubles, gives us an insight to the ideological structures of power. Nationalism: Was there a nationalism? Probably not, and even though some Russian historians thought so. At times people came together to fight an enemy, but after this they had gone back to their diverse attitudes. There are no terms for nationalism in Russia, there is a sense of collective accountability toward their Christian past and the struggles of managing foreigners from within and interventions as with the T of T. The 17th century brought in large numbers of new languages and people together, yet it is not a multiculturalism foundation inside a conceptual model of nationalism – usually referred in Russian historiography as Russification. I have argued that during the period of Ivan, a certain type of nationalistic spirit rose, first with Ivan IV’s ancestors and his Muscovite dynastic heritage and a sense of Russia as a unity to overthrow Mohammad’s, in the east, was an imperialistic measure that was part of a national understanding of “us” verses “them.” Many Russian historians do not take this view citing that Muslims fought on both sides of the battle-lines, but this is spurious at best. Most history of both west and east have foreigners not affiliated to its religion or nationalism fighting on both sides of the battle-lines – mainly for economic and political interests – but not social and cultural. The synthesis and unification of Rus, by the Muscovite dynasties up until Ivan was simply a unity of Orthodox Christian Rus heritage that sought to unify all the princes they could to force a type of nationalistic spirit which determines not institutions, which are actually applied to civilization and “states” but to common heritage of culture that is aptly nationalistic. Most fitful of non-understanding of nationalism is that “nations” must be ethnically pure – this is not or ever was the case in history. Most historians rely on French agency, the French Revolution to form their understanding of what is a nation – yet this does little to understanding a nation—in that a nation was a prime understanding during the 30 Years’ War in the west during the second half of the war period. Rus, as nation, was trying to understand its boarders, just as western Europe during the 30 Years’ War and this describes groups unifying in a nationalistic understanding. A nation does not need a standing army, or mass-institutions, or defined boarders, or a constitution. These are myths by historians that have not understood the relation of common unity to symbols and heritages perpetuate the myth of what are nations. Like the Nation of Islam, or the Raider Nation ( Foofball Team in the U.S.A, Oakland, CA.) are simply nations predicated on ideals of tradition. For Rus, the Grand Princes of Moscow wanted to unify the peripheries to that of Muscovite-Orthodox-heritage of Kievan Rus’: that is determinable for a nation. Origins of a Russian national consciousness according to Platonov: “ Platonov, a zemskie sabor, was a nationalism, but it was premature to say this was a national consciousness was acting. It did meet regularly for a few centuries. There were moments, against common enemies, but the sense of self, who are we fighting for, a term of the nation, 16ht century Europe Poles and Swedes talked about “a whole of the government and government as constituent parts.” It is hard to understand the representation of the peopled called to Moscow to come to a zemskie sober, a event that didn't happen periodically, but rarely. In the 16th century it possibly met three times, the most conservative estimate and liberally possibly seven times, but these were more rubber stamp meetings where the decisions of the Oligarchy had already made up their minds, and told the representatives, " well this is what is going to happen." In Russia:  “not so much as unified terms, but in diversity.” Every towns and cities had their own allegiances, so not concept of unified state mentality. So Platonov was optimistic in this regard. No argument on popular sovereignty, or Monarchy, or formalizing the zemskie sabor as a representative institution, so the Time of Troubles was not a great turning point. It did shape the seventeenth century to something dramatically different. Some Histories claim the Ivan IV was a turning point in Russia history, Platonov destroyed feudal state and weakened the church, and Pluchevskii ( J. K likes)  a social economic historian, he called the Time of Troubles a turning point. ( Kollman doesn’t agree). Times of Troubles opens windows to international changes, and shape the 17th into something different.17th century, Russia expands and incorporates many peoples, ethno-linguistic groups. No Ocean separating these people to all these different people. Dying languages, 14 chulym’s alive today, so not on lists. Out in Siberia. Russia was slowly Aggrandizement of land | New experiment in how to rule them?           Creeping expansion in the south and Siberia.           Muscovite state, Christianity remained a minor goal, as is evidence today.           Never a cash form of government, so how to make payments? Furs,           Artic tundra to the north, coniferous forest, not good for farming, cold, different tribes, no one languages among people, nomad peoples following reindeer herds, remnants of the Golden Horde, Sunni/Islamic.           Late sixteenth century, Muscovy started the imperialism of the east. The expansion to the south and east.           Mining of silver.           Follow the plow and fur travel.           It was not a policy of the state, the state power followed the travelers, and not an imperial ways, but soon they learned the economic treasures.           “I found silver , we could mine, sent troops so the natives don’t rob us.” State: “ Ok, sounds good, money for us? Employer - traveler: “ Yes! Business deal.”           1660, 1/3 of all revenue: Siberian commodities the government total take in of state revenue.           Russians give taxes to State, and the colonizers tax the natives.           Some Russian historians say not a violent expansion, no conscious imperial burden. There was no discourse of empire (Really? J.K)           Economic penetration (JK)           Political elites co-opted to make the new people pay taxes.           Colonial offices were created, do not want direct traditional offices over there.           No Russification of culture, religion, or language until late 18th and early 19th century when Religion gets a little tenser.           Significance to Russia Empire: great wealth to Ural silver mines, Farm produce from Ukraine, furs in Siberia/steppe. Taxes. Ukraine area where the Cossacks flourished and U: Krai, (ne) means the borderlands. The Cossacks would flee there to escape government from all countries in the area. Form these lands that the major peasant’s uprisings occur.           Served historically as a frontier, a place to get away, to run away from government societies, very much like people in Alaska, appreciate being far away.           Western frontiers, and lawlessness, like the western frontier communities.           Stroganov 26-27th century, such a powerful merchant family, anyone makes a discovery of a salt mine, they jump in and take (or gold/silver). Rich merchant families that make loans to the government.           Political elite do not let people leave feudalism like the west, there was no strong state and representation.           No serfdom in the frontier. ·          Some slavophiles, romanticize, get rid of western influence and will go back to morality, lets go to Siberia the real Russia. But Russia was never part of Russia. How can one go back to something that was conquered? ·          17th century summary: arguments: ·          A stagnates fragmented state then into an all controlling service state. ·          Muscovy a time of dynamic change and social mobility. ·          TWO MAIN THINGS 17th CENTURY ·          Significance, besides the Times of Troubles, the new responsibilities of having an Empire. ·          New ideas, and administrator ideas, ·          Ukraine, Siberia… ·          New west engineers, Scottish, German, Dutch, Swedes... Russian Rulers kholop - slave The Peasants Plight in Russia 1649 Ulozhenie: was a set of regulations or a code of law promulgated by the central authorities of the Muscovite state. It lasted nearly two centuries in its original form, and in a lesser sense, until 1917. Approximately 1,200 copies of the Ulozhenie were printed. It was brought about by a need for controlling social problems after Russia witnessed riots in Moscow and a dozen towns in June of 1648. Its 25 chapters are subdivided into 967 articles. Most of the articles were borrowed from foreign sources and have there origins in Byzantine law via the Kormchaia kniga, and may be traced to the Lithuanian Statue of 1588. Roughly one-twentieth of the articles can be traced to the Sudebnik of 1550. [1] One of the major effects of the code was that it fully established serfdom by tying the peasants and their progeny permanently to the land.  Serfs were defined as anyone who tilled the soil. The code did recognize the serfs as legal subjects; however, increasingly for over a century, they were bought, sold, and traded by landlords as virtual slaves. 1. Hellie, Richard, in Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. Joseph L. Wieczynski, vol., 40 (Gulf Breeze, Florida: Academic International Press, 1982), 194. In January 1649 its official approval came about by signatory in a zemskie sober. Russian Slaves and Serfs Richard Hellie, “ Enserfment in Muscovite Russia,” in Cracraft, Major Problems, pp. 46-58: Most important reason: The privilege class had honor addiction. They needed to feel superior in the social scene, and increasingly in the 17th century a population explosion threatened their old tight-knitted psychological privileged community. Enserfment in Russia developed in three or four stages. During the quarter-century long civil war in the reign of Vasily II (1425-1462) selected monasteries which had grown into large economic enterprises need much manpower were granted the right by the state power to curtail the movement of their peasants to the period around St. George’s Day ( November 26): political concession in a period of labor disruption for services rendered by a particular monastery. “ It was done to gain monastery support.” The civil war began because no principle existed to decide who should be [ grand] prince, whether accession was lateral or vertical. In the past the khan had resolved such issues, but this was no longer realistic with the Tatar hegemony in its decline. The contesting sides could only fight it out. In the process Vasily II’s side gave away some peasant freedom to gain support. For reasons difficult to determine, this curtailment was applied to all peasants by the law code (Sudebnik) of 1497. After 1497 most peasants could move at only one time a year, upon payment of a small fee to the landlord. This by no means enserfed the peasants, who seem not to have protested against the minor restriction”( 46-47):  how do we know when so many scholars claim the chronicles didn’t report the truth and for the fact that only a small amount of records have come down to us from these periods? Before the Times of Troubles, there seem no recorded peasant outbreaks? During the 1570s and 1580s, the  instability resulted from the decisions of Ivan IV’s retirement and creation of the Oprichnina and military reversals with the Livonian war. Many peasants were forced to migrate with certain nobility to the south and south/east and were not allowed to leave, while others remained free, and some fled and became unknown. There seems to be no evidence in the records of the enforcement of this policy. The war caused a state problem to get more men into the military service. This meant taking them off the land and putting them into battle. A land shortage now was tied to an absence  of people being able to cultivate the land. Since many people were forced into military service naturally a forced labor service accompanied the military policy. This policy freed up people and solved the agricultural concerns for the state. In 1581 in some areas there was a temporary measure to forbid peasants to move at all. This was called the “forbidden years.” In 1592 ( or 1539) Boris Godunov, seeking support of the influential for his bid for the throne, “promulgated a decree forbidding all peasants to move until further notice.” (47). In part this was a continual process of an economic solution.  The power of the state saw the state’s financial instability by way of peasant freedom. In the 1500s, peasants had been free to move about as they wished. Peasants that did move preferred to move to large estates and to the great boyars and the monasteries for better working conditions. Muscovy ruled by intimate family relations, and the rulers were mostly related in someway to court heritage. Only a few outsiders were allowed into the outer circles of the power of government. Decisions came from the top and the peasants had little to say about it. “The Times of Troubles had little influence on the enserfment…the confusion created peasant flight, and in 1613 The Trinity-St. Sergius Monastery and another wealthy monastery brought back the issue of the serfs, using legal means to recover now-called “fugitives.” (48) The Smolensk War (1613-1634) created a need for more taxes and peasants were the base of the Muscovy tax revenue. “Higher taxes at the center, combined with the possibility of lower rents and even complete freedom of the frontier, stimulated southward migration.” (48) The government secured the southern lands, but peasants were not settling on government lands. This deprived the army of manpower to garrison the frontiers. They didn’t have money to pay for peasants to settle in the right places. The magnates didn’t allow the government to wait for the recovery of fugitive peasants. In stead the magnates valued the migration of the peasants to their estates. During in the 1620s, the tax need created a phenomenon of peasant to slavery. Peasants could sell themselves into slavery for a period of time, from one to ten years, and even a lifetime, in which they would pay-off their debts. But with increasing demands and payments by the landlords the peasants found it impossible to pay-off their debts and became virtual slaves. During  The Smolensk War period the Muscovite state increasingly became militaristic in western ways. This period saw a gun-powder revolution, and a decrease in the bow and arrow and uselessness for traditional cavalry --  peasants in the military used handguns with much more fatal accuracy.  Mjm -Military service was the only way for the peasants to increase their lot. They fled their servicemen landlords and migrated “to join the forces on the Belgorod cherta [line], which was contributing to the obsolescence of the old cavalry against the Tatars.” (49). Since there were no middle-calls institutions, that is to say, on a wide-scale such as European-like guilds, and a middle class merchant class, the problems of a population explosion added too a groups with no technical skill, all of which complicated the social solutions. Peasants have guns. Landlords do not like that. Any social movement became more complicated. During the seventeenth century more people were brought into the Muscovy sphere which created nervousness of the privileged class. The Pomeshchik [ service landholder] refused to go to war without a dire need communicated by the government, and they were the traditional cavalry class. The privilege class asked the government to send peasants into the military instead of them. “For the psychology security the servicemen needed to have the peasant beneath him and, if possible, under his control.” (49) “When the peasants fled, the servicemen lost not only financial support, but also the presence of degraded people under his authority who reminded him daily that he was superior. “ (49). Bibliography: ·          Richard Hellie, “Enserfment in Muscovite Russia,” in Cracraft, Major Problems, pp. 46- 58. ·          “Enserfing the Russian Peasantry: The Ulozhenie (Chapter 11) of 1649),” in Cracrafi,  Major Problems, pp. 5 8-67 The origins of social stratification Ruling groups exploit peasants, according to R.E.F. Smith and Rodney Hilton: Serfdom developed in Russian beginning in the 16th century and early 17th century and lasted to 1861. Large number of peasants lived on Church lands, state lands, and the tsar’s family  ( and court) lands.  Landlords exploited the peasants. The state obliged all peasants to pay taxes and sent recruits to the army. Difference in peasants from serfs:  Serfs (seigniorial peasants)  were a type of peasants who were bound to a specific landlord were subject to his jurisdiction and laws. Their families passed their servile status to their children. They often went into debt and couldn’t emerge from this. Peasants that were not serfs, free tenant farmers and they lasted until the mid-sixteenth century; they had the right to move around and could find new owners. This law became coded in 1497 and 1550, but it was limited to two weeks a year at the end of an agricultural season, and sometimes special holidays. In 1649, this changed and peasants were no longer allowed to change owners. They became permanently liable to be returned if they fled under the law code Sobornoe ulozhenie.  By the eighteenth century the serfs were allowed to move and were deemed domestic serfs, and they were purchased as property by different landowners. The distinction between serf and slave was serfs were considered to be citizens of the Russian state and the slaves were considered owned by private individuals as personal property (67): Did this really matter in significance? Slavery in Russia had a long history until 1723. Why change, slaves could not be charge taxes? In 1679, agricultural slaves became liable to household tax. By 1723, all slaves were added to a poll tax census making slaves liable to taxes (98): Did this make them peasants? Yes, no longer was the term slave used? Serfs and slaves is a sketchy differentiation? Sixteen Century Origins Peasants Once Russia began to imperialize the issue were not land but the control over the peasants to till the soil. The fights of the rich against the poor caused the poor to become indebted to the rich and the rich said now I own you, even with a ideology that the state owned the peasants.  Klyuchevskii, writing in 1880, he argued that landlords deliberately played this role of enserfer, and took advantage of the peasant’s indebtedness. If a peasant was given a tool to use, he or she was charge, and so forth with commodities, food and privileges. Usually the landlord would lend it as money, to make it look as cash was owed. Where would the serf ever get cash? Once the debt became too large, the peasant was stuck into becoming a virtual slave, but just calling it legally a serf by the ruling and rich government. 18802 documents found suggest the pesansts’ right of movement was temporarily prohibited in some areas starting in the 1580s. This was called the “ forbidden years.” But V.I. Korestkii came across references in texts of court cases on birch bark to a decree of 1592/93 banning peasant movement altogether. Law code of 1550 had allowed the peasants to move once a year as suggested above. By 1649 peasants did not have this option any longer. What was the justification for the government? According to this interpretation, the Russian state took a series of steps to bind peasants to the land at times of crisis in order to ensure the loyalty of the gentry cavalrymen(pomeshchiki,)who made up the backbone of the Russian army in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Since the state lacked the money to pay the cavalrymen, it gave them tracts of land in return for service. They held the land on condition that they continued to serve. From 1556,moreover, boyars (aristocrats), who had previously held their extensive estates in unconditional, hereditary tenure, also held their lands on condition that they served the state. It was straightforward for the state to pay its servitors with land, since it was plentiful in Russia; the scarce resource was labour. As the gentry's grants of land were worthless without people to cultivate them, the state enacted a series of measures to bind peasants to their land. (Moon 68)   It had been argued that the forest land, in the north, was difficult to harvest, and the military needed support, so the peasants were moved to these lands. Why not allowing them to move around? So that peasants could not form unions with other peasants in other lands to try to unify and rebel: This was the same policy for serf times in Europe’s serf age?   Some wealthy landowners kidnapped peasants as the need to service land became an issue. Others offered peasants incentives, such as less required duties.   By the early eighteenth century, the measures binding peasants to the land had led to the division of the Russian peasantry into categories according to the owners of the land they lived on. The main categories were: seigniorial (pomeshchich'i) peasants, or 'serfs', who lived on the estates of nobles; state (kazennye, gosudarstvennye) peasants, whose land was state property; church (tserkovnye, ekonomicheskie) peasants, who lived on lands belonging to the Russian Orthodox Church; and the smaller numbers whose landowners were members of the tsar's family, known as court (dvortsovye) peasants until 1797, and thereafter as appanage (udel'nye) peasants. (Moon 69)   While western Europe was abolishing serfdom, the rise in the eastern parts of Europe were rising. Serfdom also developed on the right-bank of the Ukraine, Belorussia, Lithuania and the Baltic provinces of Estonia, Livonia and Kurland, which were annexed by Russia in the eighteenth century. Landlords held their estates as demesne for their own production. The serfs cultivated the rest of the land for themselves. Originally, most of the labor of the demesne was carried out by slaves. Even as early as the sixteenth century, handcrafts made by peasants were owned for dispersal by landlords: Are not these virtual slaves? Labor service were more common in the fertile black earth provinces, where agriculture was the main economic activity (Moon 70-1). V.I. Semevskii form the “General Land Survey” cited 74 per cent of peasants in the fertile black area were serfs who worked labor services and 26 percent paid dues. In the less fertile forest-heartland, crafts were more identifiable services.  Serfs had to perform labor services or pay dues: Labor services were identified in a variety of services, where due paying serfs sold what was made or cultivated in a free-market. They had to pay dues to the landlord.  Most dues were services to the landlord, but over time and increasingly in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries landlords demanded to be paid in cash. By the 1850s, serfs were doing both, a “mixed obligation.” (Moon 71)  Obrok (pay dues) or Barshchina (Labor service): In the empires western borderlands ( especially Ukraine, Belorussia and Lithuania) performed labour services. (Moon 71)  Nineteenth century seigniorial pesansts’ labor was higher still. (72) 1760s General Land Survey cited a norm of 1.5 desyatiny in the Central Black Earth region, by mid-nineteenth century is went up to 2 desyatiny, meaning from three days work to one quarter of the landlords demanding four days work of free labor. Many peasants were compelled to work harder due to the task system. Instead of being told to work on the demesne so many days a week, peasants were assigned additional work. Some landlords forced their serfs to work five to six days a week on their demesne. Working so many days depended on the landlord and sometimes locations. South-eastern landlords allowed serfs to work only two days a week. The system known as the mesyachina, was rare, in the mid-nineteenth century. The peasants ran plantations lines, in return for monthly rations. Other system were distillation, manufacture work, food processing, produce potash, cloth and other goods for sale. In the late eighteenth century and first half of the nineteenth century, at least one third of the serfs had their labor services taken away from them by their landlords in favor of paying cash to the landlord. Now Obrok, had differentiating levels ( rates) in nominal monetary terms, which also increased over time.  Tsar’s frequently devalued currency to pay for their wars, and this became periods of depreciation and inflation. Landlords needed cash more and more.   The average level of obrok rates, in nominal monetary terms, also increased over time. Before assessing the actual hnpact of cash obrok,however, it is necessary to consider changes in the real value of the rouble as a result of depreciation and inflation. Tsars frequently debased the currency to pay for their wars. Among the most expensive were the Thirteen Years' War with Poland (1654-67), the Great Northern War with Sweden (1700-21), and the Seven Years' War (1756-62). At various times, silver coins were replaced by copper, and the metal content reduced. In 1769,during the Russo-Turkish War (1768-74), paper roubles (assignats) were issued in tandem with silver roubles. They held their value until the 17905,but fell sharply as more were issued to pay for Russia's involvement in the wars with France. By 1800the paper money was worth around two-thirds of its nominal value and, by the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815,less than a quarter. In 1839-41 the currency was stabilized. The exchange rate was set at 1 paper rouble to 0.286 silver roubles (3.5 paper roubles =1 silver rouble). The stable currency did not survive the expense of the Crimean War (1853-56), and the new paper 'credit roubles' lost some of their value. The depreciation of the rouble gave unscrupulous landowners and traders opportunities to deceive peasants into paying more. For much of the early nineteenth century, the 'popular rate' was 1 paper rouble to 0.25 silver roubles: a bad deal for peasants paying in silver For dues or goods priced in paper. The purchasing power of the rouble also fell as a result of inflation. Boris Mironov traced changes in average grain prices in the Russian Empire between the mid-sixteenth and early twentieth centuries. Although there were significant regional and short-term variations, he showed that there were periods of inflation in the mid-seventeenth and the third quarter of the nineteenth centuries. The most striking trend, however, was a 'price revolution' over the eighteenth century, when grain prices increased sixfold, measured in grams of silver, and elevenfold in nominal terms. (Moon 74)   Much study in currency rates and  obrok rates by historian, especially Russian to determine how hard serfs had to endure struggles to survive? Russians are very sensitive about this issue. Their conclusion was obrok rates varied from region to region. And yet, obrok rates are not accurate guides to actual levels of exploitation. There was a difference between what landlords [officially ] demanded and what they received. ( Moon 76) Some peasants could not pay in full because they were poor. Sometimes harvest failures as in 1822 caused payment difficulties. With the exception between the begging and end of Peter The Great’s reign, obrok rates did rise consistently. Generally in the last century landlords  extracted from one-third of the peasants’ income in dues. Domestic Serfs, on the seigniorial estates, a proportion of the peasants were domestic serfs (dvorovye lyudi). If a large estate, the domestic serfs paid the field serfs taxes. The domestic serfs saw this as an added weight of the many problems already encountered in their lives. Domestic serfs provided the services of the later slaves abolished in 1732. The conversion of field serfs to domestic serfs created difficulties for the communities of serfs and their households. Peasants on state domains originally had “mixed obligations” but Peter the Great replaced them with obrok, in cash payments, but were a little lower than prior rates. It was raised again in 1798, but the obrok became more complicated in levels depending on prosperity, but still this was subject to the ability to pay. Still between 1723 to 1861, state peasants’ dues were lower than seigniorial obrok. Peter’s measures were predicated on a need for peasants to build the new capital of St. Petersburg. Peter used forced peasant labor, for example, to pay for his navy projects and extended this to all forced labor industry: can some see the potential for justification of communism’s forced industrialization plan in the 20th century? Russia was predisposed to this exploitation, so why change?   Between 1721 to 1762, merchants were allowed to purchase peasants. I contend these are domestic slaves and peasants are too nice of a term here? In a radical measure, Peter secularized the church and the peasants in 1672. this meant that all the peasants’ obligations to their former ecclesiastical landowners were commuted ot a flat-rate obrok of 1 rouble per male soul, to be paid to the state.” (Moon 79) Here Peter was in need for cash? Catherin the Great (r. 1762-98) cancelled this decree in 1768. Court peasants renamed appanage (udel’nye) peasants in 1797, were treated differently. The church and court peasants dues were below the others so this was an policy to increase the dues. Flat rate was caused by a suspicion that peasants were not reporting their true incomes, or were hiding their money, claiming they couldn’t pay. If a flat-rate, this meant that everyone had to pay? This was achieved by levying the tax on households instead of individuals: So one person in that house had to work hard for the others if they didn’t produce? In addition, the treasury needed more money, so the rulers imposed additional taxes for specific purposes. Peter the Great had to finance his wars and pay for the huge army and navy. He also resorted to extraordinary taxes, most famously, his ‘beard tax.’ Peasants were not liable to be tax on their beards if they stayed in their villages, but on entering and leaving a town, for example to go to a market, they had to pay a kopek for the privilege of being unshaven.  (Moon 80). Poll taxes were in effect in some areas or some levels of the population and was long lasting measure. Historians have long maintained, however, that the poll tax greatly intensified the load of direct taxes on the peasantry. Some historians have tried to revise the three-times increase by arguing inflationary costs and other communal household flat-rate payments. It is hard to contend when the house pays the taxes instead of census for each individual? Possibly a sign that the poll tax increased everyone’s tax burdens is when Peter’s widow and successor Catherin I (r.1725-27) came to power, she reduced the poll tax slightly to 70 kopeks per male soul in 1725.  (Moon 82)   What did many serfs do under Peter’s reign? Most became servicemen in Peter’s military state. In 1699, on the eve of the Great Northern War, he introduced military service for life. Many of the earlier recruits were slaves, but the brunt of conscription came to be borne by the peasantry. (Moon 83) Conscription was a drain on the peasantry and one needs to attend the services? Most peasants never returned to their serf estates, as the Crimea War, The Napoleonic War, and other military service needed their call. After the end of lifetime service in 1793, retired soldiers were legally classified as ‘raznochintsy’ ( ‘ people of various ranks’) Some soldiers did go back to peasantry. Internal passports, a 1719 introduction by Peter the Great kept track of the people liable to conscription, and after 1724, the poll tax. Peasants and townspeople were not allowed to leave their places of residence, as recorded in the tax census, without a passport of other papers. (Moon 84) 1694 law code and this passport law made the peasants bound to land twice over; and this was complicated by fugitive laws.   This was a further boundary between the privileged elite and the tax-paying population, mostly peasants. The state sold Tax rights to tax farmers, similarly to the system in the Ottoman Empire.  Tax farmers could give money to communities or peasants on an estate, and the peasants would estimate a future sum to pay back. It was like a credit system and was introduced as a measure to secure normal living standards for peasants in cases of years of drought or hard times. Tax farmers paid a fixed income to the state and kept the profits. They had the power to set the rates for peasants on future commodities.  This could and did make entire communities accountable for taxes and usually caused an entire community to go into further debt. These also coincided with monopolies, which raised domestic commodities for peasants. Drink tax farmers were set up as well.   The liquor tax farmer paid a set tax to the state and loaned money to the peasants to purchase liquor and for a future increased cost. The credit system could be seen as positive or negative. The peasants were aware of the state exploitation because the state understood these ramifications: But the state just needed their money? Also peasants had to open up their houses to Russian military servitors for several months a year: does this mean they had to feed more heads? Peasants were also obliged for upkeep of their parish churches and local surroundings. There were consistent disputes of the payments between peasants and clergy. (Moon 86) All these measures increased the burdens and hardships on the peasants in the first-half of the nineteenth century.   Exploitation was the highest in the central regions which were the heartland of serfdom and state control. It is possible to conclude that overall levels of exploitation reached a plateau under Peter the Great and the middle decades of the eighteenth century. This was the period when the Russian Empire consolidated its position as a major European power, with its large and expensive armed forces, which were manned and paid for mostly by the peasants. (Moon 88) The elite who did business with the peasants in general paid less for the product than the average merchant.  But a few laws protected the peasants from giving all their subsistence and productive capacity away to the elite. One can only work the peasant to exhaustion daily. After that, the person dies? Another so-called protection of the elite were allowances to not to have to produce the “full” amount when a bad crop season was blamed on nature. In this way the elite were benevolent creatures. These protections were in the form of an ideology of “ Little Father.” The tsar treated his serfs as his children and he was the paternal father.   He fashioned an illusion that he cared for his children, who he new were exploited to the limit. The empresses of the eighteenth century used the maternal imagery. (Moon 89). Also the elite showed protection by not constantly treating the peasants with cruelty: just during their bad days?   There were also landless labor peasants called bobyli, who owed a little light obligations t their landlords.  One can understand pretty people would eventually rise in their stations regardless of birth and good looks no mater what century or land, was always a certain vehicle for advancement.  These often explain peasant exceptions to the rule. Other exceptions could be a valued peasant who is extraordinary in skill and wit who befriends landlords or the elite and are lifted out of their misery.   From the late seventeenth century and early eighteenth century until the reforms of 1860s, the vast majority of Russian peasants had access to land to cultivate. (Moon 93)In Ukraine, and other parts of Europe laborers wandered: Is this an argument that serfdom is preferred over freedom?  Tsars did give out rations during the bad harvest years and reduced taxes in those years. Some rich landlords also were benevolent. But if not the state guided the landlords to be less severe during the hardship years. You did not want your workforce to die-off? The state tried to place the burden of this benevolence on the rich magnates who had to be repeatedly told to loosen up overbearing measures against the peasants. In 1822 and 1834 the state forced the landowners to share responsibilities for famine relief.  (Moon 95) David Moon, “The Russian Peasantry: 1600-1930, The World The Peasants Made” (London: Longman, date): Ch. 3 Exploitation: II. Long-term significance of the “Smuta” “national consciousness”? the vocabulary of political representation phenomenon of pretenderism (samosvanchestvo) Little Russification or Russian in-migration These principles change starting in late eighteenth century Siberian Frontier: (Movie) Dersu Uzala, was filmed out in Siberia, a story of late 19th and early 20th century are sent out to Siberia to map it, and they are city folk of Moscow and the are helpless, and Dersu makes a living collecting fur, and the short of it is city folk hire of Mongol as a guide, and it like Crocodile Dundee, so the city guys cannot survive, and the point is they are sophisticated and the primitive guy is the survival guy who helps them survive in Siberia. The Russia city people sent out to Map Siberia. (Goldy/Nanai). Slaves do not pay taxes, but they were no more than 6% of the population ( See Hallie) Valerie Kivelson, map making in Russia, University of Michigan, tells a lot of information on Russia. Where was the Money? The Conquest and Subjugation of Siberia Siberia: In the eleventh century, the people of the Grand Principality of Novgorod had known the northern region of the western part of Siberia. During the consolidation of the Muscovy in the fifteenth century, periodic campaigns undertaken into Siberia established diplomatic relations between Ibak, the Khan of Tiumen and the Russian government. Developing over the sixteenth century, several Yugorian tribes began to pay tribute to the Russians in the lower courses of the Ob River.  The last quarter of the sixteenth century Russia consolidated relations with the Khanate of Siberia.  Conditions were right for the Russian state to consider the possibility of acquiring Siberia. [1] The conquest of Siberia was an economic and not a religious undertaking. Much of the attraction came from discoveries of mineral deposits and a wide range of animals that could meet a Muscovite foreign demand for exotic furs. Siberia represented the rise of the Stroganov clan -- a merchant family who obtained holdings in the wild upper Kama region, where they maintained a garrison and imported colonists, to protect their new mining operations. During the seventeenth century the Muscovite central authority began to subjugate Siberian natives for their interests in the international fur trade. Despite central authorities allowing certain rights to newly incorporated people, natives often were economic slaves. Part of the reason was the Muscovite government’s lack of oversight which allowed lawlessness to go unchecked. However, native’s rights did eventually improve over time as the central authority sought to win the favor of the wealthy and influential natives.  Siberia's significance brought Russia new responsibilities of having an (unofficial) Empire. 1. M.M. Gromyko in Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. Joseph L. Wieczynski, vol., ? (Gulf Breeze, Florida: Academic International Press, 1982), 66. 17th century, Russia expands and incorporates many peoples, ethno-linguistic groups. No Ocean separating these people to all these different people. Fallout: Dying languages, 14 chulym’s alive today, so not on lists. Out in Siberia. Russia was slowly Aggrandizement of land | New experiment in how to rule them?           Creeping expansion in the south and Siberia.           Muscovite state, Christianity remained a minor goal, as is evidence today.           Never a cash form of government, so how to make payments? Furs,           Artic tundra to the north, coniferous forest, not good for farming, cold, different tribes, no one languages among people, nomad peoples following reindeer herds, remnants of the Golden Horde, Sunni/Islamic.           Late sixteenth century, Muscovy started the imperialism of the east. The expansion to the south and east.           Mining of silver.           Follow the plow and fur travel.           It was not a policy of the state, the state power followed the travelers, and not an imperial ways, but soon they learned the economic treasures.           “I found silver , we could mine, sent troops so the natives don’t rob us.” State: “ Ok, sounds good, money for us? Employer - traveler: “ Yes! Business deal.”           1660, 1/3 of all revenue: Siberian commodities the government total take in of state revenue.           Russians give taxes to State, and the colonizers tax the natives.           Some Russian historians say not a violent expansion, no conscious imperial burden. There was no discourse of empire (Really? J.K)           Economic penetration (JK)           Political elites co-opted to make the new people pay taxes.           Colonial offices were created, do not want direct traditional offices over there.           No Russification of culture, religion, or language until late 18th and early 19th century when Religion gets a little tenser.           Significance to Russia Empire: great wealth to Ural silver mines, Farm produce from Ukraine, furs in Siberia/steppe. Taxes. Ukraine area where the Cossacks flourished and U: Krai, (ne) means the borderlands. The Cossacks would flee there to escape government from all countries in the area. Form these lands that the major peasant’s uprisings occur.           Served historically as a  frontier, a place to get away, to run away from government societies, very much like people in Alaska, appreciate being far away.           Western frontiers, and lawlessness, like the western frontier communities.           Stroganov 26-27th century, such a powerful merchant family, anyone makes a discovery of a salt mine, they jump in and take (or gold/silver). Rich merchant families that make loans to the government.           Political elite do not let people leave feudalism like the west; there was no strong state and representation. Yet, to understand this, political elite were not unified, a vast land area signified difficulties in cross-communication and unification.           No serfdom on the frontier.   Some slavophiles, romanticize, get rid of western influence and will go back to morality, lets go to  Siberia the real Russia. But Russia was never part of Russia. How can one go back to something that was conquered? 1.        17th century summary: arguments: ·         A stagnates fragmented state then into an all controlling service state. ·         Muscovy a time of dynamic change and social mobility.   TWO MAIN THINGS IN 17th CENTURY New ideas, and administrator ideas, Another sig, besides the Times of Troubles, the new responsibilities of having an unofficial Empire. Ukraine, Siberia…   New west engineers, Scottish, German, Dutch, Swedes Significance: Russian imperializes lands using ‘some’ similar tactics of economic overlordship as the Mongol-Tatars previously in the 13-14th centuries. They leave native cultures in tact, coerce other tribes by psychological ‘divide and conquer’ tactics with a formula of allying with a “ best man” and create a vast fur trade network, fortresses, outposts/blockhouses, and eventually colonization. Security: Forts and blockhouses set up scattered over a vast territory were referred too as Ostrogs. There were no citadels, and were mainly protected by a stockade and towers. Building needed to begin in spring, after the rivers thawed, and finished before winter. Ostrogs were the mechanics to maintaining Russian control out in the far-off lands.  Small Ostrogs were called ostrozheks. Motive was an international need for fur, including Europeans’ who preferred it. This was economic in concept. How or why were they conquered? “The Siberian natives, politically disunited, backward, and unfamiliar with firearms, were invariably defeated whenever they dared offer open resistance to the military organization and superior military equipment of the Russians.” (Lantzeff 87).  Application of "Divide et empera."- Once an ostrog was established, the immediate problem of providing for the safety of theRussian expeditionary force was solved, and the local voevodas could proceed with subduing the natives within the vicinity of the ostrog and imposing upon them delivery of the iasak (fur tribute). (Lantzeff 89): Divide and conquer were also tactics employed by the Mongol- Tatars, but this did not mean their policy was adopted. This tactic is as old and the first book on war in China. These concepts could be liked to family disputes from all generations and areas of the world.   When the troops secured the fort, they looked to who was the leader of the local region, and if there were local fighting clans. They would place the focus of the bad guy onto one of the tribes’ and play-off the other by supporting a “best man.” This only worked insomuch as the clans remained divided, which was a problem for this region in the 16-17th centuries. In no circumstance, even with firepower, could this have taken place in the 13th century, as the steppe and eastern region clans, tribes and forces were united with big armies under powerful and charismatic leaders. The “best man” “was a great administrative convenience:’” The government sought especially to win the favor of the wealthy and influential natives. This policy was pursued from the very beginning of the Siberian occupation. Captured members of the native nobility were treated with consideration and sometimes released in the hope that they would bring their relatives and supporters to the Russian side." (Lantzeff 92): Like the Tartar’s giving the iarlyk to the princes in Russia which took the place of the Baskaki in the 14th century, here we see a similar tactic employed. This doesn’t mean that this concept was transferred. This only shows universal tactics employed by imperializing nations/states. The good will and support of the native chiefs was a weighty factor in the country, where the natives greatly outnumbered their conquerors." To win them over to the Russian side, special methods were used. Whenever a new voevoda was appointed, one of the first things he had to do was to invite the native chiefs and the "best men" from the surrounding territory to the ostrog, and to meet them in an impressive fashion, appealing to the natives' psychology. A solemn "reception" was held, with the voevoda and the serving men garbed in gala "colored dress." The chiefs passed between the ranks of serving men standing in military formation, while cannon and muskets were discharged in salute. Then the voevoda delivered a speech, emphasizing the power and benevolence of the government, enumerating the injustices from which the natives suffered, and promising, in the future, new favors and the elimination of evil practices. The procedure ended with a feast, where the natives were given an opportunity to gorge themselves with food and drink. Strong drinks were especially popular, and a petition has been preserve in which the natives complained that they were served beer instead of strong liquor. Similar feasts were held on the occasions when the chiefs arrived in town with the iasak from their volosts and were rewarded with various gifts in the form of cloth, metal tools, and brightly colored beads. (Lantzeff 93): GOVERNMENT POLICIES TOWARD THE NATIVES IN GENERAL Oaths of-loyalty and hostages The key to understanding why the Russian didn’t kill many or most of the natives was exactly the same reason the Mongol- Tartar’s have said not to kill all the people they conquered. They needed them alive to work for their economic motives. Whenever expeditions sent against the natives succeeded in their purpose, either by persuasion or by, force, the natives had to take a solemn oath of loyalty to the Russian tsar and pledge faithful fulfillment of their duties. Appeal was made to the local 'superstitions, and the supernatural agencies operating in a given tribe were invoked to bring a terrible fate and destruction upon those who broke the oath." After some experience with the natives, the Russians learned to investigate carefully whether or not the oath was a "straight" one, because the natives, counting on Russian ignorance of the local beliefs, might stage a "fake" oath which they did not consider efficacious. Another method of assuring the obedience of the natives, much more certain than by demanding the oath of loyalty, was the practice of taking hostages. The intimidated natives of the newly conquered territories were forced to hand over to the Russians their chiefs and other influential "best men."" In the subdued territories some of the chiefs who brought furs were detained at the ostrog by the Russians. The more important the hostage and the more numerous the tribe he represented, the greater was the guarantee  that the natives would fulfill their obligations. Usually the Russians kept one or two hostages from every volost. At intervals ranging from one month to a year the hostages were exchanged for new ones." When the natives came again with furs, hostages were shown to them to dispel any doubts as to their fate. The voevodas were instructed to keep hostages well guarded under lock, sometimes in irons, in order to prevent their flight or rescue by their kinsmen. Apart from these precautions, the prisoners were supposed to be well treated and fed at the government's expense. This is hardly necessary to add that the local officials often took very poor care of their charges. The hostages received bread only when they were displayed to their kinsmen. Dog food and carrion flesh were likely to be included in their diet, and there are records to show that sometimes they were starved to death." (Lantzeff 96-7). Another assurance to obedience was taking hostages, and leaving them at the Ostrogs, months at a time or up to a year, until the amount of fur was gathered and presented as tribute; then new hostages would rotate. This was a medieval practice in most economic overlord cases, including the same ethnicities enacting this ‘time’ hostage program in their own systems. This was widespread, but not universal. “The [Russian] institution was officially abolished hi 1769." [ The Tokagowa is one example of political systems that used this practice on their own people in the 17-19th centuries, albeit for different motives, still economically based, part of the sankin kotai]  (Lantzeff 97) The natives not only provided the gathering of the fur ( usually sable) but they also were redirected into other duties, such as feeding the Russians be agriculture, transportation services, and some high native officials were used to collect ‘travel taxes’ from foreign and Russian merchants traveling east and west. Some natives who couldn’t work were allowed an excuse. The most desired native was the loyal, intelligent and physically fit male natives that could be transferred to the Russian army, and some so capable became generals. Baptized natives were seen as a financial loss. They received rights as a Russian citizen. The only reason for a possible encouragement for spreading Christianity was so the soldiers could have female companionship. Otherwise, they left the tribes to their convictions. The factor of Christianity led to an attitude toward slavery when slaves were transferred to Russia from Siberia. “The Muscovite tried to suppress the acquisition of natives as kholops ( serfs or slaves) in Siberia, or their transportation to Russia. In 1599 vigorous instructions were sent to Siberia, commanding that all captured Tatars, Ostiaks, and Voguls be set free.” (Lantzeff 102). Traffic in natives was strictly forbidden and an offender could face the death penalty. Those already exported to Russia were returned to their homes. Very tricky backroom dealings in regards to slavery existed out in the field. If a native was baptized they could be slaves, so forceful baptism was an issue. The government tried to stop this in 1625, 1631-1641 but the Russian service people were too far out in the wilderness to care. This policy of slavery was a deep rooted issue away from the central government. Does this mean the central government really cared about all the ‘fur’ money coming in from Siberia? As things progressed, certain civilities developed. “the Clemency and kindness” policy. It would be hard to very difficult to force the natives to work night-and-day because they would commit communal suicide, which happened sometimes. When the natives found no escape routs or hope, they turned to killing themselves. ( this happened in America as well with the natives when being conquered). One must remember Siberia is possibly the coldest inhabited region on earth. Sometimes temperatures drop to over 60 below zero. Over time the natives could petition the Russian government, get special days-off, and have more rights. Quotas were dripped to two sables a day. Also they were allowed juridical apparatus for a price which was exploited by Russians who charged for court duties for hearing and deciding domestic disputes. Also murder from one member of a tribe or clan to another was also a court issue. Certain veovodas did not exhibit this kindness and made life impossible for the natives. Some of the records show that Russians destroyed personal property when the quotas were not met. Did the government put pressure on these veovodas to produce economic results? Were there rebellions, or attempts to overthrow the Russian Yoke? Yes, many times, and a few serious attempts. He factor was forming clan unity which was usually the problem in serious attempts. From the onset of the conquests to the east, the natives fought back, the ones that could did valiantly. Forms of protests were no paying the iasak, fleeing and migrating away from the ostrogs, and petitioning Moscow. The flight of the natives from Russian rule, especially of tribes living along the southern frontier, was a source of worry to the central government. Once the natives crossed the border and united ,with the hostile Kirghiz, Kalmucks, or Mongols they were irretrievably lost as suppliers of iasak for the treasury. Accordingly, the local officials were instructed to pursue the fugitives. When, for instance, in 1616,some Tatars fled from Tiumen, a posse was organized by the voevodas and when the runaways were overtaken, a battle took place in which several Tatars were killed. Some saved themselves by flight, but nine families were brought back.  (Lantzeff 110).  In 1612, after the natives heard there was no Tsar they tried to rebel by forming an alliance of Voguls, Tatars, and Ostiaks. The alliance was successful in taking Pelym, and tried to ally forces again, but this was the most successful operation in the first half of the seventeenth century. In 1662-1663, natives of western Siberia, including Tatars, Voguls, Bashkirs, and Ostiaks tried again to organize. They would skirmish and kill iasak collectors, and the promyshlenniks as well as rob them to gain their merchandize. In the 1640s, the Tungus and Iakuts began killing the merchants and collectors and rebellions were seen in Tungus on Enisei in 1627-1628. rebellions began with them in 1595 and again in 1607.  Tatars of Kuznetsk made trouble in 1630. In 1635 the Buriats stormed the ostrog of Bratsk and massacred its entire garrison. Throughout the seventeenth center many attempts to end the Russian Yoke occurred with many clans and many regions. “ The policy of the Muscovite government toward the Siberian natives was determined by its interests in Siberian fur.” (Lantzeff 114). Summery: In dealing with the natives, the government tried to make alliance with their uppere1ass ; even hostile chiefs were well treated  and allowed to keep their hold over their subjects, thus becoming  a part of the administration. On certain occasions the native chiefs were entertained by feasts and were given presents. Stubborn  enemies of the Russia however, were severely dealt with. As a sign of their submission, the native had to take an oath of allegiance and had to deliver hostages. Once they were subdued Russia was not interested in their Russification… nor did the government desire the extermination of the natives, indeed it exhibited a degree of anxiety over their welfare [ to make money] (Lantzeff 114). In response to oppression, the natives tried to protest to Moscow, to refuse the delivery of the iasak, to move to other lands, and, finally, to oppose the Russians with arms. Continual murders of the iasak collectors and attacks upon shipments of furs and food seriously hampered the collection of furs, and required constant military vigilance, while some of the administration. (Lantzeff 115) George V. Lantzeff, “Siberia in the Seventeenth Century: A Study of the Colonial Administration” ( Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley, 1943). Basil Dmytryshyn, ed., Medieval Russia: A Source Book, 850-1700, 3rd ed., Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1991, Section 53, “Russian Conquest and Exploitation of Siberia,” pp. 342-355 Theme: the government wanted to send special forces to suppress the people, because the frontier explores and workers needed to co-habituate with the local populations. Therefore special army forces were sent to subjugate tribes. Certain Russian troops specialized in making the natives conform to the Tsar’s wishes/ government. It was not the government trade-workers or explores’ job to take matters into their own hands if leaders of any of the tribes stated they would no-longer conform to their agreements. There were reasons why according the government.  That said, surveillance & communication ran the mechanics of conquest by the Russian government. Between 1580-1650s, the Russians took control of all northern Asia form the Urals to the Pacific. The conquest of this vast territory, rich in resources and inhabited by primitive tribes, transformed the hitherto East, European, Orthodox, Slavic Muscovite state into a huge multinational and multicultural Eurasian Russian colonial empire. (342). Russians derived four basic benefits from their new territory. The extracted great wealth form the collection of tribute imposed on native inhabitant. They utilized it as a place to exile malcontents. They made it a base from which to launch new conquests. And they took advantage of its location to establish contacts with China and Japan and North America: This comes later than the 17th century? A Report of Voevoda of Tobolsk , to the Voevoda of Pelym, Concerning Unrest Amoung the Natives, June 21, 1606. One of the mechanics of conquest was letter writing. It was needed to communicate between the government and between government officials. Here, 300 hundred insurgents in Pelym did not want to pay the tribute. Two main leaders, one named Lavkai and the other Botogo, but also others; Native leader’s subordinates were called by the Russian government ulus subjects.  Here this letter details the procedures for submission possibly constructed originally by the Russian government. (1) after find out who is the leader, make them take an oath of allegiance to the Tsar of Russia; (2) take hostages so they will return and do the government’s bidding; (3) threaten punishment, if they or the ulus steal, thieve, or do bad. Punishment can be in the form of physical, or material, that is destroying their lives. There was also non-iasak people called by the government transmontane: They had to be “pacified by military means”?(348) If they submit, they can, of course, live like they used too, but recognize they are (orphans) under the protectorship of the Russian state: now becoming an proto-Empire? The goal first was to get cheap or free labor from the eastern nomadic who knew how to hunt and supply the Russians with various pelts, furs and animal skins for a very lucrative western and south/eastern trade ( mainly western Europe). However, in the steppe, the government understood that sable and other large animals did not exist, so they tell the Russian trade-workers to find other things of value to possess. The government also doesn’t want freebooter and even explores not sanctioned to retrieve the iasak. Measure are ordered for surveillance and a head person for this region was a man named Erofei, “personally entrusted with the government assignment” (349). One of the reasons for an oversight was not to allow fear into the subjugated peoples. That is to say, that only certain people can subjugate them and they are protected with assurance by these appointees and veovoda. The idea ( see Lantzeff) was not to kill the people or make it so hard that they would flee, or in this case, they would unite and try to attack an ostrogs. Penalty for people not entrusted with collecting the iasak was severe. Erofei has many duties, one is to keep tribal warring factions to a minimum, so not to interrupt the natives duties. Also, to keep an eye out for opportunists who could pose as official iasak collectors. If he found some, he was not to take issue but to contact Moscow or by way of a government officials who would take measures to send the special forces. How could this happen? Servitors were also sent out into the frontier to build communities, mainly to build fort-like structures as an outpost for travelers, explores and possibly in the future for colonization. They could if they desired take advantage being so far away from Moscow to become imposters and collect free furs. They could also try to subjugate tribes themselves. This was a concern from Moscow. If over suppression happened did the subjugated have any recourse? Like Native Americans, Siberia had Natives in which Russians tried to win their loyalty Three Petitions to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich from Iakut Natives Protesting Inequitable and Ruinous Iasak Impositions, 1659-1664: This petition was sent one tribe to  a Bordonsk volost. Apparently. The complaint,   due to deaths in the family, or fathers that were killed, the sons had to make up for the amount of furs they would had to pay. Why, they were registered in am accounting book, like a census.  Does this mean the iasak collectors were making undo demands? Some natives could not pay their allotment of pelts per year, and they would petition the tsar (government) which was their rite. The complained this was an extra iasak payment when a family member or registered tribute payer had died between the years of the annual census-registration. In this case, the natives had to sell their meat (cows) to make up the extra funds to pay the iasak. If the natives couldn’t make the full payments, a new current assessment was drawn up, which mean they had to pay extra the next year. I’m not sure if the “past arrears” are for payments when the voevoda knew of the dead brothers and fathers or not. If they did this was surely an extra burden on the already subjugated people (351). The complaints seem to indicate dire circumstances, of the people dying off: did this really happen? Did they pay the voevoda and diaks called a pominiki as well as the iasak to the government? Was this double dipping in a lawless frontier? In another petition by the same tribe, the complaint is that the iasak collectors demanded “money (for us.”) (352). The issue was this certain group didn’t know how or wanted to hunt foxes, and the iasak collectors demanded one ruble, possibly the amount of the fox pelt in exchange for not presenting it. The tribe does say that they looked everywhere for these foxes but couldn’t find them. Taking advantage was a possibility, and when someone was so far away. But surveillance works both ways, and these petitions describe a surveillance by  tribes to inform Moscow of the  Russian workers demands possibly out of control on an already subjugated people: What did the Moscow government do? Here extinction of the group if this is kept a policy is noted at the end of the petition.   Torture was used on Serfs for Disloyalty. A Southern European Inquisition model also imposed torture methods, so the Russians are not the only ones in history using unhuman rights. Instructions from Veovoda of Iakust, Golenishchev-Kutuzov, to Prison Officials about Procedures for Guarding Prisoners, June 3, 1663.  Regulation and security issues about prisoners on the frontier: One interesting aspect, no prisoner is allowed writing materials of any king, unless they secretly get a message out. A petition can be written, but only in the presence of an official. The Sentence Imposed by the Voevoda of Iakitsk, Petr Zinovev, on the Participants in a Cossack Rebellion, July 14, 1690. Not this writing is over 80 years after the subjugation of the eastern natives had begun. Here torture was used by the Voevoda of Iakitsk to get information from the people about a conspiracy to rebel. The writing states that torture was “done in accordance with the instructions of the Great Sovereigns [ The government], the articles of the Sobornoe Ulozhenie [1649 Code of Laws]: Torture was used on children-serfs who refused to acknowledge their heritable serf family after they had run away?   This was part of the threatening portion of the retrieval of peasants debate? The accused Filip Shcherbakov and Ivan Palamoshnoi confessed under torture that they plotted to pillage gunpowder and shot in Iakutsk Petr Petrovich Zinovev; also the townsmen were accused of thievery from merchants peaceful traveling through the area: These were booty raids?  Petr Petrovich Zinovev excecuted a boiarskii, a desiatnik, others and some Cossacks that had allegedly taken part in the conspiracy: Remember they are supposed to inform Moscow first and not take action until allowed? Is written correspondence appears as a communiqué after following orders ( “in accordance with the ukaz”  and listing the people’s judgments? Some were exiled. What was the ukaz, a procedure law? The Oath of Allegiance with Russian Administered to Bratsk Native leaders, 1642-1645: Theme oath taking a ritual and importance:   A Native named Bului of the Bratsk tribe swears his allegiance to Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich and Aleksei Mikhailovich, and this also is good for his brother and tribesmen – to be loyal, eternal servitude and with no malice or treason – against Russians living near the realm “ people in the Verkholensk ostrozhek, or against agricultural settlers, in any place where the Sovereign’s servitors and Russians may be working. Also his oak pledges no war against or  killing of Russians. This oath is also a measure to get a local leader to operate as a government facilitator to bring in more natives into the Tsar’s service.  This pledge also binds him to be a protector of the iasak collectors so when they come into the realm they are not harmed by vigilantly natives. ( For more see why this was done see Lantzeff and the dangers involved) Instructions from the Voevoda of Iakutsk, Frantsbekov, to the Explorer Khabarov, Regarding His Expedition into the Land of the Daurs, 1649-1651: Theme: the frontier is dangerous. “In accordance with the Sovereign’s ukaz” (347) this was an order from the government? An expedition was sent to support voeoda & stolnik Petr Petrovich Golovin, and the pismennaia golova Enalei Bakhteiarov – seventy servitors went to assist  to subdue two princes, Lavkai and Botogo but they got lost.  Apparently they were not familiar with routs or the land: This understandable as Siberia is vast. So they ask for more supplies to get the job done. This order is for Erofei to collect volunteers servitors and promyshlenniki to explore and to do the government’s financial work. This writ then suggests a duel objective to “ collect iasak and explore new territories.” (347) they will follow the rivers Olekma and Tugur to the portage or the Shilka: There they will see if it advantageous to build a ostrozhek, then built it, and protect in for future attacks ( subduing missions) – against these two princes. In this document it is stressed not to kill the people, because the people make the government money, but to adhere to and anticipate dangerous conditions out on the frontier. After subduing, make them take the steps of oath and describe to them the allegiance procedures. A Petition from the Merchant Guselnikov to Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Protesting Excessive Regulations of the Fur Trade in Siberia, 1639. This petition protests certain voevodas who restrict this merchants movements and demand taxes, custom duties, transit fees and other things. He cites that this is contrary to the ukaz. I guess this is the Siberian statutes of conduct?  These problesm have an affect on their job performance” supposedly merchants are allowed certain liberties or are doing the Sovereign’s work too?   In ‘ another case’ to make up the dead families obligations of iasak, this supposedly moral group had to become immoral to pay the iasak. Another tribe apparently stole some their livestock, and the what remained they had to sell to another tribe to gather  funds for their share of iasak to be paid on the appointed time. Then, later they had no livestock and had to go steal it from another tribe to make enough funds to pay the tribute collectors. Bibliography: Basil Dmytryshyn, ed., Medieval Russia: A Source Book, 850-1700, 3rd ed., Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1991, Section 53, “Russian Conquest and Exploitation of Siberia,” pp. 342-355. George Vjatcheslau Lantzeff, Siberia in the Seventeenth Century: A Study of the  Colonial Administration, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1943, pp. 87-115 IX. Arenas of change in Muscovy 2.        military reform ( how can we be self sustaining?) 3.        foreign technical specialists 4.        bureaucratization -- growth of prikazy (ministries) 5.        transformation of size and role of Boyar Duma 6.        estrangement of most Duma members from real power 7.        lese majeste -- slovo I delo (word and deed -- offenses against the tsar) 8.        1649 Ulozhenie (Law Code) 9.        law as a tool of social engineering 10.     enserfment and the gentry elite 11.     exceptions to serfdom: Far North, Siberia 12.     eliminate tax-free urban districts (slobody) 13.     ban minstrels, discourage holy fools 14.     service tenure estate pomest’e; gentry service estate holder pomeshchik the “noble official”: a new social elite 15.     16 13-1645, ca. 300 men of duma rank: boyar, dvroianin, okol’nichii, dumnyl d’iak 16.     1/5 military, 1/5 administrative; 3/5 alternated between military and admin. a working service elite 17.     social unrest 18.     1648 riots in Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov (over taxes and corruption) 19.     I 650s/60s “copper coins” riots 20.     1670-71, Stenka Razin --protested enserfment, taxes, govt. authority X. Summary society simple, no middle class, no legal political elite with group rights Russia not wealthy, cash poor enserfment a drag on the economy continued traditional political concepts: “symphony of church and state” and tsar as “God’s vicegerent on earth” What is going on in Europe at this time? Beginning of Absolutism, police state, and a pan-european, gunpodower revolution(s)( china had invented Gun Powder long ago, but now it was passed on to the west.), new military tactics. More dynamic public opinion, social mobility, secular philosophy, a state as an entity, the state owes the people the good. The Ruler is the first servant of the state, people serve the state, the collective good. Peter the great was the first to articulate this thought. Very western concept. Russia: Gentry cavalry become obsolete, enserf, tax, military servitors. Military reforms, beginnings of the creation of a standing army, and this continuity of the old boyar families, seeking to restore the 16th gov standards. Tsar Michael, the gov, advisor research the wedding rites of Ivan IV, there not looking toward Europe. A reviving of the 16th century, infantry, improve muskets and cannon, builds arms factories. So developed the foreigner districts: shops, pluralistic, culturing diverse, printing press, night-life, Prikazy: gov. workers – at ministries. 2000 scribes and clerks working in the Kremlin. Work more than one job, so have more than one title in history books.  Dramatic political changes in the elite in the 17t centuryMichael Romonov wasn't concerned with change but with continuity, and this was representative in establishing traditional rule, something that brought the state some sense of stability after all the chaos of the Time of Troubles. Under his son Aleksei, things began to change.           16th : 10-30 boyars           1620s 40s boyar families           1680s 144 boyar families, no longer a personal elite, but a continued to have concentric circles. Tsar’s no Free Speech: Dignity of the Tsar, federal crimes, “Word and Deed” violate the honor of the tsar it is a grave criminal offence. No free speech, do not tell a bad joke, then go to jail. It was a federal offence. Taxes: Tax free settlements, slaves an issue, they do not pay taxes. We need more money. More rich boyar families to live high-on the hog, we need your help peasant sucker. Ulozhenie Law Code 1649           Landholders, must convert to Orthodoxy in Russia, or don’t hold land.           Everyone must observe church fasts, almost half of the colander years ( did they really observe this?)           No working on Sunday or go to jail?           No shooting firearms in the house.           Sumptuary laws, or called Blur Law, to control public behavior or public morality. The arena of public space.           Wandering Minstrels, were increasingly outlawed, cannot tax them unless they are tied to a land. Military and the Serfs: Never had enough land (Good farming lands) to give to military servitors so they had to tie down the peasants to serve on estate to serve the military servitors as payment because the government didn’t have cash to pay the servitors so the peasants get squeezed. Everyone wins but the peasants. Diversifying the careers because must keep the peasant on the down-lo. Military servitors, worked more than one job, they could be tax collectors and soldiers. This was all the way to the top. Royal of cavalry elite mentality lasted to the onset of the typewriter and machine guns, the Russian was not modern bureaucracy, the service was to the severing the tsar ( the king), not the state like the west. Hard to define: 17th century, the state was trying to flex its muscles, but the people were resisting. After Times of Troubles. 1620s: influx of technicians, cannon makers, infantry trainers. First thing on everyone’s mind was getting military technology so they would not have this to happen again? It was hard to adopt technology but not the society that created that technology. This was a factor that later on Peter the Great will deal with in forcing the Russians to borrow both technology and culture. Duma (pl. pronounced phonetically: Doom - yee)           Riots, and uprising tell us Muscovite weaknesses to control their boarders.           Further one gets away from the center, the less laws do the things.           Absolutist aspirations, but didn’t have the apparatus to run an absolute state. Truisms, relies on Byzantine, King and Church rule as one, Tsar is the representative of God. No change into Peter the Great and Catherin the Great.           No literacy, very little publishing, no policies, no wide literate, no public taking about political ideas,           No middle class, peasants enserfed, no professional class, a European thing.           Rich and Poor classes.           Resourced poor, not much cash around, not able to pay salaries, but they could steal money from them like Ivan IV.           Enserf, works but in not an efficient source of one’s peasants. Criticism here for Ivan IV’s possible autocracy, an absolutism was never a tradition. RealPolitik: Frederick of Prussia, post- Machiavellian, dominance is everything, God is downplayed, :  THE "17th CENTURY Times of Troubles and it legacies Contrasts of the 17th century: On hand the Monarchy and western innovation. 1680 Petitions cannot use the words with God and Tsar together any longer. Move away from the private Tsar, the patrimony tsar, the father tsar and into the public body, the public office of the tsar, something Ed. Keenan spoke about. Ed’ point is that Ivan IV had no public body, public office of the ruler, everything was personal, the boyars and the tsar met everyday in a small room to make decisions, to order the decisions and run the lands. Nikon Church architecture reforms, domes should be crowned and round, no more crude tents on God’ churches. 1680-90s do not prostrate on ground to the tsar any longer, the foreigners had laughed. Public sphere, manipulating the public, social welfare to get support by the people. Theater performance with stringed instruments in the Kremlin, something the church had frowned upon, now took place. Sophia. Had Plays in Kremlin, secular entertainments, Sophia even was said to write plays. The church had not allowed this previously. Move to the secular, new attitude rulers and politics, manipulated, 1660s commemorative coins to show his achievements, regent Sophia manipulated polices shamelessly. Increasing empire size: new languages and people. Foreigners living in districts: Art: 17th Century Baroque: A symmetrical, playfulness in floor plan and decorativeness. Nikon objected to this. Tremendous Irony, when he order a great church had constructed the largest tent structure in Moscow. It was attempt to copy the Holy Sepulture in Jerusalem, but it was not close. Chapter 16, “Seventeenth-Century Architecture: The ‘Moscow Baroque’,” pp. 209-225. Theme: Baroque brings new knowledge to architecture. Baroque did not disappear from Moscow when Peter turned toward western influence (224) Ivan Petrovich Zarudny: Moscow, Church of the Archangel Gabriel (‘Menshikov Tower’), 1701-7; Peter’s life long friend/advisor Prince Danilovich Menshikov ( Architect Ukrianian, Ivan Petrovich Zarudny – octagons rising from superimposed cubes: Motive tower above all: symbolic of the stature of Moscow? Baroque irregular plan appear in Moscow more frequently in the 17th cent. (209) Was this because churches were built often along busy –narrow streets?  How does Baroque exaggerate motion and impart a clear interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur? “Uneven alignment of five spires”, “Cupolas of different sizes,” “lack of correspondence…,”(209) exmp. Georgian Virgin (1628-53 built by Grigory Nikitnikov, wealthy Yaroslavl merchant, represented Baroque style. Attitudes for Brick, a major source of decoration: dif. Colors, plays of light and shade over all surfaces. (211). St. Basil, exmp. Decorative surface; 16-17th cent. Yaroslavl became -- Important shipping port at White Sea, Yaroslavl each year saw companies of English, French, and Dutuch merchants on their way to the capital. (212): merchants have wealth, they want to display their wealth to have people remember them? -- therefore – “companies vied with each other to erect sumptuous churches from 1620s onward – some 40 plus stone churches were built. (213) Sig: these were larger and more contemporary than many buildings in Moscow? “The canonical five domes”(214): this was part of Nikon’s reforms? “renounce the pyramidal or tent roof and return to the ancient Byzantine form“ (216). Didn’t care to follow the pyramidal tent roof restrictions?.” (214)  : especially in the northern areas? -- wooden church replications of Moscow stone churches? Sturdy proportions of the thick walls and towers - -Kremlin in Rostov,  1 ½ cent. After towers and Kremlin walls – no “marked Italian design.” (215): If the Italian design was followed it would have been the Russian architects who worked under many Italian architects at Moscow? Ivan III ( See Ivan III’s two western missions to Venice to find Italian builders). Dutch/Yaroslavl- colored tiles? Monastery of the New Jerusalem at Istra n/w of Moscow: Nikon’s great church? Was this part of his joint “sovereign” rule theory? Peter the Great will separate church and state/ secularizing government? Baroque: A symmetrical, playfulness in floor plan and decorativeness. Nikon objected to this. Tremendous irony, when he orders his great church he had constructed the largest tent structure in Moscow. It was attempt to copy the Holy Sepulture in Jerusalem, but it was not close.  Ukraine with Great Russia in 1667 (216) bring knowledge of the European Baroque, and w/ ideas: So the ToT can be seen not as a turning point, but 1667 can? “Patriarch’s Position as actual if not titular leader of the entire Orthodox community To prove this Nikon decided to rival the Patriarch of Jerusalem by building a replica of the must holy shrine of Christendom, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem.”: This church objective was to revise the Greek spirit of the earliest Russian architecture? After Nikon’s exile, 1666, the Tsar summoned the builders to Moscow to the government service? Moscow Baroque: St. Nicholas of the Great Cross ( Merchant, 1680-8)(p. 219) Verticalism, not new, but expressed in late 17th, cent in Moscow: What does a height of a building say about it’s peoples? Canonical cubes architecture. Bartolommeo Rastrelli ( Rococo style), Peter’s uncle, Prince Lev Kirillovich Naryshkin built intercession of the Virgin at Fili, formally a village in west Moscow. “Naryshkin Baroque” describes the late- late 17th century style ( Illustrated fundamental simplicity in church planning); Fili, five rounded side arms, central square receded, we seen this in wooden churches, the centralized the ( recalls something of the 20 log church plan), stair cases recall the ascension, more or less Russian in forms, but Baroque and western in ornamentation. Gracefulness of Fili. Rustification of facades in the Kremlin were imitated in paint in other Russian cities. ( bricks with different colors, in patterns, as if one looks up close, but from afar, it looks rustificated. (when paint fades, you re-new-it). Molding bricks to make puzzle construction to dazzle the eyes: Detail in the 17th century, there was a new taste for detail, as with icon but also in exterior work; Sculptured molded brick, make molds, and puzzle-together the brick, so if one get ups close. One can see the brick detail, a very sculptural over all effect. Appearance matters: And some had paint to liven up the façade, become quite decorative, emphasizing the structure as decorative itself. Stucco and white wash over the brick structure. Brick, embroidery patterns, and brick decorative: molds for the brick, blue prints and plans, and like a puzzle put it together. We are seeing an ornamenting; we didn’t see in the 15th century Muscovy synthesis? Why is Yaroslavl important? Yaroslavl, a wealthy Volga trade city in the 17th century, merchants vied with each other to construct the better churches, and so competition created beautiful structures, and they could employ teams to do frescos in churches, and blue color was one of the teams that left an impression in the frescos scenes. Then fresco painters decorate the insides of the church to the wishes of their patrons? How does this downplay the derogatory comments in history? claims: art in declines, seeking detail for its own sake, a mediocre artists , but we must accept artists were just responding to the wealthy patrons desires, they had to paint what they were asked too, to get paid.  Diversity of styles: Some Baroque structures would have Moorish structural themes as well. Relevance:  So the older Russian system is contrasted with the western newer system of building, and Peter sees a difference when he is growing up? What does he say about Russian traditional system? (see 222); New Latin-cross became fashionable is St. Petersburg ( Middle years of 18th cent.) Mesnshikov, last Moscow Baroque Church. (224) Will concentrate on Neva next? Chapter 18, “The Beginning of Modern Painting: Moscow, 1550-1700,” pp. 241-257: 17th century introduction. Chiaroscuro, introduced by way of Ukraine, and naturalism. Musculature, depth ( Legitimate Perspective,? No but trying, so close it is depth, none- the-less).   1680s, icons in the boarder scenes, stand out in the environments, and fine details, and silver frames, and icons were surrounded by frames – when does an icon become a picture? Introduction of Russia themes, like telling a story of a particular Russian Icon, where it was , or went, when and how it used, etc…What does Rublev think of this art? Lost was the literal angelical character of Rublev’s figures. The Dominant Strogonov art patronage , c. 1650s, were followers of the Dionisy. Also , new naturalism growing and chiaroscuro. 3 things: Metropolitan Philip opposed the brutality of Ivan IV 1568, Michael Romanov made his father patriarch in 1620 – co-tsar, Aleksei Mikhailovich, Nikon Patriarch had to submit to his rule: this was the last conflict between the Church and temporal power? Aleksei was caught between the old and new (254) and he accepted both; Michael couldn’t, he needed to establish continuity between his rule and the Rurikvichi. The Raskol, really changed things and the church never recovered the full co-rulership with the oligarchy in power?  Wealthy, and possibly autonomous, because of their financial support to the gov during the Times of Troubles, the Stogonov family had two sons that collected and painted art. They had started a school, and were significant patrons of art projects for Russia. In the Mid- sixteenth ( 17th ?) century their appeared two types of works of Art: Public, that is the propaganda of the state, and private, that is expression. During Aleksei’s reign, he have had his own portrait done, was a search for a new meaning and expression. The Stroganov’s art productions reflected the Tsar as head of the Church: Not a co-ruler or partner?  Small private Icons, produced at their schools, utilized miniature techniques, and icon began to be individually signed. This pronounced authentic patronage; miniature Icon, were tended for individual use; 12-16 inches high, personal use, and large scale icons, and mass productions, they Stroganov became to be known, get their names in the public, and mass production helped them have a chain, monopoly in personal icons. Ways to get rich. Plane background, detailed in figuring, these were beginning to be works of art, and humanists creations of the figures, some figures have some doubts, no confident. The Novgorod figures of early times were confident (Stroganov had come from Novgorod in the beginning) – things are changing now? Tsar Mikhail Feodorovich summoned artists from all around to Moscow ( Forced or/and voluntary?): this was an extension/reintroducement of Muscovy synthesis? Summery of Stroganov school and patronage: Old traditional techniques were destroyed (256): How could Rublev adjust? Archbishop Avvakum attacked westernizing painters (253): this needs clarification: He attacks representations of red-haired, fat Jesus – more Baroque style? Also sensuality: attacks ‘like this’ against the Medici in Italy were quite common, as they secretly collected and displayed in their palaces sensual (biblical) artistic and secular art works. Moscow, The Tsar’s Workshop: St. Alexy, Metropolitan of Moscow: 1640: the oriental landscape, clearly in the background? Prokopy Chirin ( mixed, old+new) worked from 1620-1642. Simon Ushakov, new style Flanders (251). Oriental landscape demonstrated that Russia was opening up to the world, at least little by little? Books, cloth, and tapestries all imported from ( all over the world) from the east. So this reflected into art too; from Persia, Italy and Spain also Russia  imported stuff-- remember they do caviar business with these states.  Ushakov, used chiaroscuro: shades of light and grey to represent a three- dimensional form on a two dimensional surface. Previously to get this three dimensional effect, added was some metal overlays to developed the three dimensional illusion. Vladimir, Mother of God, the famous icon, Ishakov redoes it, but restrains the chiaroscuro to try to get representation close to original. Icons were referenced as written in Russia not painted: That means when they speak about them, they say it was ‘written’ and do not say it was painted. “ It was written by this ‘ painter’ or this ‘painter’. We see signing of known artists of their times; was this a class to get more work by public exposure? Summery: Greater attention to detail also meant an explosion of boarderscenes, and now a Russian theme instead of a church theme was added. Ambitious Ukrainians took up residence in the Moscow places, and painted icons in the Tsar’s icon schools. They brought western techniques. 1.        Some Baroque structures would have Moorish windows and entries. 2.        Nikon had himself and his clerics painted in oil; 3.        Brick, embroidery patterns, brick decorative: molds for the brick, blue prints and plans, and like a puzzle put it together. What we are see an ornateness we didn’t see in the 15ht century Muscovy synthesis. 4.        Yaroslavl, wealthy Volga trade city in the 17thcentury, merchants vied with each other to construct the better churches, and so competition created beautiful structures, and they could employ teams to do frescos in churches, and blue color was one of the teams that left an impression in the frescos scenes. 5.        Yaroslavl, Church of the Prophet of Elijah, tent shape, a deliberate a symmetrical , not  a bi-lateral and side chapel. Brick structure 6.        And some had paint to liven up the façade, become quite decorative, emphasizing the structure as decorative itself. 7.        Stucco and white wash over the brick structure. Then fresco painters decorate the insides o the church. 8.        Detail in the 17th century, there was a new taste for detail, and icon was a composite of miniatures, a narrative. 9.        Sculptured molded brick, make molds, and puzzle-together the brick, so if one get ups close. One can see the brick detail, a very sculptural over all effect. 10.     Russtification of facades in the Kremlin were imitated in paint in other Russian cities. ( bricks with different colors, in patters if one looks up close, but from afar looks rustificated. ( when paint fades, you re-new-it) 11.     (ICONS IN CHURCHES) Monologies, a monthly reading, one for each month around the walls, this was to teach and to learn. 12.     17th century, building to show off one’s wealth and power in cites across Russia. 13.     Fili, Peter’s uncle financed, five rounded side arms, central square receded, we seen this in wooden churches, the centralized the ( recalls something of the 20 log church plan), stair cases recall the ascension, more or less Russian in forms, but Baroque and western in ornamentation. Gracefulness of Fili, 14.     17th Century introduction. Chiaroscuro, introduced by way of Ukraine, and naturalism. 15.     Musculature, depth ( Legitimate Perspective,? No but trying, so close it is depth, none- the-less)   16.     1680s, icons in the boarder scenes, stand out in the environments, and fine details, and silver frames, and icons were surrounded by frames – when does an icom become a picture? 17.     Introduction of Russia themes, like telling a story of a particular Russian Icon, where it was , or went, when and how it used, etc… 18.     Stroganov Art School, grew rich in 16-17th century -- the mines in the Urals, and a miniature Icon, were tended for individual use 12-16 inches high, personal use, and large scale icons, and mass productions, they Stroganov became to be known, get their names in the public, and mass production helped them have a chain, monopoly in personal icons. Ways to get rich. Plane background, detailed in figuring, these were beginning to be works of art, and humanists creations of the figures, some figures have some doubts, no confident. The Novgorod figures of early times were confident ( Stroganov had come from Novgorod in the beginning) 19.     We see signing of known artists of their times; was this a class to get more work by public exposure? 20.     Greater attention to detail also meant an explosion of boarderscenes, and now a Russian theme instead of a church theme was added. 21.     Ambitious Ukrainians took up residence in the Moscow places, and painted icons in the Tsar’s icon schools. 22.     Derogatory theme?, art in declines, seeking detail for its own sake, a mediocre artists , but were must accept artists were just responding to the wealthy patrons desires, they had to paint what they were asked to get paid. 23.     Oriental scenes ( background in landscapes) , books, cloth, and tapestries all imported from ( all over the world) from the east. So this comes into art too. From Persia, Italy and Spain also Russia  imported stuff. Remember they do caviar business with these people.   24.     Ushakov, used chiaroscuro. Shades of light and grey to represent a three- dimensional form on a two dimensional surface. 25.     Add the metal overlays was to developed the three dimensional illusion. 26.     Vladimir, Mother of God, the famous icon, Ishakov redoes it, but restrains the chiaroscuro to try to get representation of original close. 27.     Icons were referenced as written in Russia not painted: That means when they speak about them, they say it was ‘ written’ and do not say it was painted. “ It was written by this ‘ painter’ or this ‘ painter.’ 28.     Oil painting Tsar, Aleksei, 29.     Most important thing to remember in Russian HIstoyr is Peter’s father married again, and his second wife was the mother of Peter the Great. 30.     Peter is the son of his father’s second wife: Most important to say in THiS  Russia history class  31.     The relatives do not take kindly to the Tsar’s relatives, that is his second wife, or Peter’s mother’s family, and head roles during Ivan IV, so to escape this political climate, the Kremlin was not a safe place so they moved Peter, had a little interest in preserving Muscovite interest, he didn’t see the past and traditions, he was not there to see this tradition when he was young.  32.     During Ivan IV’s minority head rolled in the Kremlin, and the competing families due to Peter’s father second marriage this brought concern of having a young boy in an environment that could have the same consequences as Ivan IV’s boyar wars. Reinterpreting: 200-300 burial pits, famine [bubos], plague, 1550/52 wide-spread epidemic: periodic through 1560s, connected to economic crisis, compounded by Livonian War c. 1558, growth of taxes, social reorganization-land reforms, geopolitical crisis, southern threats, and western threats.(166) Livonian war, no decline in central regions: Wait till 1571? General crisis: 1570s-1590s, May 1571, Tatars burn many cites including Moscow, records lost in great fire: the Kremlin wasn’t burnt? Did this begin the great migrations? Where was the Tsar supposedly the great defender? 1573, Murom, 83% all household in Moscow districts were vacated. One means many homes were burnt to the ground and part of the 100,000 taken-off as slaves were among people living in these districts? Two problems: Northwest/ Novgorod & Pskov depopulations ( various reasons), main, persecuted by Oprichniki and Ivan IV, although, Pskov was only sacked, no wide-persecutions. Moscow central:   looked for work, many lost homes in great fire, so left southward to look for new masters, work, or wanderers.  Lower Volga, a desired region? Bread prices rose, no cultivation because no homes for the people, and policies for some  of forced migration. Rapid colonization of Volga River basin, also Kama river basin. 1570-‘90s, ecological cataclysms, famine, epidemics, Livonian war, sharp increase in exploitation of the peasants and tax growth contribute to Moscow’s instability. Sever (pages 172-187)famines in 1601-03. People sell themselves into slavery, prior, preferred: service contract slave, but it led to permanent slavery, possibly why, landlord’s interest rates (loan money, then slavery): no central gov. oversight? Or they liked this? N. Kollman, social mobility, marriage. People can move up by marrying upwards. Grigorii Kotoshikin, c. 1630, defected to Sweden 1664, wrote on Muscovite marriage-politics. Book successful, he executed for domestic crime. If women had land so why not marry them? Brides dowry, generally, icons, clothes, dowry slaves, sometimes land, and most of all rank. (177) Marriage a family affaire, marriage contracts, pledge contracts, financial implications if break it 1000-10,000 rubles: that seems high? To get out, petition the patriarch. Marriage ceremonial, bread-trays, riding horses in summer, sleds in winter, ritual: only the well off can afford? Life of Luliania Osorian 1630: Known as Tale of Luliania Lazareva, one of the first biographies, written by son. Trend, growing literature, saintly secular: not spiritual, focus on service to the poor, individuals count in people’s lives. Like a saint’s life, deny self, but focus on the ordinary. This contrasts the supernatural idealism of the middle ages?  Orthodoxy long rule: do not humanize subjects in art(istic) endeavors? Poetry individualism, did Sweden & Poland’s invasions have anything to do with this? Growing literature in individualism; Gary Marker: 3-10 % rudimentary literacy, 1-2% higher literacy. Popular culture existed in mainly oral forms? Little survived uncorrupted to us?  Life or ordinary art (197) Simon Ushakov, “ Tree of the Russian State,” 1668, Semen Spridonov, “Mircile Worker with Scenes from His life,” baroque ornament of Icon, Boris Gudonov; Portriat of V. G. Liutkin, from E,S. Ovchinnikova, real men, humanistic. These represent idealism destroyed in art works. Church remained in idealized forms? Secular work accompanied by new soul (ideas?)(202) Typical person, with average personality. Iuliania “not a remarkable person.” Because she had serfs? Theme idealization away from the church and into secular things, family, society, domestic service. Democrat Literature 17th century. Muscovite Thought and Literature: “Chancellor Language,” based upon Muscovite idiom, official documents. Gradually popular language into literature in place of bookish Slavonic – Russian (187) Ukraine joined the scene with a leading role in revival of literacy: What revival, not indicated from whence. ? Roles of literacy, the Domostroi, “ House Manager” attributed to Sylvester 1556, sixty-three didactic chapters: patriarchal, piety, severity, ritualism, muscovite society. ART: Khoromy, mansion of the rules. St. Basil built by two architects from Pskov, Barma and Posnik. Golden gate arouse in the first half of the seventeenth century (190). 1670-90 the towers in the Kremlin got roofs. Second half of the seventeenth a Baroque style enter Muscovy through Ukraine. Naryshkin,  Boyar clan supported this. Art schools: Stroganov School 1580-1630, a tsar’s icon/painting school, Procopius Chirin, Tsar Michael Romanov’s favorite icon painter who came from the Stroganov school. The tsar’s art school developed the monumental style, a reflection of western knowledge with the headman master Simon Ushakov, who showed Byzantine and western elements. Stroganov school represented the use of rich colors, bright backgrounds, minute details, like gold contours. Patronage Oruzheinaia Patata and Bogdan Khitrovo, early 16th cent. (191): built studios and shops for artists. 1650s, Frescos flourished, center in Iaroslavl, and spread to Volga; mainly Church of the Prophet Elijah, painted by Gurii Nikitin. Education: Literacy debated in Russian historiography. Kiev in Ukraine was a more open society to the west who was going through a renaissance of learning: what about Novgorod? Or saint Sergius Monastery?  Peter Moglia founded an academy in 1631. (192) 1648 Boyar Theodore Rtishchev built a monastery for leading Slavonic, Latin, Greek, rhetoric and philosophy. 1666 Simeon Polotsh established a school and offered Greek, in conjunction with a printing office. Sylvester Medvedev complied the first bibliography. Western influence: the only way to learn was from the heretics? Sir John Merrick helped to negotiate the treaty of Stolbovo between Russia and Sweden: Was he there to interpret, translate, a formulate script for the Russian officials? 18,000 estimated foreigners live in Muscovy, also in Archangel and commercial centers. Andrew Vinius, a Dutchment, organized industrial processing of iron ore and built the first modern iron works in Muscovy. Slowly Russia turned to the west. 1664 Postal service appeared, based on the western model ( Not the Mongol-Tatar model!). Tsar Theodore proposed Euoprean manners, but some radicals were against this. Russians mainly wanted western technology but not the western culture? Gregory Kotushikin, first Russian Freethinker: “ Russian Muscovite pride, deceit, isolation and ignorance.”  Reinterpreting 202…Continued.. from part I Democratic Literature. The tale about Ersha Ershovich, “the Tale about Shemiak’s Justice,” A Primer about the Naked and Poor man, […] “ Misery --  Luckless plight.” Were representing a view to a simplify of a person, a breakdown of idealization of the Middle Ages. The literature circulated among the common people, among crafts-people, petty traders, lower clergy, and even among peasants: at least if someone read these works to them, because on a small percent were literate is showed a breaking away from idealization of a person and toward everyday individualism? “The Human is not idealized.” (203): Democratic literature opposed to feudal class? Not sure what the meaning is here. A Vvakum wrote about human feelings. This was not found in Russian official chronicles. A new type of professional writer. (205) What professional writing groups? These new formulations were nothing of borrowing from texts – they show originality. Interests in autobiographies: Only if the populace could read and write? There are no dates of locals here in the book? Gary marker: Literary Rates & Texts in Muscovy. Foreign accounts such as Giles Fletcher describes the clergy literacy a little less than adequate? Marker doesn’t like to use foreign accounts (206) they paint a negative picture of Muscovy literacy. Aleksei I. Sobolevskii ( Late 19th-early 20th century,  Russian language and literature) concluded literacy defined as the ability to sign one’s name (206). Illustation page 207: the Letter ‘N’ from 1693 primer: alphabet is a start? East Bank of Ukrain ( Dnieper divide) had a printing press, as well as two in Muscovy ( Moscow). 1650s Ukraine becomes the dominate eastern Slavic publishing house – Slavic—reading population. 1651 Begins printing of Literacy instructions: printing press was destroyed earlier in Muscovy, many factors and arguments to the possibly evils? “ Surviving library invatories reinforce the idea that monastic and ecclesiastic libraries tended to keep individual copies of describe printing of breviaries and psalters in their permanent collections. (209) This doesn’t mean schools and students were a wide spread phenomenon? 1651-1707 – Primers averaged in the date press---runs comes to 6167 average, not close to the need for making a state literate, but a start? Yet, the availability in the east Slavic world (211) explains the difference. Everyday Life in Muscovy 213-222: 16th century an opening of trade with Dutch and English brings in contact with foreigners. (213) Andrei II’ich Bezobrazov (b. 1621) held various positions, by 1641/8 had become a stol’nik , third highest rank in Muscovite service society. 1690, veteran, executed, political intrigue. This is about a women’s role in her husband’s financial affairs. Also shows that a low percentage was literate. She is articulate and she shores up some unleft business for him. Muscovite Diet: this piece demonstrates literacy as well, and is all about the Muscovite Diet. Rich merchants -- live in costly palaces, live large, and Russians in general live meagerly – spend little on homes and have no wealth. Servants eat: Sometimes pork and chicken mostly, groats, beets, cabbages, cucumbers, fresh and slated fish. Moscow: thrifty with salt—so fish smell, but they like it? (216). By Moscow has excellent pastures (made over the centuries?) where lamb, veal, pork are for the wealthy, the poor spend a little on meat. They eat a lot of fish. Commoners eat mainly fish, pastries (filled with fish?) and vegetables: vegetables are good for one?  Fast days: important to the people. There are many fast days, many feast days. Pirog: pastries eaten before Lent, on Butterweek (217) it is like a pie, or more exact a fritter. Filled with minced fish/meat and onion and is baked with butter – everyone treats a guest to these?  Ikra: roe of large fish, mostly stergen or whitefish. Let is sit eight days, salt and pepper it, then chop onions, better to pour lemon juice all over it. Where does this come? From the Volga where it is salted ( Preserved?) near Astrakhan, then transported by carts? Fill barrels, some exported to Italy, where it is a delicacy, called Caviaro. Hangover remedy: cold baked lamb, cut into cubes, mixed with peppers and cucumbers – vinegar and cucumber juice. Kremlin likes according to foreigners accounts: Generally prepare food with garlic and onions. The Grand Prince’s palace in the Kremlin gives-of this odor offensive to us Germans. (217) Common drinks, Kvas, weak beer or small beer, others: mead and vodka. Every dinner must begin with vodka: not everyone is a drinker, this must have been a general statement from some specific observations? Magnates offer guest Spanish, Rhenish and French wines, various kings of mead and double vodka – they have good beer. Cellers with no roofs, ice with layers to keep things cool in the summertime. Importation of wine by way of the ports of Archangel. Many Russians prefer Vodka, do not like wine as well as the Germans: This can be explained as a predisposition, at the understanding grapes do not grow well in frigid and cool climates, so drinking potato- alcohol became a habit, and some habits become preferable? Sexuality in Muscovy: Eve Levin: courts records only evidence: hearsay not good evidence. 17th century court cases, although restricted by cannon and secular laws.(218) Compensation, must find the accused attackers, burden of proof was on the accused: What about the witness issues of proof? Rape treated as a serious offence: but why the short sentences? One case Tanka Ivanova doch’zybora [ 1695] accused three people in changing testimony -  finally admitted truth, she slept willingly with one of them. She was trying to cover up an unwanted pregnancy: this is the issue for the social sciences? How did Russia treat unwanted pregnancies?  Maybe for revenge is another issue in history? She was flogged for her perjury. What happens if one is convicted? (1) A fine and compensation for the victim;  (2) corporal punishment; (3) long prison terms were not usually handed out: This is because prisons cost a lot of resources, or money to run? (4) Prisoners usually placed on parole, and watched and often not allowed to leave locality; (5) Relatives swear poruka ( surety) for him guarantee his future conduct: this means the families becomes responsible in a community sense: This is not a western individual accountability system of thought? (6) Forbidden to marry without court consent;(7) Not allowed to leave the city. What were the courts reveling to us? Rapists are dangerous, must keep an eye on them. Drinking was involved – how much the church asked? Orthodox Church railed against intoxication as a leading cause for intensifying factor in the rape crime: What has changed in ecclesiastical thought? If the women was raped and also consumed alcohol prior she had to share in the responsibility of her victimization. According to a 1650s case, the three accused of beating the women and raping her conflicted their stories and the court could not decide so they all paid some sort of punishment. All got hot-irons, but under torture also more people were reveled. The beaten women had died , but pointed out an attacker right before she passed away – this was a serious crime. Sketchy testimony until under torture the truth came out, and the three received 10 months of imprisonment. They were soldiers, so letting them out was a factor, because solders were in need always. This case shows a high level of tolerance for violence against women. (220) Russian sources confirm that husbands beat their wives, and daughters: no limits on violence? Yes, the Domestroi, the 16th century manual on housekeeping issued a rule not to use wooden or iron ‘rods’ on wife, or beat them about the face. “ beat them in private, for a ‘great offence’ such as disobedience: this has  similar terminology to the law in the Qu’ran on wife beating? But there is no comparison? Husbands did not have to show a cause for beating a wife. She could protest in it was “evil” or endangered her life. How women fought back, run the husband’s finances into the ground: same tactics used as in Classical Greece? Honor is an issue here. It doesn’t look good to become poor, if one doesn’t have too?   If the husband had to sell himself into slavery the women could seek a divorce.  Also if he was an alcoholic were grounds for a divorce. What does this mean? Wife beating or adultery were not grounds for divorce. Another option was the women could flee: but where would she go? More specific: In Slavic society ‘ rank mattered.’ Women of lower rank had lesser rights? Riasanovsky (161-195) Michel Fedorovich, Michael Romanov, elected (16yld) as a minor: because he was not part of the political sides of the conflicts of the Times of Troubles. When took over: financial collapse, treasury depleted, social rebellions, and state collapse complete. They had to bring back a sense of normalcy? Bring back tradition? At election, remained at war with Poland , Sweden. Michael asked the zemskie sabor to stay and help him rule? “Pltonov and other have pointed to the  naturalness of this alliance of the “stable” classes of the Muscovite society with the monarchy which they had established.”(161) MR  Worked with the Boyar Duma; Saltykov employed, relatives on mother’s side. Michael’s father Metropolitan Philaret, returned from imprisonment in Poland, was made patriarch, became the most important man in the state. How to stop the Sweden part of the war:  20,000 rubles (per annum?) truce of Deulino of 1618, why Wladyslav failed to take Moscow, 1617-8. 1641 Ottomans came to dislodge Don Cossacks taking of Azov fortress by the sea, failed in siege. But under threats of repeated future attempts, Michael called for abandonment of Azov. Result: financial stability was now harder to maintain than security. Military and payments to foreign political systems take a lot of money? Attempts at new revenue: collection of arrears, new taxes, and loans, successive loans of three, sixteen, and forty thousand rubles from the Stroganovs. 1614 extraordinary levy of “the fifth money”, towns/countryside. Two occasions, “the tenth money”, but at the end of Michael’s reign financial situation remained desperate. Michael d. 1645 at the age of 48. .  Reign Alexis and Theodore: Aleksei Known as Tishaishii, “the Quietest One”, had outbursts of anger and general impulsiveness: Liked, reconstruction of the tsar’s charter. “A kind man” – Kliuchevsky. Aleksei long reign (1645-76) He saw rebellions in Novgorod and Pskov: So same problems with Ivan IV’s reign? Did these cities really not want to be a part of the Russian state? 1656, debasing silver with copper (164). Razin, a Don cossacks, freebooter, was successful in Persian raids, went up and down the Volga claiming people are liberated from Russia. From forest lands to steppes he gained emissaries who all wanted to overthrow the establishment. 1671, he was captured and turned over to Muscovite authorities. Astrakhan several months surrendered. Suppression of rebellions continue. Extension of Muscovy- Ukraine incorporated 1654. Poland Catholic overlords faced-off with Orthodox Ukrainian people, and result sided with Russia.(165) Orthodox people not favorably to Russian union, majority only bishops. Orthodox magnates helped the wealthy Orthodox Church of the people: this was a wealthy person’s decision. 1650s, Sech-Sich in Ukraine, an island in the Dnieper beyond the cataracts. A raiding post, especially against Crimean Tartars . Cossacks developed a peculiar style: military and democratic. (166) . Government, general gathering of Cossack peoples. Cossack retained contacts with Ukrainians, both ethically and religiously. 1624-38 Cossack & peasant  rebellions. Ukraine’s other option: The Ottomans? Deals: Russia gave Ukraine “some” autonomy in return for loyalty. Poland wars ended with Treaty of Andrusovo, 1667, Dnieper became the boundary. Kiev, Smolensk stayed with Russia. Ottomans/Poland, allegiances with these and Russia were Ukraine’s Times of Troubles, called “the Ruin.” Muscovite hold on left-bank of Ukraine  led to an increase in importance over time. (167)Also Aleksei’s reign included ecclesiastical reforms under Patriarch Nikon and a major split in the Russian Orthodox Church.  Nikon, claimed the church was superior, a Catholic ideology – “not” an Orthodox ideology: Gov and Church together reign as equals, in theory? He charged with papism, exhaled.  Muscovite Russia: Economics, Society, Instatutions: What form of representation of the zemskie sobory? Marxist school of historians “ The agrarian order and rural economy again serve as a key to the understanding of all economic and social relationships within the feudal economy and society of the Moscow state during the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries” – Laishchenko: feudal is a difficult term to proscribe, differing systems throughout the world?  Rye, wheat, oats, barley and millet the basic crops. Wooden and iron plows, oxen/horses provided draft power and manure served as fertilizer. Russia exports: raw material: this indicates no industrialization usually? Barshchina/corvée, quitrent/obrock, contracts 1-10 years. See Moon. St. Georges Day, can move only if not in debt. What is different? Russia serfdom coincided not with feudalism but with centralized government. Feudal is also hard to define, differing concepts. Tokugawa, cent. Gov, but feudal too. Mestnichestvo described as a system of state appointments (family ranks). Began formally in 1475 when boyars were entered into a genealogy book. Times of troubles, central gov. declined and zemskie sobor rose, evidence in the so-called election: what is really a back-room deal to elect Michael R.? prikasy- singular prikaz, 17th cent., central administrations: Foreign policy affairs, mutual supervision affairs, “overlapping” other offices: was this a bureaucracy?  Eastward expansion: 1610-40, estimate military moved 300 miles eastward southern steppes; also east to Siberia. 1639 Ivan Moskvitianin, head of small group reach Pacific. Semen Dezhnev, sailed 5 boats up Kolyma river – northeastern tip of Siberia. 17th century explorations of Kamchatka peninsula 1696 onward. Settlemtns of Nerchinsk in 1689 established a boundary between China and Russia, in Amur area. Siberian was highly profitable for the Muscovy state. (178). Lantzeff - Siberia and Church reform seen as “enlightened.” (180) : how so? Summery: great people mobilizing: Yes, but historiography gave to much class distinction to this 16-17th period? Muscovy Russia:  religion and Culture: Catholicism and Orthodoxy were really opponents- bitterly? Simon Digby To Sir John Coke: description on meeting the Grand Prince: 20-30 “great princes,” possibly means boyars and others?  Visitors notice:  grey beards silent person(s), colorful & rich costumes, lavish banquets, tremendous drinking, foreign emissaries, silver plates. Some Russian historians and Slavophiles, Russia was relative isolated than Kiev:  positive view? Peculiar and Parochial culture cited? Simple explanation, Muscovy role quickly from appanage Russia to Russian Empire. Religion and Church: The Schism: Organization of spiritual life: Church was central, soon not; textual problems, Tsar Michael’s investigation, Tsar Aleksei witnessed a religious and moral revival. When Nikon made public the textual corrections, he was turned against by celebrated Archpriest Avvakum, or Habakkuk. 1653 accused him of hearsay (183). Ritual in new collating and correction? People were set in their ways? Sing of the Cross, three fingers instead of two? To settle this dispute, and others over textual corrections Church council in 1666 and another, attended by patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, representing Constantinople and Jerusalem continued to 1667, in Moscow. Disposed Nikon, but considered his reforms. Ultimatum given. No dogmatic or doctrinal differences were involved; it was an issue to obey ecclesiastic officials. Emendations not liked by Old Ritualists, Believers: Now persecution of Old Believers (Apocalyptic views) -saw church reform the end of the world and Nikon as the antichrist. 1672-1691 estimated 20,000 Old B. burned themselves alive, 37 in known communal conflagrations. bespopovtsy vs popovtsy.  But Old Belief survived. Soon Old Believers had no priests (popovtsy) or liturgy or most sacraments.  This was opposite of the Reformation? “Well-Established” Peasants and merchants were the Old Believers, accord. to Shchapov. Fighting against the gentry domination: So this is not class warfare?  Another interp. Muscovite Old and Great Russians and New Ukrainian and White Russians. It is true that many ethnicities had entered Russian sphere since the 16th century? Argument: Nikon refused to allow local practices to remain. I can see why this would be a problem? Significance: schism allowed Peter the great more power in dealing with a weakened church(s)? Muscovite: Thought and Literature. Provisions of Russian Protectorate over Ukraine in 1654: One theme was enserfment of Polish peasants had begun by the Polish nobility, this led to flights of the peasantry and a crackdown. Where did they go? Zaporozhian Sich, established by the Dnieper Cossacks.  Theses also contained an element of fights over the western and Eastern Church doctrines were concerns for the powerful and wealthy. The peasants were more and more forced to choose. Kievan memory of Orthodoxy will play a role. Provisions not to go to the Sultan or Polish leaders and maintain relations demands of the Russians. (449) Swear allegiance. The Charter of the Zaporozhie Host, April 6, 1654: Introduced a measure not to violate the previous rights of the high-clergy, which was important because they had a different interpretation of the rituals of Christianity than in Russia. Also guarantees that lands of the inhabitants ( Kozak Estates, 449) keep their rights and to their inheritors. This was a protectorate treaty, where cooperation was the key to its success. Russia will appoint officials, and collect monies for the protection: This was a standard practice to leave things basically alone but to implement economic measures to pay for supporting troops and defenses? Here Aleksei is called “ great sovereign.” (449) : Did the Ukrainians receive the freedoms promised in the Pereyaslav treaty?  1654 Russian Tsar Aleksei (1645-’72) singed an agreement which temporarily formed the basis of Ukrainian-Russian relations with the leaders of Zaporoshie Host. On significance is Russia shored up a stronghold form strengthening position of Poland and the Ottoman Empire ( Who played off the Crimea state). Also Russia inherited a rich vital area for farming, and trade access with new peoples and new economies. In addition, inadvertently scholarship of Ukrainian led to the great schism that changed Russians religious practices till this day. Includable, new leaders, new administrations thoughts were brought into the sphere of Russia. Russia formed resolutions for protections of Ukraine from Poland and local threats. In Church matters: In 1648, Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a large Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king John II Casimir: results, partition of Ukraine between Poland and Russia. Russian gets the Left-Bank Ukraine. Why problems with Poland and Some Ukrainian’s? Catholicism/Protestantism and Orthodoxy created a real issue with the wealthy—traditionalists, and clergy: Were the people really that motivated, or were economic circumstances due to demands on choice of church affiliation an issue here?  Ukraine was part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 1569 Union of Lublin. A significant part of Ukrainian territory became into the sphere of Poland after this Union. Cultural pressure saw the upper class converted to Catholicism. Many traditional Orthodox families had cohabitated in this region for a long time with Catholics, but Poland applied pressure to the upper classes to convert to Catholicism. Rinehart and Winston, 1991, Section 53, “Russian Conquest and Exploitation of Siberia,” Medieval Russia: A Source Book, 850-1700,. ed., Basil Dmytryshyn, 3d., ed. (Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc,  ) Russian Conquest and Exploitation of Serbia: Between 1580-1650s, the Russians took control of all northern Asia form the Urals to the Pacific. The conquest of this vast territory, rich in resources and inhabited by primitive tribes, transformed the hitherto East, European, Orthodox, Slavic Muscovite state into a huge multinational and multicultural Eurasian Russian colonial empire. (342). Russians derived four basic benefits from their new territory. The extracted great wealth form the collection of tribute imposed on native inhabitant. They utilized it as a place to exile malcontents. They made it a base from which to launch new conquests. And they took advantage of its location to establish contacts with China and Japan and North America: This comes later than the 17th Century? A Report from the Veovoda of Tobolsk, to the Voevoda of Pelym, Concerning Unrest Among the Natives, June 32, 1606: Pelym insecurity and uprisings. “A Biography of Boyarina Morozova,” in Basil Dmytryshyn, ed., Medieval Russia: A Source Book, 850-1700, 3rd ed., Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1991, pp. 489-497 : Theme: pressures for change vs. continuity; protests against Rel. changes, human treatment,  new ( three-bar-cross) some of her patrimonies were taken from her. She was of the Old Believers? ( see top of page 490). Arresting then torturing people for refusing to cross themselves in the new fashion is hard to believe (see 494). Making an example for reform - dissenters or a hit piece on Russian leaders shown as inhuman tyrants? (496-8) torture episodes. If someone believes this then the Tsar and his ruling religious men were evil and sinister people. The text doesn’t mention Feodosii [name after conversion to a monk]  was a threat to the state by being an inciter for an opposition movement against the tsar? This story sounds reminiscent of the black-legends (Spanish Inquisition stories by northerners ( Dutch, English, German)? – gov. forcing people to follow a strict religious code by intimidation, to take their wealth, and the entire government is concerned only in trying to make people submit to religious rituals for profit). Notice the many passages where the tsar and his men take days and days out of their busy lives to address this minor aversion to one of Nikon’s reforms for one then three persons? Sig: Basic point was a rise in secular writings, (See Kiaser 205) some by anonymous persons. This was more likely a government protest piece similar to autonomous authors (mostly anonymous; some not)  of the 17th century Spain?   [The Tale of] Frol Skobeev, the Rogue,” in Serge A. Zenkovsky, ed. and transi., Medieval Russia’s Epics, Chronicles, and Tales, 2nd ed., New York: E.P. Dutton, pp. 474-486 Theme: Social mobility/story-telling. Contrast:  station ( Domain) in life was important in honor of the community: Here it breaks down to semblance of acceptance: possibly a rare case, none the less. Relevance: drastic change in life and mentality in the 17th century. Story: man falls for girl, then schemes, then Frol forced her against her will: raped? (477) She later started to care for him. “Never…regain my chastity.” (478). Skobeev was a poor nobleman (job: litigation solicitation) , and was not wealthy enough to offer his hand. She gave him money, but father found time to offer her daughter to  nobles in Moscow. He mortgage house to raise money to go to Moscow attempt to marry the women he loves: Coach episode funny, lovers secretly marry; He marries upwards: to a new domain?  father tells the tsar he cannot find her, tsar orders the missing daughter made public, upon death if someone is holding her hostage. It was tradition for the family to be involved in marriage of their daughter. This caused conflict with tradition? Lovchikov intervenes as promised. Send icon as blessing (this was a marriage tradition, see marriage/gifts Diss. 5) but here was for her heath? Frol and Annushka obviously do not care about their different ‘ domains.’ She being from a wealthier family and he quite poor, but still a noble. Bitter satire, picaresque-like theme comes in to play as someone can say he did all this scheming for access to Annushka’s parents money (secular writing/ As well as the comic-like satire) . Could be like a picaresque novel, absent of the boy-meets disaster upon disaster themes? Did Frol find happiness?  Chapter 16, “Seventeenth-Century Architecture: The ‘Moscow Baroque’,” pp. 209-225. Theme: Baroque brings new knowledge to architecture. Baroque did not disappear from Moscow when Peter turned toward western influence (224) Ivan Petrovich Zarudny: Moscow, Church of the Archangel Gabriel (‘Menshikov Tower’), 1701-7; Peter’s life long friend/advisor Prince Danilovich Menshikov ( Architect Ukrianian, Ivan Petrovich Zarudny – octagons rising from superimposed cubes: Motive tower above all: symbolic of the stature of Moscow? Baroque irregular plan appear in Moscow more frequently in the 17th cent. (209) Was this because churches were built often along busy –narrow streets?  How does Baroque exaggerate motion and impart a clear interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur? “Uneven alignment of five spires”, “Cupolas of different sizes,” “lack of correspondence…,”(209) exmp. Georgian Virgin (1628-53 built by Grigory Nikitnikov, wealthy Yaroslavl merchant, represented Baroque style. Attitudes for Brick, a major source of decoration: dif. Colors, plays of light and shade over all surfaces. (211). St. Basil, exmp. Decorative surface; 16-17th cent. Yaroslavl became -- Important shipping port at White Sea, Yaroslavl each year saw companies of English, French, and Dutuch merchants on their way to the capital. (212): merchants have wealth, they want to display their wealth to have people remember them? -- therefore – “companies vied with each other to erect sumptuous churches from 1620s onward – some 40 plus stone churches were built. (213) Sig: these were larger and more contemporary than many buildings in Moscow? “The canonical five domes”(214): this was part of Nikon’s reforms? “renounce the pyramidal or tent roof and return to the ancient Byzantine form“ (216). Didn’t care to follow the pyramidal tent roof restrictions?.” (214)  : especially in the northern areas? -- wooden church replications of Moscow stone churches? Sturdy proportions of the thick walls and towers - -Kremlin in Rostov,  1 ½ cent. After towers and Kremlin walls – no “marked Italian design.” (215): If the Italian design was followed it would have been the Russian architects who worked under many Italian architects at Moscow? Ivan III ( See Ivan III’s two western missions to Venice to find Italian builders). Dutch/Yaroslavl- colored tiles? Monastery of the New Jerusalem at Istra n/w of Moscow: Nikon’s great church? Was this part of his joint “sovereign” rule theory? Peter the Great will separate church and state/ secularizing government? Baroque: A symmetrical, playfulness in floor plan and decorativeness. Nikon objected to this. Tremendous irony, when he orders his great church he had constructed the largest tent structure in Moscow. It was attempt to copy the Holy Sepulture in Jerusalem, but it was not close.  Ukraine with Great Russia in 1667 (216) bring knowledge of the European Baroque, and w/ ideas: So the ToT can be seen not as a turning point, but 1667 can? “Patriarch’s Position as actual if not titular leader of the entire Orthodox community To prove this Nikon decided to rival the Patriarch of Jerusalem by building a replica of the must holy shrine of Christendom, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem.”: This church objective was to revise the Greek spirit of the earliest Russian architecture? After Nikon’s exile, 1666, the Tsar summoned the builders to Moscow to the government service? Moscow Baroque: St. Nicholas of the Great Cross ( Merchant, 1680-8)(p. 219) Verticalism, not new, but expressed in late 17th, cent in Moscow: What does a height of a building say about it’s peoples? Canonical cubes architecture. Bartolommeo Rastrelli ( Rococo style), Peter’s uncle, Prince Lev Kirillovich Naryshkin built intercession of the Virgin at Fili, formally a village in west Moscow. “Naryshkin Baroque” describes the late- late 17th century style ( Illustrated fundamental simplicity in church planning); Fili, five rounded side arms, central square receded, we seen this in wooden churches, the centralized the ( recalls something of the 20 log church plan), stair cases recall the ascension, more or less Russian in forms, but Baroque and western in ornamentation. Gracefulness of Fili. Rustification of facades in the Kremlin were imitated in paint in other Russian cities. ( bricks with different colors, in patterns, as if one looks up close, but from afar, it looks rustificated. (when paint fades, you re-new-it). Molding bricks to make puzzle construction to dazzle the eyes: Detail in the 17th century, there was a new taste for detail, as with icon but also in exterior work; Sculptured molded brick, make molds, and puzzle-together the brick, so if one get ups close. One can see the brick detail, a very sculptural over all effect. Appearance matters: And some had paint to liven up the façade, become quite decorative, emphasizing the structure as decorative itself. Stucco and white wash over the brick structure. Brick, embroidery patterns, and brick decorative: molds for the brick, blue prints and plans, and like a puzzle put it together. We are seeing an ornamenting; we didn’t see in the 15th century Muscovy synthesis? Why is Yaroslavl important? Yaroslavl, a wealthy Volga trade city in the 17th century, merchants vied with each other to construct the better churches, and so competition created beautiful structures, and they could employ teams to do frescos in churches, and blue color was one of the teams that left an impression in the frescos scenes. Then fresco painters decorate the insides of the church to the wishes of their patrons? How does this downplay the derogatory comments in history? claims: art in declines, seeking detail for its own sake, a mediocre artists , but we must accept artists were just responding to the wealthy patrons desires, they had to paint what they were asked too, to get paid.  Diversity of styles: Some Baroque structures would have Moorish structural themes as well. Relevance:  So the older Russian system is contrasted with the western newer system of building, and Peter sees a difference when he is growing up? What does he say about Russian traditional system? (see 222); New Latin-cross became fashionable is St. Petersburg ( Middle years of 18th cent.) Mesnshikov, last Moscow Baroque Church. (224) Will concentrate on Neva next? Chapter 18, “The Beginning of Modern Painting: Moscow, 1550-1700,” pp. 241-257: 17th century introduction. Chiaroscuro, introduced by way of Ukraine, and naturalism. Musculature, depth ( Legitimate Perspective,? No but trying, so close it is depth, none- the-less).   1680s, icons in the boarder scenes, stand out in the environments, and fine details, and silver frames, and icons were surrounded by frames – when does an icon become a picture? Introduction of Russia themes, like telling a story of a particular Russian Icon, where it was , or went, when and how it used, etc…What does Rublev think of this art? Lost was the literal angelical character of Rublev’s figures. The Dominant Strogonov art patronage , c. 1650s, were followers of the Dionisy. Also , new naturalism growing and chiaroscuro. 3 things: Metropolitan Philip opposed the brutality of Ivan IV 1568, Michael Romanov made his father patriarch in 1620 – co-tsar, Aleksei Mikhailovich, Nikon Patriarch had to submit to his rule: this was the last conflict between the Church and temporal power? Aleksei was caught between the old and new (254) and he accepted both; Michael couldn’t, he needed to establish continuity between his rule and the Rurikvichi. The Raskol, really changed things and the church never recovered the full co-rulership with the oligarchy in power?  Wealthy, and possibly autonomous, because of their financial support to the gov during the Times of Troubles, the Stogonov family had two sons that collected and painted art. They had started a school, and were significant patrons of art projects for Russia. In the Mid- sixteenth ( 17th ?) century their appeared two types of works of Art: Public, that is the propaganda of the state, and private, that is expression. During Aleksei’s reign, he have had his own portrait done, was a search for a new meaning and expression. The Stroganov’s art productions reflected the Tsar as head of the Church: Not a co-ruler or partner?  Small private Icons, produced at their schools, utilized miniature techniques, and icon began to be individually signed. This pronounced authentic patronage; miniature Icon, were tended for individual use; 12-16 inches high, personal use, and large scale icons, and mass productions, they Stroganov became to be known, get their names in the public, and mass production helped them have a chain, monopoly in personal icons. Ways to get rich. Plane background, detailed in figuring, these were beginning to be works of art, and humanists creations of the figures, some figures have some doubts, no confident. The Novgorod figures of early times were confident (Stroganov had come from Novgorod in the beginning) – things are changing now? Tsar Mikhail Feodorovich summoned artists from all around to Moscow ( Forced or/and voluntary?): this was an extension/reintroducement of Muscovy synthesis? Summery of Stroganov school and patronage: Old traditional techniques were destroyed (256): How could Rublev adjust? Archbishop Avvakum attacked westernizing painters (253): this needs clarification: He attacks representations of red-haired, fat Jesus – more Baroque style? Also sensuality: attacks ‘like this’ against the Medici in Italy were quite common, as they secretly collected and displayed in their palaces sensual (biblical) artistic and secular art works. Moscow, The Tsar’s Workshop: St. Alexy, Metropolitan of Moscow: 1640: the oriental landscape, clearly in the background? Prokopy Chirin ( mixed, old+new) worked from 1620-1642. Simon Ushakov, new style Flanders (251). Oriental landscape demonstrated that Russia was opening up to the world, at least little by little? Books, cloth, and tapestries all imported from ( all over the world) from the east. So this reflected into art too; from Persia, Italy and Spain also Russia  imported stuff-- remember they do caviar business with these states.  Ushakov, used chiaroscuro: shades of light and grey to represent a three- dimensional form on a two dimensional surface. Previously to get this three dimensional effect, added was some metal overlays to developed the three dimensional illusion. Vladimir, Mother of God, the famous icon, Ishakov redoes it, but restrains the chiaroscuro to try to get representation close to original. Icons were referenced as written in Russia not painted: That means when they speak about them, they say it was ‘written’ and do not say it was painted. “ It was written by this ‘ painter’ or this ‘painter’. We see signing of known artists of their times; was this a class to get more work by public exposure? Summery: Greater attention to detail also meant an explosion of boarderscenes, and now a Russian theme instead of a church theme was added. Ambitious Ukrainians took up residence in the Moscow places, and painted icons in the Tsar’s icon schools. They brought western techniques. Richard Hellie, “ Enserfment in Muscovite Russia,” in Cracraft, Major Problems, pp. 46-58: Most important reason: The privilege class had honor addiction – caste mattered. They needed to feel superior in the social scene, and increasingly in the 17th century changing demographics threatened their old tight-knitted psychological privileged community. Magnates and (noble ) Service class promoted their class as the privileged and the peasants as the “real” servitors – military, tax, agriculture and laborer. From 1620s, onward, distinction the peasants and the old rank-and-file cavalrymen collided. Pesants could form and army with guns, and so the older establishment could therefore just be government workers and landlords of a new class, the majority, of peasant economic and military backbone.  1640s-50s. Peasants migrated to rich estates, get bonded, lose freedom. Owning slaves meant for the magnates and nobility a type of honor badge, a distinction in “status –elevator in Russian social edifice.”(48) The reason for Russia’s perceived backwardness by western progressives  can be found in Article 11 of the 1649 Ulozhenie Law Code, not abolished until 1861. rationalism explains a problem with the Army and serfdom: the rationalisms: (A) Low-level agriculture;(B) shortage of people;(C) constant land expansion; (D) Constant need for funds; (E)non-rational:  lazy magnates who want to party (see reinterpreting on their wealthy lifestyle). Hellie, “one ultimate cause, not enough people” (57). Ideology of serfdom by privilege class: peasants provide the crucial services to run the state, and the privilege class parties, less work, more wealth, better living. Hellie’s summery: “… the enserfment of the peasantry was a governmental reaction to labor dislocation at times of crisis and a second-order consequence of technological change. The catalysts, or immediate causes, of this development were the civil war of the fifteenth century [peasants were free in 1500s?], Ivan IV’s Oprichnina and Livonian War [This was the migration and re-ordering of lands and peasant populations, pomest’e system?], the dynastic crisis  after the death of Ivan IV, [ What, he means his son doesn’t he?], the Smolensk War, and the civil disorders of 1648: result, caused rigidification and severe stratification of Russian society.  Simplistic view: Service-class gov. workers, ruling body and church= players/managers| peasants, serfs and slaves= workers all aspects for the state. General relevance, it was in the “interests of the magnates”, all internal and external that kept serfdom alive (some rare occasions).(57). How did the peasants fight back? For what we know, probably not even close to the whole story, Stenka Razin, created the most alarm for the Russian privileged, seen in the Razin Rebellion (1667-71, nonpayment of Cossack, and famine the spark ( not the raskol?)), 1648 civil disorders, dealing with military issues, and military men going back to the countryside with “no technical competence” (50), the Ulozhenie “ served as a watershed,” prohibited the peasants permanently from moving, with various articles in the law for ownership, retrieval and penalties for runaways, like Article 22, a children runway serfs, denying their heritage, ‘ will’ be tortured; 1653, Hellie sights zemskie sober dissolution as a key understanding the government did not need peripheral representation: this is wrong? The government did want they wanted, not listened to people? Is he trying to link Kiev with Rus(sia)? 1680s-90s Charles XI of Sweded confiscated many estates for the crown; V.V. Golitsyn, who ran Russia at this time, contemplated emulation, but not realized until Peter The Great, who deposed him. A fixed tax on peasants to create a standing army also meant the government didn’t care if they had moved from estate to estate, because they took census’ and no matter where they were they would get their money ( ref. 53). Significance: Russia tried to expand and their was little literacy, therefore no large bureaucracy could be established, no technical institutions for the populations, control of the little finances into a small number of hands --  the old establishment was content on keeping their status. Hellie’s cite of other’s significance: “ the Personalities of the leaders of Muscovy helped explain why serfdom flourished after 1649. Most of them were weak, venal individuals incapable of understanding what would really be in Russia’s best interest; or else they were strong-minded men concerned with issues other than serfdom…”(56): See Avvakum’s ‘ Describes His Struggles…’quote about the ‘40’ clergy and court persons, saying that Holy Men (of old/ Saints)  “ were stupid,” and didn’t know anything: That showed arrogance of the privilege if we trust his account here?   “…the mutual interests of the magnates and the gentry [nobility]  in the maintenance of serfdom developed to such an extent that the autocracy felt serfdom to be [ the] “twin pillar” [ along with the nobility itself] upon which the whole political and social structure was based.” (56) Enserfment in Russia developed in three or four states. During the quarter-century long civil war in the reign of Vasily II (1425-1462) selected monasteries which had grown into large economic enterprises need much manpower were granted the right by the state power to curtail the movement of their peasants to the period around St. George’s Day ( November 26): political concession in a period of labor disruption for services rendered by a particular monastery. “ It was done to gain monastery support.” The civil war began because no principle existed to decide who should be [ grand] prince, whether accession was lateral or vertical. In the past the khan had resolved such issues, but this was no longer realistic with the Tatar hegemony in its decline. The contesting sides could only fight it out. In the process Vasily II’s side gave away some peasant freedom to gain support. For reasons difficult to determine, this curtailment was applied to all peasants by the law code (Sudebnik) of 1497. After 1497 most peasants could move at only one time a year, upon payment of a small fee to the landlord. This by no means enserfed the peasants, who seem not to have protested against the minor restriction”( 46-47):  how do we know when so many scholars claim the chronicles didn’t report the truth and for the fact that only a small amount of records have come down to us from these periods? Before the Times of Troubles, there seem no recorded peasant outbreaks? During the 1570s and 1580s, the  instability resulted from the decisions of Ivan IV’s retirement and creation of the Oprichnina and military reversals with the Livonian war. Many peasants were forced to migrate with certain nobility to the south and south/east and were not allowed to leave, while others remained free, and some fled and became unknown. There seems to be no evidence in the records of the enforcement of this policy. The war caused a state problem to get more men into the military service. This meant taking them off the land and putting them into battle. A land shortage now was tied to an absence  of people being able to cultivate the land. Since many people were forced into military service naturally a forced labor service accompanied the military policy. This policy freed up people and solved the agricultural concerns for the state.  In 1581 in some areas there was a temporary measure to forbid peasants to move at all. This was called the “forbidden years.” In 1592 ( or 1539) Boris Godunov, seeking support of the influential for his bid for the throne, “promulgated a decree forbidding all peasants to move until further notice.” (47). In part this was a continual process of an economic solution.  The power of the state saw the state’s financial instability by way of peasant freedom. In the 1500s, peasants had been free to move about as they wished. Peasants that did move preferred to move to large estates and to the great boyars and the monasteries for better working conditions. Muscovy ruled by intimate family relations, and the rulers were mostly related in someway to court heritage. Only a few outsiders were allowed into the outer circles of the power of government. Decisions came from the top and the peasants had little to say about it. “The Times of Troubles had little influence on the enserfment…the confusion created peasant flight, and in 1613 The Trinity-St. Sergius Monastery and another wealthy monastery brought back the issue of the serfs, using legal means to recover now-called “fugitives.” (48) The Smolensk War (1613-1634) created a need for more taxes and peasants were the base of the Muscovy tax revenue. “Higher taxes at the center, combined with the possibility of lower rents and even complete freedom of the frontier, stimulated southward migration.” (48) The government secured the southern lands, but peasants were not settling on government lands. This deprived the army of manpower to garrison the frontiers. They didn’t have money to pay for peasants to settle in the right places. The magnates didn’t allow the government to wait for the recovery of fugitive peasants. In stead the magnates valued the migration of the peasants to their estates. During in the 1620s, the tax need created a phenomenon of peasant to slavery. Peasants could sell themselves into slavery for a period of time, from one to ten years, and even a lifetime, in which they would pay-off their debts. But with increasing demands and payments by the landlords the peasants found it impossible to pay-off their debts and became virtual slaves. During  The Smolensk War period the Muscovite state increasingly became militaristic in western ways. This period saw a gun-powder revolution, and a decrease in the bow and arrow and uselessness for traditional cavalry --  peasants in the military used handguns with much more fatal accuracy.  Mjm -Military service was the only way for the peasants to increase their lot. They fled their servicemen landlords and migrated “to join the forces on the Belgorod cherta [line], which was contributing to the obsolescence of the old cavalry against the Tatars.” (49) Since there were no middle-calls institutions, that is to say, on a wide-scale such as European-like guilds, and a middle class merchant class, the problems of a population explosion added too a groups with no technical skill, all of which complicated the social solutions. Peasants have guns, but there were not enough, even to think about it,  to overthrow the government? Any social movement became more complicated. During the seventeenth century more people were brought into the Muscovy sphere which created nervousness of the privileged class. The Pomeshchik [ service landholder] refused to go to war without a dire need communicated by the government, and they were the traditional cavalry class. The privilege class asked the government to send peasants into the military instead of them. “For the psychology security the servicemen needed to have the peasant beneath him and, if possible, under his control.” (49) “When the peasants fled, the servicemen lost not only financial support, but also the presence of degraded people under his authority who reminded him daily that he was superior. “ (49).“Enserfing the Russian Peasantry: The Ulozhenie (Chapter 11) of 1649),” in Cracrafi, Major Problems, pp. 5 8-67:  Various codes and laws of enserfment. Vary minute in detail, most of the laws are focused on the privilege class’ ownership and distribution rights. Fugitive slave recovery, court disputes over land with peasants, landless peasants, flight, migration, denial, torture, punishment for all ranks economic;  criminal codes, codes for all ranks of people, the prohibition of all movement and freedom of the serfs, and various trial regulations: How was this law seen by the Germans in the German districts?   Torture article here referenced in other section of these notes. Archpriest Avvakum Describes His Struggle for the Lord, ca. 1673,” in Cracraft, Major Problems, pp. 59-60 & 67-78:  From the Tsar, to people in Moscow, land of Dauriia, Lake Bakil, from parts of Siberia, people knew the Archprist. His writings were like a journal, or possibly compiled later to look like one. He preached Old Traditional ( after reforms of 1667) Orthodoxy, speaks of Feodosia Prokopevna Morozova, and Princes Evdokiia Prokopovna, as his spiritual daughters? Were these the same persons in “A Biography of Boyarina Morozova,”? Was the autonomous letters by him about their ordeal? Note the theme of “ two finger to three finger dispute” and his own downfall and banishment? Seems similar, no? Speaking in the Moscow section for his life, he was loved by the court and tsar, was confessor, respected, then placed in a printing house to correct books, and told to keep quite. He was a main figure in the movement of the Old Belivers. He wrote a letter to the tsar, didn’t send it, to persuade him  to go back to the Old Tradition ( This after Nikon’s reforms were approved?). He couldn’t hold his beliefs in, thought that new people coming in from Ukraine were usurping the older generations of Russian people that served their lives for the Church. He started talking again. The Tsar and court/clergy try to reform him many times, sometimes having him stay at the Pafnutev Monastery. His convictions gave him strength, and he was a proud person who couldn’t change in his ways. The Tsar’s wife was sympathetic for him. Fedor, a holy fool, also throws ‘ innovated’ books into the fire, lives with Avvakum – he is burnt to death: Did ascetics become a target? The great scene (76) he is fighting in a court chamber with about 40 people trying to get him to conform too the new system, he makes some great writing showing contrast to the times and their mentality ( that is if we can believe him). “By grace we have autocracy” : (76) He means here, and the preceding lines,  that Church and state ruled together in the past, something that he sees is vanishing now) next: the Russians and patriarchs argue back on the issue of the preceding Church: “They were stupid, our Russian saints had no understanding! They weren’t learned people – why believe them? They couldn’t even read of write!”: Terminology: OK if they couldn’t read or write then how did the chronicles come about? Who wrote them? Not the tsars or boyars? Maybe Avvakum meant to write that they couldn’t read Greek and Latin for the original versions of the bible, needless to say having access to them with the isolation ideology? J. Michael Hittle “The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia, 1600-1800” (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979): Growth: c. 1500s 96 cities, c. 1600s 170 cities, c. 1650s 226 cities in Russia. Primary growth attributed to expansion of lands. Boarder pushed to the Black Sea.1680s, concentrated cites in crescent beginning lower Dnieper River basin and adjacent upper Donets basin, running through the Oka region and on along the upper Volga area. Importance stressed on waterways and communication routs (roads). In the Pomore, the north, cities were few and far between. The size of Russia had profound impact in communication, movement and development. 17th century, two  state functions: Military-administrative, and commercial-administrative. Some combined, but most have fortresses, called detenets,  at the central focus of the city: This was like serf-lands castle structures in Europe; each city were self sufficient with agriculture and serfs ( the is peasants tied to a land). What was different form Europe? military servitors, majority of the population, were also bound by grant-ship of cities, not ownership: servitors in cities differed to region: ( P.P. Smirnov: south, 85.3 %, west, 71.2 %, east 87.3%). Servitors served not only military duty but government services.  Also churches & possibly one Cathedral if a major city to serve the needs of Orthodoxy.   Why military cities? Memory and concern for Poland and Sweden’s role during the Times of Troubles? In the south, the core of Military defense systems comprised of the Belgorodskaia cherta, a string of twenty-nine fortress-cities and defense-works, which ran from Akhtyrka on the river Vorskla to Tambov.  This was mainly set up as a defense of the Crimea threat and their overlords the Ottomans? Most of these towns established in two waves: first between 1636 and 1648, second between 1648 and 1654: However this was attentively argued during the reign of Ivan IV? Platonov cites the government’s discussion for the colonizing of the “ Wild Field” ( section between steppe and forest) and to later on established forts? Kremlin was different, it had residential areas outside the Kremlin’s walls. Courts and state post service: dvoriane and deti boiarskie, scattered through the towns, constituted only a fraction of the population: Townsmen were poor traders and crafts men in a generally poor country? (45). In most instances the posadskie liudi dominated economics(45): ( but cannot be described as wealthy? (41)) of the towns in which they lived, but it was a precarious dominance? Vulnerable to competition form without the posad and forever threatened by a plethora of constraints, regulations, and prohibitions imposed by the state: I argue that goods coming in to the country and goods going out were not sufficient for a elaborate modern state? Rural self sufficiency ruled the non-trade, by factors of great distances, lack of elaborate transportation institution, and dominated by votchina and pomest’e properties. The lack of a large population and a wide geographical landscape, coupled with no western and limited eastern trade made Russia into a non-voluntary isolationist country – mainly be the restriction to major waterways, including access to the Baltic sea, something that will come during Peter The Great’s reign? (ref. 42). “ Russia was not able to participate significantly in that great area of commerce” (42). Liashchenko: votchina based largely on peasant labor, was a powerful influence on the city industry at the end of the seventeenth century remained limited; Heavy industry’ of the seventeenth century arose and developed in the nucleus of votchina economy and to a much lesser degree – in city industry. (40). Later will come merchant capital for new funds into Russia. Peter’s wars will open up many new avenues for business, exchange, trade, mercantile opportunities?   Bulk of servitors fell into the category of sluzhilye liudi po priboru – contract servitors. Contract Servitors “often” didn’t get paid or were promised tax privileges and salary while the government reneged on both privileges: an example, fortifying the south boarders as a migration and job procurement policy. Only when foreign military threats appeared did the government show up with money. To off-set the lack of a steady income, hand-work became a lifestyle. Trade and craft  activities would became a urban tradition in an absent of bona fide trade merchants ( these were evident in Commercial-Administrations). Also rural agriculture activities accompanied the independent crafts and trade activities mostly when connected to a military-administration city or a church-administration city.  13th–14-15th Century word, found in chronicles, Posad, meant the area of a city between the walls of the Kremlin, and the outerwalls: Then general usage? (26). Urban residence: Posadskie chernye liudi, literally, “taxable people of the posad,” constituted the most numerous group? Tiaglo: state impositions that fell onto the peoples of the posad| townspeople were the largest tax contributors. Three Ranks/levels called extremes: being careful not to tempt a reader into Marx ideas of classes? Posad levels: the lower level were called the bobyli  ( called here extreme(s), because no one wants to denote differentiation of a class system at a peasant level so people who study Marx do not place his haphazard ideas into a class struggle)  These were men of few means| the third level of regular posad dwellers by the nature of their tax obligation. Whereas the regular posad dweller bore taiglo, the bobyli paid the state an obrok. This arrangement indicates that the boblyi were not considered economically sturdy enough to bear the higher burdens of taiglo. Upper level made it possible for a posad to join three privileged corporations – the gosti, the gostinaia sotnia, and the sukhonnaia sotnia. These members had state privileges. The gotsi, the most prestigious, the gotsi received tax exemptions ( emancipation from tiaglo); trading ( serfs were tied to the land);up to 1666, to obtain hereditary landed property (votchina); subordination of administrative purposes directly to the Bureau of the Great Treasury; the right to store wine at home; and the exemption from the payment of numerous customs and tariff duties. (28) Next level was the Moscow members called the gostinaia sotnia and sukhonnaia sotnia, or “hundreds.” They formed privileged corporations, though much larger than that of the gosti. In 1649, the combined membership of both hundreds totaled 274 persons… own business establishments, agents of the tsar - collection of taxes and custom duties. gotsi and hundreders referred to themselves as slaves ( kholopy): (The same in Islam,  in theory, everyone under the ruler is a slave. This was such a practice in the Ottoman empire as respect? Changing, State suburbs did not remain separate, privileged sanctuaries for long. Only exception was Moscow’s suburbs. Ivan centralized economics for his Oprichnina after 1564-5? Taxable property ( chernye sloboda). Time of Troubles the urban districts around Moscow were destroyed and the people dispersed.  Michael Romanov was content to allow foreigners to settle in whatever part of the city they wished. Thus, in 1652, Alexsei yielded to the heartfelt pleas of his countrymen and created a new foreign suburb – the Novoinozemskaia Sloboda, or Novaia Nemetskaia Sloboda as it was known in popular parlance. (31) They were under watch by the government prikazy. The foreign suburbs were managed by the foreigners:Property Relations in the City: Russian property relations were different from European property relations: at this time, in the early European middle ages the comparative is roughly the same? votchina, before  The pomest’e system. There was no private property meaning ownership? Land was divided up into four separate categories of land grantship: The first two had tax exemptions:  most prominent was the  communal grant possessions, here Contract servitor(s); second, the personal grant possessions, pomest’e,  subject for specific use, The next two categories paid taxes: conditional landholding by the posad commune (posadskii mir) of the taxable (chernye);. The fourth category was the conditional urban landholding, purpose of establishing some kind of business activity. The votchiniki, were powerful private properties, both secular and clerical. The clerical private properties belonged to the church. The secular private properties ( cities called goroda) belonged to influential commercial families and manufacturer posady. George V. Lantzeff, “Siberia in the Seventeenth Century: A Study of the Colonial Administration” ( Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley, 1943). Significance: Russian imperializes lands using ‘some’ similar tactics of economic overlordship as the Mongol-Tatars previously in the 13-14th centuries. They leave native cultures in tact, coerce other tribes by psychological ‘divide and conquer’ tactics with a formula of allying with a “ best man” and create a vast fur trade network, fortresses, outposts/blockhouses, and eventually colonization. Security: Forts and blockhouses ,scattered called Ostrogs. mainly  a stockade and towers. Building needed to begin in spring, after the rivers thawed, and finished before winter. Ostrogs were the mechanics to maintaining Russian control out in the far-off lands.  Small Ostrogs were called ostrozheks. Motive was an international need for fur, including Europeans’ who preferred it? This was economic in concept. How or why were they conquered? Natives politically disunited, backward, and unfamiliar with firearms, (87).  Application of "Divide et empera."- Once an ostrog was established, delivery of the iasak (fur tribute). (89): Divide and conquer were also tactics employed by the Mongol- Tatars, but this did not mean their policy was adopted?  The government sought especially to win the favor of the wealthy and influential natives. (92): Like the Tartar’s giving the iarlyk to the princes in Russia which took the place of the Baskaki in the 14th century? Voevoda first thing after Ostrog built, and subdued, invite “best Man” have a party, dress up, “A solemn "reception" | rewarded with various gifts (93). The key to understanding why the Russian didn’t kill many or most of the natives was exactly the same reason the Mongol- Tartar’s have said not to kill all the people they conquered. They needed them alive to work for their economic motives? Assuring the obedience of the natives  - Oaths of-loyalty and hostages: Usually the Russians kept one or two hostages from every volost. At intervals ranging from one month to a year the hostages were exchanged for new ones." (96-7) the prisoners were supposed to be well treated and fed at the government's expense. (96-7): Hardly happened? Too far from Moscow, same happened in America with Spanish. Charles II orderd specific instruction, hardly anyone adhered too it. Hostage programs abolished 1769. Slaves returned to their homes, both from Russia proper and Siberia. Christianity uproar? The natives not only provided the gathering of the fur ( usually sable) but they also were redirected into other duties. Christianity led to an attitude toward slavery. In 1599 vigorous instructions were sent to Siberia, commanding that all captured Tatars, Ostiaks, and Voguls be set free.” (102), death penalty: who was put to death?  The government tried to stop this in 1625, 1631-1641 but the Russian service people were too far out in the wilderness to care. Does this mean the central government really cared about all the ‘fur’ money coming in from Siberia? As things progressed, certain civilities developed. “the Clemency and kindness” policy. Why? commit communal suicide, flee, Russian lost potential free workers? Quotas were dripped to two sables a day. Also they were allowed juridical apparatus: But exploited with charges and fees?  Certain veovodas did not exhibit this kindness and made life impossible for the natives. Some of the records show that Russians destroyed personal property. attempts to overthrow the Russian Yoke began immediately? Yes, many times, and a few serious attempts. factor was forming clan unity which was usually the problem in serious attempts. Forms of protests were no paying the iasak, fleeing and migrating away from the ostrogs, and petitioning Moscow. (105- 110) In 1612, no Tsar, alliance of Voguls, Tatars, and Ostiaks. The alliance was successful in taking Pelym, most successful operation| In 1662-1663, Tatars, Voguls, Bashkirs, and Ostiaks tried again to organize. They would skirmish and kill iasak collectors, and the promyshlenniks as well as rob them to gain their merchandize. In the 1640s, the Tungus and Iakuts began killing the merchants and collectors and rebellions were seen in Tungus on Enisei in 1627-1628. rebellions began with them in 1595, 1607.  Tatars of Kuznetsk made trouble in 1630. In 1635 the Buriats stormed the ostrog of Bratsk and massacred its entire garrison. Throughout the seventeenth center many attempts to end the Russian Yoke occurred with many clans and many regions. “ The policy of the Muscovite government toward the Siberian natives was determined by its interests in Siberian fur.” (Lantzeff 114). Summery: subdued Russia was not interested in their Russification. required constant military vigilance.David Moon, The Russian Peasantry, 1600-1930: The World the Peasants Made, London & New York: Longman, 1999, pp. 66-106 Ch. 3 Exploitation: Ruling groups exploit peasants, according to R.E.F. Smith and Rodney Hilton: Serfdom developed in Russian beginning in the 16th century and early 17th century and lasted to 1861. Large number of peasants lived on Church lands, state lands, and the tsar’s family  ( and court) lands.  Landlords exploited the peasants. The state obliged all peasants to pay taxes and sent recruits to the army. Difference in peasants from serfs:  Serfs (seigniorial peasants)  were a type of peasants who were bound to a specific landlord were subject to his jurisdiction and laws. Their families passed their servile status to their children. They often went into debt and couldn’t emerge from this. Peasants that were not serfs, free tenant farmers and they lasted until the mid-sixteenth century; they  had the right to move around and could find new owners. This law became coded in 1497 and 1550, but it was limited to two weeks a year at the end of an agricultural season, and sometimes special holidays. In 1649, this changed and peasants were no longer allowed to change owners. They became permanently liable to be returned if they fled under the law code Sobornoe ulozhenie.  By the eighteenth century the serfs were allowed to move and were deemed domestic serfs, and they were purchased as property by different landowners. The distinction between serf and slave was serfs were considered to be citizens of the Russian state and the slaves were considered owned by private individuals as personal property (67): Did this really matter in significance? Slavery in Russia had a long history until 1723. Why change, slaves could not be charged taxes? In 1679, agricultural slaves became liable to household tax. By 1723, all slaves were added to a poll tax census making slaves liable to taxes (98): Did this make them peasants? Yes, no longer was the term slave used? Serfs and slaves is a sketchy differentiation? Sixteen Century Origins. Once Russia began to imperialize the issue were not land but the control over the peasants to till the soil. The fights of the rich against the poor caused the poor to become indebted to the rich and the rich said now I own you, even with a ideology that the state owned the peasants.  Klyuchevskii, writing in 1880, he argued that landlords deliberately played this role of enserfer, and took advantage of the peasant’s indebtedness. If a peasant was given a tool to use, he or she was charge, and so forth with commodities, food and privileges? 1882 documents found suggest the peasants’ right of movement was temporarily prohibited in some areas starting in the 1580s. This was called the “ forbidden years.” But V.I. Korestkii, birch bark to a decree of 1592/93 banning peasant movement altogether. Law code of 1550, move once a year--1649 peasants did not have this option . According to this interpretation, the Russian state took a series of steps to bind peasants to the land at times of crisis in order to ensure the loyalty of the gentry cavalrymen(pomeshchiki,) As the gentry's grants of land were worthless without people to cultivate them, the state enacted a series of measures to bind peasants to their land. (Moon 68)Different methods: Some wealthy landowners kidnapped peasants as the need to service land became an issue. Others offered peasants incentives, such as less required duties? Why not allowing them to move around? So that peasants could not form unions with other peasants? Some wealthy landowners kidnapped peasants as the need to service land became an issue. Others offered peasants incentives, such as less required duties. By the early eighteenth century, Russian peasantry into categories according to land they lived on. The main categories were: seigniorial (pomeshchich'i) peasants, or 'serfs', who lived on the estates of nobles; state (kazennye, gosudarstvennye) peasants, whose land was state property; church (tserkovnye, ekonomicheskie) peasants, who lived on lands belonging to the Russian Orthodox Church; and the smaller numbers whose landowners were members of the tsar's family, known as court (dvortsovye) peasants until 1797, and thereafter as appanage (udel'nye) peasants. (Moon 69) Serfdom also developed on the right-bank of the Ukraine, Belorussia, Lithuania and the Baltic provinces of Estonia, Livonia and Kurland, which were annexed by Russia in the eighteenth century. Landlords held their estates as demesne for their own production. Labor service were more common in the fertile black, main economic activity (Moon 70-1). V.I. Semevskii form the “General Land Survey” cited 74 per cent of peasants in the fertile black area were serfs who worked labor services and  26 per cent paid dues. By the 1850s, serfs were doing both, a “mixed obligation.” (Moon 71)  Obrok (pay dues) or Barshchina (Labor service): In the empires western borderlands ( especially Ukraine, Belorussia and Lithuania) performed labour services. (Moon 71)  Nineteenth century seigniorial pesansts’ labor was higher still. (72) 1760s General Land Survey cited a norm of 1.5 desyatiny in the Central Black Earth region;The system known as the mesyachina, was rare, in the mid-nineteenth century. Now Obrok, had differentiating levels ( rates) in nominal monetary terms, which also increased over time.  Tsar’s frequently devalued currency to pay for their wars, and this became periods of depreciation and inflation. Landlords needed cash more and more. Dues(obrok): levels Impact on cash in wars, devaluation ( see 74) There was a difference between what landlords [ officially ] demanded and what they received. ( Moon 76)…end of Peter The Great’s reign, obrok rates did rise consistently. Generally in the last century landlords  extracted from one-third of the peasants’ income in dues. a proportion of the peasants were domestic serfs (dvorovye lyudi); obrok became more complicated in levels depending on prosperity, but still this was subject to the ability to pay; Peter secularized the church and the peasants in 1672. this meant that all the peasants’ obligations to their former ecclesiastical landowners were commuted to a flat-rate obrok of 1 rouble per male soul, to be paid to the state.” (Moon 79) Here Peter was in need for cash? Catherin the Great (r. 1762-98) cancelled this decree in 1768. Court peasants renamed appanage (udel’nye) peasants in 1797, were treated differently; privilege of being unshaven.  (Moon 80). Ways to gain cash?  Poll taxes were in effect in some areas or some levels of the population and was long lasting measure. What did many serfs do under Peter’s reign? Most became servicemen in Peter’s military state; retired soldiers were legally classified as ‘raznochintsy.’ Peasants were also obliged for upkeep of their parish churches and local surroundings. (Moon 86) All these measures increased the burdens 19th cent. Exploitation was the highest in the central regions; the Russian Empire consolidated its position as a major European power, with its large and expensive armed forces, which were manned and paid for mostly by the peasants. (Moon 88) Dues(obrok): levels ideology of “ Little Father.” The tsar treated his serfs as his children and he was the paternal father.   There were also landless labor peasants called bobyli, 1860s, the vast majority of Russian peasants had access to land to cultivate. (Moon 93)In Ukraine, and other parts of Europe laborers wandered: Is this an argument that serfdom is preferred over freedom?  Tsars did give out rations during the bad harvest years and reduced taxes in those years. Some rich landlords also were benevolent. But if not the state guided the landlords to be less severe during the hardship years. You did not want your workforce to die-off? The state tried to place the burden of this benevolence on the rich magnates who had to be repeatedly told to loosen up overbearing measures against the peasants. Welfare thought: In 1822 and 1834 the state forced the landowners to share responsibilities for famine relief.  (Moon 95)"Reinterpreting Russian History: Readings", 860-1860s. ed. Daniel H. Kiaser Gary Marker (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994). 200-300 burial pits, famine [bubos], plague, 1550/52 wide-spread epidemic: periodic through 1560s, connected to economic crisis, compounded by Livonian War c. 1558, growth of taxes, social reorganization-land reforms, geopolitical crisis, southern threats, and western threats.(166) Livonian war, no decline in central regions: Wait till 1571? General crisis: 1570s-1590s, May 1571, Tatars burn many cites including Moscow, records lost in great fire: the Kremlin wasn’t burnt? Did this begin the great migrations? Where was the Tsar supposedly the great defender? 1573, Murom, 83% all household in Moscow districts were vacated. One means many homes were burnt to the ground and part of the 100,000 taken-off as slaves were among people living in these districts? Two problems: Northwest/ Novgorod & Pskov depopulations ( various reasons), main, persecuted by Oprichniki and Ivan IV, although, Pskov was only sacked, no wide-persecutions. Moscow central:   looked for work, many lost homes in great fire, so left southward to look for new masters, work, or wanderers.  Lower Volga, a desired region? Bread prices rose, no cultivation because no homes for the people, and policies for some  of forced migration. Rapid colonization of Volga River basin, also Kama river basin. 1570-‘90s, ecological cataclysms, famine, epidemics, Livonian war, sharp increase in exploitation of the peasants and tax growth contribute to Moscow’s instability. Sever (pages 172-187)famines in 1601-03. People sell themselves into slavery, prior, preferred: service contract slave, but it led to permanent slavery, possibly why, landlord’s interest rates(loan money, then slavery): no central gov. oversight? Or they liked this? N. Kollman, social mobility, marriage. People can move up by marrying upwards. Grigorii Kotoshikin, c. 1630, defected to Sweden 1664, wrote on Muscovite marriage-politics. Book successful, he executed for domestic crime. If women had land so why not marry them? Brides dowry, generally, icons, clothes, dowry slaves, sometimes land, and most of all rank. (177) Marriage a family affaire, marriage contracts, pledge contracts, financial implications if break it 1000-10,000 rubles: that seems high? To get out, petition the patriarch. Marriage ceremonial, bread-trays, riding horses in summer, sleds in winter, ritual: only the well off can afford? Life of Luliania Osorian 1630: Known as Tale of Luliania Lazareva, one of the first biographies, written by son. Trend, growing literature, saintly secular: not spiritual, focus on service to the poor, individuals count in people’s lives. Like a saint’s life, deny self, but focus on the ordinary. This contrasts the supernatural idealism of the middle ages?  Orthodoxy long rule: do not humanize subjects in art(istic) endeavors? Poetry individualism, did Sweden & Poland’s invasions have anything to do with this? Growing literature in individualism; Gary Marker: 3-10 % rudimentary literacy, 1-2% higher literacy. Popular culture existed in mainly oral forms? Little survived uncorrupted to us?  Life or ordinary art (197) Simon Ushakov, “ Tree of the Russian State,” 1668, Semen Spridonov, “Mircile Worker with Scenes from His life,” baroque ornament of Icon, Boris Gudonov; Portriat of V. G. Liutkin, from E,S. Ovchinnikova, real men, humanistic. These represent idealism destroyed in art works. Church remained in idealized forms? Secular work accompanied by new soul (ideas?)(202) Typical person, with average personality. Iuliania “not a remarkable person.” Because she had serfs? Theme idealization away from the church and into secular things, family, society, domestic service. Democrat Literature 17th cent. Muscovite Thought and Literature: “Chancellor Language,” based upon Muscovite idiom, official documents. Gradually popular language into literature in place of bookish Slavonic – Russian (187) Ukraine joined the scene with a leading role in revival of literacy: What revival, not indicated from whence. ? Roles of literacy, the Domostroi, “ House Manager” attributed to Sylvester 1556, sixty-three didactic chapters: patriarchal, piety, severity, ritualism, muscovite society. St. Basil built by two architects from Pskov, Second half of the seventeenth a Baroque style enter Muscovy through Ukraine. Naryshkin,  Boyar clan supported this. Art schools: Stroganov School 1580-1630, a tsar’s icon/painting school, Procopius Chirin, Tsar Michael Romanov’s favorite icon painter who came from the Stroganov school. The tsar’s art school developed the monumental style, a reflection of western knowledge with the headman master Simon Ushakov, who showed Byzantine and western elements. Stroganov school represented the use of rich colors, bright backgrounds, minute details, like gold contours. Patronage Oruzheinaia Patata and Bogdan Khitrovo, early 16th cent. (191): built studios and shops for artists. 1650s, Frescos flourished, center in Iaroslavl, and spread to Volga; mainly Church of the Prophet Elijah, painted by Gurii Nikitin. Education: Literacy debated in Russian historiography. Kiev in Ukraine was a more open society to the west who was going through a renaissance of learning: what about Novgorod? Or saint Sergius Monastery?  Peter Moglia founded an academy in 1631. (192) 1648 Boyar Theodore Rtishchev built a monastery for leading Slavonic, Latin, Greek, rhetoric and philosophy. 1666 Simeon Polotsh established a school and offered Greek, in conjunction with a printing office. Sylvester Medvedev first bibliography. Western influence: Andrew Vinius, a Dutchment, built the first modern iron works;1664 Postal service: Not the Mongol-Tatar model? Tsar Theodore proposed Euoprean manners, Gregory Kotushikin, first Russian Freethinker: “ Russian Muscovite pride, deceit, isolation and ignorance.”  Democratic Literature. The tale about Ersha Ershovich, “the Tale about Shemiak’s Justice,” A Primer about the Naked and Poor man, […] “ Misery --  Luckless plight.” Were representing a view to a simplify of a person, a breakdown of idealization of the Middle Ages. The literature circulated among the common people, among crafts-people, petty traders, lower clergy, and even among peasants: at least if someone read these works to them, because on a small percent were literate is showed a breaking away from idealization of a person and toward everyday individualism? “The Human is not idealized.” (203): Democratic literature opposed to feudal class? Not sure what the meaning is here. A Vvakum wrote about human feelings. This was not found in Russian official chronicles. A new type of professional writer. (205) What professional writing groups? These new formulations were nothing of borrowing from texts – they show originality. Interests in autobiographies: Only if the populace could read and write? There are no dates of locals here in the book? Gary marker: Literary Rates & Texts in Muscovy. Foreign accounts such as Giles Fletcher describes the clergy literacy a little less than adequate? Marker doesn’t like to use foreign accounts (206) they paint a negative picture of Muscovy literacy. Aleksei I. Sobolevskii ( Late 19th-early 20th century,  Russian language and literature) concluded literacy defined as the ability to sign one’s name (206). Illustation page 207: the Letter ‘N’ from 1693 primer: alphabet is a start? East Bank of Ukrain ( Dnieper divide) had a printing press, as well as two in Muscovy ( Moscow). 1650s Ukraine becomes the dominate eastern Slavic publishing house – Slavic—reading population. 1651 Begins printing of Literacy instructions: printing press was destroyed earlier in Muscovy, many factors and arguments to the possibly evils? “ Surviving library invatories reinforce the idea that monastic and ecclesiastic libraries tended to keep individual copies of describe printing of breviaries and psalters in their permanent collections. (209) This doesn’t mean schools and students were a wide spread phenomenon? 1651-1707 – Primers averaged in the date press---runs comes to 6167 average, not close to the need for making a state literate, but a start? Yet, the availability in the east Slavic world (211) explains the difference. Everyday Life in Muscovy 213-222: 16th century an opening of trade with Dutch and English brings in contact with foreigners. (213) Andrei II’ich Bezobrazov (b. 1621) held various positions, by 1641/8 had become a stol’nik , third highest rank in Muscovite service society. 1690, veteran, executed, political intrigue. This is about a women’s role in her husband’s financial affairs. Also shows that a low percentage was literate. She is articulate and she shores up some unleft business for him. Muscovite Diet: this piece demonstrates literacy as well, and is all about the Muscovite Diet. Rich merchants -- live in costly palaces, live large, and Russians in general live meagerly –Fast days: important to the people. Pirog: pastries eaten before Lent, on Butterweek (217) it is like a pie, or more exact a fritter. Ikra: roe of large fish, Where does this come? From the Volga where it is salted ( Preserved?) near Astrakhan, then transported by carts? Fill barrels, some exported to Italy, where it is a delicacy, called Caviaro. Hangover remedy: cold baked lamb, Garilc and onions, odor offensive to us Germans. (217) Common drinks, Kvas, weak beer or small beer, others: mead and vodka. Every dinner must begin with vodka: Importation of wine by way of the ports of Archangel. Sexuality in Muscovy: Eve Levin: courts records only evidence: hearsay not good evidence. 17th century court cases, although restricted by cannon and secular laws.(218) Compensation, must find the accused attackers, burden of proof was on the accused: What about the witness issues of proof? Rape treated as a serious offence: but why the short sentences? One case Tanka Ivanova doch’zybora [1695] accused three people in changing testimony -  finally admitted truth, she slept willingly with one of them. She was trying to cover up an unwanted pregnancy: this is the issue for the social sciences? How did Russia treat unwanted pregnancies?  Maybe for revenge is another issue in history? She was flogged for her perjury. What happens if one is convicted? (1) A fine and compensation for the victim;  (2) corporal punishment; (3) long prison terms were not usually handed out: This is because prisons cost a lot of resources, or money to run? (4) Prisoners usually placed on parole, and watched and often not allowed to leave locality; (5) Relatives swear poruka ( surety) for him guarantee his future conduct: this means the families becomes responsible in a community sense: This is not a western individual accountability system of thought? (6) Forbidden to marry without court consent;(7) Not allowed to leave the city. What were the courts reveling to us? Rapists are dangerous, must keep an eye on them. Drinking was involved – how much the church asked? Orthodox Church railed against intoxication as a leading cause for intensifying factor in the rape crime: What has changed in ecclesiastical thought? If the women was raped and also consumed alcohol prior she had to share in the responsibility of her victimization. According to a 1650s case, the three accused of beating the women and raping her conflicted their stories and the court could not decide so they all paid some sort of punishment. All got hot-irons, but under torture also more people were reveled. The beaten women had died , but pointed out an attacker right before she passed away – this was a serious crime. Sketchy testimony until under torture the truth came out, and the three received 10 months of imprisonment. They were soldiers, so letting them out was a factor, because solders were in need always. This case shows a high level of tolerance for violence against women. (220) Russian sources confirm that husbands beat their wives, and daughters: no limits on violence? Yes, the Domestroi, the 16th century manual on housekeeping issued a rule not to use wooden or iron ‘rods’ on wife, or beat them about the face. “ beat them in private, for a ‘great offence’ such as disobedience: this has  similar terminology to the law in the Qu’ran on wife beating? But there is no comparison? Husbands did not have to show a cause for beating a wife. She could protest in it was “evil” or endangered her life. How women fought back, run the husband’s finances into the ground: same tactics used as in Classical Greece? Honor is an issue here. It doesn’t look good to become poor, if one doesn’t have too?   If the husband had to sell himself into slavery the women could seek a divorce.  Also if he was an alcoholic were grounds for a divorce. What does this mean? Wife beating or adultery were not grounds for divorce. Another option was the women could flee: but where would she go? More specific: In Slavic society ‘ rank mattered.’ Women of lower rank had lesser rights? Riasanovsky & Steinberg, History of Russia, vol. I, pp. 161-195. Michel Fedorovich, Michael Romanov, elected (16yld) as a minor: because he was not part of the political sides of the conflicts of the Times of Troubles. When took over: financial collapse, treasury depleted, social rebellions, and state collapse complete. They had to bring back a sense of normalcy? Bring back tradition? At election, remained at war with Poland , Sweden. Michael asked the zemskie sabor to stay and help him rule? “Pltonov and other have pointed to the  naturalness of this alliance of the “stable” classes of the Muscovite society with the monarchy which they had established.”(161) MR  Worked with the Boyar Duma; Saltykov employed, relatives on mother’s side. Michael’s father Metropolitan Philaret, returned from imprisonment in Poland, was made patriarch, became the most important man in the state. How to stop the Sweden part of the war:  20,000 rubles (per annum?) truce of Deulino of 1618, why Wladyslav failed to take Moscow, 1617-8. 1641 Ottomans came to dislodge Don Cossacks taking of Azov fortress by the sea, failed in siege. But under threats of repeated future attempts, Michael called for abandonment of Azov. Result: financial stability was now harder to maintain than security. Military and payments to foreign political systems take a lot of money? Attempts at new revenue: collection of arrears, new taxes, and loans, successive loans of three, sixteen, and forty thousand rubles from the Stroganovs. 1614 extraordinary levy of “the fifth money”, towns/countryside. Two occasions, “the tenth money”, but at the end of Michael’s reign financial situation remained desperate. Michael d. 1645 at the age of 48. .  Reign Alexis and Theodore: Aleksei Known as Tishaishii, “the Quietest One”, had outbursts of anger and general impulsiveness: Liked, reconstruction of the tsar’s charter. “A kind man” – Kliuchevsky. Aleksei long reign (1645-76) He saw rebellions in Novgorod and Pskov: So same problems with Ivan IV’s reign? Did these cities really not want to be a part of the Russian state? 1656, debasing silver with copper (164). Razin, a Don cossacks, freebooter, was successful in Persian raids, went up and down the Volga claiming people are liberated from Russia. From forest lands to steppes he gained emissaries who all wanted to overthrow the establishment. 1671, he was captured and turned over to Muscovite authorities. Astrakhan several months surrendered. Suppression of rebellions continue. Extension of Muscovy- Ukraine incorporated 1654. Poland Catholic overlords faced-off with Orthodox Ukrainian people, and result sided with Russia.(165) Orthodox people not favorably to Russian union, majority only bishops. Orthodox magnates helped the wealthy Orthodox Church of the people: this was a wealthy person’s decision. 1650s, Sech-Sich in Ukraine, an island in the Dnieper beyond the cataracts. A raiding post, especially against Crimean Tartars . Cossacks developed a peculiar style: military and democratic. (166) . Government, general gathering of Cossack peoples. Cossack retained contacts with Ukrainians, both ethically and religiously. 1624-38 Cossack & peasant  rebellions. Ukraine’s other option: The Ottomans? Deals: Russia gave Ukraine “some” autonomy in return for loyalty. Poland wars ended with Treaty of Andrusovo, 1667, Dnieper became the boundary. Kiev, Smolensk stayed with Russia. Ottomans/Poland, allegiances with these and Russia were Ukraine’s Times of Troubles, called “the Ruin.” Muscovite hold on left-bank of Ukraine  led to an increase in importance over time. (167)Also Aleksei’s reign included ecclesiastical reforms under Patriarch Nikon and a major split in the Russian Orthodox Church.  Nikon, claimed the church was superior, a Catholic ideology – “not” an Orthodox ideology: Gov and Church together reign as equals, in theory? He charged with papism, exhaled.  Muscovite Russia: Economics, Society, Institutions: What form of representation of the zemskie sobory? Marxist school of historians “ The agrarian order and rural economy again serve as a key to the understanding of all economic and social relationships within the feudal economy and society of the Moscow state during the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries” – Laishchenko: feudal is a difficult term to proscribe, differing systems throughout the world?  Rye, wheat, oats, barley and millet the basic crops. Wooden and iron plows, oxen/horses provided draft power and manure served as fertilizer. Russia exports: raw material: this indicates no industrialization usually? Barshchina/corvée, quitrent/obrock, contracts 1-10 years. See Moon. St. Georges Day, can move only if not in debt. What is different? Russia serfdom coincided not with feudalism but with centralized government. Feudal is also hard to define, differing concepts. Tokugawa, cent. Gov, but feudal too. Mestnichestvo described as a system of state appointments (family ranks). Began formally in 1475 when boyars were entered into a genealogy book. Times of troubles, central gov. declined and zemskie sobor rose, evidence in the so-called election: what is really a back-room deal to elect Michael R.? prikasy- singular prikaz, 17th cent., central administrations: Foreign policy affairs, mutual supervision affairs, “overlapping” other offices: was this a bureaucracy?  Eastward expansion: 1610-40, estimate military moved 300 miles eastward southern steppes; also east to Siberia. 1639 Ivan Moskvitianin, head of small group reach Pacific. Semen Dezhnev, sailed 5 boats up Kolyma river – northeastern tip of Siberia. 17th century explorations of Kamchatka peninsula 1696 onward. Settlemtns of Nerchinsk in 1689 established a boundary between China and Russia, in Amur area. Siberian was highly profitable for the Muscovy state. (178). Lantzeff - Siberia and Church reform seen as “enlightened.” (180) : how so? Summery: great people mobilizing: Yes, but historiography gave to much class distinction to this 16-17th period? Muscovy Russia:  religion and Culture: Catholicism and Orthodoxy were really opponents- bitterly? Simon Digby To Sir John Coke: description on meeting the Grand Prince: 20-30 “great princes,” possibly means boyars and others?  Visitors notice:  grey beards silent person(s), colorful & rich costumes, lavish banquets, tremendous drinking, foreign emissaries, silver plates. Some Russian historians and Slavophiles, Russia was relative isolated than Kiev:  positive view? Peculiar and Parochial culture cited? Simple explanation, Muscovy role quickly from appanage Russia to Russian Empire. Religion and Church: The Schism: Organization of spiritual life: Church was central, soon not; textual problems, Tsar Michael’s investigation, Tsar Aleksei witnessed a religious and moral revival. When Nikon made public the textual corrections, he was turned against by celebrated Archpriest Avvakum, or Habakkuk. 1653 accused him of hearsay (183). Ritual in new collating and correction? People were set in their ways? Sing of the Cross, three fingers instead of two? To settle this dispute, and others over textual corrections Church council in 1666 and another, attended by patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, representing Constantinople and Jerusalem continued to 1667, in Moscow. Disposed Nikon, but considered his reforms. Ultimatum given. No dogmatic or doctrinal differences were involved; it was an issue to obey ecclesiastic officials. Emendations not liked by Old Ritualists, Believers: Now persecution of Old Believers (Apocalyptic views) -saw church reform the end of the world and Nikon as the antichrist. 1672-1691 estimated 20,000 Old B. burned themselves alive, 37 in known communal conflagrations. bespopovtsy vs popovtsy.  But Old Belief survived. Soon Old Believers had no priests (popovtsy) or liturgy or most sacraments.  This was opposite of the Reformation? “Well-Established” Peasants and merchants were the Old Believers, accord. to Shchapov. Fighting against the gentry domination: So this is not class warfare?  Another interp. Muscovite Old and Great Russians and New Ukrainian and White Russians. It is true that many ethnicities had entered Russian sphere since the 16th century? Argument: Nikon refused to allow local practices to remain. I can see why this would be a problem? Significance: schism allowed Peter the great more power in dealing with a weakened church(s)? Basil Dmytryshyn, ed., Medieval Russia: A Source Book, 850-1700, 3rd ed., Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1991, Section 53, “Russian Conquest and Exploitation of Siberia,” pp. 342-355 Theme: the government wanted to send special forces to suppress the people, because the frontier explores and workers needed to co-habituate with the local populations. Therefore special army forces were sent to subjugate tribes. Certain Russian troops specialized in making the natives conform to the Tsar’s wishes/ government. It was not the government trade-workers or explores’ job to take matters into their own hands if leaders of any of the tribes stated they would no-longer conform to their agreements. There were reasons why according the government.  That said, surveillance & communication ran the mechanics of conquest by the Russian government. Between 1580-1650s, the Russians took control of all northern Asia form the Urals to the Pacific. The conquest of this vast territory, rich in resources and inhabited by primitive tribes, transformed the hitherto East, European, Orthodox, Slavic Muscovite state into a huge multinational and multicultural Eurasian Russian colonial empire. (342). Russians derived four basic benefits from their new territory. The extracted great wealth form the collection of tribute imposed on native inhabitant. They utilized it as a place to exile malcontents. They made it a base from which to launch new conquests. And they took advantage of its location to establish contacts with China and Japan and North America: This comes later than the 17th century? A Report of Voevoda of Tobolsk , to the Voevoda of Pelym, Concerning Unrest Amoung the Natives, June 21, 1606. One of the mechanics of conquest was letter writing. It was needed to communicate between the government and between government officials. Here, 300 hundred insurgents in Pelym did not want to pay the tribute. Two main leaders, one named Lavkai and the other Botogo, but also others; Native leader’s subordinates were called by the Russian government ulus subjects.  Here this letter details the procedures for submission possibly constructed originally by the Russian government. (1) after find out who is the leader, make them take an oath of allegiance to the Tsar of Russia; (2) take hostages so they will return and do the government’s bidding; (3) threaten punishment, if they or the ulus steal, thieve, or do bad. Punishment can be in the form of physical, or material, that is destroying their lives. There was also non-iasak people called by the government transmontane: They had to be “pacified by military means”?(348) If they submit, they can, of course, live like they used too, but recognize they are (orphans) under the protectorship of the Russian state: now becoming an proto-Empire? The goal first was to get cheap or free labor from the eastern nomadic who knew how to hunt and supply the Russians with various pelts, furs and animal skins for a very lucrative western and south/eastern trade ( mainly western Europe). However, in the steppe, the government understood that sable and other large animals did not exist, so they tell the Russian trade-workers to find other things of value to possess. The government also doesn’t want freebooter and even explores not sanctioned to retrieve the iasak. Measure are ordered for surveillance and a head person for this region was a man named Erofei, “personally entrusted with the government assignment” (349). One of the reasons for an oversight was not to allow fear into the subjugated peoples. That is to say, that only certain people can subjugate them and they are protected with assurance by these appointees and veovoda. The idea ( see Lantzeff) was not to kill the people or make it so hard that they would flee, or in this case, they would unite and try to attack an ostrogs. Penalty for people not entrusted with collecting the iasak was severe. Erofei has many duties, one is to keep tribal warring factions to a minimum, so not to interrupt the natives duties. Also, to keep an eye out for opportunists who could pose as official iasak collectors. If he found some, he was not to take issue but to contact Moscow or by way of a government officials who would take measures to send the special forces. How could this happen? Servitors were also sent out into the frontier to build communities, mainly to build fort-like structures as an outpost for travelers, explores and possibly in the future for colonization. They could if they desired take advantage being so far away from Moscow to become imposters and collect free furs. They could also try to subjugate tribes themselves. This was a concern from Moscow. If over suppression happened did the subjugated have any recourse? Three Petitions to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich from Iakut Natives Protesting Inequitable and Ruinous Iasak Impositions, 1659-1664: This petition was sent one tribe to  a Bordonsk volost. Apparently. The complaint,   due to deaths in the family, or fathers that were killed, the sons had to make up for the amount of furs they would had to pay. Why, they were registered in am accounting book, like a census.  Does this mean the iasak collectors were making undo demands? Some natives could not pay their allotment of pelts per year, and they would petition the tsar (government) which was their rite. The complained this was an extra iasak payment when a family member or registered tribute payer had died between the years of the annual census-registration. In this case, the natives had to sell their meat (cows) to make up the extra funds to pay the iasak. If the natives couldn’t make the full payments, a new current assessment was drawn up, which mean they had to pay extra the next year. I’m not sure if the “past arrears” are for payments when the voevoda knew of the dead brothers and fathers or not. If they did this was surely an extra burden on the already subjugated people (351). The complaints seem to indicate dire circumstances, of the people dying off: did this really happen? Did they pay the voevoda and diaks called a pominiki as well as the iasak to the government? Was this double dipping in a lawless frontier? In another petition by the same tribe, the complaint is that the iasak collectors demanded “money (for us.”) (352). The issue was this certain group didn’t know how or wanted to hunt foxes, and the iasak collectors demanded one ruble, possibly the amount of the fox pelt in exchange for not presenting it. The tribe does say that they looked everywhere for these foxes but couldn’t find them. Taking advantage was a possibility, and when someone was so far away. But surveillance works both ways, and these petitions describe a surveillance by  tribes to inform Moscow of the  Russian workers demands possibly out of control on an already subjugated people: What did the Moscow government do? Here extinction of the group if this is kept a policy is noted at the end of the petition.  Instructions from Veovoda of Iakust, Golenishchev-Kutuzov, to Prison Officials about Procedures for Guarding Prisoners, June 3, 1663.  Regulation and security issues about prisoners on the frontier: One interesting aspect, no prisoner is allowed writing materials of any king, unless they secretly get a message out. A petition can be written, but only in the presence of an official. The Sentence Imposed by the Voevoda of Iakitsk, Petr Zinovev, on the Participants in a Cossack Rebellion, July 14, 1690. Not this writing is over 80 years after the subjugation of the eastern natives had begun. Here torture was used by the Voevoda of Iakitsk to get information from the people about a conspiracy to rebel. The writing states that torture was “done in accordance with the instructions of the Great Sovereigns [ The government], the articles of the Sobornoe Ulozhenie [1649 Code of Laws]: Torture was used on children-serfs who refused to acknowledge their heritable serf family after they had run away?   This was part of the threatening portion of the retrieval of peasants debate? The accused Filip Shcherbakov and Ivan Palamoshnoi confessed under torture that they plotted to pillage gunpowder and shot in Iakutsk Petr Petrovich Zinovev; also the townsmen were accused of thievery from merchants peaceful traveling through the area: These were booty raids?  Petr Petrovich Zinovev excecuted a boiarskii, a desiatnik, others and some Cossacks that had allegedly taken part in the conspiracy: Remember they are supposed to inform Moscow first and not take action until allowed? Is written correspondence appears as a communiqué after following orders ( “in accordance with the ukaz”  and listing the people’s judgments? Some were exiled. What was the ukaz, a procedure law? The Oath of Allegiance with Russian Administered to Bratsk Native leaders, 1642-1645: Theme oath taking a ritual and importance:   A Native named Bului of the Bratsk tribe swears his allegiance to Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich and Aleksei Mikhailovich, and this also is good for his brother and tribesmen – to be loyal, eternal servitude and with no malice or treason – against Russians living near the realm “ people in the Verkholensk ostrozhek, or against agricultural settlers, in any place where the Sovereign’s servitors and Russians may be working. Also his oak pledges no war against or  killing of Russians. This oath is also a measure to get a local leader to operate as a government facilitator to bring in more natives into the Tsar’s service.  This pledge also binds him to be a protector of the iasak collectors so when they come into the realm they are not harmed by vigilantly natives. ( For more see why this was done see Lantzeff and the dangers involved) Instructions from the Voevoda of Iakutsk, Frantsbekov, to the Explorer Khabarov, Regarding His Expedition into the Land of the Daurs, 1649-1651: Theme: the frontier is dangerous. “In accordance with the Sovereign’s ukaz” (347) this was an order from the government? An expedition was sent to support voeoda & stolnik Petr Petrovich Golovin, and the pismennaia golova Enalei Bakhteiarov – seventy servitors went to assist  to subdue two princes, Lavkai and Botogo but they got lost.  Apparently they were not familiar with routs or the land: This understandable as Siberia is vast. So they ask for more supplies to get the job done. This order is for Erofei to collect volunteers servitors and promyshlenniki to explore and to do the government’s financial work. This writ then suggests a duel objective to “ collect iasak and explore new territories.” (347) they will follow the rivers Olekma and Tugur to the portage or the Shilka: There they will see if it advantageous to build a ostrozhek, then built it, and protect in for future attacks ( subduing missions) – against these two princes. In this document it is stressed not to kill the people, because the people make the government money, but to adhere to and anticipate dangerous conditions out on the frontier. After subduing, make them take the steps of oath and describe to them the allegiance procedures. A Petition from the Merchant Guselnikov to Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Protesting Excessive Regulations of the Fur Trade in Siberia, 1639. This petition protests certain voevodas who restrict this merchants movements and demand taxes, custom duties, transit fees and other things. He cites that this is contrary to the ukaz. I guess this is the Siberian statutes of conduct?  These problesm have an affect on their job performance” supposedly merchants are allowed certain liberties or are doing the Sovereign’s work too?  Section 63, “Provisions of Russian Protectorate over Ukraine in 1654,” pp. 442- 450: Zaporozhie Host have come under the protection our exalted sovereign arm (448) The Charter of the Zaporozhie Host, April 6, 1654 Ukrainian Cossacks, who were the leaders of the Zaporozhie Host, signed an agreement which temporarily formed the basis of Ukrainian-Russian relations. (442) Peace and reconciliation. Ukr. Natives will get high-offices. One theme was enserfment of Polish peasants had begun by the Polish nobility, this led to flights of the peasantry and a crackdown. Where did they go? Zaporozhian Sich, established by the Dnieper Cossacks.  Theses also contained an element of fights over the western and Eastern Church doctrines were concerns for the powerful and wealthy. The peasants were more and more forced to choose. Kievan memory of Orthodoxy will play a role. Provisions not to go to the Sultan or Polish leaders and maintain relations demands of the Russians. (449) Swear allegiance. The Charter of the Zaporozhie Host, April 6, 1654: Introduced a measure not to violate the previous rights of the high-clergy, which was important because they had a different interpretation of the rituals of Christianity than in Russia. Also guarantees that lands of the inhabitants ( Kozak Estates, 449) keep their rights and to their inheritors. This was a protectorate treaty, where cooperation was the key to its success. Russia will appoint officials, and collect monies |Here Aleksei is called “ great sovereign.” (449) : Did the Ukrainians receive the freedoms promised in the Pereyaslav treaty? 1654 Russian Tsar Aleksei (1645-’72) singed an agreement which temporarily formed the basis of Ukrainian-Russian relations with the leaders of Zaporoshie Host. Russia inherited a rich vital area. scholarship of Ukrainian, new leaders, new administrations thoughts were brought into the sphere of Russia. Russia formed resolutions for protections of Ukraine from Poland and local threats. Russian gets the Left-Bank Ukraine. In 1648, Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a large Cossack uprisings against king John II Casimir: results, partition of Ukraine between Poland and Russia. Russian gets the Left-Bank Ukraine. Catholicism/Protestantism and Orthodoxy. Benjamin Phillip Uroff, transi., “Grigorii Karpovich Kotoshikhin on Russia in the Reign of Alexis Mikhailovich: An Annotated Translation,” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1970, pp. 163-179 & 230-238 Theme: No absolutism shown by the delegation of duty of various departments with sub-departments. Tsar does not make all the decisions, no autocrat micromanaging indicated in text. Emerging institutions. General Significance: A delegation of finances, organization of revenue, organization of people in various state apparatus - - beginnings of institutions ( not extremely elaborate)  and employments overseen departments of state called chancelleries, which have sub-divisions. Chancellery for Privy Affairs: administer varied public and private affairs; Surveillance of ambassadors and veovody, inform them to the tsar; also in charge of grenade works and manufacturing and military equipment, purchase, salaries, and tsar’s gifts to dignitaries and leaders of foreign states. Sub-departments: Poteshnyi dvor: hunting court, raise various birds for gifts. The Ambassadorial Chancellery: headed by a Duma secretary, jurisdiction over relations all neighboring states; employ translators, work all day, everyday through the years, keep them working on various material, cannot take material home for preservation concerns. Economic Relevance: translators are paid significantly more than soldiers and most military rank-and-file. This indicated their importance. Local Moscow jurisdiction over visiting and living foreigners, jurisdiction over collections of certain towns form custom duties and taverns, and various expenditures. Importance significance: The apparatus to raise funds for “ ransoming prisoner who are in the Crimea and Turkey [ Ottoman Empire] “ (166), and the chancellery collets money form the entire Muscovite state – from the tsra’s crown and black volosti and from the peasants and bobyli on pomest’ia and votchiny—each year --- being written in the Ulozhenie; “including in-depth military salaries. Duties include salary for translators ( Foreigner ) and soldiers can have more than one job: multitasking, service foreigners in food service and translation. Human abduction funds: About 150,000 rubles of the ransom money is collected each year, and is not used for any expenditure other than ransoming.” (167) This shows us the human abduction for ransom by surrounding states was a important factor the economics of the Russian state. This chancellery extended its influence too the Don Cossacks, and over the baptized and un baptized Tatars who in the past years had taken prisoners from the tsardoms of Kazan’ and Astrakhan’ and Siberia and Kasimov, and given votchiny and pomest’ia in the districts around Moscow; also Greek ecclesiastics and Greek merchants. The Razriad Chancellery:  headed by an okol’nichii and a Duma secretary a two secretaries: jurisdiction over various military matters, construction an repair of fortresses, and their weapons and serving men; likewise it has jurisdiction over boyars and okol’nichie and Duma men and closest men and stol’niki and striapchie and Moscow dvoriane and secretaries  and zhil’tsy and provincial dvoriane and deti boairskie and Cossacks and musketeers, in all matters relating to their service. (168). Various directives, delegating missions, logistics and judicial matters concerning honor appointments and disputes. Also collection from certain small towns and from court fees: this if for operational costs? The Cancerlley of the Great Palace: headed by a boyar [ with a title of ] majordomo [dvoretskii], and an okol’nichii, and a Duma man… jurisdiction over Liquor, Provisions, Bread, and Granary courts and their servitors; jurisdiction over more than 40 towns and collection of taxes from the posad men, and yearly revenue from fire houses, waterworks, and windmills and fisheries, whether farmed out of collected. Famed out is where the government bids out to individuals to act as an their own agent who pays the government a direct yearly sum, and the agent collects the taxes made in a deal directly with the service-branches by loans, agreements and obligations; farmed out tolls collected include fords [ perevos] and bridges [ mostovshchina]’ and eighth slobody in Moscow and their trading men and artisans. Corvée work, under the auspices of work for the tsar,  is also indicated for various needs for trades to operate from construction to transportation; a collection in monetary revenue as well as other taxes; posad, volosti and slobody; stamp tax, charge for seal, and other documents which are sent by men to various rank to towns and crown villages and volosti, in the same manner as the Chancellery for Seals – a unicorn engraved on that seal. Ice farmed out, from Moskva and Iauza rivers in winter and the washing of clothes though holes in the ice; Various revenues from all above for operating costs. Maintenance for churches, the government pays for poor people’s burials,  workers in this department have more than one duty, another indication of multitasking jobs. Tsar journeys to give out (coins are wrapped in paper) alms. The Musketeers Chancellery: headed by a boyar and two secretaries: in charge of prikazy or musketeers in Moscow and the provinces. It collects wages to pay the musketeers. General jurisdiction, all forms of military organization, delegation of troop groups and rank-and-files, included salaries for lieutenants, and deductions on monetary wages from pomest’is or votchiny, including the number of heads to serve from the peasantry. Musketters also have duel responsibilities such as firemen, for example fires in Moscow, and also in large towns prikazy are placed. Chancellery of Kazan’ Palace: headed by a boyar and a Duma secretary and two secretaries. Jurisdiciton over Kazan’ and Astrakhan’ and the towns on the lower and middle Volga [ belonging ] to them. Voevody report their orders to the Chancellery. Monatary levies are collected annully from the Volga towns which are close to Moscow. Posad, clerical and farmed-out customs houses and traverns – close to 30,000 rubles each year. Soldiers serving in far off posts in the east receive subsistence payments  [ kormovye liudi] and those who pay iasak, and for operating shipyards and for various expenses. Jurisdiction over frontiers and defenses with Turkey  [ Ottman Empire] and Persia; Caviar the main economic gain for Moscow, controlled as well as the salt mines, an important commodity. Dependant towns [ prigorodki] ; jurisdiction over Nogai and Tatar horse industry - - 30-50,000 annual horses gathered and presented to the tsar’s officers for sale and resale in Moscow each year; important industry for military circumstances. Tsar get first choice each year, the rank-and-file, then resale – markups and profit. This is a sub-department called the Stables Chancellery: Siberian Chancellery: headed by the same boyar who heads up Kazan’ Palace, with two secretaries. Jurisdiction over the stardom of Siberia. There are over 40 large and medium-sized towns, not counting the dependant towns. Chief city is called Tobol’sk, and it a prison/exile destination for various people who are charged with offenses. Main trade, various furs, and one of the largest revenue operations for the Russians at this time --  600,000 rules each year is estimated. No hunting close to Moscow at this time as a depopulation of animals was noticed, and the laws were strict with penalties. Restrictions due to government control in Siberia on free hunting, except for subsistence for the frontiersmen; this law was to forbid the illegal selling and underground fur trade. The Pomest’e Chancellery: headed by an okol’nichii and a Duma secretary and two secretaries. Jurisdiction over all landed estates. Estate sale taxes, property taxes, all part of yearly revenue that was not great. The accounting of sales, inheritances, and general registrations. Ancient rank and honor rituals are very much a part of official correspondence with this department. Regulation of princely titles, for example. Petitionary departments;  sub-departments and registration of peasantry, levels, and orphans [ siroty ref. peasantry’ name sometimes in petitions ( see 235)] and all matters of the people. “However, on various matters the tsar does seek the advice and counsel of these boyars and Duma men and ordinary men whom he likes and favors. But his father, Tsar Michael Fedorovich of blessed memory, although he used the title “autocracy., “ could not nothing without the boyar’s counsel.”Chapter VIII: Theme & subject: Titles are labels of unreality used as promotional devices not based in reality: Not Sultuans of the Ottoman Empire began their title trend usually attributed to Mehmed II with official correspondence claiming titles for everything lasting often two pages or longer. By the Time of Sulëyman “The Magnificent” his title page(s) reached sometimes four pages; but did he in reality function as every claimed title symbolized? No! It would be impossible. Titles were used in the Ottoman Empire to impress foreigners, and this is why they were used in letter writing and official correspondence to dignitaries and usually when they knew the letters would be presented to foreign leaders: This case in point can also apply to Russian titles effecting the same impressionship onto their official correspondence. This was not a regional phenomenon, and at certain points in Italian history, Dukes and other so-called leaders in the late middle ages and Italian renaissance along with the Pope also made horrendous title claims.   “Alexis Mikhailovch, autocrat of all Great and Little” (232): “stol’niki and dvoriane serve as voevody together with secretaries, or undersecretaries in place of secretaries…” More evidence of duel responsibilities: what this because of a shortage of capable people or short on cash (or both)? (232) Question:  why is the title “autocrat used? Whole section on how titles in official and legal paperwork (documents)  are not representative of reality of Tsar’s ways. To make the foreigners believe the tsar was in control?  Questions: 1)     Why were Russian Painters barred from going to foreign countries to learn new techniques?  Was it fear on the influence of the Latin Church? ( ref.  Ham. 255) Was it decreed? Is so When? 2)     The Times of Troubles cannot be seen as a turning point in Russian history because Michael Romanov looked to consolidate a continuity with new regime and old Rurik dynasty rule; but the raskol, induction of the Ukraine east bank, and the church reforms of 1667 can be said to be a turning point in Russia? 3)     J. Michael Hittle “The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia, 1600-1800” Tells us that -- The number of posad were “ a small number of souls, two hundred thousand at the most in a country so several million, concentrated in the cities of central and northern Russia.” (ref.44) These persons bore the brunt of the tax system. This is very small considering what complex tax systems are needed to run a state. Will Peter The Great make an effort and consider the necessities of an elaborate tax system and how to implement it for a greater benefit of government?  Kaiser & Marker, Reinterpreting Russian History, "Reinterpreting Russian History: Readings", 860-1860s. ed. Daniel H. Kiaser Gary Marker (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994). Riasanovsky & Steinberg, History of Russia, vol. I, pp. 161-195. Bibliography: “A Biography of Boyarina Morozova,” in Basil Dmytryshyn, ed., Medieval Russia: A Source Book, 850-1700, 3rd ed., Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1991, pp. 489-497. Benjamin Phillip Uroff, transi., “Grigorii Karpovich Kotoshikhin on Russia in the Reign  of Alexis Mikhailovich: An Annotated Translation,” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia  University, 1970, pp. 163-179 & 230-238. Rinehart and Winston, 1991, Section 53, “Russian Conquest and Exploitation of Siberia,”  pp. 342-355, and Section 63, “Provisions of Russian Protectorate over Ukraine in 1654,” pp. 442- 450.  Russia City and Towns J. Michael Hittle “The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia, 1600-1800” ( Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979): c. 1500s 96 cities, c. 1600s 170 cities, c. 1650s 226 cities in Russia. Primary growth attributed to expansion of lands. Boarder pushed to the Black Sea.1680s, concentrated cites in crescent beginning lower Dnieper River basin and adjacent upper Donets basin, running through the Oka region and on along the upper Volga area. Importance stressed on waterways and communication routs (roads). In the Pomore, the north, cities were few and far between. The size of Russia had profound impact in communication, movement and development. 17th century, two  state functions can describe cites: Military-administrative, and commercial-administrative. Some combined, but most have fortresses, called detenets,  at the central focus of the city: This was like serf-lands castle structures in Europe; each city were self sufficient with agriculture and serfs ( the is peasants tied to a land). What was different form Europe? military servitors, majority of the population, were also bound by grant-ship of cities, not ownership: servitors in cities differed to region: ( P.P. Smirnov: south, 85.3 %, west, 71.2 %, east 87.3%). Servitors served not only military duty but government services.  Also churches & possibly one Cathedral if a major city to serve the needs of Orthodoxy.   Why military cities? Memory and concern for Poland and Sweden’s role during the Times of Troubles? In the south, the core of Military defense systems comprised of the Belgorodskaia cherta, a string of twenty-nine fortress-cities and defense-works, which ran from Akhtyrka on the river Vorskla to Tambov.  This was mainly set up as a defense of the Crimea threat and their overlords the Ottomans? Most of these towns established in two waves: first between 1636 and 1648, second between 1648 and 1654: However this was attentively argued during the reign of Ivan IV? Platonov cites the government’s discussion for the colonizing of the “ Wild Field” ( section between steppe and forest) and to later on established forts? Kremlin was different, it had residential areas outside the Kremlin’s walls. Courts and state post service: dvoriane and deti boiarskie, scattered through the towns, constituted only a fraction of the population. Bulk of servitors fell into the category of sluzhilye liudi po priboru – contract servitors. Contract Servitors “often” didn’t get paid or were promised tax privileges and salary while the government reneged on both privileges: an example, fortifying the south boarders as a migration and job procurement policy. Only when foreign military threats appeared did the government show up with money. To off-set the lack of a steady income, hand-work became a lifestyle. Trade and craft  activities would became a urban tradition in an absent of bona fide trade merchants ( these were evident in Commercial-Administrations). Also rural agriculture activities accompanied the independent crafts and trade activities mostly when connected to a military-administration city or a church-administration city.  13th -14-15th century word, found in chronicles, Posad, meant the area of a city between the walls of the Kremlin, and the outerwalls: trade, crafts, through agriculturalists, state servitors, and other segments of the population could be found within its confines (26). Urban residence: Posadskie chernye liudi, literally, “taxable people of the posad,” constituted the most numerous group of permanent urban residence. Tiaglo: state impositions that fell onto the peoples of the posad population: payment of direct taxes in money or in kind to the central government. This came to be the townspeople were the largest tax contributors of cashflow for the Russian state. Three Ranks/levels called extremes (being careful not to tempt a reader into Marx ideas of classes) Posad had levels: the lower level were called the bobyli  ( called here extreme(s), because no one wants to denote differentiation of a class system at a peasant level so people who study Marx do not place his haphazard ideas into a class struggle)  These were men of few means who worked manual labor jobs, menial tasks, and were like yard-workers for more well-to-do posads. The could be distinguished from the third level of regular posad dwellers by the nature of their tax obligation. Whereas the regular posad dweller bore taiglo, the bobyli paid the state an obrok. This arrangement indicates that the boblyi were not considered economically sturdy enough to bear the higher burdens of taiglo. Upper level made it possible for a posad to join three privileged corporations – the gosti, the gostinaia sotnia, and the sukhonnaia sotnia. These members had state privileges. The gotsi, the most prestigious, consisted of a handful of wealth merchants appointed by government. Thirteen members in the late seventeenth century there numbers never exceeded twenty-to-thirty men. They acted both as advisors to the tsar and as administrators of important financial and commercial undertakings. (28) Gotsi administered state monopolies, the custom collections, and the farming of ligour revenue collection; they managed the fishing and salt making establishments of the state, purchased goods for the tsar, and operated his sable-hunting enterprise. They also assisted the tsar with matters of foreign trade and in domestic economic activities. In return, the gotsi received tax exemptions ( emancipation from tiaglo); free passage abroad for the purpose of trading ( serfs were tied to the land), the right up to 1666, to obtain hereditary landed property (votchina); subordination of administrative purposes directly to the Bureau of the Great Treasury; the right to store wine at home; and the exemption from the payment of numerous customs and tariff duties. (28) Next level was the Moscow members called the gostinaia sotnia and sukhonnaia sotnia, or “hundreds.” They formed privileged corporations, though much larger than that of the gosti. In 1649, the combined membership of both hundreds totaled 274 persons. In addition to maintaining their own business establishments, they  served as agents of the tsar, assisting primarily in the collection of taxes and custom duties. Their privileges , less than those of the gotsi but still substantial, included emancipation from state responsibilities and exclusion  from jurisdiction of local government authorities. Bogoslovskii notes that in addressing state authorities the gotsi and hundreders referred to themselves as slaves ( kholopy): (The same in Islam,  in theory, everyone under the ruler is a slave. This was such a practice in the Ottoman empire as respect) 1550s???? mid sixteenth century, 29) Changing, State suburbs did not remain separate, privileged sanctuaries for long. Only exception was Moscow’s suburbs. Ivan centralized economics for his Oprichnina after 1564-5? Taxable property ( chernye sloboda) Time of Troubles the urban districts around Moscow were destroyed and the people dispersed. Michael Romanov was content to allow foreigners to settle in whatever part of the city they wished, but pressure mounted to reestablish the foreign suburb. The church, fearing the insidious doctrines of Protestantism and Catholicism, pleaded that the infidels be isolated, less contact with them taint the purity of the Muscovite’s faith. The posad people of the city also objected to the pressure of foreigners in their midst, claiming that business practices of the wily Europeans worked great hardship upon them. Thus, in 1652, Alexsei yielded to the heartfelt pleas of his countrymen and created a new foreign suburb – the Novoinozemskaia Sloboda, or Novaia Nemetskaia Sloboda as it was known in popular parlance. (31) Isolated, the citizens still fell under Russian jurisdiction ( law and administration). The German suburb, were locked up at night, and in the morning the citizenry ventured out.  They were under watch by the government prikazy. The foreign suburbs were managed by the foreigners, and as a consequence they had autonomy: these conflicted with regulations that pertained to the Russians? The Russians became curious, especially the elite? What did they do at night? What was their culture?  Property Relations in the City: Russian property relations were different from European property relations [ at this time, in the early European middle ages the comparative is roughtly the same]. (re)Patrionomy was the right of the grand princes, starting with Ivan III.  The Same was with the Lords in middle ages. In Russia this is called a votchina, a hereditary land given by the grand prince. In theory and practice all the lands were the grand prince’s votchina. The same as the European lords in the early middle ages. The Aristocracy was a later development and this is being compared at this time between Russia and Europe. I contend that the aristocracy was similar to the princes of Russia that owned their own land and had their own armies, only a king was a possible authority over them, and he would take his army and subdue an aristocrat’s forces if both were in competition.  The pomest’e system begun under Ivan IV was similar to the early Europeans’ ages when knights had to make yearly services to the lord in military service. They could only hold land as long as they complied with the lord’s wishes for any services. The same can be said during and after the mid-sixteenth century in Russia.  Russia developed this stage much later than Europe. In Russia, land for peasants was also conditional, though the absence of any formal charter or grant made it seem less obvious. (34) Before the princes took control, and while still under Mongol overlordship, the peasants that migrated up north, and who tilled the land, believed the regions they settled in  were their property. Going forward to the sixteenth century, the urban districts, and the urban citizens there did not exist and special forms of urban property. There was no private property meaning ownership. Land was divided up into four separate categories of land grantship: The first two had tax exemptions:  most prominent was the  communal grant possessions, here Contract servitors held their settlements collectively; second, the personal grant possessions, pomest’e,  subject for specific use, like courts and administration. The nest two categories paid taxes: Third was conditional landholding and was a collective possession by the posad commune (posadskii mir) of the taxable (chernye) land on which its members lived. Posad land varied to local and was intermixed among the lands. Peasants had to attend to government officials and needed to live close by. These posad were the majority of the members that eventually became ensurfed. The fourth category was the conditional urban landholding, and was a personal grant possession for the purpose of establishing some kind of business activity – manufacturing, trading, or even the holding of a fair. Properties given out for such use went to the people of all ranks, with the exception of servitors of high rank, who easily subverted the prohibition b using straws[men]. With these possession came a duty to pay taxes. In legal terms the tsar retained formal title under the four categories. There are instances in the sixteenth and seventeenth century of certain lands with privileges, these were to the Church.  The Church and the government ruled in tandem, at least by legal theory. There was no separation of church and state, but their was special privileges seen as the same as the tsar who owned no votchina, but owned everything in theory. The votchiniki, were powerful private properties, both secular and clerical. The clerical private properties belonged to the church. The secular private properties ( cities called goroda) belonged to influential commercial families and manufacturer posady. These are exceptions, not the norm. These were a handful of secular magnates, who possessed fortified cities. Gradually, the private cities dwindled, as the central government’s military might strengthened. Eventually they were incorporated into the tsar’s sphere. There was no difference to what happened in Europe as secular and clerical powerful families were eventually drawn into the spear of the kings. This had the same consequences, that the king’s armies became stronger as they centralized, and drew in supporters, by force , coercion, or diplomacy.(stopped at 38). Work Cited and Readings: References to "Ham." = George H. Hamilton, The Art and Architecture of Russia, 3rd, "integrated" edition, illustration numbers Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. & Mark D. Steinberg, History of Russia, vol. I. ed. 7th, (Oxford: Oxford Unity Press, 2005). Bibliography: David Mackenzie & Michael W. Curran, “A History of Russia, the Soviet Union and Beyond,” 6th ed. (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1993). Nicholas V. Riasanovsky & Mark D. Steinberg, “History of Russia,” vol. I.,  7th ed. (Oxford: Oxford Unity Press, 2005). Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetzkoy,  “The Legacy of Genghis Khan and Other Essays on Russia’s Identity” , ed. Anatoly Liberman, trans. Kenneth Brostrom ( Ann Arbor : Michigan Slavic Publications, 1991). Further Reading: Lots of interesting studies of 17th-c. Russian culture and the Schism, including: William E. Brown, A History of Seventeenth-Century Russian Literature, 1980. Paul Bushkovitch, Religion and Society in Russia. The Sixteenth cd Seventeenth Centuries (1992). Robert 0. Crummey, The Old Believers and the World ofAntichrist (1970). Michael Cherniavsky, “The Old Believers and the New Religion,” in Cherniavsky, ed., The Structure of Russian History (1970), pp. 140-88. Robert 0. Crummey, “The Spirituality of the Vyg Fathers,” in G. A. Hosking, ed., Church, Nation and State in Russia and Ukraine (1991). Robert 0. Crummey, “Old Belief as Popular Religion,” Slavic Review 52, no. 4 (1993): 700-12. Laura Engelstein, Castration and the Heavenly Kingdom. A Russian Folktale (1999). Paul Meyendorff, Russia, Ritual, and Reform: The Liturgical RelOrms of Nikon in the 17th Century, Crestwood: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1991 Georg Michels, At War with the Church. Religious Dissent in Seventeenlh-Centuiy Russia (1999). Roy Robson, Old Believers in Modern Russia, (1995) *Michael Johnathan McDonald, University of California, Berkeley, Spring 2007. Copyright © 2007 MichaelReport.com, Michael Johnathan McDonald Bookoflife.com All Rights reserved.   

Joseph Stalin

In the 60s Queen Elizabeth II dedicated an acre of ground in memory of which American?

Communism: The Four-Part Series – Glenn Beck Communism: The Four-Part Series SHARE A generation has passed since the Cold War ended — and along with it, a true understanding of communism. Young voters today grew up in school systems where capitalism was often a dirty word. They heard the siren call of socialism and its promise of being the great equalizer. They’re in for a rude awakening. In this series, Glenn discusses the origins of communism, what it really means and what lurks behind the pleasant label of “democratic socialism.” The four-part series is compiled below for your convenience. Part I: How It’s Marketed When Karl Marx was born in Prussia (now part of Germany) in 1818, 94 percent of the world’s population lived in poverty. 84 percent lived in extreme poverty. Feudalism as an economic system left a lot to be desired, like food. The capitalist system, under the Constitution of the United States, changed all of that dramatically. In one of the greatest achievements in the history of mankind, just 9.6 percent of the world’s population lives in extreme poverty today. Back in 1818, America was just 42 years old and still developing, but it was already becoming the envy of the world. The capitalist — or free market — system was beginning to take hold and pull this country’s citizens out of poverty. It offered new opportunities for millions of citizens and immigrants were beginning to flood its shores. Europe was a different matter. Monarchy and feudalism was still embedded throughout much of the continent. But great change was taking hold. Industrialization was bringing scores of people from the country to the cities — which were quickly becoming overcrowded. This led to massive discontent. Marx, who despised what he saw of capitalism, would take advantage of this discontent, becoming radicalized at an early age. After receiving his doctorate in philosophy, Marx and his wife moved to Paris in 1843, where he would meet a man who would become his life-long friend and colleague — Friedrich Engels. The two had supposedly been drawn to the plight of the workers from their childhoods. They both believed profits generated by the companies that employed them were stolen from wages the workers should have received. As the two fed off each other, they became more and more radical in their thinking, until they became all-out revolutionaries and were both expelled from France. They moved to Belgium and in 1848, began to work on a pamphlet to share their beliefs. Initially entitled A Communist Confession of Faith, the pamphlet — written mostly by Marx — was published as The Communist Manifesto. In 1867, Marx wrote another handbook for communist thinkers, Das Kapital. It was published in his home country, Germany, and translated into many other languages. In it, Marx made the point that capitalism exploited workers, and property rights simply kept rich people rich and poor people poor. He went on to write two additional volumes, which were published after his death at the age of 64 in 1883, by Engels. Marx never experienced the Communist Revolution he sought in his lifetime. But his ideas would be remembered in the minds of others for decades to come. One young Russian was heavily and immediately influenced by Marx’s writing — a 17-year-old boy named Vladimir Lenin. Part II: The Scourge Spreads Communism’s first leader — Vladimir Lenin — fell ill and died in 1924, setting the stage for Josef Stalin. Just as it had been under the first few years of communist policies, the Soviet Union fell into another great famine in the early ’30s. Stalin brutally kept food from starving people, ordering his soldiers to shoot and kill peasants that came near it. Adding to the five million who had succumbed to the famine of 1921, another six million people died. Former Ukrainian president, Victor Yushchenko, in a speech to the United States, put the total number of his dead countrymen at 20 million. It was essentially a genocide of the Ukrainian people, believed to have been planned by Stalin to eliminate the Ukrainian Independence Movement. By the 1920s and 1930s, an Austrian named Adolf Hitler, once considered a joke in Germany, was a joke no longer. After joining and rising to the top of the National Socialist German Workers Party — the Nazi Party — Hitler attempted a coup in 1925, winding up in prison where he wrote Mein Kampf. In Mein Kampf, Hitler laid out his intentions for ridding Germany of Jews and invading multiple nations. Somehow, the book captivated the imagination of many Germans. Hitler himself made a fortune from the proceeds. In 1933, he became chancellor of Germany and began implementing the policies he’d laid out to the German people. Hilter saw his brand of National Socialism as much more progressive than Soviet Communism. Despite their animosity, the Communists and the National Socialists shared a thirst for blood and a lust for power. Hitler launched World War II with the invasion of Poland, and Germany then marched into France and Belgium. Soon, Europe was entrenched in the biggest and deadliest war in human history, the “workers” they spoke fondly of trampled in the ascension to power. Before it was over, Hitler and his National Socialists had conducted the horrific Holocaust, with the extermination of six million Jews, and tens of millions more dying as a result of the war. By the end of World War II, Mao Zedong had gained control of northern China. He had convinced impoverished peasants to fight against Chinese nationalists, promising redistributed land and lower taxes. Mao’s forces swept to victory, and the nationalists fled to Taiwan. But the poor in China never saw the promised equality or redistribution of wealth. Rather, Mao oversaw the starvation and slaughter of 60 million Chinese. By 1981, five years after Mao’s death, 85 percent of China’s population lived in abject poverty. Yet Chairman Mao’s image appears on hipster T-shirts and coffee cups around the world, even showing up on Obama’s Christmas tree as a White House Christmas ornament in 2009. As communism continued to spread across the Asian continent, World War II ended with Soviet troops occupying North Korea and U.S. troops in South Korea. The Soviets installed a North Korean communist leader to head the new communist government of North Korea. The Eastern Hemisphere had seen virtually nothing but bloodshed, oppression, and war during the first 33 years of communism and national socialism. Unfortunately, communism eventually infected the Western Hemisphere, where another ruthless communist rose to power. Che Guevara, yet another Marxist revolutionary born to wealthy parents, was a ruthless, racist killer who seemed to have contempt for all those he pretended to care about. Like Mao, he is widely celebrated today by many on the American left as a hero of the worker and minorities. According to the Black Book of Communism, during just the first year of Che’s revolution, firing squads executed 14,000 people. He sent thousands more, including homosexuals, to concentration camps. Che plotted the destruction of the Statue of Liberty, the Liberty Bell, the Washington Monument, as well as bombing Macy’s, Gimbels, Bloomingdale’s and Grand Central Station in New York City. In 1967, Che’s reign of terror finally ended, when he was executed by firing squad. Despite the wake of oppression and death left by communism all over the world — 100 million peacetime deaths and millions more during revolutionary wars — many continue to glorify it to this day. Part III: The Rise in America America has been the single biggest force in changing the fortunes of the world, more than any other nation ever conceived. As such, you would assume the nation would be celebrated. And with many, it is. But with others, it’s mocked, ridiculed, derided, blamed and demonized. And then there are those within its own borders who have sought to fundamentally transform it. Ever since communism took root in Russia and began spreading its philosophy around the globe, the United States has been fighting its spread from the outside. The more difficult battle, however, has come from within. Even with the freedom, prosperity and quality of life in America, for a variety of reasons, there have always been dissenters. At the turn of the 20th century, men like Teddy Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson adopted progressive ideology, believing the Constitution to be a living, breathing document. Like socialists and communists, progressives believe more in government than the individual. For them, the power and influence of government is the key to achieving social justice. The term “social justice” has long been a euphemism for socialism and communism. Progressives share much in common with both socialists and communists, but progressives are simply more patient, willing to progress slowly, rather than through revolution. In 1920, faced with a depression even greater than that of 1929, the Harding-Coolidge administration took a hands-off approach to government and cut spending in half. The economy bounced back almost immediately, bringing in the Roaring Twenties. In 1929, however, the Hoover administration took the opposite approach, intervening to deal with the crisis. And in 1932, newly elected progressive Democrat Franklin Roosevelt became even more committed to government intervention and programs. The depression lasted another 13 years in America, much longer than the rest of the world, due to FDR’s so-called New Deal, with sky-high unemployment, rationing, inflation and a decade of misery. By the ’30s and ’40s, suspicions were rampant that communists had infiltrated the highest levels of the U.S. government, although hard-core proof was hard to come by. Even U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt seemed to share the ideology of communists, proposing a second Bill of Rights that outlined work, rest and leisure, health protection, care in old age and sickness, housing, education and cultural benefits — rights included in the Soviet communist constitution. The late 1940s and ’50s were a dangerous time for the United States. The Soviets had just successfully tested their first nuclear weapon after Soviet spies had stolen the technology from America. Communists took over China. And North Korean communists invaded South Korea, bringing us into yet another war. And a senator from Wisconsin, Joel McCarthy claimed to have the list of some 57 communists in the State Department. Eventually, even Hollywood entertainers, actors, directors and producers were blacklisted. The social upheaval of the 1960s made the perfect breeding ground for a Marxist community organizer named Saul Alinsky to significantly influence young minds. Alinsky was a Marxist agitator, who believed that people could be agitated — even if they didn’t know they needed to be. The youth, affected by Alinsky’s Rules for Radicals, would grow up heavily influenced by him. However, rather than protest and agitate, they decided to effect change from the inside the political system. Part IV: American Radicals The lofty goals and idealistic promises of communism include income equality, thriving economies and perpetual peace. In essence, Utopia on earth. In reality, communism has resulted in millions killed during peacetime, continual war (or the threat of it), economic disaster, state-controlled media, governmental lies, labor camps, concentration camps, starvation, police states, lack of freedom and state-sponsored atheism. By its fruits ye shall know them. Thanks in large part to the Constitution of the United States of America, Americans have largely avoided the fruits of communism — but not entirely. There are those who believe America should scrap its founding principles and embrace Marxism, communism and socialism. While very few openly advocate for communism, most hide behind the gentler moniker of Progressivism. Like Marxists, progressives seek social justice and the redistribution of wealth to obtain income equality. Unlike Marxists, they try to do it within the system rather than through revolution. Some of American’s radicals from the 1960s are now respected professors or politicians. Illinois’ Bobby Rush, for instance, who cofounded the Illinois chapter of the Black Panthers is now a U.S. congressman from Illinois. This man who has helped write and pass legislation for the United States of America, had his apartment raided when he served as the defense minister for the Black Panthers. Police discovered illegal firearms, including rifles, a shotgun, training manuals on explosives, booby traps and an assortment of communist literature and propaganda. Another respected member of American society is Bill Ayers, the cofounder of the violent, communist revolutionary terrorist group called the Weather Underground. Ayers is on record recounting an event in which a room of highly educated revolutionary figures plotted the logistics of eliminating 25 million Americans who were avowed capitalists that could not be “re-educated.” Ayers later became a fugitive after bombings and plots targeting the military, police, the U.S. Capitol Building and the Pentagon. Astonishingly, Ayers never served time for his involvement with the Weather Underground, and later became a professor of English at the University of Illinois at Chicago. He was also a neighbor and fellow board member with another Chicago radical — the future President of the United States, Barack Obama. Obama spoke openly about preferring the company of radicals in college. What concerned so many about Obama was the sheer number of people around him throughout his entire life engaged in detestable acts that were contrary to the principles of the Constitution of the United States. In his book, “Dreams from My Father,” President Obama told of his close relationship with his mentor Frank, who turned out to be the card-carrying member of the Communist Party — Frank Marshall Davis. Obama’s birth father was a Kenyan communist. His mother, a radical, as were his grandparents. After college, Obama’s spiritual guide and mentor was Pastor Jeremiah Wright. He and Michelle attended his church in Chicago and listened to his sermons for more than 20 years, where Wright preached Marxist liberation theology and anti-Americanism. The Marxist ideology of class warfare is a theme running rampant through the current election cycle for the next president. Hillary Clinton has been stoking the flames of class warfare. Self-avowed socialist Bernie Sanders is running is running on a platform of policies enshrined in the Constitution of the Soviet Union. Certain Marxist principles have become so persuasive in America that progressives have not just taken over the Democratic Party, but they also have a foothold with the Republican Party. Somehow, the ideology that has produced more suffering on earth than literally anything else ever, has caused more peacetime death than anything, with the possible exception of infectious disease, has become celebrated. Whatever the reality, the class warfare conducted by the left in America seems to be having an impact: There is a growing perception that communism and socialism are superior systems. In a recent poll, 11 percent of Americans believe communism is a morally superior system and 13 percent were unsure. Just 53 percent of Americans surveyed believed capitalism is better than socialism. A whopping 58 percent of America’s college students have a favorable impression of socialism and 56 say the same for capitalism. One of these ideological and economic systems — capitalism or communism — is responsible for pulling the world out of the Dark Ages and into the light of prosperity. The other is responsible for death and misery on an epic scale. Listen to the Full Series on Communism

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Who led India to overthrow British rule by non-violent means?

Non-Violence | The Story of India - Photo Gallery | PBS The Story of India The reclining statue of the Buddha in the Mahaparinirvana Temple at Kushinagar, in Uttar Pradesh Explore the Topic For many today, non-violence is a concept only associated with Mahatma Gandhi and India's freedom struggle during the early 20th century. However, Gandhi's championing of non-violent resistance, or satyagraha , to bring about political change relied on principles that were already deeply ingrained in Indian thought and culture. Non-violence or non-injury (ahimsa in Sanskrit) is a precept common to three faiths that originated in the Indian subcontinent—Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Ahimsa is identified as an essential virtue in the ancient Hindu treatises the Upanishads. In Hinduism , adherents to the proscription against violence toward living things can escape from the cycle of rebirth and the doctrine also forms a basis for vegetarianism. In Buddhism , non-violence is manifest in the Buddha 's emphasis on compassion and is also part of the faith's moral codes. Buddhist principles of non-violence became part of the administrative policy of the Mauryan Empire during the reign of Ashoka in the third century, and reminders of these principles, such as this reclining Buddha , can still be found throughout India. In Jainism , non-violence is a core religious duty and followed so strictly that the most orthodox devotees cover their faces with masks to prevent accidentally harming insects. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi Mohandas Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948), known as Mahatma ("Great Soul"), was the great political leader and social reformer who founded India's nonviolent movement against British colonial rule. Born the son of a state minister in Gujarat in 1869, Gandhi moved to South Africa after studying law in London. While practicing law in South Africa, between 1893 and 1914, he became a social reformer and mobilized diverse South African communities to protest British laws, such as the poll tax, that discriminated against Indians. While in Africa, he developed the practice of satyagraha , or nonviolent protest, based on the ethical ideal of ahimsa ("no-harm" or non-violence) a precept deeply rooted in the three faiths that originated in India— Hinduism , Buddhism , and Jainism . In 1909, he wrote his landmark work, Hind Swaraj, or Freedom of India, that discussed nonviolent non-cooperation as a means to end British colonial rule. After returning to India in 1915, Gandhi organized satyagrahas against poverty and unfair taxes, championing boycotts and peaceful strikes.  In the 1920s, Gandhi reorganized the Indian National Congress and wrote its constitution that prioritized Congressional representation for rural India and created a permanent committee to agitate for independence. He also adopted a simpler way of life, eschewing European clothes for the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, which he spun on a charkha; adhering to a strictly vegetarian diet; and undertaking fasts that he also employed in social protest. From 1920 to 1948, Gandhi organized a series of campaigns that successfully mobilized Indians across the country against British rule. A non-cooperation movement in the early 1920s that urged citizens to boycott civic services and withhold tax revenues led to thousands of arrests and a government ban on public meetings. In 1930, he led a satyagraha against the British salt tax, marching 240 miles from his Sabarmati ashram to Dandi beach, in Gujarat. After picking up a lump of sea salt on the beach, Gandhi was arrested for breaking the law and 60,000 to 90,000 others would be arrested over the next few months. Before Gandhi could organize a "Quit India" campaign against British rule in 1942, he was arrested and detained in jail for the duration of World War II. On January 30, 1948, Gandhi was assassinated in Delhi by a radical Hindu nationalist, Naturam Godse. India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru famously said after Gandhi's assassination: "The light has gone out of our lives." His methods of nonviolence would influence civil rights movements around the world and figures including Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nelson Mandela. Satyagraha Mahatma Gandhi Hindi for "holding fast to the truth" or "truth force," satyagraha was a form of civil disobedience against British rule in South Africa and India advocated by India's Mahatma Gandhi . Satyagraha draws on traditions of non-violence in Buddhism and Jainism and influenced 20th-century activists including Martin Luther King, Jr. Peaceful marches, picketing, and non-cooperation are among satyagraha tactics used to persuade the opposition to accept the ideal or right way of behavior. Gandhi's first satyagraha in 1918 focused on residents in Bihar who were forced to grow and sell indigo for very low prices. Organized protests and strikes against landlords in Bihar led to agreements between the British government and the farmers. In 1919, another satyagraha focused on excessive taxes levied by the British on famine-stricken peasants in Gujarat. After Gujarati farmers waged a tax revolt, the British government seized their lands. In the wake of continued protest, the government eventually met farmers' demands by suspending taxes for two years and returning their lands. Gandhi's most famous satyagraha, in 1931, targeted the British-imposed salt laws that punished individuals who manufactured their own salt. At 61 years old, Gandhi and a group of followers marched 240 miles from Sabarmati to the coast at Dandi, encouraging people he met along the way to use their own salt. When he reached the coast, he picked up a lump of salt from the beach, breaking the salt laws. The crowd then marched on a salt depot, and Gandhi was arrested. Between 60,000 and 90,000 Indians, including the entire Indian National Congress , were arrested in subsequent months. The march mobilized citizens across India but failed to garner concessions from the British. Another critical satyagraha, Gandhi's Quit India Movement, culminated in the All India Congress Committee's passage of a 1942 Quit India resolution that called for the immediate withdrawal of the British from India. Gandhi and many other protesters, including members of the Indian National Congress, were imprisoned. The British would begin independence talks with the Indian National Congress in 1946, and granted India its independence in 1947. Hinduism Brahma, Tanjore Practiced primarily in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal, Hinduism is considered the world's oldest religion, with traditions originating in and before the Neolithic era, around 8,000 years ago. Hinduism may have had its beginnings in the Indus River Valley in modern Pakistan, and the word hindu comes from the Persian name for that river. A heterogeneous philosophy, Hinduism has no one founder and includes many sacred texts, the most ancient being the Vedas. Among the variety of genres included in the Vedic texts, composed 1500 – 1100 BCE, are hymns to gods, descriptions of rituals and philosophical writings. Commentaries on the Vedic books, written between 800 and 100 BCE, discuss the transcendent principal of Brahman, the source of the universe. Also influential are the great epics of the Mahabharata and Ramayana written between 500 BCE and 200 CE. Among these epics, the Bhagavad Gita describes the central idea of moksha, or liberation of the soul from the cycle of perpetual death and rebirth. The primary principle of karma determines the character of the soul in this cycle. Although Hinduism contains elements of polytheism, monotheism and monism, all gods within Hinduism are today considered manifestations of Brahman. Many Hindus practice devotion to one of three main deities: Brahma , the creator of the cosmos; Vishnu , preserver of the cosmos; and Shiva , destroyer of the cosmos. In Hinduism, the nature of the universe and the structure of society are closely linked. Brahman is the ultimate reality and also the name given to the highest (priestly) caste. The concept of dharma describes both cosmic law and the conduct of individuals in society, including adherence to the social order. Castes in orthodox Hindu society distinguished among people of priestly, military, merchant, peasant, and untouchable (individuals with no social standing) castes—now known as dalits and the focus of positive discrimination legislation and job quotas in today's democratic India. Approximately 80% of India's population today practices Hinduism. Buddha Pipal tree in Bodhgaya supposedly descended from the tree under which the Buddha sat The Buddha is the title given to the founder of Buddhism , and means "enlightened one." He was born Siddharta Gautama, a prince of the Shakya clan whose small kingdom was located on the border between India and Nepal. Although exact dates for key events of his life are still in dispute, most scholars believe he was born sometime in the mid-fifth century CE. Siddharta grew up in luxury in the palace of his father, Suddhodhana, a warrior-caste king, and in his late teens married the princess Yasodhara. On venturing outside of the palace, he was shocked by the misery he witnessed—of an old man, a sick man, a dying man, and a corpse—and began to contemplate renouncing his princely life. When Siddharta was about 29 years old, he left his wife and young son to seek religious enlightenment. He spent the next six years in his quest to understand and break free of temporal suffering. He studied under a number of teachers and lived as a wandering, religious ascetic, practicing extreme forms of self-deprivation. He eventually decided to abandon such austere practices and resolved to sit in meditation until gaining enlightenment. One day when he was mediating under a pipal tree in the village of Gaya, later known as Bodhgaya, he reached enlightenment and came to be called the Buddha. For the next 45 years, the Buddha spent his life preaching his doctrine of the Four Noble Truths throughout northern India and attracted disciples and converts. The Buddha died, achieving parinirvana (final nirvana), at the age of 80 in the town of Kushinagar, in Uttar Pradesh. Ashoka Emperor Ashoka Ashoka (Asoka), the third emperor of the Mauryan Empire , reigned from c. 269-233 BCE, and his exemplary story remains popular in folk plays and legends across southern Asia. The emperor ruled a vast territory that stretched from the Bay of Bengal to Kandahar and from the North-West Frontier of Pakistan to below the Krishna River in southern India. The year 261 BCE marks a turning point in Ashoka's reign when, in part to increase access to the Ganges River , he conquered the east coast kingdom of Kalinga . By Ashoka's account, more than 250,000 people were killed, made captive or later died of starvation. Feeling remorseful about this massive suffering and loss, the emperor converted to Buddhism and made dharma, or dhamma, the central foundation of his personal and political life. Throughout his kingdom, the emperor inscribed laws and injunctions inspired by dharma on rocks and pillars, some of them crowned with elaborate sculptures. Many of these edicts begin "Thus speaks Devanampiya Piyadassi [Beloved of the Gods]" and counsel good behavior including decency, piety, honoring parents and teachers and protection of the environment and natural world. Guided by this principle, Ashoka abolished practices that caused unnecessary suffering to men and animals and advanced religious toleration. To further the influence of dharma, he sent his son, a Buddhist monk, to Sri Lanka, and emissaries to countries including Greece and Syria. To some historians, the edicts unified an extended empire, one that was organized into five parts governed by Ashoka and four governors. After his reign, Ashoka has become an enduring symbol of enlightened rule, non-violence, and religious tolerance. In 1950, the Lion Capital of Ashoka, a sandstone sculpture erected in 250 BCE, was adopted as India's official emblem by then Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru . Reclining Buddha Reclining Buddha, Kushinagar The statue of the Buddha reclining on his right side as he attained parinirvana (final nirvana) is carved out of sandstone, probably from Chunar near Varnasi (Benares) and roughly 20 feet long. The serene figure, with gilded head and feet, rests on a stone couch, which includes three small sculptures of devotees of the Buddha on its front side and an inscription that dates the statute to the fifth century CE. The severely damaged sculpture was uncovered by a British officer during excavations at Kushinagar in 1876 and successfully restored by him. Kushinagar, where the Buddha died, achieving parinirvana, and was cremated, is now an important Buddhist pilgrimage site. Jainism Statue of Gomateshvara, Sravanabelagola Derived from the Sanskrit word "jina," meaning "to conquer," Jainism teaches that all life forms have an eternal soul bound by karma in a never-ending cycle of rebirth. Through nonviolence or ahimsa, the soul can break free of this cycle and achieve kaivalya. Traditions and ideas central to Jainism can be traced to the 7th century BCE, but Mahavira , the last of Jainism's 24 great spiritual teachers, formalized them into the Jain religion in the 6th century. Some scholars see the roots of the faith as far back as the Indus civilization in Gujarat. Central to Jainism are five vows: nonviolence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), chastity (brahmacharya), and non-possession or non-attachment (aparigraha). As a manifestation of ahimsa, Jain monks wear nets over their mouths and sweep the street with their clothing so as to avoid harming insects, thereby accruing karma from not injuring even the smallest life forms. Mahavira, whose teachings are recorded in the Agamas texts, taught liberation through the three principles of right faith (samyak darshana), right knowledge (samyak jnana), and right conduct (samyak charitra). Between the first and second centuries BCE, the Jains divided into an orthodox sect Digambara ("sky–clad") in which followers claimed adherence to Mahavira's philosophy by going without clothes, and the Shvetambara ("white–clad") sect. Approximately four million Jains practice the religion worldwide, and important places of pilgrimage among observers include Mt. Abu in Rajasthan, site of five ornate Jain temples, and Sravanabelagola, site of a 57.5 foot statue of Gomateshvara ( Bahubali ), Jainism's first spiritual leader or tirthankara. Today Sravanabelagola is the site of the Mahamastak Abhishek , the biggest Jain religious festival which takes place every 12 years, the last one in 2007.

Mahatma Gandhi

In which Sydney cathedral sis Michael Hutchence's funeral take place?

BRIA 16 3 b Bringing Down an Empire: Gandhi and Civil Disobedience - Constitutional Rights Foundation BRIA 16 3 b Bringing Down an Empire: Gandhi and Civil Disobedience CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS FOUNDATION Bill of Right in Action Summer 2000 (16:3) Civil Disobedience BRIA 16:3 Home | " You Can't Trust Anyone Over 30": The Berkeley Free Speech Movement | Bringing Down an Empire: Gandhi and Civil Disobedience | The Rescue Movement and Free Speech Bringing Down an Empire: Gandhi and Civil Disobedience Gandhi led the movement for independence in India by using non-violent civil disobedience. His tactics drove the British from India, but he failed to wipe out ancient Indian religious and caste hatreds. Naturally shy and retiring, Mohandas K. Gandhi was a small, frail man with a high-pitched voice. He didn't seem like a person destined to lead millions of Indians in their battle for independence from the British Empire . And the tactics that he insisted his followers use in this struggle—non-violent civil disobedience —seemed unlikely to drive a powerful empire from India. Gandhi was born into a Hindu merchant caste family in 1869. He was the youngest child. His father was the chief minister of an Indian province and showed great skill in maneuvering between British and Indian leaders. Growing up, Gandhi exhibited none of his father's interest in or skill at politics. Instead, he was heavily influenced by the Hinduism and Jainism of his devoutly religious mother. She impressed on him beliefs in non-violence, vegetarianism, fasting for purification, and respect for all religions. "Religions are different roads converging upon the same point," he once said. In 1888, Gandhi sailed for England where, following the advice of his father, he studied to become a lawyer. When he returned to India three years later, he took a job representing an Indian ship-trading company that was involved in a complicated lawsuit in South Africa. Traveling to South Africa in 1893, Gandhi soon discovered that the ruling white Boers, descendants of Dutch settlers, discriminated against the dark-skinned Indians who had been imported as laborers. Gandhi himself experienced this discrimination when railroad officials ordered him to sit in a third-class coach at the back of a train even though he had purchased a first-class ticket. Gandhi refused the order and police forced him off the train. This event changed his life. Gandhi soon became an outspoken critic of South Africa's discrimination policies. This so angered the Boer population that at one point a white mob almost lynched him. At the turn of the century, the British fought the Boers over control of South Africa with its rich gold and diamond mines. Gandhi sympathized with the Boers, but sided with Britain because he then believed that the British Empire ";existed for the benefit of the world." Britain won the war, but much of the governing of South Africa remained in the hands of the Boers. In 1907, the Boer legislature passed a law requiring that all Indians register with the police and be fingerprinted. Gandhi, along with many other Indians, refused to obey this law. He was arrested and put in jail, the first of many times he would be imprisoned for disobeying what he believed to be unjust laws. While in jail, Gandhi read the essay "Civil Disobedience" by Henry David Thoreau, a 19th-century American writer. Gandhi adopted the term "civil disobedience" to describe his strategy of non-violently refusing to cooperate with injustice, but he preferred the Sanskrit word satyagraha (devotion to truth). Following his release from jail, he continued to protest the registration law by supporting labor strikes and organizing a massive non-violent march. Finally, the Boer government agreed to a compromise that ended the most objectionable parts of the registration law. Having spent more than 20 years in South Africa, Gandhi decided that his remaining life's work awaited him in India. As he left South Africa in 1914, the leader of the Boer government remarked, The saint has left our shores, I sincerely hope forever." Civil Disobedience in India When Gandhi returned to India, he was already a hero in his native land. He had abandoned his western clothing for the simple homespun dress of the poor people. This was his way of announcing that the time had come for Indians to assert their independence from British domination. He preached to the Indian masses to spin and weave in lieu of buying British cloth. The British had controlled India since about the time of the American Revolution. Gaining independence would be difficult, because Indians were far from united. Although most Indians were Hindus, a sizeable minority were Muslims . The relationship between the two groups was always uneasy and sometimes violent. One of Britain's main economic interests in India was to sell its manufactured cloth to the Indian people. As Britain flooded India with cheap cotton textiles, the village hand-spinning and weaving economy in India was crippled. Millions of Indians were thrown out of work and into poverty. Gandhi struggled throughout his life against what he considered three great evils afflicting India. One was British rule, which Gandhi believed impoverished the Indian people by destroying their village-based cloth-making industry. The second evil was Hindu-Muslim disunity caused by years of religious hatred. The last evil was the Hindu tradition of classifying millions of Indians as a caste of "untouchables". Untouchables, those Indians born into the lowest social class, faced severe discrimination and could only practice the lowest occupations. In 1917, while Britain was fighting in World War I , Gandhi supported peasants protesting unfair taxes imposed by wealthy landowners in the Bihar province in northeastern India. Huge crowds followed him wherever he went. Gandhi declared that the peasants were living "under a reign of terror." British officials ordered Gandhi to leave the province, which he refused to do. "I have disregarded the order," he explained, "in obedience to the higher law of our being, the voice of conscience." The British arrested Gandhi and put him on trial. But under pressure from Gandhi's crowds of supporters, British authorities released him and eventually abolished the unjust tax system. Gandhi later said, "I declared that the British could not order me around in my own country." Despite his differences with Britain, Gandhi actually supported the recruitment of Indian soldiers to help the British war effort. He believed that Britain would return the favor by granting independence to India after the war. Gandhi Against the Empire Instead of granting India independence after World War I, Britain continued its colonial regime and tightened restrictions on civil liberties. Gandhi responded by calling for strikes and other acts of peaceful civil disobedience. During one protest assembly held in defiance of British orders, colonial troops fired into the crowd, killing more than 350 people. A British general then carried out public floggings and a humiliating "crawling order." This required Indians to crawl on the ground when approached by a British soldier. The massacre and crawling order turned Gandhi against any further cooperation with the British government. In August 1920, he urged Indians to withdraw their children from British-run schools, boycott the law courts, quit their colonial government jobs, and continue to refuse to buy imported cloth. Now called "Mahatma," meaning "Great Soul," Gandhi spoke to large crowds throughout the country. "We in India in a moment," he proclaimed, "realize that 100,000 Englishmen need not frighten 300 million human beings." Many answered Gandhi's call. But as the movement spread, Indians started rioting in some places. Gandhi called for order and canceled the massive protest. He drew heavy criticism from fellow nationalists, but Gandhi would only lead a non-violent movement. In 1922, the British arrested Gandhi for writing articles advocating resistance to colonial rule. He used his day in court to indict the British Empire for its exploitation and impoverishment of the Indian people. "In my humble opinion," he declared at his trial, non-cooperation with evil is as much a duty as is cooperation with good." The British judge sentenced him to six years in prison. When he was released after two years, Gandhi remained determined to continue his struggle against British colonial rule. He also decided to campaign against Hindu-Muslim religious hatred and Hindu mistreatment of the so-called untouchables, whom he called the Children of God. In Gandhi's mind, all of these evils had to be erased if India were to be free. In 1930, Gandhi carried out his most spectacular act of civil disobedience. At that time, British colonial law made it a crime for anyone in India to possess salt not purchased from the government monopoly. In defiance of British authority, Gandhi led thousands of people on a 240-mile march to the sea where he picked up a pinch of salt. This sparked a mass movement among the people all over the country to gather and make their own salt. Gandhi was arrested and jailed, but his followers marched to take over the government salt works. Colonial troops attacked the marchers with clubs. But true to Gandhi's principle of non-violence, the protesters took the blows without striking back. Gandhi explained, I want world sympathy in this battle of Right against Might. Gandhi now held the attention of the world, which pressured the British to negotiate with Indian leaders on a plan for self-rule. The British, however, stalled the process by making proposals that aggravated Indian caste and religious divisions. The Mahatma decided that he had to do everything he could to eliminate Hindu prejudice and discrimination against the untouchables if India were ever to become a truly free nation. In 1932, he announced a fast unto death" as part of his campaign to achieve equality for this downtrodden caste. Gandhi ended his fast when some progress was made toward this goal, but he never achieved full equality for the Children of God." Gandhi also dreamed of a united as well as a free India. But distrust between the two factions led to increasing calls for partitioning India into separate Hindu and Muslim homelands. Independence and Assassination During World War II , colonial officials cracked down on a movement calling for the British to "Quit India." They imprisoned Gandhi and many other Indians until the end of the war. Britain's prime minister, Winston Churchill, declared, "I have not become the King's First Minister in order to preside over the liquidation of the British Empire." When the British people voted out Churchill's government in 1945, Indian independence became inevitable. But the problem was how the Hindu majority and Muslim minority would share power in India. Distrust spilled over into violence between the two religious groups as the Muslims demanded a separate part of India for their own nation, which they would call Pakistan. Disheartened by the religious hatred and violence, Gandhi spoke to both Hindus and Muslims, encouraging peace and forgiveness. He opposed dividing the country into Hindu and Muslim nations, believing in one unified India. Finally, in May 1947, British, Muslim, and Hindu political leaders reached an agreement for independence that Gandhi did not support. The agreement created a Hindu-dominated India and a Muslim Pakistan. As Independence Day (August 15, 1947) approached, an explosion of Hindu and Muslim looting, rape, and murder erupted throughout the land. Millions of Hindus and Muslims fled their homes, crossing the borders into India or Pakistan. Gandhi traveled to the areas of violence, trying to calm the people. In January 1948, he announced that he would fast until a reunion of hearts of all communities had been achieved. At age 78, he weakened rapidly. But he did not break his fast until Hindu and Muslim leaders came to him pledging peace. On January 30, 1948, an assassin shot and killed the Great Soul of India while he was attending a prayer meeting. The assassin was a Hindu who believed Gandhi had sold out to the Muslims. Sadly, the peace he had brokered between Hindus and Muslims did not last. The ancient hatreds remained. War has erupted between India and Pakistan several times, and the two countries remain hostile to one another to this day. Who was Mahatma Gandhi? He was a physically small man with a big idea who achieved great things. He worked for the dignity of Indians in South Africa, struggled for Indian independence, and inspired others like Martin Luther King Jr. in the United States to confront injustice with non-violent methods. It is the acid test of non-violence, Gandhi once said, that in a non-violent conflict there is no rancor left behind and, in the end, the enemies are converted into friends. For Discussion and Writing What non-violent methods did Gandhi use in South Africa and India to achieve his goals? How did Gandhi justify breaking the law in his civil disobedience campaigns? Do you agree with him? Explain. When, if ever, do you think non-violent civil disobedience is justified? Although Gandhi never used or advocated violence, he did not absolutely oppose it. I do believe that where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, he wrote, I would advise violence. Describe a situation where you think Gandhi might agree that resorting to violence was necessary. For Further Information Non-Violent Resistance And Social Transformation: A highly informative web site describing the importance of civil disobedience to Gandhi. A C T I V I T Y Non-violent Civil Disobedience Since Gandhi, many individuals and groups have employed non-violent civil disobedience. The question has often arisen whether the civil disobedience was justified. In this activity, students examine various situations and tell whether the situation calls for civil disobedience. Form small groups. Each group should discuss each of the situations below. For each, the group should decide two issues: Does the situation justify non-violent civil disobedience? Explain. If so, what action would you recommend for those seeking to change the situation? If not, what action would you recommend? Explain. Call on groups to report their decisions and reasons for them. Situations In 1955, the year after the U.S. Supreme Court ordered all schools desegregated, most public facilities—hotels, restrooms, water fountains, etc.—remained rigidly segregated in the South. African Americans were demanding full integration. In 1964 at the University of California in Berkeley, university rules banned all political or religious speakers, fund raising, or recruitment from the campus unless first approved by the campus administration. Students were demanding to exercise what they consider their First Amendment rights to speak out on issues, raise funds for causes, and recruit members of political and religious organizations. In 1967, America was deeply involved in the Vietnam War. Many people believed the war was wrong and demanded that the troops be brought home. In its 1973 Roe v. Wade decision, the U. S. Supreme Court in effect legalized abortion in America. Many people today believe abortion is murder and it should be stopped.   © 2016 CRF-USA • Constitutional Rights Foundation, 601 South Kingsley Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90005, (213) 487-5590 Fax (213) 386-0459 | Privacy Policy | Terms of Use

i don't know

Who's best-known stage role was as Regina in The Little Foxes?

The Little Foxes, a Curtainup review A CurtainUp Review By Elyse Sommer There are people who eat the earth and eat all the people on it like in the Bible with the Locusts. Then there are people who watch them do it. . . Sometimes I think it ain't right to stand and watch them do it. — Addie. Tina Benko (in red) and Elizabeth Marvel (Photo: Jan Versweyveld) If you had to sum up Lillian Hellman's The Little Foxes in a tweet: It's a story about money and how to use it or how to acquire more of it through deceit and greed. If ever a play seems ripe for a revival, it's certainly this saga of the rapacious Hubbards, Hellman's symbols of the merchant under class clawing its way up the social ladder after the Civil War to usurp the wealth and power of top bananas. The greedy and deceitful Hubbards can easily be seen as the forbears of the financial wizards whose reckless, self-serving practices have left not just the poor blacks of the Hubbard's small Alabama town behind , but workers and home owners all over America. With its ever timely theme, The Little Foxes is Hellman's best known and most popular plays. Its numerous productions have included three on Broadway. Tthe 1939 premiere is best remembered for Tallulah Bankhead's Regina. The viper-in-chief was played by Elizabeth Taylor in 1981 and Stockard Channing in 1997. There was also a 1941 movie that starred Bette Davis. While these productions were helmed by the likes of Mike Nichols on stage and William Wyler in Hollywood, all surrounded the actors with lavishly detailed period costumes and sets, a grand staircase being something of a de rigueur scenic centerpiece for all. But park your expectations of a comfortable, period appointed living room and that dramatic grand, curved stairway at the door of the New York Theatre Workshop. That's where Flemish director and cutting edge theater wunderkind Ivo Van Hove is once again imposing his own auteur-director's vision on that of the playwright's. Instead of sitting on chairs, the actors sit or lie on the floor or stand and stomp around a wide open prop-less stage. As for the text, actually Van Hove is true to the script (even the reference to the levees being built in New Orleans is not a trendy insert to tie this into Katrina). But his way of overcoming the so-called tyranny of the text and foxily turning this from Hellman's into Van Hove's Little Foxes, is to put his own spin on the playwright's stage directions and to push his actors to play their characters so that their interactions and reactions are not just dysfunctional but dangerously demented. Violence is everywhere, most shockingly so when a scene in which the younger Hubbard brother, Oscar, slaps his alcoholic and aptly named wife Birdie turns into full-fledged criminal abuse. So what does this latest VanHovian landscape look like? Despite the lack of convenional props, the director and production designer Jan Versweyveld, who was also aboard for Hedda Gabler , A Streetcar Named Desire and More Stately Mansions . have created a very artfully designed production. Traditionalists, especially this play's many fans, might not like it. I suspect, if she were still with us, neither would the playwright whose penchant for luxury was epitomized by her famous outing as a mink coat model. There IS a staircase, but it's straight up, without a railing and rather unimposingly tucked into a boxy center piece. It leads into a room where the actors not actively engaged in what's happening on the main playing area below are seen courtesy of Tal Yarden's video screen. The most striking of these second tier images are of Regina's husband Horace going through the phases of his illness and isolation from the rest of the family and the final image of young Alexandra Giddens' breaking free from the family's unsavory legacy (Optimists may interpret this as a portent of women able to lead more meaningful and independent lives). The wide, barren space reflects the emotional lives of the characters. The walls being covered in dark purple cloth — a color associated with royalty — makes the production's palette a metaphor for the Hubbard's aspirations. The cloth covering may be used partly to prevent the walls from collapsing and to keep the actors, who often pound the walls in rage and frustration , from hurting themselves. Thibaud Delpeut's eerie sound design, especially during the various demented outbursts, enhances the overall physical eeriness. Naturally, Van Hove's aggressive dismissal of traditional presentations of famous contemporary plays rests with the ability of the actors to buy into his vision. No problem with his lead since he's got his chief New York acting interpreter, Elizabeth Marvel, on hand to give us a powerful Regina. Marvel, more a downtown than a Broadway star, proved her affinity for VanHovianism in her famous nude bathtub scene in the controversial A Streetcar Named Desire; also as a somewhat bi-polar Hedda Gabler . Like all the Hubbards Marvel wears black whether in a dinner party gown or a mini skirt. But good as Marvel is, the actress who is most moving and memorable is this production's lady in red, Tina Benko as Birdie Giddens, the impoverished Southern aristocrat Oscar married for her family's plantation. Her bright red attire is in direct contradiction to the black pit that is her marriage. Unlike Regina who deals with the inferior status to which women of her time are relegated by manipulating her husband, Birdie succumbs to her husband's verbal and physical abuse and uses drink to dealing with a husband she fears and a son she despise. The only bright note in Birdie's dismal life is her loving relationship with her niece Alexandra (Cristin Milioti). As the nasty brothers, Marton Csokas and Thomas Jay Ryan are easy to dislike as the nasty brothers, Coskas as the oily head of the family, Ben, and Ryan as the ready-with-his fists Oscar. Nick Westrate's Leo is clearly a case of the apple not falling far from the rotten family tree. It's hard to believe that Christopher Evan Welch, whose career I've been following since I first saw him in Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, at Williamstown in 1999 is old enough to play Horace Giddings, Regina's heartsick (physically as well as emotionally) banker husband. Interestingly, unlike the bankers who have been denounced as some of the chief villains of our current financial problems, the banker here is the moral counterpoint to the Hubbards' immorality. That said, the desperately ill Horace apparently has, during his healthier past, not suffered Regina's rejection without finding solace elsewhere. Despite Horace's fragile clasp on life (Welch wheezes and struggles for breath most convincingly) his maneuvers to save his daughter from the influence of the Hubbards does reveal a certain ruthless aspect of his s own nature. That leaves it to the two servants, Addie and Cal (both Linda Gravatt and Creig Sargeant proving that small roles can make a big impact) to be the only characters to represent the virtues of loyalty of the underclass left behind by the likes of the ladder climbing Hubbards and subjected to the slings and arrows of their selfish ways. Ultimately, whether done with grand interiors or in Van Hove's deconstructionist style, The Little Foxes is a melodramatic soap opera, but one I've always liked. It rises above its genre thanks to Hellman's incisive dialogue and the roles she's written that bring out the best in whoever plays them. Whether you're energized or enraged by this highly stylized production, you won't be bored. The Little Foxes Directed by Ivo van Hove Cast: Tina Benko (Birdie Hubbard), Marton Csokas (Ben Hubbard), Sanjit De Silva (William Marshall), Lynda Gravatt (Addie), Elizabeth Marvel (Regina Giddens), Cristin Milioti (Alexandra Giddens), Thomas Jay Ryan (Oscar Hubbard), Greig Sargeant (Cal), Christopher Evan Welch (Horace Giddens), Nick Westrate (Leo Hubbard) Production Design: Jan Versweyveld Curtainup at Facebook . . . Curtainup at Twitter Subscribe to our FREE email updates: E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] put SUBSCRIBE CURTAINUP EMAIL UPDATE in the subject line and your full name and email address in the body of the message Subscribe to our FREE email updates with a note from editor Elyse Sommer about additions to the website -- with main page hot links to the latest features posted at our numerous locations. To subscribe, E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] put SUBSCRIBE CURTAINUP EMAIL UPDATE in the subject line and your full name and email address in the body of the message -- if you can spare a minute, tell us how you came to CurtainUp and from what part of the country. In the Heights ©Copyright 2010, Elyse Sommer. Information from this site may not be reproduced in print or online without specific permission from [email protected]

Tallulah Bankhead

Who became chief designer at Givenchy in 1996?

IMDb: Most Popular People With Biographies Matching "Little Foxes" Most Popular People With Biographies Matching "Little Foxes" 33 names. Marton Csokas Marton was born in Invercargill, Aotearoa, to Margaret Christine (Rayner), a nurse, and Márton Csókás, a mechanical engineer. His father is Hungarian and his mother is Australian (of English, Irish, and Danish origin). He inherited some of his talents from his father, a trained opera singer and at one time, a trapeze artist in the Hungarian Circus. His academic training began at Canterbury University, Christchurch, New Zealand, where he commenced a Bachelor of Arts degree, majoring in Art History, and then transferred to, Te Kura Toi Whakaari o Aotearoa/ The New Zealand Drama School, graduating in December, 1989. His first acting role was in Te Whanau a Tuanui Jones by Apairana Taylor at the Taki Rua Theatre in Wellington New Zealand, (1990). He has since had an eclectic career of theatre, television and film. He appeared in the 1994 movie Jack Brown Genius in which he played the role of Dennis. After starring for 2 years in the New Zealand soap opera Shortland Street , he starred in the 1996 movie Broken English as Darko. After performing in a great number of theatrical plays, writing his own and co-founding his own theatre company, the Stronghold Theatre, Marton got the role of Tarlus in an episode of Hercules: The Legendary Journeys . After that, he continued working with Renaissance Pictures, playing the roles of Khrafstar and Borias in the 1997-1998 seasons of Xena: Warrior Princess . He continued appearing in many other shows in both NZ and Australia, such as Farscape , BeastMaster , Water Rats , Cleopatra 2525 , and more, returning for the role of Borias in three episodes of the 2000-2001 season of Xena: Warrior Princess . He was also in many movies produced in NZ and Australia, such as Hurrah , The Monkey's Mask and the mini-series The Farm . He is a citizen of the European Union and Hungary, and is a permanent resident of the United States. Most recently, Csokas starred opposite Denzel Washington in Sony's hit film The Equalizer. He played a brutal fixer for the Russian mafia and a formidable villain to Washington's reluctant hero. Csokas appeared in Darren Aronofsky's Noah as well as Robert Rodriguez's Sin City: A Dame to Kill For, a sequel to the 2005 hit film Sin City. Csokas also played the psychiatrist, "Dr. Kafka," in the hit movie sequel, The Amazing Spiderman 2, alongside Andrew Garfield, Emma Stone and Jamie Foxx. Csokas most famously starred as "Lord Celeborn" in one of the highest-grossing film series of all time, Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings trilogy. Some of his other film credits include 2010's The Debt opposite Jessica Chastain and Paul Greengrass' The Bourne Supremacy with Matt Damon. His depth of experience is illustrated in Asylum in which he starred opposite Natasha Richardson and Ian McKellen, as well as the Ridley Scott epic, Kingdom of Heaven, with Jeremy Irons, Brendan Gleeson and Liam Neeson. On the small screen, Csokas recently starred on the History Channel's miniseries Sons of Liberty as well as Discovery Channel's miniseries Klondike with Tim Roth and Sam Shepard. On stage, Csokas continues to work internationally, most recently starring in a production of Lillian Hellman's "Little Foxes" at The New York Theatre Workshop by acclaimed director, Ivo van Hove. The play was noted by Time Magazine as one of the "Top 10 of Everything of 2010." The actor has numerous classical credits, including 'Orsino' in Shakespeare's "Twelfth Night" at the National Theatre of Great Britain, 'Anthony' in "Anthony and Cleopatra" at the Theatre of a New Audience, 'Brutus' in "Julius Caesar" and as 'Septimus' in Tom Stoppard's "Arcadia" in his birthplace of New Zealand. On the Australian stage, Csokas has appeared as 'George' in "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf," directed by Benedict Andrews of the Schaubuhne Theatre in Berlin and in "Riflemind," directed by Phillip Seymour Hoffman at the Sydney Theatre Company. Keir Dullea Tall, slim, remote and boyishly handsome, one of Keir Dullea's most arresting features is his pale blue eyes, which featured in a number of watershed films of the 1960s. A major, up-and-coming film star from the "Camelot" years straight through the turbulent era of the U.S.-Viet Nam War, he never quite reached international fame. His shining star may have suffered a power outage into the next decade, but he persevered quite well on T.V. and (especially) the stage in a career now surpassing five decades. Dullea, who was born in Cleveland, Ohio, is the son of two book-store owners, and he was raised in New York's Greenwich Village section. He graduated from George School in Pennsylvania and attended both Rutgers and San Francisco State before deciding to pursue summer stock and regional theatre. Attending the Neighborhood Playhouse, he made his New York City acting debut in a production of "Sticks and Bones" in 1956. His first big break came with the pilot program of the Route 66 series, and he proceeded to find other TV roles in Naked City , Checkmate and various dramatic programs. Following stage work in "Season of Choice" (1959) and "A Short Happy Life" (1961), Dullea made an auspicious film debut in a leading role with The Hoodlum Priest , playing a troubled street gang member who crosses paths with Don Murray 's determined minister. The young actor's characters from then on seemed to walk a dangerous tight-rope of emotions, and his apparent versatility at such a young age led him to a number of other psychologically scarred portrayals. Tending to play men younger than he really was, none were more disturbed than his haphephobic adolescent David (Dullea was twenty-six at the time) in the deeply felt love story David and Lisa . Paired beautifully with Janet Margolin 's schizophrenic Lisa, Dullea won the Golden Globe Award for "Most Promising Male Newcomer." In the World War II military drama The Thin Red Line he played an edgy, nervous-eyed private who is pushed to his murderous brink by a brutal sergeant on Guadacanal. In Bunny Lake Is Missing Dullea portrayed the incestuous brother of Carol Lynley , who may or may not figure into the disappearance of Lynley's child. Keir also costarred as the mysterious intruder who inserts an emotional wedge between gay lovers Anne Heywood and Sandy Dennis in the ground-breaking film about homosexuals, The Fox . Topping that off, Dullea played the salacious Marquis De Sade himself in a relatively tame, internationally flavored production of De Sade . The apex of his film career, however, came with his lead role in Stanley Kubrick 's epic science-fiction film, 2001: A Space Odyssey , as the astronaut Dr. David Bowman. In the realm of stage acting, Keir made his debut on Broadway in 1967 with "Dr. Cook's Garden" costarring Burl Ives , and Dullea won some "flower power" stardom two years later as a sensitive young blind man who attempted to wriggle free of his protective, overbearing mother. His character also pursues love with a free-spirited girl, played by Blythe Danner , in the play "Butterflies Are Free." By the time the movie of this story was released in 1972 both stars had been replaced by Goldie Hawn and Edward Albert . Dullea next went abroad to seek film work in England and in Canada, but with lukewarm results. He continued to show his odd-man-out appeal on the Broadway stage as "Brick" in 1970, and in the Broadway revival of "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" in 1974, acting along with Elizabeth Ashley as "Maggie," and in the black comedy "P.S. Your Cat Is Dead!" one year later. In the years since then, Dullea has acted steadily on the stage in New York City, and in U.S. regional theatres, in productions of "Sweet Prince," "The Seagull" and "The Little Foxes,"among others. His cinematic roles since 1970 have included another "mysterious stranger" in The Next One , and he also reprised his "David Bowman" role in 2010 , the sequel to "2001: A Space Odyssey." Dullea has had four wives: his first was actress Margot Bennett , and he and his third wife, Susie Fuller (whom he met during the British performances of "Butterflies are Free" in London), cofounded the Theater Artists Workshop of Westport in 1983. Dullea, Fuller and her two children resided in London for quite a while. After Fuller's death in 1998, Dullea married for the fourth time in 1999 to actress Mia Dillon , who is best known for portraying the character "Babe" in in the play, "Crimes of the Heart" in New York City. Just a few weeks later they appeared together in the play "Deathtrap." Dullea has worked infrequently in television roles. Among his more recent work in movies has been the role of a senator in The Good Shepherd , along with Matt Damon and Angelina Jolie , which was directed by Robert De Niro . Frances Conroy Frances Conroy is a graduate of the Juilliard Drama Division and a member of The Acting Company. She recently won a Tony Award nomination for her performance in the Broadway hit "The Ride Down Mt. Morgan." Her other Broadway credits include "Ring Round the Moon", "The Little Foxes", "The Rehearsal" (Drama Desk Nominee), "Broken Glass", "In the Summer House" (Drama Desk Nominee) and "The Secret Rapture" (Drama Desk Nominee). Conroy's numerous Off- Broadway plays include "The Dinner Party", "The Skin of Our Teeth", "The Last Yankee" and "Othello" (Drama Desk Nominee). Anthony Zerbe Hailing from Long Beach, California, talented character actor Anthony Zerbe has kept busy in Hollywood and on stage since the late 1960s, often playing villainous or untrustworthy characters, with his narrow gaze and unsettling smirk. Zerbe was born May 20, 1936 in Long Beach, and served a stint in the United States Air Force before heading off to New York to study drama under noted acting coach Stella Adler . He made his screen debut as Dutchie, one of Charlton Heston 's fellow cowhands in the western Will Penny , played a miner in The Molly Maguires , was a post-apocalyptic, lunatic messiah in The Omega Man , hustled a naive Paul Newman in The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean , played a leper colony leader in Papillon and a former lawman gone bad in Rooster Cogburn . Zerbe also starred alongside David Janssen in the television series Harry O as the urbane, nattily dressed Lieutenant K.C. Trench, Janssen's sometime nemesis, for which he picked up an Emmy Award. Definitely in strong demand for sinister roles, Zerbe played a crazed scientist in the corny KISS Meets the Phantom of the Park , was an arrogant father in The Dead Zone , made a great General Ulysses S. Grant in North and South, Book II , starred in the military drama Opposing Force and suffered a grisly demise in an airlock full of money in the James Bond thriller Licence to Kill . Most recently, Zerbe has been seen as Councillor Hamann in The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions . In addition to his extensive television and film appearances, Zerbe has appeared in Broadway productions including "The Little Foxes", "Terra Nova" and "Solomon's Child". He was in residence for five summer seasons at The Old Globe Theatre playing several key Shakespearean characters to strong critical acclaim. He has also held residencies at the Theatre of the Living Arts in Philadelphia, the Arena Stage in Washington, D.C., and the Huntington Theatre Company in Boston. In 2003, he toured across several states with Roscoe Lee Browne in their production of "Behind the Broken Words", a performance of 20th-century poetry, comedy and drama. Bruce Davison With his blond, clean-cut, Ivy League handsomeness and ready-whipped smile reminiscent of Kennedyesque times, actor Bruce Davison fits the prototype of today's more current crop of fresh-faced, likable blonds such as Brian Kerwin and Aaron Eckhart . While it proved difficult at times for the actor to get past those perfect features and find meatier roles, his talent certainly overcame the "handicap". Extremely winning and versatile, the award-worthy actor, now enjoying an over four decade career, has included everything from Shakespeare to Seinfeld. He has also served as a writer, producer and director on an infrequent basis. Born on June 28, 1946, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvanis, the son of Clair, an architect and musician, and Marian (Holman) Davison, a secretary, Bruce's parents divorced when he was just three. He developed a burgeoning interest in acting while majoring in art at Penn State and after accompanying a friend to a college theater audition. Making his professional stage debut in 1966 as Jonathan in "Oh Dad, Poor Dad, Mama's Hung You in the Closet and I'm Feelin' So Bad" at the Pennsylvania Festival Theatre, he had made it to Broadway within just a couple of years (1968) in the role of Troilus in "Tiger at the Gates" at the Vivian Beaumont Theatre. The year after that he was seen off-Broadway in "A Home Away from Home" and appeared at the Lincoln Center in the cast of "King Lear". Success in the movies came immediately for the perennially youthful-looking actor after he and a trio of up-and-coming talents ( Barbara Hershey [then known as Barbara Seagull], Richard Thomas and Catherine Burns ) starred together in the poignant but disturbing coming-of-age film Last Summer . From this he was awarded a starring role opposite Kim Darby in The Strawberry Statement , an offbeat social commentary about 60s college radicalism, and in the cult horror flick Willard in which he bonded notoriously with a herd of rats. Moving further into the 70s decade, his film load did not increase significantly as expected and the ones he did appear in were no great shakes. With the exception of his co-starring role alongside Burt Lancaster in the well-made cavalry item Ulzana's Raid and the powerful low-budget Short Eyes in which he played a child molester, Bruce was surprisingly ill-used or underused. Insignificant as the elder Patrick Dennis in the inferior Lucille Ball musical film version of Mame , he was just as overlooked in such movies as The Jerusalem File , Mother, Jugs & Speed , Grand Jury and Brass Target . Bruce wisely looked elsewhere for rewarding work and found it on the stage and on the smaller screen. Earning strong theatrical roles in "The Skin of Our Teeth," "The Little Foxes" and "A Life in the Theatre," he won the Los Angeles Drama Critics Award for his work in "Streamers" in 1977. On TV, he scored in mini-movie productions of Mourning Becomes Electra , Deadman's Curve (portraying Dean Torrence of the surf-era pop duo Jan and Dean) and, most of all, Summer of My German Soldier co-starring Kristy McNichol as a German prisoner of war in the American South who falls for a lonely Jewish-American girl. In 1972 Bruce married actress Jess Walton who appeared briefly as a college student in The Strawberry Statement and later became a daytime soap opera fixture. The marriage was quickly annulled the following year. The 1980s was also dominated by strong theater performances. Bruce took over the role of the severely deformed John Merrick as "The Elephant Man" on Broadway; portrayed Clarence in "Richard III" at the New York Shakespeare Festival; was directed by Henry Fonda in "The Caine Mutiny Court Martial"; played a moving Tom Wingfield opposite Jessica Tandy 's Amanda in "The Glass Menagerie"; received a second Los Angeles Drama Critics Award for his work in the AIDS play "The Normal Heart"; and finished off the decade gathering up fine reviews in the amusing A.R. Gurney period piece "The Cocktail Hour". While hardly lacking for work on film ( Kiss My Grits , Crimes of Passion , Spies Like Us , and The Ladies Club ), few of them made use of his talents and range. It was not until he was cast in the ground-breaking gay drama Longtime Companion that his film career revitalized. Giving a quiet, finely nuanced, painfully tender performance as the middle-aged lover and caretaker of a life partner ravaged by AIDS, Bruce managed to stand out amid the strong ensemble cast and earn himself an Oscar nomination for "Best Supporting Actor". Although he lost out to the flashier antics of Joe Pesci in the mob drama Goodfellas that year, Bruce was not overlooked -- copping Golden Globe, Independent Spirit, New York Film Critics and National Society of Film Critics awards. Other gay-themed films also welcomed his presence, including The Cure and It's My Party . The actor eventually served as a spokesperson for a host of AIDS-related organizations, including Hollywood Supports, and, elsewhere, is active with foundations that help children who are abused. Bruce has been all over the screen since his success in Longtime Companion . Predominantly seen as mature, morally responsible dads and politicians, his genial good looks and likability have on occasion belied a weak or corrupt heart. Bruce married actress Lisa Pelikan in 1986 (well over a decade after his first marriage ended) and they have one son, Ethan, born in 1996. The handsome couple became well known around town and worked frequently together on stage ("The Downside," "Love Letters," "Breaking the Silence," "To Kill a Mockingbird") and in TV movies ( Color of Justice ). Bruce's more popular films these days have included Six Degrees of Separation starring Will Smith , the family adventure film Far from Home: The Adventures of Yellow Dog and the box-office hit X-Men and its sequel in the role of Senator Kelly. More controversial art-house showcases include Dahmer , as serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer's father, and Hate Crime , as a bigoted, murderous pastor. Bruce has attempted TV series leads in later years. With Harry and the Hendersons , he ably directed a number of the show's episodes. He has also been tapped for recurring parts on The Practice and The L Word , and is fondly remembered for his comedy episodes on Seinfeld as an attorney who goes for George's ( Jason Alexander ) throat when George's fiancée dies inexplicably of toxic poisoning. The actor recently completed a TV series revival of Knight Rider . Divorced from Lisa Pelikan , Bruce is married these days to third wife Michele Correy and has a daughter by her, Sophia, born in 2006. They live in the Los Angeles area. Sandy Dennis It would not be easy for anyone to out-do one of American theater's finest thespians, but somehow actress Sandy Dennis managed to even out-quirk the legendary Geraldine Page when it came to affecting nervous ticks and offbeat mannerisms on stage and in film. She and Page had few peers when it came to the neurotic-dispensing department. The two Actor's Studio disciples developed fascinating characterizations that seemed to manifest themselves outwardly to such physical extremes and, like a bad car accident, their overt stylings were capable of both drawing in, and repelling audiences. There was no grey area. Either way, both had a searing emotional range and were undeniably transfixing figures who held up Oscar trophies to prove there was a "Method" to their respective madness. Sandy's signature quirks - her stuttering, fluttering, throat gulps, eye twitches, nervous giggles, hysterical flailing - are all a part of what made her so distinctive and unforgettable. Her untimely death of cancer at age 54 robbed the entertainment industry of a remarkable talent. The Nebraska-born-and-bred actress was born Sandra Dale Dennis on April 27, 1937 in Hastings, the daughter of Yvonne (Hudson), a secretary, and Jack Dennis, a postal clerk. Living in both Kenesaw (1942) and Lincoln (1946) while growing up, she and brother Frank went to Lincoln High School with TV host Dick Cavett . Her passion for acting grew and grew while still at home. A college student at both Nebraska Wesleyan University and the University of Nebraska, she eventually found her career direction after appearing with the Lincoln Community Theater Group. The toothy actress left Nebraska and towards the Big Apple at age 19 just to try her luck. An intense student of acting guru Uta Hagen , Sandy made her New York stage debut in a Tempo Theatre production of "The Lady from the Sea" in 1956 and that same year won her first TV role as that of Alice Holden in the daytime series Guiding Light . A year later she made it to Broadway as an understudy (and eventual replacement) for the roles of Flirt and Reenie in the William Inge drama "The Dark at the Top of the Stairs," directed by Elia Kazan at the Music Box Theatre. She toured with that production and also found regional work in the plays "Bus Stop" and "Motel" while continuing to shine as a budding New York fixture in "Burning Bright," "Face of a Hero" and "Port Royal". Along with fellow newcomers Gary Lockwood and Phyllis Diller , Sandy made her movie debut in playwright Inge's Splendor in the Grass , a movie quite welcoming of Sandy's neurotic tendencies. In the minor but instrumental role of Kay, she is an unwitting instigator of friend Deanie's (played by an ambitiously unbalanced Natalie Wood ) mental collapse. Despite this worthy little turn, Sandy would not make another film for five years. Instead, the actress set her sites strongly on the stage and for this she was handsomely rewarded, most notably in comedy. After appearing in a two-month run of the Graham Greene drama "The Complaisant Lover" at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre in 1961, stardom would be hers the very next year with her outstanding social worker role in the lighter-weight "A Thousand Clowns". Winning the Theatre World as well as the coveted Tony Award for her performance, she continue her run of prizes with a second consecutive Tony for her sexy turn in the comedy "Any Wednesday" (1964). Having made only one picture at this juncture, Sandy was not in a good position to transfer her award-winning characters to film and when they did, they went to Barbara Harris and Jane Fonda , respectively. TV was also a viable medium for Sandy and she appeared sporadically on such programs as "The Fugitive," "Naked City" and "Arrest and Trial". In 1965, she appeared in London as Irina in a heralded Actor's Studio production of Chekhov's "The Three Sisters" with fellow devotees Geraldine Page , Kim Stanley , Shelley Winters , Luther Adler and Kevin McCarthy . The play was subsequently videotaped and directed by Paul Bogart , and is valuable today for the studied "Method" performances of its cast. It, however, received mixed reviews upon its release. Returning to film in 1966, Sandy seemed to embellish every physical and emotional peculiarity she could muster for the role of the mousy wife Honey in the four-character powerhouse play Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? by Edward Albee . It is a mouth-dropping, emotionally shattering performance, and both she and a more even-keeled George Segal as the dropover guests of the skewering cutthroat couple George and Martha ( Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton ) more than held their own. While the distaff cast won Oscars for this (Taylor for "Best Actress" and Dennis for "Best Supporting Actress"), this ferocious landmark film blew open the "Production Code" doors once and for all and a wave of counterculture filming tackling formerly taboo subjects came to be. Firmly established now with her Oscar win, Sandy found highly affecting lead showcases for herself. She was quite memorable and won the New York Film Critics Award for her young, naive British teacher challenged by a New York "Blackboard Jungle"-like school system in Up the Down Staircase . She also stirred up some controversy along with Anne Heywood playing brittle lesbian lovers whose relationship is threatened by a sexy male visitor ( Keir Dullea ) in another ground-breaking film The Fox . Sandy remained intriguingly off-kiltered in the odd-couple romantic story Sweet November opposite Anthony Newley , the bizarre Robert Altman thriller That Cold Day in the Park , and the gloomy British melodrama A Touch of Love [aka Thank You All Very Much]. Off-camera, Sandy lived for over a decade with jazz musician and saxophonist Gerry Mulligan , which began in 1965 following his devoted relationship with actress Judy Holliday who had died of cancer earlier in the year. They eventually parted ways in 1976. Rumors that they had married at some point were eventually negated by Sandy herself. Sandy also went on to have a May-December relationship with the equally quirky actor Eric Roberts from 1980 to 1985. She had no children. At the peak of her film popularity, Sandy began the 1970s in more mainstream fashion. She and Jack Lemmon were another odd-couple hit in Neil Simon 's The Out of Towners as married George and Gwen Kellerman visiting an unmerciful Big Apple. Sandy is at her whiny, plain-Jane best ("Oh, my God...I think we're being kidnapped!") as disaster upon disaster befalls the miserable twosome. Both she and Lemmon were nominated for Golden Globes. Following this, however, Sandy again refocused on the stage with an avalanche of fine performances in "How the Other Half Loves," "And Miss Reardon Drinks a Little," "A Streetcar Named Desire" (as Blanche), "Born Yesterday" (as Billie Dawn), "Absurd Person Singular," "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" (as Maggie the Cat), "Same Time, Next Year," "The Little Foxes," "Eccentricities of a Nightingale," "The Supporting Cast" and even the title role in "Peter Pan". A few TV and movie roles came Sandy's way in unspectacular fashion but it wasn't until the next decade that she again stole some thunder. After a moving support turn as a cast-off wife in the finely-tuned ensemble drama The Four Seasons , Sandy proved terrific as a James Dean extremist in another ensemble film Come Back to the 5 & Dime, Jimmy Dean, Jimmy Dean , which she played first to fine acclaim on Broadway. Reunited with director Robert Altman as well as her stage compatriots Cher , Karen Black , Kathy Bates , Sudie Bond and Marta Heflin , the film version was equally praised. Her last films included Another Woman , 976-EVIL and Parents . Seen less and less in later years, she gave in to her eccentric tendencies as time went on. A notorious cat lover (at one point there was a count of 33 residing in her Westport, Connecticut home), close friends included actresses Brenda Vaccaro and Jessica Walter . Her father Jack died in 1990 and around that same time Sandy was diagnosed with ovarian cancer. Undergoing chemotherapy at the time she filmed the part of a beaten-down mother in Sean Penn 's The Indian Runner , the role proved to be her last. Sandy died in Westport on March 3, 1992. Her ashes were placed at the Lincoln Memorial Park in Lincoln, Nebraska. A foundation in her home state was set up to "memorialize the accomplishments of Sandy Dennis, to perpetuate her commitment to education and the performing arts, to promote cultural activities, and to encourage theatrical education, performance, and professionals". A book, "Sandy Dennis: A Personal Memoir," was published posthumously in 1997. Elizabeth Ashley Love her or not, award-winning actress Elizabeth Ashley can always be counted on to give her all. Grand in style, exotic in looks, divinely outgoing in personality and an engaging interpreter of Tennessee Williams ' florid Southern-belles on stage, she was born Elizabeth Ann Cole on August 30, 1939, in Ocala, Florida. The daughter of Arthur Kingman and Lucille (Ayer) Cole, the family moved to Louisiana where Elizabeth graduated from Louisiana State University Laboratory School (University High) in Baton Rouge in 1957. The liberal-minded Elizabeth immediately embarked upon an acting career following her education and relocated to New York. Briefly using her real name, her big, breakthrough year occurred in 1959 when she made her off-Broadway debut with "Dirty Hands", played "Esmeralda" in the Neighborhood Playhouse production of "Camino Real" and took on Broadway with Dore Schary 's "The Highest Tree". Now using the marquee name of Elizabeth Ashley, the 1960s proved to be even better, taking her to trophy-winning heights. After understudying the lead roles in Broadway's "Roman Candle" and "Mary, Mary", she won the role of "Mollie" in the delightful comedy "Take Her, She's Mine" and won both the "supporting actress" Tony and Theatre World Awards for it. Neil Simon was quite taken by the new star and created especially for her the role of "Corie Bratter" in 1963's "Barefoot in the Park" opposite 'Robert Redford'. She received another Tony nomination, this time for "Best Actress". In addition to these theatrical pinnacles, Elizabeth also found happiness in her private life when she met and married (in 1962) actor James Farentino , who was also on his way up. This happiness, however, was short-lived...the marriage lasted only three years. The attention she earned from Broadway led directly to film offers and she made a highly emotive debut in Harold Robbins glossy soaper The Carpetbaggers , headlining handsome George Peppard . The critics trashed the movie but Elizabeth sailed ahead...temporarily. Following intense roles in the superb all-star film epic Ship of Fools and the psychological crime drama The Third Day , which again starred Peppard, the still-married Elizabeth divorced her husband and wed Peppard in 1966, taking a hiatus to focus on domestic life. The couple went on to have son Christian Peppard (born 1968), who would later become a writer. The Peppard-Ashley marriage was a volatile one, however, and the twosome ultimately divorced in 1972. Wasting no time, Elizabeth returned to the stage and also went out for TV roles. Abandoning a film career that had just gotten out of the starting gate proved detrimental and she never did recapture the momentum she once had. Broadway, however, was a different story. The dusky-toned actress pulled out all the stops as "Maggie the Cat" in Tennessee Williams s "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" (1974) co-starring Keir Dullea and as "Sabina" in Thornton Wilder 's "The Skin of Our Teeth" the following year, and she was back on top. Other heralded work on the live stage would include "Caesar and Cleopatra" opposite Rex Harrison , "Vanities" and, notably, "Agnes of God", for which she received the Albert Einstein Award for "excellence in the performing arts". Following "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" for which she won a third Tony nomination, Elizabeth struck up a close friendship with author Williams. Over time, she would play and come to define three of his (and the theater's) finest female roles: "Mrs. Venable" in "Suddenly, Last Summer" (1995), "Alexandra Del Lago" in "Sweet Bird of Youth (1998) and "Amanda Wingfield" in "The Glass Menagerie (2001). In addition, she also appeared in Williams' "Eight by Tenn" (a series of his one-act plays), "Out Cry", "The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore" and "The Red Devil Battery Sign". In 2005, 31 years after playing "Maggie", she was again a success in "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof", this time as "Big Mama". Elizabeth went on to sink her teeth into a number of other famous plays as well, all peppered with her inimitable trademark flourish: "Martha" in "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf", "Isadora Duncan" in "When She Danced", Maria Callas in "Master Class" and the scheming "Regina" in "The Little Foxes", to name a few. On 90s TV, she found daytime soaps to her liking with eye-catching parts on Another World and All My Children . She also appeared in the ensemble cast of Burt Reynolds ' series Evening Shade . Occasional serious film supports in Rancho Deluxe and Coma were often intertwined with campier, over-the-top ones such as her psychotic lesbian in Windows . Overcoming a series of tragic, personal setbacks -- a third divorce, a boating accident, a NY apartment fire and a rape incident -- the still-lovely Elizabeth continues to demonstrate her mettle and maintain a busy acting schedule on stage ("Enchanted April", "Ann & Debbie"), film ( Happiness , The Cake Eaters ) and TV. Elsewhere, her memoir "Actress: Postcards from the Road" (1978) became a best seller. She was also a founding member of the Board of Directors of the American Film Institute while serving on the first National Council of the Arts during the administrations of Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, and has also served on the President's Committee for the Kennedy Center Lifetime Achievement Awards. Dan Duryea Dan Duryea was educated at Cornell University and worked in the advertising business before pursuing his career as an actor. Duryea made his Broadway debut in the play "Dead End." The critical acclaim he won for his performance as Leo Hubbard in the Broadway production of "The Little Foxes" led to his appearance in the film version, in the same role. Jennifer Dundas In addition to her film credits, Jennifer Dundas has had a long and distinguished career in the New York theatre. She starred in the American premieres of Tom Stoppard's "Arcadia" opposite Billy Crudup on Broadway, "Iron" and "Further Than The Furthest Thing" at Manhattan Theatre Club. She created the role of Edie in the world premiere of Jules Feiffer's "Grownups" on Broadway, and she originated Maggie in Peter Hedges' "Good As New" opposite John Spencer at Manhattan Class Company, for which she received an OBIE Award. Her acclaimed New York performances include "The Little Foxes" opposite Stockard Channing, "Ah, Wilderness!" with Colleen Dewhurst and Jason Robards, "As You Like It" (Shakespeare In The Park, directed by Mark Lamos), and "A Winter's Tale" with Christopher Reeve and Mandy Patinkin (Public Theatre, directed by James Lapine). Ms. Dundas' other notable performances include Laura in "The Glass Menagerie" opposite Sally Field at the Kennedy Center, Raina in "Arms and The Man" opposite Eric Stoltz at Williamstown, Hermia in Sir Peter Hall's production of "A Midsummer Night's Dream" at the Ahmanson, and Dunyasha in "The Cherry Orchard" opposite Annette Bening and Alfred Molina at the Mark Taper Forum. She has played starring roles at Trinity Rep, Yale Rep, Seattle Rep, American Repertory Theatre, South Coast Rep, Long Wharf Theater and many others. In 1995, Ms. Dundas was honored by American Theatre Magazine as one of six New Faces of The Year. Featured on the cover with her were fellow honorees Billy Crudup, Megan Mullally, Justin Kirk, Rufus Sewell, and Jude Law. Originally from Newton, MA, Ms. Dundas made her Broadway debut at age ten, and appeared in her first film at age eleven. In summer '06 she went "home" to Boston to play Kate in "The Taming of the Shrew" at the Commonwealth Shakespeare Company on Boston Common, which was estimated to have been viewed by over 75,000 people in a period of three weeks. William Wyler William Wyler was an American filmmaker who, at the time of his death in 1981, was considered by his peers as second only to John Ford as a master craftsman of cinema. The winner of three Best Director Academy Awards, second again only to Ford's four, Wyler's reputation has unfairly suffered as the lack of an obvious "signature" in his diverse body of work denies him the honorific "auteur" that has become a standard measure of greatness in the post-"Cahiers du Cinema" critical community. Estimable, but inferior, directors typically are praised more than is Wyler, due to an obviousness of style that makes it easy to encapsulate their work. However, no American director after D.W. Griffith and the early Cecil B. DeMille , not even the great Orson Welles , did as much to fully develop the basic canon of filmmaking technique than did Wyler -- once again, with the caveat of John Ford. Wyler's directorial career spanned 45 years, from silent pictures to the cultural revolution of the 1970s. Nominated a record 12 times for an Academy Award as Best Director, he won three and in 1966, was honored with the Irving Thalberg Award, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences' ultimate accolade for a producer. So high was his reputation in his lifetime that he was the fourth recipient of the American Film Institute's Lifetime Achievement Award, after Ford, James Cagney and Welles. Along with Ford and Welles, Wyler ranks with the best and most influential American directors, including Griffith, DeMille, Frank Capra , Howard Hawks , Alfred Hitchcock , Stanley Kubrick and Steven Spielberg . Born Willi Wyler on July 1, 1902, in Mulhouse in the province of Alsace, then a possession of Germany, to a Swiss father and a German mother, Wyler used his family connections to establish himself in the film industry. Upon being offered a job by his mother's first cousin, Universal Studios head Carl Laemmle , Wyler emigrated to the US in 1920 at the age of 18. After starting in Universal's New York offices as an errand boy, he moved his way up through the organization, ending up in the California operation in 1922. Wyler was given the opportunity to direct in July 1925, with the two-reel western The Crook Buster . It was on this film that he was first credited as William Wyler, though he never officially changed his name and would be known as "Willi" all his life. For almost five years he performed his apprenticeship in Universal's "B" unit, turning out a score of low-budget silent westerns. In 1929 he made his first "A" picture, Hell's Heroes , Universal's first all-sound movie shot outside a studio. The western, the first version of the "Three Godfathers" story, was a commercial and critical success. The initial years of the Great Depression brought hard times for the film industry, and Universal went into receivership in 1932, partially due to financial troubles brought about by rampant nepotism and the runaway production costs rung up by producer Carl Laemmle Jr. , the son of the boss. There were 70 Laemmle family members on the Universal payroll at one point, including Wyler. In 1935 "Uncle" Carl was forced to sell the studio he had created in 1912 with the 1912 merger of his Independent Motion Picture Co. with several other production companies. Wyler continued to direct for Universal up until the end of the family regime, helming Counsellor at Law , the film version of Elmer Rice 's play featuring one of John Barrymore 's more restrained performances, and The Good Fairy , a comedy adapted from a Ferenc Molnár play by Preston Sturges and starring Margaret Sullavan , who was Wyler's wife for a short time. Both films were produced by his cousin, "Junior" Laemmle. Emancipated from the Laemmle family, Wyler subsequently established himself as a major director in the mid-1930s, when he began directing films for independent producer Samuel Goldwyn . Willi would soon find his freedom fettered by the man with the fabled "Goldwyn touch," which entailed bullying his directors to recast, rewrite and recut their films, and sometimes replacing them during shooting. The first of the Wyler-Goldwyn works was These Three , based on Lillian Hellman 's lesbian-themed play "The Children's Hour" (the Sapphic theme was jettisoned in favor of a more conventional heterosexual triangle due to censorship concerns, but it resurfaced intact when Wyler remade the film a quarter-century later). His first unqualified success for Goldwyn was Dodsworth , an adaptation of Sinclair Lewis ' portrait of a disintegrating American marriage, a marvelous film that still resonates with audiences in the 21st century. He received his first Best Director Oscar nomination for this picture. The film was nominated for Best Picture, the first of seven straight years in which a Wyler-directed movie would earn that accolade, culminating with Oscars for both Willi and Mrs. Miniver in 1942. Wyler's potential greatness can be seen as early as "Hell's Heroes," an early talkie that is not constrained by the restrictions of the new technology. The climax of the picture, with Charles Bickford 's dying badman walking into town, is a long tracking shot that focuses not on the actor himself but the detritus that he shucks off to lighten his load as he brings a baby back to a cradle of civilization. The scene is a harbinger of the free-flowing style that would become a hallmark of his work. However, it was with "Dodsworth" that Wyler began to establish his critical reputation. The film features long takes and a probing camera, a style that Wyler would make his own. Now established as Goldwyn's director of choice, Wyler made several films for him, including Dead End and Wuthering Heights . Essentially an employee of the producer, Wyler clashed with Goldwyn over aesthetic choices and longed for his freedom. Goldwyn had demanded that the ghetto set of "Dead End" be spruced up and that "clean garbage" be used in the water tank representing the East River, over Wyler's objections. Goldwyn prevailed, as he did later with the ending of "Wuthering Heights." After Wyler had finished principal photography on the film, Goldwyn demanded a new ending featuring the ghosts of Heathcliff and Cathy reunited and walking away towards what the audience would assume is heaven and an eternity of conjoined bliss. Wyler opposed the new ending and refused to shoot it. Goldwyn had his ending shot without Wyler and had it tacked onto the final cut. It was an artistic betrayal that rankled Willi. Goldwyn loaned out Wyler to other studios, and he made Jezebel and The Letter for Warner Bros. Working with Bette Davis in the two masterpieces, as well as in Goldwyn's The Little Foxes , Wyler elicited three of the great diva's finest performances. In these films and his films of the mid-to-late 1930s, Wyler pioneered the use of deep-focus cinematography, most famously with lighting cameraman Gregg Toland . Toland shot seven of the eight films Wyler directed for Goldwyn: "These Three", Come and Get It , "Dead End," "Wuthering Heights" (for which Toland won his only Academy Award), The Westerner , "The Little Foxes" and The Best Years of Our Lives . Compositions in Wyler pictures frequently featured multiple horizontal planes with various characters arranged in diagonals at varying distances from the camera lens. Creating an illusion of depth, these deep-focus shots enhanced the naturalism of the picture while heightening the drama. As the photography of Wyler's films was used to serve the story and create mood rather than call attention to itself, Toland was later mistakenly given credit for creating deep-focus cinematography along with another great director, Orson Welles, in Citizen Kane . In truth, Wyler's first use of deep-focus cinematography was in 1935, with "The Good Fairy," on which Norbert Brodine was the lighting cameraman. It was the first of his films featuring deep-focus shots and the diagonal compositions that became a Wyler leitmotif. The film also includes a receding mirror shot a half-decade before Toland and Welles created a similar one for "Citizen Kane." Wyler won his first Oscar as Best Director with "Mrs. Miniver" for MGM, which also won the Oscar for Best Picture, the first of three Wyler films that would be so honored. Made as a propaganda piece for American audiences to prepare them for the sacrifices necessitated by World War II, the movie is set in wartime England and elucidates the hardships suffered by an ordinary, middle-class English family coping with the war. An enthusiastic President Franklin D. Roosevelt , after seeing the film at a White House screening, said, "This has to be shown right away." The film also won Oscars for star Greer Garson and co-star Theresa Wright , for cinematographer Joseph Ruttenberg and for Best Screenplay. After "Miniver," Wyler went off to war as an officer in the U.S. Army Air Corps. One of his more memorable propaganda films of the period was a documentary about a B-17 bomber, The Memphis Belle: A Story of a Flying Fortress , He also directed the Navy documentary The Fighting Lady , an examination of life aboard an American aircraft carrier. Though the later film won an Oscar as Best Documentary, "The Memphis Belle" is considered a classic of its form. The making of the documentary was even the subject of a 1990 feature film of the same name. "The Memphis Belle" focuses on the eponymous B-17 bomber and its 25th, and last, air raid flown from a base in England. The documentary features aerial battle footage that Wyler and his crew shot over the skies of Germany. One of his photographic crew, flying in another plane, was killed during the filming of the air battles. Wyler himself lost the hearing in one ear and became partially deaf in the other due to the noise and concussion of the flak bursting around his aircraft. Wyler's first picture upon returning from World War II would prove to be the last movie he made for Goldwyn. A returning veteran like those portrayed in "The Best Years of Our Lives" (1946), this film won Wyler his second Oscar. The movie, which featured a moving performance by real-life veteran and double amputee Harold Russell , struck a universal chord with Americans and was a major box office hit. It was the second Wyler-directed picture to be named Best Picture at the Academy Awards. The film also won Oscars for star Fredric March and co-star Russell (who was also given an honorary award "for bringing hope and courage to his fellow veterans"), film editor Daniel Mandell , composer Hugo Friedhofer and screenwriter Robert E. Sherwood , and was instrumental in garnering the Irving Thalberg Award for Samuel Goldwyn, who also took home the Best Picture Oscar that year as "Best Years" producer. Though Wyler elicited some of the finest performances preserved on film, ironically he could not communicate what he wanted to an actor. A perfectionist, he became known as "40-Take Wyler", shooting a scene over and over again until the actors played it the way he wanted. With his use of long takes, actors were forced to act within each take as their performances would not be covered in the cutting room. His long takes and lack of cutting slowed down the pacing of his films, providing a greater feeling of continuity within each scene and intimately involving the audience in the development of the drama. The story in a Wyler film was allowed to unfold organically, with no tricky editing to cover up holes in the script or to compensate for an inadequate performance. Wyler typically rehearsed his actors for two weeks before the beginning of principal photography. While more actors won Academy Awards in Wyler movies, 14 out of a total of 36 nominations (more than any other two directors combined), few actors worked more than once or twice with him. Bette Davis worked on three films with him and won Academy Award nominations for each performance and an Oscar for "Jezebel." On their last collaboration, "The Little Foxes" (1941), Davis walked off the production for two weeks after clashing with Wyler over how her character should be played. He proved hard on other experienced actors, such as Laurence Olivier in "Wuthering Heights," who gave credit to Willi for turning him from a stage actor into a movie actor. "This isn't the Opera House in Manchester," Wyler told Olivier, his way of conveying that he should tone down his performance. A year earlier, Wyler had forced Henry Fonda through 40 takes on the set of "Jezebel," Wyler's only direction being "Again" after each repeated take. When Fonda demanded some input on what he was doing wrong, Wyler replied only: "It stinks. Do it again." According to Charlton Heston , Wyler approached him early in the shooting of Ben-Hur and told him that his performance was inadequate. When a dismayed Heston asked him what he should do, "Be better" is all that Wyler could supply. In his autobiography, Elia Kazan , a famed "actor's director", tells how he offered advice to an actor acquaintance of his who was making a Wyler picture as he knew that the great director was inarticulate about acting and would be unable to give advice. Wyler believed that after many takes, actors got angry and began to shed their preconceived ideas about acting in general and the part in particular. Stripped of these notions, actors were able to play at a truer level. It is a process that Stanley Kubrick would subsequently use on his post- 2001: A Space Odyssey films, though to different results, creating an otherworldly anti-realism rather than the more naturalistic truth of a Wyler movie performance. Wyler's method often meant that his films went over schedule and over budget, but he got results. The performances in Wyler films are part of this craftsman's consummate skill for injecting thoughtfulness into his movies while avoiding sentimentality and pandering to the audience. A Wyler film demands that his audience, like his actors, become intelligent collaborators of his. William Wyler's reputation has suffered as he is not considered an "auteur," or "author" of his films. However, in his postwar career, he definitely was the auteur, or controlling consciousness, behind his films. Though he never took a screenwriting credit (other than for an early horse opera, Ridin' for Love ), he selected his own stories and controlled the screenwriting, hiring his own writers in a development process that could take years. Wyler films in his postwar period include The Heiress , a fine version of Henry James ' novel "Washington Square," with an Oscar-winning performance by Olivia de Havilland ; Detective Story , a police drama that takes place on a minimal, controlled set almost as restricted as that of Hitchcock's Rope ; and Roman Holiday , which won Audrey Hepburn an Oscar in her first leading role. The other films of this period are Carrie , The Desperate Hours and Friendly Persuasion . Wyler returned to the western genre one last time with The Big Country , a picture far removed in scope from his two-reeler origins, featuring Gregory Peck , Heston, and Wyler's old "Hell's Heroes" star Bickford. Burl Ives won a Best Supporting Actor Oscar for his role as the patriarch of an outlaw clan in conflict with Bickford's family. Wyler was next enlisted by producer Sam Zimbalist to helm MGM's high-stakes "Ben-Hur" (1959), a remake of its 1925 classic. It was a high-budget ($15 million, approximately $90 million when factored for inflation), wide-screen (the aspect ratio of the film is 2.76 to 1 when properly shown in 70mm anamorphic prints, the highest ratio ever used for a film) epic that the studio had spent six years preparing. Principal photography required more than six months of shooting on location in Italy, with hundreds of crew members and thousands of extras. Wyler was the overlord of the largest crew and oversaw more extras than any other film had ever used. Despite its size, Wyler's "Ben-Hur," along with Kubrick's Spartacus , is arguably the most intelligent entry in the Biblical blockbuster genre. Grossing $74 million (approximately $600 million at today's ticket prices, ranking it #13 film in terms of all-time box office performance, when adjusted for inflation), the film was the fourth highest-grossing film of all-time when it was released, surpassed only by Gone with the Wind , DeMille's The Ten Commandments , and Walt Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs . "Ben-Hur" went on to win 11 Oscars out of 12 nominations, including a third Best Director Academy Award for Willi. The 11 Oscars set a record since tied by Titanic and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King . In the last decade of his career, he remade "These Three" as The Children's Hour , a franker version of Hellman's play than his 1936 version. The Collector was his last artistic triumph, and he had his last hit with Funny Girl , for which Barbra Streisand repeated Audrey Hepburn's success of 15 years earlier, wining an Oscar in her first lead role. Wyler's last film was The Liberation of L.B. Jones , an estimable failure that tackled the theme of racial prejudice, but which came out in the revolutionary time of Easy Rider and other such films, and held little promise for such traditional warhorses as Wyler. Though he dreamed of making more pictures, Wyler's failing health kept him from taking on another film. Instead, he and his wife Margaret Tallichet , the mother of his five children, contented themselves with travel. William Wyler died on July 27, 1981, in Beverly Hills, California, one of the most accomplished and honored filmmakers in history. Robert Lansing Robert Lansing was an actor whose tall stature, tough looks and commanding manner belied an often thoughtful and introspective screen personality. Not that acting had necessarily been his only choice - there was jazz. As a youngster, he played drums with various dance bands and was bitten by the acting bug after performing in and directing high school plays, winning the Southern California Shakespearean Festival for dramatic acting at the age of fifteen. Then came two years of army service in Japan, where he worked with the Armed Forces Radio Service. After his discharge, he hitched a ride to New York, but stopped over in Ft. Wayne, Indiana, to spend two years as a radio announcer and act in local theatre. Once finally arrived in the 'Big Apple', he became just another struggling hopeful, frequenting the soup kitchen on 6th Avenue and travelling to auditions. Like countless others in the same position, he had to do in-between jobs to make ends meet, which in his case meant, working in a plastics factory and as a hat check attendant at a Latin Quarter nightclub. His first big break came, when he was hired to play the part of Dunbar in 'Stalag 17' on Broadway in May 1951. This was followed by roles in several prestige plays, including 'Cyrano de Bergerac' and 'Richard III', but resulted neither in recognition nor financial reward. By 1956, he was still living with his wife and child in a vermin-infested tenement on Second Avenue. Considering himself the last 'no-name leading man' in New York, Lansing decided to return to California and try his luck in films. After a few small parts in TV anthology dramas, he landed his first leading role on the big screen as a scientist who stumbles upon a method to penetrate solid matter (needless to say, with predictably dire consequences) in the low budget, but slickly made sci-fi, 4D Man . A throwback to earlier genre classics about man transformed into monster through scientific experimentation, it offered some innovative special effects and clever make-up in the deterioration of Lansing's latter-day Dr. Jekyll. More television work followed, including a lead in the short-lived detective series 87th Precinct , which resulted in him and his family settling permanently on the West Coast. His next milestone did not eventuate until four years later, when he was cast as Brigadier General Frank Savage in 12 O'Clock High . His performance was entirely convincing, of a military man attempting to balance duty with humanity and compassion. At the height of his popularity, Lansing's character was suddenly killed off half way through season two. Given the show's new timeslot at 7.30 P.M., the sponsors clamoured for a younger actor to woo the teen audience (ironically, his replacement, Paul Burke , was actually two years his senior!). Another spurious argument was, that audiences could not relate to a military man above middle-echelon rank. Understandibly a little bitter from this experience, Lansing moved on to playing the dual lead in the espionage drama The Man Who Never Was . Filmed on location in Europe, this was yet another series destined to be axed after a brief run. In-between his regular series work, Lansing had also essayed George Armstrong Custer in three episodes of Branded (not without incident: on one occasion, he was thrown off his horse and landed in hospital with a broken hip) and starred as the sympathetic lead of the family feature, Namu, the Killer Whale . In 1968, Lansing guested as Gary Seven in 'Assignment: Earth', one of the most likeable and well-written episodes of Star Trek . His self-assured performance, most certainly, stole the show. It was slated to be the pilot for a spin-off series. Sadly, by this time, the original series was already on the verge of cancellation and the project never got off the ground. Luck was not to be Bob Lansing's middle name. Nonetheless, he kept busy during the next two decades, acting on the stage, where he enjoyed rather more critical, if not financial, success, frequently performing at the Long Wharf and Cherry Lane Theatres. He received much praise for his one-man shows 'Damian' and 'The Disciple of Discontent'. His final Broadway appearance was as Benjamin Hubbard in a revival of 'The Little Foxes' in 1981. He also continued regular screen work, notably as Edward Woodward 's 'Control' in The Equalizer and as the laconic lead of mutant bug monster movies like Empire of the Ants and The Nest . A heavy smoker, Bob Lansing died from lung cancer one year into his last regular series, Kung Fu: The Legend Continues . Betty Field Thespian Betty Field was born in Boston on February 8, 1916, the daughter of a salesman and his wife. Ancestors on her father's side were Mayflower colonists Priscilla and John Alden. Her parents divorced while she was still young and Betty eventually learned to speak Spanish while traveling with her mother to various Spanish-speaking countries during her childhood. Mother and daughter settled in Newton, Massachusetts, after the mother remarried. Betty's passion for the theatre was sparked during her early teens and by 1932 she was enrolled at the American Academy of Dramatic Art. She made her professional debut in a 1933 summer stock production of "The First Mrs. Fraser" and soon was cast in stage roles elsewhere. She even found work in a London theater production of "She Loves Me" in early 1934. Rather plaintive in appearance with flat but highly distinctive tones, Betty's Broadway debut came about as an understudy in the comedy "Page Miss Glory" in November of 1934, courtesy of George Abbott , in which Betty also had a minor role. Therafter she performed frequently in the comedy mold, and in the service of Abbott, with such delightful plays as "Three Men on a Horse (1935), "Boy Meets Girl" (1936) "Room Service" (1937) and "The Primrose Path (1939), and earning fine reviews for the last two. After seeing her performance on stage as Henry Aldrich's girlfriend Barbara in "What a Life" (1938), Paramount executives utilized her services when they transferred What a Life to film. The studio not only liked what they saw but signed her to a seven-year contract. Throughout the 1940s Betty appeared in a variety of leading ingénue and co-star roles. The important part of Mae, the farm girl, in John Steinbeck 's classic Of Mice and Men starring Burgess Meredith and Lon Chaney was an early highlight, although it didn't provide her the necessary springboard for stardom. Part of the problem was that the rather reserved actress tended to shun the Hollywood scene (she still lived quietly with her mother). While performing for Abbott again on Broadway in "Ring Two" (1939), Betty met the show's playwright Elmer Rice and the couple married in 1942. Their three children, John Alden, Judith and Paul, would appear on occasion with their mother on the summer stock stage. Betty also enhanced husband Rice's plays "Flight to the West" (1940) and "A New Life" (1943), which were designed especially for her. Betty offered consistent, quality work even when the movies she appeared in met with less-than-stellar reviews. She was afforded the opportunity to work with some of Hollywood's finest leading men, including Fredric March in Victory and Tomorrow, the World! , John Wayne in The Shepherd of the Hills , Robert Cummings in Flesh and Fantasy and Joel McCrea in The Great Moment . Tops on the list was her heart-tugging performance as the anguished daughter victimized by father Claude Rains in the classic soaper Kings Row . She purposely did not renew her Paramount contract at this point and, following another sterling performance in The Southerner , took a long break from camera work. Back on Broadway, she appeared in such distinguished plays as "The Voice of the Turtle" and her husband's "Dream Girl" (Rice also directed) for career sustenance. She won the New York Drama Critics Circle award for the latter in 1946. Her Hedvig in Ibsen's "The Wild Duck" was also critically lauded. An isolated return to Paramount to play what should have been a career highlight ended up a major disappointment,. While her Daisy Buchanan in F. Scott Fitzgerald 's The Great Gatsby had mixed reviews (some felt she was miscast and not glamorous enough for the part), the movie itself (which was extensively trimmed) and her underwhelming co-star Alan Ladd were also cited as problems. Still a marquee value on Broadway, however, she displayed great range in such fare as "Twelfth Night", "The Rat Race", "Peter Pan" (taking over for Jean Arthur ), "The Fourposter" (she and Burgess Meredith replaced Jessica Tandy and Hume Cronyn ) and "Ladies of the Corridor" Betty's soulful features took on a hardened, careworn veneer by the time she returned to Hollywood in the mid-1950's. Nevertheless, she had a "Field" day as a character player appearing in a number of drab, dressed-down roles. She lent credence to a number of fascinatingly flawed small-town moms and matrons in films, among them cream-of-the-crop hits Picnic , starring Kim Novak , Bus Stop with Marilyn Monroe and Peyton Place headlining Lana Turner and Hope Lange . The stage plays "The Seagull", "Waltz of the Toreadors", "Touch of the Poet" and "Separate Tables" also accentuated this newly mature phase of her career. TV took up a large percentage of Betty's time in the 1950s and 1960s with a number of showcase roles. She continued at a fairly steady pace but without much fanfare (as she preferred). Divorced from Rice in 1956, she married and split from lawyer and criminologist Edwin J. Lukas before settling down permanently with husband/artist Raymond Olivere in 1968. Betty's swan song in films was a small, featured part in Clint Eastwood 's Coogan's Bluff as a floozie type, looking noticeably older than she was. Mixing in such stalwart, brittle roles on stage as Amanda in "The Glass Menagerie" and Birdie in "The Little Foxes", she made one of her last theater appearances in the difficult role of the mother in "The Effect of Gamma Rays on "Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds" in 1971. Betty suffered a fatal cerebral hemorrhage in Hyannis, Massachusetts in 1973, just as she was about to leave and film The Day of the Locust . Cast in the flashy role of "Big Sister", an evangelist, her part was taken over by Geraldine Page . At age 57, Hollywood lost a somewhat undervalued talent who enjoyed the work more than the stardom that often accompanied it. Amy Wright One of those dazzling chameleon players who never received their due, Amy Wright is still woefully unrecognized despite a superb resumé of Southern-styled film credits since the late 70s. On the other side of the coin, she has certainly made a distinct name for herself in the theater world as the embodiment of down-home eccentricity. As a testament to her interesting dichotomy as an offbeat actress, she played much younger than she was at the onset of her career; these days she tends to play older. Born on April 15, 1950, in Chicago, Amy was raised in the Midwest and eventually attended Beloit College. She gave up her position as a teacher to pursue her dream to be an actress in New York. Elfin in quality with an intriguing, gap-toothed look, the child-like blonde actress found almost immediate reassurance as an apprentice at actor Rip Torn 's Sanctuary Theater, making her stage debut in the company's 1975 production of "Agnes and Joan". Amy and her much older mentor (then married to theater legend Geraldine Page ) began a clandestine personal relationship that produced two daughters. Torn never divorced Ms. Page and his longtime relationship with Amy was exposed shortly before his wife's sudden death of a heart attack in 1987. The couple eventually married. Interestingly, Amy appeared with both Torn and Ms. Page in the August Strindberg short plays "Miss Julie", "Creditors" and "The Stronger" in 1977 in repertory at the Hudson Guild Theatre, later taking the last two plays to the Public Theater. Amy's sweetly countrified look and demeanor inspired a number of standout performances in high quality productions. At age 26, she earned her first major attention on stage playing a crippled teen in a successful revival of Lanford Wilson 's "The Rimers of Eldrich" in 1976. Two years later Wilson wrote the stage part of a lifetime for her as 13-year-old Shirley Tally in his acclaimed work "Fifth of July" off-Broadway in 1978. The show made a spectacular transition to Broadway in 1980. In 1983 she shared the Drama Desk Award for her ensemble contribution in the comedy farce "Noises Off". Amy's film debut was in trademark quirky form with Martha Coolidge 's documentary-styled Not a Pretty Picture , and she went on to minor roles in the small-town "A" pictures The Deer Hunter and Breaking Away . Arguably one of her most spellbinding film appearances came as Harry Dean Stanton 's religiously wacko 15-year-old daughter, Sabbath Lily, in John Huston 's Wise Blood , following this with an equally strange comic role as a bed-hopping groupie in Woody Allen 's Stardust Memories . Amy also shared moments of brilliance opposite John Savage 's handicapped lead in Inside Moves ; as William Hurt 's spinster sis in The Accidental Tourist ; in Beth Henley 's Southern-baked beauty contest spoof Miss Firecracker ; and as Jeff Daniels ' soon-to-be-married sister in Love Hurts . As much as these performances should have placed her at the very top of the Hollywood echelon of character players, Wright was surprisingly ignored for film awards and continued more or less obscurely. Nevertheless, she continued to make strong stage showings opposite the late Uta Hagen in the Off-Broadway winner "Mrs. Klein" in 1995, and as part of the familial comedy relief in "Lake Hollywood" (1999). Other reported stage appearances over time have included "Breakfast with Les and Bes", "Hamlet", A Village Wooing", "The Little Foxes" and "Prin". On camera she continues with her thoroughly offbeat ways in such movies as The Scarlet Letter , Tom and Huck (as Aunt Polly), Winning Girls Through Psychic Mind Control , Messengers and her most recent, The Namesake , along with rare TV appearances in such popular shows as "Law and Order". John Beal John Beal was born James Andrew Bliedung on August 13, 1909, in Joplin, Missouri. The son of a department store owner and concert pianist, he began acting in school and church plays and decided to pursue it as a career following his B.S. degree in economics from the University of Pennsylvania. The more marquee-friendly stage moniker of "John Beal" came from the names of two close college friends that same year. Following repertory theatre work, he began his Broadway run as an understudy and walk-on before earning his first lead in the short-lived play "Wild Waves" in 1932. Following excellent notices in the hit play "Another Language," John repeated his showcase role in the film version of Another Language opposite Helen Hayes . Declining a Hollywood contract at the time, he returned to Broadway in 1933 for "She Loves Me Not". It wasn't long, however, before he was front-and-center again in films and showing great promise in RKO movie parts opposite Katharine Hepburn in both The Little Minister and Break of Hearts , the title role in Laddie co-starring Gloria Stuart , and in the prime role of Marius in the Charles Laughton / Fredric March version of Les Misérables . Briefly signed by MGM, in which his best role was as Gladys George 's son in the studio's classic, tear-stained drama Madame X , WWII took the wind out of his career sails, serving as a staff sergeant in the motion picture unit of the Army Air Force. Theatre, radio and film would take up much of his time in the post-WWII years. Prestigious stage productions over time included "The Voice of the Turtle," "Lend an Ear," "The Teahouse of the August Moon," "Our Town," "The Long Christmas Dinner," "The Front Page," "To Be Young Gifted and Black" and "The Little Foxes". Excellent performances on TV in "A Trip to Bountiful," "Twelve Angry Men" and "The Long Way Home" added flavor and distinction to his later career. Dulcie Gray Veteran British actress Dulcie Gray's career is often linked with that of her late actor/husband Michael Denison , with whom she appeared frequently on stage, TV and in films. Dulcie was born in Malaya, where her father was a lawyer and sent her to boarding school in England at quite an early age. Originally interested in dance until the lure of the theatre altered her direction, she attended the Webber Douglas Drama School where she met her future husband. Dulcie became a London stage star with dramatic roles in "The Little Foxes" as Alexandra, and "Brighton Rock." From there she slowly moved into such popular Gainborough Studio films as Madonna of the Seven Moons , A Place of One's Own and They Were Sisters , her first lead. With husband Michael, she later appeared in My Brother Jonathan , The Glass Mountain and Angels One Five to generous reviews. However, like her husband, the theatre was her true calling and she would stay committed to it for most of her career, making relatively few films overall. She and Michael performed together in 26 stage productions, including "Candida" and "An Ideal Husband". Dulcie later turned to writing, authoring 24 books, most of which are crime novels. She earned TV success back in England with Howards' Way (in which Michael also starred) - a major hit in the late '80s -- and, following his death in 1998, she returned to the theatre playing delightful elderlies in such fare as "The Ladykillers" and "The Lady Vanishes". Sada Thompson Renowned and highly respected actress Sada Thompson has earned critical acclaim both on stage and TV for her noble, strong-minded matrons, but her more challenging and compelling work has come when her characters have displayed darker, more neurotic tones. Born in Des Moines, Iowa, she was the eldest of three children of magazine editor Hugh Woodruff Thompson and his wife Corlyss Gibson. After a family move to New Jersey, Sada developed an interest in acting, performing in school plays. She subsequently studied drama at the Carnegie Institute of Technology. Upon graduating in 1949, she began to build up her resume in regional stock and with repertory companies appearing in such productions as "Hay Fever", "The Little Foxes", "Born Yesterday", "The Clandestine Marriage" and "The Cocktail Party". Making her off-Broadway debut in 1955 with the first concert reading of Dylan Thomas ' "Under Milk Wood", Sada won a 1957 Drama Desk award for her work in both The Misanthrope" and "The River Line" and, thereafter, started leaning heavily toward the classics -- "Much Ado About Nothing," "Othello," "The Merry Wives of Windsor," "Twelfth Night," "The Tempest" and "Richard II" to name a few. The 1970s began exceptionally well, hitting her zenith with complex, transcending performances in both "The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the Moon Marigolds" (earning both Drama Desk and Obie awards) and "Twigs," in which she captured the Tony (as well as Drama Desk, Obie and Sarah Siddons awards) in which she played four roles--three sisters and their elderly mother. This renewed attention for Sada finally lent itself to film and TV work. The dark-haired, somewhat plump-figured woman with classy but slightly offbeat features was not deemed marketable for film. So, despite adding distinctive support to the dramas Desperate Characters and The Pursuit of Happiness , it was television that would garner her the attention she longed for and deserved. She won her first Emmy nomination playing Mary Todd Lincoln in Lincoln opposite Hal Holbrook 's Honest Abe. The following year, she earned another nomination as Jack Lemmon 's put-upon wife in The Entertainer , a TV remake of the 1960 British film. The Emmy would finally come to her for her sensible mother role in the touching dramatic series Family . As the proper, intelligent, slightly remote Kate Lawrence," mother of three, Sada became a TV symbol of strength, courage and integrity during the show's four seasons. She went on to receive two more Emmy nominations as Rhea Perlman 's mother on Cheers and as accused California schoolteacher Virginia McMartin, on trial for sexual abuse, in the mini-movie Indictment: The McMartin Trial . The quality of her performance along with those of fellow actors James Woods , Shirley Knight and Henry Thomas (of E.T. fame), lent an air of distinction to the obvious tabloid-driven material. In addition to other socially-relevant mini-movies, Sada occasionally returned to her beloved theater roots. She won a second Sarah Siddons award for the title role in "Driving Miss Daisy" (1989), and enjoyed a return to Broadway after nearly 20 years with "Any Given Day" in 1993. Elsewhere, her warm, soothing voice has been used frequently in documentary narratives and books-on-tape. Ms. Thompson, who lived in Connecticut with long-time husband (since 1949) Donald Stewart, had one daughter, Liza Stewart , a costume designer. She died in a Danbury hospital of lung disease on May 4, 2011, at age 83. Beah Richards Beah Richards left her native Vicksburg, Mississippi, for New York City in 1950. She would not acquire a significant role on stage until 1955, when she appeared in the off-Broadway show "Take A Giant Step" convincingly portraying an 84-year-old grandmother without using theatrical makeup. In 1962 she appeared in writer James Baldwin 's "The Amen Corner" directed by noted actor/director/activist Frank Silvera , who told Richards "Don't act, just be." She credited Silvera with helping her further develop the subtlety and quiet dignity that distinguished all of her performances. A prolific actress, poet and playwright, her first authored play was "All's Well that Ends" that delved into the issues of racial segregation. Always ahead of her time, she defined herself as "Black" when the term "Negro" was the preferred ethnic/racial label of Black Americans. Richards would bring her salutary satisfaction with being "Black" and her immense acting talents to the role of the peacemaking mother in Guess Who's Coming to Dinner , a role for which she was nominated for an Oscar. Additionally, she appeared in "Purlie Victorious" by Ossie Davis and "The Little Foxes" by Lillian Hellman . In 1988 she won an Emmy Award for her performance in Frank's Place . Although stricken with emphysema, she delivered a tour-de-force performance on the ABC legal drama The Practice in 2000; she was awarded an Emmy Award for her performance only a few days before her death--a fitting coda to an exemplary life and career. Brian Murray This wonderfully witty, enormously talented, classically-trained theatre actor has yet to find THE film project to transition into twilight screen stardom; yet, at age 70 plus, there is still a glimmer of hope for Brian Murray if one fondly recalls the late-blooming adulation bestowed upon such illustrious and mature stage stars Judi Dench , Hume Cronyn and Jessica Tandy . Born Brian Bell in September of 1937 in Johannesburg, South Africa, the Shakespearean titan attended King Edward VII School, while there. It must have been a sign. He made his stage bow in 1950 as "Taplow" in "The Browning Version" and continued on the South African stage until 1957. Though he made his film debut fairly early in his career with The League of Gentlemen and showed strong promise and presence in The Angry Silence , his first passion was, and is, the theatre and instead chose to join the Royal Shakespeare Company where his impressively youthful gallery of credits included those of "Romeo", "Horatio" in "Hamlet", "Cassio" in "Othello", "Edgar" in "Lear" and "Lysander" in "A Midsummer Night's Dream". Eventually Broadway (off- and on-) took notice of this mighty thespian and utilized his gifts quite well over the years. A three-time Tony nominee (for "Rosenkrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead", "The Little Foxes" and "The Crucible"), not to mention a recipient of multiple Obie ("Ashes" and "The Play About the Baby") and Drama Desk ("Noises Off", "Travels with My Aunt" and "The Little Foxes") awards, this lofty veteran continues to mesmerize live audiences with a wide range of parts, both classical and contemporary. Two of his later roles, that of "Sir Toby Belch" in "Twelfth Night" and "Claudius" in "Hamlet", were taken to TV and film. A more recent movie project was a nice change of pace -- voicing the flamboyant role of "John Silver" in the animated feature, Treasure Planet . Lillian Hellman During the 1930s, it was fashionable to be a part of the radical political movement in Hollywood. Lillian Hellman devoted herself to the cause along with other writers and actors in their zeal to reform. Her independence set her apart from all but a few women of the day, and gave her writing an edge that broke the rules. Born in New Orleans in 1905, but raised in New York after the age of five, she studied at Columbia. She married Arthur Kober in 1925, did some work in publishing and wrote for the Herald Tribune. When her husband, also a writer, got a job with Paramount, they moved out to California. It was there that she met Dashiell Hammett and subsequently divorced Kober. Their relationship lasted, in one form or another, for 30 years. Her first important work was the play "The Children's Hour," which was based on a true incident in Scotland. This was an amazingly successful play, and gave Lillian a definite standing in the literary community. Her next venture, a play called "Days To Come," was a complete failure so off she went to Europe. There, she took in the Spanish Civil War and traveled around with Ernest Hemingway . When back in the States, she wrote "The Little Foxes," which opened in 1939 and was a financial windfall for her. She also followed Dorothy Parker and other highly esteemed writers to Hollywood where she was well compensated for her screenwriting efforts. While it may have been fun and daring to be part of a radical political group in the 1930s, with the '40s came the Un-American Activities Committee. She was forced to testify in government hearings, and there was the threat of black lists and tax problems. She remained a visible force and became almost an icon in her later years. Despite an assortment of health issues, including being practically blind, she traveled, lectured, and promoted her political beliefs. She was 79 when she died in 1984, and yet she is still very much with us. It's been over 60 years since it originally opened, but "The Little Foxes," along with other works, is still being produced at all levels of the theater. What writer could ask for anything more? Carl Benton Reid Carl Benton Reid was a drama graduate from Carnegie Tech who had several years of stage experience performing at the Cleveland PLayhouse in the 1920's, where he met his future wife, stage actress Hazel Harrison. After moving to New York, he became a noted actor on the Broadway stage with some impressive credits to his name. Between 1929 and 1949, he appeared in such illustrious plays as "Life with Father" (in the title role), Anton Chekhov 's "The Cherry Orchard" (with Eva Le Gallienne ) and Eugene O'Neill 's Theatre Guild Production of "The Iceman Cometh". As to Reid's Harry Slade in "Iceman", the noted critic Brooks Atkinson commented for the New York Times (10/10/1946): "as the barroom's (sic) master of cosmic thinking, Carl Benton Reid is vigorously incisive and lends substance to the entire performance". Reid's stern demeanor lent itself to playing all sorts of tough characters, particularly heavy fathers, which he did ably (and often) as in "Strange Bedfellows" (1947). Way back in 1942, Atkinson had remarked on his energetic performance in the title role of the comedy "Papa is All": "Reid plays Papa with a snarl and ferocity that make the wreck at the railroad crossing an occasion of civic betterment" (NY Times, March 21, 1973). In 1941, Reid left for Hollywood to recreate his stage role of Oscar Hubbard in the outstanding film adaptation of Lillian Hellman 's play "The Little Foxes". Shot at RKO studios, it was brilliantly directed by William Wyler . With his customary scowl and icy delivery, Reid was perfect as one of two avaricious brothers (the other was played by Charles Dingle ) of equally venomous turn-of-the century Southern aristocrat Regina Giddens (whose part was played on stage by Tallulah Bankhead and in the film by Bette Davis ). Reid's powerful performance ensured many more years of regular employment in films, though none of his subsequent roles ever came close to repeating his earlier success. However, Reid found a new lease of life on the small screen, invariably as senior military brass ( Yancy Derringer , 12 O'Clock High ) or elder statesmen ( Target: The Corruptors ), even occasionally as murder victims ( Perry Mason ) or spy masters ( Burke's Law ). Tomas Boykin Tomas was born and raised in the "City of Brotherly Love," Philadelphia, PA. He was born to a musician father and a stay at home mom. Growing up he enjoyed playing a musical instrument, painting, drawing, singing and dancing. He once stated, "We danced in our house. There were no wall flowers." He was encouraged to act as early as the 3rd grade. By the time he left college he had experienced "A Chorus Line," "Pippin," "Finian's Rainbow" and "Little Foxes" and many other musical productions. Tomas trained and performed professionally in both Philadelphia and New York. He became serious about performing when he moved to New York. Carrie Nye Born to play Tennessee Williams , her harsh beauty, caustic humor and throaty tones were unmistakable and reminiscent of a bygone era that once idolized Tallulah Bankhead and Marlene Dietrich . Her old-fashioned stylings were perhaps too theatrical or indulgent to make a noticeable dent on film or TV (such was the case of Bankhead) but perhaps Hollywood was the one who lost out on what could have been a wonderfully flamboyant character actress. In any event, actress Carrie Nye belonged to the stage and in return it embraced her for four decades. The smoky seductress was born in Mississippi with the highly untheatrical name of Carolyn Nye McGeoy on October 14, 1936 (some sources indicate 1937), the daughter of a banker and a housewife. She began her adult studies at Stephens College in Columbia, Missouri, but wound up at the Yale School of Drama where she met the equally droll but less acerbic wit Dick Cavett . The couple married in 1964. It was one of those unique, complimentary pairings, like Mel Brooks and Anne Bancroft , that withstood the test of time. Cavett was not a comedian then but actively pursuing a legit acting career. Dick and Carrie subsequently went on to perform together in such plays as "Charley's Aunt," "Auntie Mame," "The Brothers Karamazov," "The Skin of Our Teeth" and "Present Laughter" before he altered the course of his career. Acting professionally from the age of 14, Carrie played all the cherished Southern belle roles (Maggie in "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" (1958), Cherie in "Bus Stop" (1958) and Blanche (at age 23!) in "A Streetcar Named Desire" (1959)) before making her Broadway debut in "A Second String" (based on a novel by Colette) at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre in 1960. From there she sunk her teeth into the classics. Notable roles included her title character in "Ondine," Celia in "As You Like It," Lady Macduff (and later Lady Macbeth) in "Macbeth," Cressida in "Troilus and Cressida," Regan in "King Lear," Cleopatra in "Antony and Cleopatra" and Cassandra in "The Trojan Women." On the lighter side, she replaced Betsy von Furstenberg in the popular lightweight comedy "Mary, Mary" and played Cecily Cardew in "The Importance of Being Earnest." In addition, she received a Tony nomination for her work in the musical "Half a Sixpence" in 1965. She didn't make her film debut until age 30 in The Group , then went on to make only a handful more -- The Seduction of Joe Tynan , Creepshow , Too Scared to Scream and Hello Again . She fared somewhat better in TV-movies, stealing the thunder from under the Richard Burton / Elizabeth Taylor pairing in Divorce His - Divorce Hers , and earning an Emmy nomination for her divine imitation of Bankhead in The Scarlett O'Hara War , which only she could have done true justice. But for Carrie it was always the theater, particularly regional theater, that took precedence. With a non-concentric and powerful grandeur, she took on a number of lofty roles over the years, including her Eleanor of Acquitaine in "The Lion in Winter," Regina in "The Little Foxes," the title role in "Hedda Gabler" and an encore performance of Blanche DuBois in 1973, this time at age 47. She earned a Drama Desk nomination for "The Man Who Came to Dinner" in 1980 and played alongside Cavett again in a 1985 production of "Nude with Violin." Throughout it all, Carrie was an established presence at the Williamstown Festival appearing from the late 50s on. Such summer productions there included "Design for Living" (1977) and "Clothes for a Summer Hotel (1989), taking her final curtain there in the role of Zelda Fitzgerald. She ended her theatrical reign on a bright note in a musical production of "Mame" (1992). Carrie pretty much left acting by the mid 1990s. In 2003, however, she took on a villainess role written especially for her on Guiding Light . In 1997, the couple's Long Island home (called Tick Hall) went down in flames. They painstakingly rebuilt an exact replica of the beloved 1883 cottage, which was chronicled in the documentary "From the Ashes: The Life and Times of Tick Hall (2003)". A heavy smoker, Carrie died of lung cancer at age 69 in her Manhattan home. The couple had no children. Richard Council Richard Council grew up in Ruskin, Florida, the second son of Buford and Louise Council. He graduated from East Bay High School with the class of 1965 and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Florida at Gainesville in 1969. In the summer of 1970 he won a grant to perform at the San Diego Shakespeare Festival. He then studied for a year on scholarship at the American Conservatory Theater, and was made an Equity Journeyman with the ACT Company from 1971-'72. He then moved to New York, and made his Broadway debut in "The Merchant of Venice" at Lincoln Center (1974). Other Broadway credits include "Sherlock Holmes" (1975), "The Royal Family" (1976), "I'm Not Rappaport" (1984), "Conversations With My Father" (1990), "Uncle Vanya" (1992) and "The Little Foxes" (1998). He is married to actress Melissa Hurst , and with their son, Will Council, they live in New York City and in Dorset, Vermont. Meagan Smith Meagan began dancing at the age of 2 and soon moved on to the wonderful world of acting at age 11. She has performed in numerous musicals such as "The Wizard of Oz", "Mame", "Bye Bye Birdie", and "The Music Man", just to name a few at regional theatres all over the country. She has also done a staged reading for "Little Foxes" at the Pasadena Playhouse. In 2000, she got her first on camera role in the independent film "Up Against Amanda" and soon began starring in commercials for SBC, MTV, and The Home Depot as well as a co-starring spot on "Close To Home". Meagan has also done many voice overs including some for the San Diego Zoo, Doritos, Carl's Jr., and "Adventures in Odyssey". Her latest project is the upcoming cartoon network show "Ben 10" where she plays Gwen. Bruce Katzman Bruce Katzman was bitten by the bug for acting at age five-and-a-half when he performed as The Dummy on the knee of his 13-year old eldest brother, Mark (The Ventriloquist), in a talent show at Camp Baco, a summer camp in the Adirondacks' town of Minerva, NY. In a professional career of over 40 years, he has performed on Broadway, off-Broadway, in regional theatre and in Film and Television. Bruce was born in New York City, the third of four children, to Nathan and Anita Katzman and, until age 14, he grew up in the Westchester suburb of New Rochelle. He found a home in the theatre, performing in school Drama Clubs and Community Theatre productions throughout his youth. During Junior High School, Bruce attended the very first training school of the Roundabout Theatre in New York City, newly founded by Gene Feist, in the basement of a supermarket at 26th St. and Sixth Ave. After moving to Sarasota, Florida in 1966, Bruce began a many-year association with the Asolo Theatre, a leading regional theatre. It provided a further professional training ground and he did many plays as an apprentice and as an intern with the company. College years brought him back north again, to Ithaca College, which he graduated from in 1973. (Among notable graduates of IC that year was Bob Iger, current Chairman of the Walt Disney Company). A summer in NYC in the early '70's introduced Bruce to the HB Studio and the influence of teachers such as Bill Hickey and Aaron Frankel and the work of Uta Hagen. In 1974, Bruce moved to San Francisco and was hired by Sankowich-Golyn as a cast-member of their long-running production of ONE FLEW OVER THE CUCKOO'S NEST at the Little Fox Theatre. The year after the production closed, he was accepted into the prestigious training program at the American Conservatory Theatre (ACT), still under the direction of Bill Ball. In 1977 he moved to Los Angeles, where he earned his SAG card in the TV series BILLY LIAR (aka/ BILLY), which featured Steve Guttenberg in his first starring role. Other TV productions from that period include EIGHT IS ENOUGH and LIKE NORMAL PEOPLE. During the late '70s, Bruce met Stella Adler in Los Angeles and began studies with her in her summer conservatories in Hollywood. In 1980, he followed her to NYC to become a full-time student at the Stella Adler Studio. In 1984, following a summer program with the British-American Drama Academy (BADA) in Oxford, England, Bruce came to the attention of Earle Gister, Chairman of the Acting Department of the Yale School of Drama. Earle invited Bruce to audition for Yale and he was accepted into the world-famous training program the following year, graduating with his MFA in 1988. Among his numerous stage credits in NY, highlights include his Broadway debut as a member of Tony Randall's inaugural company of the National Actor's Theatre at the Belasco Theatre (other actors that season included Martin Sheen, Lynn Redgrave, Paxton Whitehead and Michael York) and as a member of the award-winning revival of CABARET, selected by Rob Marshall as the stand-by for Ron Rivkin as Herr Schultz. In addition to acting, Bruce has been a teacher of acting for over 25 years, specializing in the plays of Anton Chekhov and Shakespeare, teaching at Yale School of Drama, Princeton, Williams College, Scranton University, Circle Rep (NYC), Stella Adler Studio in NY (NYU track) and The Actors Center (of NYC), as well as internationally in Denmark, in Oxford, England and in Buenos Aires. He currently teaches at the Stella Adler Academy-LA in Hollywood. Bruce is married to Carolyn Crotty from Omaha, Nebraska, an actress. Tom Moore In the theater, Tom Moore is best known as the director of "'night mother" (with Kathy Bates and Anne Pitoniak) which won the Pulitzer prize, and for which he received his second Tony nomination, and for the original "Grease", which ran for eight years and is one of the longest running shows in the history of Broadway. (Over the years , this production introduced Barry Bostwick, John Travolta, Richard Gere, Peter Gallagher, Greg Evigan, Treat Williams, Patrick Swayzee, Marilu Henner, Adrienne Barbeau, David Paymer, and countless others who now work steadily in theater, film, and television.) He most recently directed the Broadway production of "Moon Over Buffalo", with Carol Burnett . A documentary, "Moon Over Broadway", by Pennebaker-Hegedes, which followed the production from rehearsals to the Broadway opening has been playing in theaters, on television, and on video and DVD. His first Tony nomination was for the direction of the Big Band Musical "Over Here", which brought the Andrews Sisters out of retirement. Other Broadway productions include the critically acclaimed revival of "Once In A Lifetime" (with John Lithgow) at the Circle-in-the Square, "Division Street", "The Octette Bridge Club", and the short-lived, but legendary "Frankenstein". Moore has a long time association with the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles where he directed Feydeau's "A Flea In Her Ear","Division Street", (premiere), "A Month in the Country" by Turgenev, "Wild Oats" (for the Olympic Arts Festival.)"'night Mother", and Ayckbourne's "Henceforward". In Los Angeles, he also directed "Hay Fever", at the Ahmanson Theatre and "Once In A Lifetime" in a special benefit for the Los Angeles Classic Theatre Works where he also directed "The Pentagon Papers". At the American Conservatory Theatre in San Francisco, he directed "Knock Knock", "Hotel Paradiso", "The Little Foxes", and Chekhov's "Three Sisters". Also in San Francisco, he directed "The Boys in Autumn" with Burt Lancaster and Kirk Douglas. He directed "Loot" at the Tyrone Guthrie Theatre in Minneapolis: "Once in a Lifetime" at the Arena Stage in Washington D.C. "Our Town" (with Geraldine Fitzgerald as the stage manager), "Hay Fever", and "The Madwoman of Chaillot" at the Williamstown Theatre Festival in Mass.: "The Importance of Being Earnest" and "Fallen Angels" at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego: and "Traveller in the Dark" and "'night Mother" at the American Repertory Theatre in Boston. He has directed two productions of Chekhov's "The Cherry Orchard", one at the La Jolla Playhouse (with Lynn Redgrave), and the other (with Marsha Mason) was the premiere stage production at the Lensic Center for Performing Arts for Santa Fe Stages. He also directed the Brian Friel adaptation of "A Month in the Country" for Antaeus. Moore's last stage production for the Ahmanson Theatre was "The Royal Family" in Los Angeles, which starred Marian Seldes, Kate Mulgrew, George Irving, and Charles Kimbrough. And he most recently directed "When Something Wonderful Ends" both at the Ojai Playwright's Conference and The Humana Festival. He has also taught and directed at the State University of New York at Buffalo, Brandeis University, and the University of London, England. He was artistic director of the Peterborough Players in New Hampshire, and he has lectured at the Seminar in American Studies in Salzburg, Austria. He directed the National touring companies of "Grease" and "'night Mother", and presented "'night Mother" at the Spoletto Festival in Italy. On film, Moore directed "'night Mother" with Sissy Spacek and Anne Bancroft, and his short film "Journey", made for the American Film Institute won two international film awards. On television, he directed Disney's first original musical for television, "Geppetto", starring Drew Carey and Julia Louis-Dreyfuss. Also on television he directed ER (Emmy nomination), "Mad About You" (Emmy nomination), "L.A. Law" (Emmy nomination), "Huff", "Mismatch", "Gilmore Girls", "Ally McBeal", "Felicity", "Late Line", "Nothing Sacred", "Dharma and Greg", "Suddenly Susan", "Something So Right", "Cybill", "Pride and Joy", "Thirty Something", "The Wonder Years" (The episode "Square Dance" won the Humanitas Prize), "Almost Grown", "Cheers", "Picket Fences", "Civil Wars", "Northern Exposure", "The Class of '96", "Good Company", "Boston Common", "Maybe It's Me", "The Court", the late night "Fridays", and the pilots of "First Years", "50 Minute Man", and "The Flamingo Kid". He also directed the television movies "Maybe Baby" and "Fine Things". He is presently on the executive board of the Society of Stage Directors and Choreographers. Moore was a fellow at the American Film Institute, and he holds a B.A. from Purdue University and an M.F.A. from the Yale University School of Drama. He was also awarded the degree of Doctor of Fine Arts, honoris causa, by Purdue University. As an avocation, he is also involved with the Circus Arts, and spends as much time as possible on the flying trapeze. Fredric Cook Born in Rochester, New York Feb. 17, 1941, joined the US Navy in 1958 after high school, went to the University of North Carolina and graduated with a BA in Theatre in 1966, went to New York to study acting with Uta Hagen, Mira Rostova, Bobby Lewis and Michael Shurtleff, joined Actor's Equity Association as R.P. McMurphy in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest at the Little Fox Theatre in San Francisco in 1969, returned to New York and graduated from Hunter College with an MA in Theatre in 1973, got hired at the Long Wharf Theatre in Ibsen's Masterbuilder, then went to the London Academy of Music & Dramatic Art for a one-year Post graduate program. Returned to Los Angeles in 1975, where he founded the Los Angeles Academy of Dramatic Art until 1982, when he returned to New York to teach acting at Hunter College until 1985 when he returned to Los Angeles after having children. He remarried in 1994 and moved to Utah in 1997, opened Park City Music and the Utah Conservatory, both of which have been in business for the last twelve years. In 2004, he graduated from Rochville University with a PhD in Educational Studies and became the conservatory's Executive Director. He has continued to make films and has done six musicals at the Egyptian Theatre in Park City. Mairi Hronopoulou Mary Chronopoulou was born in 1933, in Athens, Greece. She studied at the Drama School of the Greek National Theater, where she made her stage debut in 1953 as a member of the Chorus in Euripides' "Hippolytus". She had a fruitful theatrical career, appearing in many plays, like Lillian Hellmann's "The Little Foxes" (as Regina), Tennesse Williams' "The Fugitive Kind" (as Carol), John Osborne's "Look Back in Anger" (as Alison Porter)and Maxim Gorky's "The Enemies" (as Tatiana Bartin). She was very active in films, too, playing a wide variety of parts in comedies, musicals, melodramas and film noirs. She also sang in some of her plays and movies; some of the songs she performed in 1960's musicals are still popular today in Greece. Ashlee Abrams Actress/singer/songwriter Ashenputtel "Ashlee" Abrams is the eldest grandchild of Australian pop/rock pioneer April Byron. Abrams began acting professionally at age 13, when she won the title role in the stage adaptation of Lewis Carroll's classic "Alice in Wonderland". Other film, T.V. and theatre work followed, including leading stage roles in "Into the Woods", "Grease", "The Little Foxes", and "Cinderella", among many others. Abrams' original song "Saddle Up" was requested to be the theme song for VH1 reality series Saddle Ranch. Abrams is named after her mother, Cinderella - Ashenputtel is the German title of the legendary fairytale, and the version of the story used in the Sondheim musical "Into the Woods". Chika Kanamoto Chika Kanamoto is an actress, from Osaka Japan. Chika started her career as a dancer, worked in major productions. Her exceptional dance talent lead to her getting noticed by major producers, who then asked her to be in their films, and led to the development of her acting career. Chika was cast as the Japanese Flight Attendant for the Disney motion picture, Chika was directly booked by the casting director who had seen Chika act before. Chika performed for the role speaking both Japanese and English. She acted alongside the stars of the movie, John Travolta and Robin Williams. "The art of suicide" A dark tale about a suicidal man who meets the devil incarnate Paula. Chika Portrayed the role of Paula. The film Won "Award of Merit" and "Paris Cinema Festival". With more than 40 years in the industry as a successful director/actor/writer, Austin Pendleton(Tony Award nominated for best direction of a play for The little foxes starring Elizabeth Taylor) selected Chika to act as his scholarship student at his acting studio in New York. Austin has had time to watch Chika develop and says the following: Someone who can sing, dance, and act provides the versatility producers die for and Chika is one of such performer... Ms.Kanamoto's combined triple threat talents with her Japanese background produce an exceptionally unique and desired performer. Annie Marshall Annie is the daughter of thirties/forties actor and film star Herbert Marshall (Little Foxes, The Razor's Edge, The Letter, The Enchanted Cottage, Midnight Lace) by third wife, former John Robert Powers model Lee Russell, as well as a niece by marriage of James Cagney. Her half sister is actress Sarah Marshall (Long, Hot Summer).

i don't know

By 1999 how may times had Jane Fonda been Oscar nominated?

Jane Fonda Movies on iTunes Open iTunes to buy and download movies Biography Ranking at number 21 in Empire magazine's 100 Sexiest Stars in Film History, Jane Fonda, fitness expert and veteran actress, has a long list of hit movies to her name, including: Klute, Barefoot in the Park, Barbarella, They Shoot Horses Don't They?, and On Golden Pond (each breakthrough movies in their own right). The latter starred Fonda with her father, Henry Fonda (12 Angry Men, The Grapes of Wrath), the only movie the famous pair ever made together, for which she was nominated for an Oscar. All in all, she has been nominated for seven Oscars and won two of them -- but perhaps her biggest feat came in hunting down some of the more interesting roles for women in Hollywood. That, and the ten Golden Globes for which she was nominated. (She won half of them.) In the later part of her acting career, she starred in Julia, Coming Home, Agnes of God, 9 to 5, and Stanley and Iris. This generation may not remember this brilliant leading lady who graduated from Vassar (labeled a radical in the '60s and '70s for her political and feminist points of view) for her acting ability -- but for her workout tapes. Jane Fonda helped start a fitness craze in the '80s, selling tapes on everything from aerobics to working-out-while-you're-pregnant to yoga. Fonda has made a reported $670 million from her fitness tapes and merchandising -- a sum equaling more than all of her movies put together. Jane Fonda got her start just by being a Fonda. She didn't show much interest in acting as child, but when she was 17, she performed in a community theater production with her father in The Country Girl (1954) and showed real talent. She then joined the Actor's Studio after meeting Lee Strasberg. The Broadway production of Tall Story, which Jane Fonda had a role in, was remade into a movie, and this became her screen debut. Jane Fonda's father is famous actor Henry Fonda, and her brother is actor Peter Fonda. The Fonda children had a notably troubled relationship with their father. Their mother committed suicide when Jane was only 13. From the time she was in high school until she was 36, Jane struggled with bulimia. She has been married and divorced three times, the last time to CNN's network founder, conservative Ted Turner. She has four children and is also aunt to Bridget Fonda. As expected, the press has kept a watchful, and not always kind, eye upon her throughout her life. Fonda came out of semi-retirement from acting in 2001 for a benefit performance of The Vagina Monologues. The year before, she made a film in Nigeria to promote stopping female genital mutilation. She has also written several books. ~ Sandy Lawson Top Movies

7

Which former central American dictator was born on exactly the same day as singer Gene Vincent?

Oscar Flashback: In Tribute, Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin - Awards Daily Oscar Flashback: In Tribute, Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin October 6, 2015 Print Print Lily Tomlin has only been nominated for a single Oscar, 39 years ago for Nashville. She did not get a supporting nod for Flirting with Disaster (she should have).  She was not nominated for Short Cuts nor for I Heart Huckabees.  Jane Fonda has been nominated seven times and won twice.  She was nominated 6 times for lead actress and 1 time for supporting. Still, it has been twenty years since Jane Fonda was up for Oscar consideration with The Morning After. Fonda and Tomlin starred together in Nine to Five, a memorable, iconic film that earned a single Oscar nomination for Best Song. Yet both women are not going out quietly, as Hollywood has prescribed for them. Thanks to Netflix (yet again), Tomlin and Fonda are currently starring in Grace and Frankie — a funny, sometimes heartbreaking, ongoing series drawing from the stories of two women whose husbands discovered late in life that they could happily come out and get married — to each other. Fonda plays the “pretty one” who likes to dress up and lives neatly and cleanly.  Tomlin is the artist, the looser of the two. They are working out the kinks and struggles of life in the golden age. The funny thing about the show, though? All generations watch it. It doesn’t just appeal to “older women.” It’s the writing that makes Grace and Frankie, working on its second season, so addictive. Fonda and Tomlin have been acting in films and television going on 50 years.  Yet, here they both are — headed to the 2016 Oscar race doing the best work of their careers. Lily Tomlin stars in Grandma, a film that was written for her by Paul Weitz.  She plays a woman who has recently lost her longtime companion, or wife. It would have been easy to pigeon-hole Tomlin as a man-hating feminist. She could have been just one thing but Weitz wrote her with complexity so that she’s not always likable. Women — especially older women — become invisible after a certain age. But Tomlin’s character refuses to accept that death sentence. Three generations of women, all different, all wanting different things. It’s a miracle of writing, this thing, because even the best roles written for women usually give them one thing to do or be and it’s — let’s be honest — usually connected somehow to a man. So that, with few exceptions like The Danish Girl and The Martian women don’t get to be much more than who they are in relation to their male co-stars. Yet here we have a woman whose whole life is played out in big and small moments, in vague and obvious moments. We find out about her lovers, her books, her cheapness, her sloppiness, her toughness, her difficult relationship with her daughter and of course, how deeply she is grieving the loss of her lover. By contrast, Jane Fonda’s character in Paolo Sorrentino’s Youth has a short amount of screen time but manages not just to stand out in a cast of many great performances but to stand out when comparing this performance to her entire career. She isn’t having someone explain something to her. She isn’t being rejected. She isn’t looking for love. She isn’t looking even for acceptance. She is setting straight someone whom, she believes, lives in a delusion that Hollywood is as it once was. Fonda does not hide from her age, nor the “work” she’s had done. She allows it to be filmed in high def, wrinkles and all. It is a vanity free moment that really does express a character who has lived a whole life both as a woman and as an actress. It might be too much to ask to imagine both of them attending the Oscars next year. But if they do, it will be a unique pleasure to see these two hard working veterans back on the red carpet, showing the young ones how it’s done.

i don't know

Which kidnap victim was involved in a bank raid, brandishing a gun?

The Trial of Patty Hearst: An Account Patty Hearst Trial (1976) by Douglas O. Linder (2007) The security camera of the Sunset District branch of Hibernia Bank in San Francisco showed Patricia Hearst holding an assault rifle as members of the Symbionese Liberation Army carried out the midday robbery.  Was the rich heiress, kidnapped two months earlier, acting in fear of her life?  Was she brainwashed?  Or did she participate in the robbery as a loyal soldier in "the revolution"?  That was the issue a California jury had to decide in the 1976 trial of Patty Hearst. On the evening of February 4, 1974, three armed members of a group calling itself the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA) burst into the Berkeley, California apartment shared by Patty Hearst and her fiance, Steven Weed.  Hearst, the daughter of Randolph Hearst (managing editor of the San Francisco Examiner) and the granddaughter of the legendary William Randolph Hearst, screamed when the men assaulting Weed with a wine bottle.  The SLA members carried Hearst, clothed in a nightgown, out of her apartment and forced her into the trunk of a white car.  Hearst's abductors fired a round of bullets as they sped away, followed by a second vehicle.  The SLA released a communique in which it called the kidnapping the "serving of an arrest warrant on Patricia Campbell Hearst."  The communique warned that any attempt to rescue Hearst would result in the prisoner being "executed."  The statement ended with the capital letters: "DEATH TO THE FASCIST INSECT THAT PREYS UPON THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLE." Eight days later, the SLA sent a audiotape to a local radio station, KPFA, tape recording from "General Field Marshall Cinque" demanding that Randolph Hearst fund a multi-million dollar food giveaway "as a good faith gesture."  "Cinque" was actually Donald DeFreeze, who--following his escape from a California prison in March 1973--organized a group of Berkeley area activists that hoped to spur a revolution.  The SLA established as  its goals closing prisons, ending monogamy, and eliminating "all other institutions that have made and sustained capitalism." The tape included the frightened voice of Patty Hearst.  She is heard telling her parents: "Mom, Dad, I'm okay.  I'm with a combat unit with automatic weapons.  And these people aren't just a bunch of nuts....I want to get out of here but the only way I'm going to do it is if we do it their way.  And I just hope that you'll do what they say, Dad, and do it quickly..."  The package received by the radio station also included a photograph showing Hearst, brandishing a carbine and wearing a beret, in front of the SLA's seven-headed cobra symbol. In response to the SLA demands, Randolph Hearst created the People in Need program and donated about $2 million.  The food giveaway program was fraught with problems.  In some distribution locations, rioting and fraud hampered efforts,  On February 22 at a distribution site in West Oakland, rioting led to dozens of injuries and arrests.  In a March audiotape released by the SLA, Patty criticized her father's food distribution efforts: "So far it sounds like you and your advisers managed to turn it into a real disaster." The public heard the most shocking audiotape from the SLA in April, fifty-nine days after Patty's kidnapping.  On the tape, Hearst says: "I have been given the choice of being released...or joining the forces of the Symbionese Liberation Army and fighting for my freedom and the freedom of all oppressed people.  I have chosen to stay and fight."  Hearst further announced that she had accepted the name "Tania," after a "comrade who fought alongside Che in Bolivia." The Hibernia Bank robbery occurred shortly afterward, on April 15.  The robbery, which netted the SLA $10,692, resulted in two bystanders being shot, one fatally.  Security camera tapes of the robbery were played on television and closely analyzed by authorities.  Different conclusions were drawn from the tapes as to whether Hearst seemed to be a completely willing participant.  She can be seen announcing, "I am Tania" and ordering customers to the floor.  "We are not fooling around," she warned.  In an audiotape released by the SLA after the Hibernia robbery, Hearst says: "Greetings to the people, this is Tania.  Our actions of April 15 forced the Corporate State to help finance the revolution.  As for being brainwashed, the idea is ridiculous beyond belief.  I am a soldier in the People's Army." A month later, Hearst is at another crime scene, this time at Mel's Sporting Goods Store in Englewood, California.  Store employees spotted SLA member William Harris, along with his wife Emily, attempting to shoplift an ammunition case, and a scuffle ensued.  From a van parked across the street from Mel's, shots were fired in the direction of the store.  The shooter was identified as Patty Hearst.  The "Gotterdaemmerung" came the next day.  One hundred Los Angeles police officers mounted an assault on a home at 1466 54th Street, a place determined to be an SLA hideout.  The event was captured on live television.  Police ordered the home's occupants to "Come on out.  Hands up."  No one answered the call--except with automatic fire.  The heavily armed SLA members succeeded in pinning down the police for a time.  In the end, however, teargas grenades started a fire that consumed the house.  Six  SLA members--a majority of the group's membership, but not included Emily and John Harris or Patty Hearst--died in the assault.  Hearst responded by criticizing "the fascist pig media" for "painting a typically distorted picture" of her "beautiful sisters and brothers" killed in the assault.  She said that "out of the ashes" of the fire she "was reborn"--and knew what she had to do next. The arrest of Patty Hearst came over a year later, after authorities following the trail of  SLA member Kathleen Soliah (who had not long before organized a commemoration of the gun battle in a Berkeley park) were led to Emily and William Harris and Hearst.  Hearst was arrested on September 18, 1975 at her apartment in the outer Mission District of San Francisco.  Patty Hearst's mother, Catherine, expressed confidence that her daughter would not face imprisonment: "I don't believe Patty's legal problems are that serious.  After all, she's primarily a kidnap victim.  She never went off and did anything of her own free will." The Trial The trial of Patricia Hearst began on February 4, 1976 (two years to the day after the kidnapping) in the courtroom of U. S. District Judge Oliver J. Carter.  The kidnap victim, who had spent fifty-nine days blindfolded and living in a closet where she was subjected to verbal and sexual abuse, was charged with armed robbery of the Hibernia Bank.  In the days following her arrest three months earlier, Hearst had maintained her allegiance to the SLA.  By the time of the trial, however, she had changed her tune.  She claimed she had been brainwashed and feared that had she tried to return to her parents, she would have been killed.  Carolyn Anspacher, who covered the trial for the San Francisco Chronicle, offered this assessment of Patty Hearst: “[T]he metamorphosis back to Patricia, if indeed there was one, took time and platoons of lawyers, as assembled in desperation by the frantic Hearsts...  [T]he young woman usually referred to as ‘the defendant’ who will be brought into court to stand trial is a seeming replica of the original Patricia Hearst, the soft-voiced Patty who was wrenched from her familiar surroundings by such violence. . . . Her hair, dyed a brassy red when she was arrested, has been toned to a gentle chestnut and coiffed softly around her face.  Her tight and revealing sweater and jeans have been replaced by tasteful slacks and jackets.  She no longer lifts manacled wrists in black power salute and her eyes are, for the most part, downcast, as if she were sharing a secret with herself.” The defense of Hearst was headed by F. Lee Bailey and his associate Albert Johnson.  Bailey chose to adopt the strategy of attempting to prove that Hearst had been "brainwashed" and suffered from what has been variously called the "Stockholm Syndrome" or the "POW Survivor Syndrome."  (Although, somewhat inconsistently, Bailey suggested at various times in the trial that his client did only what she had to do to stay alive.)  Stockholm Syndrome sufferers are captives who, after a period of being utterly dependent upon the captors, become sympathetic to their captors' cause.  Under Bailey's theory, Hearst was never a free agent or voluntary member of the SLA, up to and including the time of her arrest. The defense strategy of claiming brainwashing and duress, critics pointed out, had several problems.  First, the actions and statements of Hearst after the Hibernia robbery strongly suggested that she was acting freely and it was not necessary in the case, critics noted, to establish that Hearst remained brainwashed throughout the entire time up to her arrest--rather only that she was not a free agent at the time of the robbery. Second, brainwashing was not recognized as a defense to bank robbery under federal law, and Judge Carter's instructions to jurors, telling them that Hearst had to have been acting out of an "immediate fear for her life" made acquittal on this theory difficult.  Third, the strategy seemed to fly in the face of facts.  "Why," a juror might ask, "if Hearst was not a free agent, was she carrying in her purse, on the day of her arrest, a stone Olmec monkey face on a chain given to her by SLA member Cujo (William Wolfe)?"  "Why did she have revolutionary books, such as Explosives and Homemade Bombs, on her apartment bookshelf?" "Why did she not escape despite her numerous opportunities to do so?" Judge Carter's ruling undercut the defense strategy by allowing the prosecution to introduce evidence of statements and events after the robbery to prove her state of mind at the time of the robbery.  Thus the jury listened to Patty tell Americans on an audiotape, "'The idea of brainwashing is ridiculous."  On cross-examination, Hearst faced numerous questions from prosecutors about her actions after the bank robbery, causing her to plead the Fifth Amendment forty-two times.  She also had to listen to embarrassing expert testimony about her vulnerability and endure a humiliating cross-examination about a wide range of topics, including her sex life.  The strategy, one commentator observed, "deprived Patty of the right to feel blameworthy and get on with her life." Why, then, did Bailey opt for the brainwashing theory?  One reason is because that was the theory that Hearst's parents wanted him to use--and they were paying for his defense.  Randolph and Catherine Hearst seemed unwilling to accept that their daughter would voluntarily choose to become an SLA member.  Another reason might have been Bailey's fear that arguing in this case that Hearst's voluntary conversion came after the Hibernia robbery would expose her to a future prosecution for her shooting outside Mel's Sporting Goods store a month after the bank robbery.  Bailey also had a psychiatrist ready to testify that Patty "was not responsible for her actions" and felt confident of his own ability to sway jurors on the brainwashing theory.  Finally, it is possible that Bailey's holding book rights to the Patty Hearst story influenced his decision; brainwashing, it might be assumed, would make for a good story line and boost his recently sagging criminal practice. In choosing to go forward with the brainwashing theory, defense attorneys rejected the offer of prosecutors to allow Patty to plead guilty to practically anything in return for a lenient sentence, possibly just probation as a first-time offender.  Bailey, perhaps, thought he couldn't lose. Opening statements for the two sides addressed the reality that the crime for which Hearst was being tried was captured on videotape.  U. S. Attorney Robert R. Browning quoted from the words of Hearst's April 17 communique: "My gun was loaded, and at no time did any of my comrades intentionally point their guns at me."  Bailey, on the other hand, suggested that the robbery was staged by the SLA to make Hearst appear to be an "outlaw."  Bailey told jurors, the SLA "positioned her directly in front of the cameras" like "a prized pig."  Bailey also argued, "Perhaps for the first time in the history of bank robbery, a robber was directed [by other robbers] to identify herself in the midst of the act."  Later, when the prosecution played the security videotape, Patty Hearst gazed disbelievingly at the screen, then began weeping. Psychiatrists played the central role in Hearst's courtroom drama.  Jurors listened to over 200 hours of expert psychiatric testimony.  Before the psychiatric testimony began, according to Shana Alexander in Anyone's Daughter: The Times and Trials of Patty Hearst, most jurors thought Hearst was probably innocent--or, at least, not guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. No psychiatrist had a bigger effect on the jury's thinking that government psychiatrist Joel Fort.  He told jurors to be skeptical of defense psychiatrists, who treat everybody as a patient, not a defendant.  He suggested that they have a strong interest in helping Hearst avoid hard time in prison.  Moreover, he questioned the ability of defense psychiatrists to draw conclusions about Hearst's state of mind at a time fifteen months before they first interviewed her.  According to Fort, Patty Hearst was a prime candidate for radicalism even before her kidnapping.  Fort described the young Hearst as basically "an amoral person" who thought rules did not apply to her.  He noted that she lied to nuns at school about her mother having cancer in order to get out of an exam, engaged in sexual activity at an early age, and experimented with drugs such as LSD.  Fort offered his "velcro theory" for aimless, lost souls such at Hearst: such persons, he said, float around in moral space and then find stuck to them the first random ideology they bump into.  It is not at all surprising, Fort concluded, that Hearst would find the SLA appealing.  Many of its members, including Cinque, came from educated, upper-class background similar to Patty's--and all chose to become members without being brainwashed.  Hearst, if the jurors believed Fort, signed on with the sociopaths as a form of self-hatred.  The decision to go with the brainwashing theory meant that Hearst would have to take the stand to describe in some detail how the brainwashing took place.  Unfortunately for her case, the jurors didn't believe a lot of what they heard from her.  For example, after Hearst described being "raped" by SLA  member William Wolfe (or "Cujo") and telling jurors "I hated him," the prosecution produced the love trinket, the so-called Olmec monkey, found in her purse after arrest, that Wolfe had given her.  Asked to explain why she would keep a gift in her purse from a rapist that she hated, Hearst answered lamely that she "like art" and took classes in art history.  If the love trinket wasn't enough to explain, there was also Patty's own words in her June 7 communique, in which she called Cujo "the gentlest, most beautiful man I've ever known."  In his cross-examination of Hearst, Browning repeatedly turned to the defendant's own writings, in the form of the "Tania Interview" (personal reflections written during Patty's so-called "missing year" with the SLA), to undercut her testimony that she was something other than an enthusiastic radical. The verdict came after twelve hours of  deliberation.  Many jurors ended their session in tears.  On March 20, 1976, a jury of seven men and five women pronounced Hearst guilty of armed robbery and use of a firearm to commit a felony.  In the end, jurors thought Hearst lied to try to shoehorn her actions into an untenable theory.  One juror explained that Bailey forced him to either buy or reject "the whole package" and that Hearst's firing shots at Mel's "didn't jive" with her supposedly passive role in the SLA.  Hearst was not the weak-willed puppet that the defense suggested she was.  A female juror concluded Hearst was "lying, through and through," and that no woman would keep a love token from someone who raped and abused her.  Other jurors described Hearst as "remote" and "baffling."  We didn't know "whether we were looking at a live girl or a robot," one male juror said.  Jurors seemed to blame the defendant for hiding behind Bailey's "mind-control" theory and not coming clean about her true feelings.  Hearst's repeated taking of "the Fifth" also didn't sit well with jurors.  One explained, "It was a real shocker.  A witness can't just tell you what he wants to tell you and not tell you what he doesn't want to." Epilogue Hearst was sentenced to seven years in prison.  President Jimmy Carter commuted Hearst's sentence to time served in February 1979.  Hearst gained her release from prison after just twenty-two months.  On January 20, 2001, the last full day of his presidency, Bill Clinton granted Patricia Campbell Hearst a full pardon. Commentator George Will, reflecting on the Hearst story, saw it as a demonstration of "the fragility of the individual's sense of self."  Will observed that   Arthur Koestler's classic political novel Darkness at Noon featured a sinister figure named Gletkin who was a master mind bender.  Will worried:  "The disturbing thought is not that the SLA had some cunning Gletkin who destroyed Tania's sense of her former self.  The disturbing thought is that no Gletkin was needed."

Patty Hearst

Who was the only 20th century President to get stuck in the White House bath tub as he was so big?

The Trial of Patty Hearst: An Account Patty Hearst Trial (1976) by Douglas O. Linder (2007) The security camera of the Sunset District branch of Hibernia Bank in San Francisco showed Patricia Hearst holding an assault rifle as members of the Symbionese Liberation Army carried out the midday robbery.  Was the rich heiress, kidnapped two months earlier, acting in fear of her life?  Was she brainwashed?  Or did she participate in the robbery as a loyal soldier in "the revolution"?  That was the issue a California jury had to decide in the 1976 trial of Patty Hearst. On the evening of February 4, 1974, three armed members of a group calling itself the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA) burst into the Berkeley, California apartment shared by Patty Hearst and her fiance, Steven Weed.  Hearst, the daughter of Randolph Hearst (managing editor of the San Francisco Examiner) and the granddaughter of the legendary William Randolph Hearst, screamed when the men assaulting Weed with a wine bottle.  The SLA members carried Hearst, clothed in a nightgown, out of her apartment and forced her into the trunk of a white car.  Hearst's abductors fired a round of bullets as they sped away, followed by a second vehicle.  The SLA released a communique in which it called the kidnapping the "serving of an arrest warrant on Patricia Campbell Hearst."  The communique warned that any attempt to rescue Hearst would result in the prisoner being "executed."  The statement ended with the capital letters: "DEATH TO THE FASCIST INSECT THAT PREYS UPON THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLE." Eight days later, the SLA sent a audiotape to a local radio station, KPFA, tape recording from "General Field Marshall Cinque" demanding that Randolph Hearst fund a multi-million dollar food giveaway "as a good faith gesture."  "Cinque" was actually Donald DeFreeze, who--following his escape from a California prison in March 1973--organized a group of Berkeley area activists that hoped to spur a revolution.  The SLA established as  its goals closing prisons, ending monogamy, and eliminating "all other institutions that have made and sustained capitalism." The tape included the frightened voice of Patty Hearst.  She is heard telling her parents: "Mom, Dad, I'm okay.  I'm with a combat unit with automatic weapons.  And these people aren't just a bunch of nuts....I want to get out of here but the only way I'm going to do it is if we do it their way.  And I just hope that you'll do what they say, Dad, and do it quickly..."  The package received by the radio station also included a photograph showing Hearst, brandishing a carbine and wearing a beret, in front of the SLA's seven-headed cobra symbol. In response to the SLA demands, Randolph Hearst created the People in Need program and donated about $2 million.  The food giveaway program was fraught with problems.  In some distribution locations, rioting and fraud hampered efforts,  On February 22 at a distribution site in West Oakland, rioting led to dozens of injuries and arrests.  In a March audiotape released by the SLA, Patty criticized her father's food distribution efforts: "So far it sounds like you and your advisers managed to turn it into a real disaster." The public heard the most shocking audiotape from the SLA in April, fifty-nine days after Patty's kidnapping.  On the tape, Hearst says: "I have been given the choice of being released...or joining the forces of the Symbionese Liberation Army and fighting for my freedom and the freedom of all oppressed people.  I have chosen to stay and fight."  Hearst further announced that she had accepted the name "Tania," after a "comrade who fought alongside Che in Bolivia." The Hibernia Bank robbery occurred shortly afterward, on April 15.  The robbery, which netted the SLA $10,692, resulted in two bystanders being shot, one fatally.  Security camera tapes of the robbery were played on television and closely analyzed by authorities.  Different conclusions were drawn from the tapes as to whether Hearst seemed to be a completely willing participant.  She can be seen announcing, "I am Tania" and ordering customers to the floor.  "We are not fooling around," she warned.  In an audiotape released by the SLA after the Hibernia robbery, Hearst says: "Greetings to the people, this is Tania.  Our actions of April 15 forced the Corporate State to help finance the revolution.  As for being brainwashed, the idea is ridiculous beyond belief.  I am a soldier in the People's Army." A month later, Hearst is at another crime scene, this time at Mel's Sporting Goods Store in Englewood, California.  Store employees spotted SLA member William Harris, along with his wife Emily, attempting to shoplift an ammunition case, and a scuffle ensued.  From a van parked across the street from Mel's, shots were fired in the direction of the store.  The shooter was identified as Patty Hearst.  The "Gotterdaemmerung" came the next day.  One hundred Los Angeles police officers mounted an assault on a home at 1466 54th Street, a place determined to be an SLA hideout.  The event was captured on live television.  Police ordered the home's occupants to "Come on out.  Hands up."  No one answered the call--except with automatic fire.  The heavily armed SLA members succeeded in pinning down the police for a time.  In the end, however, teargas grenades started a fire that consumed the house.  Six  SLA members--a majority of the group's membership, but not included Emily and John Harris or Patty Hearst--died in the assault.  Hearst responded by criticizing "the fascist pig media" for "painting a typically distorted picture" of her "beautiful sisters and brothers" killed in the assault.  She said that "out of the ashes" of the fire she "was reborn"--and knew what she had to do next. The arrest of Patty Hearst came over a year later, after authorities following the trail of  SLA member Kathleen Soliah (who had not long before organized a commemoration of the gun battle in a Berkeley park) were led to Emily and William Harris and Hearst.  Hearst was arrested on September 18, 1975 at her apartment in the outer Mission District of San Francisco.  Patty Hearst's mother, Catherine, expressed confidence that her daughter would not face imprisonment: "I don't believe Patty's legal problems are that serious.  After all, she's primarily a kidnap victim.  She never went off and did anything of her own free will." The Trial The trial of Patricia Hearst began on February 4, 1976 (two years to the day after the kidnapping) in the courtroom of U. S. District Judge Oliver J. Carter.  The kidnap victim, who had spent fifty-nine days blindfolded and living in a closet where she was subjected to verbal and sexual abuse, was charged with armed robbery of the Hibernia Bank.  In the days following her arrest three months earlier, Hearst had maintained her allegiance to the SLA.  By the time of the trial, however, she had changed her tune.  She claimed she had been brainwashed and feared that had she tried to return to her parents, she would have been killed.  Carolyn Anspacher, who covered the trial for the San Francisco Chronicle, offered this assessment of Patty Hearst: “[T]he metamorphosis back to Patricia, if indeed there was one, took time and platoons of lawyers, as assembled in desperation by the frantic Hearsts...  [T]he young woman usually referred to as ‘the defendant’ who will be brought into court to stand trial is a seeming replica of the original Patricia Hearst, the soft-voiced Patty who was wrenched from her familiar surroundings by such violence. . . . Her hair, dyed a brassy red when she was arrested, has been toned to a gentle chestnut and coiffed softly around her face.  Her tight and revealing sweater and jeans have been replaced by tasteful slacks and jackets.  She no longer lifts manacled wrists in black power salute and her eyes are, for the most part, downcast, as if she were sharing a secret with herself.” The defense of Hearst was headed by F. Lee Bailey and his associate Albert Johnson.  Bailey chose to adopt the strategy of attempting to prove that Hearst had been "brainwashed" and suffered from what has been variously called the "Stockholm Syndrome" or the "POW Survivor Syndrome."  (Although, somewhat inconsistently, Bailey suggested at various times in the trial that his client did only what she had to do to stay alive.)  Stockholm Syndrome sufferers are captives who, after a period of being utterly dependent upon the captors, become sympathetic to their captors' cause.  Under Bailey's theory, Hearst was never a free agent or voluntary member of the SLA, up to and including the time of her arrest. The defense strategy of claiming brainwashing and duress, critics pointed out, had several problems.  First, the actions and statements of Hearst after the Hibernia robbery strongly suggested that she was acting freely and it was not necessary in the case, critics noted, to establish that Hearst remained brainwashed throughout the entire time up to her arrest--rather only that she was not a free agent at the time of the robbery. Second, brainwashing was not recognized as a defense to bank robbery under federal law, and Judge Carter's instructions to jurors, telling them that Hearst had to have been acting out of an "immediate fear for her life" made acquittal on this theory difficult.  Third, the strategy seemed to fly in the face of facts.  "Why," a juror might ask, "if Hearst was not a free agent, was she carrying in her purse, on the day of her arrest, a stone Olmec monkey face on a chain given to her by SLA member Cujo (William Wolfe)?"  "Why did she have revolutionary books, such as Explosives and Homemade Bombs, on her apartment bookshelf?" "Why did she not escape despite her numerous opportunities to do so?" Judge Carter's ruling undercut the defense strategy by allowing the prosecution to introduce evidence of statements and events after the robbery to prove her state of mind at the time of the robbery.  Thus the jury listened to Patty tell Americans on an audiotape, "'The idea of brainwashing is ridiculous."  On cross-examination, Hearst faced numerous questions from prosecutors about her actions after the bank robbery, causing her to plead the Fifth Amendment forty-two times.  She also had to listen to embarrassing expert testimony about her vulnerability and endure a humiliating cross-examination about a wide range of topics, including her sex life.  The strategy, one commentator observed, "deprived Patty of the right to feel blameworthy and get on with her life." Why, then, did Bailey opt for the brainwashing theory?  One reason is because that was the theory that Hearst's parents wanted him to use--and they were paying for his defense.  Randolph and Catherine Hearst seemed unwilling to accept that their daughter would voluntarily choose to become an SLA member.  Another reason might have been Bailey's fear that arguing in this case that Hearst's voluntary conversion came after the Hibernia robbery would expose her to a future prosecution for her shooting outside Mel's Sporting Goods store a month after the bank robbery.  Bailey also had a psychiatrist ready to testify that Patty "was not responsible for her actions" and felt confident of his own ability to sway jurors on the brainwashing theory.  Finally, it is possible that Bailey's holding book rights to the Patty Hearst story influenced his decision; brainwashing, it might be assumed, would make for a good story line and boost his recently sagging criminal practice. In choosing to go forward with the brainwashing theory, defense attorneys rejected the offer of prosecutors to allow Patty to plead guilty to practically anything in return for a lenient sentence, possibly just probation as a first-time offender.  Bailey, perhaps, thought he couldn't lose. Opening statements for the two sides addressed the reality that the crime for which Hearst was being tried was captured on videotape.  U. S. Attorney Robert R. Browning quoted from the words of Hearst's April 17 communique: "My gun was loaded, and at no time did any of my comrades intentionally point their guns at me."  Bailey, on the other hand, suggested that the robbery was staged by the SLA to make Hearst appear to be an "outlaw."  Bailey told jurors, the SLA "positioned her directly in front of the cameras" like "a prized pig."  Bailey also argued, "Perhaps for the first time in the history of bank robbery, a robber was directed [by other robbers] to identify herself in the midst of the act."  Later, when the prosecution played the security videotape, Patty Hearst gazed disbelievingly at the screen, then began weeping. Psychiatrists played the central role in Hearst's courtroom drama.  Jurors listened to over 200 hours of expert psychiatric testimony.  Before the psychiatric testimony began, according to Shana Alexander in Anyone's Daughter: The Times and Trials of Patty Hearst, most jurors thought Hearst was probably innocent--or, at least, not guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. No psychiatrist had a bigger effect on the jury's thinking that government psychiatrist Joel Fort.  He told jurors to be skeptical of defense psychiatrists, who treat everybody as a patient, not a defendant.  He suggested that they have a strong interest in helping Hearst avoid hard time in prison.  Moreover, he questioned the ability of defense psychiatrists to draw conclusions about Hearst's state of mind at a time fifteen months before they first interviewed her.  According to Fort, Patty Hearst was a prime candidate for radicalism even before her kidnapping.  Fort described the young Hearst as basically "an amoral person" who thought rules did not apply to her.  He noted that she lied to nuns at school about her mother having cancer in order to get out of an exam, engaged in sexual activity at an early age, and experimented with drugs such as LSD.  Fort offered his "velcro theory" for aimless, lost souls such at Hearst: such persons, he said, float around in moral space and then find stuck to them the first random ideology they bump into.  It is not at all surprising, Fort concluded, that Hearst would find the SLA appealing.  Many of its members, including Cinque, came from educated, upper-class background similar to Patty's--and all chose to become members without being brainwashed.  Hearst, if the jurors believed Fort, signed on with the sociopaths as a form of self-hatred.  The decision to go with the brainwashing theory meant that Hearst would have to take the stand to describe in some detail how the brainwashing took place.  Unfortunately for her case, the jurors didn't believe a lot of what they heard from her.  For example, after Hearst described being "raped" by SLA  member William Wolfe (or "Cujo") and telling jurors "I hated him," the prosecution produced the love trinket, the so-called Olmec monkey, found in her purse after arrest, that Wolfe had given her.  Asked to explain why she would keep a gift in her purse from a rapist that she hated, Hearst answered lamely that she "like art" and took classes in art history.  If the love trinket wasn't enough to explain, there was also Patty's own words in her June 7 communique, in which she called Cujo "the gentlest, most beautiful man I've ever known."  In his cross-examination of Hearst, Browning repeatedly turned to the defendant's own writings, in the form of the "Tania Interview" (personal reflections written during Patty's so-called "missing year" with the SLA), to undercut her testimony that she was something other than an enthusiastic radical. The verdict came after twelve hours of  deliberation.  Many jurors ended their session in tears.  On March 20, 1976, a jury of seven men and five women pronounced Hearst guilty of armed robbery and use of a firearm to commit a felony.  In the end, jurors thought Hearst lied to try to shoehorn her actions into an untenable theory.  One juror explained that Bailey forced him to either buy or reject "the whole package" and that Hearst's firing shots at Mel's "didn't jive" with her supposedly passive role in the SLA.  Hearst was not the weak-willed puppet that the defense suggested she was.  A female juror concluded Hearst was "lying, through and through," and that no woman would keep a love token from someone who raped and abused her.  Other jurors described Hearst as "remote" and "baffling."  We didn't know "whether we were looking at a live girl or a robot," one male juror said.  Jurors seemed to blame the defendant for hiding behind Bailey's "mind-control" theory and not coming clean about her true feelings.  Hearst's repeated taking of "the Fifth" also didn't sit well with jurors.  One explained, "It was a real shocker.  A witness can't just tell you what he wants to tell you and not tell you what he doesn't want to." Epilogue Hearst was sentenced to seven years in prison.  President Jimmy Carter commuted Hearst's sentence to time served in February 1979.  Hearst gained her release from prison after just twenty-two months.  On January 20, 2001, the last full day of his presidency, Bill Clinton granted Patricia Campbell Hearst a full pardon. Commentator George Will, reflecting on the Hearst story, saw it as a demonstration of "the fragility of the individual's sense of self."  Will observed that   Arthur Koestler's classic political novel Darkness at Noon featured a sinister figure named Gletkin who was a master mind bender.  Will worried:  "The disturbing thought is not that the SLA had some cunning Gletkin who destroyed Tania's sense of her former self.  The disturbing thought is that no Gletkin was needed."

i don't know

Who led a government in Italy in the 20s and later became its dictator?>

Mussolini founds the Fascist party - Mar 23, 1919 - HISTORY.com Mussolini founds the Fascist party Share this: Mussolini founds the Fascist party Author Mussolini founds the Fascist party URL Publisher A+E Networks Benito Mussolini, an Italian World War I veteran and publisher of Socialist newspapers, breaks with the Italian Socialists and establishes the nationalist Fasci di Combattimento, named after the Italian peasant revolutionaries, or “Fighting Bands,” from the 19th century. Commonly known as the Fascist Party, Mussolini’s new right-wing organization advocated Italian nationalism, had black shirts for uniforms, and launched a program of terrorism and intimidation against its leftist opponents. In October 1922, Mussolini led the Fascists on a march on Rome, and King Emmanuel III, who had little faith in Italy’s parliamentary government, asked Mussolini to form a new government. Initially, Mussolini, who was appointed prime minister at the head of a three-member Fascist cabinet, cooperated with the Italian parliament, but aided by his brutal police organization he soon became the effective dictator of Italy. In 1924, a Socialist backlash was suppressed, and in January 1925 a Fascist state was officially proclaimed, with Mussolini as Il Duce, or “The Leader.” Mussolini appealed to Italy’s former Western allies for new treaties, but his brutal 1935 invasion of Ethiopia ended all hope of alliance with the Western democracies. In 1936, Mussolini joined Nazi leader Adolf Hitler in his support of Francisco Franco’s Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, prompting the signing of a treaty of cooperation in foreign policy between Italy and Nazi Germany in 1937. Although Adolf Hitler’s Nazi revolution was modeled after the rise of Mussolini and the Italian Fascist Party, Fascist Italy and Il Duce proved overwhelmingly the weaker partner in the Berlin-Rome Axis during World War II. In July 1943, the failure of the Italian war effort and the imminent invasion of the Italian mainland by the Allies led to a rebellion within the Fascist Party. Two days after the fall of Palermo on July 24, the Fascist Grand Council rejected the policy dictated by Hitler through Mussolini, and on July 25 Il Duce was arrested. Fascist Marshal Pietro Badoglio took over the reins of the Italian government, and in September Italy surrendered unconditionally to the Allies. Eight days later, German commandos freed Mussolini from his prison in the Abruzzi Mountains, and he was later made the puppet leader of German-controlled northern Italy. With the collapse of Nazi Germany in April 1945, Mussolini was captured by Italian partisans and on April 29 was executed by firing squad with his mistress, Clara Petacci, after a brief court-martial. Their bodies, brought to Milan, were hanged by the feet in a public square for all the world to see. More on This Topic

Benito Mussolini

Who was Axle Rose's famous singer father-in-law?

Fascist Italy Fascist Italy Italy before 1919 Italy achieved her unification in 1870. She had a constitutional monarchy like that of Great Britain. But democratic traditions failed to develop in Italy because the government was controlled by corrupt politicians, called the party bosses. They controlled the elections by bribing the voters. Once they were in power, they were more interested in making personal gains for themselves than in solving the social and economic problems of the people. As a result, by 1914 Italy remained a poor and backward country. The franchise was limited to 2.5 per cent of the population until after the election of 1913. Industrial progress was slow. Moreover, Italy was poor in natural resources and lack of fertile land. Many of the farm labourers were landless and were often unemployed. Thus millions of Italians were forced to emigrate abroad. The foreign policy of the Italian governments also lacked the grandeur the days of the Caesars. Although Italy tried to raise her own international prestige by acquiring overseas colonies, she met with no success. She was defeated by Abyssinia, an African state, at the battle of Adowa in 1896. Because of its lack of success in both domestic and foreign affairs, the parliamentary government became a symbol of decadence and corruption— it was neither trusted nor respected by the people. New Problems After The First World War The government was faced with many new problems after the First World War. The first one was the Italian dissatisfaction with the territorial settlement made at the Paris Peace Conference. Most of the Italians had expected big territorial gains when they entered the war. According to the Treaty of London, Italy was promised Trentino, Trieste, Southern Tyrol, Istria, Dalmatia, the coastal districts of Albania, a share in the division of the Ottoman Empire and of the German colonies in Africa. Although the Italians fought bravely and lost 600,000 men, the territories ceded to Italy in the Pairs Peace Conference were not as many as she had originally been promised. Italy was given Trentino, Trieste, Tyrol and Istria, but she did not get any former German colonies nor any land in Asia Minor, Albania and Dalmatia. There was much resentment against the weak and unsuccessful foreign policy of the Italian government. In September 1919, a band of alien patriots, under Gabriele D'Annunzio, took Fiume, a port on the Dalmatian coast, by force in defiance of the decision of the Paris Peace Conference. But the Italians could not enjoy their victory for long because in November 1920 the Italian government had signed the treaty of Rapallo with Yugoslavia, by which Fiume became a free city under the League of Nations and Italy renounced Dalmatia as her sphere of influence. In January 1921, the Italian troops drove D'Annunzio and his followers from Fiume. Many Italians were deeply disappointed with their government which seemed be too weak in its foreign policy. The second problem was general economic distress. Italy was a poor nation. She could only support her war effort by obtaining foreign loans. Immediately after the war, as Europe was exhausted by the war, the Italian tourist trade and export trade came to a standstill and there was large-scale unemployment throughout the country. The problem of unemployment was aggravated by the return of millions of ex-soldiers to Italy and a new immigration law of the U.S. government which restricted entry of immigrants. Moreover, runaway inflation added to the sufferings of the Italians. The lira had only one-fifth of its pre-war value. Encouraged by the success of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the unemployed workers and peasants stirred up riots and strikes throughout the country. The Red Menace As the government became increasingly unpopular, many Italians turned to support the Socialist Party and the Catholic Popular Party in the elections of 1919. The Socialist Party won more than one-third of all votes and became the largest single party in the Chamber of Deputies. They were followed at a distance by the Popular Party which won one-fifth of all votes on a platform of social reform. The ruling parties (the Liberals and Democrats) lost heavily. Encouraged by the success of the general election, the Socialists were prepared to make more strikes. Socialist agitation reached its climax in September 1920 when the General Confederation of Labour called for a general strike. During the strike the workers took over more than six hundred factories and established soviets on the Russian model to rule a number of industrial towns in northern Italy. Although the Socialists had established their control over a number of towns in the North, they failed to seize power in Italy. There were two reasons which might explain their failure to seize power: (1) The leaders of the General Confederation of Labour were chiefly interested in the improvement of workers' livelihood. When the Italian government promised a 20% wage increase to the workers, the Confederation was satisfied and decided to call off the strike. (2) The Socialists lacked the support of the peasants because they proclaimed socialization of all land. Early in 1921 the Socialist threat was over. The Socialist Party also split into several factions. About one-third of the members withdrew to form a Communist Party. Rise of Mussolini - His Background The 'Red Menace' alarmed the industrialists, landlords and other property holders, while many Italians were discontented with the government which drove D'Annunzio from Fiume. The fear of revolution and the desire for national glory were manipulated to the advantage of a new political group, the Fascists, led by Benito Mussolini. Benito Mussolini was born in 1883. His father was a blacksmith and also an anarchist. His mother was a schoolmistress. His birthplace, Romagna, was known in the 19th century for its rebellious spirit. In his youth, Mussolini did not make much achievement in education. From 1902 onwards, he picked up socialist ideas, particularly the syndicalism of Sorel. After 1904, he became a famous socialist agitator and journalist. His literary and speaking ability made him the editor of a socialist newspaper, Avanti. It is important to note that Mussolini was never a convinced socialist. The views expressed in his newspaper were not consistent. When anarchism was popular among the Italian workers, Mussolini advocated anarchist ideas in his newspaper. This seemed to indicate that he was an opportunist, very interested in winning followers and power for himself. In 1915, Mussolini was attacked by the Socialist Party for favouring war on the side of the Allies. He left the party and served as a soldier until he was wounded. After his recovery, he returned to Milan as an editor of his own newspaper 'The People of Italy'. By the end of the war, through his own experience as an editor, Mussolini had learnt the power of propaganda in mustering support from the masses. In March 1919, he formed the Milan fascio. It had no clear-cut programme except a belief in action. It only had vague ideas about radical reforms. For propaganda purpose, Mussolini advocated universal suffrage, the abolition of the Senate, land for the peasants, improvement of workers' conditions and a strong foreign policy. It seemed that Mussolini had not completely discarded his early socialist thought. The property class did not like his radical party programme. In the elections of November 1919 for the Chamber of Deputies, Mussolini and one of his close associates failed to win a seat for themselves. New Strength For The Fascist Movement The turning-point for the growth of the Fascist movement came by the end of 1920. Three important events were chiefly responsible for bringing new strength to the Fascist movement. The first event was that after D'Annunzio and his followers were driven from Fiume by the end of 1920, many Italian nationalists took Mussolini as their leader for he had always advocated a strong foreign policy and the annexation of Fiume and Dalmatia. The second event was that during 1919-1920, governments in Italy changed rapidly and yet all of them failed to find effective solutions to the most urgent problems of the day—the problems of economic inflation and social unrest. The third event was that after the General Strike in 1920, as stated earlier, the property class became haunted by the spectre of a Communist revolution and wanted a strong government to restore law and order in the country. With some support from the property class, Mussolini formed the National Fascist Party in 1921. In the elections of May 1921, Fascists were able to gain 35 seats out of 355 - a tremendous gain in contrast to their total failure only 18 months ago. The Seizure of Power by the Fascists From May 1921 to 1922, Mussolini changed his tactics to suit the different circumstances with the aim of seizing political power as soon as possible. After his initial success, Mussolini became more violently anti-Bolshevik than ever in order to win more support from the property class. He stopped attacking the monarchy, the Catholics and capitalists. He promised a strong government which could suppress the socialists' disturbances and a strong foreign policy which could bring national glory to Italy. Economically, he championed economic liberalism and an improvement in the conditions of the workers. As a result of Mussolini's new tactics, finances poured in from the industrialists. Fascist membership jumped up from 20,000 in 1920 to 248,000 in 1921, and to 300,000 in 1922. From the early spring of 1921, the Fascists, the Black Shirts, carried out a systematic terrorist campaign against the Socialist and Communist groups. During 1922 the Fascists and Communists fought bitter street battles against each other. The government army officers were friendly to the Fascists and equipped the Fascists with arms. Very soon, armed Fascists were ruling some small towns with tacit approval from the government and the property class. To counteract the growing influence of the Fascists, the Socialists and Communists declared a general strike in August 1922. The strike was ill-prepared. It was suppressed by the government troops in cooperation with the Fascists. After the second general strike, the property class relied more and more upon the Fascists to defeat Socialism and Communism by force. March On Rome On October 26, 1922, Mussolini decided to exploit the chaotic situation to seize power. He threatened a 'March on Rome' if he was not accepted into the cabinet. Bands of armed Fascists marched to Rome from various parts of the country. This threat caused genuine alarm to the politicians in Rome, who failed to deal with the emergency. The Liberal Premier resigned almost at once. King Victor Emmanuel refused to call out the army to resist the Fascists partly because he was anxious to avoid civil war, and partly because he wanted a strong government to restore law and order. The King asked Mussolini to form a new government. On October 31, Mussolini became Prime Minister in a coalition government of Fascists, Nationalists, Catholics, and right-wing Liberals. Power was thus put into Mussolini's hands. There were a number of reasons which might explain the rapid rise of Fascists to power: (i) the constitutional government was disliked by the Italians long before the First World War; (ii) there was increasing discontent with the Italian government after the First World War because of its failures in both foreign and domestic affairs; (iii) the threat of a socialist revolution made many Italians desire for a strong government which could impose law and order in the country; (iv) Mussolini was an opportunist and he could always change his party programme to win favour from the people—particularly the property class; and (v) the Liberal government and King Victor Emmanuel feared Fascism less than Socialist revolution and they capitulated at the threat of a 'March on Rome'. The Meaning Of Fascism The word Fascism has a dual origin. It comes in part from the word 'fasces', a bundle of rods round an axe carried by the magistrates in ancient Rome as a symbol of power and authority. It comes also from the Italian word, fascio, meaning band or group. The basic concept of Fascism, as elaborated by Mussolini, was that the State was absolute before which individuals and groups were all relative. Politically, to the Fascists, parliamentary democracy could only lead to inefficiency and corrupt government; and so the whole parliamentary system must be discarded. In the words of Mussolini, national strength was conceived qualitatively and not quantitatively. For the strength of the nation, it should be ruled by a well-disciplined party elite, which, under the guidance of an inspired and unquestioned leader, would restore order and stability for the nation and lead it forward to greatness. Economically, Mussolini preferred state control to laissez faire. Labour and capital must work together under the direction of the state. Socially, Mussolini condemned Marxism for dividing the nation into classes and causing class war which would sap the strength of a nation. Thus he demanded that the people should subject themselves to the absolute authority of the state. People could find their own worth only when they were serving the state. As a result, freedom of assembly and thinking were wiped out in Italy. In foreign policy, since Fascism promised national glory, it was natural for Mussolini to adopt an expansionist foreign policy from the beginning of his rule. Mussolini's ultimate goal was to revive the glories of the old Roman Empire. In short, a Fascist state was a totalitarian state, controlling all the political, economic and social activities of its people. Mussolini always proclaimed, "Everything within the state, nothing against the state, nothing outside the state." The masses should only "believe, obey and fight." N.B. It must be emphasized that Fascism was an opportunistic philosophy. In its early days 'action' was the only watch-word. Mussolini could always adjust his philosophy to appeal to all discontented groups. Political Dictatorship Under Mussolini Politics from 1922 to 1929 Mussolini was not satisfied with a coalition government. He aimed to be the ruler of one-party totalitarian state. From 1922 to 1929, slowly but gradually, he destroyed all effective opposition at home. From, 1922 to 1923, Mussolini steadily built up his own power in the government. He placed loyal Fascists in key government positions, created the Voluntary Fascist Militia for National Security, and promoted the Grand Council of Fascism (the highest authority of the Fascist Party) into an organ of state. In July 1923, Mussolini was able to secure a new electoral law from the parliament. The new law provided that any party, having 25% of the votes in a general election, should receive two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Mussolini immediately arranged for elections to the Chamber of Deputies in April 1924. In an atmosphere of intimidation and violence, with the Fascist Militia using strong-arm methods, the 'National List' presented by the Fascists obtained 63% of the roses. In June 1924 when the new Parliament convened, the Socialist leader, Giacomo Matteotti, denounced the Fascists of the use of force in the recent elections. He was immediately murdered by the Fascists. Matteotti's murder led to an outcry against Mussolini. The parties in opposition to Mussolini's government withdrew from the parliament. This was called the Aventine Secession. The Aventine Secession only strengthened Mussolini's determination to use force to wipe out all his opponents. In 1926, a law on association outlawed all political opposition, and a secret police force was established to arrest political opponents. In 1925-26, more than ten thousand anti-fascists were arrested, sentenced to death and exiled. To strengthen his control of the country, the workers' unions were dissolved and opposition newspapers were closed. In 1928, a new law abolished universal suffrage and restricted parliamentary elections to candidates officially nominated by the Fascist Grand Council. In the 1929 elections, an al1-Pascist Parliament was elected. In the same year, Mussolini, the Duce (the leader) was given power by the pro-Fascist parliament to govern by decrees. He issued a series of decrees which transferred to him complete legislative authority. The King had to accept Mussolini as the permanent Prime Minister of Italy. From this time onwards, all other ministers were appointed, and dismissed by and directed to work under Mussolini alone. Politics from 1929 to 1939 From 1929 to I939, Mussolini completed the building-up of the totalitarian state. In 1938, the Fascist Grand Council abolished the Parliament, and set up in its place an Assembly of Corporations which consisted of representatives from twenty-two industrial and professional corporations. In other words, the parliamentary system in Italy came to an end. In 1939, though Italy remained, in name, a monarchy, Mussolini, as the Duce of the Fascist Party, was the uncrowned King of Italy. He was always right and no one dared to oppose him. The Creation of a Corporate State The basic aim of all economic measures was to bring economic prosperity to Italy. Since 1921 Mussolini continued to adopt the high tariff policy to protect the home market from the competition of foreign goods. The most important economic reform was, however, the formation of the Corporate State. On April 21, 1927 the Labour Charter solemnly expressed the ideas of Fascist Corporate State. According to the Charter, the government would bring both employers and employees of the same trade into one confederation. In 1934 twenty-two corporations were formed. Each corporation consisted of employers' and workers' representatives. The government also sent its representatives to participate in the administration of the corporations. All the corporations were put under the supervision of a National Council of Corporations, of which Mussolini was the Chairman. These Corporations provided accident, unemployment and health insurance for workers. But the workers’ strikes were forbidden. Workers could appeal to the Labour Courts of the Corporations if they had any disputes with the employers. The employers were urged by the government representatives of each corporation to improve the conditions of the workers—there should be no lockouts of workers by employers. Other Economic Reform Besides the system of corporations, Mussolini helped the industries with financial subsidies. The state would buy the national products even though their prices were higher than the foreign products. There were also the improvement of transport and the development of hydro-electricity in the North so as to help the industrial progress of Italy. In agriculture, the most famous reform was the 'Battle of Wheat' : — this was an attempt to make Italy self-sufficient in food. There was also the big land reclamation project in the Pontine Marshes near Rome to provide more farm-land for the peasants. An Assessment of the Economic Reforms In spite of all his efforts Mussolini clearly failed to give economic prosperity to Italy and a real improvement in the standard of living of the workers and peasants. First of all, the corporations benefited only the employers. Workers' interests were sacrificed in the name of national good. To the workers, no strikes were permitted. If they had a wage dispute, they could only appeal to the Labour Courts of the Corporations. But these Labour Courts were dominated by the employers and the state officials who always sided with the employers. Thus workers were forced to work without protest. In agriculture, the Battle of Wheat did increase wheat production. But the cost was uneconomic since wheat could have been brought from the U.S.A. at a much cheaper price. Moreover, land suitable for the growing of other crops such as olive and fruits were used for the growing of wheat. As a result, Italian agricultural production generally declined (except wheat) and people must eat less. To sum up, Mussolini gave to most of the Italians not economic betterment but a decline in their standard of living. Social Policy If economic distress could breed discontent, discontent would lead to social unrest. But social unrest was not possible under Mussolini's regime. In social policy, as narrated in the above paragraphs, the workers' unions were replaced by the Corporations, directly controlled by the replaced by National Council of Corporations. Thus the workers could not organize any political movements against the government. The population as a whole was subject to control by the government through various channels: (i) The secret police was given wide powers. Even the bandits which had been rife in the south for decades were suppressed. (ii) Through education, school children were indoctrinated with Fascist ideas. They were told that "Mussolini is always right. Millions of them were recruited into the youth organizations of the party. In 1931, university professors were forced to swear an oath of loyalty to fascism and to teach according to its principles. (iii) The mass media. — the cinema, the radio, the press, the books and the magazines—were all strictly censored by the government. The Lateran Agreements (1929) Mussolini wanted to secure the support of the Catholics for his regime because most of the Italians were Catholics. Mussolini understood that if he wanted to win over the support of the Catholics, he had to heal the dispute between the Papacy and the Kingdom of Italy. Origin of the dispute between the Papacy and the Italian government The dispute between the Papacy and the Italian Kingdom began in 1870. In that year, when the unification of Italy was achieved, the Papal Kingdom was confiscated by the Italian Kingdom, so the Pope refused to recognize the Italian Kingdom, or to step outside the Vatican City. After long and difficult negotiations between Mussolini and the Pope, the Lateran Agreements of February 1929 were made. They consisted of a Treaty, a Concordat, and a Financial Convention. The Treaty, the Concordat and the Financial Convention: By the Treaty, the state recognized papal sovereignty over the Vatican City, with full diplomatic rights. The state also recognized Catholicism as the national religion. In return, the Papacy declared that it recognized the Kingdom of Italy as the legitimate regime of Italy and surrendered its claim to the greater part of Rome. By the Concordat, the Papacy sought to regulate its relations with the state, such as the appointment of Bishops, marriage laws and education. Finally, by the Financial Convention, the Pope was compensated with ninety million dollars for the loss of Papal territories since 1870. The effects of the Lateran Agreements The Lateran Agreements between the Pope and the state were at best a compromise. But they were beneficial to both sides. For the Pope, the Agreements raised his political prestige in Italy and in the world at large. The King and Queen of Italy visited the Pope. The Pope could also send his ambassadors to various parts of the world. For Mussolini, it was a great personal triumph. By healing the wounds between the Italian Kingdom and the Papacy, Mussolini could get support from the Catholics — they gave support to Mussolini's regime until his fall from power. As the Pope regarded Mussolini as "a man of Providence", this also helped to raise Mussolini's prestige in the eyes of the world. In short, Mussolini, by the Lateran Agreements, had obtained the much-needed support from a broad section of the Italian people for his dictatorial regime. During his rule Mussolini pursued a vigorous foreign policy. The army nearly doubled in size—from 175,000 men to 275,00 men. There were several reasons for this vigorous foreign policy: (1) Mussolini wanted to establish in the Mediterranean a modern Roman Empire, rivalling that of the ancient Caesars. (2) A successful foreign policy might distract the Italians from their miserable conditions at home. (3) Like most of his countrymen, Mussolini was disappointed with the small territorial gains following the First World War and the humiliating treatment by the powers at the Paris Peace Conference. (4) Mussolini wanted more territories to settle the surplus Italian population and to acquire raw materials for her industries. (5) Fascist doctrines preached national glory. Italians should expand to show their national greatness. Mussolini pursued his aggressive foreign policy rather cautiously up to the end of the 1920's because he did not want to arouse great opposition from the Big Powers, France and Britain. In 1923 Mussolini provoked the Corfu Incident. In 1924 he obtained the port Fiume by a treaty with Yugoslavia. In 1926 he began the policy of infiltration into Albania. He made loans to Albania in order to obtain oil concessions. He also sent military advisers to organise the Albanian army. (The climax of all these moves came in April 1939 when the Italian troops overran the country.) Throughout the 1920's, Mussolini also tried to repulse any French attempts to make alliances with Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia but he was unsuccessful. Italian foreign policy was more aggressive in the 1930's because the rise of Nazi Germany had weakened the relative strength of the democratic states. Mussolini first invaded Abyssinia in 1935. This was followed by the formation of Rome-Berlin Axis in November 1936. During the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) Mussolini also gave almost unlimited support to Franco. In 1940, Mussolini declared war on Britain and France. The Italian forces soon met with defeats in their encounters with the Allied forces and suffered heavy losses in their invasion of Libya and East Africa. In 1943, Mussolini was forced to resign by a coup led by King Victor Emmanuel. Fascist Italy: Conclusion Fascism arose in Italy because the liberal parliamentary regime could solve almost none of the perplexing problems arising from the First World War. Under the stress of economic hardships and social unrest, the propertied class turned to support the Fascists. After Mussolini had seized political power in 1922, he maintained himself in power by imposing a strict control of the political, economic and political social life of the Italian people. During the rule of Mussolini (1922-1943), dictatorship Italians enjoyed a long period of stable government but they were deprived of political liberty and economic advancement. Italy remained a poor and backward country. It is no wonder that Italy met with defeats in the Second World War and Mussolini's regime was overthrown by the Italian people in the midst of the war.

i don't know

Richard Gere won a scholarship to the University of Massachusetts in which sport?

Richard Gere Attended The University Of Massachusetts Amherst On A Gymnastics Scholarship Majoring | Richard Gere Richard Gere Attended The University Of Massachusetts Amherst On A Gymnastics Scholarship Majoring Oct 29th, 2012 His mother, Doris Ann (née Tiffany, born 1924), was a homemaker. in 1967, he graduated from North Syracuse Central High School, where he excelled at gymnastics and music, playing the trumpet. He attended the University of Massachusetts Amherst on a gymnastics scholarship, majoring in philosophy, but did not graduate, leaving after two years. Richard Gere Attended The University Of Massachusetts Amherst On A Gymnastics Scholarship Majoring Apr 16th, 2012 Richard Tiffany Gere ( /’???r/ GEER; born August 31, 1949) is an American actor. He came to prominence in 1980 for his role in the film American Gigolo, which established him as a leading man and a sex symbol. Gere’s mother, Doris Ann (née Tiffany, born 1924), was a homemaker, and his father, Homer George Gere (born 1922), was an insurance agent for the Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company and had originally intended to become a minister. He attended the University of Massachusetts Amherst on a gymnastics scholarship, majoring in philosophy, but did not graduate, leaving after two years. Richard Gere Attended The University Of Massachusetts Amherst On A Gymnastics Scholarship Majoring Apr 1st, 2012 He came to prominence in 1980 for his role in the film American Gigolo, which established him as a leading man and a sex symbol. He attended the University of Massachusetts Amherst on a gymnastics scholarship, majoring in philosophy, but did not graduate, leaving after two years. His first major acting role was in the original London stage version of Grease in 1973. He became a major star that year with the film American Gigolo, followed by the romantic drama An Officer and a Gentleman, which grossed almost $130 million in 1982. His career was somewhat resurrected after the release of both Internal Affairs and Pretty Woman in 1990. Richard Gere Attended The University Of Massachusetts Amherst On A Gymnastics Scholarship Majoring Mar 27th, 2012 Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Gere is a descendant of Mayflower Pilgrims Francis Eaton, John Billington, George Soule, Richard Warren, Degory Priest, William Brewster, and Francis Cooke. Gere is their eldest son and second child. He attended the University of Massachusetts Amherst on a gymnastics scholarship, majoring in philosophy, but did not graduate, leaving after two years. Richard Gere Attended The University Of Massachusetts Amherst On A Gymnastics Scholarship Majoring Mar 10th, 2012 Richard Tiffany Gere ( /’???r/ GEER; born August 31, 1949) is an American actor. Gere is their eldest son and second child. He attended the University of Massachusetts Amherst on a gymnastics scholarship, majoring in philosophy, but did not graduate, leaving after two years. Gere’s 2004 ballroom dancing drama Shall We Dance. Gere was raised by Methodist parents; his interest in Buddhism began when he traveled to Nepal in 1978 with the Brazilian painter, Sylvia Martins. Richard Gere Attended The University Of Massachusetts Amherst On A Gymnastics Scholarship Majoring Oct 25th, 2011 Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Gere is a descendant of Mayflower Pilgrims Francis Eaton, John Billington, George Soule, Richard Warren, Degory Priest, William Brewster and Francis Cooke. Gere is their eldest son and second child. He attended the University of Massachusetts Amherst on a gymnastics scholarship, majoring in philosophy, but did not graduate, leaving after two years. Richard Gere Attended The University Of Massachusetts Amherst On A Gymnastics Scholarship Majoring Sep 3rd, 2011 He went on to star in several hit films including An Officer and a Gentleman, Pretty Woman, Primal Fear, and Chicago, for which he won a Golden Globe Award as Best Actor, as well as a Screen Actors Guild Award as part of the Best Cast. He attended the University of Massachusetts Amherst on a gymnastics scholarship, majoring in philosophy, but did not graduate, leaving after two years. However, after 1982, Gere’s career was dogged by several box office failures. Richard Gere Attended The University Of Massachusetts Amherst On A Gymnastics Scholarship Majoring Jun 17th, 2011 He attended the University of Massachusetts Amherst on a gymnastics scholarship, majoring in philosophy, but did not graduate, leaving after two years. His first major acting role was in the original London stage version of Grease in 1973. He became a major star that year with the film American Gigolo, followed by the romantic drama An Officer and a Gentleman, which grossed almost $130 million in 1982. Richard Gere Attended The University Of Massachusetts Amherst On A Gymnastics Scholarship Majoring Apr 11th, 2011 Gere is their eldest son and second child. He attended the University of Massachusetts Amherst on a gymnastics scholarship, majoring in philosophy, but did not graduate, leaving after two years. His first major acting role was in the original London stage version of Grease in 1973. People magazine named Gere the “Sexiest Man Alive” in 1999. in 2002, he appeared in three major releases: the horror thriller The Mothman Prophecies, the drama Unfaithful, and the Academy Award-winning film version of Chicago, for which he won a Golden Globe as “Best Actor – Comedy or Musical”. Gere is also a persistent advocate for human rights in Tibet; he is a co-founder of the Tibet House, creator of The Gere Foundation, and he is Chairman of the Board of Directors for the International Campaign for Tibet. Gere was banned as an Academy Award presenter in 1993 after he denounced the Chinese government in his capacity as presenter. He calls attention to the crime against their peaceful culture and how it reflects on our own relationship with nature and capacity to survive.

Gymnastics

Which golfer announced he was leaving his wife and three children for Brenna Cepalak in 1996?

Richard Gere | Biography, News, Photos and Videos | Contactmusic.com News Pictures Video Film Footage Quotes RSS Biography Richard Gere (born 31.8.1949) Richard Gere is an American movie actor, best known for his roles in films such as Pretty Woman and Primal Fear. Childhood: Richard Gere was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to Doria Anna Gere and Homer George Gere. His mother was a housewife and his father worked for an insurance company. Richard Gere graduated from North Syracuse Central High School in 1967. At school, he performed well at gymnastics as well as playing the trumpet. Gere went on to study at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, where he had won a gymnastics scholarship. He left university after two years, without graduating. Career: Richard Gere's first professional acting job came in 1971, when he performed in a production of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead at the Provincetown Playhouse on Cape Cod. His first major role, however, came with the original stage production of Grease in London, two years later. Gere began working in Hollywood in the mid 1970s and in 1977 he co-starred in Looking For Mr. Goodbar opposite Diane Keaton and Tuesday Weld. This was followed by a role in Days of Heaven in 1978. The film was directed by Terrence Malick and also featured Brooke Evans and Sam Shepard. Richard Gere returned to the stage in 1980 when he appeared on Broadway, in Bent. That same year, his career took something of an upturn with the release of American Gigolo. Gere took the lead role and the film also starred Lauren Hutton and Hector Elizondo. Over the years, it has become a cult classic. An Officer and a Gentleman followed in 1982. Featuring Debra Winger as the female lead, the film grossed over $130 million in its first year of release. The remainder of the 1980s were not successful years for Richard Gere. In fact, it was not until the release of Internal Affairs (with Andy Garcia) in 1990 that his career got back on track. That same year, Richard Gere starred in Pretty Woman, alongside Julia Roberts. The film was a huge global success and grossed well over $464 million at the box office. Luckily for Gere, these two films had helped to cement his reputation and he maintained a steady stream of successful lead roles. In 1993, he starred opposite Jodie Foster in Sommersby, the soundtrack to which was scored by Danny Elfman. Three years later, he appeared in Primal Fear. This highly regarded drama had a cast that included Laura Linney, Frances McDormand and Edward Norton, who received an Oscar nomination for his supporting role. In 1999, Richard Gere took on a more lighthearted role, when he appeared in Runaway Bride, which saw him reunited onstage with Julia Roberts and Hector Elizondo. The film shared the same director as Pretty Woman - Garry Marshall - but failed to regain the glory of its predecessor. 2002 proved to be another milestone for Richard Gere. As well as appearing in The Mothman Prophecies (with Debra Messing and Laura Linney) and Unfaithful (with Diane Lane and Olivier Martinez), he also starred in the screen version of Chicago. Gere won a Golden Globe for his performance in the musical. Richard Gere's next two films received a varied response. The first, a ballroom drama, entitled Shall We Dance. Co-starring Jennifer Lopez and Susan Sarandon, the film raked in over $170 million. In contrast, his next film, Bee Season (with Juliette Binoche), was a flop. 2007 was a more successful year for Gere, as he starred in the comic thriller The Hunting Party, with Jesse Eisenberg and Terrence Howard. Later in the year, he featured in I'm Not There, Todd Haynes' semi-fictional Bob Dylan biopic. The film also starred Cate Blanchett, Christian Bale and Heath Ledger. The following year, Gere released another clanger, when he starred with Diane Lane in the romantic drama Nights in Rodanthe. Personal Life: Between 1991 and 1995, Richard Gere was married to Cindy Crawford. He then married the actress Carey Lowell in 2002, with whom he has a son, Homer James Jigme Gere. Despite being raised as a Methodist, Richard Gere is now a practicing Buddhist. He protested against the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, in order to pressurise China into liberating Tibet. Biography by Contactmusic.com

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Madeleine Gurdon is the third wife of which millionaire?

Madeleine Gurdon - iSnare Free Encyclopedia Madeleine Gurdon (1962-11-30) 30 November 1962 (age 54) [1] Sport Madeleine Astrid Gurdon, Baroness Lloyd-Webber, (born 30 November 1962) is an English former equestrian sportswoman, and the third and current wife of musical theatre impresario Andrew Lloyd Webber . Early life Madeleine "Gurtie" Gurdon was born in 1962 to a British Army officer, and his wife, who later retired as a Brigadier . Gurtie was educated at a convent, and [2] was an equestrian competitor for nearly a decade, riding in three-day events in Princess Anne's set. [2] To supplement her riding career, Gurdon designed an exclusive country wear company, featuring leather-and-suede clothing, [2] called The Done Thing, after her favourite dun horse. Gurdon met Lloyd Webber through his Watership Down neighbours, who loved horses.  [3] Personal life Gurdon married Lloyd Webber at his Hampshire home on 9 February 1991. They have three children together; Alastair (born 1992), William (born 1993) and Isabella (born 1996). The family currently resides in London [4] and Hampshire . [5] References   ^

Andrew Lloyd Webber

Who led Argentina through most of the 1990s?

Who is Madeleine Gurdon dating? Madeleine Gurdon boyfriend, husband 3 children Who is is she dating right now? Madeleine Gurdon and Andrew Lloyd Webber have been married for 25 years since 15th Feb 1991. view relationship Relationships has had no other relationships that we know of. About Madeleine Gurdon is a member of the following lists: Equestrian biography stubs , British sportspeople stubs and British equestrians . Contribute Help us build our profile of Madeleine Gurdon! Login to add information, pictures and relationships, join in discussions and get credit for your contributions. Relationship Statistics

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What relation was Henry Ford II to Henry Ford?

Henry Ford - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com Google Henry Ford: Early Life & Engineering Career Born in 1863, Henry Ford was the first surviving son of William and Mary Ford, who owned a prosperous farm in Dearborn, Michigan . At 16, he left home for the nearby city of Detroit, where he found apprentice work as a machinist. He returned to Dearborn and work on the family farm after three years, but continued to operate and service steam engines and work occasional stints in Detroit factories. In 1888, he married Clara Bryant, who had grown up on a nearby farm. Did You Know? The mass production techniques Henry Ford championed eventually allowed Ford Motor Company to turn out one Model T every 24 seconds. In the first several years of their marriage, Ford supported himself and his new wife by running a sawmill. In 1891, he returned with Clara to Detroit, where he was hired as an engineer for the Edison Illuminating Company. Rising quickly through the ranks, he was promoted to chief engineer two years later. Around the same time, Clara gave birth to the couple’s only son, Edsel Bryant Ford. On call 24 hours a day for his job at Edison, Ford spent his irregular hours on his efforts to build a gasoline-powered horseless carriage, or automobile. In 1896, he completed what he called the “Quadricycle,” which consisted of a light metal frame fitted with four bicycle wheels and powered by a two-cylinder, four-horsepower gasoline engine. Henry Ford: Birth of Ford Motor Company and the Model T Determined to improve upon his prototype, Ford sold the Quadricycle in order to continue building other vehicles. He received backing from various investors over the next seven years, some of whom formed the Detroit Automobile Company (later the Henry Ford Company) in 1899. His partners, eager to put a passenger car on the market, grew frustrated with Ford’s constant need to improve, and Ford left his namesake company in 1902. (After his departure, it was reorganized as the Cadillac Motor Car Company.) The following year, Ford established the Ford Motor Company. A month after the Ford Motor Company was established, the first Ford car—the two-cylinder, eight-horsepower Model A—was assembled at a plant on Mack Avenue in Detroit. At the time, only a few cars were assembled per day, and groups of two or three workers built them by hand from parts that were ordered from other companies. Ford was dedicated to the production of an efficient and reliable automobile that would be affordable for everyone; the result was the Model T , which made its debut in October 1908. Henry Ford: Production & Labor Innovations The “Tin Lizzie,” as the Model T was known, was an immediate success, and Ford soon had more orders than the company could satisfy. As a result, he put into practice techniques of mass production that would revolutionize American industry, including the use of large production plants; standardized, interchangeable parts; and the moving assembly line. Mass production significantly cut down on the time required to produce an automobile, which allowed costs to stay low. In 1914, Ford also increased the daily wage for an eight-hour day for his workers to $5 (up from $2.34 for nine hours), setting a standard for the industry. Even as production went up, demand for the Tin Lizzie remained high, and by 1918, half of all cars in America were Model Ts. In 1919, Ford named his son Edsel as president of Ford Motor Company, but he retained full control of the company’s operations. After a court battle with his stockholders, led by brothers Horace and John Dodge, Henry Ford bought out all minority stockholders by 1920. In 1927, Ford moved production to a massive industrial complex he had built along the banks of the River Rouge in Dearborn, Michigan. The plant included a glass factory, steel mill, assembly line and all other necessary components of automotive production. That same year, Ford ceased production of the Model T, and introduced the new Model A, which featured better horsepower and brakes, among other improvements. By that time, the company had produced some 15 million Model Ts, and Ford Motor Company was the largest automotive manufacturer in the world. Ford opened plants and operations throughout the world. Henry Ford: Later Career & Controversial Views The Model A proved to be a relative disappointment, and was outsold by both Chevrolet (made by General Motors) and Plymouth (made by Chrysler); it was discontinued in 1931. In 1932, Ford introduced the first V-8 engine, but by 1936 the company had dropped to number three in sales in the automotive industry. Despite his progressive policies regarding the minimum wage, Ford waged a long battle against unionization of labor, refusing to come to terms with the United Automobile Workers (UAW) even after his competitors did so. In 1937, Ford security staff clashed with UAW organizers in the so-called “Battle of the Overpass,” at the Rouge plant, after which the National Labor Relations Board ordered Ford to stop interfering with union organization. Ford Motor Company signed its first contract with UAW in 1941, but not before Henry Ford considered shutting down the company to avoid it. Ford’s political views earned him widespread criticism over the years, beginning with his campaign against U.S. involvement in World War I . He made a failed bid for a U.S. Senate seat in 1918, narrowly losing in a campaign marked by personal attacks from his opponent. In the Dearborn Independent, a local newspaper he bought in 1918, Ford published a number of anti-Semitic writings that were collected and published as a four volume set called The International Jew. Though he later renounced the writings and sold the paper, he expressed admiration for Adolf Hitler and Germany, and in 1938 accepted the Grand Cross of the German Eagle, the Nazi regime’s highest medal for a foreigner. Edsel Ford died in 1943, and Henry Ford returned to the presidency of Ford Motor Company briefly before handing it over to his grandson, Henry Ford II, in 1945. He died two years later at his Dearborn home, at the age of 83. Tags

Grandchild

Which world leader married Graca Machel in 1998?

Henry Ford - Oxford Reference Oxford Reference Ancient history (non-classical to 500 CE) Early history (500 CE to 1500) Early Modern History (1500 to 1700) modern history (1700 to 1945) Contemporary History (post 1945) Literary studies (early and medieval) Literary studies (19th century) Literary studies (20th century onwards) Literary studies - fiction, novelists, and prose writers Literary studies - plays and playwrights Literary studies - poetry and poets Literary theory and cultural studies Shakespeare studies and criticism Social Welfare and Social Services Sociology Show all results sharing this subject: History (1863—1947) American motor manufacturer Quick Reference (1863–1947) US motor manufacturer. He was a pioneer of mass production and had a profound influence on the widespread use of motor vehicles. In 1909 Ford produced his famous Model T, of which 15 million were made over the next 19 years at gradually reducing prices due to large-scale manufacture, a succession of simple assembly tasks, and the use of a conveyor belt. He went on to produce a cheap and effective farm tractor, the Fordson, which had a great effect on agricultural mechanization. Control of the Ford Motor Company passed to his grandson, Henry Ford II (1917–87), in 1945 and is now a huge multinational corporation. Among the first Henry Ford's philanthropic legacies is the Ford Foundation (established 1936), a major charitable trust.

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What is the first name of Charles' brother of Saatchi & Saatchi?

The Saatchi Brothers’ Breakup | Vanity Fair The Saatchi Brothers’ Breakup SIGN UP FOR NEWSLETTER The Saatchi Brothers’ Breakup Maurice and Charles Saatchi sold Margaret Thatcher to Britain and the Concorde to the world; by the mid-1980s their advertising company was the biggest on the planet. Then Charles was eased out, and Maurice was ousted in a boardroom coup. Fiammetta Rocco traces the story behind the brothers’ tempestuous departure, including a $38 million revelation, a battle for revenge, and the birth of the New Saatchi Agency. Twitter ‘Make no mistake,” said a Saatchi & Saatchi senior staffer in the wake of recent events which have threatened the company’s future and shaken the entire advertising world, “all of this, every single move the company makes, is revenge. Revenge! Revenge! Revenge!” This tale of vengeance begins with a man at a window. The view from Maurice Saatchi’s old office is surprisingly ordinary. Hardly what you’d expect for the co-founder of an upstart advertising agency that became a vast creative giant, the most famous name in the field. Still, there is something soothing about the sooty skyline of London, and Saatchi needed soothing last December 16, when his board of directors kept him waiting for seven hours in the purgatory of his bright bunker with its white desk and white walls. Within days, he would join Elvis, Madonna, Charles and Diana as a British tabloid icon recognizable by only his first name: Maurice Versus the Beancounters. Or Maurice Stages a Talent Raid. But on that December day, there was only the skyline for distraction, the city lights, and the company of his older brother Charles, with whom Maurice has shared a business partnership and a fraternal rivalry that reminds public-relations maestro Sir Tim Bell of Cain and Abel. “The level of rage,” says Bell, “is extraordinary.” On that December day, however, Cain and Abel spoke in quiet tones. And what did they discuss? “I don’t know,” Maurice says. “I just remember being there a very long time.” Down the hall, the Saatchi board was sequestered behind closed doors. Their topic was ostensibly confidential, though such was the company’s fame that speculation about the outcome of the meeting was splashed over the morning papers. Maurice Saatchi was under siege. For nearly 25 years, he had ruled a company defined by the phrase “Nothing is impossible” and an attitude of gunslinging self-assurance so profound that insiders called it “the virus.” He had stood at the center of his company’s every victory: the momentous occasion when a handful of brazen campaign posters won the undying loyalty of Margaret Thatcher and the Conservatives; the day when Saatchi’s seemingly life-size poster of the Concorde ascending was installed near the Queens Midtown Tunnel in Manhattan; the time in 1986 when the agency’s London share price hit a high of $78 (an increase of more than 10,000 percent on the launch price); the premiere of the hugely successful “Tastes Great, Less Filling” campaign for Miller Lite; the opening of the agency’s landmark Manhattan fortress, with its rooftop running track; the 43rd corporate acquisition, when Saatchi became the largest advertising company on the face of the globe. That was then. Saatchi & Saatchi’s current offices, at 83–89 Whitfield Street in Fitzrovia, a rather drab London neighborhood, now seem emblematic of a frailer spirit. The sixth-floor boardroom is functional, devoid of expensive canvases, representative of a style the Italians call meschino, or “mean.” The table is large, but not imposing. It makes no claims. The chairs do merely the job they were made for. It’s a far cry from the days before the company’s financial comeuppance, when art filled the Saatchi suites at the company’s global headquarters. The vast immeuble stretched across one entire side of Berkeley Square, anchoring a neighborhood where Lord Lucan once played back-gammon at the Clermont Club and Prince Charles danced the night away at Annabel’s. Yet even before the battle of December 16, the spirit of Saatchi & Saatchi had been broken by accountants who neither breathed fire nor embraced risk. Men who treasured simple things. Men who had never frequented Jack Barclay’s Rolls-Royce emporium on the square and who neither knew nor cared how to properly hang a Baselitz portrait. They included board member and chief executive Charles Scott, Maurice Saatchi’s chief antagonist. A straight-forward man, known as Charlie to friends, Scott loves nothing more than a good game of football. Also present at the board meeting: Jeremy Sinclair—a member of the Saatchi circle even before “The Brothers,” as they are known, started their business in 1970. Widely considered one of the most creative men in advertising, the soft-spoken Sinclair—a Saatchi loyalist—decided long ago that his life would include one wife, And one job. There were two Americans: Professor Theodore “Ted” Levitt, author of a celebrated Harvard Business Review essay on the globalization of markets, had grown disenchanted with Maurice Saatchi over time. No less antagonistic was Dr. Tom Russell, a businessman who resides in Florida and who joined the board in 1990. Russell had fallen out with Maurice Saatchi in the summer of 1994. The reason would become clearer as the board meeting wore on. Missing that day was Sir Paul Girolami, the forceful ex-chairman of Glaxo pharmaceuticals. From Rome he sent a handwritten fax urging restraint. The second absentee, much less well disposed toward Maurice, also communicated by fax. The message from Robert Louis-Dreyfus, Saatchi’s former chief executive, announced that he was resigning from the board. A cocky French businessman with a reputation for saving companies in financial difficulty, Louis-Dreyfus later cited the pressure of his new post as head of Adidas, the troubled German sportswear manufacturer, as the reason for his departure. There was no small talk that day. Chairing the meeting was the Honourable Clive Gibson, a member of Lord Rothschild’s inner circle. In front of each director were notepads, pens, a glass of water. There was only one item on the agenda, but it was far from clear what was going to happen. If the board retained Maurice Saatchi, it ran the risk of his being removed at a special gathering of shareholders within six weeks. If it discharged him, it risked a bloody war that might well level the company. The campaign to evict Maurice Saatchi from the board of Saatchi & Saatchi Company P.L.C. (the holding company that owns the group’s two main divisions, including Saatchi & Saatchi Advertising Worldwide) had been started the previous spring by David Herro, a 33-year-old Chicago fund manager, whose Oakmark International Fund owned nearly 10 percent of Saatchi’s shares. He had taken a violent dislike to Maurice when they met at a lunch in Maurice’s Berkeley Square office. Herro had insisted on pronouncing Saatchi’s name “Mo-reees.” After the meeting, he made no secret of the fact that he disapproved of Saatchi, and reportedly described him as a “toffee-nosed Brit.” “I’ll never forget,” says one who was there, “at the end of lunch Maurice takes out this big box of cigars, lights one up, looks out over the most expensive real estate in London. He says, ‘What are we going to do about all these expenses?’ I mean, knock, knock, knock. Is there anybody home? What a way to run a company!” The board meeting’s deciding moment came when one director, Tom Russell, brought up a rumor that the directors had been discussing among themselves for more than a week. For five months, the Saatchis had been involved in a legal fight with Robert Louis-Dreyfus over a private investment in Adidas in February 1993. The confrontation was bitter, and in early December before the board met, a secret settlement had been imposed involving a substantial payoff to the Saatchis. Did the board know the exact details? The answer was no. They knew only, by way of a brief memo to the audit committee in the spring of 1993, that Robert Louis-Dreyfus, Tom Russell himself, and the Saatchis had made the investment. When the extent of the windfall was revealed, the board was aghast. Was this really just a private investment? Or had the brothers worked for their money? And if they had, then didn’t it belong, by rights, to Saatchi & Saatchi, the company that employed them? In a silent eruption of fury, envy, and confusion, the last dregs of support for Maurice simply drained away. Charles and Maurice Saatchi had been paid $38 million. Two hours later, the meeting broke up. But the stage was set. For absolutely nothing that came afterward—not Maurice’s departure, his opening of the New Saatchi Agency, not his terrible public battle with Saatchi & Saatchi, not even the 47 percent drop in the company’s share price—would have happened the way it did had it not been for the disclosure of the payment to the Saatchis. “People wanted to get Maurice after that,” explained another former senior Saatchi executive. “I believe that Adidas changed everything,” Bates’s chief executive officer, Michael Bungey, said shortly after he’d been named to the Saatchi board. But he wasn’t referring to the disposition of the Saatchi board. “For the first time,” said Bungey, “Maurice had a lot of cash.” On January 3, Maurice Saatchi informed the board that he had decided not to accept their conciliatory offer of the chairmanship of the company’s principal division, Saatchi & Saatchi Advertising. Fueled by his new wealth, he gave vent to his feelings in a splenetic little memo to company secretary Graham Howell. “Please inform Mr. Herro that I do not accept his offer. It was kind of him to consider me for the position.” Revenge! Revenge! Revenge! The first time I met Maurice Saatchi was on February 8, when he gave a speech to the Foreign Press Association in London. It was nearly five weeks after he’d quit his old company, and then announced he was starting a brand-new agency. By coincidence, it was the same day that a judge—asked by Saatchi & Saatchi to issue an injunction to block Maurice’s plans—began hearing evidence in the High Court. It was the first time Maurice Saatchi had publicly faced the press since the debacle. For all the stresses of the previous weeks, Maurice looked rather spectacular as he stalked up the association’s grand stairway. He has curly reddish hair fashionably shorn, exudes a sort of ravenous magnetism, and stands taller than he appears in photographs. His suit was baggy, its studied shapelessness balanced by its excellent cut. The label, he told me later, was Comme des Garçons. Little things like that—like the neoSwifty glasses, with their trendy thick arms, and the black suede shoes—mark him as someone deeply concerned with appearances. Before he began, Saatchi laid out the rules. His speech—concerning the necessity of truth in advertising—would be on the record, but he would take no questions afterward. He never gives interviews, a point he took pains to emphasize. But if people wanted to speak to him later, his comments would be off the record. It all seemed rather contradictory, and one European reporter leapt up angrily to protest. “You shouldn’t have come,” she shouted. “It’s an outrage.” But Maurice insisted. He did not say—as quiet courtesy is one of his most disarming characteristics—that if she didn’t like it she could leave. After the formal presentation, when Saatchi did speak (at length) about his battle with the company and his future, he didn’t seem to be at all put out by the fact that the recorders and TV cameras were humming. When he left, he seemed confident that in some private way he had breached none of the rules he has set for himself. It was a firsthand lesson in Saatchi’s games of confusion and control, how he makes his own rules as he goes along and then modifies them, oblivious of the effect on other people. Or perhaps not so oblivious at all. “You’ve got to understand, these are not nice people,” said a Saatchi friend, who, like so many others, spoke only on the condition of anonymity. “You can still love them and admire them. But they’re totally manipulative. Totally manipulative.” “Maurice doesn’t like his fingerprints on things,” Saatchi’s press representative Sir Tim Bell had told me weeks before. I was reminded of this when I visited Maurice Saatchi in his new office, a few doors down the road from the Comme des Garçons store in central London. In the middle of the room is a broad black desk, surrounded on three walls by a series of muted paintings of heroic women by the Portuguese artist Paula Rego. He began with his mantra: “I don’t do interviews. It’s just something I’ve never done.” As he unlaced one black suede shoe and slipped it off, he explained that he would give me a “background briefing,” some of which could be on the record. Though his semantic distinctions are baffling, there is a purpose to Maurice Saatchi’s incessant stage-man-aging: his version of events gets publicized, yet he can deny all responsibility. Maurice doesn’t like his fingerprints on things. Some would say that Maurice’s belief that conventional rules apply only to little people was one of the main causes of his downfall. But it must also be remembered that—along with his persuasive charm and Charles’s creativity and ruthlessness—it was instrumental in his success. That success, even after the past six years of turmoil at Saatchi & Saatchi, is there for all to see. Maurice and his beautiful second wife, Josephine Hart, the Irish fund-raiser and novelist (Damage, Sin, and the soon-to-be-published Oblivion), live in London in an elegant mews house near Berkeley Square. They summer at their home in Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat, and spend weekends and winter holidays at their country house in Sussex. Old Hall is just an hour and a half’s drive from London. (“An hour, if there’s no traffic,” insists Maurice, who owns a pair of dark-red Bentley Mulsanne Turbos: one in France and one in London. The cars are identical, except that the one in England is usually driven by chauffeur.) Saatchi’s splendid country mansion dates back to 1842. The house is set in an abundance of gardens which surround a lake Saatchi created by flooding a full 13 acres of pastureland. Where Charles’s passion is contemporary art—he and his first wife, Doris, opened the Saatchi Gallery in north London in 1985—Maurice’s is gardens. When the Saatchis bought Old Hall in 1980, its grandeur was hidden behind an English prettiness. But Saatchi removed bedrooms to heighten the great hall, which has become a vast mirrored showcase for a carved staircase that is perfect for grand entrances and dynastic occasions. Particularly memorable was the day Josephine Hart carried their son, Edward, now 10, downstairs for the first time. Old Hall is the setting for most of the Saatchis’ rather lavish entertaining. (They transformed a Roman Catholic chapel, formerly used as a cloakroom, into a dining room, where they occasionally seat 40 or so for lunch.) It was also at Old Hall, in the former chapel, that Josephine Hart began Damage, which contained those haunting words: “Damaged people are dangerous. They know they can survive.” Maurice Saatchi went to Old Hall to ponder his future after the December board meeting. “Walking round my garden is the only thing I do to relax,” he says. Until December 16, Maurice’s life appears to have been a saga of ever upward mobility. A costly saga. His expenses, a major issue at the company, came to more than $700,000 last year and nearly a million dollars the year before. In addition, he spent $60,000 last year on hiring cars and taxis, $50,000 throwing a party for the premiere of the film version of Damage (which starred Jeremy Irons and was directed by Louis Malle), and $8,500 dispatching flowers. Every time a government minister changed jobs, he or she received a bouquet of flowers from the brothers. Few things wrinkle Maurice Saatchi’s Comme des Garçons more than the subject of his expenses, the subject which so infuriated David Herro. Mention this money and Saatchi’s lips grow thin, his voice clipped. “Chairmen of public companies do business entertaining,” he says. It comes out as four precisely enunciated utterances: “En. Ter. Tai. Ning.” “They take people out. They organize events. They take groups of people to the opera or the theater, or have cocktail parties. That’s what chairmen do with their customers. “That’s what I do. That was part of my job. So, yes, if a company like this one, which is in the hands of people who have somehow to rationalize how they’ve halved the share price and lost half a billion dollars of business, and the best they can muster is ‘What an expensive fellow. Dear, oh dear.’ To me, that is the absolute last refuge. It is pathetic.” Born in Baghdad on June 21, 1946, Maurice Saatchi is the third of Nathan and Daisy Saatchi’s four sons. Charles, the Saatchi’s second child, had arrived three years earlier. Their father was a prosperous textile merchant, and the family was part of the permanent Iraqi-Jewish community that once flourished in Baghdad. The end of World War II brought grave political difficulties for Iraq’s Jewish population, and by the mid-1940s, Nathan Saatchi had begun searching Europe for an alternative home for his family. He bought two textile mills while on a visit to Britain in 1946. The following year, he sold the business in Baghdad and moved his family to Hampstead, where he had already bought a house. Just in time; shortly after the Saatchis left Baghdad, 120,000 Jews were forced to flee the country. The children were quickly assimilated and, although their parents’ mother tongues were Arabic and Hebrew, spoke English at home. Nathan Saatchi is an elder of the Sephardic Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue on Lauderdale Road (where Maurice married his first wife, Gillian Osband), but today Maurice has ceased his religious observance. Michael Green, chairman of Carlton Communications and a childhood friend, says he has spent years arguing with the brothers about the importance of Judaism in their lives. “I am very aware of being Jewish,” he says. “They say I am still stuck in the ghetto. They say, ‘Why don’t you grow up and move on. You should get out of this ghetto, like we have.’” Maurice does not care to discuss his family in detail, saying only, “I had a very nice, upper-middle-class upbringing in a very nice house in Hampstead. It was all very good, and very happy, and very nice.” Yet the differences between the brothers were evident early on. Where Charles, the maverick, struggled with school until he eventually abandoned it at age 17, Maurice earned a first-class degree in sociology at the London School of Economics. The power equation between the instinctive, brilliant Charles and his steady, studious brother remained somehow unbalanced. “For years, Maurice was always in the shadow of Charles,” says one man who knows both brothers well. “Even if he wasn’t really, he felt as if he was.” Another colleague explains it more colorfully: “It is Charles who makes the bullets that Maurice fires.” Charles and Maurice Saatchi started their ad business in 1970 with $60,000 in backing from a group of investors, including the fashion designer Mary Quant, high priestess of Carnaby Street and the miniskirt. Two years later, when they bought her out, she made nearly three times her investment in profit. “I don’t remember the figures,” she says. “I just had lunch with Maurice and realized he was brilliant.” The Saatchis were young—and they were new. But it wasn’t just that. “I thought they had more ambition than anyone else,” Michael Bungey recalls. “They were terrific lateral thinkers. They were more daring. Quite simply, they had more balls than anyone else.” In time, the Saatchi group came to represent some of the world’s most prestigious accounts: British Airways, Toyota, Mars, Procter & Gamble, and Philip Morris. In 1988, the company’s sales totaled $6.7 billion, hundreds of millions more than those of the next-biggest international agency. “‘Nothing is impossible’ really meant ‘Fuck it, we’ll do it,’” explains David Kershaw, who until the recent upheaval was chairman of Saatchi & Saatchi U.K. “As soon as you’d broken one record, there was almost a cultural requirement to set yourself another ridiculous objective, prove the world wrong again.” Kershaw says he enjoyed nothing more than listening to the boos of derision whenever a Saatchi executive collected a prize on the myriad awards nights that fill the advertising calendar. “If they didn’t hate us and fear us, something was wrong. If you’re going to play the game, you might as well win it.” The stakes of the game grew higher in 1978 when the agency attracted its most important client. It all began with a decision made by an elegant, elderly British aristocrat, Lord Thorneycroft. “We decided to run our campaign in the summer,” explained Thorneycroft’s old friend Lord McAlpine, the wily former treasurer of the Conservative Party. The two peers were not the only ones to sense change in the political air; so did party leader Margaret Thatcher. “We knew in the summer there’d be no politicians about,” McAlpine explains. “They know nothing about advertising. They’re a pain in the neck. Once they start rewriting ads, you have something that is four times as long and half as meaningful.” Untouched, the ads the Saatchis dreamed up for the Tories that summer were among the best they ever did. One showed a long line of miserable people below the words “Labour Isn’t Working.” The posters ran in only 20 sites, yet this was enough to rattle the Labour Party, which delayed the autumn election until the following spring. For Labour, it was too late. Almost every journalist at the Foreign Press Association asked Maurice Saatchi the same question: Would he ever do the same for the Labour Party? But to even consider that question is to completely misunderstand Saatchi’s relationship with the Tories. “We do owe them everything, Charles and I,” he told me later. “When Mrs. Thatcher hired us, nobody had ever heard of us. Certainly not in America. That election victory in 1979 was the basis of our international—particularly U.S.—expansion. She was so respected in America that if she thought we were good we were good. She made us.” A reverse takeover by the holding company of London’s Garland-Compton agency in 1975 gave Saatchi & Saatchi a public listing. Then, with its usual voracious appetite, the company set about acquiring new agencies. Saatchi & Saatchi swallowed up 7 companies in 1984, 13 more in 1985. “They wanted more than anything to be the biggest,” Tim Bell recalls. “Always the biggest. I remember Charles screaming at Maurice on the phone. ‘Get on with it, Maurice. Today’s Monday. If you don’t get on with it, by Thursday there’ll be nothing left to buy.’” On one level, expansion by acquisition made sense. The company had an unbroken history of profit growth, and it could acquire with shares instead of cash; in the early 80s the share price was still increasing. In 1986 the brothers acquired the American Ted Bates Agency, for which they paid $450 million, and Saatchi & Saatchi became the biggest ad agency in the world. Then, in 1987, an unknown young Conservative Party member named Michael Dobbs (author of several books, including House of Cards) was hired by Maurice to help devise the group’s global-communications strategy. But when he showed up the first day, Maurice told him that first Saatchi & Saatchi was going to buy the Midland Bank. The brothers’ ambition was to build a global “know-how” empire that would supply clients with all their communications and consultancy needs—including banking services. When Maurice Saatchi tipped his cap at the Midland Bank, England’s third-largest, the Bank of England was more than a little surprised. Maurice was eventually forced to back off. He did not stop trying, though. Within days, he tried to take over a well-known merchant bank named Hill Samuel, where he was also rebuffed. Five weeks later, in October 1987, the stock market crashed, and Saatchi’s share price was cut by half. While Maurice was hell-bent on global expansion and the core business suffered, Charles built his massive contemporary-art collection, which became the Saatchi Gallery. Little is known about the inner workings of the gallery. Even today, 10 years after it was founded, its finances are mysterious. Charles has always insisted he is just a collector, but corporate records indicate that his Conarco partnership made at least $42.3 million in profit by dealing in works of art between 1988 and 1994. The figure is particularly astounding considering that this period included the worst years of the recession. When the stock market collapsed in 1987, few realized that Saatchi & Saatchi was choking. Little effort had been made to integrate the businesses it had purchased—and it paid far too much for Bates. In 1988 the company was still spending almost as much on paying out executives as it was on acquiring new businesses. The following year, the scales tipped. The $47 million spent on acquisitions was outweighed nearly three times by what Saatchi was forced to make in payouts to executives from companies it was still attempting to digest. By 1989 the company was in real trouble. ‘The very worst moment of my career,” Maurice says, “was having to stand up in 1989 at the annual general meeting—after 18 years of consecutive profit growth—and say we were not going to meet our profit expectations for that year.” Charles, who realized that the company required emergency treatment, pressed Maurice to appoint a chief executive in October 1989. “My brother is brutally frank on many subjects,” says Maurice, who, until then, was chairman and filled the role of C.E.O. Robert Louis-Dreyfus was not Maurice’s first choice; he had approached London Weekend Television’s Sir Christopher Bland and two others before finding the man whom Saatchi-ites refer to—always with a French accent—as “Ro-bear.” Yet the suave French businessman, who once dated actress Kim Basinger (and who was once prosecuted by the S.E.C. under insider-trading laws), turned out to be a godsend for the British advertising giant. Saatchi needed serious help, and Louis-Dreyfus, whose family owns the commodities-trading combine S.A. Louis-Dreyfus et Cie., had much to prove. Although the company, one of Europe’s largest privately held businesses, provides jobs for some family members, Louis-Dreyfus never made it onto the fast track there. He entered the family business in 1974, but left in 1982 to join IMS International, the pharmaceuticals-research company, having learned that “a family business is very nice from the outside.” One Saatchi executive who later got to know Robert Louis-Dreyfus says, “He’s got a confidence problem. He always seemed desperate to be admired.” IMS proved to be just what the ambitious Louis-Dreyfus needed. In 1984, he became president and C.E.O., and within four years the company grew sevenfold. In 1988 he supervised the sale of IMS for $1.7 billion, walking away from the deal with a reported $10 million. When Maurice Saatchi approached him to become head of Saatchi & Saatchi, Louis-Dreyfus was ready. It seemed that he had forgotten what he had learned about family businesses. Upon arrival, he said, he found the company in much worse condition than the silvery-tongued Maurice Saatchi had admitted. “I ought to have done my homework better,” Louis-Dreyfus says today. In fact, Saatchi & Saatchi was virtually bankrupt by the beginning of 1990. Charles Scott, Louis-Dreyfus’s finance director at IMS, had come with him to Saatchi and remembers having to negotiate an emergency bank loan even before he formally started work. He recalls, “There were many times in the first 15 months when I thought, Jesus, how are we going to get out of this mess? Believe me, they were tough times.” But they made it. By selling off what they could, renegotiating debt, and restructuring the company’s balance sheet, the duo began reversing Saatchi & Saatchi’s fortunes. True, Louis-Dreyfus sometimes promised more than he could deliver—he never sacked Charles Saatchi from the board, though he reportedly vowed to others that he would. Nor did he evict the brothers from the expensive suite of offices they maintained at Berkeley Square long after the rest of the company had moved out. But he shook up the company quite enough for Maurice Saatchi, who lowered his profile. “History would have been completely different [if they hadn’t come],” says Maurice. “In the end they probably liked the role of savior. They concentrated on costs and I concentrated on clients.” Believing he’d saved Saatchi, the savior began to look for other errant flocks. He wasn’t interested in the quotidian scenarios of day-to-day operations. “Robert likes the big picture,” says a banker who worked closely with him at Saatchi & Saatchi. “He’s not interested in details.” Certainly, the Frenchman had become famous in Britain, but the ambition to prove himself on his home turf was still unfulfilled. And when an offer came from French financiers to help Crédit Lyonnais, the troubled French state bank, sort out one of its most problematic investments—Adidas—he jumped. And he persuaded Charles and Maurice to join him in a little deal, a seemingly insignificant purchase of some Adidas stock. In April 1993, more than three years after he joined Saatchi & Saatchi, Louis-Dreyfus left London. Charles Scott became C.E.O. Louis-Dreyfus, however, did maintain a position on the Saatchi board. Maurice Saatchi may not have been so unhappy to see him go. Bates C.E.O. Michael Bungey explains it this way: “There once was a train set. It went off the tracks. Charlie Scott and Robert Louis-Dreyfus were brought in to fix it. Many of us said, ‘Watch out for when the train set’s mended. The brothers will want it back.’ That’s exactly what happened.” Maurice, of course, has his own explanation. “When I hired them [Scott and Louis-Dreyfus], I put myself into a cupboard for several years and threw away the key. I decided I would be humble and stay out of the way.” At the beginning of 1994, Sir Peter Walters came on board as a new non-executive director. Walters assumed the view that Charles Scott was not adequately filling his role as chief executive and that Maurice needed to be “more assertive” as chairman. “Maurice took what I said as a personal blessing to turn on Charlie Scott,” says Walters. What Maurice doesn’t fully acknowledge is that there had been a major confrontation with Scott before Walters arrived. For some months after Scott took over as C.E.O., the company had been fighting costs. In the fall of 1993, it lost two major accounts—Chrysler and Helene Curtis. With replacement business hard to find, the pressure to save money grew more intense. Attention turned to the brothers’ offices. When the company left the massive Berkeley Square headquarters, the brothers insisted on staying behind, ensconced in baronial splendor on the top floor, served by a personal staff of 10. Keeping them there cost the company more than $1.5 million a year. In December 1993, Scott and the board finally decided to force them to move out. Furthermore, Charles Saatchi, who, according to Maurice, had never attended a board meeting in his life, was made to resign from the board and named “life president” of Saatchi & Saatchi P.L.C. Both Scott and Maurice Saatchi hired public-relations men in the early spring of 1994. “The whole world knows that last year Maurice tried to get me fired,” says Scott. Key financial journalists were briefed on Maurice’s behalf by David Burnside, who had recently started his own public-relations business. He’d been fired by a major Saatchi client, British Airways, after becoming embroiled in a dirty-tricks campaign against Richard Branson and Virgin Atlantic. Burnside later presented a $50,000 bill to Saatchi & Saatchi via Bill Muirhead, the head of the company’s U.S. operation. “It was broken down into three items,” says a senior Saatchi executive who has seen the invoice, “including ‘work for the chairman’s office.’” When I asked Maurice Saatchi whether Burnside had indeed been working for him in placing critical stories, he just smiled and said, “Um. There was a press war.” Unbeknownst to the public, Maurice Saatchi came within a whisker of being fired for his part in that war. When The Sunday Times ran a full-page article critical of Scott on March 20, Maurice’s critics blamed him for the negative publicity. But the company’s key clients maintained their old loyalties. British Airways chairman Sir Colin Marshall wrote to one director last May, reminding him that “Maurice Saatchi has been the driving force and key lynch-pin.” Five days later, the normally reticent Mars brothers (of the Mars candy corporation) faxed Maurice Saatchi a letter threatening to move their business elsewhere. “Your leaving would be a major factor in a decision to let such a move take place,” they said. That day, at least, the board listened. But two fresh battles quickly surfaced. The first was about Maurice’s remuneration. After reducing each brother’s pay from more than $1 million to about half that in October 1990 (Maurice insisted that his official salary remain what it had always been, a fact that complicated future negotiations), Herro and the board tried to go even further last summer. They proposed a three-year fixed contract for Maurice with a base salary of $300,000 and an incentive package of bonus and share options that would be tied to the fortunes of Saatchi & Saatchi’s share price. Maurice was not at all happy. He recalls, “Charles, who has a very blunt view of these things, told me, ‘You’re a fool. All you’re doing is agreeing to your cheaper sacking in six months’ time.’ He was right. I did it under pressure from Herro personally. I was very unhappy, but I did it.” The second part of Maurice’s pay package—the share options—caused the real problem. British financial guidelines suggest that the maximum value of options which an executive should enjoy is eight times his salary. But eight times what in this case? Maurice’s salary kept changing—and his official salary was higher than what he was actually getting. He naturally fought for the highest figure, which would have allowed him a total of $7.5 million in share options, if the Saatchi share price doubled within three years. The next skirmish was over the company name. For years, Saatchi’s two main advertising divisions—Bates and Saatchi & Saatchi Advertising—had suffered from association with the troubled holding company. Maurice, not surprisingly, refused to discuss a change. “I didn’t see any merit in taking down the most famous name in advertising,” he recalls. Maurice Saatchi has never been a fabulously wealthy man. True, he owns beautiful houses, entertains in style, and drives a hell of a car. Two even. But unlike his brother or Robert Louis-Dreyfus, Maurice has not possessed the kind of liquid wealth necessary to become an independent financial force. That all began to change in the winter of 1992–93, when Louis-Dreyfus approached the brothers with an offer of a gamble on Adidas’s shares. That deal, which turned a $10,000 investment into $38 million in less than two years, has been shrouded in secrecy. Adidas, the German sportswear company, third in the world after Nike and Reebok, has a fabulous brand name—and a checkered financial history exacerbated by market unease over its obscure ownership structure. In early 1993, more than three-quarters of the shares in the umbrella company, Adidas International Holdings, belonged to the flamboyant French entrepreneur turned politician Bernard Tapie, then France’s minister of urban affairs. A controversial figure with flowing dark hair and saturnine looks, Tapie was declared bankrupt last December. In March he was tried for bribing players opposing his Olympique de Marseille soccer team. If convicted, he faces a prison sentence. Tapie’s business empire was financed largely by France’s state-owned bank Crédit Lyonnais, which has had its own problems. In 1993, the bank posted losses of $1.23 billion; last year was just as bad. To claw back some of its debts, Crédit Lyonnais’s vice president of the investment-banking branch, Henri Filho, and another French banker, Jean-Paul Tchang, turned to the one person in France who had the daring to put a deal together to save Adidas: Gilberte Beaux. The diminutive Mme. Beaux, 66 now, was 9 years old when her father died and she and her two young brothers lost their inheritance. Mme. Beaux went to work in a small French investment bank, and 22 years later she became Sir James Goldsmith’s right hand. Today, she is known simply as La Banquière, after the late André Meyer, head of Lazard Frères & Co., dubbed her “the best banker in France.” She is enormously wealthy, and as chairman of Adidas owned as much as 8 percent of the company at one point. Henri Filho, Jean-Paul Tchang, and Mme. Beaux put together a magical deal to entice Louis-Dreyfus to take the business over. (Tchang had once worked for Louis-Dreyfus’s family bank and had known him since 1981.) The deal went like this: 15 percent of Adidas’s equity went to Louis-Dreyfus and his partners, who set up a small Luxembourg holding company named Ricesa. The partners included fellow Saatchi director and former IMS president Tom Russell, French businessman Christian Tourres, and a small British investment company named Hatzone, owned by Charles and Maurice Saatchi. The partners, each of whom held 25 percent of Ricesa’s shares, put up $10,000 apiece for their stakes and borrowed nearly $91 million to buy the 15 percent of Adidas. Late in the negotiation, the other non-Ricesa investors (they included Mme. Beaux’s company, two secretly owned offshore companies, and a small Luxembourg company called Matinvest) granted Ricesa the option to buy out their shares at a fixed price on or before January 3, 1995. Until then, they could not transfer the option. If Adidas did well, as Louis-Dreyfus believed it would, Ricesa would own one of the world’s best brand names. Louis-Dreyfus wanted Charles and Maurice involved because of their marketing skills. In the summer of 1993, Saatchi & Saatchi Advertising did a presentation to Louis-Dreyfus and his team. The company had spent $300,000 on the presentation, which would have been the centerpiece of a campaign to reposition Adidas in the market. “We thought it went pretty well,” says Jeremy Sinclair, who was there along with Maurice and an account executive named Peter Levitan. “In fact, Robert had to go to a meeting right after, but first he called me out into another room and said, ‘Don’t worry. You’ve got it. It’s great.’ Then he asked if he could borrow my tie.” Louis-Dreyfus insists that all he said was: “My vote will be for you.” Rather mysteriously, two to three weeks after the presentation, Peter Levitan received a two-line fax from Louis-Dreyfus turning Saatchi down. Maurice didn’t even get a phone call until after the fax. The brothers’ usefulness to Louis-Dreyfus, it seems, had come to an end. The relationship deteriorated further when Louis-Dreyfus learned of Maurice’s press campaign against Charlie Scott, whom he had brought from IMS to Saatchi & Saatchi. Less than a month later, the brothers learned that Louis-Dreyfus was buying out some of the other Adidas investors. First, it seems, he bought Matinvest, and then Mme. Beaux also sold him her Adidas shares. “For personal reasons,” she says. The Saatchi brothers’ opportunity to cash in on Adidas was being undercut. Two months later—at the end of June 1994—the Saatchis’ lawyers, Watson Farley & Williams, came to believe that Louis-Dreyfus was planning to transfer the option to buy some of the outstanding Adidas shares and cut Ricesa out. Both Louis-Dreyfus and Tourres insist that the initial granting of the option to Ricesa was “a mistake.” Adds Louis-Dreyfus, “They were offered a free lunch and asked for the whole restaurant.” Maurice confronted Christian Tourres, a Ricesa shareholder and now deputy chairman of Adidas, at a meeting in London. “I tried to have a friendly conversation with him,” says Tourres. “[But in the end] I said, ‘Fine. Fuck off.’ Actually what I said was ‘I’m sorry, we will have to fight.’” And fight they did. The brothers won a High Court injunction in Britain, and took legal action in France, Belgium, and Germany. The deadline of January 3, 1995, when the option would expire, was approaching very fast. Adidas, under Louis-Dreyfus, had been extraordinarily successful. Its Predator soccer shoe was outselling all expectations, and the company, which had posted a $95 million loss in 1992, was about to announce a $92 million profit for 1994. If Ricesa exercised its option to buy shares it did not own, the brothers could expect to get 25 percent of any deal Ricesa made. In September, the brothers lodged a formal objection when Louis-Dreyfus forced through the election of another of his men, Gérard Lashermes, to the board of Ricesa. The Anglo-French deadlock seemed unsolvable. A peacemaker was ushered in. In early December, about two weeks before the board meeting that would decide Maurice’s future, the long legal wrangle between Louis-Dreyfus and the brothers finally came to an end. Henri Filho imposed a settlement on the two sides. Paying half in cash and half in a promissory note, Sogedim, a new Belgian company formed by Louis-Dreyfus, bought the Saatchis out for $38 million. “Mr. Saatchi is absolutely ruthless,” says Tourres. “We were trying to work between friends, and Mr. Saatchi is not of this caliber.” Last February, Saatchi & Saatchi sued the brothers to make restitution for any profits as a result of the Adidas deal. A court hearing is expected in 1996. The Adidas deal leaves much that is unexplained, not least whether Louis-Dreyfus had any role to play in Maurice Saatchi’s departure from Saatchi & Saatchi. There is no concrete evidence that Louis-Dreyfus was behind Maurice’s troubles, but the circumstantial evidence is abundant. All those months that the relationship between Maurice and the company was going from bad to worse, Louis-Dreyfus was sitting on Saatchi’s board. So was another Ricesa shareholder, Tom Russell. What’s more, Charles Scott—Maurice’s main opponent—had been brought into the company by Louis-Dreyfus. Would they have been able to keep the two issues separate? When asked if he had played any role in Maurice’s departure, Louis-Dreyfus replied, “Absolutely not.” The sheer size of the deal also leaves open the question of how it affected Maurice’s state of mind. Is it possible that the Saatchi chairman was unable to understand how his part in the press campaign against Scott, his share-options scheme, his insistence that the company name not be changed, would all be held against him? Was Maurice—blinded by his perception of himself as a victim of Louis-Dreyfus—unable to see that, to others, he was an oppressor? Saatchi believes there was a conspiracy to unseat him. I could find no real evidence of a direct link between Louis-Dreyfus and Herro, but it is clear that Maurice’s windfall upset many around him. In an unguarded moment, one Saatchi board member turned to me and said, “I’m jealous as hell as to why Louis-Dreyfus didn’t give me one little piece of it. I haven’t much money, but £1,000 I could have managed.” Others, even those who supported Maurice, were also left feeling uneasy. Many who watched him could not rid themselves of the suspicion that he had put his private interests ahead of those of the company. If the company’s revenge was to get rid of him, Maurice’s counterstrategy was to hit back hard. “The Adidas payment was fuck-you money,” says one who closely watched events unfold at the company. “Maurice could not have afforded to leave without it.” And hit back he did—with maximum publicity. Soon after Maurice’s departure, three of his closest associates also handed in their resignations. Jeremy Sinclair, Bill Muirhead, and David Kershaw had all written letters in support of Maurice. “They took no notice of us whatsoever,” Muirhead says. But their resignation letters were printed in full by the London Evening Standard. (Saatchi & Saatchi’s lawsuit against these executives for breach of contract is due to be heard in the High Court on June 12.) Within days, another whole tier of advertising executives below them also quit. Those clients whom the board also ignored were not happy, either. Mars was the first to announce it was reviewing its account, adspeak for changing agencies. British Airways, a $90 million account, and the Mirror Group (which owns The Independent) soon followed. The Conservative Party, which owes the company close to $1.5 million, can’t leave until the debt is cleared. But senior party officials say they would like to follow Maurice. By the end of March, Saatchi & Saatchi had lost well over $150 million worth of business, the share price had fallen nearly 50 percent to a record low, and the two sides were pelting each other with litigation which will take years to clean off. Saatchi & Saatchi, or Cordiant P.L.C., as it was re-named in March, will not recover quickly. There are those who feel that without the Saatchi brothers it will simply disintegrate. But the underlying businesses are strong, and if it can lick its wounds in peace, there is no reason it should fall apart. And what of Maurice? Few entrepreneurs get the chance to start out all over again. But he has just turned 49, and is still a skillful executive. What’s more, he now has motivation and experience. “There are certain proverbs that have been handed down for thousands of years,” he says. “Obviously they have survived these millennia because they are true. A good one would be ‘Stick to your knitting.’ That would be a good proverb to relearn.” Today, Maurice Saatchi is knitting feverishly in the offices of the New Saatchi Agency in central London. Charles, who quit Saatchi & Saatchi six weeks after Maurice, is there as well and remains a potent influence. The New Saatchi Agency, which recently announced its alliance with a unit of Publicis S.A., the French ad giant, has already won more than $100 million worth of business. One source with knowledge of the agency’s plans says New Saatchi will open offices in New York, Sydney, and the Far East. Maurice is hard at work. He has turned a page. He is rich. And he has something to prove. Will he succeed? Robert Louis-Dreyfus does not doubt the possibility. “One of Maurice’s great qualities,” he says, “is that he is a street fighter, a ruthless street fighter.” Share

Maurice

Salvador Allende was elected president of which country in 1970?

Charles Saatchi - Charles Saatchi Net Worth Charles Saatchi Read more... Charles Saatchi Charles Saatchi Net Worth is $100 Million.. Charles Saatchi (/E?sE?E?tE?iE?/; born 9 June 1943) is a British businessman and the co-founder with his brother Maurice of the advertising agency Saatchi & Saatchi, and led that business a?? the world's largest advertising agency in th... Charles Saatchi Net Worth is $100 Million. Charles Saatchi Net Worth is $100 Million. Charles Saatchi is a British businessman and the co-founder with his brother Maurice of the advertising agency Saatchi & Saatchi, and led that business a?? the world's largest advertising agency in the 1980s a?? until they were forced out in 1995. In the same year the Saatchi brothers formed a new agency called M&C Saatchi. Charles is also known as an art collector and owner of the Saatchi Gallery, and in particular for his sponsorship of the Young British Artists , including Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin. Charles Saatchi is the second of four sons born to Nathan Saatchi and Daisy Ezer, a wealthy Iraqi Jewish family in Baghdad, Iraq. The name "Saatchi" derives from the Iraqi Arabic ??????????U? meaning "watchmaker",Persian and Turkish. Charles' brothers are David , Maurice Nathan and Philip . Nathan was a textile merchant and in 1947, he anticipated a flight that tens of thousands of Iraqi Jews... Charles Saatchi's parting shot at Nigella Lawson, the goddess who outgrew him It was impossible, in 1979, to be up at Oxford and not know of Nigella Lawson. She and a group of undergraduate friends had been splashed on the cover of a magazine: the “Bright Young Things”, as it dubbed them, led a charmed existence of champagne ... Posted: July 9, 2013, 1:58 am Nigella Lawson‘s deteriorating relationship with ex-husband Charles Saatchi has been well documented, but would Charles stoop so low as to ban Nigella from entering an entire country? Last Sunday, Nigella was prevented from boarding a first class flight ... Posted: April 4, 2014, 9:17 am Saatchi Project 2 Charles Saatchi and the big names, before you can help you have to help yourself, some people got this message and some didn’t, those who didn’t they think they have to share the last thing they have and so they struggle themselves. Those people don ... Posted: January 19, 2017, 3:17 am PICTURE THIS: Charles Saatchi's favourite images and articles from his column Dive into the mind that co-founded one of the world’s largest advertising agencies. Holy Cow! is a collection of Charles Saatchi’s favourite images and articles from his popular column in London’s Evening Standard. If you ever wanted to know his ... Posted: January 12, 2017, 2:05 pm

i don't know

Fitness trainer Carlos Leon was the father of which singer/actress's child?

CARLOS LEÓN, Actor, Father of Madonna’s child “Lola”. (Born: Havana) *** Carlos León, Actor, Padre de la hija de Madonna “Lola”. (Nacido en La Habana) | The History, Culture and Legacy of the People of Cuba CARLOS LEÓN, Actor, Father of Madonna’s child “Lola”. (Born: Havana) *** Carlos León, Actor, Padre de la hija de Madonna “Lola”. (Nacido en La Habana) Posted on by admin Carlos León, actor, father of Madonna’s Child “Lola”. VIDEO. Carlos León was born on July 10, 1966 in La Habana, Cuba. He has been a resident of New York for quiet a few years. Former celebrity as a personal trainer of the star Madonna whom the Queen of Pop met while jogging in Central Park in New York. The actor had a passionate affair with Madonna in the 1990s which resulted in their daughter Lourdes, 14, who he says is the love of his life. Carlos Leon a Cuban who lives in the United States. Although their relationship did not last, Carlos said in an interview: ‘I’m forever grateful to [Madonna]’. Leon and Madonna were together in the mid-1990s and split in 1997, after the October 1996 birth of Lourdes. Father with Madonna of Lourdes Maria Ciccone Leon (Lourdes Leon), born 14 October 1996. Lourdes comes from the Marian shrine in France which Madonna’s mother was very devout and Mary by the name of the mother of his dad. Carlos León has turned to be an accomplished actor. Has also appeared on- and off-Broadway, including “Aunt Dan and Lemon”. As of Summer, 2006 he can be seen nightly on Broadway in the Roundabout Theatre Company’s production of “The Three Penny Opera” opposite Alan Cumming, Jim Dale, Ana Gasteyer, Cyndi Lauper and Nellie McKay. [April 2006] Lourdes “Lola” as is known clearly bears no ill will towards the 47-year-old personal trainer. The 16-year-old was seen attending Carlos’ wedding to Zac Posen designer Betina Holte in Denmark. After Madonna. All in the family! Madonna may have split from her ex Carlos Leon more than 15 years ago, but she met him for dinner with their daughter Lourdes just this week. The trio reunited in New York City on Thursday, June 19, dining at Manhattan’s trendy downtown lounge and restaurant, Beauty & Essex. Madonna, 56, arrived in a NYC-chic look, an onlooker tells Us, wearing a black top, black pants, and horn-rimmed glasses. An observer tells Us that the modern family “looked like they were having a great time,” and spent the evening “laughing, joking, and enjoying each other’s company.” During their Beauty & Essex feast, the trio dined on basil pesto ravioli, the restaurant’s take on a New York pretzel, salt & vinegar fries, kale and apple salad, and a crispy eggplant pizzetta. “Lola” and Carlos. Carlos and Lourdes have a famously close relationship, with Carlos calling her the love of his life ‘I have no regrets. I wouldn’t change anything. I got the best thing out of that relationship, and that’s my daughter. My daughter is everything to me’, he added. Carlos and Madonna’s eldest child Lourdes, 17, graduated from LaGuardia High School few months ago. Speaking to People magazine, he admitted that he finds it difficult to be strict with his daughter. ‘I’m a lenient dad. I’m very empathetic, and I’m good at listening to my daughter. I’m probably a bad dad when it comes to disciplining her’, Carlos shared. Rebellious, attractive and controversial, Lourdes Maria Ciccone is becoming more like her mother, get to know thoroughly at his young age, Lola has already debuted as designer collection “Material girl”‘. Personal life. Madonna’s ex Carlos Leon in July 2013 wed designer Betina Holte in Gillelje, Denmark, and his daughter Lourdes attended the ceremony. The couple lives in New York. Agencies/Various/Wiki/InternetPhotos/youtube/thecubanhistory.com Arnoldo Varona, Editor. CARLOS LEÓN, Actor, el padre de la hija de Madonna “Lola”. (Nacido: La Habana) Carlos León nació el 10 de julio de 1966 en La Habana, Cuba. Ha sido un residente de Nueva York por algunos años ya. El ex celebridad como un entrenador personal de la estrella Madonna a quien la Reina del Pop se encontró cuando ambos salían a correr en el Parque Central de Nueva York. El actor tuvo un apasionado romance con Madonna en la década de 1990 que dio lugar a su hija Lourdes, de 14, de quien dice que es el amor de su vida. Carlos León un cubano que vive en los Estados Unidos. A pesar de que su relación no duró, dijo Carlos en una entrevista: “Estoy eternamente agradecido a [Madonna] ‘. León y Madonna estaban juntos a mediados de la década de 1990 y se separaron en 1997, después del nacimiento de Lourdes octubre de 1996. Padre con Madonna de Lola Leon (Lourdes León), nacida el 14 de octubre de 1996. Lourdes viene del santuario mariano en Francia, que la madre de Madonna era muy devota y María con el nombre de la madre de su padre. Carlos León ha vuelto a ser un actor consumado. También ha aparecido en y fuera de Broadway, incluyendo “tía Dan y limón”. A partir del verano de 2006 se lo puede ver todas las noches en Broadway en la producción de “La ópera de tres centavos”, junto a Alan Cumming, Jim Dale, Ana Gasteyer, Cyndi Lauper y Nellie McKay de la Compañía de Teatro Roundabout. [Abril de 2006] Lourdes “Lola”, como se conoce tiene claro que no hay mala voluntad hacia los 47 años de edad, entrenador personal. El joven de 16 años de edad, fue visto asistir a la boda de Carlos con el diseñador Zac Posen Betina Holte en Dinamarca. Después de Madonna. ¡Todos en la familia! Madonna podría haber separado de su ex Carlos Leon hace más de 15 años, pero ella se reunió con él para la cena con su hija Lourdes apenas esta semana. El trío se reunió en la ciudad de Nueva York el jueves, 19 de junio de cenar en el salón del centro de moda en Manhattan y restaurante, Belleza y Essex. Madonna, de 56 años, llegó a una mirada NYC-chic, un espectador le dice a nosotros, que llevaba un top negro, pantalones negros y gafas de pasta. Un observador nos dice que la familia moderna “parecía que estaban teniendo un gran momento”, y pasó la noche “riendo, bromeando, y disfrutando de la compañía del otro.” Durante su fiesta Beauty & Essex, el trío cenó raviolis al pesto de albahaca, toma del restaurante en un pretzel papas, sal y vinagre, la col rizada y manzana ensalada de Nueva York, y un pizzetta berenjenas crujientes. “Lola” y Carlos. Carlos y Lourdes tienen una relación estrecha famoso, con Carlos la llamada al amor de su vida ‘No tengo excusas. No cambiaría nada. Tengo lo mejor de esa relación, y ese es mi hija. Mi hija lo es todo para mí “, agregó. Carlos y la hija mayor de Madonna Lourdes, 17, se graduó de LaGuardia High School secundaria hace unos meses. En declaraciones a la revista People, admitió que le resulta difícil ser estricto con su hija. “Soy un padre indulgente. Estoy muy empático, y yo soy bueno escuchando a mi hija. Probablemente soy un mal padre cuando se trata de disciplinar a su ‘, Carlos compartida. Rebelde, atractivo y polémico, Lourdes María Ciccone es cada vez más como su madre, llegar a conocer a fondo a su corta edad, Lola ya ha debutado como diseñador de la colección “Material Girl” ‘. La vida personal. La ex de Madonna Carlos León en julio de 2013 diseñador de casarse con Betina Holte en Gillelje, Dinamarca, y su hija Lourdes asistió a la ceremonia. La pareja vive en Nueva York. Agencias / Varios / wiki / InternetPhotos / youtube / thecubanhistory.com The Cuban History, Hollywood.

Madonna

What was the profession of President Jean Bertrand Aristide of Haiti?

Carlos Leon and Tracy Anderson: Madonna and me - Tim Teeman Tim Teeman Home > Work > Feature writing > Carlos Leon and Tracy Anderson: Madonna and me Feature Carlos Leon and Tracy Anderson: Madonna and me Publication: PDF Because he rarely speaks publicly, there are many rumours about Carlos Leon, Madonna’s ex-boyfriend and the father of her 13-year-old daughter Lourdes. That he and Madonna met while running in Central Park, for example. Not exactly: “She was running, I was on my bike. I had seen her a few times before speaking to her,” Leon tells me in the fitness studio that he shares with his personal training business partner, Jeff Bell, in St Mark’s Place, New York. Was he really arrested for smoking pot in Washington Square Park as a young man? “No. But I was arrested for smoking pot next to the Hudson River in my thirties. I was jailed for two days and it wasn’t very nice.” The “Belleon” studio has one running machine, lots of kettle drums and weights and mirrors running down its flanks. For 44, Leon is — well — inescapably hot: lean and well-muscled in a black tank top and tight black shorts, with dark hair, a light beard and soft eyes. Bell, 54, is equally handsome: toned, muscular and looking at least ten years younger than his age. Their classes, not surprisingly, are very popular with women. Through a collision of circumstances, I have accidentally become Madonna’s fitness stalker. After Leon, I will meet her former trainer Tracy Anderson. Gwyneth Paltrow introduced Madonna to Anderson, although Madonna and Anderson’s professional relationship ended last year after a rumoured falling-out, followed by whisperings of a cooling between Madonna and Paltrow. Anderson has faced criticism for her business practices and methods, including recommending baby food (as eaten by Jennifer Aniston) as an effective, healthy way to lose weight. But first Leon: he and Madonna had exercise in common, of course, her physique being as much hailed (toned, lean) as it is criticised (“stringy” arms, “dangerously” thin). Leon worked out from a young age: raised in New York by Cuban parents, he spent much of his childhood roaming the city on his bicycle. “The reason I started getting in shape was that members of my family died at a young age from heart disease, diabetes and high blood pressure,” he says. “I was skinny as a kid, I wanted to be muscular and get the girls so I started doing push-ups.” He won Mr Peanut, a children’s fitness competition, and after school briefly studied police and criminal science. “I was in trouble with the law as a kid — nothing serious, I wouldn’t worry if my son got into that kind of trouble — and wanted to know my rights,” he explains. Leon then gave up his studies and became a competitive cyclist. His “true passion”, he says, has always been acting, but personal training is all-consuming now. “I live for working out,” he says. “The sweating — it really turns me on, taking your body to a whole new level, pushing yourself, then introducing new exercises.” The Belleon workout, which you can follow online, is circuit-based: he and Bell (whose clients have included the singer Mary J. Blige) take me through a range of squats, lunges, crawling thrusts, bicep curls and press-ups. One circuit takes 20 minutes: an hour-long session is three circuits and, as the class gets faster, five. “Madonna and I worked out together when we were together,” Leon says. “It was a mix and match of me following her programme and her following mine. She is always very curious about what’s new, what’s hot. She is the type of person who will do anything exercise-wise. Right now she is using bands (big elastic ones) for resistance training, and her cardio comes from dance.” As for her body, he says: “I think Madonna knows she sets the bar pretty high for people who see her image in the papers. But bear in mind she has a cook, a trainer, she appears on stage for two hours when she’s on tour. She makes her body her business, she really does.” Leon says that Lourdes stays in shape with ballet and observes her father and Bell’s exertions balefully: “She sees two old men jumping up and down.” He is proud of her recent first fashion line. “I know 13 seems young but she knows what works. Yes, her mother is a big part of it but my daughter is the creative force. Her future may lie in fashion or acting. Whatever she does, I’m with her 100 per cent.” Madonna’s celebrity affected their relationship, he says, “especially with the paparazzi. I’ve learnt to smile quietly but it sometimes gets a little overwhelming, especially if you’re having dinner with your daughter. Lourdes doesn’t pay attention to it. After being in the public eye for 16 years, I feel uncomfortable in it. I’m a private person — I should have been a monk. I see myself as Joe Schmo, a regular guy.” He and Madonna are “good friends. Just as when we were together, the key is communication and compromise. When we were together I didn’t feel dominated by her, we had a spiritual equality. We still do. I respect her a lot. People think she’s dominating but that’s a character she portrays. I was never intimidated by her. I know that in many people’s eyes I am “Madonna’s ex-boyfriend” or the father of her child. But I’m a regular guy, I hang out with my buddies and with my dog and my girlfriend. I try to live a simple life.” Leon reveals that he wants to marry soon and have another child, “a son”, with his partner Betina Holte, a fashion designer. They have been together for two years. “I have changed. I was scared of commitment in the past. Love is very important to me, it keeps you young.” He fights ageing — “although people tell me I look younger than 44” — with exercise, “eating right”, drinking lots of water and taking supplements: amino acids and multivitamins. He will “never” have plastic surgery. Next, Leon is planning Belleon studios in Tokyo and London and is creating a TV show focusing on different fitness regimens.On the front desk of Tracy Anderson’s studio in Tribeca, New York, the flowers have ice cubes added to their water. Anderson is probably the best-known personal trainer in the world, with her own machines and DVDs: Madonna is a former client, Paltrow is her business partner (“and like a sister to me, one of my dearest friends in the world”). The resistance-based workouts involve pulleys and sinister-looking cubes hooked to the ceiling. Giant elastic bands are unhooked, with which Anderson leads me on a puzzling, but fun, dance routine to deafening music. From this week you can log on to her “webisode” workouts, targeted at specific body types. Her mother ran a dance school in Indiana and Anderson studied dance in New York. Her father, an entrepreneur, “lacked focus” and had “commitment issues”, leading to her parents’ divorce when she was 17. After that, she became “almost ADD in how much I focus”. Her ex-husband Eric (with whom she had a son, Sam), a basketball player, had a bad back and it was through the doctors Anderson consulted that she found the basis for her “method” — 3,000 moves that target small muscle groups and the “problem areas” around them. She has just launched a post-pregnancy workout. Madonna was her client for three years. “I had worked with hundreds of women before her. Who wouldn’t be intimidated by her? But she took orders from me.” Did they fall out? “When you work with one person exclusively and they are a priority, how long is that sustainable? I had an 11-year-old son and he was sick of travelling and I was sick of being away from him.” Are she and Madonna still friends? “There are different levels of ‘friends’,” says Anderson carefully. “We don’t hang out but we’re not ‘not friends’.” Anderson denies that the association ended because she began a (continuing) relationship with Philippe van den Bossche, the former head of Madonna’s Raising Malawi charity. She also says that “most of what you read” about Madonna and Paltrow’s supposed enmity is fictitious. Anderson claims to have her own body issues: she is short, she says (5ft), she gained 40lb (18kg) as a young dancer and 60lb (27kg) when she had Sam (“but I was a size zero in eight weeks”) and her weight fluctuates (from 93lb to 102lb). Her famous clients’ perceived extreme skinniness, particularly that of Madonna and SJP, has been discussed endlessly. Is size zero really something for which women and girls should aim? “I don’t think there’s any woman who wouldn’t want it if she knew she could get it,” says Anderson. “But it’s not about being size zero. You can be a killer size eight. It’s not about not eating. I love to eat. My collections come with nutrition advice.” She defends her advocacy of puréed foods. “These are not ‘baby foods’,” she says. “They are large amounts of fruit and vegetable in consumable portions.” Controversy swirls around Anderson. She denies accusations that clients did not have their membership fees refunded after one of her gyms closed in Indiana. “I paid back every single one of them personally. It was one of the most painful things I have ever gone through,” she says. (She also denies claims made by a former business partner and boyfriend, Glynn Barber, that she swindled him out of money, but won’t elaborate.) Anderson has also been criticised for her fitness trainers not being conventionally certified. “I’ve spent ten years developing my method. I don’t believe in the official way of certifying trainers,” she says. Because of “this rollercoaster and the sniping”, Anderson is seeing a therapist. She has also started studying Kabbalah (but Madonna didn’t introduce her). My immersion in both worlds was brief: Leon and Bell seemed warmer and their studio was cluttered and homely, where Anderson’s was chic, but both use opaque exercise empowerment-speak. Yet when you look at Leon and Anderson’s perfect bodies and Madonna’s supreme feat of physical engineering, it’s clear that something is working — and they made it work eye-bogglingly well for her. Anderson wants to have a child with van den Bossche and intends to broadcast her pregnancy exercise programme as webisodes. There are also plans, similar to Leon’s, for expansion in London and Tokyo. Like the woman who links them, Anderson and Leon are becoming brands for whom only global domination will do.

i don't know

What was the name of Frank Sinatra's last wife?

Cele|bitchy | Frank Sinatra’s last wife: he showered 12x/day, romanced her away from her husband Frank Sinatra’s last wife: he showered 12x/day, romanced her away from her husband Books , Frank Sinatra , Photos You may have heard this news yesterday, but I couldn’t resist commenting on it. Frank Sinatra’s last ex wife, Barbara Sinatra, has a new memoir out in which she writes of her 22 year marriage to Old Blue Eyes, ending when he passed away in 1998 at the age of 82. Barbara is now 84 and is ready to reveal what it was like to be married to the famous crooner. While she remembers plenty of romantic moments it wasn’t always easy going. Frank would sometimes drink gin and she said she avoided him then, but she didn’t get into the details too much. I saw an interview with Barbara on ABC News (below) and I found her story really fascinating. It’s clear that she loved Frank up until the end, and that she misses him terrible. ABC reports that her memoir doesn’t have any details of Frank’s troubled relationship with his daughters at all, and that she steered clear of that topic. Frank Sinatra had an interesting quirk that he managed to keep hidden from the public for his entire life: He was obsessed with being clean. “He was a guy who took about 12 showers a day,” his widow, Barbara Sinatra, said in an interview with ABC News. The singer, who died in 1998 at age 82 following a heart attack, was “neat” and “always smelled like lavender,” she added. Barbara, his fourth and last wife, is promoting her new memoir titled, “Lady Blue Eyes: My Life with Frank,” which delves into the couple’s romantic, but oftentimes difficult, 22-year marriage…. “He made me feel special,” she told ABC, adding that “he would think of every little thing to make it romantic.” But alcohol often affected the nature of their relationship. “I didn’t want to be around him if he drank gin,” Barbara admitted. “Gin, I think, made him mean. So when I’d come out of my room and see the gin bottle on the bar, I’d turn right around, go back in my room, lock the door, because I didn’t want to deal with it.” Still, when Frank was on what would turn out to be his deathbed, she was convinced they would still be together for years to come. “I kept saying, ‘You’ve beaten tougher things than this. I think you can beat this, too,’ ” she recounted. “He just looked up at me and he said, ‘I can’t.’ That was it.” [From NY Daily News ] Showering 12 times a day sounds like an obsessive compulsive disorder to be sure. Twice a day is understandable, but anything more than that is excessive. I wonder how else Frank’s obsessiveness came though and if he had any other bizarre repetitive behavior. In an excerpt of Barbara’s memoir posted on ABC News, Barbara details how Frank, her then-neighbor, wooed her away from her husband of 12 years, who had been cheating on her anyway. Having been nothing but courteous for months, Frank first came looking for it my way at a gin rummy party he hosted at his house across the fairway from ours in Palm Springs, California. My husband, Zeppo, sat a few feet away, oblivious to the drama that was about to unfold. Our twelve-year marriage had long been dead. Twenty-six years older than me, Zeppo had been successful in vaudeville and manufacturing, but once he retired he preferred a routine of golf or sailing followed by early nights. Unable to relinquish the swinging lifestyle of his fraternal youth, he also dated other women. The Marx name and financial security he’d offered me and my son, Bobby, were all that was left of our once promising romance. I was bored and lonely by the time Mr. Sinatra aimed those eyes in my direction. The spark he ignited inside jerked me from my slumbers. Frank had been watching me all night as if he was seeing me for the first time. Sitting close, he called me “Barbara, baby” in that killer voice and flashed me a lopsided smile. He asked if anyone wanted “more gasoline” and offered to fix me a fresh martini. Taking my arm, he led me to the den. It was my turn to watch as he swirled vodka around a glass, reached for an olive and then some ice. A cigarette balanced on his bottom lip, a curl of blue smoke rising. He handed me my drink with a Salute! and then added softly, “Come sit with me awhile.” Thrown off guard by his sudden change of tack, I found myself directly in the path of that extraordinary force of nature. There was nowhere to run. Once he turned on the charm, my defenses rolled away like tumbleweed. Inhaling his heady scent of lavender water, Camel cigarettes, and Jack Daniel’s, I could do nothing but savor the moment of intoxication, oblivious to the consequences. As we settled onto a couch, our eyes met, and then he pulled me into his arms and kissed me. I knew with that first kiss that I was about to become another Sinatra conquest, and the thought snatched away what little breath he’d left me. Nothing more would happen that night. Not for weeks, months even. [From ABCNews ] It sounds really romantic and I love her writing style. You can’t blame her for leaving her husband when he had a bunch of women on the side too I guess. Here’s that ABC interview with Barbara promoting her book. She looks so frozen and it’s clear she’s had a ton of work done. When I get to be that age I want to look like Betty White, like I’ve had a lift (or two) but it’s subtle. I find her story and affect very genuine though, and she’s definitely got some incredibly interesting stories to tell. She hung out with the rat pack and in her book she writes that she was romanced by John F. Kennedy. The bastard was probably married at the time, although she only mentions it briefly and it’s hard to tell.

Barbara

Who did Idi Amin depose in 1971?

'Obsessive Frank Sinatra took 12 showers a day and always smelled of lavender,' reveals his widow | Daily Mail Online 'Obsessive Frank Sinatra took 12 showers a day and always smelled of lavender,' reveals his widow comments Frank Sinatra's widow has given a glimpse inside the private life and often troubled times of Ol' Blue Eyes. Barbara Sinatra has recalled how the late singer was both a generous romantic full of charisma and a terrible drunk with a furious temper. He was also, rather surprisingly, obsessed with cleanliness and was entered a room surrounded by a gentle waft of flowers. She said: 'He was a guy who took about 12 showers a day. I mean, he was neat. He always smelled of lavender.' He also signed his love notes to her, Charlie Neat. Scroll down for video... Remembering Frank: Sinatra's widow Barbara Sinatra has written a book about Ol' Blue Eyes Barbara, 84, the star's fourth wife, is promoting new memoir, Lady Blue Eyes: My Life With Frank. He died in her arms in 1998 at the age of 82 after 22 years of marriage. The former Vegas showgirl told a US TV show said she didn't even know who he was when she first met him partying with his Rat Pack buddies. 'I didn't recognise him,' she said. 'I recognised some of the others. I said, "I don't care. I'm not dealing with a bunch of drunks".' But in her book she recalls how she was very quickly won over by him. 'Once he turned on the charm, my defenses rolled away like tumbleweed,' she writes. 'Luckiest woman in the world': The couple enjoying the glamorous life on a trip to Monaco in 1980 'Inhaling his heady scent of lavender water, Camel cigarettes, and Jack Daniel's, 'I could do nothing but savour the moment of intoxication, oblivious to the consequences. 'He had a sexual energy all his own. Even Elvis Presley, whom I'd met in Vegas, never had it quite like that.' Barbara was married to American film star Zeppo Marx when they first met and in her telling, it was Sinatra, then in his mid-50s, who initiated their long-term affair. After their relationship began, she quit smoking at his request because he considers it unfeminine. He never gave up the habit himself. Wife No. 4: Sinatra died in Barbara's arms in 1998 at the age of 82 after 22 years of marriage His feisty mother, Dolly, was not pleased with their liaison and subsequent marriage, and asked him: 'Aren't there enough whores around?' Of the famous attribute that earned him his nickname, she says: 'He had the most vibrant, electric, deep blue eyes in the world. You could say they were shockingly blue.' Singing legend: Sinatra on stage in the late 1960s In his quiet moments at home, he loved to eat grilled cheese sandwiches, read and was also a crossword puzzle ace. But Barbara also told how she wouldn't want to deal with the mercurial star if he was drinking gin. 'I don't know that I handled his moods. I lived with them,' she told Good Morning America. 'He could be moody. I didn't want to be around him if he drank gin. 'Gin, I think, made him mean. [If I saw] a gin bottle on the bar I'd turn right around and go back in the room and lock the door because I didn't want to deal with that.' She has revealed how he once hurled a brass clock into a wall during a game of charades - something she described as part of his 'dangerous' charm. When a female columnist once raised his infidelities in an interview, he screamed at her in anger, before stuffing two dollar bills into the woman's glass. Barbara viewed is aggression as exciting and accepted that her husband's inner demons came with the glitz and glamour. Asked if he ever apologised, she said: 'Never. Absolutely never.' Of Sinatra's notorious reputation as a womaniser, Barbara says she took the advice of her Palm Springs neighbour, Lee Annenberg, and 'looked the other way'. Wife No. 1: Sinatra with Nancy Barbato, the mother of his three children, in the early 1940s Wife No. 2 and 3: The singer with Ava Gardner in the 1950s and right, with Mia Farrow on their wedding day in 1966 While he was generous and had a 'good eye for a stone', he was also street smart - he had a prenup delivered to her on the morning of their wedding which she signed. Despite his 'Jekyll and Hyde personality', she says she was the 'luckiest woman in the world' to be his wife. Sinatra had three children, Nancy, Frank Jr., and Tina, with his first wife, Nancy Barbato, whom he divorced in 1951. He was married to Ava Gardner from 1951 to 1957 and Mia Farrow from 1966 to 1968. He wed Barbara in 1976. Lady Blue Eyes: My Life With Frank by Barbara Sinatra ($24.99, Crown Archetype)

i don't know

Hafez al Assad was the first democratically elected President of which country?

| Middle East The European Union condemned the vote as illegitimate [AFP] Syrian President Bashar al-Assad has won a landslide victory in presidential poll securing 88.7 percent of the vote, parliament speaker Mohammad al-Laham has said. The two other candidates, Hassan al-Nouri and Maher Hajjar, won 4.3 percent and 3.2 percent respectively. The victory gives Assad a third seven-year term in office despite a raging civil war which grew out of protests against his rule. The head of the Supreme Constitutional Court said on Wednesday that the turnout in the country's presidential election this week was 73.42 percent. Live Box 2012108933861442 "I declare the victory of Dr Bashar Hafez al-Assad as president of the Syrian Arab Republic with an absolute majority of the votes cast in the election," Laham said in a televised address from his office in the Syrian parliament. The opposition and its international backers have denounced the election as a farce, saying the two relatively unknown and state-approved challengers offered no real alternative to Assad. Voting was held only in government-controlled areas, excluding vast chunks of northern and eastern Syria that are in rebel hands. 'Committed allies' Fawas Gerges, a Middle East expert based in London, called the election win a "culmination of Assad's accumulated victories" since his opponents took up weapons against his regime in 2011. "The opposition does not seem to be able to genuinely change the balance of power on the ground," he told Al Jazeera. "The opposition's allies - the US and others - have not been as solid and committed as Assad's allies. Assad's allies - Iran, Russia, Hezbollah - have fought tooth and nail to keep Assad in place."

Syria

Which Russian leader was buried in 1998 in his family's vault?

Al-Assad was propelled into the presidency even though he had shown little interest in politics [EPA] Bashar al-Assad inherited power in July 2000, a month after his father Hafez al-Assad died. The senior Assad had ruled for three decades and his son inherited a government led by the Arab Socialist Baath party and dominated by Alawites - a Shia sect that makes up between five and 10 per cent of the population in a predominantly Sunni country (74 per cent). Founded in Damascus in 1947, the Baath party was a originally a pan-Arab secularist party opposed to what it saw as "Western imperialism". Its motto: "Unity, liberty, socialism".   Hafez al-Assad, left, died June 10, 2000 after three decades in power Bashar al-Assad, who graduated with a degree in ophthalmology at Damascus University in 1988, and went to London in 1992 to further his studies, was propelled into the presidency despite showing little interest in politics.   He was forced to return to Damascus, the Syrian capital, from London after his older brother Basil - who was initially groomed for the presidency - was killed in a car crash in 1994. Assad went on to become a tank battalion commander in 1994, then lieutenant-colonel in 1997, before being promoted to colonel in January 1999. He was elected to the top body of the Baath party at its first congress in June 2000, and parliament passed an amendment to the constitution, scrapping the minimum age limit of 40 to allow al-Assad to run for president. He was elected president, officially with more than 97 per cent of the vote, and took office on July 11, 2000. Many had viewed Basil, who was chief of presidential security and often appeared in full military uniform at official events, as a man that would rule with an iron fist like his father. Bashar, who on the other hand was viewed as a modernist, was greeted with much more optimism. He promised to inject new freedoms and open up the Syrian market.   But the package of reforms he began, known as the "Damascus Spring," proved short-lived, as members of the old guard stifled his initiative and steered him toward more orthodox, authoritarian policies. With little room for manoeuvre, Assad soon began to speak of "economic reform before political reform". Human rights Under the rule of his father Hafez al-Assad, thousands of political opposition members were imprisoned under emergency laws implemented in 1963. Those powers, which deny citizens "the right to form associations, organisations or political parties in order to express or defend their opinions," remains in place today. Bashar al-Assad has released around 700 political prisoners since becoming president, boosting hopes of a major improvement in human rights. But there still at least 4,000 in prison and authorities continue to arrest political and human rights activists, censor websites, and detain dissident bloggers. Many Syrian expats and activists have been monitored, threatened and punished for their activities, even overseas . Critics say Assad's inexperience has hindered him from  establishing Syria's place in the new world order [AFP]  According to Human Rights Watch, as of 2009, Syria’s human rights situation, one of the worst in the world, had "deteriorated further".   The government's response to protests that started on March 16, only reflected the "poor" human rights conditions.   Assad had insisted that Syria was immune to the uprisings that spread throughout the Arab world and toppled governments in Tunisia and Egypt in early 2011. But anti-government protests calling for a "revolution", the "downfall of corruption" and the release of political prisoners, have since spread throughout the country, with rights groups reporting that over 2,000 had been killed and by the sixth month of the protests.   Critics say his inexperience in politics has made it difficult for him to establish Syria's place in the new world order. "Syria has become a dictatorship without a dictator," a European diplomat in Damascus said. He previously rejected comments by some observers that he does not hold full power in Syria, saying there is no logic in accusing him of being a dictator on one hand and lacking authority on the other. "You cannot be a dictator and not in control. If you are a dictator you are in full control ... I have my authority by the Syrian constitution," he said in an interview.   A muted response   In the first eight months of the protests, as the number of deaths in Syria mount and a growing number of refugees escape to Turkey, Lebanon and Jordan, Assad has kept a low profile, speaking less than a handful of times in public. His speeches generally make reference to the need for a national dialogue while touching on the protests being the work of foreign agents of disruption. For instance, during his June 20 speech at Damascus University, Assad stressed the "historic" nature of the current crisis, promising his "total commitment" to wide-ranging reforms in several sectors, including the media , for which he promised more freedom. He said that his country had been the target of "foreign conspiracies" for "geopolitical and [...] other reasons", and that those who were taking part in the current unrest were divided into three broad categories, in his opinion: those who were peaceful and had legitimate concerns; those who were "vandals" and "outlaws" [he said there were 64,000 of these]; and finally "radical and blasphemous intellectuals". His government, he said, was being hit by a political conspiracy. "Conspiracies, like germs, reproduce everywhere, every moment and they cannot be eradicated," said Assad. "Yet we have to fortify our immunity. What we have seen through the media and political positions does not require a great deal of analysis to prove that there exists a conspiracy."   Source: Agencies

i don't know

Who was Britain's last Prime Minister of the 20th century?

Britain Magazine | The official magazine of Visit Britain | Best of British History, Royal Family,Travel and Culture - British prime ministers of the 20th century Latest issue British prime ministers of the 20th century Do you know who presided over the setting up of the National Health Service, or who served the shortest time as leader? Read our timeline of British prime ministers of the 20th century for all the answers. Robert Gascoyne-Cecil 3rd Marquess of Salisbury Robert Gascoyne-Cecil 3rd Marquess of Salisbury Conservative 1895 to 1902 Salisbury was the last peer to serve as PM (this was his third tenure), with the brief exception of Douglas Home (below) who renounced his peerage within a few days of being appointed. Arthur James Balfour Conservative 1902 to 1905 Balfour was the nephew of the Marquess of Salisbury but his cabinet was divided on the issue of free trade and without the support of Edward VII he was forced to resign in December 1905. Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman Liberal 1905 to 1908 Following Arthur James Balfour’s resignation, Edward VII invited the leader of the next largest party, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, to form a government. He was the first leader to officially use the title of ‘Prime Minister’. Herbert Henry Asquith Liberal 1908 to 1916 Asquith is the only Prime Minister to have taken office on foreign soil. At the time that he succeeded Campbell-Bannerman, Edward VII was in Biarritz so Asquith travelled there for the official ‘kissing-hands’ ceremony. David Lloyd George in 1916 David Lloyd George Liberal 1916 to 1922 One of the 20th centuries most radical thinkers, Lloyd George was the first and only Welshman to hold the position of prime minister, introducing state pensions and waging a war on poverty. Andrew Bonar Law Conservative 1922 to 1923 Law was prime minister for just 209 days. He retired due to ill health in May 1923 and died of throat cancer six months later. Stanley Baldwin Conservative 1923 to 1924 Baldwin took over as prime minister after Bonar Law retired but he was soon ousted from his first term, albeit temporarily. James Ramsey MacDonald Labour 1924 to 1924 In 1924 Ramsey MacDonald was asked by King George V to form a government when Stanley Baldwin’s Conservative majority proved ungovernable, and his was the first Labour government. Stanley Baldwin Conservative 1924 to 1929 In his second tenure as prime minister Baldwin extended the right to vote to women over 21. James Ramsey MacDonald Labour 1929 to 1935 In his second minority government in 1929, MacDonald appointed Margaret Bondfield as the first female cabinet minister, but forming a cross-party government proved his downfall. Stanley Baldwin Conservative 1935 to 1937 By taking office as prime minister for the third time Baldwin remarkably served under three monarchs. Neville Chamberlain Conservative 1937 to 1940 Chamberlain famously declared “I believe it is peace for our time” following a meeting in 1938 with Adolf Hitler. Sir Winston Churchill Conservative 1940 to 1945 Following Chamberlain’s resignation in 1940, Churchill succeeded him as prime minister of an all-party coalition government. Clement Attlee Labour 1945 to 1951 Taking over from Churchill at the end of the war, Attlee is perhaps best remembered for setting up the National Health Service. Winston Churchill gives his infamous V sign on 20 May 1940 Sir Winston Churchill Conservative 1951 to 1955 While serving his second term as prime minister Churchill was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his many published works. Sir Anthony Eden Conservative 1955 to 1957 Eden is best remembered for his controversial handling of the Suez Crisis, which led to his resignation. Harold Macmillan Conservative 1957 to 1963 Macmillian took over as leader following Eden’s resignation and led the nation through the Cuban Missile Crisis. He was made Earl of Stockton in 1984 and died in 1986. Sir Alex Douglas-Home Conservative 1963 to 1964 The aristocratic Douglas-Home took on the trade unions but only served as prime minister for 363 days , the second shortest premiership in the 20th century. Harold Wilson Labour 1964 to 1970 Wilson won his first election in 1964 but he actually visited 10 Downing Street many years before, when he was eight-years-old, so his aspirations began early. Sir Edward Heath Conservative 1970 to 1974 Grammar school educated Heath served in the Second World War, reaching the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. Harold Wilson Labout 1974 to 1976 Wilson famously rebuffed a schoolboy who threw a stinkbomb at him by saying “with an arm like that he ought to be in the English Cricket XI.” James Callaghan Labour 1976 to 1979 Callaghan is the only prime minster to have also held the three offices of Chancellor of the Exchequer, Home Secretary and Foreign Secretary. Margaret Thatcher in 1982. University of Salford Press Office Baroness Margaret Thatcher Conservative 1979 to 1990 A formidable leader or a tyrant? Britain’s first woman prime minister divided opinion like none before her, and she passed away in 2013. Sir John Major Conservative 1990 to 1997 From his humble beginnings as the son of a former music hall star, Major was reportedly inspired to become a politician after watching Harold Macmillan present his only budget as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Tony Blair Labour 1997 to 2007 Blair was the longest serving Labour prime minister and although he initiated reforms in the House of Commons, he was criticised for his involvement in the Iraq War. Gordon Brown Labour 2007 to 2010 Brown’s appointment caused controversy as he wasn’t actually elected, but he oversaw the withdrawal of troops from Iraq and the devolution of powers in Northern Ireland.

Tony Blair

In which North African country was Yves St. Laurent born as Henri Donat Mathieu?

BBC NEWS | UK | Politics | Churchill 'greatest PM of 20th Century' Tuesday, 4 January, 2000, 15:23 GMT Churchill 'greatest PM of 20th Century' Sir Winston Churchill: World War II leader topped the poll Wartime leader Sir Winston Churchill was the greatest prime minister of the 20th Century, according to a BBC survey. The Conservative, whose leadership and speeches inspired the UK through the Second World War, beat the last Liberal prime minister David Lloyd George into second place. The results in full 2. David Lloyd George (Lib) 3. Clement Attlee (Lab) 7. Marquess of Salisbury (Con) 8. Stanley Baldwin (Con) 9. Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (Lib) 10. Harold Wilson (Lab) 13. Andrew Bonar Law (Con) 14. Ramsey MacDonald (Lab) 15. Sir Alec Douglas-Home (Con) 16. Arthur Balfour (Con) 19. Sir Anthony Eden (Con) Churchill's successor, Labour's Clement Attlee, was voted third greatest. Twenty prominent historians, politicians and commentators were asked by BBC Radio 4's The Westminster Hour to rank the 19 prime ministers from Lord Salisbury at the turn of the century through to John Major in the 1990s. Britain's current leader Tony Blair was not included because his spell in Downing Street is not complete. The programme announcing the results of the poll was being broadcast on Boxing Day on Radio 4. Andrew Rawnsley was asking five of the "voters" to have their say - political heavyweights Roy Jenkins, Barbara Castle and Kenneth Baker; and the historians Professor Ben Pimlott and Andrew Roberts. Winston Churchill led Britain during the Second World War after returning from the political wilderness. He lost the first election after the war but returned as a peacetime prime minister in the fifties. David Lloyd George took over as PM at the height of the First World War, replacing another contender, Herbert Henry Asquith. He was voted fourth in the list while free market champion and union law reformer Margaret Thatcher was fifth Her successor, John Major, whose premiership was blighted by Tory infighting over Europe, fared badly, rated 17th out of 19. Only Neville Chamberlain (18th) and Sir Anthony Eden (19th) did worse. Who do you think was the greatest? Send us your views using the form below. Here is what you have said so far. The best 20th Century Prime Minister is Clement Attlee for the foundation of the welfare state, still a model of welfare worth preserving. The previous Liberal model proved woefully inadequate as Beveridge found, and the free market left to it's own devices will provide neither security nor choice for the majority. This was evident to the Liberals almost a century ago. Margaret Thatcher is unquestionably the worst 20th Century Prime Minister. Not just for her appalling record in government - the massive wealth distribution from poor to rich, the battering of workplace rights, the attacks on health and welfare provision etc. - but more insidiously for her poisonous political legacy. Thatcher has so mesmerised Labour that they see no alternative to actively supporting such disasterous Thatcherite measures as the privatisation of the health service through Public Private Partnerships, the impoverishment of pensioners and the preservation of massive and increasing inequality! The result being that we will continue to pay a heavy price for Thatcher for many years to come. Keith MacAskill, UK Two of the rankings excite particular surprise: the high placing of Herbert Asquith and the relatively low placing of Margaret Thatcher. Mr Asquith's overall record should not, I think, justify him being placed in the top ten, let alone the top five. Many of the 'reforms' which occured during his Administration were the work of men other than him. If Mr Asquith is ranked too highly, then, Mrs Thatcher is, surely, ranked too low. Whatever one's personal views about Mrs Thatcher, her impact - both politically and otherwise - on the life of the nation was, and continues to be, profound, much more so than any of the other Prime Ministers of the century, including Mr Churchill during his 1955-55 occupation of the Premiership. She should, therefore, be ranked second in the list and if one were to judge on their peacetime record alone, Mrs Thatcher would have to be ranked first. Peter Just, England Atlee and Aquith deserve equal credit as PM of the 20th century for their achievements in the Welfare State. Thatcher was a dictator who led Britain into two of the worst recessions this century, and was reelected due to patriotism, a lack of opposition and the greed of society. I fully agree with Major's position - although Blair inherited a healthy economy, most of the benefits were a result of Britain pulling out of the ERM. Major spent billions trying to maintain our position within it. Simon Toller, UK Churchill, without doubt. He had the greatness to take risks, and dared to be wrong (which he was, often). But he had a hatred for tyranny that drove him throughout life, and fought it in every way he knew, and without compromise. He may have upset the working classes in the 1920's, but he preserved their freedom to detest him. Hugh Allen, England Yeah, Churchill rocks! This man stood up to the established government's opinion of 'peace in our time' and took the risks involved in war to preserve freedom and democracy in the world. The USA had such a leader in the 1980s, Ronald Reagan Adam Scheblein, USA Clement Atlee is given credit, by many, for the welfare state but in fact the previous government was responsible by authorising the Beveridge report Dr.F. B. Singleton, Canada Churchill and then Thatcher without a doubt! These two PM's are known the world over for their strength and leadership and are the envy of many of the global electorate. Maggie is still in demand for public speaking all over the world. Some may not have liked the heavy hand that these two displayed, but look at the results! C.S. Gannon, British Columbia, Canada Though I did not agree with all the changes Thatcher made I would be inclined to vote for her as she was the most courageous PM in my opinion. She changed so much and introduced many unpopular polices and therefore it takes someone who is extra special to win three general elections. She was also the first female leader of the Tory party. Rhaynukaa Mehta, UK For me, Churchill was by far the greatest PM this century but John Major has been sadly underrated. He not only left the economy in a good state but also kept a difficult and rabble Conservative Party together in spite of many problems left after its decline in the later years of Thatcherism. She herself was brilliant at the beginning of her reign but declined sadly towards the end - tending towards a dictatorship. In hindsight, perhaps it would have been better had she had left earlier and allowed someone else to continue for a few years. She could then have come back into active mainstream politics with fresh ideas and perhaps renewed popularity. Brian B. Warren, England, U.K. Having read Time Magazine's essays on the person of the century (Winston Churchill did not figure in the top three, but his relationship with Franklin Delano Roosevelt was praised), it is gratifying to see that history seems to paying him the compliment he deserves. I must say that John Major has been done a great injustice by your poll, and would ask that he be given a fairer hearing. His economic policies may have led to some problems initially, but the UK survived better than most during the world-wide recession, bounced back quicker than most - and I believe is still the best all-round economy - and should continue to be. Joseph de Graft-Johnson, UK History will be the final judge. There really needed to be two categories- best peacetime and best wartime prime minister. There is no doubt, Sir Winston saved the nation and the world, in their hour of need against nazi tyranny- and Margaret Thatcher did the same- but this time the tyranny was from within and was not of such major significance. Nevertheless, In my view she will go down as the greatest peacetime prime minister ever. Tim Parker, UK Churchill was a reactionary, war-obsessed and possibly xenophobic leader. He deserves none of the credit he receives, much of which stems from Britain's obsession with a small-minded and parochial nationalism that seems to engulf the nation whenever the world wars are mentioned. Thatcher, similarly, was a tyrant who ravaged this country and made it hospitable for the rich at the detriment of the poor. Atlee gets my vote. The welfare state was a noble principle and policy, and I find it abhorrent that successive Tory/New Labour governments have tried to dismantle it. Tom Eyers, England I think it is significant that the judges chose two successful wartime leaders as the greatest prime ministers and two disastrous ones as the most insignificant. I have no quarrel with the choice of Churchill as No. 1, but Lloyd George is a totally different matter. His plotting against the generals and his abuse of the honours system do not appear to justify his place as No. 2. On the other hand, it must be remembered Chamberlain was a great social reformer, and though Anthony Eden's Suez campaign ended in shambles, had it been success, he would almost certainly be acclaimed today as the man who saw off militant nationalism in the region. The two greatest peacetime leaders were undoubtedly Attlee and Asquith, the one put in the shade today by his predecessor and the other by his successor. The greatest diplomatic triumphs were achieved by Heath and then again by Major in their negotiations in Europe. It should also be remembered the latter left the economy of the country in a remarkably healthy state. Duncan Macintosh, Thailand Not only was Churchill the greatest PM, he was probably the greatest American citizen ever. (Remember that he was awarded honorary American citizenship by Congress.) There may be many talented PMs on the list, but Churchill displayed leadership beyond talent -- he was alone, in the wilderness, crying out against the gathering Nazi storm, when most Brits would not even care to listen. Churchill was a giant who ensured that Britain would survive WWII, even if the Empire would not. No one else on the list could have provided that necessary leadership. No one. Adam Burczyk, USA This says more about Radio 4 listeners than about the British population - the ordinary British public wouldn't have put a leader who wrecked the NHS, destroyed teachers moral and introduced the Poll Tax - 5th! She only won so many times because the opposition was in such a bad state in the 80s. Kevin Larkin, UK Sir Winston Churchill and FDR were the two greatest leaders of the 20th century without a doubt. Their leadership took us to final victory. Today we see no such leadership in the free world! Lieutenant Colonel(Ret) Greg Taylor, USA I am very surprised Thatcher placed as low as 5th. She was the one peacetime leader who challenged the prevailing orthodoxy, and against an incredible amount of opposition from the establishment revitalised the flagging UK economy and renewed our national self confidence. I can�t see how Asquith, Atlee or Lloyd George measure up to this record - their actions were more a reflection of the general mood at the time they governed. Elizabeth Truss, UK The choice of Winston Churchill conveniently forgets his less than kind treatment of British people during the General Strike. Churchill, like Thatcher, was a rabid warmonger. Both displayed a cavalier contempt for human life. I would look more to the individuals who had to pick up the pieces after the glory boys had gone away. Atlee would make a far better choice as a man who had to pick up a shattered nation. Why else did the nation reject Churchill so convincingly after the war? Why did people riot in the streets against Thatcher? Real leaders inspire confidence and respect, not hatred and disgust. Peter Cameron, HongKong Winston Churchill was unquestionably the greatest PM of Great Britain during the last hundred years. Churchill deserves a "thank you" from every person on this earth who enjoys the greatness of freedom. During WWII, Sir Winston faced an enemy who had taken over most of Western Europe in one year. He faced a German air force numbering over 5,000 planes. Despite these drawbacks, Churchill led Britain with confidence through a dark period in time. Not only is Churchill the PM of the century, I believe he is the man of the century. Kevin Boland, Washington D.C., USA Churchill is the clear choice. I do not believe there are enough words in the English language to describe this great man. He is not only the greatest PM but the person of the century. I do not understand Atlee's second place finish. There must have been a concerted effort by Labour to put someone high on the list so they chose the socialist with who was a good and decent man though a failure as PM. John Smarto, USA I vote for Clement Atlee. I lived and worked in Britain for most of the 1960s. I came to appreciate the nobility of the welfare state and do not join in the present denigration of that fine concept.The National Health service alone places Atlee at the top of the list. Janet Kenny, Australia Sir Winston Churchill and Mrs Thatcher would have to share the honour. He was the man who did more than any other to save the civilised world from Nazi terror and she saved it from socialist bungling. Peter Laverick, Australia Churchill is my choice. But for his courage and guts in 1940 resisting the strong pressures in his Cabinet for a negotiated truce with Hitler this country would have been occupied by German forces. I was a young man then and remember how Churchill's inspiring use of the English language reinforced our determination and strength. He was the most popular politician in the country. In 1945 the country rejected the Conservative Party, not Churchill himself who was returned with a handsome majority as MP for Woodford. Paul Barraclough, UK I did admire Maggie in her hey days but Winston is my first choice. Monica Farrugia, Malta Thank God this great man appeared when he did to help rally the world, and the US of A. against Hitler, and then warn a post WWII free world of an "Iron Curtain" that was being put in place by the Russian's in eastern Europe, and waking up America to the realities of a new enemy, just as dangerous as Hitler's Germany. Donald Schave, US Winston Churchill would be my first choice followed by Margaret Thatcher. Tim Nicholls, UK Churchill was a great war leader, without him I doubt we would enjoy the freedoms we take for granted. However reading historians and other colleagues of his in his second spell, I really think he should have quit after the war, he spoiled his record by being PM in the 50's. Even Ted Heath admits that his mind was still in the war, when he created himself Minister of Defence. My own personal choice would be Asquith, who virtually reformed the constitution and gave way for the first tentative steps for the welfare state. Neil Greggor, UK Without doubt Winston Churchill was the Prime Minister of the Century. No other Briton, PM or not, had a larger influence on British politics than Churchill, and no other Briton could have rallied, and ultimately saved, the country as Churchill did during those dark months in the summer of 1940. Philip Carruthers, Brazil I disagree strongly with the notion that Winston Churchill was the greatest PM of the 20th century. He wasn't If he was he would have the general election immediately after the war, which was based on him being a successful war leader. My mother tells me of occasions in cinemas where Churchill would appear on newsreels and he would be booed by civilian and military cinema goers alike. His general election victory in the fifties was won under unusual circumstances, the Tories actually polled less votes than Labour. Churchill was never really popular with the people that mattered at that time, the electors. They saw what he was like, a vain and ambitious man who they never fully trusted. Churchill became more popular after his death than ever he was during life. Historians have made the basic mistake of associating a blustering drunken PM with the heroism of the civilian and military forces during that period. Malcolm McCandless, Scotland Without a doubt, Winston Churchill was the greatest PM of the 20th Century. He was a man before his time and knew Hitler was up to something long before anyone suspected Hitler. However, no one listened to Churchill and that was a mistake. Carole Scott, USA Maggie has to be the best all round PM, she brought the UK kicking and screaming from the socialist backwater it was in the early 80's to a competitive Euro-player. Churchill was a PM for the wartime and a truly great man, but a wartime leader was his true calling. Chris Clarke, UK ex-pat in Canada Margaret Thatcher hands down!!!!!!! Us Yanks have the likes of the Clintons, who have no dignity. You Brits can hold your heads high with leaders like Margaret. Anthony Hornbrook, US I think Major will be seen by history as a better PM than the participants in the discussion gave him credit for. I've never voted Conservative in my life and probably never will. However, Major left the Country with a considerable legacy of economic prosperity, and had a good record in holding his party together in the face of abject adversity. Europe moved on without the UK, but we continued to have the opportunity to take part in all EU activities via the Maastricht opt-out, bravely secured by JM despite having a minimal parliamentary majority and a very significant part of his party against it. Add to that an election victory no one expected, and with the highest number of votes for the Conservatives ever. I think you have a PM with the standing of at least a Heath, a Callaghan or a Wilson. Jonathan Carling, UK

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Which Yuri was president of the USSR for two years after heading the KGB for 15 years?

Yuri Andropov assumes power in the Soviet Union - Nov 12, 1982 - HISTORY.com Yuri Andropov assumes power in the Soviet Union Share this: Yuri Andropov assumes power in the Soviet Union Author Yuri Andropov assumes power in the Soviet Union URL Publisher A+E Networks Following the death of long-time Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev two days earlier, Yuri Andropov is selected as the new general secretary of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union. It was the culmination of a long, but steady march up the Communist Party hierarchy for Andropov.Born in Russia in 1914, by the 1930s Andropov was an active participant in the Communist Youth League. During World War II, he led a group of guerilla fighters who operated behind Nazi lines. His work led to various positions in Moscow, and in 1954, he was named as Soviet ambassador to Hungary. During the Hungarian crisis of 1956, Andropov proved his reliability. He lied to Hungarian Prime Minister Imre Nagy about Soviet military intentions, and later assured Nagy that he was safe from Soviet reprisals. Soviet tanks rolled into Budapest in November 1956 and Nagy was captured and executed in 1958.Andropov’s work in Hungary brought him back to Moscow, where he continued to rise through the ranks of the Communist Party. In 1967, he was named head of the KGB, Russia’s secret police force. A hard-liner, he supported the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia and oversaw the crackdown on dissidents such as Andrei Sakharov and Aleksandr Solzhenitzyn. In 1982, with Brezhnev deathly ill and fading fast, Andropov left the KGB and began jockeying for power. When Brezhnev died on November 10, 1982, Andropov was poised to assume power. He was named general secretary on November 12.His rule was short-lived, but eventful. At home, he tried to reinvigorate the flagging Russian economy and attacked corruption and rising alcoholism among the Soviet people. In his foreign policy, Andropov faced off against the adamantly anticommunist diplomacy of President Ronald Reagan. Relations between the United States and the Soviet Union were severely strained when Soviet pilots shot down a Korean airliner in September 1983. Later that year, Soviet diplomats broke off negotiations concerning reductions in Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces and the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START). Andropov had suffered from nearly debilitating illnesses since early 1983, and died on February 9, 1984. He was succeeded by Konstantin Chernenko . Related Videos

Yuri Andropov

What is Madonna's daughter called?

Mikhail Gorbachev - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Your continued donations keep Wikipedia running!     Mikhail Gorbachev none (Soviet Union abolished, Boris Yeltsin as President of Russia ) Born ( help · info ) , Mihail Sergeevič Gorbačëv, IPA : [mʲɪxʌˈil sʲɪrˈgʲejɪvʲɪʨ gərbʌˈʨof], commonly written as Mikhail Gorbachev; born March 2 , 1931 ) was leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991. His attempts at reform helped to end the Cold War , and also ended the political supremacy of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and dissolved the Soviet Union. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990. Contents [ edit ] Early life Mikhail Gorbachev was born on 2 March 1931 in the village of Privolnoye near Stavropol , the son of a Russian agricultural mechanic Sergey Gorbachyov and Maria Pantelyeva. [1] He faced a tough childhood under the totalitarian leadership of Josef Stalin ; his grandparents were deported for being wealthy farmers known as kulaks [ citation needed ]. He lived through World War II , during which, starting in August 1942, German troops occupied Stavropol . Although they would leave by February 1943, the occupation increased the hardship of the community and left a deep impression on the young Gorbachev. [1] From 1946 through 1950, he worked during the summers as an assistant combine harvester operator at the collective farms in his area. [1] He would take an increasing part in promoting peasant labour, which he describes as "very hard" because of enforced state quotas and taxes on private plots. Furthermore, as peasants were not issued passports, their only opportunity to leave their peasant existence was through enlisting in 'orgnabor' (organised recruitment) labour projects, which prompts Gorbachev to ask "what difference was there between this life and serfdom?". [2] [ edit ] Political career Despite the hardship of his background, Gorbachev excelled in the fields and in the classroom. He was considered the most intelligent in his class [ citation needed ], with a particular interest in history and math. After he left school he helped his father harvest a record crop on his collective farm . So, he was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour , aged just 16 (1947). It was rare for someone his age to be given such an honour. It was almost certainly this award, coupled with his intelligence that helped secure his place at Moscow University , where he studied law from September 1950. [1] Gorbachev may never have intended to practice law however, but simply have seen it as preparation for working in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). He became a candidate member of the Party that same year. [1] While living in Moscow, he met his future wife, Raisa Maksimovna Titarenko . [1] They married on the 25th September 1953 and moved to Gorbachev's home region of Stavropol in southern Russia when he graduated in June 1955, where he immersed himself in party work. [1] Upon graduating, he briefly worked in the Prokuratura (Soviet State Procuracy) before transferring to the Komsomol , or Communist Union of Youth. He served as First Secretary of the Stavropol City Komsomol Committee from September, 1956, later moving up to the Stavropol Krai (regional) Komsomol Committee, where he worked as Second Secretary from April 1958 and as First Secretary from March 1961. [1] Raisa would give birth to their first child, a daughter, Irina, on 6th January 1957. [2] He attended the important XXIInd CPSU Party Congress in October 1961, where Khrushchev announced a plan to move to a communist society within 20 years and surpass the US in per capita production. Gorbachev was promoted to Head of the Department of Party Organs in the Stavropol Agricultural Kraikom in 1963. [1] By 1966, at age 35, he obtained a correspondence degree as an agronomist-economist from the Agricultural Institute. [1] His career moved forward rapidly - in 1970, he was appointed First Party Secretary of the Stavropol Kraikom, becoming one of the youngest provincial party chief in the Soviet Union. [1] In this position he helped to reorganize the collective farms, improve workers' living conditions, expand the size of their private plots, and give them a greater voice in planning. [1] His work was evidently effective, because he was made a member of the CPSU Central Committee in 1971. In 1972, he headed a Soviet delegation to Belgium , [1] and two years later, in 1974, he was made a Representative to the Supreme Soviet , and Chairman of the Standing Commission on Youth Affairs. He was subsequently appointed to the Central Committee Secretariat for Agriculture in 1978, replacing Fyodor Kulakov, who had backed his rise to power, after Kulakov died of a heart attack. [1] [2] In 1979, Gorbachev was promoted to the Politburo (first as a candidate member before receiving full membership in 1980). There, he received the patronage of Yuri Andropov , head of the KGB and also a native of Stavropol , and was promoted during Andropov's brief time as leader of the Party before Andropov's death in 1984. With responsibility over personnel, working together with Andropov, 20 percent of the top echelon of government ministers and regional governors were replaced, often with younger men. During this time Grigory Romanov , Nikolai Ryzhkov , and Yegor Ligachev were elevated, the latter two working closely with Gorbachev, Ryzhkov on economics, Ligachev on personnel. He was also close to Konstantin Chernenko , Andropov's successor, serving as second secretary. [3] His positions within the new CPSU created more opportunities to travel abroad and this would profoundly affect his political and social views in the future as leader of the country. In 1975, he led a delegation to West Germany , and in 1983 he headed a Soviet delegation to Canada to meet with Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and members of the Canadian House of Commons and Senate . In 1984, he travelled to the United Kingdom , where he met with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher . [ edit ] General Secretary of the CPSU Gorbachev in one-on-one discussions with U.S. President Ronald Reagan . Upon the death of Konstantin Chernenko, Mikhail Gorbachev, at age 54, was elected General Secretary of the Communist Party on 11 March 1985 , defeating Grigory Romanov who was considered the other favourite. He became the Party's first leader to have been born after the Russian Revolution of 1917 . As de facto ruler of the Soviet Union, he tried to reform the stagnating Communist Party and the state economy by introducing glasnost ("openness"), perestroika ("restructuring"), and uskoreniye ("acceleration", of economic development), which were launched at the 27th Congress of the CPSU in February 1986. [ edit ] Domestic reforms Domestically, Gorbachev implemented economic reforms that he hoped would improve living standards and worker productivity as part of his perestroika program. However, many of his reforms were considered radical at the time by orthodox apparatchiks in the Soviet government. [ edit ] 1985 In 1985, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet economy was stalled and that reorganization was needed. Initially, his reforms were called " uskoreniye " (acceleration) but later the terms " glasnost "(liberalization, opening up) and " perestroika " (reconstruction) became much more popular. Gorbachev was not operating within a vacuum. Although the Brezhnev era is usually thought of as one of economic stagnation, a number of economic experiments (particularly in the organisation of business enterprises, and partnerships with Western companies) did take place. A number of reformist ideas were discussed by technocratic-minded managers, who often used the facilities of the Young Communist League as discussion forums. The so-called 'Komsomol Generation' would prove to be Gorbachev's most receptive audience, and the nursery of many post-communist businessmen and politicians, particularly in the Baltic States . After becoming General Secretary, Gorbachev proposed a "vague programme of reform", which was adopted at the April Plenum of the Central Committee . [2] He made a speech in May in Leningrad advocating widespread reforms. The reforms began in personnel changes; the most notable change was the replacement of Andrei Gromyko with Eduard Shevardnadze as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Gromyko , disparaged as 'Mr. Nyet' in the West, had served for 28 years as Minister of Foreign Affairs and was considered an 'old thinker'. Robert D. English notes that, despite Shevardnadze's diplomatic inexperience, Gorbachev "shared with him an outlook" and experience in managing an agricultural region of the Soviet Union (Georgia), which meant that both had weak links to the power military-industrial complex . [4] The first major reform programme introduced under Gorbachev was the 1985 alcohol reform, which was designed to fight wide-spread alcoholism in the Soviet Union . Prices of vodka , wine and beer were raised, and their sales were restricted. People who were caught drunk at work or in public were prosecuted. Drinking on long-distance trains and in public places was banned. Many famous wineries were destroyed. Scenes of alcohol consumption were cut out from the movies. The reform did not have any significant effect on alcoholism in the country, but economically it was a serious blow to the state budget (a loss of approximately 100 billion rubles according to Alexander Yakovlev ) after alcohol production migrated to the black market economy. [ edit ] 1986 Perestroika and its attendant radical reforms were enunciated at the XXVIIth Party Congress between February and March 1986. Nonetheless, many found the pace of reform too slow. Many historians, including Robert D. English, have explained this by the rapid estrangement of the 'New Thinkers' and conservatives in the Soviet elite; conservatives deliberately blocked the process of change. This was exposed in the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster . As English states, Gorbachev and his allies were "misinformed by the military-industrial complex" and "betrayed" by conservatives, who blocked information concerning the incident and thus delayed an official response. [4] Jack F. Matlock Jr. stresses that Gorbachev told the authorities to give "full information" but the "Soviet bureaucracy blocked the flow". [5] This brought international ire for the Soviets and many blamed Gorbachev. Despite this, English suggests that there was a "positive fallout" to Chernobyl , as Gorbachev and his fellow reformers received an increased impetus for domestic and international reform. [4] Domestic changes continued apace. In a bombshell speech during Armenian SSR's Central Committee Plenum of the Communist Party the young First Secretary of Armenia's Hrazdan Regional Communist Party, Hayk Kotanjian, criticised rampant corruption in the Armenian communist party highest echelons implicating Armenian SSR Communist Party First Secretary Karen Demirchian and called for the latter's resignation. Symbolically, exiled intellectual Andrei Sakharov was invited to return to Moscow by Gorbachev in December 1986 after six years exiled in Gorky . During the same month, however, signs of the nationalities problem that would haunt the later years of the Soviet Union surfaced as riots occurred in Kazakhstan after Dinmukhamed Kunayev was replaced as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan . [ edit ] 1987 The Central Committee Plenum in January 1987 would see the crystallisation of Gorbachev's political reforms, including proposals for multi-candidate elections and the appointment of non-Party members to government positions. He also first raised the idea of expanding co-operatives at the plenum. Later that year, May would be a month of crisis. In an incredible incident, a young West German, Mathias Rust , managed to fly a plane into Moscow and land near Red Square without being stopped. This massively embarrassed the military and Gorbachev made sweeping personnel changes, beginning at the top, where he appointed Dmitry Yazov as Minister of Defence. [2] Economic reforms took up much of the rest of 1987, as a new law giving enterprises more independence was passed in June and Gorbachev released a book, Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and the World, in November, elucidating his main ideas for reform. Nevertheless, at the same time, the personal and professional acrimony between Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin increased; after Yeltsin criticised Gorbachev and others at the October Plenum, he was replaced as First Secretary of the Moscow Gorkom Party. This move only temporarily removed Yeltsin's influence. [2] [ edit ] 1988 Time magazine cover of January 4, 1988 featuring Gorbachev as Man of the Year. 1988 would see Gorbachev's introduction of glasnost , which gave new freedoms to the people, such as a greater freedom of speech. This was a radical change, as control of speech and suppression of government criticism had previously been a central part of the Soviet system. The press became far less controlled, and thousands of political prisoners and many dissidents were released. Gorbachev's goal in undertaking glasnost was to pressure conservatives within the CPSU who opposed his policies of economic restructuring, and he also hoped that through different ranges of openness, debate and participation, the Soviet people would support his reform initiatives. At the same time, he opened himself and his reforms up for more public criticism, evident in Nina Andreyeva's critical letter in a March edition of Sovetskaya Rossiya . [2] The Law on Cooperatives enacted in May 1988 was perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during the early part of the Gorbachev era. For the first time since Vladimir Lenin 's New Economic Policy , the law permitted private ownership of businesses in the services, manufacturing, and foreign-trade sectors. The law initially imposed high taxes and employment restrictions, but these were later revised to avoid discouraging private-sector activity. Under this provision, cooperative restaurants, shops, and manufacturers became part of the Soviet scene. It should be noted that some of the SSRs ignored these restrictions. In Estonia , for example, co-operatives were permitted to cater to the needs of foreign visitors and forge partnerships with foreign companies. The large 'All-Union' industrial organisations started to be restructured. Aeroflot , for example, was split into a number of independent enterprises, some of which became the nucleus for future independent airlines. These newly autonomous business organisations were encouraged to seek foreign investment. In June 1988, at the CPSU's XIXth Party Conference, Gorbachev launched radical reforms meant to reduce party control of the government apparatus. He proposed a new executive in the form of a presidential system, as well as a new legislative element, to be called the Congress of People's Deputies . [2] [ edit ] 1989 Elections to the Congress of People's Deputies were held throughout the Soviet Union in March and April 1989. On March 15 , 1990 , Gorbachev was elected as the first executive President of the Soviet Union [2] with 59% of the Deputies' votes being an unopposed candidate. The Congress met for the first time on the 25th May. Their first task was to elect representatives from Congress to sit on the Supreme Soviet . Nonetheless, the Congress posed problems for Gorbachev - its sessions were televised, airing more criticism and encouraging people to expect evermore rapid reform. In the elections, many Party candidates were defeated. Furthermore, Yeltsin was elected in Moscow and returned to political prominence to become an increasingly vocal critic of Gorbachev. [2] The rest of 1989 was taken up by the increasingly problematic nationalities question and the dramatic collapse of the Eastern Bloc . Despite international detente reaching unprecedented levels, with the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan completed in January and US-Soviet talks continuing between Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush , domestic reforms were suffering from increasing divergence between reformists, who criticised the pace of change, and conservatives, who criticised the extent of change. Gorbachev states that he tried to find the centre ground between both groups, but this would draw more criticism towards him. [2] The story from this point on moves away from reforms and becomes one of the nationalities question and the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union. [ edit ] Collapse of the Soviet Union Main article: Collapse of the Soviet Union While Gorbachev's political initiatives were positive for freedom and democracy in the Soviet Union and its Eastern bloc allies, the economic policy of his government gradually brought the country close to disaster. By the end of the 1980s, severe shortages of basic food supplies ( meat , sugar ) led to the reintroduction of the war-time system of distribution using food cards that limited each citizen to a certain amount of product per month. Compared to 1985, the state deficit grew from 0 to 109 billion rubles; gold funds decreased from 2,000 to 200 tons; and external debt grew from 0 to 120 billion dollars. Furthermore, the democratization of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe had irreparably undermined the power of the CPSU and Gorbachev himself. Gorbachev's relaxation of censorship and attempts to create more political openness had the unintended effect of re-awakening long-suppressed nationalist and anti-Russian feelings in the Soviet republics . Calls for greater independence from Moscow's rule grew louder, especially in the Baltic republics of Estonia , Lithuania , and Latvia , which had been annexed into the Soviet Union by Stalin in 1940. Nationalist feeling also took hold in the Soviet republics of Georgia , Ukraine , Armenia and Azerbaijan . Gorbachev had unleashed a force that would ultimately destroy the Soviet Union. [ edit ] Emerging Nationalism in the Republics, 1986-90 In December 1986, the first signs of the nationalities problem that would haunt the later years of the Soviet Union's existence surfaced as riots occurred in Alma Ata and other areas of Kazakhstan after Dinmukhamed Kunayev was replaced as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan . Nationalism would then surface in Russia in May 1987, as 600 members of Pamyat , a nascent Russian nationalist group, demonstrated in Moscow and were becoming increasingly linked to Boris Yeltsin , who received their representatives at a meeting. [2] Glasnost hastened the development of the nationalities problem. Violence erupted in Nagorno-Karabakh - an Armenian-populated enclave within Azerbaijani SSR - between February and April, when Armenians living in the area began a new wave of protests for the arbitrary transfer of the historically Armenian region from Armenia to Azerbaijan in 1920 upon Joseph Stalin's decision. Armenians were also protesting against the underdevelopment and deteriorating living conditions in the Armenian-populated areas of Azerbaijan. In retaliation, Armenians were massacred in Sumgait , Azerbaijan . A temporary solution imposed by Gorbachev from Moscow did not last, as fresh trouble arose in Nagorno-Karabakh between June and July. Turmoil would once again return in December, this time in Armenia itself, when the Leninakan Earthquake hit the region on December 7th. Poor local infrastructure magnified the hazard and some 25,000 people died. [2] Gorbachev was forced to break off his trip to the United States and cancel his planned travels to Cuba and Britain. [2] Elections to the Congress of People's Deputies , which took place throughout the Soviet Union in March and April 1989, returned many pro-independence republicans, as many CPSU candidates were rejected. The televised Congress debates allowed the dissemination of pro-independence propositions. Indeed, 1989 would see numerous nationalistic expressions protests. Initiated by the Baltic States in January, laws were passed in most non-Russian republics giving symbolic precedence for the republican language over Russian. April would see violent crackdown of nationalist demonstration by the Soviet troops in Tbilisi , Georgia . There would be further bloody protests in Uzbekistan in June, where Uzbeks and Meskhetian Turks clashed in Fergana. Apart from this violence, three major events that altered the face of the nationalities issue occurred in 1989. Firstly, Estonia and Lithuania officially declared their sovereignty in May, followed by Latvia in July (the Communist Party of Lithuania would also declare its independence from the CPSU in December). This brought the Union and the republics into clear confrontation and would form a precedent for other republics. Following this, in July, on the eve of the anniversary of the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact , it was formally revealed that the treaty did indeed include a plan for the annexation of the Baltic States to the Soviet Union (as happened in World War Two) and the division of Poland between Germany and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union's unsavoury past was exposed and gave impetus to the nationalists within the Baltic States who could now even more legitimately claim that they were subject to oppression from Moscow. Finally, the Eastern Bloc collapsed spectacularly in 1989, raising hopes that Gorbachev would extend his non-interventionist doctrine to the internal workings of the Soviet Union. [2] [ edit ] Crisis of the Union, 1990-91 1990 began with nationalist turmoil in January. Azerbaijanis rioted and troops needed to be sent in to restore order; many Moldavians protested in favour of unification with the newly-democratic Romania; and Lithuanian demonstrations continued. The same month, in a hugely significant move, Armenia asserted its right to veto laws coming from the All-Union level, thus intensifying the 'war of laws' between republics and Moscow. [2] Soon after, the CPSU , which had already lost much of its control, began to lose even more power as Gorbachev deepened political reform. The February Central Committee Plenum advocated multi-party elections; local elections held between February and March returned a large amount of pro-independence candidates. The Congress of People's Deputies then amended the Soviet Constitution in March, removing Article 6, which guaranteed the monopoly of the CPSU . The process of political reform was therefore coming from above and below, and was gaining a momentum that would augment republican nationalism. Soon after the constitutional amendment, Lithuania declared independence and elected Vytautas Landbergis as President. [2] On March 15th, Gorbachev himself was elected as the first and only President of the Soviet Union by the Congress of People's Deputies and chose a Presidential Council of 15 politicians. Gorbachev was essentially creating his own political support base independent of CPSU conservatives and radical reformers. The new Executive was designed to be a powerful position to guide the spiralling reform process, and the Supreme Soviet and Congress of People's Deputies had already given Gorbachev increasingly presidential powers in February. This would be again a source of criticism from reformers. Despite the apparent increase in Gorbachev's power, he was unable to stop the process of nationalistic assertion. Further embarrassing facts about Soviet history were revealed in April, when the government admitted that the NKVD had carried out the infamous Katyn Massacre of Polish army officers during World War II ; previously, the Soviets had blamed the Nazis . More significantly for Gorbachev's position, Boris Yeltsin was reaching a new level of prominence, as he was elected Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR in May, effectively making him the de jure leader of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic . Problems for Gorbachev would once more come from the Russian parliament in June, when it declared the precedence of Russian laws over All-Union level legislation. [2] Gorbachev's personal position continued changing. At XXVIIIth CPSU Congress in July, Gorbachev was re-elected General Secretary but this position was now completely independent of Soviet government, and the Politburo had no say in the ruling of the country. Gorbachev further reduced Party power in the same month, when he issued a decree abolishing Party control of all areas of the media and broadcasting. At the same time, Gorbachev was working to consolidate his Presidential position, culminating in the Supreme Soviet granting him special powers to rule by decree in September in order to pass a much needed economic plan for transition to the market. However, the Supreme Soviet could not agree on which programme to adopt. Gorbachev pressed on with political reform - his proposal for setting up a new Soviet government, with a Soviet of the Federation consisting of representatives from all 15 republics, was passed through the Supreme Soviet in November. In December, Gorbachev was once more granted increasing executive power by the Supreme Soviet , arguing that such moves were necessary to counter "the dark forces of nationalism". Such moves led to Eduard Shevardnadze's resignation; Gorbachev's former ally warned of an impending dictatorship. This move was a serious blow to Gorbachev personally and to his efforts for reform. [2] Meanwhile, Gorbachev was losing further ground to nationalists. October 1990 saw the founding of DemoRossiya , the Russian nationalist party; a few days later, both Ukraine and Russia declared their laws completely sovereign over Soviet level laws. The 'war of laws' had become an open battle, with the Supreme Soviet refusing to recognise the actions of the two republics. Gorbachev would publish the draft of a new union treaty in November - which envisioned a continued union called the Union of Sovereign Soviet Republics - but, going into 1991, the actions of Gorbachev were steadily being overtaken by the centrifugal secessionist forces. [2] January and February would see a new level of turmoil in the Batlic States. On January 10, 1991 Gorbachev issued an ultimatum-like request addressing the Lithuanian Supreme Council demanding the restoration of the validity of the constitution of the Soviet Union in Lithuania and the revoking of all anti-constitutional laws. In his Memoirs, Gorbachev asserts that, on January 12th, he convened the Council of the Federation and political measures to prevent bloodshed were agreed, including sending representatives of the Council of the Federation on a "fact-finding mission" to Vilnius. However, before the delegation arrived, the local branches of the KGB and armed forces had worked together to seize the TV tower in Vilnius; Gorbachev asked the heads of these power industries if they had approved such action, and there is no evidence that they, or Gorbachev, ever approved this move. Gorbachev cites documents found in the RSFSR Prokuratura after the August Coup, which only mentioned that "some 'authorities'" had sanctioned the actions. [2] A book called Alpha - the KGB's Top Secret Unit also suggests that a "KGB operation co-ordinated with the military" was undertaken by the KGB Alpha Group . [6] Archie Brown , in The Gorbachev Factor, uses the memoirs of many people around Gorbachev and in the upper echelons of the Soviet political landscape, to implicate General Valentin Varennikov , a member of the August coup plotters, and General Viktor Achalov , another August coup conspirator and later a putschist against Yeltsin in 1993. These persons were characterized as individuals "who were prepared to remove Gorbachev from his presidential office unconstitutionally" and "were more than capable of using unauthorised violence against nationalist separatists some months earlier". Brown criticises Gorbachev for "a conscious tilt in the direction of the conservative forces he was trying to keep within an increasingly fragile... coalition" who would later betray him; he also criticises Gorbachev "for his tougher line and heightened rhetoric against the Lithuanians in the days preceding the attack and for his slowness in condemning the killings" but notes that Gorbachev did not approve any action and was seeking political solutions. [7] As a result of continued violence, at least 14 civilians were killed and more than 600 injured from January 11th-13th, 1991 in Vilnius , Lithuania. The strong Western reaction and the actions of Russian democratic forces put the president and government of the Soviet Union into an awkward situation, as news of support for Lithuanians from Western democracies started to appear. Further problems surfaced in Riga , Latvia, on the 20th and 21st January, where OMON (special Ministry of the Interior) troops killed 4 people. Brown suggests that Gorbachev's response this time was better, condemning the rogue action, sending his condolences and suggesting that secession could take place if it went through the procedures outlined in the Soviet constitution. According to Gorbachev's aide, Shakhnazarov (quoted by Brown ), Gorbachev was finally beginning to accept the inevitability of losing the Baltic States , although he would try all political means to preserve the Union. Brown believes that this put him in "imminent danger" of being overthrown by hard-liners against the secession. [7] Gorbachev thus continued to draw up a new treaty of union which would have created a truly voluntary federation in an increasingly democratised Soviet Union. The new treaty was strongly supported by the Central Asian republics, who needed the economic power and markets of the Soviet Union to prosper. However, the more radical reformists, such as Russian SFSR President Boris Yeltsin , were increasingly convinced that a rapid transition to a market economy was required and were more than happy to contemplate the disintegration of the Soviet Union if that was required to achieve their aims. Nevertheless, a referendum on the future of the Soviet Union was held in March (with a referendum in Russia on the creation of a presidency), which returned an average of 76.4% in the 9 republics where it was taken, with a turn-out of 80% of the adult population. [7] Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania , Armenia , Georgia and Moldova did not participate. Following this, an April meeting at Novo-Ogarevo between Gorbachev and the heads of the 9 republics issued a statement on speeding up the creation of a new Union treaty. Meanwhile, Boris Yeltsin was elected President of the Russian Federation by 57.3% of the vote (with a turnout of 74%). [2] Gorbachev accused Boris Yeltsin , his old rival and Russia 's first post-Soviet president, of tearing the country apart out of a desire to advance his own personal interests. [ edit ] The August 1991 Coup Main article: Soviet coup attempt of 1991 In contrast to the reformers' lukewarm approach to the new treaty, the hard-line apparatchiks , still strong within the CPSU and military establishment, were completely opposed to anything which might lead to the breakup of the Soviet motherland. On the eve of the treaty's signing, the hardliners struck. Hard-liners in the Soviet leadership, calling themselves the ' State Emergency Committee ', launched the August Coup in 1991 in an attempt to remove Gorbachev from power and prevent the signing of the new union treaty. During this time, Gorbachev spent three days (August 19 to 21) under house arrest at a dacha in the Crimea before being freed and restored to power. However, upon his return, Gorbachev found that neither union nor Russian power structures heeded his commands as support had swung over to Yeltsin, whose defiance had led to the coup's collapse. Furthermore, Gorbachev was forced to fire large numbers of his Politburo and, in several cases, arrest them. Those arrested for high treason included the " Gang of Eight " that had led the coup, including Kryuchkov , Yazov and Yanayev . Pugo and Akhromeyev committed suicide. Most of these men had been former allies of Gorbachev's or promoted by him, which drew fresh criticism. [2] [ edit ] Aftermath of the Coup and the Final Collapse Between the last day of the coup and September 22nd, Estonia , Latvia , Ukraine , Belarus , Moldavia , Georgia, Azerbaijan , Kirgizia , Uzbekistan , Tajikstan and Armenia declared their independence. Simultaneously, Boris Yeltsin ordered the CPSU to suspend its activities on the territory of Russia and closed the Central Committee building at Staraya Ploschad . Symbolically, the Russian flag now flew beside the Soviet flag at the Kremlin . In light of these circumstances, Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary of the CPSU on August 24th and advised the Central Committee to dissolve itself. Gorbachev's hopes of a new Union were further hit when the Congress of People's Deputies dissolved itself on September 5th. Though Gorbachev and the representatives of 8 republics (excluding Azerbaijan , Georgia, Moldavia , Ukraine and the Baltic States ) signed an agreement on forming a new economic community on 18 October, events were overtaking Gorbachev. [2] The final blow to Gorbachev's vision was effectively dealt by a Ukrainian referendum on December 1st, where the Ukrainian people voted for independence. The Presidents of Russia , Ukraine and Belarus met in Belovezh Forest, near Minsk , Belarus , on December 8th, founding the Commonwealth of Independent States and declaring the end of the Soviet Union in the Belavezha Accords . Gorbachev was presented with a fait accompli and reluctantly agreed with Yeltsin , on December 17th, to dissolve the Soviet Union . Gorbachev resigned on Christmas Day and the Soviet Union ceased to exist on the 1st January 1992. Gorbachev suffered the indignity of Yeltsin taking over his office on December 27th. [2] Gorbachev had aimed to maintain the CPSU as a united party but move it in the direction of social democracy . The inherent contradictions in this approach - praising Lenin , admiring Sweden 's social model and seeking to maintain the annexation of the Baltic states by military force - were difficult enough. But when the CPSU was proscribed after the August coup , Gorbachev was left with no effective power base beyond the armed forces. In the end Yeltsin won them around with promises of more money. [ edit ] 'New Thinking' Abroad In contrast to his controversial domestic reforms, Gorbachev was largely hailed in the West for his 'New Thinking' in foreign affairs. During his tenure, he sought to improve relations and trade with the West by reducing Cold War tensions. He established close relationships with several Western leaders, such as West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl , U.S. President Ronald Reagan , and Margaret Thatcher - who famously remarked: "I like Mr Gorbachev - we can do business together". [8] Gorbachev understood the link between achieving international detente and domestic reform and thus began extending 'New Thinking' abroad immediately. On April 8 , 1985 , he announced the suspension of the deployment of SS-20s in Europe as a move towards resolving intermediate-range nuclear weapons (INF) issues. Later that year, in September, Gorbachev proposed that the Soviets and Americans both cut their nuclear arsenals in half. He went to France on his first trip abroad as Soviet leader in October. November saw the Geneva Summit between Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan - though no concrete agreement was made, Gorbachev and Reagan struck a personal relationship and decided to hold further meetings. [2] Ronald Reagan , Nancy Reagan , Raisa Gorbachyova and Mikhail Gorbachev December 8 , 1987 , after the signing of the INF Treaty . January 1986 would see Gorbachev make his boldest international move so far, when he announced his proposal for the elimination of intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe and his strategy for eliminating all nuclear weapons by the year 2000 (often referred to as the 'January Proposal'). He also began the process of withdrawing troops from Afghanistan and Mongolia on the 28th July. [2] Nonetheless, many observers, such as Jack F. Matlock Jr. (despite generally praising Gorbachev as well as Reagan), have criticised Gorbachev for taking too long to achieve withdrawal from the Afghanistan War , citing it as an example of lingering elements of 'old thinking' in Gorbachev. [5] On October 11 , 1986 , Gorbachev and Reagan met in Reykjavík , Iceland to discuss reducing intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe. To the immense surprise of both men's advisors, the two agreed in principle to removing INF systems from Europe and to equal global limits of 100 INF missile warheads. Incredibly, they also essentially agreed in principle to eliminate all nuclear weapons in 10 years (by 1996), instead of by the year 2000 as in Gorbachev's original outline. [5] Continuing trust issues, particularly over reciprocity and Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) , meant that the summit is often regarded as a failure for not producing a concrete agreement immediately, or for leading to a staged elimination of nuclear weapons. In the long term, nevertheless, this would culminate in the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in 1987, after Gorbachev had proposed this elimination on 22nd July 1987 (and it was subsequently agreed on in Geneva on the 24th November). [2] In February 1988, Gorbachev announced the full withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan. The withdrawal was completed the following year, although the civil war continued as the Mujahedin pushed to overthrow the pro-Soviet Najibullah regime. An estimated 15,000 Soviets were killed between 1979 and 1989 as a result of the Afghanistan War . Also during 1988, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet Union would abandon the Brezhnev Doctrine , and allow the Eastern bloc nations to determine their own internal affairs. Jokingly dubbed the " Sinatra Doctrine " by Gorbachev's Foreign Ministry spokesman Gennadi Gerasimov , this policy of non-intervention in the affairs of the other Warsaw Pact states proved to be the most momentous of Gorbachev's foreign policy reforms. Moscow's abrogation of the Brezhnev Doctrine led to a string of revolutions in Eastern Europe throughout 1989, in which Communism collapsed. With the exception of Romania , the popular upheavals against the pro-Soviet Communist regimes were all peaceful ones. (See Revolutions of 1989 ) It is unlikely that Gorbachev ever intended for the complete dismantling of Communism in the Warsaw Pact countries. Rather, it is far more probable that he intended merely to throw his support behind progressive Communists eager to implement perestroika and glasnost in their own countries. Nevertheless, the loosening of Soviet hegemony over Eastern Europe effectively ended the Cold War , and for this, Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on October 15 , 1990 . [ edit ] Political activities after resignation Gorbachev founded the Gorbachev Foundation ( http://www.gorby.ru/en/default.asp ) in 1992. In 1993, he also founded Green Cross International , with which he was one of three major sponsors of the Earth Charter . He also became a member of the Club of Rome . 1995 saw Gorbachev receive an Honorary Doctorate from Durham University for his contribution to "the cause of political tolerance and an end to cold war-style confrontation". [9] In 1996, Gorbachev re-ran for President in Russia, but only received half of 1% of the vote, most likely due to animosity following the Soviet Union 's collapse. While on a pre-election tour at that time he was given a punch in the face by an unknown man. Gorbachev with Russia's second president, Vladimir Putin In 1997, Gorbachev starred in a Pizza Hut commercial made for the USA to raise money for the Perestroika Archives . On November 26 , 2001 , Gorbachev also founded the Social Democratic Party of Russia —which is a union between several Russian social democrat parties. He resigned as party leader in May 2004 over a disagreement with the party's chairman over the direction taken in the December 2003 election campaign. In early 2004, Gorbachev moved to trademark his famous port wine birthmark , after a vodka company featured the mark on labels of one of their drinks to capitalize on its fame. The company now no longer uses the trademark. [10] In June 2004, Gorbachev represented Russia at the funeral of Ronald Reagan . In September 2004, following Chechen militant attacks across Russia, President Vladimir Putin launched an initiative to replace the election of regional governors with a system whereby they would be directly appointed by the President and approved by regional legislatures. Gorbachev, together with Boris Yeltsin , criticized Putin's actions as a step away from democracy. [11] In 2005, Gorbachev was awarded the Point Alpha Prize for his role in supporting German reunification . He also received an honorary Doctorate from the University of Münster . [12] In November 2006, Gorbachev was admitted to a hospital in Germany after he reported that he was not feeling well. He had an operation on a blood vessel. The neutrality of this section is disputed . Please see the discussion on the talk page . Gorbachev is obviously well regarded in the West for having ended the Cold War. In Germany, for example, he is acclaimed for allowing German reunification to proceed. However, in Russia, his reputation is very low because he is perceived to have brought about the collapse of the country and is held responsible for the economic misery that followed. He was also blamed for weakened Russia after collapse of the Soviet Union. Boris himself was aware of the same. He regretted the fact that his own people didnot love him. Nevertheless, polls indicate that a majority of Russians are pleased with the result of the individual aims of perestroika, Gorbachev's chief legislative legacy, and the greater political freedom that came about as a result [ citation needed ]. The war in Afghanistan had been going on since the late 1970's, draining Soviet resources. This took a huge toll on the Union's ability to keep order. Furthermore, some insist that armament buildups in the West also prompted likewise military expenditures that, when added to the expenditures in Afghanistan, could not be maintained. The Soviet economy infrastructure was in serious trouble by 1985 (when Gorbachev took office) and these events had a huge impact on Gorbachev's decisions to liberalize. In the end, these attempts to "open" and restructure the Soviet Union proved to be a failure. The Soviet Union lost influence in its European satellite nations and then broke apart, ending a nearly 50 year stalemate between East and West. [ edit ] Trivia In the West, Gorbachev was colloquially known as 'Gorby', in part because of a perception that he was less austere than his predecessors. The ё letter is often replaced by е in writing, hence Gorbachev is a common English transliteration even though it's universally pronounced as Gorbachyov. In 1987, Gorbachev acknowledged that his liberalizing policies of glasnost and perestroika owed a great deal to Alexander Dubček 's "socialism with a human face". When asked what the difference was between the Prague Spring and his own reforms, Gorbachev replied, "Nineteen years". [13] In 1989, during an official visit to China during the demonstrations in Tiananmen Square , shortly before the imposition of martial law in Beijing, Gorbachev was asked for his opinion on the Great Wall of China : "It's a very beautiful work", he replied, "but there are already too many walls between people". A journalist asked him, "would you like the Berlin Wall to be taken down?" Gorbachev replied very seriously, "Why not?" [ edit ] Religious affiliation Gorbachev was baptized in the Russian Orthodox church as a child. He campaigned for establishment of freedom of religion laws in the former Soviet Union. Gorbachev has also expressed pantheistic views, saying, in an interview with the magazine Resurgence, "Nature is my god." [14] At the end of a November 1996 interview on CSPAN's Booknotes, Gorbachev described his plans for future books. He made the following reference to God: "I don't know how many years God will be giving me, [or] what his plans are.". [15] [ edit ] Naevus flammeus Gorbachev is the most famous person in modern times with visible naevus flammeus . The crimson birthmark on the top of his bald head was the source of much satire among critics and cartoonists. (Among his official photos there was at least one on which this birthmark was removed.) Contrary to some accounts, it is not rosacea .

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Who replaced King Hussein as King of Jordan?

Death of a King; Cautious King Took Risks In Straddling Two Worlds Death of a King; Cautious King Took Risks In Straddling Two Worlds By JUDITH MILLER King Hussein of Jordan, who died yesterday at 63, successfully straddled two worlds in more than four tumultuous decades on the throne. Cautious by instinct and habit, King Hussein took pride in his Western impulses and his Arab roots, though he acknowledged that the combination sometimes produced policies that even admirers criticized as erratic and conflicting. He was the Middle East's longest-reigning ruler, but took little comfort from mere survival. Though he once said he yearned for a ''hero's death'' like that of Yitzhak Rabin, the Israeli enemy he ultimately embraced as his ''brother'' and ''partner in peace,'' King Hussein succumbed not to the fanatic's bullet but to cancer, non-Hodgkins lymphoma, which he had suffered for eight months. His twin legacies -- peace with his neighbors, including Israel, and a fairly tolerant, stable society at home -- would be impressive in any context. But they are particularly so given the often violent politics of the Middle East and the unpromising country whose stewardship he inherited while still a teen-ager. Personally courageous, modest and unfailingly polite, King Hussein was known for his political tolerance, pardoning even those who had tried to kill him. Though he had made war against Israel in 1967, he was the only Arab leader secure enough to kneel before Israeli families who had lost children in a terrorist attack on his soil in 1997, offering his condolences. King Hussein spent the final months of his life working relentlessly for peace and a succession that he hoped would insure both his immediate family's control of the throne and political stability in Jordan. Less than two weeks before his death, he stunned the world by bypassing his younger brother, Prince Hassan, 51, and designating his eldest son, 37-year-old Abdullah, as heir to the throne. In a long, bitter letter to his brother explaining his decision and publicizing a deep family rift, King Hussein assailed Prince Hassan's performance as Regent, saying his brother's palace supporters -- climbers, he called them -- had tried to ''destroy Jordan'' by spreading vicious gossip about his wife and children and working to divide and politicize the army. The King also suggested that Prince Hassan, his appointed heir for 34 years, had opposed Hussein's wish that his own sons succeed his brother as King. King Hussein said the family discord had given him many sleepless nights and prompted him to intervene ''from my sickbed'' at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota to end the intrigues and political jockeying for power. But he complimented Prince Hassan for his ''sincere efforts'' and his loyal acceptance of his demotion. The decision not only took Jordan and the United States by surprise, but it also demonstrated that King Hussein, though ailing and in pain, remained the undisputed ruler of his kingdom until the last days of his life. The King's Last Grasp At a Middle East Peace Apart from settling the succession, King Hussein's last efforts were aimed at advancing peace between the Arabs and Israel, a goal that had eluded two generations of his Hashemite family. Drawn and pale, and made bald by four rounds of chemotherapy, he had left the Mayo Clinic last October to attend the Wye summit talks in Maryland and help President Clinton coax Israeli and Palestinian negotiators into concluding the next phase of their peace accord. ''If I had an ounce of strength, I would have done my utmost to be there and to help in any way I can,'' he said in an emotional, impromptu speech at the signing ceremony. Saying there had been ''enough destruction, enough death, enough waste'' during the five decades of Arab-Israeli conflict, he pleaded for accommodation. ''We have no right to dictate through irresponsible action or narrow-mindedness the future of our children or their children's children,'' the King said. A short man who used his deep, mesmerizing voice to maximum political effect, King Hussein was to a large extent a reflection and prisoner of his geography. The leader of a slip of land the size of South Carolina, seven-eighths of it desert, without oil or other valuable resources, he was surrounded by far more powerful nations, many of them intermittently hostile. And over two-thirds of Jordan's more than 4.5 million people are Palestinian, many of whom feel little allegiance to him, his family or their adopted country. Commenting on King Hussein's lack of options, former Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger wrote in 1979, in his book ''White House Years,'' that the King ''had the capacity neither for independent action nor for blackmail, which are the stuff of Middle Eastern politics.'' Nevertheless, by charting a mostly centrist, pragmatic course and avoiding the radical passions and fashionable political trends that destabilized or toppled several other hereditary leaders in the Middle East, King Hussein created a relatively peaceful, conservative, modern country whose citizens enjoy decent government and more political freedom than those of most other Arab nations. Setbacks, Then Recovery On the Diplomatic Front His rule was notable for both bold diplomatic strokes and strategic blunders, some of them necessary, he felt, to secure his throne. Among the latter was his decision not to join the American-led coalition that forced President Saddam Hussein of Iraq to end his five-month-long occupation of Kuwait in 1991. And in 1967 he ignored private assurances and calls for restraint by Israel in favor of joining Egypt and Syria in their war against it. This cost him half of Jerusalem and all the territory on the western side of the Jordan River, the West Bank, which his grandfather had won in the 1948-1949 war against Israel. But after each setback, King Hussein recovered his political equilibrium and turned adversity to his advantage. Reputed among Jordanians to enjoy baraka, or God's blessing, for dodging at least 12 assassination attempts and 7 plots to overthrow him, the King ultimately accomplished what his grandfather had been unable to do: in 1994 he secured a stunning peace with Israel, which he called his reign's ''crowning achievement.'' In July 1994, standing on the White House lawn beside Prime Minister Rabin, King Hussein initialed an accord that technically ended the state of war between the neighboring countries. And three months later, in an emotional ceremony in his own land, he became the third Arab leader to sign a formal peace treaty with Israel. ''I have at last carried out the will of King Abdullah,'' he declared on the White House lawn, referring to his grandfather. Indeed, the legacy of political pragmatism and the fate of Abdullah, Jordan's first King, strongly shaped his rule. In the summer of 1951, when he was 15, King Hussein saw his grandfather gunned down at the entrance of the silver-domed Al Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. King Hussein said another bullet had ricocheted off a medal on the uniform he had been told to wear by his grandfather, who had become a scapegoat of Arabs furious over their humiliating defeat by Israel in 1948-49 and of Palestinians angry at King Abdullah's secret meetings with Israeli leaders. In a memoir, King Hussein said he had learned painful, important lessons from witnessing the killing of Abdullah, a ''wonderful old man'' and a ''man of desert ways to whom I owe more than I can say.'' In an interview more than 30 years later, the King said he would never forget how Abdullah's aides, his ''so-called friends,'' had scattered in all directions ''like frightened women in the night'' minutes after the killing, or how they had opened political intrigues within hours. The first rule he learned, the King said in his memoirs, was ''the unimportance of death: that when you have to die, you die,'' a fatalism he manifested at critical moments throughout his life. ''I also saw that rulers cannot depend on their advisers to save or guide them, that they must make their own decisions and go their own way,'' he said in an interview in 1993. This determination to keep his own counsel, and to be prepared to suffer the consequences of rash actions, allowed him to brush aside the savage criticism periodically directed at him by Westerners and Arabs alike. Though he shared Abdullah's commitment to the Arab cause, the assassination reinforced his skepticism about fellow Arab rulers. And from that day on, he carried a gun or kept one within easy reach. Finally, the assassination taught him that if he was to pursue Jordan's strategic interest by maintaining his grandfather's dialogue with Israel, such contacts had to remain secret. Even toward the end of his life, King Hussein refused to discuss details of what Israelis estimate were more than 500 hours of talks with every Israeli leader except Menachem Begin, a series of contacts that the King initiated in 1963. A Crown Prince's Son, Yet Reared in Poverty Descended from a powerful Arabian family that traced its lineage to the Muslim prophet Mohammed, Hussein ibn Talal ibn Hussein was born in Amman, Jordan, on Nov. 14, 1935, to Crown Prince Talal and Princess Zein. His family, like his country, was desperately poor. His baby sister died of pneumonia ''in the bitter cold of an Amman winter,'' he later wrote. The family house had no heat. Abdullah had been born and raised among the tribes of the Arabian Desert, but Hussein, in contrast, was educated at Victoria College in Alexandria, Egypt, and at Harrow and the Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst in Britain. Indeed, his Hashemite family owed much to Britain. To protect against French encroachment on British interests in Palestine, and to reward the family for leading the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottomans, who were allied to Germany, in 1916, Winston Churchill, then the Colonial Secretary, had carved Transjordan out of Syria in 1921, agreed to finance the emirate with a modest subsidy and given it to Abdullah to rule under British mandate. In 1946 Transjordan became independent. Abdullah, who never abandoned the dream of re-creating and ruling a modern Arab empire, became King and renamed his country the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Unlike other Arab leaders, Abdullah -- like his grandson Hussein -- quickly grasped that he would have to deal with the Zionists. Contacts between them began as early as 1926, and in 1946 Abdullah and Jewish leaders agreed informally that Jordan would not oppose establishment of a Jewish state if the Zionists supported his rule over the Arab parts of Palestine. But after war erupted in 1948, Abdullah invaded the newborn state of Israel, winning control of half of Jerusalem and the West Bank. After Abdullah's assassination, Prince Talal, who had been treated at a Swiss clinic for schizophrenia, took the throne. When his attacks worsened, Parliament removed him, on Aug. 11, 1952, less than a month after Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt helped topple King Farouk in a military coup. Hussein, then 16, was proclaimed Jordan's King just as intense Arab nationalism was taking hold throughout the region. King Hussein always relished physical if not political danger. As if the extraordinary challenge of sheer survival were not sufficient, he parachuted, flew stunts in his jet planes and raced high-performance cars and motorcycles across the desert (insisting in his later years on being photographed with a helmet as an example of safety to his people). Risk became second nature, ''what water is to fish,'' he told a journalist. Compounding the risk, he chain-smoked cigarettes, a habit he tried innumerable times to break. King Hussein himself conceded that at first he made many mistakes as ruler. ''Those early years were hard for me,'' he said once in an interview. ''I learned late.'' In 1956, when Arab nationalist passions were running high and conservative monarchies like his were a constant target of coups and assault, King Hussein tried to damp growing popular unrest by dismissing Sir John Bagot Glubb, the British general who commanded Jordan's Arab Legion. He also abandoned liberal measures that he and his father had adopted, declared martial law and called out the army against his own people. As the immediate threat to his rule receded, King Hussein gradually replaced British protectors with Americans, whose influence was growing in the Middle East as Britain's faded. According to senior Jordanian and American officials, ties between the Central Intelligence Agency and King Hussein were cemented in 1957 and 1958, when American intelligence officials learned of a coup plot involving Jordanian diplomats and warned the King. Relations like those, an American airlift of oil in 1958 when Jordan was boycotted by Egypt, Syria and Iraq, and monthly checks from the C.I.A. helped persuade the King that Washington was a reliable ally. (The C.I.A. payments reportedly ended in 1977, when their disclosure embarrassed the King.) A Costly Decision to Go To War Against Israel King Hussein fared less well in his second crisis: the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. Although Israel had urged restraint, he flew to Cairo shortly before the war to sign a defense treaty with President Nasser, despite Nasser's earlier plotting against him. Although the King later conceded that he had known he was taking a risk by siding with Syria and Egypt, he said he had feared the fury of his people, many of them Palestinians, more than Israel. A senior Jordanian official said most Jordanians so strongly favored the war that the King's choice, in fact, was between ''war and civil war.'' It was a costly decision. As a result of the 1967 war, Israel controlled all of Jerusalem and the West Bank. Thousands of Palestinian refugees fled into arid Jordan, increasing the population by about half. Three-quarters of the population of Amman was now of Palestinian origin, making it the largest Palestinian city. Unlike other Arab rulers, King Hussein offered the refugees citizenship and a passport. In 1970, Yasir Arafat and the Palestine Liberation Organization, which increasingly viewed King Hussein as vulnerable and an obstacle to its struggle, challenged the Hashemites' control of Jordan. In despair at the prospect of a civil war, the King later acknowledged, he briefly pondered abdication, as he would again during other crises. Instead, he decided to confront Mr. Arafat. Though Mr. Arafat subsequently maintained that the Jordanian Army killed as many as 20,000 in putting down the unrest, conservative estimates put Palestinian losses at 2,000. While King Hussein had not sought that test of wills, his legitimacy was never challenged again. On the Sidelines In the 1973 War Drawn once into an Arab war with Israel, King Hussein would not be seduced a second time. Before the 1973 war, Israeli diplomats said, he cautioned Israel that Egypt and Syria were planning to fight, but his warning was discounted. And while the King sent a Jordanian armored brigade to fight alongside Syrian forces, he avoided fighting Israel along their common border, a decision that precluded the loss of still more land. Moreover, his quiet contacts with Israel continued even during the war. According to a recent book by an Israeli journalist, Samuel Segev, Hussein secretly persuaded Israel's Chief of Staff to divert artillery fire from a hill on the Golan Heights where the King was scheduled to address the troops he had sent to help the Syrians. King Hussein never commented publicly on accounts like those, but friends and diplomats said such disclosures by Israeli officials infuriated him. The King paid a high political price for his 1970 assault on the P.L.O. and his de facto abstention from the 1973 war. At a meeting in Rabat, Morocco, in 1974, the Arab League anointed the P.L.O. as the ''sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people.'' Since Jordan was then more than half Palestinian and had ruled the West Bank between 1948 and 1967, the Arabs had decided, in effect, that he could no longer protect what amounted to his own national interests, he said in an interview a decade later. In his fourth major crisis, the Persian Gulf war in 1991, King Hussein in effect sided with radical Arab passions in his tilt toward Saddam Hussein. He insisted at the time -- and even later -- that he had been seeking a peaceful solution and had been neutral, saying, ''I took the side of peace.'' But his stance infuriated Saudi Arabia and other gulf nations, not to mention Washington, whose gifts and foreign aid had helped him to survive and Jordan to prosper. American officials understood the King's need to placate President Hussein of Iraq, given Jordan's economic dependence on Iraqi trade and the passionate pro-Iraqi stance of most Jordanians, especially Palestinians, who saw an Iraqi victory as the first step toward regaining a homeland. But American patience snapped in February 1991 when King Hussein gave an emotional speech condemning the air strikes against Iraq as ''a war against all Arabs and Muslims'' aimed at ''destroying all the achievements of Iraq'' and placing the entire region ''under foreign domination.'' The King once again paid a high price. The gulf states suspended aid, costing Jordan almost a billion dollars a year, and the influx of some 300,000 more Palestinian refugees from Kuwait and elsewhere in the gulf severely strained Jordan's economy. In Washington, the King, who owned a home in Potomac, Md., that he shared with his American-born wife, became persona non grata. The King Is Returned To U.S. Good Graces In November 1992 and even more dramatically in May 1993, the King tried to repair his relations with the United States by distancing himself from Saddam Hussein, with whom he had once enjoyed the warmest of ties -- frequent visits, nighttime barbecues and deep conversations while fishing for carp. Saying Iraqis were suffering gravely under the American-led boycott, he concluded that it was time for the Iraqis to embrace democratic government and end Mr. Hussein's dictatorial rule. Eventually a combination of fading American memories of the gulf war, intense lobbying in Washington on the King's behalf by Israeli leaders and Jordan's strategic role as a buffer between Iraq, Syria and Israel produced warmer relations with the new Democratic Administration. On June 18, 1993, President Clinton met King Hussein at the White House for the first time. While proud of his family's and his country's Arab heritage, King Hussein always understood the need to maintain contact with Israel. The first meeting between the King and a succession of Israeli leaders took place in mid-1963 at the London home of his doctor when he had yet to consolidate power. Subsequent sessions were held in Paris, in tents, in desert trailers, aboard boats, on a Red Sea island, even in a Mossad safe house north of Tel Aviv. Though widely rumored among politically well connected Israelis, the meetings were almost never discussed in public. For King Hussein, who had few illusions about the dangerous neighborhood in which he lived or the perfidy of many of his neighbors, Israel was an insurance policy against Egyptian, Syrian, Palestinian and even Iraqi ambitions. He always promised that one day he would forge a formal peace and normal relations with Israel, a goal he doggedly and often dangerously pursued throughout his rule. At the same time, he insisted that a peace must be comprehensive, rejecting the notion that Arab nations could make separate accommodations with Israel. For that reason, he later asserted in interviews, he opposed the Camp David peace accord between Israel and Egypt in 1978 and their peace treaty the next year. Despite his intense misgivings about Mr. Arafat's prior history and future intentions, he was among the first Arab leaders to endorse the Madrid peace talks sponsored by the Bush Administration in October 1991. He and Osama el-Baz, an adviser to President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt, were influential in persuading the Palestinians to take part in the ground-breaking talks. To encourage the effort and keep the P.L.O. under some check, he agreed to include Palestinian representatives as nominal members of the Jordanian delegation, thus defusing Israel's objections to direct negotiations with the Palestinians. A First Bout of Cancer, And a Change of Focus But the talks between Israel and its Arab enemies, which continued in Washington after the Madrid conference, dragged on inconclusively month after month. Without the knowledge of most of the officials negotiating in Washington, Prime Minister Rabin had blessed a secret effort by his Foreign Minister, Shimon Peres, to seek a breakthrough directly with the P.L.O. in Oslo. King Hussein was not informed. Efforts to make peace between Jordan and Israel ware given unexpected impetus from a traumatic development in the summer of 1992: King Hussein was found to have cancer. At the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota, he underwent surgery on his urinary tract. In September he returned to Jordan to a tumultuous welcome. Unable to imagine their country without him, more than a million Jordanians -- then almost a third of his kingdom -- lined the roads between the airport and the capital to welcome him home, waving banners, pictures and placards, cheering, chanting and weeping. His illness and the fervor of his welcome intensified his determination to make peace, King Hussein said shortly before the treaty with Israel was signed in 1994. While he had been ''overwhelmed by the warmth, by the feelings of the people'' upon his return, he said, ''I felt an element of fear -- of insecurity -- about what might happen if I was not there, so I knew that I had to do everything I could, in whatever time I had left, to achieve peace and make it work.'' In October 1992, Jordan and Israel agreed in writing for the first time that their common goal was a formal peace treaty within the framework of a comprehensive Arab-Israeli settlement. But in the summer of 1993, the P.L.O. and Israel stunned the world -- and King Hussein -- by announcing that the Oslo talks had produced a peace agreement between them. The King felt shunted aside and feared that his poor country would be frozen out economically while billions of dollars poured into the West Bank and Gaza. Still, the King ignored those concerns and welcomed the accord. On Sept. 14, a day after the Oslo agreement was made official at the White House, Jordan and Israel signed their own agenda outlining the treaty they hoped to reach. In November, King Hussein and Foreign Minister Peres signed understandings on economic relations and other forms of cooperation at a secret meeting in Amman. And in July 1994, Israel and Jordan ended the state of war that had existed between them for nearly half a century, signing a declaration on the White House lawn that paved the way for a formal peace. This peace came on Oct. 26, 1994, in another stirring ceremony witnessed by President Clinton at Wadi Arava, a barren strip of desert between Jordan and Israel. ''This is without a doubt my proudest accomplishment: leaving my people a legacy of peace,'' the King said in an interview in Nadwa Palace in Amman shortly before the ceremony. No Arab leader was more openly upset by the assassination of Prime Minister Rabin of Israel in November 1995 than King Hussein. Traveling openly to Jerusalem for the first time since its loss to Israel in the 1967 war, he wept openly at the funeral of his former enemy, his ''brother.'' ''It is peace that has been assassinated,'' King Hussein said in his tribute as Mr. Rabin's body was laid to rest under the pines and cypresses of Mount Herzl, the cemetery of Israel's military and spiritual heroes. Disillusionment Grows With New Israeli Leader When Benjamin Netanyahu became Israel's Prime Minister in 1996, King Hussein said Arab alarm over the change of government was overwrought, and expressed confidence that the election would not undermine the quest for peace. But he grew disillusioned with Mr. Netanyahu's leadership, which in the King's view seriously eroded support for peace within Jordan. While the King was noting that he had risked domestic discontent by overtly pursuing peace, Mr. Netanyahu was authorizing expansion of Jewish settlements in the West Bank and housing projects in East Jerusalem, and taking other measures that offered a contrary, hawkish vision. In a severe blow to relations in September 1997, Mossad agents sought to kill a militant Islamic leader from Hamas on the streets of Amman, but failed. The bungled affair threatened King Hussein's need to balance his inclinations toward peace with Israel against his need to keep faith with his Palestinian constituents and avoid offending Arab neighbors. By the spring of 1998, many Jordanians were openly deriding the treaty with Israel as ''the King's peace,'' arguing that the agreement had brought them no tangible gain. Instead of getting better, the economy turned worse. The Government became less tolerant of dissent. The sense of crisis in Iraq also made many Jordanians fear that once again they would somehow end up paying the price. But King Hussein refused to break with Mr. Netanyahu, fearing such a step would cause greater instability, which would drive away the foreign investment that his country so desperately needs. The King's political troubles were overshadowed by illness once again in mid-1998. In July, he told his brother, Crown Prince Hassan, in a letter made public in Jordan that a new round of tests at Mayo showed that he probably had cancer of the lymph glands, which is usually fatal. An Image as a Playboy Never Quite Outlived In a radio broadcast from the Mayo Clinic in late July, King Hussein said he had undergone chemotherapy for the first time. ''My general condition is excellent, my mind is clear and my morale is high,'' he said, departing from the traditional secrecy that prevails in most Arab capitals when rulers fall ill. ''This is a new battle among the many battles and, with God's help, we will fully overcome this problem.'' In more than 46 years on the throne, King Hussein had 4 wives, fathered 11 children and adopted a 12th. Besides Prince Hassan, he had another brother, Mohammed, a sister, Basma, and 15 grandchildren. Even in his early years as King, many women were drawn to him, and vice versa. A superb dancer who loved parties, the young King quickly established a reputation as a playboy that he never fully overcame. His first marriage, to Sherifa Dina Abdul Hamid, a Cambridge-educated intellectual and an older, distant cousin, ended after 18 months. Ms. Hamid, a lively, independent woman who found sleepy Amman dull, had one child, a daughter. But she and King Hussein had little else in common. Though they parted amicably, she later married a Palestinian commando who had taken part in the 1970 uprising against the King. The King's second wife was Toni Avril Gardiner, whom the King named Muna, Arabic for My Wish. The shy daughter of an English colonel at the British Embassy, Muna had little interest in politics and refused to be designated Queen. She and King Hussein had four children, including Abdullah. The marriage ended in 1972. The King then married Alia Baha ud-Din Toukan, the daughter of a prominent Palestinian diplomat from Nablus, on the West Bank, who had settled near Amman. He and the popular Queen had two children and adopted a daughter. Alia was killed in a helicopter accident in 1977. In 1978, King Hussein took a fourth wife, an American, Lisa Halaby, the daughter of Najeeb E. Halaby, a Texan descended from a Syrian family who headed the Federal Aviation Administration and then became chairman and chief executive officer of Pan American World Airways. The Queen is known as Noor, or Light, in Arabic. She and King Hussein have two sons, Hamzeh and Hashem, and two daughters, Iman and Rayah. Queen Noor and the King grew particularly close during his long fight with cancer. According to family friends, she urged him to designate her son Hamzeh as heir instead of Prince Hassan. While concluding that Hamzah, who is now 18, was still too young for the job, Hussein did pass over his loyal, long-serving brother in favor of Abdullah, his eldest son, who named Hamzeh his Crown Prince yesterday. In an interview with Life magazine shortly before his death, King Hussein said his illness had been a ''bonding'' experience for him and Queen Noor, with whom relations had occasionally been strained. Expressing his love for her, the King said, ''It is everything.'' Chart: ''A King's Life'' Hussein ibn Talal ibn Hussein is born to Crown Prince Talal and Princess Zein. 1948 The state of Israel is created with the end of the British Mandate in Palestine. 1950 Jordan annexes the West Bank. 1951 Hussein's grandfather, King Abdullah, is assassinated in Je 2/3ru 2/3sa 2/3lem. Hussein, who is at his side, is unhurt. 1952 He is proclaimed King, replacing his father, who is declared unfit to rule. 1953 Formally assumes his constitutional powers at age 18. 1960 Briefly mobilizes troops against Syria after Prime Minister Hazza al-Majali of Jordan is killed by a bomb placed by Syrian agents. 1967 In the Arab-Israeli war, Israel captures the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan. 1970 A civil war breaks out after Yasir Arafat challenges the Hashemites' control of Jordan. 1974 Avoids confrontation with Israel in the 1973 war, but loses his status as the representative of the Palestinian people when the Arab League transfers the role to the Palestine Liberation Organization. 1988 Disengages Jordan from the West Bank, clearing the way for the Palestinians to declare a state. 1990-91 Infuriates Washington and his Arab neighbors with his support of Saddam Hussein of Iraq (shown here in 1988) in the confrontation following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. 1991 Endorses the Madrid peace con 2/3fer 2/3ence. His inclusion of Palestinians in the Jordanian delegation smoothes the way for their talks with Israel. 1992 Is found to have cancer and undergoes surgery at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota. 1993 Meets with President Clinton at the White House for the first time. 1994 Signs a declaration with Israel ending the state of war that had lasted since 1948. 1998 Returns to the United States for cancer treatment. In October he attends peace talks in Wye, Md., and helps Mr. Clinton coax Israeli and Palestinian negotiators into concluding an accord. 1999 Home in Jordan, he changes the line of succession by passing the crown from his brother to his son Abdullah. He dies Feb. 7.

Abdullah

Which child of Princess Grace of Monaco competed in the 1988 Olympics?

King Hussein Selects Eldest Son, Abdullah, as Successor - The New York Times The New York Times World |King Hussein Selects Eldest Son, Abdullah, as Successor Search Continue reading the main story Correction Appended King Hussein of Jordan decreed on Monday that his eldest son, Prince Abdullah, would be next in line for the throne, Jordanian officials said. The King, 63, has already told his brother, Prince Hassan, that his position as designated heir, as signified by the title Crown Prince, is ending after 34 years. Prince Abdullah, who will soon turn 37, is a major general in the army and leads Jordan's special forces. He is said to share his father's common touch and is popular within the military, where support for the monarchy is deeply rooted. In a public letter to his brother published early today, the King suggested that Prince Hassan's actions had led to his removal. He accused his brother of trying to exert influence over the army, and criticized what he said had been the Prince's opposition to his plans for longterm succession. A separate copy of the royal decree, also published today, designated Prince Abdullah as the new Crown Prince with ''all rights and priveleges.'' Advertisement Continue reading the main story Until less than a week ago, when the King returned from six months of cancer treatment abroad, few in Jordan had doubted that his brother would be next to assume the crown. The change in successors could have more than a ceremonial effect on this tiny country, which has been ruled by King Hussein for 47 years. Jordan's stability is of concern to its neighbors, from Israel to Iraq. Among its biggest challenges are the deepening unpopularity of the peace with Israel, signed by the King in 1994 against the wishes of most Jordanians, and widening concerns about the economy, which has been in a crisis for most of the last decade. Little is known about Prince Ab dullah, who has not been tested outside the armed forces. Like his father, he attended the British military academy at Sandhurst, England. A biographer, James Lunt, wrote in his 1989 book ''Hussein of Jordan,'' published by Macmillan London, that Prince Abdullah was ''remarkably like his father in character.'' On infrequent occasions, Prince Abdullah has served as regent in Jordan, with the power to oversee the country during the absence of senior members of the royal family. But some of his associates have said he has never shown much ambition outside the army. The King, who broke the change to his brother only last Friday, signed the decree on Sunday night, Jordanian officials said today. In the past, the King had praised Hassan for his loyalty, so the tone of the letter explaining the reasons for his dismissal was surprising. The King criticized what he said had been Prince Hassan's meddling in the army during his own long absence. He also suggested that Prince Hassan had refused to accept that, even if he became King, one of King Hussein's sons should follow him to the throne. There was a hint of palace intrigue in the letter, in which the King said he had been prepared to abdicate in favor of his brother after a first bout with cancer in 1992, but had been hurt by criticism directed at his wife and children by Hassan's supporters. There was no indication that the change in succession would prompt any challenge. But many Jordanians are grumbling that the King has treated his brother badly. Advertisement Continue reading the main story Some people close to the King had spread word that the move reflected dissatisfaction with Prince Hassan's performance during the King's absence. Among the allegations was that Prince Hassan's Pakistani-born wife, Princess Sarvath, had already started refurbishing the King's office in anticipation of her husband's ascent. Others, however, including some close to Prince Hassan, 51, have pointed instead to the King's concern for posterity. They say they believe that the King's two bouts with cancer have made him conscious of his mortality and kindled a desire to insure that the Hashemite line of succession -- which dates to 1201 -- passes to one of his own sons. The King is expected to appoint Prince Hassan to a new post as his deputy, with responsibilities that could include economic and Middle Eastern affairs, Jordanian officials said. But Prince Hassan, a loyal stand-in, was said to have taken news of his demotion badly. Some of his associates have said the Prince might not accept the post. King Hussein, who has ruled Jordan since 1952, has proved durable in part because of his self-confidence and charisma, which have endeared him to his people even as he has made decisions they opposed. That has also endeared him to the West, particularly as it has emboldened him to defy public opinion by reaching out to Israel. Prince Hassan is a scholarly, Oxford-educated technocrat well versed in economic and foreign affairs and more comfortable in a blazer than in Arab dress. He has always been seen as more remote, which raised doubts about whether he could muster the reservoir of support necessary to make courageous decisions. Many who believed that there would be a new heir focused on Prince Hamzeh, 18, the King's eldest son by his current wife, the American-born Queen Noor. Prince Hamzeh, who is attending Sandhurst, was at his father's side through most of his recent struggle with non-Hodgkins lymphoma, and he is almost universally believed in Jordan to be the King's favorite. According to Jordanian officials who would speak only on condition of anonymity, the King gave Prince Hamzeh serious consideration. They said the King concluded that it would be unwise to hand such responsibility to a teen-ager. Still, some of them said they did not discount the possibility that the King might one day make Prince Hamzeh his heir. Advertisement Continue reading the main story Prince Abdullah bin Hussein was born in Amman on Jan. 30, 1962, to the King and his second wife, Toni Avril Gardiner, an Englishwoman, who was known as Princess Musa. For a brief period after his birth, the infant was designated Crown Prince, in keeping with the tradition of succession incorporated into Jordan's Constitution after the Emirate of Transjordan was recognized as a state in 1923, under King Abdullah, grandfather of the current King. It was not long, however, before King Hussein decided that it would be more prudent to appoint an older heir. After a series of assassination attempts against him, and growing concern about the stability of the kingdom, the King decided in 1965 that the Crown Prince would be Hassan, then 18, even though that required amending the Constitution. The fact that Prince Abdullah's mother was a foreigner, and converted to Islam only upon marriage, has sometimes been seen as a potential obstacle to his becoming King. A more sentimental choice among many Jordanians has been Prince Ali, the King's eldest son by his third wife, Queen Alia, a Palestinian, whom he married shortly after divorcing Princess Musa in 1971. Still, Prince Abdullah -- who attended high school at the Deerfield Academy in Illinois, took one-year courses at Oxford and Georgetown Universities, and served for a short time in the British Army -- has in recent years soothed apprehensions that his outlook might be directed abroad. His wife, Princess Rania, whom he married in 1993, is a Palestinian. They have a son, Prince Hussein, and a daughter, Princess Iman. Correction: January 27, 1999, Wednesday An article yesterday about King Hussein's selection of his eldest son, Prince Abdullah, as his successor misstated the adopted name of the King's second wife, Toni Avril Gardiner. She was known as Princess Muna, not Musa. Because of an editing error, the article misstated the site of Deerfield Academy, where Prince Abdullah attended secondary school. It is in Massachusetts, not Illinois.

i don't know

Which British Prime Minister signed the Anglo-Irish Agreement in 1985?

Anglo-Irish Agreement | United Kingdom-Ireland [1985] | Britannica.com United Kingdom-Ireland [1985] United Kingdom Anglo-Irish Agreement, accord signed by British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Garret FitzGerald , the Irish taoiseach (prime minister), on Nov. 15, 1985, at Hillsborough Castle in County Down, N.Ire., that gave the government of Ireland an official consultative role in the affairs of Northern Ireland . Considered one of the most significant developments in British-Irish relations since the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922, the agreement provided for regular meetings between ministers in the Irish and British governments on matters affecting Northern Ireland. It outlined cooperation in four areas: political matters; security and related issues; legal matters, including the administration of justice; and the promotion of cross-border cooperation. Ireland’s taoiseach (prime minister), Garret FitzGerald, and British Prime Minister Margaret … Peter Kemp/AP The road to the Anglo-Irish Agreement The agreement was negotiated as a move toward easing long-standing tension between Britain and Ireland on the subject of Northern Ireland, although Northern Irish unionists (those in favour of remaining part of the United Kingdom ) were themselves strongly opposed to giving their southern neighbour a say in domestic matters. Many political leaders—including Thatcher, who had been strongly committed to British sovereignty in Northern Ireland—had come to believe that a solution to years of sectarian violence in Northern Ireland could only be achieved by means of an all-Ireland arrangement. Such an attempt had previously been made in 1973. A power-sharing executive, composed of Irish nationalists as well as unionists, was set up in Northern Ireland, and Taoiseach Liam Cosgrave participated in talks with British Prime Minister Edward Heath that resulted in the Sunningdale Agreement . That accord recognized that Northern Ireland’s relationship with Britain could not be changed without the agreement of a majority of its population, and it provided for the establishment of a Council of Ireland composed of members from both the Dáil (the lower chamber of the Irish legislature) and the Northern Ireland assembly. That agreement collapsed in May 1974 because of a general strike inspired by unionist opponents of power sharing. Similar Topics Anti-Comintern Pact In 1981 FitzGerald launched a constitutional crusade to make the reunification of Ireland more attractive to Northern Ireland’s Protestants. At the end of the year, the Irish and British governments set up an Anglo-Irish intergovernmental council to discuss matters of common concern, especially security. In 1984 the report of the New Ireland Forum—a discussion group that included representatives of political parties in Ireland and Northern Ireland—set out three possible frameworks for political development in Ireland: a unitary state, a federal state, and joint sovereignty. Of Ireland’s major political parties, Fianna Fáil preferred a unitary state, which Fine Gael and the Irish Labour Party regarded as unrealistic; they preferred the federal option. Also in the early 1980s, in Northern Ireland, John Hume , the leader of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) and a member of the British Parliament, gathered the support of prominent Irish American political leaders in condemning the use of violence and urging Irish Americans not to support the Irish Republican Army (IRA), a paramilitary organization that often used violent means to bring an end to British rule in Northern Ireland. Hume’s group also encouraged U.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan to persuade Thatcher to pursue closer relations with Ireland. Negotiations and outcomes In the improved political climate between Britain and Ireland, leaders of the two countries sat down to negotiations. Ireland and Britain agreed that any change in the status of Northern Ireland would come about only with the consent of the majority of the people of Northern Ireland, and an intergovernmental conference was established to deal with political, security, and legal relations between the two parts of the island. The agreement was a blow to Northern Ireland’s unionists, because it established a consultative role for the government of Ireland in the affairs of Northern Ireland through the Anglo-Irish Secretariat. The Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) and other unionists denounced the agreement, and UUP members of Parliament resigned their seats over the issue (though 14 were returned in by-elections in 1986). The party organized mass protests and boycotts of local councils and filed a lawsuit challenging the legality of the agreement. However, these efforts—which were joined by the Democratic Unionist Party —failed to force abrogation of the agreement. Britannica Stories

Margaret Thatcher

Who presented the first Oscars?

RTÉ Archives | Politics | Anglo-Irish Agreement Politics On 15 November 1985 the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed by the Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald and the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. After the signing of the treaty at Hillsborough Castle, county Down, FitzGerald and Thatcher held a joint news conference where they both issued statements and answered questions from the press.   Both leaders sought to reassure unionists with Garret FitzGerald stating Irish political unity would come about only with the consent of a majority. Margaret Thatcher further commented there would be No change in the status of Northern Ireland without their consent... the legitimacy of the unionists position has been recognised by the Republic in a formal international agreement. Both see the agreement as a stepping stone to devolve powers in the north of Ireland.   Under the treaty the Republic of Ireland would now have an advisory role in Northern Ireland's government. However, there would be no change to the constitutional position of Northern Ireland. This press conference was broadcast by RTÉ News on 15 November 1985. Keywords: Follow the Archives for more daily updates on features, profiles and exhibitions Explore RTÉ

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"Michel Aoun led which then unsettled Middle ""Eastern country form 1988-1990?"

The President of the Republic of Lebanon General Michel AOUN Born in Haret Hreik on September 30, 1933, to Naim and Marie Aoun.... Married to Nadia Chami since November 30, 1968, they have three daughters: Mireille, Claudine and Chantal. Academic Background: • He studied at the ‘Sacré-Cœur School’ (Frères) in Gemmayze till 1955 • He joined the Military Academy in October 1955 and graduated as Second Lieutenant in the Artillery Corps September 30, 1958 Training Sessions overseas: • 1958 – 1959: Session on artillery application at Châlons–sur-Marne, France • 1966: Advanced artillery session at the USA Army Artillery and Missile School, USA • 1978 – 1980: Staff Session at the High War Institute, Paris - France • 1983: Session on maneuvers at Fort Benning, USA Decorations, Commendations and Felicitations: • Medal of War, five times • Medal for battle wounds • Lebanese Order of Merit, Extraordinary Grade • Lebanese Order of Merit, Grand Cordon • Lebanese Order of Merit, 1st grade • Lebanese Order of Merit, 2nd grade • Lebanese Order of Merit, silver • National Order of the Cedar, Grand Collar • National Order of the Cedar, Grand Cordon • National Order of the Cedar, Officer • National Order of the Cedar, Knight • Commemorative Medal of December 31, 1961 • Commendation of the commander-in-chief of the Army six times • Felicitation of the commander-in-chief three times - Foreign Decorations: • Commander of the Legion of Honor, France, January 29, 1986 Military transfers and posts: • Since his graduation from the Military Academy in 1958, he undertook many tasks and assumed numerous responsibilities in all Lebanese regions, till he became Chief of Staff of the Lebanese military Forces in charge of maintaining security in Beirut on August 14, 1982. • On January 18, 1983 he was appointed Commander of the 8th Infantry Brigade. • On June 23, 1984, he was appointed Commander-in-chief of the Army. Political Assignments and responsibilities: 22/09/1988 He was appointed President of the Council of Ministers and Minister of National Defense and Information, by virtue of decrees 5387 and 5388, while keeping his military rank 04/10/1988 He was assigned ad interim with the duties of the ministries of Foreign Affairs and Emigrants, National Education and fine Arts, and Interior, in the absence of the original minister 13/10/1990 He moved to the embassy of France in Beirut, after the Syrian invasion, upon the request of Ambassador René Ala, in view of negotiating a cease-fire. He remained there till August 27, 1991 28/08/1991 He left Lebanon for France 07/05/2005 He returned to Beirut after the withdrawal of the Syrian forces from Lebanon 12/06/2005 He was elected Member of Parliament for the Kesserwan-Jbeil constituency, and headed the “Change and Reform Bloc” at the Lebanese Parliament 18/09/2005 He was elected President of the “Free Patriotic Movement” party 07/06/2009 He was reelected Member of Parliament for the Kesserwan district On October 31, 2016, he was elected President of the Republic of Lebanon. He is the thirteenth President after Independence. Main Speeches and Lectures: 11/06/1994 Address at the Lebanese National Conference, Paris 05/12/1995 Letter to the Synod for Lebanon 20/05/1996 Letter to the European Parliament, Strasbourg 12/03/1998 Lecture entitled “Lebanon: past, present and future”, ESSEC Institute, Paris 22/05/2000 Lecture at the French Parliament about the Lebanese situation 12/10/2000 Lecture entitled "Dialogue: Road to Salvation, Imperial College, London 23/02/2001 Lecture entitled "Ten years of peace without peace", Lyon – France 24/01/2002 Lecture entitled "Dialogue or confrontation between civilizations?", Versailles – France 07/03/2002 Lecture entitled "Stability in Lebanon and Peace in the Middle-east", ESSEC Institute, Paris 07/03/2003 Lecture at the Foundation for the Defense of Democracies, Washington 05/06/2003 Lecture entitled "World War 3, a war on terrorism”, ‘Institut d’Etudes Politiques (Sciences-Po)’, Paris 18/09/2003 Testimony at the US Congress in favor of the 'Lebanese Sovereignty Restoration Act' 21/11/2004 Official letter to the Lebanese parties and personalities and to the Syrian State to take part in a dialogue aimed at reaching an agreement about the Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon, which would be an honorable exit for all 07/04/2005 Lecture at the ‘Maison de la Recherche Paris Sorbonne’, Paris 22/11/2005 Lecture entitled "the New Lebanon, from liberation to reform, National Press Club, Washington 05/11/2008 Presentation of his defense strategy conception to the table of dialogue held at the Presidential Palace 10/10/2010 Letter to the Synod for the Levant Publications:

Lebanon

On whose show did Elvis Presley appear when 82% of the TV audience tuned in?

Aoun and Hezbollah: Rallying Around the Renegade - Europe Solidaire Sans Frontières Europe Solidaire Sans Frontières Aoun and Hezbollah: Rallying Around the Renegade Aoun and Hezbollah: Rallying Around the Renegade Monday 27 August 2007 Nationalism (Eng) Back in the fall of 2006, student elections at the American University of Beirut produced an unexpected aesthetic: female campaigners for the predominantly Christian Free Patriotic Movement (FPM) of the ex-general Michel Aoun sporting button-sized portraits of bearded Hizballah leader Hasan Nasrallah on their stylish attire. “Hizballah stands for the unity and independence of Lebanon, just as we do,” went the party line, as reiterated by Laure, an activist business student clad in the movement’s trademark orange. “And imagine, the Shi‘a and us,” she mused, off-script and with a glance at her co-campaigners, covered head to toe in the black gowns of the staunchly Islamist party, but spiced up with bright orange ribbons for the occasion. “How many we will be.” Just how many became clear soon enough, when Aoun joined Hizballah’s attempt to bring down the government of Prime Minister Fuad Siniora through public pressure later that year. While actual numbers are notoriously hard to come by,[1] the two main rallies held on December 1 and 10 clearly rivaled the demonstration that brought about the Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon 18 months before. Followers of Aoun, who stand out in their blazing orange gear, accounted for an apparent third of the masses. Once again, predictions that Aoun’s alliance with the “Party of God” would dispel his support in the Christian community were proven wrong. RETURN OF THE RENEGADE Throughout his political career, Michel Aoun’s bold maneuvering, boisterous, often ranting discourse and utter disregard for the complex rules and false niceties of the Lebanese political scene have made him one of the most divisive figures therein. To his admirers, he is the strong leader who can rise above the fray of perennial internecine conflict, clear out a divided and despised political class bent on the pursuit of factional and personal interest, and achieve longed-for, but ever elusive national unity. Likewise, Aoun has earned himself the intense loathing (even by Lebanese standards) of the members of exactly this political class (and their followers). Rather than a champion of secularist nationalism, they consider Aoun to be an irresponsible rabble rouser who threatens to upset the delicate balance of sectarian power sharing, and his calls for reform and a shakeup of public institutions to be thinly veiled Bonapartism. Aoun’s loud populism is seen as not only gauche but also a challenge to the country’s Byzantine political game, whereby decisions and distributions of spoils are supposed to be worked out behind impenetrable smokescreens of lofty principles and diplomatic cant. For the Christian part of this political class, he is also an upstart trespassing on territory that is rightfully theirs. “To his supporters,” as one journalist sums it up, “he is a Lebanese Charles de Gaulle seeking to unite this fractious country and rebuild trust in its institutions. To his critics he is a divisive megalomaniac willing to stop at nothing to become president of Lebanon.”[2] Another constant feature of Aoun’s volatile career is the persistence with which his popular support has bounced back every time his opponents have declared it spent. In 2005, after 15 years in exile, most observers and competitors considered the retired general, then 70, a figure of the past.[3] His announced intention to descend upon Lebanese politics like a “tsunami” was widely derided as being not only in bad taste (coming, as it did, only a few months after the disastrous tsunami in the Indian Ocean), but the delusion of an empire builder who had missed his moment. Already in the 1980s, Aoun’s assertive posture, in contrast to his physical stature, had led wags to give him the nickname “NapolAoun.” The returned exile was taken lightly in the lead-up to the May-June 2005 parliamentary elections that followed the collapse of the pro-Syrian government and the departure of Syrian troops. In the absence of real political parties — most parties restrict their activities to organizing support for their powerful, sect-based leader and the field of candidates riding on his ticket — Lebanese election campaigns are typically dominated by complex bargaining over joined lists and alliances between these confessional chieftains. Expediency is often the only glue keeping such alliances stuck together, though often not far beyond election day. Within the bargaining, the number of “safe” slots offered to a potential ally on a joined list usually reflects his expected electoral strength, or the number of votes that he would be able to mobilize in support of the joined list. During the traditional bazaar in 2005, Aoun was offered a meager seven to eight seats at best in return for joining the unified opposition list. He refused, causing the first major rift in the broad “Syria out!” alliance. Riding on the wave of mass gatherings peaking with the demonstration of March 14, 2005 — the date which would provide the name for Lebanon’s current governing coalition — the alliance forged between Druze leader Walid Jumblatt, the son of the slain former prime minister Rafiq al-Hariri, Saad, and an array of anti-Syrian Christian politicians was confident of winning a parliamentary majority, or even the two thirds of parliamentary seats necessary to impeach President Emile Lahoud,[4] the most stubborn pupil of Syrian tutelage in the country. The March 14 forces even struck a deal with the Shi‘i parties Hizballah and Amal, who had just expressed their gratitude to Syria with a huge demonstration of their own, hoping that Shi‘i votes would tip the balance in enough districts to achieve the coveted two-thirds majority. Reality intruded during the elections in Mount Lebanon on June 12, when Aoun’s slate of no-names trounced the united opposition list in the Christian heartlands, winning 21 seats and leaving the opposition with only a modest majority (72 out of 128) in the new parliament. To the surprise of everyone, it emerged that a significant majority of the Lebanon’s Christians, and a good percentage of those who had taken to the streets to fight for independence and a Syrian withdrawal only two months before, were actually supporters of Michel Aoun.[5] “Countrywide, Michel Aoun garnered around 42 percent of the Christian vote in 2005,” says Lebanese pollster Abdo Saad. “In some parts of the Christian mountains, that percentage would reach above 70.” Counting political allies in the north and the Bekaa Valley, some two thirds of Lebanon’s Christians were rallying under the orange banners of the renegade general. PULLING THE LION’S TAIL One major reason for Aoun’s recurrent mass appeal doubtless lies in his long-standing anti-Syrian credentials. The military resistance he mounted in 1989-1990 to the Saudi-sponsored and US-approved Pax Syriana intended to tamp down the Lebanese civil war turned out to be a costly failure. Yet his warnings against welcoming Syrian involvement in the country were soon enough proven correct. Among Christians, in particular, resentment festered throughout the 1990s over the arbitrary and parasitic reign of the Syrian secret services and their Lebanese stooges. But after the disbanding of the Lebanese Forces, the strongest Christian militia-cum-party during the late 1980s, there were no political structures to organize and feed on this resentment. Aoun did not leave behind a party either when he fled the country, but he did inspire an amorphous movement of mainly young followers. Galvanized by his hyperbolic Lebanese nationalism and his bold confrontation with the feared Syrian regime and the loathed militias, these supporters (with many Muslims among them) eventually imagined the general as a national redeemer, and flocked to the presidential palace by the thousands in late 1989, in order to form a “human shield” against an expected Syrian attack. After Aoun’s defeat, his backers returned to their universities, from whence they continued political action against the Syrian presence in impromptu networks. While sometimes quixotic or even chauvinist in character — as with their harassment of migrant Syrian workers and greengrocers — the Aounists won a reputation of standing tall in the face of the relentless repression of Syrian-controlled government forces and thugs. When the Pax Syriana started to crumble after Hafiz al-Asad’s death in 2000, their university-based networks already stretched into the fourth post-civil war cohort, while many of the activists who had congregated around the presidential palace in 1989 were now urban professionals, often working in communications and the media. Thus, when the time came for action in early 2005, the Aounists were able to field a uniquely effective crowd: experienced in spontaneous, decentralized political action under adverse conditions, media-savvy and endowed with a Westernized veneer that would capture the sympathy of an international audience. Says Khalil, an information technology engineer in his late twenties: “I got involved through friends from the university, who were on these electronic networks. Yes, we wanted to get rid of the Syrians — that was our goal, and back then, [the Internet] was the only place where you could say that. So that’s where I felt I belonged, and when word was spread that action was supposed to take place here or there, I would go. But I’d never think of becoming a member of a political party.” While this anti-political, or rather, anti-Establishment, posture found among many Lebanese who grew up during the last years of the civil war resonates with Aoun’s hostile relationship with many Lebanese politicians, some 40,000 Lebanese — nearly 70 percent of them below the age of 30 — have decided otherwise, and become card-carrying FPM members through a registration process initiated in late 2006, after the movement officially converted itself into a political party. “All these young people who took to the streets back in 2005 learned one very important thing,” says Sami Ofeish, a political scientist at the University of Balamand in the north of Lebanon. “Politics to them is no longer something that happens on a different planet. They had the experience that if they take action, they can actually make things happen. So one would expect that this generation would develop an attitude very different from that of the preceding years.” “It was one of the most moving days of my life,” recalls Alain Aoun, the general’s nephew and one of the major party activists, over a cup of coffee in the trendy Christian neighborhood of Gemayzeh. “It showed that Lebanese can come together over an issue, and forget about religion and sects for the sake of the country. That was a very emotional experience.” Switching to the more recent demonstrations mobilized in alliance with Hizballah, his assessment turns significantly more sober: “These rallies prove that if you have leaders who make a conscious effort to find common ground, their followers will be able to meet, even if they have never talked before. Yes, we are very different, culturally, socially — but those are also people who live in this country. They are one third of the population, and we have to live with them. As long as difference causes offense, this country won’t get anywhere. So this also was a step ahead.” STRANGE BEDFELLOWS Beyond such heady arguments in favor of a more inclusive society, one central motive for Aoun’s move toward Hizballah in early 2006 undoubtedly lay in the consistent attempts of the March 14 coalition to freeze the FPM out of the political process even after it emerged as the strongest player in the Christian camp. Just why an alliance that ostensibly saw Syrian influence as the paramount threat to Lebanese sovereignty made no serious effort to coopt such a staunchly anti-Syrian, Lebanese-nationalist partner, and instead formed a government including Hizballah and Amal, who made no secret of their continuing strategic partnership with Damascus, remains something of a mystery. While some may have entertained the optimistic (and, in hindsight, delusional) idea that involving Hizballah in government offered a chance of containing or even redirecting its resistance activity,[6] the difficulty of removing the remaining vestiges of Syrian influence while coopting Syrian allies soon became clear enough. No two-thirds majority materialized to impeach President Lahoud (despite the fact that the parties now making up the government controlled more than four fifths of Parliament), and when the majority pushed for the establishment of an international tribunal to try the assassins of Rafiq al-Hariri (presumably including people high up in the Syrian regime) in late 2005, the Shi‘i ministers responded with a six-week walkout prefiguring the current government crisis. So what stood in the way of including Aoun instead, a move that would have provided the new government with the support of 93 MPs with no pro-Syrian leanings, well in excess of the desired two-thirds majority? For one thing, it was clear that the FPM would only support an impeachment motion against Lahoud if the name of the one and only candidate to replace the sitting president would be Michel Aoun — meaning that, rather than filling the position with a compliant nominee of their own, the majority would have had to deal with an independent player with significant popular support. “For all of their anti-Syrian rhetoric, Hariri and Jumblatt preferred to leave Asad’s man in the presidency rather than bow to the wishes of nearly three quarters of the Christian electorate and accept Aoun’s ascension,” concludes Gary Gambill, a seasoned Lebanon analyst with obvious sympathy for the general.[7] But even without ascension to the presidency, assuming a key government portfolio would have finally allowed Aoun to rid himself of his greatest handicap: the image of erratic brinkmanship he acquired during the war and, in the minds of his opponents, retains (witness his alliance with Hizballah and formerly pro-Syrian politicians). Newly endowed with “stateman-ish” respectability and official leverage and commanding the majority of the Christian popular vote, Aoun would almost certainly have been able to erode the position of his opponents in the Christian camp even further. HOSTILE BROTHERS IN FAITH The long-standing mutual antipathy between Michel Aoun and the traditional Christian leadership may have been a key reason why the ruling coalition shunned the FPM. Many observers attribute this animosity to unsettled accounts, in particular between Aoun and the leader of the Lebanese Forces, Samir Geagea, the two of whom fought a devastating war in 1989. Both men and their followers, so the argument goes, are still fighting the battles of the past. Considering that in Lebanon not only political office but also political and party allegiance are often hereditary (even in supposedly ideological currents like the Communist Party), such hypotheses seem to make sense at first glance. But they still fail to explain how Aoun’s party was able to wrest such a significant amount of support away from the traditional Christian leadership, represented first and foremost by the Gemayel family, whose scions Bashir and Amin were both presidents of Lebanon. In the 2005 elections, Pierre Gemayel (assassinated in November 2006) scored only 29,412 votes on his family’s home turf, compared to 48,872 for the least successful Aounist candidate, and was only elected to Parliament because the FPM list left one Maronite slot free. One reason may be the continuous decline of the traditional Christian leadership in the second half of the 1980s, after the assassination of Bashir Gemayel removed the one figure capable of maintaining the precarious alliance between Lebanon’s powerful Christian bourgeoisie (of all denominations) and the increasingly militant Christian lower middle class (mainly Maronite) by means of personal charisma. With his brother Amin increasingly sidelined by the ruthless militia-based leadership of Samir Geagea, and the political project of a Christian-dominated Lebanon under US and Israeli auspices falling apart, more and more Christians despaired of their future in the country. Large-scale displacement of Christians in the mid-1980s (wrought to a great extent by Geagea’s ill-conceived military adventures in the southern parts of Mount Lebanon) also meant that parochial means of mobilizing support would reach fewer and fewer people. The displaced, on the other hand, would either be hell-bent on revenge and join or support the militia, or would turn their resentment against a leadership that had failed them, and become susceptible to the discourses of national redemption that Aoun successfully projected. “The FPM fared best where there was no locally based Christian leadership,” observes pollster Abdo Saad of the 2005 elections. “Political families like the Gemayels in Matn or the Franjiyyas in the northern province can still hold some ground since they traditionally represent the area. But where people vote for a political program rather than for a political tradition, the FPM swept the Christian constituencies with next to no resistance.” Preliminary research into the social composition of the FPM and the Lebanese Forces also suggests that class is a defining difference between the groupings in the Christian camp, adding a dynamic to their frequent clashes. The French geographer and anthropologist Beltram Dumontier, who has conducted fieldwork in the Beirut suburb of ‘Ayn al-Rummana, describes the two groups this way: “Youths who do not pursue a university education will often be either unemployed or doing menial jobs. So their social networks, as well as their financial situation, are conducive to making hanging out in the streets of their quarters their main pastime and mode of socializing. And so they get involved in a very male subculture of street life, prone to violence, centered on the idea of ‘defending the quarter,’ and this is how the foot soldiers of the Lebanese Forces are recruited. On the contrary, those who do advance in the educational system spend most of their time away from the neighborhood. Their environment of political socialization is the university, where they meet people from other areas or communities on an equal footing, and where political action will tend to be around more complex issues. I have encountered more than one family where one brother was with the Aounists and the other with the Lebanese Forces, and always the political preference corresponded to education.” STRUGGLE FOR THE STATE The profile of a comparatively well-educated and upwardly mobile following, which hence shows a strong preference for meritocracy, sits well with the perennial spiel of the FPM: attacking corruption, and arguing for a strong and efficient state. In contrast to the authoritarian regimes in Egypt and Syria, the corruption and clientelism in Lebanon are actually results of a weak state. Power traditionally resides with an alliance of ruling families who divvy up the state and its prerogatives among one another according to the relative balance of power, and obtain loyalty by redistributing parts of the proceeds among their constituencies. Conventionally, this arrangement is of course described as a “national pact” between religious communities designed to enable coexistence and protect minorities from marginalization. But while Lebanese politicians are always concerned to be seen as vigilant guardians of communal interests, they typically have no problem joining ranks with representatives of other confessions to marginalize their co-religionists. Even long-time foes will suspend their differences as soon as any serious attempt is made to shore up the independence of the state, and join ranks to ward off any such challenge to the order of things. The system is also open to newcomers empowered by political and/or macro-economic change, for instance, Amal leader Nabih Berri, propelled into prominence by Syrian backing in the 1980s or Rafiq al-Hariri, elevated by petrodollars and Saudi patronage in the 1990s. Such newcomers may push out some of the traditional players, but are usually careful to preserve the rules of the game. Politicians speaking about the national interest, the constitutional process or the integrity of institutions are rarely doing more than paying lip service, and are typically using these concepts as weapons in the eternal struggle for more influence and positions, which can then be used to twist the rules of the game even more in one’s favor, so as to dole out even more government favors to one’s followers. A classic example is the paving of roads in rural areas in election years, expected to translate into votes for the candidate whose “influence” in the capital supposedly enabled him to “secure” such services, and to discourage votes for less well-connected challengers. Politicians of this type are referred to as “asphalt MPs” in local vernacular, a play on the double meaning of the Arabic word for asphalt (zift), which also means “dirt” or “crap.” “When my son left high school, there was an opening for some 200 recruits in General Security,” recalls a Sunni from Beirut. “We found out that some 70 would go to Sunnis. And to get one of those, you needed to go to Rafiq al-Hariri. It was as simple as that: Sunni jobs are distributed by the strongest Sunni leader. So we used a contact to a person very close to Hariri, and things worked out. After that, we all became his followers. Because if he doesn’t care for us, then nobody else will.” In Lebanon, everybody knows at least ten stories of this category, and while contempt for the politicians involved is universal, so is the urge not to be left behind in the scramble for the spoils. Yet Alain Aoun is determined that the rules of the games must be changed: “Until now, the logic is: I take office, so now it is my turn to steal and patronize my people. We need to break this cycle. A few honest guys on the top level can make a hell of a difference, and send a message down through the ranks.” The most capable and honest guy to initiate this process, one infers, will be nobody but the general himself. Drawing on his personal history as a career officer who rose up from poverty due to diligence and integrity (Aoun famously had to skip a year of high school due to lack of funds and made up for it by squeezing the curriculum of two years into one), Michel Aoun is presented as an unlikely Hercules uniquely qualified to clean out the Augean stable of Lebanese politics. That might be easier said than done, agrees his nephew, after weathering several cell phone calls from party affiliates trying to arrange for jobs at Orange TV, a new Arabic-language TV station set up by the FPM. “See, this guy who just called wants me to hire a girl who has a degree in theater and no experience in TV. I have no problem to arrange an interview for her, but that’s not what he expects from me. He doesn’t want me to give her a fair chance. He wants me to give her a job without any competition or check of her qualifications. To eradicate such a mentality will take a long time, but you have to start somewhere, and that somewhere is at the top of the pyramid. If the rulers are corrupt, and not even ashamed, then what do you expect from society?” Often dismissed as sheer populism, the FPM’s call for imposing transparency and stamping out corruption and clientelism — however realistic an objective it may or may not be — thus threatens to disrupt the very system on which the power structure is built. With trademark exaggeration, Michel Aoun vowed to “confront political feudalism” upon his return from France in May 2005. While clearly a swipe at the likes of Walid Jumblatt (who happens to be the heir of a “real” feudal line), Saad al-Hariri and Amin Gemayel, such pronouncements cannot have been pleasing to any of the politicians who prefer the rules of the games as they are. As Gambill puts it: “FPM control of a major ministry is a red line for the [March 14] coalition mainly because Aoun would have absolutely nothing to lose by acting on his pledges to clean up government, even if his motives are completely self-serving.” While potentially endangering vested interests, a program emphasizing transparency and meritocracy is likely to appeal to the educated middle classes forming the backbone of the FPM, whose life chances are hampered by systemic clientelism and sectarian red tape that often extends into the private sector. Barred from many attractive jobs for lack of connections, unable to initiate meaningful economic activity of their own for lack of capital and, again, lack of opportunities in an environment where many market segments are controlled by fat cats who easily squeeze out new competitors, they stand to gain from any change. Accordingly, the economic outlook of the FPM shows conservative or even neo-liberal leanings, with a high premium on encouraging free competition, world market integration and downsizing a state bureaucracy bloated by clientelism. “Aoun’s followers are those who lose out in the Lebanese clientelist system,” concludes Dumontier, “not those who are near the bottom of the social ladder. The latter need protection to get their very modest jobs and benefits, and wasta (connections) for them is a matter of survival. And not those on the top level, either — they are the ones who hold the keys, and more transparency would take away from their power. It is those who could do better for themselves if the system were to become more open and meritocratic.” SECTARIAN SECULARISTS Still, and despite the secularist rhetoric wielded by Aoun and his lieutenants, one of the most important cards for the FPM among its predominantly Christian following appears to be the sense of being once again excluded in the post-civil war political order — only this time, and worse, not by the Syrians, who were, after all, outsiders and occupiers. This time the Aounists feel marginalized by other Lebanese and, still worse, by nobody less than their age-old nemesis, the Sunnis, manifest in the overbearing presence of the Hariri family and its political machinery, the Future Movement. Secularism as professed by the Aounists thus shows a tendency to turn into a sectarian discourse[8] directed mainly against a perceived Sunni takeover of state institutions, and prone to resurrect the eternal Christian fear of being “drowned” in a sea of more than 250 million Muslim Arabs surrounding Lebanon, the only country in the region to guarantee them full legal equality. The “mother of all injustices” against Christians quoted by supporters of the FPM is the election law, drawn up in the year 2000 by the chief of Syrian intelligence in Lebanon, the late Ghazi Kanaan, and applied again in 2005. Designed with the clear intention of minimizing the impact of the notoriously anti-Syrian Christian electorate, the Kanaan law “diluted” the Christian vote in many districts by combining Christian with significantly more populous Muslim areas.[9] As a result, only 18 out of 64 Christian MPs were elected in majority-Christian districts, while the remaining Christian MPs were practically elected by Muslims — Sunnis and hence Hariri in the north and Beirut, Shi‘a and hence Hizballah and Amal in the south, Druze and Shi‘a in the southern part of Mount Lebanon. There is irony in the fact that what was meant to further Syrian interest back in 2000 — largely by favoring Hariri, who was then still a loyal supporter of the Pax Syriana — vastly skewed the results in favor of the anti-Syrian coalition in 2005. Such irony, however, was completely lost on the majority of Christians represented by the FPM. From their perspective, the election of 2005 and its aftermath only continued their post-war decline, a process marked by Muslim-dominated governments with fig leaves of Christian participation. This impression was reinforced by the less than impressive performance of the Christian representatives in the Siniora government. Saudi money (the younger Hariri holds Saudi citizenship, and his business network is entwined with Saudi interests), it was induced, had replaced the tutelage of the Syrian secret services, with the blessing of the US, who would sign Lebanon over to a regional power it needed for greater designs, just as it did in 1990 when Syria was an indispensable part of the coalition to free Kuwait from Iraqi occupation. So pervasive became this impression that the Conference of Maronite Bishops felt compelled to issue a stern warning against an impending “Islamization” of Lebanon in late June, and Samir Geagea was quoted (and promptly denied) saying, “I don’t even talk to the Saudis. I talk to their masters, the Americans, and they talk to them on our behalf.” From the perspective of Christians close to Aoun, however, talking to the Americans was pointless, for the Sunni ascendancy was seen as not at all accidental, but rather part of a strategic realignment that puts Sunni Arab regimes, and in particular Saudi Arabia, at the center of a pro-US alliance against purported radicals. “In the fall of 2005, Washington was facing a stark choice of what to support in Lebanon,” wrote Jean Aziz, who has since become the director of Orange TV. “It could choose either a pluralist, consensual system that may have set an example for the dialogue rather than the clash of civilizations, or a Sunni Muslim system with American leanings and pliant to American interests, a model for American presence in the region.”[10] But then why turn to Hizballah, another party with a clearly Muslim character, and with a political agenda liable to embroil Lebanon deeper and further in regional struggles, something Lebanese Christians have always been loath to do? For Aoun’s detractors, the answer is simple and straightforward: Both Shi‘a and Christians are tiny minorities in a region dominated by Sunnis. In a system where sectarian considerations trump everything else, their alliance against a powerful Sunni-dominated regime now backed by Lebanon’s Sunni neighbors appears almost natural. With only 30-40 percent of the population, and with non-Arab Iran as its main sponsor, Lebanon’s Shi‘a have no hope of ever dominating the system, unlike the Sunnis, who draw economic and demographic strength from neighboring countries such as Egypt, Syria, Jordan or Saudi Arabia, all liable to be controlled by Islamists in the not too distant future. Additionally, Hizballah, with its disciplined fighting units, appears less scary in comparison to Sunni extremists such as Fatah al-Islam, who have been battling the Lebanese army for three months in the refugee camp of Nahr al-Barid, after allegedly being under the protection of the Hariri family — developments dwelt upon by media sympathetic to the FPM. Alain Aoun does not deny his misgivings about the Sunnis throwing their weight around, but insists that the intentions behind the alliance with Hizballah go beyond sectarian zero-sum games: “One, this country needs to be governed in a very delicate way, and putting only one group in the driver’s seat is a sure recipe for disaster. Two, at the end of the day you need to sit down and talk out all these issues: Under which conditions would Hizballah give up these weapons? How are we supposed to deal with Syria and Israel? We have tried to do exactly that, and the memorandum of understanding that we signed with them contains some positive commitments from their side. Does anybody have a better idea? Does anybody seriously believe that by isolating and pressuring Hizballah, or even threatening them with force, you can make them give up their weapons and behave like a normal political party? I surely hope not.” EPILOGUE The narrow victory scored by Aoun’s candidate in the Matn by-election on August 5, 2007 showed the Christian community to be deeply divided, with both sides claiming moral victory. Judging by the numbers, support for the FPM was dented (40,000 votes, about one third less than the 2005 result), while support for the pro-government Christian camp went up (also by one third). Yet the virtually unknown FPM candidate entered the race in a clearly uphill battle: For one thing, he confronted no less a personage than Amin Gemayel, a former president and the head of one of the most influential Christian families in Lebanon, and on his home turf, giving his opponent ample opportunity to mobilize along parochial and tribal lines. Second, he was running against the father of the MP whose assassination made the by-election necessary in the first place, lending his bid an air of callousness, as many voters felt that the seat rightfully belonged to the family of the murdered man. Finally, the assassination was widely ascribed to remnants of the Syrian secret service network in Lebanon, and Aoun’s attempt to, as it were, reap political gain from the killing provided ample ammunition for portraying his movement as unwittingly or opportunistically paving the way for renewed Syrian influence in Lebanon. “This is the most damaging accusation,” says pollster Abdo Saad. “The polls show that Aoun’s supporters have no problem with Hizballah as such. What they mind is Hizballah’s attachment to Syria. They have no problem with Aoun’s political decisions, but they take issue with his alliances with formerly pro-Syrian forces. My own wife, who is Christian, used to be all-out for Aoun, but now, the media campaign portraying him as pro-Syrian has succeeded to turn her against him.” Yet the fact that, at the end of a long election day, Amin Gemayel was unable to capitalize upon these considerable advantages shows that the core support for the FPM remains resilient, and makes it appear unlikely that any force in the Christian camp will be able to challenge Michel Aoun’s position in the near future. For Lebanon, this appears to be a mixed blessing at best: On the one hand, a (most likely sizable) majority of the Christian community seems prepared to look for guarantees of their presence in a majority-Muslim country and an overwhelmingly Muslim region in the institutions of a secular state, rather than hanging on to the doubtful security offered by a ghetto of sectarian privilege. This is a momentous development, when one recalls the 1970s. Yet the party galvanizing such sentiment feels compelled to appeal, once again, to sentiments that all too obviously feed on longing for lost privilege and resentment of the arch-competitor for power in the state. Likewise, for the first time in their history, a (probably less sizable) majority of Christians is prepared to make common political cause with a mass movement following an explicitly Islamist political outlook. And yet it appears that prejudice and racism against Muslims, mixed with resentment deriving from class, have been transposed onto Sunnis and only muted toward Shi‘a, for the time being. Despite the remarkable politicization of young Lebanese that fueled the success of the FPM, the new party also remains a movement centered around a single leader, who is venerated to the verge of personality cult, with a notable tendency to establish a strong family presence in the top echelons, and again, despite a significant number of female activists, to exclude women nearly totally from the upper ranks. Finally, the inconclusive test of forces between Amin Gemayel and Michel Aoun bodes ill for the already intractable conflict over the upcoming election of a new president — a post traditionally reserved for Maronite Christians — where both men are candidates. Without a compromise, the presidency, which also wields the high command of the armed forces, may be the next victim of the chain reaction of stalemate, disputed legitimacy and mutual boycott that has already paralyzed most of the political institutions in Lebanon. A further disintegration of the state now looks like a real possibility. [1] Ever since mass demonstrations in Lebanon began, in the wake of ex-Prime Minister Rafiq al-Hariri’s assassination in the spring of 2005, all sides have engaged in inflation of numbers to absurd proportions, without any serious regard to material facts, such as the actual surface area of the spots where people congregated. Interview with Lebanese pollster Abdo Saad, Beirut, June 2007. Saad is the director of the Beirut Center for Research and Information ( http://www.beirutcenter.info , mainly in Arabic), which conducts frequent opinion polls on political issues. [2] Hassan Fattah, “Lebanon Divided on Presidential Hopeful Michel Aoun,” International Herald Tribune, January 19, 2007. [3] Such disregard finds its reflection in the lack of any serious research on the “Aoun phenomenon” thus far — an omission that this article can only hope to start addressing. This article is based on a series of interviews with party officials and activists conducted in June 2007, in addition to party literature, encounters with activists since the spring of 2005, particularly during the mass demonstrations in December 2006, and preliminary results of a field study conducted in the spring of 2007 by the French geographer Beltram Dumontier in ‘Ayn al-Rummana (a predominantly Maronite Christian quarter of Beirut adjacent to the Hizballah strongholds of Shiyah and Harat Hurayk), which Dumontier generously shared with the author. [4] It is a point of contention whether the Lebanese constitution actually allows Parliament to impeach a sitting president by any kind of majority. Since a two-thirds majority was not available anyway, attempts at exploring the legal dimension were soon abandoned. [5] Again, there are no reliable figures as to what extent the Aounist movement contributed to this movement. If the huge turnout attending Aoun’s return from exile on May 7, 2005 is anything to go by, however, it appears safe to assume that the demonstrations in February and March would have looked significantly less impressive without their participation. March 14 is also the anniversary of Aoun’s abortive “war of liberation” (from Syria) launched in 1989 and annually celebrated by his followers. [6] According to Hizballah, there has been more than one US offer to broker a deal that would trade Hizballah’s weapons for a significant improvement of Shi‘i representation in the political system. Interview with Hizballah expert Amal Saad-Ghorayeb, October 2006. Such ideas resurfaced in the wake of the 2006 war in the columns of government loyalists. See Michael Young, “Offer Reform for Hizballah’s Weapons,” Daily Star, September 28, 2006. [7] Gary Gambill, “Lemons from Lemonade: Washington and Lebanon After the Syrian Withdrawal,” Mideast Monitor (June-July 2007). http://www.mideastmonitor.org/issues/0705/0705_1.htm . [8] Such was also the case in the 1970s, when Lebanese Muslims argued for secularism in order to do away with the constitutional privileges accorded to Christians. [9] The law provides for a first-past-the-post majority system differentiated by sect. For instance, one seat in the district Beirut-I was reserved for a Greek Orthodox Christian, so the Orthodox candidate with the most votes would win one seat, and all votes cast for other Orthodox candidates would have no impact on the composition of Parliament. As in most majority systems, gerrymandering has the potential to distort the popular vote, and has been a temptation for sitting presidents and governments ever since the foundation of Lebanon. Accordingly, each and every parliamentary election in Lebanon is preceded by heated debate about how electoral districts will be demarcated, with the decision typically taken only shortly before election day. [10] Al-Akhbar, July 28, 2007. P.S. *Originally published in Middle East Report Online, Merip, August 2007. Search:

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"Who with Arafat and ""Rabin received the Nobel Peace prize in 1994?"

The Nobel Peace Prize 1994 The Nobel Peace Prize 1994 Yasser Arafat, Shimon Peres, Yitzhak Rabin Share this: The Nobel Peace Prize 1994 Yasser Arafat Yitzhak Rabin Prize share: 1/3 The Nobel Peace Prize 1994 was awarded jointly to Yasser Arafat, Shimon Peres and Yitzhak Rabin "for their efforts to create peace in the Middle East". Photos: Copyright © The Nobel Foundation Share this: To cite this page MLA style: "The Nobel Peace Prize 1994". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 18 Jan 2017. <http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1994/>

Peres

Which movie was Clark Gable making when he died?

Yasser Arafat | Nobels fredspris (1929-2004) A pistol and an olive branch In 1974, Yasser Arafat addressed the UN General Assembly. He said he was holding an olive branch for peace in one hand and a freedom fighter's pistol in the other. Twenty years later he and the Israeli leaders Peres and Rabin received the Peace Prize for having opted for the olive branch by signing the so-called Oslo Accords in Washington. The agreement was aimed at reconciliation between Israelis and Palestinians. Arafat grew up in Cairo and Jerusalem. He took part in the war against the new state of Israel in 1948, when many Palestinians were expelled. As a qualified engineer, he took a job in Kuwait. From there, he organized the guerrilla group Fatah, which attacked Israel. Following Israel's occupation of the West Bank and Gaza in 1967, Arafat became the leader of the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization), an umbrella organization for Palestinian guerrilla groups. The groups resorted to terror to attract world attention, but it gradually became clear to Arafat that he would have to accept the state of Israel for the USA to be willing to mediate in the dispute. He approved the meeting of Palestinian negotiators with Israelis at secret negotiations in Oslo. AS

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Which French Prime Minister's funeral was attended by his wife and his mistress in 1996?

Mitterand’s Funeral | Iconic Photos Famous, Infamous and Iconic Photos Mitterand’s Funeral Mitterand’s wife Danielle stands on the far left, his mistress Anne Pingeot(second from right) and illegitimate daughter Mazarine (third from right) Anne and Mazarine François Mitterrand served as the President of France from 1981 to 1995, the first left-wing head of state since 1957 and the only member of the Socialist Party to be elected as the President of France. He also holds the record of the longest-serving (almost 14 years) President of France. At President Francois Mitterand’s funeral in 1996, his wife and his long term mistress stood side-by-side at the grave, accompanied by their respective legitimate and illegitimate children . Although the press made no comment, the existence of his illegitimate daughter Mazarine was revealed by the popular magazine Paris-Match in 1994, just months before he left office. Mitterrand concealed the fact for years. For more details on sex life of French politicians, see Sexus Politicus (Dubois, Deloire), which premise is that in France, a successful politician is also a seductive politician. Prime Minister Edgar Faure mused when he gained the lofty title of “president of the Council,” “When I was a minister, some women resisted me. Once I became president, not even one.” President from 1895 to 1899, Félix Faure, who was not related, died in the bed of his mistress. De Gaulle was the only post-World War II French leader to maintain a strict military discipline over his personal life. Giscard d’Estaing claimed he had as many mistresses as the salons of Paris, and noted, “When I was president of the republic, I was in love with 17 million French women. When I saw them in the crowd, they felt it and then they voted for me.” Rate this:

François Mitterrand

Which multi-million-dollar sport is Bernie Ecclestone associated with?

World's Leaders Bid Farewell to Mitterrand - The New York Times The New York Times Archives |World's Leaders Bid Farewell to Mitterrand Search View page in TimesMachine , Page 00024 The New York Times Archives In flowing African robes, Arab headdresses and sober mourning clothes, the high and mighty of France and the world bade farewell today to former President Francois Mitterrand at a Requiem Mass in Notre Dame Cathedral while his family quietly laid him to rest in the town where he was born. The small family funeral in Jarnac, 250 miles from Paris in the Cognac country of southwestern France, and the public ceremony in Notre Dame were both exactly as Mr. Mitterrand wanted them -- no political speeches or eulogies, just the usual homily by the celebrant. In Paris that celebrant was Jean-Marie Cardinal Lustiger. The Primate spoke of the "mystery of his existence," and of Mr. Mitterrand's many published meditations on death. Mr. Mitterrand died at the age of 79 on Monday after a long battle with prostate cancer. Alluding to Mr. Mitterrand's assertions that he was "more agnostic than anything else," the Cardinal added, "May Francois Mitterrand find in the company of saints the help, forgiveness and courage finally to open his eyes to the invisible." Continue reading the main story More than 60 world leaders and 1,300 other dignitaries gathered in the floodlit nave of the Gothic cathedral bore witness to Mr. Mitterrand's ecumenical influence and to the respect he enjoyed around the world. There was Iran's Foreign Minister, Ali Akbar Velayati, sitting a few seats away from President Ezer Weizman and Prime Minister Shimon Peres of Israel, who shared many of Mr. Mitterrand's Socialist ideals. Advertisement Continue reading the main story President Fidel Castro of Cuba came in civilian clothes, wearing a blue serge overcoat, while Yasir Arafat, who heads the Palestinian Authority, was in uniform with his kaffiyeh. President Boris N. Yeltsin perched on a chair at the edge of the nave, and a row behind him a few seats away sat Vice President Al Gore, representing President Clinton. Most of the leaders of Europe came, and when the choir broke into the plangent opening lines of Maurice Durufle's Requiem, a tear trickled down the cheek of the German Chancellor, Helmut Kohl, who was perhaps Mr. Mitterrand's closest ally among the Europeans. The funeral and burial in Jarnac were equally extraordinary, shown in part by television cameras outside the small Romanesque Church of St. Peter. In the entering procession, behind the former President's widow, Danielle, and their two sons, was his longtime mistress, Anne Pingeot, and their daughter, Mazarine Pingeot. United in mourning, all were dressed in black. Mrs. Mitterrand had invited both women to the former President's official residence in Paris in the pre-dawn hours today when his coffin was taken to Villacoublay Air Base, west of Paris, to be flown to Jarnac for interment next to his parents' graves in the church graveyard. Mr. Mitterrand had spent Christmas in the southern Egyptian resort of Aswan with his daughter and her mother, and New Year's with Mrs. Mitterrand and their two sons in his country home in Latche, another southwestern French village. Please verify you're not a robot by clicking the box. Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. Sign Up Privacy Policy Only about 300 close friends and relatives attended the funeral in Jarnac. About 1,000 people from the general public had been expected in Notre Dame in addition to all the officials, but only a few hundred came. "I was at the great celebration of President Mitterrand's first victory at the Bastille in 1981, and I wanted to render a last homage to him today," said Jacques Horvath, a 40-year-old computer engineer, who got in line outside the cathedral at 6 A.M. today, five hours before the Mass. Several thousand people who could not get past the tight security listened to the Mass in the square in front of Notre Dame. And tens of thousands paid silent tribute to Mr. Mitterrand at the Place de la Bastille Wednesday night, despite pouring rain. Barbara Hendricks, the American soprano and close friend of the Mitterrands, ended the three-hour vigil by singing "The Time of the Cherries," a 19th-century revolutionary ditty. She also sang the "Pious Jesus" solo from Gabriel Faure's Requiem at Notre Dame today. Advertisement Continue reading the main story President Jacques Chirac declared the day one of national mourning, but in accordance with Mr. Mitterrand's wishes, he let public schools and government offices stay open. Subway trains came to a halt for one minute at 11 A.M., the hour of the funeral services, as a sign of respect. Mr. Chirac and his wife, Bernadette, sat in the place of honor facing the transept altar at Notre Dame, while princes and potentates made do with the cathedral's unyielding caned chairs for the 90-minute Mass. A thundering organ improvisation by Jean-Pierre Leguay sent them scurrying out to be bused to Elysee Palace, where Mr. Chirac gave them lunch. President Clinton's absence was widely noted by French journalists who wondered why he could not come when leaders of countries as far away as Cambodia and most of French Africa had come to pay their respects. An American Embassy spokeswoman said that the President had asked Mr. Gore to come as a sign of the high esteem that he and the people of the United States had for Mr. Mitterrand. Mr. Gore last saw him on May 8 for a celebration of the 50th anniversary of the end of World War II in Europe. Mr. Chirac met briefly this morning with Mr. Gore and later with Mr. Yeltsin, who told reporters outside Notre Dame, "I came so everyone could see I was in perfect form." We are continually improving the quality of our text archives. Please send feedback, error reports, and suggestions to [email protected]. A version of this article appears in print on January 12, 1996, on Page A00024 of the National edition with the headline: World's Leaders Bid Farewell to Mitterrand. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe

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"Who succeeded ""Anwar Sadat as President of Egypt?"

Mubarak of Egypt: the U.S. Meets the Surprising Man Who Succeeded Sadat Mubarak of Egypt: the U.S. Meets the Surprising Man Who Succeeded Sadat Email He was Anwar Sadat’s handpicked successor, but when Hosni Mubarak travels to Washington this week for scheduled talks with President Reagan, Americans will find that the new President of Egypt is a strikingly different figure from his mystical mentor. Rising to power in the military, Mubarak commanded the Egyptian Air Force in its dramatic opening attack on Israel in the 1973 war. Yet he has shown no reticence, and indeed considerable skill, in putting his mark swiftly on his nation’s domestic policy. He has freed political dissidents imprisoned by Sadat and purged his Cabinet of members close to a government official arrested for corruption. His stewardship of foreign policy has been equally surefooted, if not always to American taste. Though Mubarak remains committed to the Camp David Accords, he informed Secretary of State Alexander Haig last month that he would not meet the April deadline for signing an agreement on the Palestinian issue without further Israeli concessions. Just last week he invited the Soviet Union to send back to Cairo the 66 technical advisers whom Sadat expelled along with the Soviet Ambassador last September. Mubarak thrived under the presidencies of Gamal Nasser and Anwar Sadat, but he kowtowed to neither man. He once refused Nasser’s brother admittance to the Air Force Academy for failing to pay the registration fee, and when Sadat’s brother—a pilot who was killed in the 1973 war—first came under his command, Mubarak was notably hard on him. “I didn’t want anybody to think that he had privileges,” Mubarak says. “I hate people who exploit the fact that anybody in their family is important.” In that and other ways, Mubarak is far less the autocrat than Sadat was. After Sadat’s funeral, newspaper editor Hassanein Heikal, who had been imprisoned by Sadat, asked what the new President had worn to the rites. “A plain dark suit,” he was told. “That makes me feel better,” said Heikal, who has since been released by Mubarak. “It means that he will not put emphasis on uniforms and decorations, like his predecessor.” Mubarak differs in other ways. He avoids both the rhetoric that Nasser used to whip crowds into hysterics and the political manipulation practiced by Sadat. Though Sadat openly attacked Arab leaders for their intransigence on the peace process, Mubarak has ordered conciliation—even to the point of forbidding the Egyptian press to criticize his country’s archenemy, Libya’s Col. Muammar Qadaffi. He has made it clear that peace with the rest of the Arab world is as important to him as peace with Israel. Most remarkably, Mubarak has shunned the cult of personality that Egyptian Presidents in the past have encouraged. A no-nonsense man who grew up as the son of a court employee in a small village near Sadat’s birthplace, Mubarak still answers his own phone and spends almost all his time within one square mile, shuttling between his office, his modest two-story home and the Air Force Officers’ Club. He is not given to the cumbersome motorcades in which Sadat traveled daily. “Suddenly there are no more traffic jams in the center of Cairo,” says one prominent industrialist. “Sadat used to cause them by driving through the city to his offices, houses and palaces.” Mubarak also keeps his family life intensely private. When a Cairo newspaper reported that his half-Egyptian, half-Welsh wife of 23 years, Susanna, was studying for a master’s degree at nearby American University, the President personally excoriated the editor-in-chief. “I don’t want to see anything personal about my family—not my wife, not my children, and not me,” barked the father of two college-age sons. “I don’t want you to call me an Air Force hero or my wife the First Lady. There is no First Lady—there is Mrs. Mubarak, and my children are not the President’s children. They are two boys—themselves.” It is not surprising, then, that the new President of Egypt has shunned the press—especially the foreign press. However, as he prepared for a journey that would take him through Western Europe before his arrival in Washington, Mubarak—wearing a pin-striped suit and short Air Force boots—received Mira Avrech of PEOPLE for the only interview he gave an American magazine before the trip. You have released nearly 100 of the 1,536 dissidents whom President Sadat had imprisoned in the months before his death. Why? When President Sadat started the democracy, he started too quickly. Many people advised him to move slowly, gradually, until the people could absorb this freedom, but he wanted to give everything to everyone immediately. Then things went sour and he suddenly began to impose restrictions. He arrested many people, fundamentalists and politicians, but his assassination changed the situation. I have to start another way of dealing with the people. I have to release those who are not dangerous. I have to release the politicians. I have to confer with the other parties here so that all of us can work for the benefit of the country. Are you more conciliatory than Sadat? I like always to be fair, but at the same time I am very strict. Whenever something’s wrong, I don’t leave it. I like to give warnings once or twice. I tell the people this is wrong, this is right, and if they have other ideas or opinions, I can discuss it with them. But whenever a decision is made, everyone should respect that decision. Israel is scheduled to withdraw from the last occupied Sinai territory in April. Are you worried about domestic Israeli opposition to that withdrawal? It is an internal problem of the Israeli government. It is not my concern. When Premier Menachem Begin was here I asked him, “Peace forever?” And he replied, “Yes. Peace forever.” To have peace, we must respect our commitments. How can you assure Israel that you will honor your commitments after your land is returned? What can I do to reassure the Israelis? I guess I’ll have to order a big placard saying “No change, no change, no change” for everyone to see. Would you renew Egypt’s large-scale affiliation with the Soviet Union even though you have implied publicly that the Russians’ coming into the Middle East would be disastrous? I like to deal with any country who will deal with me on an equal basis. To deal with a country which thinks it is a superpower and I am a weak man, this doesn’t go in the present time of the world. Our relations with any country depend on the kind of cooperation they offer. Suppose Syria decided to declare war on Israel. You said recently that if they don’t consult you first, you are not going to come to their aid. Suppose they did consult you, what would you do? I would discuss the problem with them. What’s war going to lead them to? We have tried war several times. It led to nothing. All over the world, war never led to peace. The war between the United States and Vietnam—where did it lead? To sitting at a table and negotiating until they reached a settlement. Why not do it directly, without war? We are not ready to go through another war. What are your greatest domestic problems as President? The most important point is the economic problem. I will be tackling that with my Cabinet right away. I have also asked some experts to prepare a paper for me so that I can discuss the best ways of dealing with the population problem. Every nine months you have one million new mouths to feed. Would the Muslim fundamentalists let you adopt birth control as a solution? We will try to find a way. You dissolved your Cabinet recently after some members were implicated in scandal. What did you mean by calling for “a new order”? I was planning to make changes in the Cabinet anyway after the [Israeli] retreat from Sinai in April. When I realized that some of my ministers were involved in the case of a contractor convicted of corruption, I decided to make a complete change right now. I want the Cabinet to serve the majority of the people, not to work for the interest of a few. As President, do you find your friends ask you for favors? I never let friends take advantage. There are some friends who will try to have some profits or ask for favors. I have never accepted this in my entire life. When I was in the Air Force I had many friends, very close friends. Whenever they asked me for a promotion, I refused to intervene. How do you spend a typical day? I get up early in the morning—6 or 6:30. I have my tea and sometimes see my boys. One of them gets up earlier than me to go to the university. Then I read the newspapers. Every day I have a briefing about the international newspapers. I’m usually dressed by 8. I come to work here. My meetings, discussions, everything takes till 1, 2, 3 o’clock. Sometimes I have to come back here in the evenings when I have urgent meetings. If not, I go to unwind at the small Air Force Officers’ Club, where I play squash and meet with Air Force officers and civilians. All those who have troubles can go there and wait for me. Sometimes I find a long row of people waiting for me. Don’t you feel lonely as President? No. I have many friends from different classes and I constantly talk to people. One day I was standing with a man who was paving the road and started a discussion. I answer the phone myself. Sometimes I even take wrong numbers. Once a telephone operator called and asked if I had placed a call to Alexandria. I told her, “No, thank you, I did not.” She asked me my name. I told her Hosni Mubarak. She told me, “Go to hell! You are not the President. If you really were the President, you wouldn’t answer your own phone.” I could not persuade her. How much time do you devote to your family? My children are busy with exams most of the time in the university. When I have time—one hour or two hours a day, or in the evening, whenever—they come and sit with me. I don’t like to go anywhere without my family. You have objected angrily to newspaper reports about your wife. Why? My wife works hard and did so before I became President. She doesn’t like publicity. She hates to be followed by television cameras or reporters. My children, too, want to live a private life and keep a low profile. That’s what they are used to. We can’t change ourselves just because my position has changed. What influence did your own parents have on your life? Whenever I was with my father before he died, he used to spend hours advising me and teaching me. He’d say, “You should not do this,” or, “You should do this,” and explain that these are the teachings of the Koran. His advice was truly impressive, and since that time, I have acted according to it. How about your mother? My mother lived in the country most of her life. She was the type of village woman who looks for ways to help the poor. Even if she had only one dollar in her pocket, she would give it to the poor. Sometimes we had no food in the house because she gave the money to a beggar in the street. What are your ambitions? I am not an ambitious man at all. I didn’t ask to be President. I just accepted it because it is in the interest of the country—not for the fame of being President, or its name or its luxurious life. I look to the post for its responsibilities, how to tackle the problems and solve them. This is my only interest. Your style is so different from Sadat’s. Is that deliberate? I act according to what the people want, to make them feel at ease. I never changed my character since I’ve been working in the government or the armed forces. My character did not change as my rank increased. Unlike Sadat, you don’t keep opulent palaces. Recently you announced a visit to the lake resort of Ismailia, then suddenly canceled it. Why? I decided to have relief for one day, a very short vacation. I had hoped for a quiet 24 hours in the country, just sit in the sun, have something to eat, walk in the garden. But then too many people found out I was going. People wanted to meet me, from the governor of the district to this man or that. They prepared receptions. It seemed it would not be relaxing. I was supposed to leave here at 4 p.m. At 31 canceled the trip. So what will you do to relax? Nothing. I do not know where to go. Do the responsibilities of office ever awaken you at night? Whenever I sleep, I sleep. I never get up, only in the morning. So many Egyptians live in poverty. Can you improve their lives? I shall do my best. I have only my salary. I possess nothing but my feelings. Believe me, I shall do my best. Show Full Article

Hosni Mubarak

Which movie star married jockey Robyn Smith in 1980?

Anwar al-Sadat | Jewish Virtual Library Tweet Born into a family of 13 children in 1918, Anwar al-Sadat grew up among average Egyptian villagers in the town of Mit Abul Kom 40 miles to the north of Cairo. Having completed a grade school education, Sadat's father worked as a clerk in the local military hospital. By the time of his birth, Anwar's Egypt had become a British colony. Crippling debt had forced the Egyptian government to sell the British government its interests in the French engineered Suez Canal linking the Mediteranian Sea with the Indian Ocean. The British and French had used these resources to establish enough political control over Egyptian affairs to refer to Egypt as a British colony. Four figures affected Sadat's early life. The first, a man named Zahran, came from a small village like Sadat's. In a famous incident of colonial rule, the British hanged Zahran for participating in a riot which had resulted in the death of a British officer. Sadat admired the courage Zahran exhibit on the way to the gallows. The second, Kemel Ataturk, created the modern state of Turkey by forcing the downfall of the Ottoman Empire. Not only had Ataturk thrown off the shackles of colonialism, but he established a number of civil service reforms, which Sadat admired. The third man was Mohandas Gandhi. Touring Egypt in 1932, Gandhi had preached the power of nonviolence in combating injustice. And finally, the young Sadat admired Adolf Hitler whom the anticolonialist Sadat viewed as a potential rival to British control. In 1936, as part of a deal between the British and the Wafd party, the British agreed to create a military school in Egypt. Sadat was among its first students. Besides the traditional training in math and science, each student learned to analyze battles. Sadat even studied the Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point in America's civil war. Upon graduating from the academy, the government posted Sadat to a distant outpost. There he met Gamal Abdel Nasser , beginning a long political association which eventually led to the Egyptian presidency. At this outpost, Sadat, Nasser and the other young officers formed a revolutionary group destined to overthrow British rule. Commitment to their revolution led Sadat to jail twice. During his second stay in jail, Sadat taught himself French and English. But the grueling loneliness of jail took its toll. After leaving prison, Sadat returned to civilian life. He acted for a bit, and he joined in several business deals. Through one of his deals, Sadat met Jihan whom he would eventually marry. Sadat recontacted his old associate Nasser to find that their revolutionary movement had grown considerably while he was in prison. On July 23, 1952, the Free Officers Organization staged a coup overthrowing the monarchy. From the moment of the coup, Sadat began as Nasser's public relations minister and trusted lieutenant. Nasser assigned Sadat the task of overseeing the official abdication of King Farouk. Working with Nasser Sadat learned the dangerous game of nation-building in a world of superpower rivalries. Egypt eventually became the leading "non-aligned" country in the world, giving a voice, through Nasser, to the desires of the undeveloped and post-colonial societies. Their most important trial came over the Suez Canal, which Nasser nationalized in 1956. In a coordinated effort, the British, French, and the new nation of Israel launched an attack on Egypt hoping to reestablish colonial control over the Canal and its profits. The 1956 war ended only after the United States pressured its allies to withdraw. Egypt emerged from the war a hero of the non-aligned countries, having successfully resisted colonial powers and maintained its control of the Suez. Nasser's prominence suffered greatly from the debacle of the Six Day War. In it, the Israeli military completely destroyed the Egyptian air forces (mostly caught unawares on the ground) and swept through the Sinai to the Suez Canal routing the Egyptian army, killing at least 3,000 soldiers. The devastation also threatened to bankrupt the government. Internal squabbling among Arab nations and the growing Palestinian movement eventually strained Nasser's abilities to the limit. Under the strain, Nasser collapsed and died on September 29, 1970. When he succeeded Nasser, Sadat was completely unknown and untested. Over the next 11 years, however, Sadat proved his leadership abilities. His first trial on the international scene involved the aftermath of the Six Day War . Sadat openly offered the Israelis a peace treaty in exchange for the return of the Sinai lands taken in the attack. Domestic crisis and international intrigue presented Sadat with seemingly insurmountable problems. The Egyptian economy continued to reel from war with Israel and the Egyptians' continuing relationship with the Soviet Union deteriorated as the Soviets proved unreliable allies. When pressed for more military support to replace the devastation of the Six Day War , the Soviets simply ignored Sadat's requests. In a bold move, which soon became his trademark, Sadat expelled the Soviets. This grand gesture solidified Egyptian internal support at a time when the average Egyptian suffered greatly. Behind the scenes, however, Sadat plotted to retake the Egyptian Sinai if the Israelis continued to refuse the Egyptian peace initiative. On October 6, 1973 , Sadat struck. With exceptional military precision, the Egyptian army crossed the Suez back into the Sinai and began driving the Israeli army into the desert. Though short-lived, the attack created a new momentum for peace both in Egypt and in Israel. These pressures coincided with continued domestic problems in Egypt. The deteriorating economy in Egypt, accompanied by a growing distance between rich and poor, led to internal strife, riots, strikes, attacks on the rich. These internal pressures raised the attention of the international community, particularly the United States, concerned that internal strife would weaken Sadat's moderate policies. Convinced that peace with Israel would reap an enormous "peace dividend," Sadat initiated his most important diplomatic ploy. In a speech to the Egyptian parliament in 1977, Sadat affirmed his desire to go anywhere to negotiate a peace with the Israelis. Even, he affirmed, he would go to the Israeli parliament to speak for peace. The Israelis responded with an invitation to do just that and Sadat's speech to the Israeli Knesset initiated a new momentum for peace that would eventually culminate in the 1978 Camp David Accords and a final peace treaty with Israel in 1979. For his efforts, Sadat won the Nobel Prize for Peace. At home, Sadat's new relationship with the west and his peace treaty generated considerable domestic opposition, especially among fundamentalist Muslim groups. In 1980 and in 1981, Sadat took desperate gambles to respond to these new internal problems. He negotiated a number of loans to support improvements in everyday life. And he simultaneously enacted laws outlawing protest and declared that the Shari'a would be the basis of all new Egyptian law. Sadat died at the hands of Muslim fundamentalist assassins on October 6, 1981, during a military review celebrating the Suez crossing in 1973. He was succeeded by his Vice President, Hosni Mubarak .

i don't know

How old was Orson Welles when he made Citizen Kane?

Orson Welles - Biography - IMDb Orson Welles Biography Showing all 184 items Jump to: Overview  (4) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (3) | Trade Mark  (4) | Trivia  (82) | Personal Quotes  (73) | Salary  (17) Overview (4) 6' 1½" (1.87 m) Mini Bio (1) His father was a well-to-do inventor, his mother a beautiful concert pianist; Orson Welles was gifted in many arts (magic, piano, painting) as a child. When his mother died (he was seven) he traveled the world with his father. When his father died (he was fifteen) he became the ward of Chicago's Dr. Maurice Bernstein. In 1931, he graduated from the Todd School in Woodstock, Illinois; he turned down college offers for a sketching tour of Ireland. He tried unsuccessfully to enter the London and Broadway stages, traveling some more in Morocco and Spain (where he fought in the bullring). Recommendations by Thornton Wilder and Alexander Woollcott got him into Katherine Cornell's road company, with which he made his New York debut as Tybalt in 1934. The same year, he married, directed his first short, and appeared on radio for the first time. He began working with John Houseman and formed the Mercury Theatre with him in 1937. In 1938, they produced "The Mercury Theatre on the Air", famous for its broadcast version of "The War of the Worlds" (intended as a Halloween prank). His first film to be seen by the public was Citizen Kane (1941), a commercial failure losing RKO $150,000, but regarded by many as the best film ever made. Many of his next films were commercial failures and he exiled himself to Europe in 1948. In 1956, he directed Touch of Evil (1958); it failed in the United States but won a prize at the 1958 Brussels World's Fair. In 1975, in spite of all his box-office failures, he received the American Film Institute's Lifetime Achievement Award, and in 1984, the Directors Guild of America awarded him its highest honor, the D.W. Griffith Award. His reputation as a filmmaker has climbed steadily ever since. - IMDb Mini Biography By: Ed Stephan < [email protected]> Spouse (3) Frequently cast Joseph Cotten , Everett Sloane and Oja Kodar Frequently wrote, directed and starred in films that feature the rise and fall of main characters (Charles Foster Kane in Citizen Kane (1941), Gregory Arkadin in _Confidential Report (1955)_, Detective Hank Quinlan in Touch of Evil (1958)) who, in classic Shakespearean style, are unmade by their own vices. Known for his use of low camera angles, tracking shots, deep focus and elaborate crane shots in his films. Trivia (82) Once ate 18 hot dogs in one sitting at Pink's, a Los Angeles hot dog stand. Welles' Oscar statuette sold for $861,542, when it was auctioned by Nate D. Sanders Memorabilia on December 20, 2011. H.G. Wells was driving through San Antonio, Texas, and stopped to ask the way. The person he happened to ask was none other than Welles', who had recently broadcast "The War of the Worlds" on the radio. They got on well and spent the day together. ABC-TV wanted him to play Mr. Roarke on Fantasy Island (1977), but the series' producer, Aaron Spelling , insisted on Ricardo Montalban . He died on the same day as his The Battle on the River Neretva (1969) co-star Yul Brynner : October 10, 1985. Ashes are buried inside an old well covered by flowers, within the rural property of the now-deceased, then-retired bullfighter Antonio Ordóñez , Ronda, Malaga, Spain. One of only six actors to receive an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor for his first screen appearance. The other five actors are: Paul Muni , Lawrence Tibbett , Alan Arkin , James Dean and Montgomery Clift . On October 30, 1938, he directed "The Mercury Theatre On the Air" in a dramatization of "The War of the Worlds", based on H.G. Wells ' novel. Setting the events in then-contemporary locations (The "landing spot" for the Martian invasion, Grover's Mill, New Jersey, was chosen at random with a New Jersey road map) and dramatizing it in the style of a musical program interrupted by news bulletins, complete with eyewitness accounts, it caused a nationwide panic, with many listeners fully convinced that the Earth was being invaded by Mars. The next day, Welles publicly apologized. While many lawsuits were filed against both Welles and the CBS radio network, all were dismissed. The incident is mentioned in textbook accounts of mass hysteria and the delusions of crowds. Despite his reputation as an actor and master filmmaker, he maintained his memberships in the International Brotherhood of Magicians and the Society of American Magicians (neither of which are unions, but fraternal organizations), and regularly practiced sleight-of-hand magic in case his career came to an abrupt end. Welles occasionally performed at the annual conventions of each organization, and was considered by fellow magicians to be extremely accomplished. A bootleg tape of a short-tempered (and foul-mouthed) Welles arguing with a recording engineer during a voice-over session has been widely distributed. It was used as the basis for an episode of the animated series Pinky and the Brain (1995), with The Brain reading cleaned-up versions of Orson's rantings (the episode's title, "Yes, Always", is taken from one of Welles' complaints). Ironically, the actor who plays The Brain, Maurice LaMarche , dubbed the voice of the actor who portrays Welles in Ed Wood (1994). He was born on the same day that Babe Ruth hit his very first home run. He tried to make a film version of Miguel de Cervantes y Saavedra ' book "Don Quixote". He started working on it in 1955 and continued to film through the 1970s with Francisco Reiguera and Akim Tamiroff starring. An incomplete version was released in Spain in 1992. Made a Hollywood satire, The Other Side of the Wind (2016), starring John Huston and Peter Bogdanovich . Though it was completed, the post-production process was not and the film also ran into legal problems. Posthumously inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame in 1988. Frank Sinatra was the godfather of his and Rita Hayworth 's daughter, Rebecca Welles . Host/narrator of the BBC/Mutual Radio's "The Black Museum" (1952). He portrayed the title character on the syndicated radio show "The Lives of Harry Lime" (also known as "The Third Man") (1951-52). This was based on his character from the film The Third Man (1949). Has the distinction of appearing in both the American Film Institute and British Film Institute's #1 movie. For AFI, it was Citizen Kane (1941). For BFI, it was The Third Man (1949). Welles shares this distinction with Joseph Cotten , who also starred in both movies. He was the studio's first choice to play the voice-over role of OMM in THX 1138 (1971). However, director George Lucas insisted on casting the relatively unknown stage actor James Wheaton instead. Has provided voice for some songs by the heavy metal band Manowar: "Dark Avenger" and "Defender". He became obese in his 40s, weighing over 350 pounds towards the end of his life. Was possibly not as tall as is often reported. According to Simon Callow 's "Orson Welles: The Road to Xanadu", medical records exist from a Welles physical in 1941. His weight is listed as 218, and his height at 72" - 6 feet even. Biographers Charles Higham and Frank Brady describe Welles as being 6'2", though they never provide a source. Biographer Barbara Leaming often comments on his height, but never gives an exact measurement. An early Current Biography article on Welles describes him as being "tall and chubby", while a later one gives the obviously incorrect 6'3-1/2" height. If you average all the figures and based on his size compared to other actors, he probably in fact stood a little over 6 feet tall (6'1" to 6'2"). Was voted the Second Greatest Film Director of all time by Entertainment Weekly. Biography in: John Wakeman, editor. "World Film Directors, Volume One, 1890- 1945". Pages 1168-1185. New York: The H.W. Wilson Company, 1987. His 1937 Broadway stage production of William Shakespeare 's "Julius Caesar"--in which the setting was changed to a modern Fascist Rome to reflect the Benito Mussolini era, but in which Shakespeare's language was completely retained--became, and still remains, the longest-running Broadway production of the play. Welles played Brutus. This production was never filmed, but years later Welles' former working partner John Houseman produced a traditional film version of the play for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, starring James Mason as Brutus, Marlon Brando as Marc Antony, and John Gielgud as Cassius. Was suggested as a possible suspect by author Mary Pacios, in the mutilation murder of actress Elizabeth Short , known as "The Black Dahlia" case, in Los Angeles in 1947. Among other reasons, Pacios suggested Welles as a suspect because Welles' artwork for the surreal bizarre funhouse set in The Lady from Shanghai (1947) was similar in many ways to the mutilation and bisection of Elizabeth Short. Harry Cohn , the head of Columbia Pictures--the studio that produced The Lady from Shanghai--ordered the footage cut before release because of its disturbing resemblance to the murder. When he signed on to direct Touch of Evil (1958), instead of reading the book on which it was based--a pulp novel named "Badge of Evil"--Welles completely changed an early draft of the script. Told Peter Bogdanovich that, as a practicing magician, he became adept at the old carny trick of fortune-telling, but he became so good at it that it scared him. He was worried that he would come to believe he actually did have the power to tell the future, like the self-deluded fortune tellers known as a "shut eye". He had wanted to make films of two literary masterpieces, Herman Melville 's "Moby Dick" and Joseph Heller 's "Catch-22", but had to be satisfied in having supporting roles in the films made of the two books by John Huston ( Moby Dick (1956)) and Mike Nichols ( Catch-22 (1970)). Wrote his novel "Mr. Arkadian" during an extended stay with Laurence Olivier and his wife Vivien Leigh . Welles was appearing at Olivier's St. James Theater in London at the time. Laurence Olivier had wanted to cast him as Buckingham in Richard III (1955), his film of William Shakespeare 's play "Richard III", but gave the role to Ralph Richardson , his oldest friend, because Richardson wanted it. In his autobiography, Olivier says he wishes he had disappointed Richardson and cast Welles instead, as he would have brought an extra element to the screen, an intelligence that would have gone well with the plot element of conspiracy. Lobbied to get the role of Don Vito Corleone in The Godfather (1972), even offered to lose a good deal of weight in order to get the role. Francis Ford Coppola , a huge fan of his, had to turn him down because he already had Marlon Brando in mind for the role and felt Welles would not be right for the role. He made The Lady from Shanghai (1947) towards the end of his marriage to Rita Hayworth . They were constantly fighting at the time and (some say as a comeuppance to Hayworth) he made her cut off most of her long, luxurious red hair and dye it bright platinum blonde. Was named #16 on the 50 Greatest Screen Legends list of the American Film Institute. Was the narrator for many of the trailers for Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979). Before deciding on adapting the life of William Randolph Hearst in Citizen Kane (1941), Welles intended his first film to be an adaptation of Joseph Conrad 's "Heart of Darkness". Coincidentally, he was Francis Ford Coppola 's first choice for the role of Colonel Kurtz in Apocalypse Now (1979), itself an adaptation of "Heart of Darkness". His average dinner famously consisted of two steaks cooked rare and a pint of scotch whiskey. This contributed to his obesity in his later life and his eventual death. Ranked #9 in Empire (UK) magazine's "The Greatest directors ever!" [2005]. His father was an alcoholic. Considered black and white to be "the actor's best friend", feeling that it focused more on the actor's expressions and feelings than on hair, eye or wardrobe color. Was very good friends with Peter Bogdanovich , in whose house he lived for several years during Bogdanovich's affair with Cybill Shepherd . Welles even gave Bogdanovich written instructions to finish his last film, The Other Side of the Wind (2016), before his death. Was a passionate painter Most of his movie projects never got finished or released due to financial problems and disputes with studio executives. Some of his unfinished productions are: The Deep (1970) ( Laurence Harvey 's death made a finished movie impossible), The Merchant of Venice (1969) and Don Quixote (1992). Longtime companions with Oja Kodar . They lived together until his death. Has been played by Vincent D'Onofrio twice: Ed Wood (1994) and Five Minutes, Mr. Welles (2005). In the 1930s, he worked at various radio stations in New York City, at different times of the day. He found it difficult to be on time for his live shows because he had to use taxicabs and the heavy New York City traffic meant that he was often late. He soon found a loophole in the law that said you didn't have to be sick to hire an ambulance, so he did just that and had the drivers blast their sirens as he traveled from one station to the next, and that way he was on time. Profiled in in J.A. Aberdeen's "Hollywood Renegades: The Society of Independent Motion Picture Producers" (Palos Verdes Estates, CA: Cobblestone Entertainment). Merv Griffin claimed in his DVD collection "Merv Griffin: Interesting People" that Welles died two hours after giving Merv an interview in which he had said to ask him anything, "for this interview, there are no subjects about which I won't speak". In the past, Welles refused to speak about the past. His performance as Harry Lime in The Third Man (1949) is ranked #93 on Premiere magazine's 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time. His performance as Charles Foster Kane in Citizen Kane (1941) is ranked #12 on Premiere magazine's 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time. Hated working on The Transformers: The Movie (1986), where he voiced Unicron. When asked about the film, he not only could not remember the name of his character, but he described the film as being "I play a big toy who attacks a bunch of smaller toys.". John Ford , whom Welles admired as the greatest American director and who, in turn, admired Welles as a director and actor, wanted to cast him as Mayor Frank Skeffington in his movie adaption of Edwin O'Connor 's novel The Last Hurrah (1958). Welles was unable to accept the role due to scheduling conflicts, and Spencer Tracy was cast instead. Biography in: "The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives". Volume One, 1981-1985, pages 861-864. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1998. CBS wanted him to host The Twilight Zone (1959) but the producers felt that he requested too much money. He was ultimately ruled out in favor of the show's creator, Rod Serling . Was George Lucas ' first choice as the voice for Darth Vader, but he thought the voice would be too recognizable. He was of German, Irish and Scottish heritage. He was made a Fellow of the British Film Institute in recognition of his outstanding contribution to film culture. Was close friends with Bud Cort . He was awarded 2 Stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for Motion Pictures at 1600 Vine Street; and for Radio at 6652 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California. He died only two hours after being interviewed on The Merv Griffin Show (1962) on October 10, 1985. Reportedly, Welles died working with a typewriter in his lap. When execs at RKO could not decide to greenlight Citizen Kane (1941), Welles asked the studio for film equipment and a small crew so he could spend the midway time doing test shots. Not wanting its new import from New York to sour on his deal with RKO, the studio granted the request. Welles proceeded to shoot actual scenes of the movie. By the time execs realized what he had done, Welles had many key scenes completed. RKO greenlit the film, having already--albeit unknowingly--financed the picture. Was friends with Josip Broz Tito , a partisan guerrilla leader who fought the Nazis in World War II Yugoslavia, and who later became president of the country. His last completed work as director was "The Orson Welles Show", a never broadcast television show. He directed two actors to Oscar nominations: Himself (Best Actor, Citizen Kane (1941)), and Agnes Moorehead (Best Supporting Actress, The Magnificent Ambersons (1942)). He and John Huston were good friends from the 1940s to Welles' death in 1985. Both men coincidentally made their spectacular debut as directors in 1941 (Welles with Citizen Kane (1941) and Huston with The Maltese Falcon (1941)). Both would eventually be directed by the other: Welles' had a cameo in Huston's adaptation of Moby Dick (1956) and Huston played the lead in Welles' unfinished The Other Side of the Wind (2016). He remained good friends with Joseph Cotten until the end of his life, despite a working relationship that was often considered demanding of the older Cotten. George, his given name, was in honor of his father's friend, humorist George Ade . Film critics lobbied for him to record an audio commentary for Citizen Kane (1941), but he refused, stating that he was tired of talking about it. Welles was so impressed with Dorothea Durham that he walked on stage where she was performing at the Club Rhumboogie and put $500 in her hand. Durham, who went by the stage name La Garbo, was a popular dancer in the 1930s and 1940s on the West Coast. She also danced at the Cotton Club in Harlem and in Duke Ellington 's "Jump for Joy", and appeared as a dancer in movies such as Cabin in the Sky (1943). Once referred to the audience as "the big, many-headed beast crouching out there in the darkness". Became a father for the first time at age 22 when his first wife Virginia Nicolson gave birth to their daughter Christopher Welles on March 27, 1938. Became a father for the second time at age 25 when his married lover Geraldine Fitzgerald gave birth to their son Michael Lindsay-Hogg on June 5, 1940. Became a father for the third time at age 29 when his second wife Rita Hayworth gave birth to their daughter Rebecca Welles on December 17, 1944. Became a father for the fourth time at age 40 when his third wife Paola Mori gave birth to their daughter Beatrice Welles on November 13, 1955. The Last Picture Show (1971) was filmed in black and white because of Welles' famous remark to Peter Bogdanovich and Polly Platt , when director and crew were uncertain on how to film the locations without using too many colors. Welles, who was on the set, replied: "Of course you'll film it in black and white!" The advice proved to be helpful because the film was praised for (among other qualities) its cinematography, which earned Robert Surtees an Oscar nomination. His full name is George Orson Welles. He was named "George" in honor of writer George Ade , who was a friend of the family. His middle name was in honor of another family friend, a man named Orson Wells (without the "e"). He had three Shakespearean roles in common with Laurence Olivier : (1) Welles played Othello in Othello (1951) while Olivier played him in Othello (1965), (2) Welles played King Lear in Omnibus: King Lear (1953) while Olivier played him in King Lear (1983) and (3) Welles played Shylock in The Merchant of Venice (1969) while Olivier played him in The Merchant of Venice (1973). Laurence Olivier strongly considered casting Welles as the Duke of Buckingham in Richard III (1955) but felt obligated to cast his close friend Ralph Richardson in the role. Olivier came to regret this decision as he believed that Welles would have added an element of conspiracy to the film. Has been played by Steven Lamprinos in Hollywood Mouth 2 (2014). The director of that film, Jordan Mohr , wanted an Orson Welles character in the movie because she is from Venice, California, where Touch of Evil (1958) was filmed. Was the voice of Unicron in the theatrical release of The Transformers: The Movie (1986), but was replaced by Roger C. Carmel (after he died) for the third season of the animated series The Transformers (1984). Along with Laurence Olivier , Woody Allen , Warren Beatty , Kenneth Branagh , Clint Eastwood and Roberto Benigni , he is one of only seven men to receive Academy Award nominations for both Best Actor and Best Director for the same film: Welles for Citizen Kane (1941), Olivier for Hamlet (1948), Allen for Annie Hall (1977), Beatty for both Heaven Can Wait (1978) and Reds (1981), Branagh for Henry V (1989), Eastwood for Unforgiven (1992) and Benigni for Life Is Beautiful (1997). Spoke French fluently. Personal Quotes (73) Even if the good old days never existed, the fact that we can conceive such a world is, in fact, an affirmation of the human spirit. [on pop idol Donny Osmond ] He has Van Gogh's ear for music. I'm not very fond of movies. I don't go to them much. I started at the top and worked down. I'm not bitter about Hollywood's treatment of me, but over its treatment of D.W. Griffith , Josef von Sternberg , Erich von Stroheim , Buster Keaton and a hundred others. Movie directing is the perfect refuge for the mediocre. [on Hollywood in the 1980s] We live in a snake pit here... I hate it but I just don't allow myself to face the fact that I hold it in contempt because it keeps on turning out to be the only place to go. I hate television. I hate it as much as peanuts. But I can't stop eating peanuts. If there hadn't been women we'd still be squatting in a cave eating raw meat, because we made civilization in order to impress our girlfriends. And they tolerated it and let us go ahead and play with our toys. I hate it when people pray on the screen. It's not because I hate praying, but whenever I see an actor fold his hands and look up in the spotlight, I'm lost. There's only one other thing in the movies I hate as much, and that's sex. You just can't get in bed or pray to God and convince me on the screen. [on Citizen Kane (1941) being colorized] Keep Ted Turner and his goddamned Crayolas away from my movie. [At RKO Radio Pictures working on "Heart of Darkness", a film he later abandoned] This is the biggest electric train set any boy ever had! For thirty years, people have been asking me how I reconcile X with Y! The truthful answer is that I don't. Everything about me is a contradiction and so is everything about everybody else. We are made out of oppositions; we live between two poles. There is a philistine and an aesthete in all of us, and a murderer and a saint. You don't reconcile the poles. You just recognize them. My doctor told me to stop having intimate dinners for four. Unless there are three other people. I think I'm... I made essentially a mistake staying in movies, because I... but it... it's the mistake I can't regret because it's like saying, "I shouldn't have stayed married to that woman, but I did because I love her." I would have been more successful if I'd left movies immediately. Stayed in the theater, gone into politics, written--anything. I've wasted the greater part of my life looking for money, and trying to get along... trying to make my work from this terribly expensive paint box which is an... a movie. And I've spent too much energy on things that have nothing to do with a movie. It's about 2% movie making and 98% hustling. It's no way to spend a life. I think it is always a tremendously good formula in any art form to admit the limitations of the form. I don't pray because I don't want to bore God. A film is never really good unless the camera is an eye in the head of a poet. I have the terrible feeling that, because I am wearing a white beard and am sitting in the back of the theater, you expect me to tell you the truth about something. These are the cheap seats, not Mount Sinai. The word "genius" was whispered into my ear, the first thing I ever heard, while I was still mewling in my crib. So it never occurred to me that I wasn't until middle age. I passionately hate the idea of being with it; I think an artist has always to be out of step with his time. I'm not rich. Never have been. When you see me in a bad movie as an actor (I hope not as a director), it is because a good movie has not been offered to me. I often make bad films in order to live. Everybody denies that I am genius - but nobody ever called me one. A good artist should be isolated. If he isn't isolated, something is wrong. Hollywood is the only industry, even taking in soup companies, which does not have laboratories for the purpose of experimentation. I do not suppose I shall be remembered for anything. But I don't think about my work in those terms. It is just as vulgar to work for the sake of posterity as to work for the sake of money. Race hate isn't human nature; race hate is the abandonment of human nature. Living in the lap of luxury isn't bad, except you never know when luxury is going to stand up. I want to give the audience a hint of a scene. No more than that. Give them too much and they won't contribute anything themselves. Give them just a suggestion and you get them working with you. That's what gives the theater meaning: when it becomes a social act. If spiritually you're part of the cat family, you can't bear to be laughed at. You have to pretend when you fall down that you really wanted to be down there to see what's under the sofa. The rest of us don't at all mind being laughed at. [on his favorite directors] I prefer the old masters; by which I mean: John Ford , John Ford and John Ford. [on James Cagney ] No one was more unreal and stylized, yet there is no moment when he was not true. [on René Clair ] A real master: he invented his own Paris, which is better than recording it. [on Federico Fellini ] His films are a small-town boy's dream of a big city. His sophistication works because it is the creation of someone who doesn't have it. But he shows dangerous signs of being a superlative artist with little to say. [on Edward G. Robinson ] An immensely effective actor. The optimists are incapable of understanding what it means to adore the impossible. [on Stanley Kubrick ] Among the young generation, Kubrick strikes me as a giant. [to Dick Cavett ] I'm always sorry to hear that anybody I admire has been an actor... When did you go straight? I don't think history can possibly be true. Possibly! I'll tell you why. We all know people who get things written about, and we know that they're lies written. I told a story to Buck Henry , last year in Weymouth, and he told the story that he thought I told him to a newspaper that I read the other day, and it bears not the *slightest* resemblance to what I said! Now, that's an intelligent man, a year later, meaning me well, and that's the gospel according to Buck Henry, and it's totally apocryphal. Imagine what nonsense everything else is! [on Nostradamus' ability to predict the future] One might as well make predictions based on random passages from the phone book. [on Jean-Luc Godard ] His gifts as a director are enormous. I just can't take him very seriously as a thinker - and that's where we seem to differ, because he does. His message is what he cares about these days, and, like most movie messages, it could be written on the head of a pin. The only good artists are feminine. I don't believe an artist exists whose dominant characteristic is not feminine. It's nothing to do with homosexuality, but intellectually an artist must be a man with feminine aptitudes. I know that in theory the word is secondary in cinema, but the secret of my work is that everything is based on the word. I always begin with the dialogue. And I do not understand how one dares to write action before dialogue. I must begin with what the characters say. I must know what they say before seeing them do what they do. A poet needs a pen, a painter a brush, and a director an army. I liked the cinema better before I began to do it. Now I can't stop myself from hearing the clappers at the beginning of each shot. All the magic is destroyed. I think it's very harmful to see movies for movie makers because you either imitate them or worry about not imitating them and you should do movies innocently and i lost my innocence. Every time i see a picture i lose something i don't gain. I never understand what directors mean when they compliment me and say they've learned from my pictures because i don't believe in learning from other people's pictures. You should learn from your own interior vision and discover innocently as though there had never been D.W. Griffith or [ Sergei M. Eisenstein ] or [ John Ford ] or [ Jean Renoir ] or anybody. [on a lunch encounter with Richard Burton ] Richard Burton had great talent. He's ruined his great gifts. He's become a joke with a celebrity wife. Now he just works for money, does the worst shit. And I wasn't rude. To quote Carl Laemmle , "I gave him an evasive answer. I told him, 'Go fuck yourself'.". I never could stand looking at Bette Davis , so I don't want to see her act, you see. I hate Woody Allen physically, I dislike that kind of man. [ Henry Jaglom ], I've never understood why. Have you met him? Oh, yes. I can hardly bear to talk to him. He has the [ Charles Chaplin ] disease. That particular combination of arrogance and timidity sets my teeth on edge... Like all people with timid personalities, his arrogance is unlimited. Anybody who speaks quietly and shrivels up in company is unbelievably arrogant. He acts shy, but he's not. He's scared. He hates himself, and he loves himself, a very tense situation. It's people like me who have to carry on and pretend to be modest. To me, it's the most embarrassing thing in the world-a man who presents himself at his worst to get laughs, in order to free himself from his hang-ups. Everything he does on the screen is therapeutic. After [ Irving Thalberg ] died, Norma Shearer --one of the most minimally ­talented ladies ever to appear on the ­silver screen and who looked like ­nothing, with one eye crossed over the other--went right on being the queen of Hollywood. Everybody used to say, "Mrs. Thalberg is coming", "Miss Shearer is arriving", as though they were talking about Sarah Bernhardt . In his time, Samuel Goldwyn was considered a classy producer because he never deliberately did anything that wasn't his idea of the best-quality goods. I respected him for that. He was an honest merchant. He may have made a bad picture, but he didn't know it was a bad picture. And he was funny. He actually once said to me, in that high voice of his, "Orson, for you I'd write a blanket check." He said, "With Warner Brothers, a verbal commitment isn't worth the paper it's written on.". [ Louis B. Mayer ] offered me his studio! He was madly in love with me, because I wouldn't have anything to do with him, you know? Twice he brought me over--spent all day wooing me. He called me "Orse". Whenever he sent for me, he burst into tears, and once he fainted. To get his way. It was fake, ­absolutely fake. The deal was, I'd have the studio, but I'd have to stop acting, directing and writing--making pictures. But Mayer was self-righteous, smarmy, waving the American flag, doing deals with The Purple Gang [a violent gang of hijackers and killers] in Detroit... before the unions, it was all Mafia. But no one called it the Mafia. Just said "the mob". [on Meyer Lansky ] He was probably the #1 gangster in America. I knew them all. You had to. If you lived, as I did, on Broadway during that period, if you lived in nightclubs, you could not not know them. I liked screwing the chorus girls, and I liked meeting all the different people who would come in, and I liked staying up until five in the morning, and they used to love to go to nightclubs. They would come and sit at your table... [asked how Lee Strasberg did with the Hyman Roth character, who was supposed to be Lansky, in The Godfather: Part II (1974)] Much better than the real thing. Meyer Lansky was a boring man. Hyman Roth is who he should have been! They all should have been like that, and none of them were. "The Godfather" was the glorification of a bunch of bums who never existed. The best of them were the kind of people you'd expect to drive a beer truck. They had no class. The classy gangster is a Hollywood invention. [ Irving Thalberg ] was the biggest single villain in the history of Hollywood. Before him, a producer made the least contribution, by necessity. The producer didn't direct, he didn't act, he didn't write--so, therefore, all he could do was either (a) mess it up, which he didn't do very often, or (b) tenderly caress it. Support it. Producers would only go to the set to see that you were on budget, and that you didn't burn down the scenery... Once you got the educated producer, he has a desk, he's gotta have a function, he's gotta do something. He's not running the studio and counting the money--he's gotta be creative. That was Thalberg. The director became the fellow whose only job was to say, "Action!" and "Cut!". Suddenly you were "just a director" on a "Thalberg production". A role had been created in the world. Just as there used to be no conductor of symphonies... He convinced [ Louis B. Mayer ] that without him, his movies wouldn't have any class. Remember that quote Mayer gave? All the other moguls were "dirty kikes making nickelodeon movies". He used to say that to me all the time. [on rumors that he, and not Robert Stevenson , directed Jane Eyre (1943)] I invented some of the shots--that's part of being that kind of producer. And I collaborated on it, but I didn't come around behind the camera and direct it. Certainly, I did a lot more than a producer ought to, but Stevenson didn't mind that. And I don't want to take credit away from him, all of which he deserves... In fact, we got along very well, and there was no trouble. [on Anthony Asquith ] One of the nicest, most intelligent people who was ever in films... and my God, he was polite. I saw him, all alone on the stage once, trip on an electric cable, turn around, and say, "I beg your pardon" to it. [on television] We live in a world of happy endings with audiences who make every show, no matter how doomed it is and ready to be canceled, sound like a smash hit. And if not, they have a little black box full of laughter, and they add that to the jokes. And you know that most of the people laughing on that box died long ago. I have all the equipment to be a politician. Total shamelessness. [on Gary Cooper ] You'd see him working on the set and you'd think, "My God, they're going to have to retake that one!". He almost didn't seem to BE there. And then you'd see the rushes, and he'd fill the screen. We're born alone, we live alone, we die alone. Only through our love and friendship can we create the illusion for the moment that we're not alone. Hollywood died on me as soon as I got there. I wish to God I'd gone there sooner. It was the rise of the independents that was my ruin as a director. [on shooting Macbeth (1948)] Our best crowd scene was a shot where all the massed forces of Macduff's army are charging the castle. There was a very vivid sense of urgency to it, because what was happening, really, was that we'd just called noon break, and all those extras were rushing off to lunch. [on making I tartari (1961)] Victor Mature and I had an extended sword fight, on which I worked day after day. And in no shots--full, long, medium--at any moment is Victor Mature EVER involved! Not even to hold the sword and look menacing... He said, "Oh, I don't want to do any of that stuff.". [on the many documentary films he had narrated] I never saw the movies. That's always been a condition of mine in narrating a film--that I don't have to see any footage. Otherwise, I won't accept the job. [on Luis Buñuel ] He's a deeply Christian man who hates God as only a Christian can and, of course, he's very Spanish. [on working with Charlton Heston ] All you have to do is point and Chuck can go in any direction. He's spent a lot of years being a movie star. [asked about the rumor that he directed part of Compulsion (1959), credited to Richard Fleischer ] Dick Fleischer is a director who doesn't need and wouldn't welcome any help from me. [on his friend William Faulkner ] I never saw him anything but wildly drunk through the years. He must have been sober to produce that great body of work. [on finding work to Hollywood in the late 1950s after spending several years in Europe] I went a year without almost nothing, just sitting at home waiting for the phone to ring. And then I got a couple of jobs. The Long, Hot Summer (1958), which I hated making--I've seldom been as unhappy in a picture. [on his famous "cuckoo clock" speech in The Third Man (1949) ("In Italy for 30 years under the Borgias they had warfare, terror, murder and bloodshed, but they produced Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and the Renaissance. In Switzerland, they had brotherly love--they had 500 years of democracy and peace, and what did that produce? The cuckoo clock.] When the picture came out, the Swiss very nicely pointed out that they've never made any cuckoo clocks--they all come from the Schwarzwald [Black Forest] in Bavaria. [on director W.S. Van Dyke , aka "Woody"] Woody made some very good comedies. And what a system he had!... His retakes sometimes took longer than his original shooting schedule... He'd shoot a "Thin Man" or something like that in about 20 days. Then he'd preview it and come back to the studio for 30 days of retakes. For comedy, when you're worried about the laughs, that makes a lot of sense. [on why he hired Fortunio Bonanova for Citizen Kane (1941)] I saw him as the leading man with Katharine Cornell in "The Green Hat" when I was about eight years old. I never forgot him. He looked to me like a leading man in a dirty movie. Sent for him the minute I wrote that part. He was a great romantic leading man. When he was prompting her [ Dorothy Comingore ] in the opera, he was so marvelous. God, he was funny. [on Tim Holt , with whom he worked in The Magnificent Ambersons (1942)] One of the most interesting actors that's ever been in American movies, and he decided to be just a cowboy actor. Made two or three important pictures in his career, but was very careful not to follow them up--went straight back to bread-and-butter Westerns... he was the most marvelous fellow to work with you can imagine. You know, I always loved Hollywood. It was just never reciprocated. Salary (17)

twenty five

In 1996 who did The Spice Girls say was their Girl Power role model?

How old was Orson Welles in Citizen Kane? - Do You Know at CinemaSpot.com Search CinemaSpot or Google |   Great Must-See sites   |   Read Articles and Lists | Find answers | Did you know?   How old was Orson Welles in Citizen Kane? Orson Welles was only 25 years old when he made his cinematic debut in the 1941 film, which is widely considered the best film ever made.

i don't know

Which South African President repealed key parts of apartheid law in 1991?

Apartheid | Article about apartheid by The Free Dictionary Apartheid | Article about apartheid by The Free Dictionary http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/apartheid Related to apartheid: Nelson Mandela apartheid (əpärt`hīt) [Afrik.,=apartness], system of racial segregation peculiar to the Republic of South Africa, the legal basis of which was largely repealed in 1991–92. History Racial segregation and the supremacy of whites had been traditionally accepted in South Africa prior to 1948, but in the general election of that year, Daniel F. Malan Malan, Daniel François , 1874–1959, South African political leader. A minister of the Dutch Reformed Church, he left the pulpit after the outbreak of World War I to become editor of an Afrikaner nationalist paper. ..... Click the link for more information.  officially included the policy of apartheid in the Afrikaner Nationalist party platform, bringing his party to power for the first time. Although most whites acquiesced in the policy, there was bitter and sometimes bloody strife over the degree and stringency of its implementation. The purpose of apartheid was separation of the races: not only of whites from nonwhites, but also of nonwhites from each other, and, among the Africans (called Bantu in South Africa), of one group from another. In addition to the Africans, who constitute about 75% of the total population, those regarded as nonwhite include those people known in the country as Coloured (people of mixed black, Malayan, and white descent) and Asian (mainly of Indian ancestry) populations. Initial emphasis was on restoring the separation of races within the urban areas. A large segment of the Asian and Coloured populations was forced to relocate out of so-called white areas. African townships that had been overtaken by (white) urban sprawl were demolished and their occupants removed to new townships well beyond city limits. Between the passage of the Group Areas Acts of 1950 and 1986, about 1.5 million Africans were forcibly removed from cities to rural reservations. Separate Development Policy Under the prime ministership of Hendrik Verwoerd Verwoerd, Hendrik Frensch , 1901–66, South African political leader, b. Holland. He was taken as an infant to South Africa when his parents emigrated as missionaries. He graduated from Stellenbosch Univ. ..... Click the link for more information.  apartheid developed into a policy known as "separate development," whereby each of the nine African (Bantu) groups was to become a nation with its own homeland, or bantustan. An area totaling about 14% of the country's land was set aside for these homelands, the remainder, including the major mineral areas and the cities, being reserved for the whites. The basic tenet of the separate development policy was to reserve within the confines of the African's designated homeland rights and freedoms, but that outside it blacks were to be treated as aliens. Movement to and between other parts of the country was strictly regulated, the location of residence or employment (if permitted to work) was restricted, and blacks were not allowed to vote or own land. Thus African urban workers, including those who were third- or fourth-generation city dwellers, were seen as transients, their real homes in rural reservations from which they or their ancestors migrated. Only those holding the necessary labor permits, granted according to the labor market, were allowed to reside within urban areas. Such permits often did not include the spouse or family of a permit holder, contributing to the breakup of family life among many Africans. Most African urban dwellers had to live in townships on a city's perimeter. All Africans living outside the bantustans were subject to strict curfew regulations and passbook requirements, especially in the cities; if unable to produce these when challenged, they were subject to arrest. The police were granted sweeping powers of preventive detention in 1962, initially for 30 days, later for indefinite periods. The Bantustans In 1962 the South African government established the first of the bantustans, the Transkei, as the homeland of the Xhosa people, and granted it limited self-government in 1963, later becoming "independent." Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, and Venda were also granted "independence," but no nation other than South Africa recognized them. Lebowa, Kangwane, Gazankulu, Qwaqwa, KwaZulu, and KwaNdebele were declared "self-governing" in the 1970s. None of the reserves were viable nations; they were made up of broken tracts of poor-quality land, riddled with erosion and incapable of supporting their large designated populations. With no industry, opportunities for employment were few. Urban wage earners attempted to contribute to the support of their families in the reserves, but the level of black wages was so low that this was barely feasible. In 1994 the bantustans were abolished and the territories were reabsorbed into the nation of South Africa. Opposition and Repeal Despite public demonstrations, UN resolutions, and opposition from international religious societies, apartheid was applied with increased rigor in the 1960s. In 1961 South Africa withdrew from the Commonwealth of Nations rather than yield to pressure over its racial policies, and in the same year the three South African denominations of the Dutch Reformed Church left the World Council of Churches rather than abandon apartheid. Although the policy of apartheid was continued under Prime Minister John Vorster Vorster, Balthazar Johannes , 1915–83, South African political leader. A lawyer, John Vorster became involved in the Afrikaner nationalist movement and helped found a militant anti-British organization. ..... Click the link for more information. , there was some relaxation of its pettier aspects, and this accelerated under his successor, P. W. Botha Botha, Pieter Willem , 1916–2006, South African political leader. An Afrikaner and a member of the right-wing National party, he first entered parliament in 1948. Botha gained prominence as minister of defense (1966–80) and became prime minister in 1978. ..... Click the link for more information. . Probably the most forceful pressures, both internal and external, eroding the barriers of apartheid were economic. International sanctions severely affected the South African economy, raising the cost of necessities, cutting investment, even forcing many American corporations to disinvest, for example, or, under the Sullivan Rules, to employ without discrimination. In addition, the severe shortage of skilled labor led to lifting limits on African wages, and granting Africans the right to strike and organize unions. Unions, churches, and students organized protests throughout the 1970s and 80s. Moreover, political, economic, and military pressures were exerted by the independent countries of sub-Saharan Africa. As a result of these pressures, many lesser apartheid laws—such as those banning interracial marriage and segregating facilities—were repealed or fell into disuse by 1990. In 1991 President de Klerk de Klerk, F. W. (Frederik Willem de Klerk) , 1936–, South African statesman, president of South Africa (1989–94). Holding ministerial posts from 1978, he became (1989) acting president when P. W. Botha resigned. ..... Click the link for more information.  obtained the repeal of the remaining apartheid laws and called for the drafting of a new constitution. In 1993 a multiracial, multiparty transitional government was approved, and fully free elections were held in 1994, which gave majority representation to the African National Congress. Bibliography See R. Sutter, The Freedom Charter (1984); R. Ormond, The Apartheid Handbook (rev. ed. 1986); M. Uhlig, Apartheid in Crisis (1986); M. Merideth, In the Name of Apartheid (1988); S. Mallaby, After Apartheid (1992). apartheid a system of racial separation that existed in the Republic of South Africa. A separation of the population into ‘whites’, ‘blacks’, and ‘coloured’ or ‘mixed racial’ groups was defined by law, and this separation was reflected in restrictions on residence, intermarriage, areas of employment and the use of public facilities such as schools, hospitals, parks and beaches. A refusal to replace or significantly reform apartheid resulted in the Republic of South Africa becoming a pariah nation-state in the world community, and the imposition of economic and political sanctions against her, particularly the severing of sporting connections. Apartheid   principle of racial segregation in the Republic of South Africa. It is the basis of the harshest possible policy of racial discrimination with respect to the Bantu African peoples and other ethnic groups of non-European or mixed origin. Apartheid became official state policy in 1948. Special reservations (renamed Bantustans in 1959) comprising only 12 percent of the country’s territory were set aside for the Africans. Non-Europeans were deprived of all rights. Violations of apartheid were subject to criminal prosecution. The policy of apartheid has aroused protests in all countries of the world; on a number of occasions it has been censured in decisions and resolutions of sessions of the General Assembly of the UN. REFERENCES

F. W. de Klerk

I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Out of My Hair came from which show?

1991 - The O'Malley Archives 1991 Record of Understanding 26 September 1992 1993 About this site This resource is hosted by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory , but was compiled and authored by Padraig O’Malley. It is the product of almost two decades of research and includes analyses, chronologies, historical documents, and interviews from the apartheid and post-apartheid eras. Transition (1990 - 1994)  -  Chronologies 1991 At the conference of the ANC Nelson Mandela is elected President. Oliver Tambo, who served as President from 1969 to 1991 was elected National Chairperson Industrial Relations Act No 27: Prohibited worker bodies from registering with unions based outside the homeland, and unions from contributing or to receiving money from any organisation banned under the 1979 Internal Security Act or any other security law. KwaNdebele: Labour Relations Act No 19: Commenced: 10 January 1992 Patricia De Lille leads PAC delegation at CODESA. Sonia Bunting returns from exile and continues political work. Winnie Mandela elected to ANC's National Executive Committee and President of ANC Women's League. Gill Marcus elected to ANC National Executive Committee.Leading up to 1994 elections, she trains ANC media workers and voter educators and accompanies Nelson Mandela on his election campaign. January 1991 205 white government schools admit black children for the first time (RRS 1991/2: xxxiii). 1 January 1991 Cross Border Arrest, Decree No 12: Provided mechanisms for cross-border raids. Commenced: 1 January 1991 8 January 1991 political emancipation, and demands an interim government and constituent assembly. Calls on the government to implement agreements entered into in terms of the Groote Schuur and Pretoria Minutes. 9 January 1991 As the new school year began in South Africa, black children were admitted to 205 schools previously reserved for whites only (out of 2000 such public schools) where parents had voted in favour of racial integration. 28 January 1991 The ANC announced that it had given President de Klerk a list of police officers believed to have participated in township violence, and whose removal it demanded. 29 January 1991 Nelson Mandela and Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi of the Inkatha Freedom Party, meet in Durban and issue a statement on a joint peace strategy. Signs the Southern African Convention with Regard to Energy and Energy-Related Matters. 29 January 1991 A summit meeting was held in Durban between the ANC and the Inkatha Freedom Party. The meeting was addressed by Zulu Chief Mangosuthu Gatsha Buthelezi and ANC Deputy President Nelson Mandela. In a joint statement, both parties expressed their commitment to political tolerance and called on the security forces to play an effective peace-keeping role. 1 February 1991 President F.W. de Klerk announces during the opening of Parliament, that the Land Act, the Group Areas Act and the Registration of Population Act is to be scrapped. He also unveils a manifesto for a New South Africa. 1 February 1991 In a speech given at the opening of the parliamentary session in Cape Town, South African President Frederik Willem de Klerk announced that legislation would be tabled shortly for the repeal of the Land Acts of 1913 and 1936, the Group Are s Act of 1966 and the Development of Black Communities Act of 1984, as well as the Population Registration Act of 1950. The repeal of the latter would be accompanied by the adoption of temporary transitional measures. President de Klerk also declared his opposition to the idea of a constituent assembly and to that of an interim government. 12 February 1991 According to the D.F. Malan Accord, signed between the South African government and the ANC, the government reaffirms the right to peaceful protest and that ANC guerrillas will not be harassed. 12 February 1991 Following a 12-hour meeting in Cape Town between President de Klerk and ANC Deputy-President Nelson Mandela, they announced that they had resolved differences on the interpretation of the Pretoria Minute. Under the new agreement, the authorities undertook to expedite the return of exiles and the release of political prisoners while the ANC assented to end the recruitment and training of cadres for its armed branch - Umkhonto we Sizwe. 16 February 1991 The Committee of Commonwealth Foreign Ministers, meeting in London, issues a statement to the effect that sanctions against South Africa will remain until the South African government's promise to repeal the Group Areas Act, the Land Acts and Population Registration Act is put into concrete action. 27 February 1991 The ANC published a statement condemning the lifting of the moratorium on death sentences by the South African authorities. The suspension of all executions had been part of the measures announced by President de Klerk on 2 February 1990 and had also been mentioned in the Pretoria Minute. March 1991 The first group of political exiles return to South Africa and the government releases forty (mainly ANC) political prisoners. Amongst these, is Piet 'Skiet' Rudolph, a prominent Right Winger facing charges of planting bombs and theft of arms and ammunition. 2 March - 3 March 1991 It is announced at a Convention that the United Democratic Front is to end its activities and will formally disband on the 20th August. 3 March 1991 The SACP is formally launched in Natal at a rally held at Currie's Fountain Stadium in Durban. 4 March 1991 The United Democratic Front (UDF) announced that it would cease its activities immediately an formally dissolve next August. 12 March 1991 A White Paper on Land Reform is tabled to repeal the Group Areas and Land Acts. 21 March 1991 Foreign Minister Roelf Botha announced that South Africa had agreed that the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) would assist with the process of the return to South Africa of political exiles. 21 March 1991 Foreign Minister Roelof Botha announced that South Africa had agreed that the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) would assist with the process of the return to South Africa of political exiles. Substantive issues concerning the modalities of the repatriation process are yet to be agreed on. 22 March 1991 Signs an agreement with the Republic of Namibia to curb and prevent illegal fishing. 22 March 1991 Authorities granted indemnity from prosecution to 2,605 anti-apartheid activists and members of far right groups. The indemnity included 1,819 members of Umkhonto we Sizwe. 28 March 1991 Internal Security Amendment Act No 5: Continued to bar registered political parties other than the ruling party from holding meetings without official permission. Commenced: 28 March 1991 April 1991 The Inkatha Freedom Party and the ANC adopt a five-year plan to end violence between their supporters. President de Klerk rejects ANC's ultimatum that it will abandon constitutional talks unless it dismisses the Minster of Defence, General Magnus Malan and the Minister of Police, Adriaan Vlok, and -that those and other demands be met by 9th May. President F.W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela visit the United Kingdom in quick succession. 8 April 1991 The government appoints a new Minister of Trade, Industry and Tourism, Dr George Marais, a new Minister of Transport Peter J. Welgemoed, David de Villiers Graaf as Deputy Minister of Trade, Industry and Tourism, and AT. Meyer as Deputy Minister of Agriculture. 15 April - 16 April 1991 The ANC and the PAC hold a joint conference in Harare, brokered by President Robert Mugabe. 19 April 1991 South Africa:Signs agreement concerning the exchange of representatives and their privileges and immunities with the Democratic Republic of Madagascar. May 1991 The ANC boycotts a government-sponsored conference to end violence, accusing the government of fomenting it. European Community decided to remove ban on importation of Krugerrands. 2 May 1991 In response to the ANC ultimatum to suspend negotiations if its demands are not met by 9th May, President de Klerk during his budget vote in 30 Parliament, offers to include black South African opposition groups in his cabinet and amend tough security laws. 2 May 1991 President Frederik Willem de Klerk announced plans to revise some provisions of the Internal Security Act of 1982. He also offered to include Black opposition leaders in his Cabinet and announced a 10-point plan to combat violence. In response to Pretoria's failure to meet the 30 April deadline, 364 political prisoners throughout South Africa started an indefinite hunger strike. The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) lifted South Africa's suspension from international ice hockey. 8 May 1991 The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) asked Pretoria to clarify its position on amnesty, as well as on any other obstacles that could prevent the repatriation process of refugees and political exiles. 8 May 1991 The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) asked Pretoria to clarify its position on amnesty, as well as on any other obstacles that could prevent the repatriation process of refugees and political exiles. President de Klerk announced an immediate ban on "cultural weapons" "excluding at this stage spears" in townships declared as "unrest areas". He also said Pretoria would upgrade the workers' hostels and convert some of them into family accommodations. 9 May 1991 A broad consensus is reached between the government and the ANC to end black violence in townships a day before the ANC's 9th May ultimatum to suspend negotiations unless its demands are met. 12 May 1991 Inkatha supporters rampage through a squatter camp in the Kagiso Township in the West Rand, killing at least twenty-two people. 12 May 1991 The Second International Symposium on Cultural and Academic Links with South Africa, organised by the Special Committee against Apartheid took place in Los Angeles. The Symposium reaffirmed the need for the cultural boycott together with "appropriate assistance to the anti-apartheid structures and to the disadvantaged sectors of the society". Academic and cultural activities having the intent and effect of opposing apartheid should be encouraged. 12 May 1991 The Second International Symposium on Cultural and Academic Links with South Africa, organised by the United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid took place in Los Angeles. The Symposium reaffirmed the need for the cultural boycott together with "appropriate assistance to the anti-apartheid structures and to the disadvantaged sectors of the society". Academic and cultural activities having the intent and effect of opposing apartheid should be encouraged. Winnie Mandela was found guilty and convicted on charges of kidnapping and acting as an accessory "after the fact" to the assault of four black youths in 1988. She received a six-year prison sentence, but was released on bail after her lawyers filed an appeal. 14 May 1991 Winnie Mandela sentenced to six years imprisonment on charges of kidnapping and being accessory to assault of four township youths at her Soweto home in December 1988. Signs loan agreement with the Transkei relating to financial and technical assistance for the construction of five police stations. 23 May 1991 The ruling National Party loses the Ladybrand by-election to the Conservative Party. 23 May 1991 President de Klerk said that 21 coloured representatives had joined the ruling National Party. 29 May 1991 Black Communities Development Amendment Act No 77: Amended the 1984 Black Communities Amendment Act to further regulate the granting and transfer of leasehold and the conversion of leasehold into ownership. Commenced: 29 May 1991 Repealed by s 72 of the Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act No 108 of 1991. June 1991 The quota system for universities repealed (RRS 1991/92: 184). 5 June 1991 The South African Parliament adopted the Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Bill, which will repeal the Group Areas Act No. 36 of 1966, the Black Land Act No. 27 of 1913, the Development Trust and Land Act No. 18 of 1936 and the Black Communities Development Act No. 4 of 1984, with effect on 30 June 1991. A provision in the new Bill would, however, allow neighbourhood committees to set "norms and standards", such as population density, maintenance and cleanliness, in their residential communities. OAU summit decision to continue sanctions, and to review them. 7 June 1991 The Special Committee against Apartheid issued an interim report on developments in South Africa covering the first half of 1991. Noting the "limited progress achieved in removing the obstacles to negotiations" and the pervasive violence affecting the country, the report said that "the prospects for a speedy end to apartheid and the establishment of a united, non-racial and democratic South Africa appeared to be less promising now than a year ago. 7 June 1991 The United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid issued an interim report on developments in South Africa covering the first half of 1991. Noting the "limited progress achieved in removing the obstacles to negotiations" and the pervasive violence affecting the country, the report said that "the prospects for a speedy end to apartheid and the establishment of a united, non-racial and democratic South Africa appeared to be less promising now than a year ago. 8 June 1991 President F.W. de Klerk pays a two day visit to Kenya. 9 June 1991 President de Klerk visits Kenya. 10 June 1991 Speaking before journalists, a retired army major, Mr. Nico Basson, said that the South African military had supplied weapons (such as AK-47 assault rifles) and covert assistance to IFP in order to weaken ANC. He also disclosed that the South African military had previously carried out similar activities in Namibia to discredit the South West Africa People's Organisation. IFP leader Chief Mangosuthu Gatsha Buthelezi denied these allegations. 11 June 1991 Australian Foreign Minister arrived in SA for a week's visit. 15 June 1991 The Association of West European Parliamentarians for Action against Apartheid, with the support of the UN Special Committee against Apartheid, organised an international conference in Prague (Czechoslovakia). The conference focused on "Eastern Europe and Southern Africa: Supporting Democracy and Development". 15 June 1991 The Association of West European Parliamentarians for Action against Apartheid, with the support of the United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid, organised an international conference in Prague (Czechoslovakia). The conference focused on "Eastern Europe and Southern Africa: Supporting Democracy and Development". 17 June 1991 The Population Registration Act is repealed. 17 June 1991 The South African Parliament voted to repeal the Population Registration Act, No. 30 of 1950. The population register will, however, be maintained until a new constitution is negotiated. 19 June 1991 Norway announced it plans to open an embassy in Pretoria later this year. 20 June 1991 Kenya ended ban on sports links with SA. 21 June 1991 The Internal Security Act is amended to remove certain police powers allowing detention without trial. 21 June 1991 The South African Parliament voted to amend the Internal Security Act No. 74 of 1982. Police will in the future need the permission of a Supreme Court judge to hold a suspect for longer than ten days and detainees have the right to legal counsel. The amendments also rule out the placement of political opponents under house arrest and the ban on dissident organisations and newspapers. The promotion of communism is now allowed, for the first time since 1950. 22 June 1991 A church-sponsored peace conference for the first time included the authorities, ANC, IFP, PAC and the Azanian People's Organisation Representatives of the South African Communist Party, other parliamentary parties and trade unions also attended. A "preparatory committee" was formed which included working groups that would study the possibility of adopting codes of conduct for political organisations and the security forces as well as mechanisms for enforcing a peace agreement, and the reconstruction of areas affected by violence. 23 June - 24 June 1991 A peace summit brokered by the clergy and business and attended by all major political parties, but boycotted by the Conservative Party, is held to end the violence. 25 June - 27 June 1991 International Conference on the Educational Needs of the Victims of Apartheid in South Africa, UNESCO House, Paris, organised by the Special Committee against Apartheid and UNESCO, in cooperation with the Advisory Committee of the United Nations Educational and Training Programme for Southern Africa. Participants included South African experts on education, representatives of donor countries, non- governmental organisations, specialised agencies and the national liberation movements. The Paris Statement adopted by the Conference called on Pretoria to address urgently the education crisis in South Africa by taking appropriate political, legal, financial and other measures. It also called on the international community to assist towards that end. 25 June 1991 Six persons were killed and 18 injured when gunmen opened fire on a crowded commuter train in Soweto. 27 June 1991 Foreign Minister Roloef Botha announced that Pretoria had agreed to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and to submit its nuclear facilities to inspection by the International Atomic Emergency Agency. 28 June 1991 South Africa decides to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. 28 June 1991 Population Registration Act Repeal Act No 114: Repealed the 1950 Population Registration Act. The population register as compiled by the 1986 Identification Act was to remain in effect until the 1983 Republic of South Africa Constitution Act was repealed. Commenced: 28 June 1991 IN FORCE: CENSUS AND STATISTICS. 30 June 1991 Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act No 108: Provided for the repeal of the 1913 Black Land Act, the 1936 Development Trust and Land Act, the 1966 Group Areas Act and the 1984 Black Communities Development Act. 'A total of 189 sections and acts that had supported racial discrimination in respect of land legislation regarding rural areas under the administration of the House of Representatives and the non-independent homelands were also repealed by the Act' (RRS 1991/1992: 385; see also 339-42). The promulgation of this Act 'did not affect the legal status of the non-independent homelands, their geographical definitions or their administrative structures' (RRS 1991/92: 385). Promulgated: 28 June 1991 Commenced: 30 June 1991, except s 72: 1 September 1991, s 23: 1 April 1992, ss 4(1), 14(1), 17(1), 18(1), 19(1), 27(1), 35(1), 41(1), 43(1), 46(1): to be proclaimed IN FORCE: LAND (as amended by the Housing Amendment Act No 6 of 1996: HOUSING) 1 July 1991 African National Congress (ANC) spokesman Saki Macozoma described as "pure propaganda", the announcement by President Frederik Willem de Klerk that all political prisoners had been released. Finland lifted trade sanctions against SA. Egypt Air made its first scheduled direct flight from Cairo to Johannesburg. 2 July 1991 The ANC holds its first National Conference in Durban after a break of more than thirty years. Cyril Ramaphosa is appointed its Secretary General. Nelson Mandela is elected President, and Walter Sisulu, deputy President of the organization. 2 July - 6 July 1991 ANC National Conference in Durban. 3 July 1991 Foreign Ministers of Kenya and SA meet in Pretoria. 5 July 1991 The National Conference of ANC elected Nelson Mandela as its new President and Walter Sisulu as its Deputy President, while Oliver Tambo became National Chairman, Cyril Ramaphosa Secretary General and Jacob Zuma Deputy Secretary General. Thomas Nkobi retained his post as Treasurer General. 8 July 1991 South Africa:Signs memorandum of understanding with Great Britain concerning drug trafficking. 8 July 1991 South Africa signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, thus permitting the inspection of all its nuclear facilities. Douglas Hurd, UK Foreign Secretary, on 3-day visit to SA, met de Klerk, Mandela and PAC President Clarence Makwetu. 9 July 1991 The International Olympic Committee recognised the Interim National Olympic Committee of South Africa, thus paving the way for that country's participation in the next Olympic Games. The South African Council on Sports, as well as PAC, condemned this move as premature. The International Olympic Committee readmitted South Africa as a full member. (21 years after exclusion) 10 July 1991 The United States lifts certain sanctions against South Africa. 10 July 1991 South Africa signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, thus permitting the inspection of all its nuclear facilities by the International Atomic Energy Agency. United States President George Bush signed an executive order terminating the sanctions against South Africa based on the determination that the South African authorities had met all five conditions set forth in the US Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986. However, local and state sanctions remained, as well as the ban on arms and on support for International Monetary Fund loans to South Africa. President Bush also announced that assistance to black South Africans would be doubled from its current level of $40 million. The Special Committee against Apartheid, ANC, PAC and the Organisation of African Unity, as well as various United States organisations criticised the lifting of sanctions as premature. 10 July 1991 United States President George Bush signed an executive order terminating the sanctions against South Africa based on the determination that the South African authorities had met all five of the conditions set forth in the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act (CAA) of 1986. However, local and state sanctions will remain as well as the ban on arms and on support for International Monetary Fund loans to South Africa. President Bush also announced that assistance to black South Africans would be doubled from its present level of $40 million. The Special Committee against Apartheid, ANC, PAC and the Organisation of African Unity as well as various United States organisations criticised the lifting of sanctions as premature. The International Cricket Council agreed to grant full membership to the United Cricket Board of South Africa, which should allow South African players to participate in Test matches by the end of 1991. 12 July 1991 Switzerland announced lifting of a directive, in force since 1974, which limited export of capital to SA. 14 July 1991 Israel announced lifting of sanctions imposed in 1987; ban on new military contracts would remain. 15 July 1991 Chamber of Commerce and Industry of USSR and South African Chamber of Mines signed agreement to promote exchange of information on mining development. 19 July 1991 In a report published in the New Nation, a former South African army sergeant., Mr. Felix Ndimene, alleged that members of the Five Reconnaissance Regiment, which is part of South Africa's special forces, carried out an attack on a Soweto-bound train in September 1990. Twenty six persons died in that attack. Danish Parliament rejected a government proposal to lift sanctions against SA. (Denmark's stand prevents European Community from lifting ban on trade with SA in iron, steel and gold coins). 21 July 1991 The government admits to providing a slush fund to Inkatha and its associated trade union, the United Workers Union of South Africa (UWUSA). 22 July 1991 Following an emergency meeting of its National Working Committee, ANC called, among other things, for the dismissal of Law and Order Minister Adriaan Vlok and Defence Minister Magnus Malan, the establishment of a multi-party commission of inquiry into the authorities' involvement in the violence and the secret funding of political activity, as well as the public dismantling of all special counter-insurgency forces. 23 July 1991 The Inkatha gate scandal claims its first victim, when M.Z. Khumalo, personal assistant to Chief Buthelezi, resigns after admitting that he acted as a middle man who organized covert funds paid by the Security Police for two Inkatha rallies. 24 July 1991 Protocol on the establishment of diplomatic relations with Hungary. 24 July 1991 Hungary and SA agreed to upgrade their relations to ambassadorial level. 25 July 1991 Representatives of the South African authorities, business and religious leaders, as well as ANC and IFP, met in Johannesburg to continue their talks aimed at ending the violence. 29 July 1991 President de Klerk announced that Mr. Magnus Malan would lose his Defence portfolio to Mr. Roelf Meyer and become Minister for Water Affairs and Forestry (and Minister for Housing and Works in the House of Assembly), and that Mr. Adriaan Vlok, replaced by Mr. Hernus Kriel as Law and Order Minister, would become Minister for Correctional Services and of the Budget for the House of Assembly. The assignment of Magnus Malan, Minister of Defence, and Adrian Vlok, Minister of Law and Order, to other portfolios followed scandals about secret grants to Inkatha and its trade unions. 30 July 1991 In a major cabinet reshuffle, Law and Order Minister, Adriaan Vlok and Defence Minister General Magnus MaIm, are demoted to ministries of Correctional Services and Water Affairs & Forestry, respectively. 30 July 1991 Addressing a nationally televised press conference, President de Klerk announced that all special projects which could be considered to constitute support for political parties had been cancelled, that legislation pertaining to secret funds would be reviewed and that he would appoint a small advisory committee from the private sector to advise him on existing secret special projects. 31 July 1991 Internal Security and Intimidation Amendment Act No 138: Abolished indefinite detention without trial and limited detention without trial to ten days. Abolished s 55, which had prohibited the furthering of the aims of communism (RRS 1991/92: 466). Repealed: Ø     the 1950 Internal Security Act (parts not repealed earlier); Ø     the General Law Further Amendment Act No 93 of 1963 (s 22); Ø     section 23 of the 1966 General Law Amendment Act; Ø     the 1967 Terrorism Act (parts not repealed earlier); Ø     sections 13-14 of the 1976 Internal Security Amendment Act; Ø     the 1986 Internal Security Amendment Act in its entirety. Commenced: 31 July 1991 IN FORCE: CRIMINAL LAW AND PROCEDURE. August 1991 The National Party outlines its constitutional proposals to be tabled at its Federal Congress on 4th September which calls for a scrapping of the current single presidential head of state, to be replaced by a council of three to five members. Umkhonto we Sizwe, the military wing of the ANC, holds its first conference in South Africa after thirty years and calls for a formal ceasefire in the country. 1 August 1991 The National Executive Committee (NEC) of the African National Congress (ANC) issued a statement calling into question the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP)'s "legitimacy as an independent force", criticising the Government's response to revelations on the secret funding of political organisations and calling for the creation of a "transitional authority charged with the task of preparing the country for a democratic constitution". 2 August 1991 In a statement recalling the principles for a new constitutional order enunciated in the 1989 United Nations Declaration on Apartheid, the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) said that a "democratically mandated Constituent Assembly is the ideal and most desirable way to establish legitimate government in our country". 7 August 1991 USSR Deputy Foreign Minister Valeri Nikolayenko arrived in SA for 5-day visit. 8 August 1991 Argentina and SA agreed to re-establish diplomatic relations. 9 August 1991 A bloody confrontation takes place between the right wing Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) and government security forces in Ventersdorp. Signs a multilateral agreement with Transkei, Venda and Ciskei regarding social welfare services in their respective territories. 11 August 1991 Ismael Mahomed became first Black judge appointed to the Supreme Court of South Africa. 13 August 1991 Turkey and SA decided to establish consular relations. 15 August 1991 The South African Government, ANC and IFP agreed on a draft National Peace Accord which they described as "a firm foundation on which peace in South Africa can be achieved". The Accord includes a code of conduct for political parties, a code of conduct for the police and the security forces, provisions for socio-economic development, and a complex set of enforcement mechanisms. 16 August 1991 The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the South African Government initialled a Memorandum of Understanding on the voluntary repatriation and reintegration of an estimated 40,000 South African returnees. The agreement provided for a comprehensive amnesty for all political offences, a mechanism allowing the UNHCR to make representations on behalf of persons not granted amnesty, the establishment of an UNHCR presence in South Africa and complete freedom of movement for returnees within South Africa. 16 August 1991 The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the South African Government initialled a Memorandum of Understanding on the voluntary repatriation and reintegration of an estimated 40,000 South African returnees. The agreement provides for a comprehensive amnesty for all political offences, a mechanism allowing the UNHCR to make representations on behalf of persons not granted amnesty, the establishment of an UNHCR presence in South Africa and complete freedom of movement for returnees within South Africa. 16 August 1991 KaNgwane: Regulations for Administration and Control of Townships in Black Areas Amendment Act No 3: Commenced: 16 August 1991 KaNgwane: Black Areas Land Regulation Amendment Act No 5: Commenced: 16 August 1991 South African Catholic Bishops Conference decided that economic sanctions were no longer necessary. 20 August 1991 United Democratic Front (UDF) dissolved. 26 August 1991 South Africa:Signs a co-operation agreement with Transkei regarding structural adjustment. 27 August 1991 Finland opened official economic relations with SA and raised diplomatic relations to ambassadorial level. 28 August 1991 Johannesburg Star reported that Algeria called for normal relations with SA. 4 September 1991 Key points of the National Party's constitutional proposals are outlined at its special Federal Congress. Various political parties react. Signs a memorandum of understanding with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees on the voluntary repatriation and reintegration of South African returnees. 4 September 1991 In his second progress report on the implementation of the United Nations 1989 Declaration on Apartheid, the Secretary-General found that "over the last 12 months the process towards the end of apartheid in South Africa, although halting, has remained on course". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and South Africa signed Memorandum of Understanding concerning amnesty for South African refugees and political exiles. 4 September 1991 In his second progress report on the implementation of the United Nations 1989 Declaration on Apartheid and Its Destructive Consequences in Southern Africa, the Secretary-General of the United Nations found that "over the last 12 months the process towards the end of apartheid in South Africa, although halting, has remained on course". UNHCR and South Africa signed Memorandum of Understanding concerning amnesty for South African refugees and political exiles. The agreement provided for comprehensive amnesty, mechanism allowing UNHCR to make representation on behalf of persons not granted amnesty, establishment of UNHCR presence in South Africa and complete freedom of movement for returnees within South Africa. 5 September 1991 SA and Czechoslovakia resumed diplomatic relations severed since 1963. 6 September 1991 Venda Reincorporation Forum Act No 5: Provided for the reincorporation of Venda into South Africa. Commenced: 6 September 1991 7 September 1991 Testifying before the Supreme Court on the killing of Chief Mhlabunzima Maphumulo, Mr. Sipho Madlala claimed that the assassination in which he allegedly participated had been organised by a security branch policeman, namely Warrant Officer Wolfgang Warber. 11 September 1991 Oregon State legislature rescinded 1987 legislation banning investment of State funds in companies doing business with SA. General Obasanjo and a delegation of 16 Nigerians met de Klerk, Mandela, Buthelezi etc. 12 September 1991 South Africa:Signs trade agreement with the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic. 12 September 1991 Czechoslovakia and SA sign trade agreement. 14 September 1991 A National Peace Accord is signed by all major political organizations at a Conference held at the Canton Hotel. The PAC and AZAPO attend proceedings, but refuse to sign the accord, while right wing organizations refuse to participate in the session. 14 September 1991 National Peace accord signed in Johannesburg by 23 political parties and organisations including the ANC, the Inkatha Freedom Party and a number of political parties, trade unions, religious and civic organisations, as well as the Government. (Many others endorsed it, including PAC). It included a code of conduct for security forces and political parties; and established a National Peace Committee and a Commission of Inquiry Regarding the Prevention of Public Violence and Intimidation (chaired by Justice R. J. Goldstone) to monitor implementation of the accord. Commonwealth Committee of Foreign Ministers on Southern Africa, meeting in New Delhi, reiterated "programmed management" approach to sanctions. It recommended that "people-to-people" sanctions can now be lifted. (Note: ANC also supported tactical flexibility in phased use of sanctions) 16 September 1991 Safeguards Agreement between IAEA and South Africa: South Africa signed an agreement allowing the inspection of its nuclear facilities by the International Atomic Energy Agency. 16 September 1991 Safeguards Agreement between IAEA and South Africa: South Africa signed an agreement allowing the inspection of its nuclear facilities by the International Atomic Energy Agency. 18 September 1991 Signs a trade agreement with the government of Poland. 18 September 1991 General Ronnie van der Westhuizen, head of the South African special investigations unit on political violence, said that 24 policemen had been suspended and would face charges ranging from assault to murder for their role in the fostering of township violence. Poland signed trade agreement with SA, formalising end of trade sanctions. 19 September 1991 South Africa's first public bond issue since 1985, led by Deutsche Bank in Europe, was successful. 23 September 1991 Mandela supported SA's bid to play in next year's cricket World Cup. 24 September 1991 Austria announced that it was lifting most of its economic sanctions, including ban on investments, for a year. 25 September 1991 French Trade and Industry Minister on week-long visit to SA. 27 September 1991 United States Government decided to grant 12.5 million rand to ANC and 7 million rand to Inkatha. The first Turkish Consul-General in SA assumed his post. 27 September 1991 Demonstration in or near Court Buildings Prohibition Act No 10: Prohibited certain public gatherings and demonstrations. Commenced: 27 September 1991 Reverend Allan Boesak was elected Chairman of the ANC's Western Cape region. 30 September 1991 Signs multilateral agreement with the governments of Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei for the avoidance of double taxation, the prevention of fiscal evasion, the rendering of mutual assistance and co-operation and the establishment of a transfer system with respect to Value Added Tax. 1 October 1991 Aliens Control Act No 96: Replaced all previous legislation regarding foreigners entering, leaving or being resident in the country. Commenced: 1 October 1991 IN FORCE: ALIEN AND CITIZEN. 2 October 1991 South Africa:Signs an agreement with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees governing the legal status, privileges and immunities of the UNHCR office and its personnel in South Africa. 2 October 1991 Netherlands announced partial lifting of sports sanctions; SA sportspersons will no longer require visas. SA Foreign Minister, R. F. Botha, visited Beijing. 3 October 1991 The European Community issued a communiqué expressing concern at "the continued detention of political prisoners in the so-called independent homelands" and calling for the release of all South African political prisoners without delay. 8 October 1991 SA Foreign Minister R. F. Botha on 3-day visit to Australia. 23 October 1991 Signs an agreement with the League of The Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies regarding the establishment of a delegation in South Africa. Exchange of notes with Lesotho to amend the Trade Mission Agreement of 30 April 1987. 25 October 1991 Patriotic Front conference in Durban. 26 October 1991 A Patriotic Front Conference convened by the ANC and the PAC takes place in Durban. 27 October 1991 At the end of a Patriotic/United Front Conference held in Durban and attended by some 90 organisations, participants adopted a Declaration in which they called for: a Constituent Assembly to draft and adopt a democratic constitution; a sovereign Interim Government/Transitional Authority; and an All Party Congress/Pre-Constituent Assembly Meeting, brought together by independent and neutral convenors, to be held as soon as possible. 29 October 1991 South Africa:Signs agreement with the government of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic on the abolition of visa requirements for holders of diplomatic and service passports. South Africa:Signs Protocol with the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic on establishing diplomatic relations and the abolishment of visas. 30 October 1991 Signs aviation security agreement with the United States. 30 October 1991 The Government of India announced that it was lifting, with immediate effect, all consular and visa restrictions, cultural, sports and scientific boycotts, restrictions on tourism promotion and its ban on direct airlinks with South Africa. 31 October 1991 South Africa:Signs an aviation security agreement with the government of the USA. November 1991 The South African Law Commission releases a draft Bill of Rights. 1 November 1991 In a book entitled "The Samson Option", journalist Seymour Hersh asserted that Israeli and South African scientists had collaborated over nearly three decades to successfully produce a nuclear bomb, testing at least three warheads off the Cape of Good Hope during the last 1970s. 5 November 1991 At the end of a two-day meeting of consultations, held in Geneva, by the Special Committee against Apartheid with representatives of non-governmental organisations and anti-apartheid movements, participants adopted a statement of action in which they agreed to pursue a two-track policy of pressure on the South African authorities and assistance to democratic organisations in South Africa. 5 November 1991 At the end of a two-day meeting of consultations, held in Geneva, by the Special Committee against Apartheid with representatives of non-governmental organisations and anti-apartheid movements, participants adopted a statement of action in which they agreed to pursue a two-track policy of pressure on the South African authorities and assistance to democratic organisations in South Africa. 8 November 1991 The South African cricket team arrived in Calcutta, to play in three one-day matches against the Indian team in South Africa's first international cricket contact since 1970. 11 November 1991 South Africa:Signs memorandum of understanding on multiple co-operation with Israel. South africa:Signs agreement with Bophuthatswana regarding social pensions, grants and allowances. 15 November 1991 South Africa:Signs an agreement on the promotion of investments with the government of the Republic of China. South Africa:Signs co-operation agreement with the Republic of China regarding the promotion of investments. South Africa:Signs amended bilateral air services agreement with the Republic of China. 19 November 1991 Signs Protocol IV to the treaty on the Lesotho Highlands Water Project including supplementary arrangements regarding Phase IA. 19 November 1991 KwaZulu: Labour Relations Amendment Act No 13: Commenced: 19 November 1991 Exchange of notes establishing diplomatic relations with Romania. 27 November 1991 According to press reports, the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) accused the ANC of being "guilty of deceit and duplicity" and of undermining the Patriotic Front Alliance "in cahoot with the regime". The accusation followed a meeting held in the United Nations on 20 November 1991 by ANC Secretary for Foreign Affairs, Mr. Thabo Mbeki, with Ambassadors of the Front Line States, of which the PAC said it had obtained the minutes. The Permanent Representative of Zambia to the United Nations later issued a statement denying the existence of such minutes and "regretting the misrepresentations reflected in the so-called minutes". 30 November 1991 At the end of a two-day preparatory meeting chaired by Judge Ismail Mohammed and Judge Petrus Schabort, 19 political and other organisations decided unanimously or by "sufficient consensus" that the first meeting of a Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) would be held near Johannesburg on 20 and 21 December 1991, to discuss constitutional principles, constitution-making body or process and transitional arrangements. Participating delegations also agreed on a nine-point agenda for the Convention, the establishment of a steering committee to facilitate its convening and on invitations to various international organisations to observe its proceedings. The PAC dissociated itself from the final statement read by the two judges chairing the preparatory meeting, saying that it "did not reflect the PAC's position". Several PAC proposals, such as neutral international conveners, the holding of CODESA outside of South Africa and the opening of CODESA's sessions to the media, were rejected by other parties. December 1991 The SACP held its first legal Congress inside the country and Chris Hani replaces Joe Slovo as Secretary-General of the Party. 4 December 1991 Cabinet is reshuffled, and the head of the mining house, Gencor, Derek Keys, is appointed Minister of Trade and Industry. 8 December 1991 At its first legal congress in four decades, the South African Communist Party (SACP) decided to appoint Mr. Chris Hani as its new general secretary. 9 December 1991 Signs co-operation agreement with Ciskei regarding structural adjustment. 11 December 1991 The first Regional Dispute Resolution Committee was established in Natal in terms of the National Peace Accord signed on 14 September 1991. 12 December 1991 The first group of 120 exiles returning to South Africa under the agreement reached in August by UNHCR and the South African authorities arrived in Johannesburg from Tanzania. 13 December 1991 The General Assembly adopted seven resolutions, three of them by consensus, on the "Policies of Apartheid of the Government of South Africa". It called upon the international community to resume academic, scientific and cultural links with democratic anti-apartheid organisations and sport links with unified non-racial sporting organisations, as well as to review existing restrictive measures as warranted by positive developments. 13 December 1991 The General Assembly called on the international community, in view of the progress made in overcoming obstacles to negotiations, to resume academic, scientific and cultural links with democratic and anti-apartheid organisations and individuals in these fields; and to resume sports links with unified non-racial sporting organisations, and assist disadvantaged athletes in that country. The General Assembly adopted seven resolutions, three of them by consensus, on the "Policies of Apartheid of the Government of South Africa". It called upon the international community to resume academic, scientific and cultural links with democratic anti-apartheid organisations and sport links with unified non-racial sporting organisations, as well as to review existing restrictive measures as warranted by positive developments. 17 December 1991 The Secretary-General announced that Mrs. Sadako Ogata, High Commissioner for Refugees, and Professor Ibrahim Gambari, Chairman of the Special Committee against Apartheid, would lead the United Nations observer delegation to CODESA. Mr. Sotirios Mousouris, Assistant Secretary-General for the Centre against Apartheid, would be the third member of the delegation. In addition to the United Nations, the Organisation of African Unity, the Movement of Non-Aligned countries, the Commonwealth and the European Community were also observers at CODESA. In a joint statement on 21 December, they said that "the broad objectives expressed in the Declaration of Intent (signed the previous day by participants in CODESA committing themselves "to bring about an undivided South Africa free from apartheid") are a most constructive and auspicious beginning for CODESA and give promise of attainment of true democracy for South Africa". 17 December 1991 The Secretary-General of the United Nations announced that Mrs. Sadako Ogata, High Commissioner for Refugees, and Professor Ibrahim Gambari, Chairman of the Special Committee against Apartheid, would lead the United Nations observer delegation to CODESA. Mr. Sotirios Mousouris, Assistant Secretary-General for the Centre against Apartheid, would be the third member of the delegation. 18 December 1991 Signs Protocol with the government of Poland on establishing diplomatic relations. Exchange of notes with the People's Republic of China regarding the establishment of informal offices in Pretoria and Beijing. 18 December 1991 The Steering Committee of CODESA reached an agreement whereby all parties would commit themselves "politically and morally" to put CODESA's decisions into effect. These decisions, however, would not be legally binding. Chief Gatsha Buthelezi announced that he would not attend the first session of CODESA, as the decision taken by its Steering Committee not to invite Zulu King Goodwill Zelethini to lead a separate delegation from IFP amounted to an "insult". 20 December - 21 December 1991 The Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), holds its first meeting. Seventeen of the nineteen parties attending the Convention sign a Declaration of Intent, committing themselves to multiparty politics. 20 December 1991 Heated verbal exchanges take place between President F.W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela at the CODESA talks. 20 December 1991 The first Plenary session of the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) met in Johannesburg. Nineteen organisations, as well the government, were represented. Seventeen of the 19 political groups (which did not include PAC and CP) participating in the first session of CODESA signed a Declaration of Intent whereby they committed themselves to "bring about an undivided South Africa free from apartheid" and to a number of constitutional principles. 21 December 1991 Participants in CODESA decided to set up five working groups which are to report to a second CODESA plenary session before the end of March 1992. In addition to the United Nations, the Organisation of African Unity, the Movement of Non-Aligned countries, the Commonwealth and the European Community were also observers at CODESA. In a joint statement, they said that "the broad objectives expressed in the Declaration of Intent are a most constructive and auspicious beginning for CODESA and give promise of attainment of true democracy for South Africa". 30 December 1991 Signs agreement with Botswana regarding the establishment of a representative office.

i don't know

Who wrote the words for My Fair Lady and Camelot?

Frederick Loewe Dies at 86 - Wrote 'My Fair Lady' Score - NYTimes.com Frederick Loewe Dies at 86; Wrote 'My Fair Lady' Score By STEPHEN HOLDEN Published: February 15, 1988 Frederick (Fritz) Loewe, the composer who with his longtime lyricist partner Alan Jay Lerner created the scores for ''My Fair Lady,'' ''Camelot,'' ''Paint Your Wagon,'' ''Brigadoon,'' and ''Gigi,'' died yesterday in Palm Springs, Calif.. He was 86 years old. The cause of death was cardiac arrest, according to John F. Morris, an artist and longtime friend of Mr. Loewe. Among the most famous songs Mr. Loewe wrote with Mr. Lerner, who died in June 1986, were ''Almost Like Being in Love,'' ''I Could Have Danced All Night,'' ''On the Street Where You Live,'' ''I've Grown Accustomed to Her Face,'' ''If Ever I Would Leave You,'' ''Gigi,'' and ''Thank Heaven for Little Girls.'' The team's finest songs are marked by a contemporary conversational fluency and precision of phrase joined to a graceful Old World melodicism that looks back often wistfully to the turn-of-the-century operetta. Lerner and Loewe, whose creative chemistry was comparable to that of Rodgers and Hammerstein, Dietz and Schwartz, and George and Ira Gershwin, were a less likely pairing than most other Broadway theatrical teams. Seventeen years older than his New York-born collaborator, Mr. Loewe came from the world of European operetta and in 1924 moved to the United States, where he struggled for years to gain a foothold in the musical theater. The collaboration, which began inauspiciously in 1942, culminated 14 years later with ''My Fair Lady,'' a Broadway show that is widely regarded as the 50's Broadway musical at the pinnacle of perfection. For Rex Harrison, the nonsinging actor who played the role of Henry Higgins, Mr. Loewe invented melodies that matched to perfection his caustic, supercilious delivery. For Julie Andrews, who played the cockney girl whom Higgins turns into a lady, his melodic style extended from the clang of English music hall to the elegance of Straussian waltzes. Soloist With Berlin Symphony Frederick Loewe was born in Berlin on June 10, 1901. His father was Edmund Loewe, a well-known Viennese tenor who created the role of Prince Danilo in ''The Merry Widow'' in 1906. A skillful pianist by the age of 4, Mr. Loewe studied the instrument in Berlin with Ferruccio Busoni and Eugene d'Albert, and worked on composition and orchestration with Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek. At 13, he became the youngest piano soloist to appear with the Berlin Symphony Orchestra. He also began writing songs at a young age, composing the tunes for a music hall sketch in which his father toured Germany. At 15, he wrote ''Katrina,'' a popular song that became an enormous hit across Europe. Mr. Loewe's early songwriting success gave him the confidence to move to the United States in 1924. He gave a concert at Town Hall, followed by an engagement at the Rivoli Theater. But hampered by a tenuous command of the English language and a musical sensibility that was considered not ''American'' enough, he failed to achieve the success he had anticipated. To support himself, he took a succession of odd jobs, from busboy to riding instructor to prizefighter, and even worked out West for several years, as a cowpuncher and a mail carrier. On returning to New York, he played the piano in beer halls and the organ in a movie house, but lost the latter job with the advent of talking pictures. Mr. Loewe married Ernestine Zerline in 1931; they had no children and they were divorced in 1957. To make contact with the musical theater world, he joined the Lambs Club, and in 1935 he finally sold his first song to Broadway. He earned $25 for the tune, ''Love Tiptoed Through My Heart,'' which Dennis King sang in a show called ''Petticoat Fever.'' The following year, another of his songs, ''A Waltz Was Born in Vienna,'' was interpolated into the unsuccessful revue ''The Little Show.'' In 1937, he and Earle Crooker collaborated on a musical, ''Salute to Spring,'' for the St. Louis Opera. And in 1938, he composed his first full Broadway score, ''The Great Lady,'' in collaboration with Crooker. One of the bigger flops of the year, the show ran only 20 performances. A Score in Two Weeks It was a chance meeting at the Lambs Club in 1942 that brought Lerner and Mr. Loewe together. Henry Duffy, a producer in search of a new treatment of Barry Conners's play ''The Patsy,'' had asked Mr. Loewe to write a new libretto and update the lyrics of ''Salute to Spring'' for a production in Detroit. The composer, who admired some lyrics Lerner had written for a Lambs Club revue, introduced himself, and two days later the two men boarded a train for Detroit, where they completed the score for ''Life of the Party'' in two weeks. Though their next show, ''What's Up?'' (1943), directed by George Balanchine, lasted only 63 performances, they continued to collaborate. Their third show, ''The Day Before Spring'' (1945), ran for 165 performances and was the one that convinced them they had the right chemistry to continue as partners. ''We could feel the movement in the structure of our work, and it wasn't termites,'' the composer later quipped. Their partnership was cemented with ''Brigadoon'' in 1947. For this show about a sleepy Scottish town that wakes up every hundred years, Loewe concocted music that inflected his soaring Viennese lyricism with a highland flavor, though at the time he had never been to Scotland. ''Brigadoon'' ran 581 performances and won the New York Drama Critics Circle award for the year's best musical. In addition to ''Almost Like Being in Love'' it yielded such ballads as ''Heather on the Hill'' and ''Come to Me, Bend to Me.'' 1

Alan Jay Lerner

Which sweet musical had the show-stopper Rhythm of Life?

My Fair Lady cast | creative After their success with On the Town, Leonard Bernstein, Betty Comden and Adolph Green were asked to take a look at musicalising Pygmalion. A screening of the 1938 film version was arranged, and Lenny, Betty and Adolph trooped in. Two hours later, they trooped out, determined to leave it alone. "It's perfect," said Adolph Green. "Don't touch it." They were right ? and wrong. Right, because hit plays rarely make hit musicals, and those few that do usually require some novelty tweak ? Romeo and Juliet transposed to New York's West Side, The Taming of the Shrew as the play-within-the-play for a backstage yarn. Even after My Fair Lady was the toast of New York, some Broadway professionals retained an ambivalence about it, nicely caught in a Sondheim lyric from Merrily We Roll Along: I saw My Fair Lady I sort of enjoyed it. Many composers, lyricists and librettists sort of enjoyed My Fair Lady, but couldn't quite see the need for it. Pygmalion was perfect; why touch it? But that's where they and Bernstein, Comden and Green were wrong. There's no such thing as a great idea or a lousy idea for a musical: it all depends in whose head the light bulb lights up. The Phantom of the Opera is a lousy idea for a Rodgers and Hart musical, but just dandy for an Andrew Lloyd Webber one. And that's the way it went with Pygmalion. If a writer's lucky, just once in his lifetime he collides with the perfect subject. For Lloyd Webber, it was Phantom. For Lerner and Loewe, it was My Fair Lady. They had hits before (Brigadoon, Paint Your Wagon) and after (Gigi, Camelot), but this is the show that defines the team at their best ? Loewe worldly and a little detached, the kind of composer who's sceptical of a big musical-comedy-Wow!-I'm-In-Love! number but is prepared to allow that I've Grown Accustomed To Her Face; Lerner urbane, literate and such an anglophile that, having stumbled on a lyrical style for Henry Higgins, he found that, ever after, his first draft of every song sounded as if it were written for Rex Harrison. Frederick Loewe was born in Vienna exactly a century ago and at the age of 15 wrote a Mittel European million-seller called 'Katrina'. It was his last hit song for over 30 years. His parents brought him to America, where he became a cowboy, a gold prospector and then a prizefighter. With hindsight, it would be easy to read this eclectic resum? as a determined attempt at cultural assimilation, lacking as it does only a spell as comic-book illustrator and G-man. But such an interpretation would be mistaken. Richard Rodgers once described Jerome Kern as a composer with one foot in the Old World, one in the New. But that still puts him one foot ahead of Loewe. Panning for gold, branding his longhorns, tying his four-legged friend to the hitching post outside the Dead Man's Gulch saloon, Loewe's feet nevertheless remained, musically speaking, firmly in Old Vienna. Jazz, swing, musical comedy passed him by, and it wasn't until the mid-1940s that the Rodgers and Hammerstein school of musical play ? Oklahoma!, Carousel ? created a more hospitable climate for Loewe's talents. In 1942, looking for the men's room at the Lambs Club in New York, he bumped into Alan Jay Lerner, a moneyed young man struggling to break into showbusiness despite the crippling burdens of having been educated at Bedales in England and then, back in America, at Choate, where his classmates included John F Kennedy. Lerner and Loewe had very little in common except that (as I can testify from experience) both had a tendency to address one as Dear boy. Whether Lerner acquired the affectation from Loewe or vice-versa, it somehow encapsulates what set them apart from other, more indigenous Broadway teams. Otherwise, they were opposites: Loewe wrote fast, musical ideas dashed off almost insouciantly. When Lerner suggested a musical elocution lesson built around the phrase The rain in Spain, Loewe said, Good. I'll write a tango ? and played the main theme there and then. Lerner, on the other hand, sweated over every phrase. He wore white gloves when he wrote, otherwise he'd gnaw his fingers to the bone. He had a special desk so that he could write standing up: if he sat down, he focused so hard on the lyric that he'd go into a trance. To the end of his life, he was a great disdainer of that songwriter's standby, the anthropomorphized heart, citing the famous song from The Sound of Music in which Sister Maria's heart wants to leap, sigh, laugh, sing, etc. "One chorus and I need an oxygen tent," he said. Yet, agonizing over the lyric to 'I Could Have Danced All Night', he found himself forced to fall back on "When all at once my heart took flight." He never liked it, swore he'd come up with something better, yet never could. Lerner and Loewe were opposites off-stage, too. Having been a struggling youngster till late middle-age, Loewe suddenly discovered he was rich enough to enjoy the good life, and in 1960, after Camelot, quit Broadway for Palm Springs and the Riviera. He spent the next three decades at the gaming tables, and died a wealthy man. Lerner, by contrast, worked till his death in 1986 and died a wholly owned subsidiary of the Internal Revenue Service and his platoon of ex-wives. Loewe was an inveterate womaniser, Lerner a serial monogamist, married eight times. To discuss Alan without reference to his relationship with the opposite sex would be absurd, for it runs right through his work, up to one of his very last and most autobiographical lyrics: I've tossed and turned and couldn't sleep From counting minks instead of sheep I've Been Married. I've practiced writing epitaphs And read the Book of Job for laughs I've Been Married. If it has the slightly dated whiff of Vegas alimony gags, well, no one was more entitled to do them than Alan. After one rehearsal for Fair Lady, he and Rex Harrison were strolling down Fifth Avenue reflecting on their mutual much-marriedness when Harrison suddenly stopped and said in a loud voice which turned more than a few heads: "Alan! Wouldn't it be marvellous if we were both homosexual?" Alan didn't think so, but he walked home and en route reworded the question: "Why can't a woman be more like a man?" Professor Higgins' charming misogyny struck a chord in both Lerner and Loewe, and indeed Lerner appreciated the premise of Pygmalion ? young unformed woman moulded by older sophisticated man ? so much that he couldn't stop writing it. Two years after Fair Lady, he wrote Gigi: young unformed woman, older sophisticated man. In 1971, with Bond composer John Barry, he musicalised Lolita: older sophisticated man, young unformed ...ah, but that proved one reprise too many of 'Thank Heaven For Little Girls'. No musical is truly autobiographical ? there are too many hands involved ? but with Pygmalion Lerner and Loewe, the characters, the pretext and the Edwardian milieu were made for each other. What Rodgers and Hammerstein and others who turned down the property saw as its main defect ? the lack of romance ? turned out to be a virtue: Loewe was sceptical of passion, and for Lerner what Higgins does to Eliza is romantic. That aside, both men understood that the principals didn't need big, bold love duets: the romance would be supplied by the audience, silently urging them on regardless of what anybody said or sang. That's a good example of how successful musicals manage to have their cake and eat it. The trick, said Lerner, was to be specific ? to the plot and character ? yet also universal. The score of My Fair Lady rides those twin horses brilliantly. 'I've Grown Accustomed To Her Face' comes direct from Shaw ? "I have grown accustomed to your voice and appearance." Put like that, it sounds rather clinical. But nudged just a little and set to Loewe's beguilingly conversational melody it both stays true to the play yet also expresses something more general about the kind of love that steals up on you. There's a wonderfully bleary recording by Dean Martin whose mood couldn't be more different from the original context: it sounds like a guy waking up in his pad and discovering that last night's one-night stand has decided to stay for breakfast. Lerner and Loewe didn't write the song for Dino, but they knew enough not to rule him out. As to what Shaw would have made of it, we can only guess. Asked whom he wanted to compose the music for Pygmalion, he replied Mozart. You can't blame him. The last Shavian musical, The Chocolate Soldier (1908) was such a crass reduction of Arms and the Man that Shaw insisted all programmes and posters carry a public disclaimer by him. In that sense at least, My Fair Lady redeems musical theatre for the sins of its fathers. From the opening number, 'Why Can't The English Teach Their Children How To Speak?', Fair Lady declares that this is, paradoxically or not, a musical about words. Lerner was punctilious on the subject of language, at one point rebuking Leslie Bricusse and Anthony Newley for writing 'Who Can I Turn To?'. He felt it should have been 'Whom Can I Turn To?' (Surely you mean 'To Whom Can I Turn?', I suggested.) Bricusse replied with a note pointing out a rare Lerner solecism from My Fair Lady: By rights you should be taken out and hanged For the cold blooded murder of the English tanged. But, as Lerner always said of lyric-writing, the clever word-play is the easy stuff. One of my favourite songs in the score is 'Show Me', the moment when Eliza, mightily sick of words, demands something more: it's a lovely jest, in a work so articulate, to produce a song recognizing the limits of that articulacy, and it's one reason why My Fair Lady ? from source material to adaptation ? sums up better than any other the ambitions of the post-war musical play. It was the perfect musical play, Andr? Previn, a sometime Lerner composing partner, told me. "But it was so perfect that afterwards, what else could you do?" My Fair Lady was the last word as far as that kind of musical was concerned. So Broadway turned to dance musicals, and rock musicals, and concept musicals, and through-composed musicals, and none of them ever really stuck around long enough to become a viable living tradition. Fritz Loewe understood he could never top Fair Lady, and flew off to Palm Springs. Alan Lerner kept trying, an unenviable task. Today we can enjoy the work for what it is ? a superb example of how, in the right hands, no material is beyond the range of musical theatre. ? Mark Steyn, February 2001 Mark Steyn is a columnist for Britain's Daily Telegraph, Canada's National Post, The Chicago Sun-Times, and appears in many other papers around the world. He is film critic for The Spectator in London and writes on theatre for The New Criterion in New York. His book, Broadway Babies Say Goodnight, is published by Faber and Faber.

i don't know

In which country was Frederick Loewe born?

Songwriters Hall of Fame - Frederick Loewe Exhibit Home Hal Leonard Frederick Loewe was born in Vienna, Austria on June 10, 1901, and from the beginning was steeped in the Viennese musical style. His father was a popular operetta star, and when The Merry Widow arrived in Berlin, Loewe's father was Berlin's first Danilo. By the age of 15, "Fritz" had composed a hit popular song, "Katrina", and was getting considerable attention as a promising young piano virtuoso. Like the young Kurt Weill, who was one year his senior, Loewe studied in Berlin with the great Italian-German composer and pianist Ferruccio Busoni. He also studied with the pianist-composer Eugen d'Albert and the composer Emil von Rezniek. At this time, his great ambition was to become a famous concert pianist and he traveled to the United States in 1924. Unfortunately, success did not greet him in America, and in the years that followed he survived by taking a colorful variety of jobs. At one time he was a cowboy, and at another time a prizefighter. Meanwhile, Loewe worked to master the American style in popular music. In 1937, his first try at an American Musical Production opened in St. Louis called Salute to Spring. Then in 1938 he teamed up with lyricist Earle Crooker and in in his first Broadway Production called Great Lady. After several more attempts at a successful musical had failed, he met the Alan Jay Lerner, seventeen years his junior, and from that time, although Loewe worked with only Lerner. Lerner and Loewe first met in 1942 and their first collaborations were failures The Life of the Party (1942) and What's Up? (1943). Their next, The Day Before Spring (1945) did slightly better, and included the song "You Haven't Changed At All". In 1947 they had their first hit, Brigadoon, which included "The Heather On the Hill" and the classic romantic ballad "Almost Like Being In Love". In 1951 Lerner and Loewe had their second success with Paint Your Wagon, which included such songs as "They Call The Wind Maria", "I Talk to the Trees", and "Wandrin' Star". Then in 1956 the revolutionary Broadway Production, My Fair Lady, premiered on Broadway starring Julie Andrews and Rex Harrington. Loewe�s astonishingly rich score, one of the great masterpieces of the American musical, included the now standard "Why Can't The English?", "Wouldn't It Be Loverly", "With a Little Bit Of Luck", "I'm an Ordinary Man", "Just You Wait", "The Rain in Spain", "I Could Have Danced All Night", "On the Street Where You Live", "You Did It", "Show Me", "Get Me to the Church On Time", "A Hymn to Him" and "I've Grown Accustomed to Her Face". The show ran for 2,717 performances in its original Broadway production. My Fair Lady was followed in 1958 with the classic film musical Gigi, which had a superb score including "Thank Heaven For Little Girls" and "I Remember it Well". The Film Musical won 9 Academy Awards. In their last great collaboration, Lerner and Loewe created the 1960 score for Camelot, which included songs "I Wonder What the King is Doing Tonight", "Camelot", "The Simple Joys Of Maidenhood", "How to Handle a Woman", and "If Ever I Should Leave You". After Camelot, Loewe, now 60 years old, withdrew from composing, although he did return to work together with Lerner one last time on the unsuccessful 1974 film The Little Prince. Loewe's music springs from the European operetta tradition, but he adapted that tradition to appeal to an American audience with complete success. Although each of his classic shows is in a unique style reflecting the period and location of the story, each of them remains un-mistakably the work of Frederick Loewe. Frederick Loewe died in Palm Springs, California on February 14, 1988.

Austria

The King in the King and I is ruler of where?

Frederick Loewe Frederick Loewe (playwright, born August 31, 1918, New York, New York; died June 14, 1986)   Frederick Loewe composer, born June 10, 1904, Vienna, Austria; died February 14, 1988) Frederick Loewe, an unheralded Vienna-born composer, and Alan Jay Lerner, the lyricist-playwright son of the proprietors of an American chain of women's clothing shops, with sketches and lyrics for two Harvard Hasty Pudding shows among his major credits, met by chance at New York's Lambs Club in 1942. Had they not, Brigadoon would never have emerged from the mists of the Scottish Highlands to make the world feel "Almost Like Being in Love" . . . no one would have been there to "Paint Your Wagon" . . . My Fair Lady would still be a less than lyrical English girl from George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion who couldn't sing a note. . . we might never have thought to "Thank Heaven for Little Girls" like "Gigi" . . . and Camelot would most likely have stayed within the pages of Arthurian legend. When the two, who were destined to enrich the American musical theater with some of its most poignant, rousing, and memorable lyrics, engaging books and powerful musical scores, had that chance meeting more than 50 years ago, neither was widely known. Loewe's Great Lady had had a brief run on Broadway in 1938. Lerner had added radio scripts to his Hasty Pudding Club show credits. But later collaborations after one brief failure, What's Up? (1943), and the moderately successful The Day Before Spring (1945), which ran five months on Broadway, made musical history. Alan Jay Lerner was one of three sons of Joseph J. Lerner, who founded Lerner Stores, Inc. He was educated in England and at the Choate School in Wallingford, Connecticut, before entering Harvard. He studied at the Juilliard School of Music during vacations from Harvard. After graduating in 1940 with a B.S. degree, he wrote advertising copy and radio scripts for such programs as the "Philco Hall of Fame." Frederick "Fritz" Loewe was the son of Edmund Loewe, an eminent operetta tenor. When he was two, Frederick accompanied his father on a tour of the United States. The youngster played piano at four and, at nine, composed the tunes for a music hall sketch in which his father toured Europe. At 15, he wrote "Katrina," a popular song that sold 3,000,000 copies in Europe. He had begun his own concert career as soloist with some of Europe's leading symphony orchestras at the age of 13 after having studied with the noted European musician Ferruccio Bustoni and Eugene d'Albert. In 1923, young Loewe was awarded the Hollander Medal in Berlin and studied composition and orchestration with Nickolaus von Reznicek. The following year, the younger Loewe accompanied his father to America. Since neither a concert he gave at New York's Town Hall, nor a subsequent week's engagement at the Rivoli Theater led to further concert engagements, he tried teaching music and playing at Greenwich Village night clubs. When music failed to earn him a living, he worked as a busboy in a cafeteria and as a riding instructor at a New Hampshire resort. He took up flyweight boxing and failed, then went West, cowpunching, gold mining, and carrying mail on horseback over the Montana mountains before returning to New York where he found work as a piano player. In 1935, Loewe's song "Love tiptoes Through My Heart" was accepted for the musical Petticoat Fever. His own musical, Salute to Spring, was presented in St. Louis in 1937. The next year, his Great Lady reached Broadway, but ran for only 20 performances. The first Lerner-Loewe collaboration was a musical adaptation of Barry Connor's farce The Patsy for a Detroit stock company in 1942. They called it Life of the Party and it enjoyed a nine-week hit that encouraged them to continue with the musical comedy What's Up? which opened on Broadway in 1943. Lerner wrote the book and lyrics with Arthur Pierson, and Loewe composed the music. It ran for 63 performances and was followed in 1945 by their The Day Before Spring It was when the curtain went up to the haunted strains of bagpipes on the night of March 13, 1947, and the mist-shrouded Scottish Highland village of Brigadoon first appeared, that the team of Lerner and Loewe also emerged as potentially legendary. The musical, which after its original 581 performances on Broadway, toured extensively and has been revived frequently, won the "best musical"award from the New York Drama Critics Circle the year it opened and was hailed as having "evoked magic on Broadway." Between Brigadoon and Paint Your Wagon, the next team effort by Lerner and Loewe, Lerner wrote Love Life, with music by Kurt Weill, which was selected as one of the best plays of the 1948-49 Broadway season, plus the story, screenplay and lyrics for the films Royal Wedding and Brigadoon and the story and screenplay for An American in Paris, for which he won an Oscar in 1951. Paint Your Wagon rolled in in 1951, and then, five years later, on March 15, 1956, My Fair Lady opened and became one of the most spectacular successes--artistic and financial--in the history of the American theater. Playing a record 2,717 performances on Broadway alone, it went on to break all other existing world records. This musicalization of Shaw's classic Pygmalion was named "outstanding musical of the year" by the New York Drama Critics Circle--and by millions of theater goers. Lerner and Loewe's next collaboration was on the film adaptation of the Colette novel Gigi, another success filled with songs destined to become standard. There was more collaborating to come--the film version of the Antoine de Saint-Exupery fable The Little Prince in 1972, but the 1960 Broadway hit Camelot which brought Arthurian England to life for its most shining hour, rang the curtain down on the phenomenon of Lerner and Loewe. Loewe, who had suffered a heart attack in 1958, went into retirement. In tribute to his long time former partner, Lerner wrote, "There will never be another Fritz. . . . Writing will never again be as much fun . A collaboration as intense as ours inescapably had to be complex. But I loved him more than I understood or misunderstood him, and I know he loved me more than he understood or misunderstood me." Compositions

i don't know

Which show about Danny and Sandy was made into a film with John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John.

Grease (1978) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON DISC Good girl Sandy and greaser Danny fell in love over the summer. When they unexpectedly discover they're now in the same high school, will they be able to rekindle their romance? Director: Famous Directors: From Sundance to Prominence From Christopher Nolan to Quentin Tarantino and every Coen brother in between, many of today's most popular directors got their start at the Sundance Film Festival . Here's a list of some of the biggest names to go from Sundance to Hollywood prominence. a list of 23 titles created 21 Dec 2013 a list of 23 titles created 22 Jan 2014 a list of 27 titles created 3 months ago a list of 44 titles created 3 months ago a list of 30 images created 1 month ago Search for " Grease " on Amazon.com Connect with IMDb Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Nominated for 1 Oscar. Another 3 wins & 7 nominations. See more awards  » Videos Spending the summer at a Catskills resort with her family, Frances "Baby" Houseman falls in love with the camp's dance instructor, Johnny Castle. Director: Emile Ardolino A Brooklyn teenager feels his only chance to succeed is as the king of the disco floor. His carefree youth and weekend dancing help him to forget the reality of his bleak life. Director: John Badham An English student at a 1960's American high school has to prove himself to the leader of a girls' gang whose members can only date greasers. Director: Patricia Birch After a young man is murdered, his spirit stays behind to warn his lover of impending danger, with the help of a reluctant psychic. Director: Jerry Zucker A city teenager moves to a small town where rock music and dancing have been banned, and his rebellious spirit shakes up the populace. Director: Herbert Ross When a worldly singer witnesses a mob crime, the police hide her as a nun in a traditional convent where she has trouble fitting in. Director: Emile Ardolino A poet falls for a beautiful courtesan whom a jealous duke covets. Director: Baz Luhrmann A man in a legal but hurtful business needs an escort for some social events, and hires a beautiful prostitute he meets... only to fall in love. Director: Garry Marshall Cady Heron is a hit with The Plastics, the A-list girl clique at her new school, until she makes the mistake of falling for Aaron Samuels, the ex-boyfriend of alpha Plastic Regina George. Director: Mark Waters A pretty, popular teenager can't go out on a date until her ill-tempered older sister does. Director: Gil Junger A rich high school student tries to boost a new pupil's popularity, but reckons without affairs of the heart getting in the way. Director: Amy Heckerling A Pittsburgh woman with two jobs as a welder and an exotic dancer wants to get into ballet school. Director: Adrian Lyne Edit Storyline A musical about teens in love in the 50's! It's California 1959 and greaser Danny Zuko and Australian Sandy Olsson are in love. They spend time at the beach, and when they go back to school, what neither of them knows is that they both now attend Rydell High. Danny's the leader of the T-Birds, a group of black leather jacket-wearing greasers while Sandy hangs with the Pink Ladies, a group of pink-wearing girls led by Rizzo. When they clash at Rydell's first pep rally, Danny isn't the same Danny from the beach. They try to be like each other so they can be together. Written by Alex Schultz <NedSDeclassified2967> Grease is the word See more  » Genres: Rated PG-13 for sexual content including references, teen smoking and drinking, and language | See all certifications  » Parents Guide: 16 June 1978 (USA) See more  » Also Known As: $12,705,463 (USA) (27 March 1998) Gross: 110 min Sound Mix: DTS (re-release) (1998)| Dolby Digital (re-release) (1998)| Dolby (35 mm prints) (original release)| 70 mm 6-Track (70 mm prints) (original release) Color: Did You Know? Trivia John Travolta revealed in a 1998 interview that Linda Ronstadt was considered for Sandy. See more » Goofs Vi, the waitress, pushes the light switch with her elbow but her elbow is clearly no where near the light switch. See more » Quotes Sandy : I'm going back to Australia; I might never see you again. Danny : Don't... don't talk that way, Sandy. Sandy : But it's true! I've just had the best summer of my life, and now I have to go away. It isn't fair. [Danny starts kissing her] Sandy : Danny, don't spoil it! Danny : It's not spoiling it, Sandy, it's only making it better. Sandy : Danny... is this the end? Danny : Of course not; it's only the beginning. The beginning credits show the main characters in cartoon form. See more » Connections (fairview, nj) – See all my reviews GREASE (1978) **** John Travolta, Olivia Newton-John, Jeff Conaway, Stockard Channing, Dinah Manoff, Eve Arden, Sid Caesar, Edd `Kookie' Byrnes, ShaNaNa, Frankie Avalon, Joan Blondell, Ellen Travolta, Eddie Deezen, Lorenzo Lamas. One of the best Broadway musicals ever adapted for the big screen largely thanks to producer Allan Carr and director Randal Kleiser set at Rydell High circa 1950s with Travolta (in his other iconic role) as leather jacket wearing, hunky hood with a heart-of-gold Danny Zuko recalling his `Summer Nights' with Aussie sexpot Newton-John (in her sunny to sultry iconic turn) as goody-goody Sandy who learns some things from The Pink Ladies' tough yet tender leader Rizzo (Channing, ditto). Good old fashioned knuckle-headed comedy and toe-tapping tunes that will have you dancing and singing along to `Greased Lightning' (imagine Elvis doing this!) , the dance contest's hyper-paced `Hand Jive' sequence and the closer `We Go Together'. Title tune by Franki Valli. A film I've seen probably a hundred times and never tire of. 30 of 41 people found this review helpful.  Was this review helpful to you? Yes

Grease

In which country was A Little Night Music set?

John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John unleash their old Grease moves | Daily Mail Online comments Did you ever wonder what happened to Danny (John Travolta) and Sandy's (Olivia Newton-John) after they flew away from out Rydell High's carnival in their magic car? Well, you might just not want to know as the writer of You're the One That I Want, John Farrar, has penned a new song for Sandy and Danny called -  I Think You Might Like It... but if you're a Grease fan you probably won't. Travolta, 58, and Newton John, 64, agreed to perform the ditty, but that's probably half the problem given that it was 34 years since we last saw them inhabit the beloved roles. Scroll down to watch videos... Whatever happened to Danny and Sandy? We find out it John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John's new video, I Think You Might Like It So young, so nimble: Olivia and John in 1978 classic movie Grease Now first up, this is for charity so can only be commended... but it doesn't mean you can't embrace just how cringeworthy the whole enterprise is. We start off with an older Sandy (still looking good and still wearing all black) waiting for her man to arrive... but not by car. No, Travolta has used his own private air-strip to film the video so Danny (also dressed in black) arrives into his own backyard. After he lands, the duo run towards each other (which is rather sweet) then dance awkwardly on the runway in a slightly incongruous Western style. Flying home for Christmas in a private jet: It looks like Danny Zuko did well for himself No need for a flying car: John used his own private jet and landing strip to film Danny's return home for Christmas Theatrical: John clearly enjoyed getting back into the role, even if his moves were a bit rusty They then drive around in a pastel coloured '50s convertible as we're shown reconciliations in the terminal featuring family and soldiers. John's wife Kelly Preston, daughter Ella Bleu, 12, and baby Benjamin, two, can be spotted. Thanks to the people of Ocala, Florida - where's John's base is - is flashed at the end of the film. It is brilliant by virtue of being unintentionally hilarious and will hopefully persuade people to indulge in a spot of bonkers Christmas whimsy for a good cause. John and Olivia appeared on Ellen Degeneres show to promote the festive album the song comes from, all profits from This Christmas go to the charity. Happy: Danny/John is pretty excited about seeing Sandy/Olivia Reunited: If you ever rooted for the Rydell Romeo and Juliet, this bit will get you... ever so slightly Check out the wheels: When not travelling my plane, Grease lightening is the only way to go-go-go And the actor's share of the money will benefit the Jett Travolta Foundation - named in memory of his autistic son who died aged 16 after suffering a seizure in the Bahamas in January 2009 - and he hopes the organisation can support people dealing with similar conditions, as well as other handicapped and underprivileged kids. He explained: 'Autism and seizures are the least known areas of illnesses and I feel bad that there's so many people dealing with this and there are no answers for. So, I felt like starting a foundation that will help that. Plus, I widened it. It's also for handicapped children and the handicapped Olympics. It's also for underprivileged children. So I widened my purpose a bit there, too.' Lounging around: Once home, the pair change into Christmas jumps to sit by the tree Perks of the family: John's daughter Ella also features And look who it is! John's real wife, Kelly Preston and their little boy Benjamin are not far behind Olivia - who survived breast cancer - will give of all of her proceeds to her eponymous Cancer and Wellness Foundation. The Grease! actor also revealed he's got an addiction... to hot chocolate.  He says the sweet drink reminds him of Christmas, and he loves the way different varieties from around the world have very different tastes. He said: 'It represents winter wonderlands, it represents Christmas. I've collected various types of cocoa from around the world.' VIDEO: Olivia Newton-John and John Travolta perform on Ellen   This episode of The Ellen DeGeneres show will be shown in the UK on Really, Wed 19 Dec at 4pm (Sky 248, Virgin 267, Freeview 20) The one that I want: Olivia and John had dancing feet as they continued their moves on stage Daddy's boy: Little Ben got to show off his moves, too, while mommy watched  The look of love: John was keen to show off his pride of joy as he held his son in his arms It's Sandy and Danny! John Travolta and Olivia Newton John joined Ellen Degeneres to promote their new Christmas album What's your poison? Travolta treated an unimpressed Ellen to a hot chocolate tasting He then showed talk show host Ellen DeGeneres a number of different types, explaining how Brazilian cocoa powder has a 'hint of cinnamon and pepper' which differentiates it from types from other countries. However, a seemingly unimpressed Ellen replied: 'Smells like chocolate.' Keep on blowing: John got to grips with a French horn as he attempted to figure out to make some music Friends forever: John and Olivia have remained close ever since their days in Grease Gossip girl: John and Olivia sat down and had a good long chat with Ellen about their friendship John, 58, went on to explain that people should be careful how they handle cocoa powder because any impurities from air or touch can affect its quality. He said: 'Never blow on it. Like a fine wine, it changes the quality of the chocolate. So, never, ever blow on it.' Serious matters: Olivia and John talk about the charities they're trying to raise money for Just can't get enough: Travolta is mad for the hot chocolate, it's even on the album cover

i don't know

Which show was based on the autobiography of Gypsy Rose Lee?

Gypsy Rose Lee - Biography - IMDb Gypsy Rose Lee Jump to: Overview  (4) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (3) | Trivia  (18) | Personal Quotes  (3) Overview (4) 5' 8" (1.73 m) Mini Bio (1) Born Rose Louise Hovick in Seattle, Washington, in 1911, but called Louise from early childhood, Gypsy Rose Lee was the daughter of a mild-mannered businessman and a restless, fiery young woman named Rose, who was determined to get out of Seattle and make a life for herself and her daughter in show business. In 1912, Rose had another child, June. Rose thought June was much more beautiful, photogenic and talented than Louise apparently could ever hope to be, which soon caused her to pack up her two children and search for a career in vaudeville (she divorced her husband when he objected to a career in show business). By the time Louise was seven and June five, they had put together a very successful act, Baby June and Her Farmboys. June was, of course, the star, and Louise was put in the chorus, though she did get an occasional moment in the spotlight. The act was making $1500 a week, but the family was not exactly living in high style, having to scrimp and save much of the time in order to buy food, and often in debt. There are many who believe that Rose was squandering the money. There were also rumors about Rose during this time, about how she had to dodge the police, who enforced strict child labor laws, and even about how she may have murdered a man she thought was pestering her children. Despite these rumors, June and Louise's act continued to be successful throughout the 1920s. At the end of the decade June was 13 and had been re-christened Dainty June. By this time it was clear that vaudeville was a dying art form. Rose, however, still chased after her dream, and still made June up to be a cute baby. June resented it, and finally she married one of the chorus boys in the act (she was still only 13) and ran away with him. Not even this could stop Rose, however. This time she formed a new act, centering it around Louise. Called Rose Louise and Her Hollywood Blondes, she and her chorus girls performed slightly risqué musical numbers, and were moderately successful. Still, vaudeville continued to die out, which hurt the act. However, there was one form of vaudeville that still drew crowds: burlesque. Eventually, Rose, Louise and company had to take a job in a burlesque house. Sometime during their stay there the star stripper was not able to go on for a performance. Rose, never one to pass up an opportunity, volunteered Louise for the job. So Louise, just 15 at the time, stepped on stage, wearing not much more than a grass skirt, and slowly and teasingly . . . didn't take much off. Audiences responded favorably to this new kind of striptease act, which was more "tease" than "strip," more tantalizing than tawdry. Louise had finally found her calling. For her stage name she took Gypsy, a nickname she derived from her hobby of reading tea leaves, and combined it with her real first name, Rose, and Lee, which she added on a whim. As Gypsy Rose Lee she launched a hugely successful career in burlesque, incorporating humor and intelligence, as well as the requisite removal of various articles of clothing, into her act. She became extremely popular, even appearing at the last place anyone would expect, high society balls. Once she had conquered the stages of burlesque, she decided to try her hand at movies. Billed under her real name, Louise Hovick--because the studio heads were afraid her stage name would scare people away--she made her film debut in Ali Baba Goes to Town (1937). It was a forgettable film, and her performance wasn't much more memorable. She appeared in three more films in the 1930s, and two more in the 1940s, but her film career was pretty much a bust. She tried her hand at writing with the "burlesque mystery" novel "The G-String Murders" (1941), which was made into the film Lady of Burlesque (1943), starring Barbara Stanwyck . By the 1950s, however, she was comfortable just being a sort of queen mother of burlesque. She had gone through three unhappy marriages, as well as affairs with showman Michael Todd and director Otto Preminger ; the latter was the father of her only child, Erik Lee Preminger . She was not close to her sister June, who by this time had changed her name and was known as actress/dancer June Havoc . She also still had to contend with Mama Rose, who constantly tried to extort money from her with vicious threats. It wasn't until Rose died from terminal cancer in 1954 that Gypsy truly felt safe to write her memoirs, without having to worry anymore about her mother's repercussions. Her autobiography, "Gypsy", was published in 1957. Detailing her childhood in vaudeville and her relationship with her mother. It was an immediate bestseller. Broadway producers also noticed it and decided it would make a great musical, and so was born what many consider the best Broadway musical of all time: "Gypsy". With book by Arthur Laurents , music by Jule Styne and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim , it premiered in 1959 and was an immediate smash. However, though Gypsy was an important character, of course, it did not focus on her alone, but rather on the hard-boiled, driven, single-minded, even monstrous stage mother that was Mama Rose. This time it was Rose who was the star, which, as the musical implies, was perhaps what she always wanted. The musical has been frequently revived and been made into two films. The role of Mama Rose has been played by, among others, Ethel Merman , Angela Lansbury , Tyne Daly , Bette Midler and Betty Buckley . Gypsy Rose Lee was able to enjoy the musical's success in her last years. She had appeared in three films in the 1950s, and made three more in the 1960s, including a cameo in, of all films, the family comedy The Trouble with Angels (1966), opposite Hayley Mills and Rosalind Russell , who played Mama Rose in the first screen version of the play, Gypsy (1962). The real Gypsy even hosted two incarnations of her own talk show. She died of cancer in 1970. Even if her film career wasn't spectacular, she was immortalized on the stage of both burlesque and Broadway. - IMDb Mini Biography By: Tommy Peter Spouse (3) Older sister of June Havoc . Gypsy Rose started dancing and stripping at burlesque houses at the age of 15 with the assistance of fellow dancer "Tessie The Tassel Twirler." She retired from burlesque 8 years later to appear in films but documented her rise to fame and adventurous relationship with her mother in the autobiographical book, "Gypsy." Mother of Erik Lee Preminger . In the 1940s, Gypsy Rose Lee was in love with the theatrical impresario Michael Todd , who produced two Broadway shows starring Lee ("Star and Garter" and "The Naked Genius"). She married Alexander Kirkland in 1942 in an attempt to make the already-married Todd jealous. They divorced in 1944. While married to Kirkland, she had a brief fling with Otto Preminger . The fruit of their affair was a boy named Erik Lee, who has been known successively as Erik Kirkland, Erik de Diego, and Erik Lee Preminger . At one of her weddings, Gypsy had a chimpanzee as a ring bearer. When she was diagnosed with cancer in 1969, she called it "a present from mother". She had many pets, including cats, turtles, guinea pigs, and Chinese crested dogs. Although she was a "stripper," she never actually got undressed. The walls of her Los Angeles home were adorned with pictures by Joan Miró , Pablo Picasso , Marc Chagall , Max Ernst , and Dorothea Tanning , all of which were reportedly gifts to her by the artists themselves. Like her mother, Lee was married three times. Her mother Rose died from colon cancer in 1954. Parents: John Hovick and Rose Thompson Hovick. Sister-in-law of William Spier . Portrayed by Natalie Wood in Gypsy (1962) and even appeared on set to give Wood advice on how to perform the stripper dance routines. In real life Wood was actually eight inches shorter than the real Gypsy Rose Lee. Her father was of Norwegian descent. Her mother was of British Isles and German ancestry. After she was diagnosed with lung cancer she reconciled with her sister June. Personal Quotes (3)

Romani people

Aspects of what was a success by Andrew Lloyd Webber?

Gypsy : Program : Ovation Official Site Share Gypsy (1993) Bette Midler, Peter Riergert - Based on the autobiography of Gypsy Rose Lee, a burlesque dancer, this is the story of a stripper with an overbearing stage mother. This was also a successful show on Broadway.

i don't know

Which show tells the tale of Dolly Gallagher Levi?

A tale of two Dollys | Expect the Unexpected Expect the Unexpected Leave a Comment A tale of two Dollys Beth Leavel, left, and Klea Blackhurst portray America’s favorite matchmaker Dolly Gallagher Levi in two very different productions of Hello, Dolly! What kind of fool goes to two different productions of the same show in two weeks? A musical theater fool. I recently saw two productions of Hello, Dolly! The first was at the Cape Cod Playhouse in Dennis, Massachusetts, starring Tony-award winning actress Beth Leavel (The Drowsy Chaperone). The second was in East Haddam, Connecticut at the Goodspeed Opera House, featuring Klea Blackhurst in the title role. Two very different productions, but great fun for this Dolly fan. Dolly background Hello, Dolly! is a musical comedy based on Thorton Wilder’s farce The Matchmaker. Set in the late 1890’s at the turn of the century, it tells the story of Dolly Gallagher Levi, a middle-aged widow and matchmaker, who sets out to make one last match — for herself, by nabbing Horace Vandergelder, the famous penny-pinching “Half-A-Millionaire” of Yonkers, NY. Dolly was written by Michael Stewart with music and lyrics by Jerry Herman. The show first opened on Broadway in 1964 and was a long-running smash. It won 10 Tony awards, including Best Leading Actress by Carol Channing. In 1969, it was made into a film starring Barbra Streisand. The show has since been produced across the world by professional and amateur theater companies. Still popular with audiences today, it’s also the subject of an upcoming book, Call on Dolly: Celebrating 50 Years of Hello, Dolly! by entertainer Richard Skipper, my dear friend and fellow Dolly enthusiast. Hello, Dolly! was my gateway drug into musical theater and it was intoxicating. I was hooked and wanted more. Being a mere child, I missed Dolly when it first appeared on Broadway in 1964. But thanks to my mother’s wonderful record collection I got to listen over and over to Carol Channing, Charles Nelson Reilly (Cornelius), and Eileen Brennan (Irene Malloy) on the original Broadway cast recording. My favorite song was “So Long Dearie” which I used to sing to the family dog.  Carol Channing at the Tribeca Film Festival tells everyone to “smile for Patty.” —Patricia Gay photo In 1975, I had the pleasure to see Pearl Bailey as Dolly on Broadway in an all-Black production (Her 1967 tour featured Clifton Davis and a young Morgan Freeman as two of the dancing waiters). Finally, in 1978 I got to see my childhood idol Carol Channing perform Hello, Dolly! in Boston, part of a national tour featuring Eddie Bracken as Horace Vandergelder. I wanted to sing every song along with the cast, but had to settle for quietly mouthing all the tunes. More recently, as a journalist, I’ve had the great opportunity to interview Carol Channing. I met her and her sweet late husband Harry at a screening of the documentary, Carol Channing: Larger Than Life, at the Tribeca Film Festival. As I took photos for BroadwayWorld.com , I had to laugh when she pointed at me and told everyone to “smile for Patty.” Carol was Carol and she was delightful.   Cape Cod Playhouse Having seen my share of Dollys over the years, I had high expectations for the New England productions. I’m happy to say that both Beth Leavel in the Cape Cod Playhouse production and Klea Blackhurst at Goodspeed, were wonderful! Very different interpretations though. Jennifer Cody Beth played Dolly as a smart lady, who quietly manipulates the people around her to achieve results. Her singing was solid and sweet and she graced the character with charm and warmth. The cast also featured Jennifer Cody (Sutton Foster’s sister-in-law) as Minnie Fay and she didn’t disappoint. I previously saw Cody on Broadway in Urinetown: The Musical, which also starred her husband Hunter Foster. So I knew she had a big personality and was a great dancer. Her comedic timing as Minnie Fay was perfect and the choreographer gave her some great dance numbers. She got a huge ovation at the curtain call, as did the six male dancers who performed an energetic and fun Waiters Gallop. On the down side, the actors playing Barnaby and Cornelius brought little to the table, and managed to make the “Elegance” number dull. The actress playing Irene Malloy had to work hard to hit her notes on “Ribbons Down My Back” and it showed. Pacing of the show was a bit too fast so some of the good jokes were lost. But the worst offense was the shrill one-note performance by James Brennan as Horace Vandergelder. All he did was bark. I wanted to jump on stage and beg Dolly not to settle for this dog! Overall, I give Beth Leavel an A, and a score of B-/C+ for the entire production. Goodspeed Word of mouth reviews about the Goodspeed Dolly were so good that the show was extended through Sept. 14. This is a first rate production where attention was paid to details. Klea Blackhurst, best known for her Ethel Merman tribute — Everything the Traffic Will Allow — brought a little Merman to her Dolly. High jumping waiters in the Goodspeed production. She was bolder and sassier than Beth Leavel. Where Leavel had to keep up with the fast pace, Blackhurst took her sweet time, milking every joke for all it was worth. She played to the hilt the courtroom scene where the cast was anxiously waiting for her to finish her dinner at the Harmonia Gardens and defend them. Without speaking a single word, she had the audience roaring for several minutes as she crammed dumpling after dumpling into her mouth and then went to work on an ear of corn. Taking it painstakingly slow, she munched row after row, occasionally gazing up to the balcony to admonish a man, with just a glance, for looking down into her cleavage. The final touch was when she used the back of a spoon as a mirror to put on a fresh coat of lipstick. When she finally stepped into court, she simply said, “The defense rests,” bringing huge applause from the audience. Game, set and match Ms. Blackhurst. You nailed it! (That solo Dolly food scene was completely cut from the Cape Cod production). This production also boasts the presence of Ashley Brown as Irene Malloy. Brown originated the title role in Mary Poppins on Broadway and she delivered! Beautiful to look at, with a voice to match! Brown added a few extra trills and flourishes to “Ribbons Down My Back,” which made the number sparkle. At the curtain call, she got a huge ovation. Unfortunately, she was not helped by the actor playing Cornelius, her love interest. As in the Cape production, he seemed to just be going through the motions. There was no chemistry. The actress playing Minnie Fay was cute but wasn’t in the same league as Jennifer Cody. The dancers in the Waiters Gallop, however, were AMAZING! The choreography was very complex and included juggling, balancing skewers, back flips, and clanging silver plates and lids. WOW! Klea Blackhurst, the expressive Tony Sheldon, and the beautiful Ashley Brown. The huge surprise for me in this production though was Tony Sheldon as Horace Vandergelder. Finally, an actor who GETS it! Dolly is supposed to be a comedy and if Horace only yells and screams he ain’t funny. Sheldon was a breath of fresh air. A Tony nominee for Priscilla, Queen of the Desert, he played Horace as a cheap miser who was just as foolish as the next guy. His facial expressions were priceless, conveying so much with just a roll of the eyes. You wanted Dolly to save him and marry him. There’s talk that Hello, Dolly! is going to be revived soon on Broadway. A note to the producers: PLEASE cast Tony Sheldon as Horace. You won’t do any better. My score on this is an A for Klea Blackhurst and an A- for this production. It missed out on a straight A because of the weak Cornelius and for cutting the scene where Dolly hires “Ernestina.” That can be done so quickly, I don’t know why it was cut. If I were a first-time viewer I would have been puzzled by Ernestina’s appearance, not knowing Dolly hired her. Looking forward to the next Dolly. And there will be a next one. P.S. Is there an actress out there who can do SOMETHING with Ermengarde and make her crying actually funny? Share this:

Hello, Dolly!

What type of shop was the Little Shop of Horrors?

‘Hello, Dolly!’ Opens at LFHS Sign up for the Daily North Shore Email ‘Hello, Dolly!’ Opens at LFHS Leave a Comment Finale of “Put On Your Sunday Clothes” LAKE FOREST – Lake Forest High School Theatre presents the musical Hello, Dolly! on Thursday, April 28 through Saturday, April 30 at 7 p.m. in the Raymond Moore Auditorium at the high school. Tickets are $17 for adults and $10 for seniors and students. Music and lyrics are by Jerry Herman and the book is by Michael Stewart. Hello, Dolly! was initially produced on Broadway in 1964, was once the longest-running Broadway musical, and has since enjoyed three Broadway revivals. Winner of 10 Tony Awards including Best Musical, Hello, Dolly! is adapted from Thornton Wilder’s farcical play, The Matchmaker, which recently ran at Chicago’s Goodman Theatre. Hello, Dolly! concludes Lake Forest High School’s year of stories about making life-changing decisions including Little Women, 12 Angry Jurors, and The Miss Firecracker Contest. Set in the 1890s, the musical comedy tells the tale of a widowed and wily matchmaker, Dolly Gallagher Levi, who sets up a series of comic romantic entanglements before finally shaking up her own life and making a match for herself. It features the songs “Put On Your Sunday Clothes,” “Before the Parade Passes By,” of course the iconic “Hello, Dolly!” and the legendary “Waiters’ Gallop.” Seventy-five students participate in the cast, tech crew, and pit orchestra. Hello, Dolly! is directed by faculty members Kelly MacBlane and John Wanninger. Tim Haskett is Musical Director and Robert Bassill conducts the orchestra. Dennis Mae is Director of Theater, assisted by Alyssa Loiacano LFHS ‘11. Val Gonzalez, Director of Lake Forest Dance Academy, is choreographer and Dawn Neal is designing costumes. Gracie Stockton assists as Student Director and Addie Jasica is Dance Captain. Erika Herrmann and Landon Kerouac are student Stage Managers. Leading cast members are Ryan Benson (Judge), Bradley Berklich (as Horace Vandergelder), Lexy Bianchini (Ermengarde), Adam Clayton (Ambrose Kemper), Grace Hart (Mrs. Rose), Sam King (Headwaiter Rudolph), Jane Margolis (Irene Malloy), Dana Pepowski (Dolly Levi), Gracie Stockton (Ernestina Money), Peter Sullivan (Barnaby Tucker), Hayley Ward (Minnie Fay), and Chris Wiegand (Cornelius Hackl). The dancing waiters include Grace Forshage, Grace Hart, Addie Jasica, Maddy Javier, Kevin Ocampo, Ursula Nugent, and Grayson Pruett. Ensemble members are Ryan Benson, Olivia Brown, Elizabeth Clayton, Jay Graham, Claire Jessen, Bryan Kingsley, Jake Koefelda, Jaclyn Lonergan, Eilise Lynch, Nathaniel Martin, Rana Muratoglu, Anna Grace Passalino, Antoinette Pompe van Meerdervoort, Ellie Thomas, Camille Valentincic, and Renee Ye. Tessa Kerouac and Andrew Walther are Assistant Stage Managers. Kyle Condon designed the lighting, to be operated by Jacob Phelps, Joe Neus, and Sam Neus. Mary Grace Gladden is running sound. Michelle Alonzi and Laila Hussain handle cast hair and make-up. Running crew is Kate Bellino, Nicolette Giangiorgi, Nick Ortiz, and Andrea Robles. Playing in the pit orchestra are Matt Ackman, Lizzie Allen, Mariel Aquino, Ann Aquino, Alex Banta, Ryan Cho, Ryan Dailey, Chris Fischer, Carolyn Hammond, Alyssa Hollander, Will Johnson, Thomas Knipe, Matthew LeMay, Matt Oline, Kelly Page, Robert Piechota, Madeleine Pompe van Meerdervoort, Bridgett Skaronea, Henry Steck, Maddie Stephenson, Megan Szostak, Sarah Trammell, Adrienne Trandai, Ryan Vogel, and Allen Yuan. Submitted by an LFHS Theatre department parent Mobile ad container – below post Today’s top Stories

i don't know

Which show was based on Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote?

Festival Events Being Planned Don Quixote Learn more Films – NC Latin American Film Festival Click for RTVE TV Series Films – NC Latin American Film Festival Collaboration With NC Latin American Film Festival (Duke) Films that inspire the imagination and about Dreaming Big!     LIBERTADOR WITH ENGLISH SUBTITLES SEPT. 29, 2015 CAROLINA THEATRE 7:00 PM   LIBERTADOR | THE LIBERATOR. Alberto Arvelo / 119 min […] Learn more Don Quixote Musical Concerts/ Theatre Don Quixote Musical Concerts/ Theatre     Man Of La Mancha – CAPE FEAR REGIONAL THEATRE September 17, 2015 – October 11, 2015 – Fayetteville NC PACO PEÑA'S FLAMENCURA – NOVEMBER 10, 2015  PROMO CODE: (DANCE) 50% OFF ANY TICKET!​ EL QUIXOTE FESTIVAL CONCERT –  THE PHILHARMONIC ASSOCIATION – TRIANGLE YOUTH MUSIC […] Learn more OPEN KEYNOTE ADDRESS – ROBERTO GONZÁLEZ ECHEVARRÍA Ph.D. OPEN KEYNOTE ADDRESS "Reading Don Quixote today," ROBERTO GONZÁLEZ ECHEVARRÍA Ph.D. Sterling Professor of Hispanic and Comparative Literature September 30th, 2015 – 6:30 PM MEREDITH COLLEGE – RALEIGH NC DOORS OPEN AT 6:00 PM      Press Release – Meredith Roberto Gonzalez Echevarria   ROBERTO GONZALEZ ECHEVARRIA. Sterling Professor of Hispanic […] Learn more Reading Don Quixote Today – Opening address of El Quixote Festival Reading Don Quixote Today – Opening address of El Quixote Festival "Reading Don Quixote today,"  SEPTEMBER 30TH, HOSTED BY: MEREDITH COLLEGE  Doors Open 6:o0 PM – Jones Chapel A performance of Georg Philipp Telemann's Don Quixote Suite by Meredith's String Music Majors will precede the address with a Q&A and reception […] Learn more Tertulia Literaria – Literary Gathering  The Third Literary Gathering is scheduled for February 17, 2016 7pm. As part of the El Quixote Festival, Queens University of Charlotte in collaboration with ArtSí and LaCa Projects invite you to the third Tertulia Literaria – Literary Gathering.     LaCa Projects – LATIN AMERICAN CONTEMPORARY ART 1429 BRYANT STREET, CHARLOTTE, […] Learn more Art Exhibit I Am Quixote, Yo Soy Quijote Artist Studio Project in collaboration with The Durham Arts Council presents: I Am Quixote, Yo Soy Quijote OPENING RECEPTION: NOVEMBER 12, 2015 – 7:00 PM – FREE ALL ARE WELCOME ARTIST ROUND TABLE – NOVEMBER 19, 2015 – 7:00 PM – FREE ALL ARE WELCOME 120 Morris St. Durham NC 27701 – (919) 995-9763  […] Learn more El Quixote Festival Concert – TYP El Quixote Festival Concert: NOVEMBER 22, 2015 – 7:00PM In the Triangle Youth Philharmonic's concert in Meymandi Concert Hall on November 22, 2015 at 7:00 pm, the orchestra will present opera and ballet music inspired by Don Quixote. Works by: Telemann, Minkus & The World Premiere performance of Tilting at Windmills by […] Learn more PACO PEÑA’S FLAMENCURA: NOVEMBER 10, 2015 PACO PENA'S FLAMENCURA: NOVEMBER 10, 2015 PACO PEÑA'S FLAMENCURA – NOVEMBER 10, 2015  USE PROMO CODE: (DANCE) TO GET 50% OFF ANY TICKET! Paco Peña embodies both authenticity and innovation in flamenco. As guitarist, composer, dramatist, producer and artistic mentor he has transformed perceptions of this archetypal Spanish art form. Named […] Learn more Kidznotes Winter Concert @ HOLTON CAREER AND RESOURCE CENTER KIDZNOTES WINTER CONCERT – DREAM THE IMPOSSIBLE DREAM Envisioned as an educational and community enrichment program based on the El Sistema model and adapted to the local realities of the communities we serve, Kidznotes provides instruction free-of-charge to interested children in the lowest-income neighborhoods of Durham and Raleigh. Like El Sistema, the […] Learn more Edward H. Friedman – Don Quixote and the Poetics of Reality Renowned Vanderbilt scholar to speak at Meredith College as part of statewide Quixote Festival Free public lecture Tuesday February 9, 2016 – 6:30 pm Carswell Concert Hall – (View Map)  MEREDITH COLLEGE 3800 Hillsborough Street, Raleigh, NC 27607 Press-Release Edward Friedman pdf Comunicado De Prensa Edward Friedman PDF     Edward H. Friedman – Don […] Learn more AN EVENING WITH DON QUIXOTE – UNA VELADA CON DON QUIJOTE AN EVENING WITH DON QUIXOTE – UNA VELADA CON DON QUIJOTE February 19, 2016 – 7:00 PM – 9:30 PM As part of El Quixote Festival, Casa Azul of Greensboro has partnered with Scuppernong Books for an evening with Don Quixote and his legacy. The evening will showcase traditional Spanish […] Learn more Cuentacuentos / Storytelling Directly From Leon,Spain International Sensation: Crispín D’Olot: – La Razon De La Sin Razon –  The Reason For The Unreason Crispín D'Olot is an internationally-renowned troubadour who has recited Medieval Spanish romances and brought that Peninsula’s history and culture to life all over the world.  As part of the El Quixote […] Learn more Cervantes Numismatico Presentation Cervantes Numismatico Presentation Miguel Chirinos (Historian) Shares with us his collection of currency related to Miguel De Cervantes and Don Quijote.     Portraits, Monument & ‘Don Quixote’ On Spanish Banknotes Read More Of Chirinos' Articles Below:     About Miguel Chirinos: was born in Caracas, Venezuela in August 1967. During his […] Learn more ED STEPHENSON & THE PACO BAND – NORTH CAROLINA MUSEUM OF HISTORY EL QUIXOTE FESTIVAL CONCERT –  "ED STEPHENSON & THE PACO BAND" – NORTH CAROLINA MUSEUM OF HISTORY APRIL 10, 2016 – MUSIC OF THE CAROLINAS SERIES –  GET TICKETS Ed Stephenson and the Paco Band Ed Stephenson Raleigh, NC based Canadian guitarist and Alanna recording artist, Ed (Stefanyshyn) Stephenson’s virtuosity extends throughout the […] Learn more THE HISTORY À LA CARTE NC HISTORY MUSEUM – DR. GARRY WALTON THE HISTORY À LA CARTE  NC HISTORY MUSEUM – DR. GARRY WALTON  Special Guest DR. Garry Walton talks about Cervantes- Don Quixote and the special connection between Miguel De Cervantes Saavedra and William Shakespeare. Join us at the NC HISTORY MUSEUM, at noon, on the second Wednesday of each month […] Learn more Marathon Reading – Lectura Maratónica Don Quijote MARATHON READING – LECTURA MARATÓNICA DON QUIJOTE APRIL -18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 2016 Reading Marathon Don Quixote: Challenge 40 hours, organized by The El Quixote Festival. Lectura Maratónica del Quijote: Desafío 40 horas, organizada por El Festival de El Quijote. Pre-Registration appreciated but walk-ins are welcome. No one will […] Learn more Food Experience – Wine Dinner Several Food Experiences are being planned thoughout the months of the festival. The first is scheduled for October 9th at Latin Quarters Restaurant and Bar. 7335 Six Forks Rd, Raleigh, NC 27615 – (919) 900-8333 Come Join Us At Our Special Noche Quijotesca!  October 9th, 2015 As We Celebrate 400 Years […] Learn more El Retablo de Maese Pedro (Master Peter’s Puppet Show) The 2012 Performance of “A Journey Through Spain”, featuring The Chamber Orchestra of the Triangle (www.thecot.org) performing Manuel de Falla’s “El retablo de maese Pedro (Master Peter’s Puppet Show), and G. Bizet/R.Shchedrin’s Carmen Suite.  Guest Artists include Paperhand Puppet Intervention, from Saxapahaw, NC.

Man of La Mancha

Which musical was based on the life of Annie Oakley?

Festival Events Being Planned Don Quixote Learn more Films – NC Latin American Film Festival Click for RTVE TV Series Films – NC Latin American Film Festival Collaboration With NC Latin American Film Festival (Duke) Films that inspire the imagination and about Dreaming Big!     LIBERTADOR WITH ENGLISH SUBTITLES SEPT. 29, 2015 CAROLINA THEATRE 7:00 PM   LIBERTADOR | THE LIBERATOR. Alberto Arvelo / 119 min […] Learn more Don Quixote Musical Concerts/ Theatre Don Quixote Musical Concerts/ Theatre     Man Of La Mancha – CAPE FEAR REGIONAL THEATRE September 17, 2015 – October 11, 2015 – Fayetteville NC PACO PEÑA'S FLAMENCURA – NOVEMBER 10, 2015  PROMO CODE: (DANCE) 50% OFF ANY TICKET!​ EL QUIXOTE FESTIVAL CONCERT –  THE PHILHARMONIC ASSOCIATION – TRIANGLE YOUTH MUSIC […] Learn more OPEN KEYNOTE ADDRESS – ROBERTO GONZÁLEZ ECHEVARRÍA Ph.D. OPEN KEYNOTE ADDRESS "Reading Don Quixote today," ROBERTO GONZÁLEZ ECHEVARRÍA Ph.D. Sterling Professor of Hispanic and Comparative Literature September 30th, 2015 – 6:30 PM MEREDITH COLLEGE – RALEIGH NC DOORS OPEN AT 6:00 PM      Press Release – Meredith Roberto Gonzalez Echevarria   ROBERTO GONZALEZ ECHEVARRIA. Sterling Professor of Hispanic […] Learn more Reading Don Quixote Today – Opening address of El Quixote Festival Reading Don Quixote Today – Opening address of El Quixote Festival "Reading Don Quixote today,"  SEPTEMBER 30TH, HOSTED BY: MEREDITH COLLEGE  Doors Open 6:o0 PM – Jones Chapel A performance of Georg Philipp Telemann's Don Quixote Suite by Meredith's String Music Majors will precede the address with a Q&A and reception […] Learn more Tertulia Literaria – Literary Gathering  The Third Literary Gathering is scheduled for February 17, 2016 7pm. As part of the El Quixote Festival, Queens University of Charlotte in collaboration with ArtSí and LaCa Projects invite you to the third Tertulia Literaria – Literary Gathering.     LaCa Projects – LATIN AMERICAN CONTEMPORARY ART 1429 BRYANT STREET, CHARLOTTE, […] Learn more Art Exhibit I Am Quixote, Yo Soy Quijote Artist Studio Project in collaboration with The Durham Arts Council presents: I Am Quixote, Yo Soy Quijote OPENING RECEPTION: NOVEMBER 12, 2015 – 7:00 PM – FREE ALL ARE WELCOME ARTIST ROUND TABLE – NOVEMBER 19, 2015 – 7:00 PM – FREE ALL ARE WELCOME 120 Morris St. Durham NC 27701 – (919) 995-9763  […] Learn more El Quixote Festival Concert – TYP El Quixote Festival Concert: NOVEMBER 22, 2015 – 7:00PM In the Triangle Youth Philharmonic's concert in Meymandi Concert Hall on November 22, 2015 at 7:00 pm, the orchestra will present opera and ballet music inspired by Don Quixote. Works by: Telemann, Minkus & The World Premiere performance of Tilting at Windmills by […] Learn more PACO PEÑA’S FLAMENCURA: NOVEMBER 10, 2015 PACO PENA'S FLAMENCURA: NOVEMBER 10, 2015 PACO PEÑA'S FLAMENCURA – NOVEMBER 10, 2015  USE PROMO CODE: (DANCE) TO GET 50% OFF ANY TICKET! Paco Peña embodies both authenticity and innovation in flamenco. As guitarist, composer, dramatist, producer and artistic mentor he has transformed perceptions of this archetypal Spanish art form. Named […] Learn more Kidznotes Winter Concert @ HOLTON CAREER AND RESOURCE CENTER KIDZNOTES WINTER CONCERT – DREAM THE IMPOSSIBLE DREAM Envisioned as an educational and community enrichment program based on the El Sistema model and adapted to the local realities of the communities we serve, Kidznotes provides instruction free-of-charge to interested children in the lowest-income neighborhoods of Durham and Raleigh. Like El Sistema, the […] Learn more Edward H. Friedman – Don Quixote and the Poetics of Reality Renowned Vanderbilt scholar to speak at Meredith College as part of statewide Quixote Festival Free public lecture Tuesday February 9, 2016 – 6:30 pm Carswell Concert Hall – (View Map)  MEREDITH COLLEGE 3800 Hillsborough Street, Raleigh, NC 27607 Press-Release Edward Friedman pdf Comunicado De Prensa Edward Friedman PDF     Edward H. Friedman – Don […] Learn more AN EVENING WITH DON QUIXOTE – UNA VELADA CON DON QUIJOTE AN EVENING WITH DON QUIXOTE – UNA VELADA CON DON QUIJOTE February 19, 2016 – 7:00 PM – 9:30 PM As part of El Quixote Festival, Casa Azul of Greensboro has partnered with Scuppernong Books for an evening with Don Quixote and his legacy. The evening will showcase traditional Spanish […] Learn more Cuentacuentos / Storytelling Directly From Leon,Spain International Sensation: Crispín D’Olot: – La Razon De La Sin Razon –  The Reason For The Unreason Crispín D'Olot is an internationally-renowned troubadour who has recited Medieval Spanish romances and brought that Peninsula’s history and culture to life all over the world.  As part of the El Quixote […] Learn more Cervantes Numismatico Presentation Cervantes Numismatico Presentation Miguel Chirinos (Historian) Shares with us his collection of currency related to Miguel De Cervantes and Don Quijote.     Portraits, Monument & ‘Don Quixote’ On Spanish Banknotes Read More Of Chirinos' Articles Below:     About Miguel Chirinos: was born in Caracas, Venezuela in August 1967. During his […] Learn more ED STEPHENSON & THE PACO BAND – NORTH CAROLINA MUSEUM OF HISTORY EL QUIXOTE FESTIVAL CONCERT –  "ED STEPHENSON & THE PACO BAND" – NORTH CAROLINA MUSEUM OF HISTORY APRIL 10, 2016 – MUSIC OF THE CAROLINAS SERIES –  GET TICKETS Ed Stephenson and the Paco Band Ed Stephenson Raleigh, NC based Canadian guitarist and Alanna recording artist, Ed (Stefanyshyn) Stephenson’s virtuosity extends throughout the […] Learn more THE HISTORY À LA CARTE NC HISTORY MUSEUM – DR. GARRY WALTON THE HISTORY À LA CARTE  NC HISTORY MUSEUM – DR. GARRY WALTON  Special Guest DR. Garry Walton talks about Cervantes- Don Quixote and the special connection between Miguel De Cervantes Saavedra and William Shakespeare. Join us at the NC HISTORY MUSEUM, at noon, on the second Wednesday of each month […] Learn more Marathon Reading – Lectura Maratónica Don Quijote MARATHON READING – LECTURA MARATÓNICA DON QUIJOTE APRIL -18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 2016 Reading Marathon Don Quixote: Challenge 40 hours, organized by The El Quixote Festival. Lectura Maratónica del Quijote: Desafío 40 horas, organizada por El Festival de El Quijote. Pre-Registration appreciated but walk-ins are welcome. No one will […] Learn more Food Experience – Wine Dinner Several Food Experiences are being planned thoughout the months of the festival. The first is scheduled for October 9th at Latin Quarters Restaurant and Bar. 7335 Six Forks Rd, Raleigh, NC 27615 – (919) 900-8333 Come Join Us At Our Special Noche Quijotesca!  October 9th, 2015 As We Celebrate 400 Years […] Learn more El Retablo de Maese Pedro (Master Peter’s Puppet Show) The 2012 Performance of “A Journey Through Spain”, featuring The Chamber Orchestra of the Triangle (www.thecot.org) performing Manuel de Falla’s “El retablo de maese Pedro (Master Peter’s Puppet Show), and G. Bizet/R.Shchedrin’s Carmen Suite.  Guest Artists include Paperhand Puppet Intervention, from Saxapahaw, NC.

i don't know

What was the name of the first hippie musical?

Hippie Music - Songs with a Message - Hippies From A to Z by Skip Stone Songs With A Message  Do you believe in rock 'n roll?  Can music save your mortal soul?  Don McLean (American Pie) Hippies use music to express themselves emotionally, spiritually, and politically. Music can make a statement, give voice to a movement, even unite us. As hippies explore their inner world, music guides them along in their quest for meaning. Without drugs it can get you high. With drugs, well, let's just say, music can be a religious experience.  To explain the impact of music as a social phenomenon, we need to go back before the hippies to the Civil Rights Movement. The protesters would sing a song called "We Shall Overcome". The Rev. Wyatt Tee Walker, an associate of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., said:  "One cannot describe the vitality and emotion this hymn evokes across the Southland. I have heard it sung in great mass meetings with a thousand voices singing as one. I've heard a half dozen sing it softly behind the bars of the Hinds County Prison in Mississippi. I have heard old women singing it on the way to work in Albany, Ga. I've heard the students singing it as they were being dragged away to jail. It generates power that is indescribable. It manifests a rich legacy of musical literature that serves to keep body and soul together for that better day which is not far off."  So the early sixties saw music becoming more than just entertainment. It was now music with a message. And the messages our poets sang helped us identify with important issues and events that concerned us all. They spurred us to action. These songs had an impact on the consciousness of not just hippies but all society. Some of these songs also broke new ground musically. One way or another they hit us deeply, made us think, made us dream, made us feel as one people.  The musicians listed below were the inspiration for much of the music that has been made since. This includes Heavy Metal, Punk, Disco, Rap, Hip Hop, and Techno. Some of the artists in this list, many of the greatest, devoted the last years of their lives to sharing their music with the world. They touched millions of us, each in a unique way.  Also visit:  Hippyland's Music Page - Links to other great music sites.  Famous Hippy Quotes - Our page of great quotes from the Beats and hippies in music and literature.  Hipplanet's Music Store to buy the music on this page or other great music!  The Musicians and Their Music The Top 40 Hippie Songs are highlighted in Blue Recommended CDs are highlighted in Rust The Allman Brothers Greg and Duane Allman, and Dicky Betts could really jam. Their live concerts are the stuff of legend. Their southern rock sound conquered the north as well. Duane's death in a motorcycle accident was a shock, but the band carried on and has scored many hits since.  Eat a Peach - This recording includes "Melissa", "Blue Sky", and the 33+ minute "Mountain Jam".  Another great choice is Live at Filmore East with "Whipping Post". This band could really put on a show. America America's laid back, easy listening sound won many fans. Their soft acoustic melodies and crisp harmonies put America on the Pop map with tunes like "Horse With No Name", "Ventura Highway" and "Sandman".  Their first album, America, was very timely with an American Indian flavored cover, and ran up the charts. Their latest release is called Human Nature (1998). History: America's Greatest Hits (1975) has most of their best songs. The Animals The Animals were part of the original British Invasion that included the Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Herman's Hermits and the Dave Clark Five. Eric Burdon, the lead singer, is a legend among blues rockers. "House of the Rising Sun" and "We've Gotta Get Out of This Place" are two of their big hits. The Best of the Animals. Remastered, from mono! - remember that?  The Association This pop group specialized in upbeat love songs. Their great melodies, tight harmonies, and lively rhythms made them very popular. "Cherish" and "Never My Love" are classic love songs. Greatest Hits - This release includes "Cherish", "Windy", "Never My Love", and "Along Comes Mary". We're more popular than Jesus now;  I don't know which will go first- rock and roll or Christianity.  John Lennon The Beatles When the Beatles came to America in 1964 it really was an invasion of new music, style and attitude. They not only turned the music world upside down with their electric guitars, their happy harmonies, long hair and mod fashions, but suddenly music was fun like it hadn't been since Elvis. We boomers couldn't get enough of them, as Beatlemania swept the country. With fame and fortune theirs, they realized they could do anything, and decided to experiment with new sounds, new electronic techniques, and new drugs. What followed was the most innovative music the world had ever seen. The Beatles got serious about their music and the messages it conveyed. After all they are the biggest band ever and their influence was worldwide.  Credit John Lennon with much of the creative new work and deeper messages. George Harrison took the Beatles on a turn to the East with Ravi Shankar inspired sitar work and philosophical lyrics. Paul McCartney added a much-needed light cheery touch to their music. There's no way we can measure the profound impact of the Beatles on other artists and the course of human history. I don't know a single hippy who didn't love them. As a group the Beatles had their ups and downs, and when they called it quits, no one wanted to believe it. Fortunately their legacy lives on in some of the best music to ever slip through our ears and grace our minds. She Loves You - (1964) Their first hit single in the U.S., this record is so full of joy, you couldn't help but be happy listening to it. The Beatles' infectious harmonies, their haircuts, their appeal to teenage girls made their first trip to the U.S. to be on Ed Sullivan one of the high points of Rock and Roll. Beatlemania was here to stay. Yesterday - (1966) Yesterday and Today The best song Paul McCartney ever wrote (according to John). A melancholy ballad lamenting a lost love, it affected just about everybody. I Am the Walrus - (1967) Magical Mystery Tour Beatles fans debated the meaning of the lyrics in this John Lennon tune. The Beatles were in their most experimental phase in the studio and many of the special sound effects that were to become a Beatle trademark can be heard here. And just what DID the chorus sing at the end of the record?  With A Little Help From My Friends - (1967) Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band Not a drug song! Yeah, and Yoko's the best thing to ever happen to the Beatles. Not! Ringo's singing was fortunately overshadowed by the lyrics and its placement on Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. The best version ever done was by Joe Cocker, live at Woodstock!  Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds - (1967) Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band Gee, they couldn't even fool ol' pussy footin' Spiro Agnew into believing it was just about a girl (with Kaleidoscope eyes!). Now we knew just what inspired the Beatles latest creative spurt. Let It Be - (1970) Let It Be Another McCartney hit, supposedly a tribute to his mother, Mary, not a drug song, yeah, right. Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band - (1967). This landmark concept album marked a transition for the Beatles and everyone who listened to the various stories told herein. This Album won the Golden Hippy for best album in Hippyland's Hall of Fame! Other must haves for the Beatle fans are: Rubber Soul, Magical Mystery Tour, Abbey Road, and The White Album (named for its white cover).  For just the hits try the 1962-1966 (Red Album) and for the later hits, 1967-1970 (Blue Album). Blind Faith This short lived group was most notable for the matching of Eric Clapton's virtuoso guitar work with the sensitive vocals of Steve Winwood. Their one album, with the controversial cover of a nude girl fondling a phallic airplane is a classic.  Blind Faith. This 1969 release with Eric Clapton, Stevie Winwood, Ginger Baker and Rick Gretch was the only recording this "supergroup" made. "Can't Find My Way Home" is a great tune. Buffalo Springfield Buffalo Springfield with Neil Young, Stephen Stills and Richie Furay helped popularize folk rock. Their unique sound, superb harmonies, and socially relevant lyrics were a hit with the hippies. Unfortunately, or fortunately, depending how you look at it, they split up and started CS&N+Y and Poco, which continued to expand the folk/country rock tradition. For What it's Worth - (1967) Retrospective: The Best of Buffalo Springfield. A cautionary tale for those who go up against the system.  Retrospective: The Best of Buffalo Springfield Cuts like "Expecting to Fly", "Mr. Soul" and "For What it's Worth" highlight how great this band was.   The Byrds David Crosby and Roger McGuinn powered this group to the top with "Eight Miles High" and "Turn! Turn! Turn!" Their cover of Dylan's "Mr. Tamborine Man" was also a big hit in 1965. Turn! Turn! Turn! - (1966) Turn! Turn! Turn! Very old lyrics (biblical), with a very timely message written by Pete Seeger. The Byrds Greatest Hits - (1996) A great collection for Byrds fans, "Turn! Turn! Turn!" was digitally remastered and includes seven bonus tracks. Joe Cocker Joe made his mark at Woodstock '69 with an incredibly soulful version of "A Little Help From My Friends" that blew everyone away. His deep, gravely voice, and on stage spasms brought the music home to us. Classics - Joe can really belt out a tune with all his being. He does it here in "A Little Help From My Friends", "She Came In Through The Bathroom Window" and "Midnight Rider". His Mad Dogs and Englishmen is one of the all time greats, a two disk set recorded live at the Filmore East in 1970.  Cream Ginger Baker, Jack Bruce and Eric Clapton played together for a short time, but their influence lingers today. Their dramatic brand of heavy rock has been imitated by many, but surpassed by none. The Very Best of Cream  This recording contains 20 of Cream's hard rock tunes including "Sunshine of Your Love", "White Room" and "Strange Brew".  Creedence Clearwater Revival (CCR) CCR's fans are legion. Their country rock sound crossed over and produced one hit after another. Fortunate Son - (1969) CCR has had so many hits, but this one hit a nerve, and was used appropriately in Forest Gump's soundtrack. An anti-war/anti-draft song it reflected the sentiment at the time. Cosmo's Factory - This 1970 album is packed with some of CCR's best material including "Heard it Through the Grapevine", "Lookin' out my Back Door" and "Who'll Stop the Rain?".  Chronicle: The 20 Greatest Hits - This collection has most of their hits including "Proud Mary", "Green River", and "Bad Moon Rising". Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young (CSNY) David Crosby, Stephen Stills and Graham Nash teamed up three great singers and songwriters whose harmonies transport us to another time and place. Their social relevant lyrics echo within and have inspired many a hippie to take up a cause. They have weathered many a storm (drugs, jail, alcohol, serious illness). They are reuniting again so don't miss their tour!  Suite Judy Blue Eyes - (1969) This was the first song CSN played at Woodstock. It went over very well. Their tight harmonies and excellent song writing scored right from the start. Ohio - (1971) 4 Way Street "They're cutting us down!" refers to the 1970 Kent State Massacre, wherein four students were murdered by the National Guard.  Also Chicago - from the same album, is a call to protest at the trial of the Chicago Seven, who were facing charges for conspiracy and inciting a riot at the Democratic Convention in 1968. Moving song reminding us we can still "change the world". Crosby, Stills & Nash - Their first album together. A classic! "Suite Judy Blue Eyes", "Marrakech Express", and "Guinnevere" are just the first three cuts from this remarkable debut recording!  Deja Vu - The second CSN album, this time with Neil Young. This classic recording includes some of their best tunes like "Carry On", "Teach Your Children" - with Jerry Garcia, "Deja Vu" and "Woodstock".  4 Way Street - Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. This two album live set is a landmark in American music. An outstanding collection of songs about love, hate, war and protest, it is the voice of a generation seeking answers. The unsurpassed live vocal harmonies make this work stand out. Released in 1971, it was updated in 1992 with four more cuts added.  Down through all of eternity the crying of humanity,  'tis then when the hurdy gurdy man comes singing songs of love.  Donovan (Hurdy Gurdy Man) Donovan Donovan Leitch inspired us with his great music, excellent arrangements, and timely messages about love. His playful, joyful lyrics made us scratch our heads, light the candles and incense, and get mellow. Although his latest work is lacking those elements above, Donovan is still an icon of the Hippy movement. Mellow Yellow - (1966) Donovan's Greatest Hits This song had thousands of people doing some very weird things with bananas. Some people are still trying to figure it out. I think it was plot by Chiquita to improve sales. By the way, that's Paul McCartney doing the backup vocals. Hurdy Gurdy Man - (1967) A big hit for Donovan, it's a powerfully haunting song about the man who's "singing songs of love" at a time when it's most needed. John Bonham, John Paul Jones and Jimmy Page (who plays an outrageous screaming guitar lead) appear just prior to the formation of Led Zeppelin. Donovan's Greatest Hits - This is definitely the best selection of Donovan's early hits. It includes "Wear Your Love Like Heaven", "The Hurdy Gurdy Man" and of course "Mellow Yellow".  The Doors Jim Morrison still lives on as a rock icon. His sensuous voice, defiant attitude and iconoclastic lyrics along with Ray Manzarek's great keyboard work propelled the Doors to the top of the charts. Jim defied the authorities, pushing the envelope especially during his live performances. A passionate poet, he touched those most sensitive areas of our collective psyche. Light My Fire - (1967) The Best of the Doors One of the top hits of all time. Who didn't get turned on by Morrison's sexy lyrics? The arrangement of Light My Fire, especially Ray Manzarek's keyboards make this a psychedelic classic.  The Best of the Doors - This two disk set contains the Doors biggest hits including "Light My Fire", "Riders on the Storm" and "L.A. Woman".  Bob Dylan In the early 60's Bob Dylan transformed folk music into protest music with tunes like "Blowin' in the Wind" and "The Times They Are A-Changin'". These songs influenced a whole generation and just about everyone who calls himself a musician. Bob the poet reminds us that words and music can be a potent force. No can be unmoved by the urgency and power of his lyrics. Bob's continuing metamorphoses keep everyone guessing what he'll do next. Blowin' in the Wind - (1963) Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits This early protest song opened people's minds to music with a message. Powerful, direct lyrics + simple folk music + Dylan = A new musical paradigm. This too, became an anthem for the Civil Rights movement.  The Times They Are A-Changin' - (1964)  Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits Again, Dylan's forceful uncompromising lyrics tell it like it is! This song was prophetic. Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits. This recording has all his early hits. Another great selection from 1966 is Blonde on Blonde. The Eagles The Eagles currently consist of Don Henley, Glenn Frey, Joe Walsh, Timothy B. Schmit, and Don Felder. Hell Freezes Over - This recent live recording does justice to all the tunes from the exceptional "Hotel California" to "Take it Easy". If you get a chance, check out the live performance on video. It's exceptional and the band has never sounded better. Emerson, Lake & Palmer The talented ELP hit it big with their excellent arrangements and style, somewhat similar to the Moody Blues. What set them apart was Keith Emerson's fantastic keyboards and Greg Lake's mood evoking voice. Emerson Lake & Palmer - This, their first album of "pomp" rock from 1970 defines their intense orchestral style with some very fine tunes including "Lucky Man" and "Take A Pebble". Keith Emerson's keyboards and Greg Lake's vocals are timeless. The Grateful Dead The enduring legacy of the Grateful Dead lives on. Jerry Garcia and company are an ongoing phenomena despite Jerry's death and the breakup of the band. The Dead's legions of devoted fans, followed them everywhere, incorporating The Letter The Boxtops  Oldies 01:50  their music into a Hippy lifestyle. Since the Dead were such an experimental and experiential band (they were involved with the Acid Tests, after all), they managed to carve out their own genre of American music. This is one group where the performance was the message. Many find their music is best enjoyed on psychedelics. The group's hip, laid back attitude was a departure from the ego-centric rock stardom that many pursued.  Truckin' -  (1970) American Beauty One of the legendary Dead's few commercial hits. Once you got this song in your head, you couldn't get it out, and before you knew it you were a "dead head". The Dead became the epitome of the trippy hippy band. And what a long strange trip they took.... American Beauty - This 1970 release showcases the band's song writing and is a perfect introduction. For those who want a brief overview of this prolific band try Skeletons from the Closet. For a more in-depth live experience I recommend Europe '72. The Guess Who This pop band scored a number of hits, thanks to memorable lyrics, and strong music that echoed in your head over and over. They are now playing the revival circuit. The Best of The Guess Who. Hits include "Laughing", "American Woman", "These Eyes" and "No Time". Arlo Guthrie His folk style echoes the music of his famous folk singer father, Woody Guthrie. Arlo made a name for himself with the song and album Alice's Restaurant. His appearance at Woodstock included some memorable quotes (included in this book).  The Best of Arlo Guthrie - This recording includes the hits, "Alice's Restaurant", "The City of New Orleans" and "Coming into Los Angeles". Richie Havens Richie opened Woodstock with his songs 'Handsome Johnny' (an antiwar song) and 'Freedom' (a civil rights tune). His unique style of rhythm guitar complements his deep resonant voice resulting in a powerful sound. With his intensity, Richie Havens can ignite your soul with his original songs or famous covers. From Woodstock to the present Richie still delivers music with a passion. Resume - The Best of Richie Havens. All his classic tunes are here to enjoy. Jimi Hendrix Jimi Hendrix was one of those rare talents that appears once in a lifetime. Like a saint he walked among us to remind us that there are greater things than we can possibly understand. Through his music he let us hear and see these wondrous things. Whether in the studio, at Woodstock, Monterey, the Isle of Wight or the Fillmore, Jimi fed his heart and soul into his music. The result was music that could lift you so high you could "Kiss the Sky" or plunge you into a 'Manic Depression'. His influence on rock music was profound. Jimi's legend lives on now that some new releases are out.  Purple Haze - (1967) Are You Experienced? You ran right out and bought the record, "Are You Experienced?". Then you rushed home, put it on the turntable, and this was the first song you heard. What went through your mind? All of a sudden music was REALLY GROOVY, man! Are You Experienced? - The Jimi Hendrix Experience. This 1967 recording captured Jimi's best known works. The legendary guitarist/composer exposes his raw psychedelic talent on everything from "Purple Haze" to "Foxey Lady". Another good one is Electric Ladyland.  Jimi Hendrix - Live At The Fillmore East. Yes it's a new double album of two concerts recorded at the Fillmore, New Year's eve 1969 and New Year's day 1970. Jimi was in turmoil, and these performances were his catharsis.  Experience Hendrix: The Best Of Jimi Hendrix. Yet another new release captures his greatest hits. This may be the best collection yet on one CD. Live At Woodstock [2 CD-BOX SET] - This latest release contains 16 tunes from Jimi's performance at Woodstock. Not his best since he was reforming his band and the other instruments aren't clear in the mix, but as usual, Jimi shines! A must for fans. It's A Beautiful Day The LaFlammes put out several albums and ended up in an interminable lawsuit with their original manager (it's still on). Thus they have never made anything from their albums. That said, their first release, It's a Beautiful Day is a classic from the 60s. It's A Beautiful Day - This album has become very famous due to it's scarcity. At one time a good copy would fetch about $60. The best cut, "White Bird", really grooves thanks to the blazing violin. Other good tunes are "Hot Summer Day", "Bombay Calling" and "Wasted Union Blues". Jefferson Airplane Grace Slick, Marty Balin, Paul Kanter, Jorma Koukonen, Jack Cassady had a sound that typified the psychedelic music from San Francisco. Grace's soaring vocals, Marty's sensitive lyrics, and the rest of the bands' electric energy turned on Frisco and the rest of the world. The band has had numerous incarnations with various members such as Hot Tuna and Jefferson Starship, but the original is still the greatest. They played at Monterey Pop, Woodstock, Altamont (tried to, until Marty got punched out by a Hell's Angel) and many Fillmore and Winterland shows.  Somebody to Love -  (1967) Surrealistic Pillow The first hit off their Surrealistic Pillow album. When Grace Slick belted this song out, we all knew just what she meant. White Rabbit -  (1967) Surrealistic Pillow This song, with references to Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland and certain drugs, got us high just listening to it. Feed Your Head! Surrealistic Pillow - The Airplane first landed on the San Francisco music scene in 1966, and with this 1967 album (their second) took the country by storm. "Somebody to Love" and "White Rabbit" became instant classics. For all you fans there's a new release, Live at the Filmore East (1998) which showcases their legendary onstage energy. Jethro Tull Propelled by Ian Anderson's dramatic flute and eccentric lyrics Tull brought a fresh edge to rock and distinguishes this band from others of the period. Jethro Tull's powerful portrait of a social reject, Aqualung, hit you in the gut! It was an early cross of heavy metal and grunge. The whole record was a great social statement. Aqualung - (1971) Aqualung The big hit that made Jethro Tull famous. A biting comment on social misfits. Aqualung - Released in 1971 this record went to the top. The subsequent album, Living in the Past (1972) showed a mellower side of Tull. Janis Joplin No one sang the blues like Janis. She could put more feeling into one song, than many people put into their whole lives. We feel your pain, Janis!  Piece of My Heart - Janis Joplin (1968) Cheap Thrills with Brother & The Holding Company or Janis Joplin's Greatest Hits Janis rips through this one like a tortured feline.  Janis Joplin's Greatest Hits. This album has a good selection of hits. For a more complete selection there's a three-CD set, Cheap Thrills/I Got Dem Ol' Kosmic Blues Again Mama!/Pearl. Big Brother & The Holding Company (with Janis Joplin of course!) This is their first major album with a classic cover from R. Crumb. "Piece of My Heart", "Summertime" and "Ball and Chain" are as gritty as Janis gets.  Carole King Carole is one of the most prolific and successful songwriters in history. Her tunes were sung by many popular stars. Her music always has an emotional storytelling that captures you. Tapestry - (1971) One of the best-selling records of all time, Tapestry showcases Carole's gift of songwriting. For something more complete try Carole King Natural Woman-Ode Collection including many songs written for artists like James Taylor and Aretha Franklin. King Crimson In The Court Of The Crimson King - Originally released in 1969, this famous album features Greg Lake singing and the guitar work of Robert Fripp. For a taste of the band's new work (minus Lake) check out their 1998 release, Absent Lovers-Live In Montreal Led Zeppelin Led Zeppelin defined heavy metal music. The hard rockin' blues of Robert Plant and Jimmy Page and their live concerts are the stuff of legends. Plant's extraordinary vocal range and Jimmy's mastery of the guitar are a great combination. Exotic influences permeate their sound sending us back in time to distant lands. If you get a chance check out their movie "The Song Remains the Same" to see their remarkable live performance. Stairway to Heaven - (1971) Led Zeppelin IV One of the biggest hits ever! This song by the heavy metal band took everyone by surprise by being so mellow, then building to one of the great climaxes in music. Plant and Page at their best!  Led Zeppelin IV This album marks the pinnacle of Led Zeppelin's career. With Stairway to Heaven the band scored it's biggest hit. The Remasters collection has all their hits sounding better than ever. John Lennon John's legacy and his inspired songwriting lives on in some new releases. Lennon's influence goes far beyond his music, as we've all been touched by his magic and spirit. Imagine - (1971) Imagine or Lennon Legend - The Very Best of John Lennon. This song sums up John's philosophy. Just imagine if John's dreams came true... Lennon Legend - The Very Best of John Lennon. This recording includes all his post Beatles hits. An excellent collection. Perhaps a better choice than the John Lennon Anthology. Loggins & Messina Kenny Loggins and Jim Messina struck up a great friendship in the early '70s. Their excellent harmonies and songwriting highlight the few recordings they did together. Sittin' In - (1972). This upbeat album shines thanks to great songs and good vocal harmonies on tunes like "Vahevalla", "Back to Georgia" and "Nobody Like You". The Lovin' Spoonful Led by John Sebastian, this group had many hippie hits in the 60s. Anthology - The Lovin' Spoonful includes "Do You Believe in Magic?", "Daydream" and "Summer in the City". The Mamas and the Papas John Phillips led this band of trippy hippies to stardom. With Cass Elliot, Denny Doherty, and Michelle Phillips they cranked out hit after hit. Super songwriting (John) and tight harmonies were sometimes happy, sometimes sad. Their autobiographical music told of their ups and downs, lives and loves, and we loved them for it.  California Dreamin' - (1966) If You Can Believe Your Eyes and Ears We'll probably never know how many people went to California after hearing this song. I know I did! If You Can Believe Your Eyes and Ears - The Mamas and Papas. This 1966 classic has "Monday, Monday" and "California Dreamin'". If you want even more check out their Greatest Hits for 20 great tunes.  Bob Marley & the Wailers Bob Marley introduced the world to Reggae music and Rastafarianism. His heartfelt music spoke volumes about injustice, freedom, and love. One of the great heroes of the common man, Marley has influenced musicians and free thinkers around the world. I Shot the Sheriff - (1973) Burnin' or Legend This hit song (Eric Clapton's version) opened up the world for Reggae music, and Bob Marley. Typically, the subject is injustice. Legend - Bob Marley and the Wailers. This album showcases the King of Reggae's biggest hits. Whether singing about Love or Protest, Bob's funky soulful sound is always spiritually satisfying.  Paul McCartney Paul's pop musical style doesn't appeal to everyone, but his good natured upbeat tunes usually make us smile.  Ram - (1971) Paul's best solo album has some good cuts including "Too Many People" and "Uncle Albert/Admiral Halsey". Band on the Run, (1973) with Wings, is another good choice. Joni Mitchell One of the original folk singers, Canadian Joni has explored other musical styles with great success. Her vocal range, excellent guitar playing and sometimes cynical lyrics make her a outstanding performer. Woodstock - This tune, popularized by CS&N, pretty well summed up the event and the feelings of a whole generation. Blue - Released in 1971 this great album has Stephen Stills and James Taylor on some tracks. From the love ballads here to jazz and rock Mitchell explores various styles with her unique vocals. Her latest, Taming the Tiger focuses on her jazz guitar and synth playing and is reminiscent of some of her best work. The Moody Blues Ever since their second album, Days of Future Past (their first had different band members), the Moodies captured our imagination with lush orchestrations, magnificent moog synthesizer, deep inspirational lyrics, wonderful melodies, and moving vocals. Their extraordinarily loyal and devoted fans still regard them as psychedelic rock legends, and I'm definitely one!  Nights in White Satin - (1967) Days of Future Past. Justin Hayward's haunting vocals highlight this song. Time Traveler - The Moody Blues. This five CD set covers the Moodies' extraordinary journey through time and innerspace, from Days of Future Past (1967) to Keys to the Kingdom (1991). Fortunately, they managed to keep together some of the more dramatic segues from their early albums. A must for those who don't have all the albums yet. Days of Future Past was one of the first concept albums with smooth segues between tunes (like Sgt. Pepper). The Moodies succeeded big time by blending their form of introspective rock with classical music, thanks to the London Festival Orchestra. Van Morrison This soulful crooner real packs a wallop when he wants to. He's scoring big with his new album. Moondance - The master of R&B romance scores on this one with "Moondance", "Crazy Love" and "Into the Mystic". Van Morrison was the inspiration for the movie "The Commitments". Back On Top - He scores again with this hit album that harkens back to his '70s magic. A must buy for fans and those who love good R&B music. The New Riders of the Purple Sage NRPS rode to stardom with their laid-back country rock style with echoes of the Grateful Dead.  New Riders of the Purple Sage. This 1971 release includes backup work by Jerry Garcia, Spencer Dryden, Mickey Hart and Commander Cody. Their brand of mellow country/rock is highlighted in "Glendale Train" and "Louisiana Lady". The Adventures of Panama Red is another good recording from NRPS.  Peter, Paul & Mary These aging beats, along with Pete Seeger and Woody Guthrie were responsible for popularizing folk music in middle America. Their beautiful harmonies made us listen to the subtle messages of peace and freedom in the lyrics. Where Have All The Flowers Gone? - Pete Seeger/Peter, Paul & Mary (1962) Includes songs that we baby boomers sang in school like "This Land is Your Land" and "If I Had a Hammer". These tunes put subtle yet influential messages in our virgin brains, whose seeds would bear fruit in our teenage years. Puff the Magic Dragon - (1963) A drug song or a fairy tale? Depends on who's listening. After all Jackie Paper needs his friend Puff to have fun, and don't forget the sealing wax Jackie! This is still a popular children's song. Around the Campfire - Yup, they're still around and this new album has lots of their old hits and four new recordings. You can gather 'round the fire with your kids (grandkids?) and sing along to "Puff the Magic Dragon" and "Leavin' on a Jet Plane" Pink Floyd I remember my friend Floyd trying to get us to listen to an album by Pink Floyd. We looked at the Pink cover, then at him and laughed (he was a little weird after all). Well, Floyd had the last laugh as we all became addicted to the hallucinogenic band called Pink Floyd. Their psychedelic leanings were evident in the early albums Dark Side of the Moon and Wish You Were Here. Despite the band's break up, both David Gilmore and Roger Waters are still touring (separately), and packing in the legions who love to fly comfortably numb. Time - (1973) Alan Parsons produced the album Dark Side of the Moon with all it's sound effects. This record stayed on the charts for an amazing 14 years! Time is one of the more compelling pieces, lamenting it's passage and aging. The opening sequence of clocks chiming is classic. Dark Side of the Moon - This incredible album still gets lots of play on the airwaves. Their mastery of the electronic milieu is at its finest here. Today, as in 1973 this recording has messages for us all. For a taste of the Floyd live, you must check out Pulse available on CD and Video (VHS and laserdisk). Some of the tunes here are better than the originals, and the video is outstanding. Poco This underrated group still has many fans. Their upbeat country rock was highlighted by Rusty Young's pedal steel guitar, along with Jim Messina, Richie Furay, and Timothy B. Schmit's great harmonies.  The Forgotten Trail 1969-74 - This 2 CD set contains 38 cuts both live and studio and a 36 page book. Poco is a great country rock band and this recording covers all their hits including "Kind Woman", "A Good Feeling to Know" and "Pickin' up the Pieces". Procol Harum This band had a couple of great hits, then faded. Fortunately they're back with a new recording, that makes it seem like they never left! The Best of Procol Harum (1973). This album contains their hits "Whiter Shade of Pale" and "Conquistador". Their latest release, Prodigal Stranger (1991) is much like their old stuff. The Rascals This group was very popular, and had a number of classic hippie hits. The Very Best of the Rascals. The Rascals had some big hits in the 60s and 70s including "Groovin'", "Good Lovin'" and "A Beautiful Morning", all of which are included here. The Rolling Stones Since 1964, The Stones always seemed to be the best music to play at a party. Their infectious tunes got everyone up and dancing. The lack of current hits hasn't hurt their popularity any. As long as Mick, Keith and Charlie can still stand I guess we'll have more to look forward to.  Satisfaction - (1965) Hot Rocks 1964-1971 This song of social angst hit our collective button, and gave the Stones one of their greatest hits. Flowers - (1967). Digitally remastered, this early work with Brian Jones contains the hits "Ruby Tuesday", "Lady Jane" and "Mother's Little Helpers". Another blast from the past is the 1970 Get Yer Ya-Ya's Out!, their best live album.  Hot Rocks 1964-1971 - This collection of hits from their early period has everything. "Satisfaction", "Jumpin' Jack Flash", "Ruby Tuesday", "Sympathy for the Devil" and lots more! Santana Carlos Santana and company managed to define a whole genre back in the early '70s. His great performance at Woodstock made him a legend. And today he's back on the charts with a new hit. Their pioneering funky, latin, soul, rock sound is unmistakable. Carlos' mesmerizing lead guitar playing is your ticket to nirvana. It's nearly impossible to sit through this music. Dance, sister dance! Black Magic Woman - (1970) The Best of Santana This song was their greatest hit. We couldn't stop dancing while Carlos Santana's scorching riffs burned into our brains. There have been many imitators, but no band ever did it better. Abraxas - (1970) "Black Magic Woman", "Oye Como Va" and "Hope You're Feeling Better" are just some of the great cuts on this album. Carlos Santana's guitar work is electric and the beat is sensual. This mix of rockin' salsa is outstanding.  The Best of Santana. This new release showcases the bands forays into Latin/Jazz/Rock fusion. The early hits like "Oye Como Va" and "Black Magic Woman" are highlighted making this a great introduction to the band's tight funky sound. Simon & Garfunkel Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel made some beautiful music together. Their sensitive harmonies made us feel sensitive too. Simon's great songwriting talent produced hit after hit. Excellent melodies and interesting arrangements highlight their music. Old Friends - This 1997 release went back to the old masters and sounds great! All their hits are here in this three-CD set. If you don't already have their old albums, this is a good way to get caught up. Sly and the Family Stone Sly Stone embodied the upbeat, funkadelic sound that was widely copied by many. His very lively performances made him a legend. Sly's soul funk and his personal style influenced many a disco performer. 'I Want to Take You Higher' is one of his best long live songs. Greatest Hits - Sly and the Family Stone. This collection of great music from 1970 makes you want to get up and "Dance to the Music!"  Dance to the Music - (1968) Greatest Hits This funky tune was the precursor to Disco music.  Steppenwolf Steppenwolf coined the term "Heavy Metal" and their sound was intense psychedelic rock. Born to Be Wild - (1968) 20th Century Masters: The Best Of Steppenwolf As the lead song on the soundtrack to Easy Rider this was sure to be a hit. It captures the spirit of the open road, freedom, and bikers. This song also was responsible for the term "Heavy Metal" as in "heavy metal thunder..." 20th Century Masters: The Best Of Steppenwolf Hits include: "Born to Be Wild", "Magic Carpet Ride" and "It's Never Too Late".  Cat Stevens Cat Stevens' voice resonated somewhere deep within us. He kept us hanging on every word he sang. Few artists have ever been able to convey their feelings so dynamically. I can't help but feel we have lost him just as we lost our other great hippie icons, suddenly, never to return. He was not the only sensitive artist to reject the call to superstardom, but he turned his back on all his fans. Since the '80s, he has devoted his life to Islam, and our lost is their gain. Tea for the Tillerman - This group of songs represents his best effort. They include "Father and Son", "Where do the Children Play", and "Hard Headed Woman" His Greatest Hits album includes "Peacetrain" and "Moonshadow". Three Dog Night This pop band had many hits and is still touring, much to the delight of their aging fans. The Best of Three Dog Night. The hits came easily to this band including "Joy to the World", "Shambala", "Eli's Coming" and "One".  The Who Pete Townsend, Roger Daltry, Keith Moon and John Entwistle entered my consciousness with the song 'I Can See for Miles and Miles'. Just like the song, the Who faded, only to return again much more triumphantly. The Who's legendary presence onstage was nowhere better than at the ill fated Isle of Wight Festival where they performed the entire Tommy rock opera among other tunes.  Won't Get Fooled Again -  (1971) Who's Next A great synth riff, Keith Moon's driving beat, Pete Townsend's politically inspired lyrics, and a thunderous finale make this a true rock anthem. Who's Next - One of the greatest rock albums of all time, and the Who's only #1 record. It has some of their best work, like "Baba O'Reilly", "Behind Blue Eyes" and "Won't Get Fooled Again". Full of existential and political messages, this 1971 release was remastered in 1995 with added tracks. Tommy, their famous rock opera (and movie) has several versions, all good. Yes Yes consists of Jon Anderson, Rick Wakeman, Chris Squire and Steve Howe. This is another group that's back on tour again, with a new album, The Ladder, of course! Fragile - This 1972 recording was remastered and highlights Yes' dramatic rock style. "Roundabout" and "Long Distance Runaround" are two hits from this album. Their latest release, Open Your Eyes (1997) brings together the original band members. Neil Young This Canadian musician got his big break writing and singing with Buffalo Springfield. His popularity soared when he teamed up with Crosby, Stills & Nash. Neil went on to produce his own great solo recordings including After the Gold Rush and Harvest. Neil's style ranges from hard rock, blues, folk ballads to country. His heavy rock is credited with inspiring grunge music.  After the Gold Rush - Neil Young. On this 1970 solo album Neil Young sings "Tell Me Why", "Don't Let It Bring You Down" and "Southern Man". For a great live recording check out his Unplugged album. Frank Zappa Zappa's original group The Mother's of Invention's first album, entitled "Freak Out" was very popular and way out, even for it's time. Zappa's music was a very wild, creative satire on society. Remarking on Zappa's creative genius, one of his band members once said that Zappa would first make beautiful music, then turn it ugly (dissonant). Zappa coined many expressions and became a icon of the lack of respect for the establishment. A popular college poster from the 60's showed Zappa with his long, wild and stringy hair sitting naked on a toilet. The title was Frank Zappa Crappa.  Freak Out! - Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention. The band's first album released in 1966 is still a monument to Zappa's satirical anarchy. A good place to start with Zappa.   1967 - Rock 'n Roll's greatest year!  1967 brought to our attention such phenomenal artists as Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, The Jefferson Airplane, The Grateful Dead, The Doors and The Moody Blues. The psychedelic San Francisco sound and the spread of LSD opened minds everywhere to new possibilities. Concept albums like Sgt. Pepper had us leaving our turntables on 33 instead of 45. Concerts like Monterey Pop were huge happenings where the audience was part of the show. Then there was the Summer of Love.... To be alive and part of this scene was something very special. It forever changed the face of music, society and our lives.           Click on the hands to go back or forward to the next chapter

Hair

Which show does I Don't Know How To Love Him come from?

The Hippie Counter Culture Movement (1960’s) – Mortal Journey · Updated April 12, 2014 The 1960’s are defined by the hippie counter-culture craze that invaded the lives of every citizen in the United States and around the world. What were hippies and their counter-culture movement? The 1960’s hippie counter culture movement involved a variety of social concerns and beliefs. The hippies’ primary tenet was that life was about being happy, not about what others thought you should be. Their “if it feels good, do it” attitudes included little forethought nor concern for the consequences of their actions. Hippies were dissatisfied with what their parents had built for them, a rather strange belief given that their parents had built the greatest booming economy the world had ever seen. Hippies rejected established institutions. Calling them “The Establishment”, “Big Brother”, and “The Man”, hippies believed the dominant mainstream culture was corrupt and inherently flawed and sought to replace it with a Utopian society. Hippies rejected middle class values, opposed nuclear weapons and the Vietnam War. They embraced aspects of eastern philosophy and sought to find new meaning in life. Hippies were often vegetarian and believed in eco friendly environmental practices. They championed free love and sexual liberation, particularly for women. They also promoted the use of psychedelic drugs which they believed expanded their consciousness. Hippies participated in alternative arts and street theater and listened to folk music and psychedelic rock as part of their anti-establishment lifestyle. They opposed political and social violence and promoted a gentle ideology that focused on peace, love, and personal freedom. Some hippies lived in communes or aggregated communities of other hippies. Some described the 1960’s hippies movement as a religious movement. Hippies created their own counter culture founded on psychedelic rock and the embracement of the sexual revolution. Drugs such as marijuana and LSD were tightly integrated into their culture as a means to explore altered states of consciousness. Contrary to what many believe, hippies tended to avoid harder drugs such as heroin and amphetamines because they considered them harmful or addictive. Hippie dress, which they believed was part of the statement of who you were, included brightly colored, ragged clothes, tie-dyed t-shirts, beads, sandals (or barefoot), and jewelry, all of which served to differentiate them from the “straight” or “square” mainstream segments of society. Their aversion to commercialism also influenced their style of dress. Much of their clothing was often purchased at flea markets or second hand shops. Hippie men wore their hair long and typically wore beards and mustaches while the women wore little or no makeup and often went braless (occasionally shirtless). The peace symbol became the hippie official logo and the VW bus their official means of group transportation. Hippies often drove VW buses painted with colorful graphics so they could quickly pack up and travel to where the action was at any given time. Their gypsy like travel habits also meant many hitchhiked to get to and from major hippie events. History of hippies and the counter culture movement The origin of the word “hippie” derives from “hipster” which was first coined by Harry Gibson in 1940 in a song titled “Harry the Hipster” (as Harry referred to himself). In the song, hipsters were beatniks who had moved into New York City’s Greenwich Village. Beatniks were followers of the Beat Generation literary movement who through their writings, promoted anti-conformist attitudes and ideals. The first clearly used instance of the term “hippie” occurred on September 5, 1965 in the article “A New Haven for Beatniks” by San Francisco journalist Michael Fallon (who was writing about the Blue Unicorn coffeehouse). Similar counter culture movements had occurred in Germany between 1896 and 1908. Known as Wandervogel (which translates roughly to “migratory bird”), the youth movement arose as a countercultural reaction to the urbanization that was occurring in Germany at the time. Wandervogel youth opposed traditional German values and forms of entertainment and instead emphasized amateur music and singing, creative dress, and communal outings involving hiking and camping. They were a back-to-the-earth generation who yearned for the simple, sparse, back-to-nature spiritual life of their ancestors. In later years, the Wandervogel Germans immigrated to the United States where they opened many West Coast area health food stores. Many moved to Southern California. Over time other Americans adapted the beliefs and practices of the Wandervogel youth. Songwriter Eden Ahbez wrote a hit song called Nature Boy that was inspired by the Wandervogel follower, Robert Bootzin. The song helped popularized health consciousness, yoga, and organic food throughout the United States.   The Beat Generation and Beatniks Following the Wandervogel youth movement, the 1950’s introduced the “Beat Generation” to the United States. The Beat Generation were a fringe group of American writers who came to prominence in the 1950’s. Allen Ginsberg’s Howl (1956), William S. Burroughs’s Naked Lunch (1959) and Jack Kerouac’s On the Road (1957) are among the best known examples of Beat literature. Because of their explicit descriptions of homosexual sex (many of the central Beat Generation authors were openly homosexual), the books Howl and Naked Lunch became the focus of United States obscenity trials. Ultimately the results of the trials helped to liberalize publishing in the United States. The term “beat” came from “tired” or “beaten down” which is how the Beat Generation described their era. Followers of the Beat Generation came to be known as “beatniks”, a combination of the words “Beat Generation” and the recently launched Russian satellite Sputnik (Sputnik used in the collective because it was “far out of mainstream society”). Central elements of the “Beat” were drug experimentation and alternative forms of sexuality (particularly homosexuality), an interest in Eastern religion, and a general rejection of materialism. Beatniks soon developed a reputation as bohemian hedonists who celebrated non-conformity and spontaneous creativity. A large number of beatniks moved from New York City to San Francisco in the late 1950’s and became in integral part of the upcoming hippie counter culture movement. The hippies arrive in California Chandler A. Laughlin II, cofounder of the infamous Cabale Creamery club in Berkeley, was greatly influenced by the Beat Generation and their beatnik culture. In 1963, Laughlin followed their lead and established a tight family-like identity among 50 people in Greenwich Village in New York City and later Berkeley, California. Laughlin recruited many of the early psychedelic musical talent acts including the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, Iron Butterfly, The Charlatans, and others. Laughlin and George Hunter of The Charlatans band, were true “proto-hippies” wearing long hair, boots, and outrageous clothing. Together they opened the Red Dog Saloon in the old mining town of Virginia City, Nevada. The Red Dog Saloon became a focal point of drugs and psychedelic music festivals. During this time, LSD manufacturer Owsley Stanley, who also lived in Berkeley, provided much of the LSD to the burgeoning hippie scene. Stanley, an ex-army radar operator, converted his amphetamines lab to an LSD lab and became one of the first millionaire drug dealers in the United States. His LSD product became a part of the “Red Dog Experience”, the early evolution of psychedelic rock and the budding hippie culture. At the Red Dog Saloon, the Charlatans were the first psychedelic rock band to play live while high on LSD. The Red Dogs move to San Francisco In October of 1965, many Red Dog participants returned to their native San Francisco where they created a new collective called “The Family Dog”. On October 16, 1965, The Family Dog hosted “A Tribute to Dr. Strange” at the Longshoreman’s Hall in San Francisco. The event was the first psychedelic rock performance in San Francisco. Over 1,000 “hippies” attended to watch Jefferson Airplane perform alongside a rudimentary dance and light show. Additional psychedelic rock shows followed, including the infamous January 22, 1966 Grateful Dead performance where 6,000 people were given punch spiked with LSD and treated to the first fully-developed, elaborate light show. As attendance exploded at the psychedelic rock shows, The Family Dog became Red Dog Productions and event locations were expanded. More performance/parties were held at venues such as the Avalon Ballroom and the Fillmore Auditorium. These shows were full psychedelic musical experiences with light shows combined with the colorful film projections that became the staple of the 1966’s hippie events. Event attendees often wore colorful, outlandish costumes to these shows. By June of 1966, San Francisco’s Haight-Ashbury district was the epicenter of the hippie movement. The area was already primed to become the center of hippie activity as its residents consisted of beatniks, writers, artists, and musicians. About 15,000 hippies had moved to the area including the psychedelic bands The Charlatans, Jefferson Airplane, Big Brother, and Holding Company. The hippies accepted into their family the performance group The Diggers, a street theater group who combined spontaneous street theater with anarchistic action and art happenings. The Diggers sought to build an alternative free society where every need and desire could be obtained for free. By late 1966, The Diggers had opened public stores that provided free food (some of which was stolen off the backs of trucks), distributed free drugs, gave away money, and organized music concerts and art events. In October 1966, California became the first state to make LSD illegal when they declared LSD a controlled substance. In response to the criminalization of their psychedelic drug, San Francisco hippies staged a gathering in the Golden Gate Park. The event was called the Love Pageant Rally. The purpose of the event was to demonstrate that those who used LSD were not evil, criminals, or mentally ill. It was the first incidence of political activism initiated by the hippies. Drugs were handed out to participants and the hippies put tabs of LSD on their tongues in front of police in protest of the new law. The Summer of Love On January 14, 1967 the Human Be-In event was held in Golden State Park in San Francisco. This event, which received extensive media coverage from the major networks, popularized the hippie culture throughout the United States and led to the legendary Summer of Love on the West Coast. Three thousand hippies were expected but thirty thousand hippies showed up and gathered in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park to celebrate the hippie culture. The Diggers secretly slipped LSD into the free turkey sandwiches that were handed out to all attendees and the media was treated to an all-out drug exhibition as drug addled hippies danced and sang before the cameras. Three months later, on March 26, 1967, 10,000 hippies came together in Manhattan for the Central Park Be-In. Scott McKenzie’s rendition of the John Phillips’ song, San Francisco, became a huge hit in the United States and Europe. One lyric, “If you’re going to San Francisco, be sure to wear some flowers in your hair” inspired thousands to travel to San Francisco, many wearing flowers in their hair and distributing flowers to passerby at intersections and on the street. The name “Flower Children” stuck. Articles about the hippie movement appeared in prominent mainstream magazines including Time Magazine who ran the story, The Hippies: The Philosophy of a Subculture. The Time magazine cover story described the guidelines for being a hippie: “Do you own thing, wherever you have to do and whenever you want. Drop out. Leave society as you have known it. Leave it utterly. Blow the mind of every straight person you can reach. Turn them on, if not to drugs, then to beauty, love, honesty, and fun.” It has been estimated that 100,000 people travelled to San Francisco during the summer of 1967. The media followed the movement of the hippies casting a spotlight on the Haight-Ashbury district where many of the psychedelic bands lived and played. In the hippies’ eyes, they had become freaks and little more than a sideshow for the amusement of visiting tourists. Many began to flee Haight in search of calmer, more remote settings. The death of the hippie At the end of summer 1967, The Diggers declared the “death” of the hippie movement and burned an effigy of a hippie in Golden Gate Park. The Haight-Ashbury scene had deteriorated dramatically. The Haight Ashbury district simply could not accommodate the influx of hundreds of thousands of hippies. Many hippies, some no older than teenagers, took to living on the street, panhandling, and drug dealing. Problems such as malnourishment, disease, and drug addiction grew prominent in the Haight community. Crime and violence in the area skyrocketed as homeless drug addicted hippies stole to survive and drug dealers moved in to control the drug trade. By the end of 1967, many of the hippies and musicians who initiated the Summer of Love moved on, leaving many misgivings about the hippie culture, particularly with regards to their drug abuse and lenient morality. Although the hippie movement died in Haight, it was still alive in the United States and moving eastward. By 1968, the movement continued to cross the country. Hippie fashion trends spread into the mainstream, especially popular with young teenagers and young adults of the populous “Baby Boomer” generation. Longer hair for men, beads, feathers, flowers, and bells were worn by many teenagers of the era even though they did not necessarily delve deep into the hippie culture or the hardcore hippie beliefs that were prominent from 1966 through 1967. The movement even spread overseas to Britain and Australia. Around this time, the hippie movement began to take on dire meaning to the mainstream public. The “Yippies”, led by Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin, were notorious for their theatrics. The Yippies tried to levitate the Pentagon at an October 1967 war protest. They used the slogan, “rise up and abandon the creeping meatball”. Civil disobedience was encouraged – over 3,000 took over Grand Central Station in New York resulting in 61 arrests. They even nominated their own candidate for the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago – Lyndon Pigasus Pie (an actual pig). Their silly theatrics were unpopular and looked down upon by the mainstream public who generally wanted a country governed by law and order. People’s Park – the hippie era turns violent In April 1969, citizens, including many hippies, were disgusted with the decrepit conditions of a vacant lot on the University of California campus. The university had taken the homes of area residents through eminent domain and demolished all buildings on a 2.8 acre lot. The lot was subsequently ignored by the University and became quite an eyesore for the neighborhood. Partially demolished buildings, debris and rubble were scattered throughout the lot. Eventually people began dumping old abandoned cars on the empty lot until it became a sort of junk yard. Citizens, including hippies, took matters into their own hands and planted trees, shrubs, flowers, and grass to convert the vacant lot into a park which they affectionately named People’s Park. The radical form of political activism was frowned upon by the authorities. Reagan, already angered that the University allowed student demonstrations, called the Berkeley campus “a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters and sex deviants.” A major confrontation occurred one month later when on May 15, 1969 Governor Ronald Reagan ordered the park destroyed and a protective chain link fence built around it to keep people out. Riots quickly followed as students attempted to “take back the park”. The police were called in and over 128 Berkeley residents were taken to area hospitals for head trauma, shotgun wounds, and other serious injuries inflicted by the police. One student was killed by a police shotgun blast and another man permanently blinded. This led to a two week occupation of Berkeley by the United States National Guard after Reagan called a state of emergency. During the National Guard occupation, students snuck into the park at night and planted flowers. Each morning the National Guard destroyed all flowers that had been planted the night before. Police were caught parking their vehicles several blocks away from the park and ironically, donning pig Halloween masks, attacking citizens that they found near the park. A year later, similar violence would erupt at Kent State University, killing four students and seriously wounding nine. “These differing perspectives mirrored widespread 1960s societal tensions that tended to flow along generational lines regarding the war in Vietnam, race relations, sexual customs, women’s rights, traditional modes of authority, experimentation with psychedelic drugs and opposing interpretations of the American Dream. “ A wall began to form between the hippies and the general public. Woodstock ends the hippie era The gap that existed between the hippies and mainstream society widened. In August 1969, 500,000 people attended the Woodstock Music and Art Fair in Bethel, New York. Bands at the event included Joan Baez, Janis Joplin, Grateful Dead, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young, Carlos Santana, The Who, Jefferson Airplane, and Jimi Hendrix. The Wavy Gravy Hog Farm provided security for what was a mostly peaceful event. The mainstream public was treated to visuals of drug using hippies covered in mud and exhibiting bizarre behavior. In that same month, Sharon Tate (and her unborn baby) and Leno and Rosemary LeBianca were murdered by Charles Manson, a former Haight-Ashbury resident, and his “followers”, who the public identified as drug crazed hippies. Counter culture catastrophes continued. In December 1969, 300,000 people attended the Altamont Free Concert where the Rolling Stones, Crosby Stills Nash and Young, and Jefferson Airplane played. The Hells Angels provided security for the event. 18 year old African American Meredith Hunter was stabbed and killed during the Rolling Stones performance. By 1970, the hippie movement began to wane. The events at the Alatamont Free concert shocked many people including some who had supported the hippie movement. Several hippie mega-stars, including Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, and Jim Morrison, overdosed on drugs. The Charles Manson murders also contributed to the public hatred of the hippies. Soon, hippies were being physically attacked on the streets by skinheads, punks, athletes, greasers, and members of other youth subcultures. The impact of the hippie movement The impact, good and bad, of the 1960’s hippie movement cannot be denied. The movement influenced popular music, television, film, literature, and the arts. The music industry, particularly the rock music segment, experienced an explosion in sales that has continued to this day. In subsequent years, unmarried couples no longer felt persecuted for living together. Frankness regarding sexual matters was common. Religious and cultural diversity gained greater acceptance. Even fashion was impacted as the popularity of the necktie and other business apparel declined and was replaced by more casual dress standards. Some changes were not as positive though. Some argue that the movement ushered in more liberal press and movies which has led to a degradation of our cultural values and ethics. Youth fashions became more and more bizarre , and sexual, in an attempt to rebel against the mainstream values. Some argue that the embrace of spontaneity and worship of the “primitive” have turned us towards mindlessness and violence.

i don't know

Which show, starring Robert Preston and Barbara Cook on Broadway?

Barbara Cook - Biography - IMDb Barbara Cook Jump to: Overview  (2) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (1) | Trivia  (6) Overview (2) Barbara Nell Cook Mini Bio (1) Barbara Cook is best-loved and remembered for her work on the Broadway stage. An amazing singer and refreshingly impulsive actress, she made her debut at age 23 in the musical "Flahooley". Roles in "Plain and Fancy" and, the most famous flop of all time, "Candide" followed. In 1957, she created her most famous role as Marion Paroo opposite Robert Preston in "The Music Man". She won a Tony for her work. Other shows included "The Gay Life", "She Loves Me" and "Something More". After the short-lived "Grass Harp" during the early '70s, Cook retired from the musical theater. Not long after, she emerged as a dynamite cabaret singer. This second phase of her career is still going strong today. - IMDb Mini Biography By: <[email protected]> Spouse (1) (1952 - 1965) (divorced) (1 child) Trivia (6) Her show, "Barbara Cook Sings Mostly Sondheim", was performed in 2001 at the Lyric Theatre in London, England and was nominated for a 2002 Laurence Olivier Theatre Award for Best Entertainment. She was nominated for a 2002 Laurence Olivier Theatre Award for Best Actress in a Musical or Entertainment for her performance in "Barbara Cook Sings Mostly Sondheim" at the Lyric Theatre in London, England. Won Broadway's 1958 Tony Award as Best Supporting or Featured Actress (Musical) for playing Marian in "The Music Man." In 2002, she was nominated in the Special Theatrical Event Category for her show "Barbara Cook Sings Mostly Sondheim.".

The Music Man

Which show, which opened in the 40s, takes it's name from a fairground attraction?

The Music Man Will Receive Live NBC Broadcast - TheaterMania.com The Music Man Will Receive Live NBC Broadcast The network has secured the rights to Meredith Willson's Tony-winning musical. May 12, 2014 Robert Preston leads the band in the 1962 film version of Meredith Willson's The Music Man. A live presentation of Meredith Willson's Tony Award-winning musical The Music Man will be seen in the near future on NBC, the network's chairman Bob Greenblatt revealed Monday morning. No timetable or casting has been set for the production, which will likely follow the previously announced live broadcast of Peter Pan on December 4. Both come on the heels of NBC's massively successful telecast of Rodgers and Hammerstein's The Sound of Music, starring Carrie Underwood, last December. The Music Man tells the story of con man Harold Hill, who arrives in a small Iowa town and attempts to sell the community on the creation of a boys' band. He suddenly falls for Marian, the local librarian, and his conscience gets in the way of his ill deeds. The original Broadway production, starring Robert Preston and Barbara Cook, received five Tony Awards. The musical was last seen on Broadway in a 2000 revival starring Craig Bierko and Rebecca Luker. A 1962 film version starred Preston and Shirley Jones. An ABC television movie in 2003 starred Matthew Broderick and Kristin Chenoweth.

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What was Jesus Christ according to the Rice / Lloyd Webber show?

Jesus Christ Superstar: Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical goes from ‘evil brew’ to family TV in ITV1's Superstar - Telegraph TV and Radio Jesus Christ Superstar: Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical goes from ‘evil brew’ to family TV in ITV1's Superstar As Andrew Lloyd Webber's ‘Jesus Christ Superstar’ gets the talent-show treatment in ITV1's 'Superstar', Matthew Sweet recalls the hostility it once aroused. The film version of Jesus Christ Superstar (1973), with Ted Neeley, far right, as Jesus.  By Matthew Sweet 7:30AM BST 06 Jul 2012 It was “a witches’ brew of anti-black and anti-Semitic venom”. It was “evil… rotten to the core”. It was “demeaning” and “nothing less than a catastrophe”. And now it’s back, as a massive arena spectacular and a Saturday night talent show presented by Amanda Holden. Sir Tim Rice and Lord [Andrew] Lloyd Webber’s 1971 rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar is a four-decade phenomenon. Seven million albums sold; productions in 41 countries; an Oscar-nominated movie adaptation; “the biggest media parley in showbiz history,” according to Variety. But it also deserves another, less obvious accolade. Thanks to its portrayal of its hero as a fallible figure uncertain of his own divinity, Jesus Christ Superstar remains the most protested-against work in the history of musical theatre – and these protests are still being made. The show was banned last month in Belarus after a campaign by Orthodox prelates, who claimed to be acting on the wishes of “insulted believers”. Its 2011 tour of Ireland was picketed by Presbyterian ministers who denounced it as “an utter blasphemy” produced by “two sinful, blinded, benighted sinners”. In 2008, a Texan Baptist declared: “Every born-again Christian should readily recognise the evil of Jesus Christ Superstar, and should shun it like the plague.” One for the poster, perhaps. Starting next Saturday, British television is to provide the show’s enemies with more pulpit material. The new arena staging will discover its leading man through the quasi-judicial process familiar to viewers of the phone-ins that have procured Lloyd Webber a Maria, a Nancy, a Joseph and a Dorothy. It’s called Superstar. And if you just imagined the shiny face of Holden bellowing “You could be Jesus!” at sweaty hopefuls, then you’re not the first to have the thought. Like Luther railing against the sale of indulgences, Rice has denounced the television adjunct to the production as “tasteless” and “downmarket”. Has this schism been confected as bait for showbiz hacks? Related Articles Melanie C and Chris Moyles join the cast of Jesus Christ Superstar 16 May 2012 Apparently not. If Rice doesn’t like the winner, he’ll veto the casting, as is his right. It’s one of those ironic reversals of history – the rock opera accused of blasphemy is now a canonical text that demands deferential treatment. In the West End offices of Lloyd Webber’s Really Useful Theatre Company, evidence of the rich history of Jesus Christ Superstar has been carefully preserved. The files record that its producer, the wily Robert Stigwood, arranged for a gaggle of bishops to see the show before the critics; that Norman Jewison, the film’s director, wanted to cast Paul McCartney as Jesus and crucify him on a Californian rubbish dump. With admirable impartiality, the archive also retains a bulletin by Frederic Brussat, a minister in the United Church of Christ, which concludes its seven-page demolition of the 1971 Broadway production with a quote borrowed from J D Salinger: “Old Jesus probably would’ve puked if He could see it.” When I track him down 41 years later, Brussat, now running a multi-faith group, is surprised by the ferocity of his younger self. “A lot of the songs have people wondering who Jesus is. It’s that which makes me think Rice was ahead of his time with his emphasis on Jesus’s humanity.” Not all, however, are willing to recant. In 1973, Marc Tanenbaum, the director of inter-religious affairs on the American Jewish Committee, commissioned a line-by-line analysis of Rice’s lyrics that concluded Jesus Christ Superstar was “a singularly damaging setback in the struggle against the religious sources of anti-Semitism”. He laid an additional complaint against Jewison’s film: the casting of an African American actor as Judas equated blackness with sin and made the movie into the concoction mentioned in the first line of this piece. Rabbi Tanenbaum’s widow, Georgette Bennett, isn’t convinced by the latter charge – but maintains the show is essentially anti-Semitic. “It falls within a tradition of Passion plays that use old, discredited, toxic stereotypes about Jews and Judaism,” she argues, linking it to the Oberammergau Passion Play, a Bavarian spectacle approved by Hitler. “It presents Jews as Christ-killers.” Yet she is full of admiration for Rice and Lloyd Webber’s contribution to this problematic genre. “It’s a masterpiece. And there have been a lot of masterpieces that have been very destructive to Jews. I think it’s beautiful, I just wish my people weren’t its victims.” When Rice was interviewed by Time magazine in 1970, he described Jesus as “simply the right man at the right time at the right place”. Something similar was true of his show: Jesus Christ Superstar suited the febrile cultural atmosphere of the early Seventies, and those it failed to offend thought they saw their own preoccupations reflected in its surface. Larry Marshall – who played Simon Zealotes in the film – identified Jesus as antiquity’s equivalent of the Black Power leader Stokeley Carmichael: “It was all politics and manipulation then, and that’s what it’s at today.” Conversely, Nixon’s chief of staff Bob Haldeman was known in the White House as “a walking, talking advertisement” for the Jesus Christ Superstar album – until Watergate gave him the chance to share his enthusiasm with the inmates at Lompoc Federal Prison. But here’s something odder. Four decades on, much Christian opinion approves of a prime-time search for Jesus. The Bishop of Bradford blogged in happy anticipation of an event “that will engage more people than sit in all our churches put together each week”. Brussat is delighted at the prospect of the phrase “You could be Jesus” booming from British televisions – a notion, he argues, that’s perfectly attuned to the ideas of liberal Christians in the US. “Many progressive Christians today aspire to ‘be Jesus’ in their relationships with God and their neighbours. It might be a good thing to have a talent show where the host is constantly reminding people that they, too, can be Jesus.” Superstar will surely be incapable of insulating itself from the preposterous. But the vote ought to interest believers and atheists alike. It will give the British public a chance to make a collective statement about their perception of the character and appearance of Christ – and the winner may not be the cadaverous Anglo-Saxon we have been trained to expect. Far from being a cause for fresh offence, this might prove Lloyd Webber’s gift to all those who have picketed the theatres: Christ incarnated as some bloke from down the street, with a divine voice. Superstar begins on ITV1 on Saturday July 7 at 7.25pm  

Superstar

Which Line was the longest running musical in Broadway history?

Sir Tim Rice -- Jesus Christ Superstar © Dewynters. Jesus Christ Superstar The first Tim Rice / Andrew Lloyd Webber work to be professionally staged was Jesus Christ Superstar. Tim had been fascinated by the short shrift given to the stories of Judas Iscariot and Pontius Pilate in the Bible since his school days, and so the duo chose to examine the last seven days of the life of Christ for their third collaboration. Like Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat, the story is told entirely through song. As no one was willing to back their idea as a stage show, Tim and Andrew produced a concept album of the project with MCA in 1970. Prior to the double album's release, the single "Superstar", sung by Murray Head, was released near the end of 1969. The success of the concept album created a huge demand for a Broadway production. Jesus Christ Superstar opened on Broadway in 1971 with Ben Vereen as Judas and Yvonne Elliman reprising her role from the concept album as Mary. The U.K. production premiered the following year with Paul Nicholas in the title role. The songs "Superstar" and "I Don't Know How To Love Him" have topped the charts in various countries, and Jesus Christ Superstar has twice been made into a film as well as having playing around the world. A second Broadway revival, based upon the Ontario Stratford Shakespeare Festival production directed by Des McAnuff, played on Broadway for 140 performances at the Neil Simon Theatre between 1 March 2012 and 1 July 2012. 1970 - Concept Album

i don't know

Which American city saw the premiere of Sunset Boulevard?

Sunset Boulevard - DC Theatre Scene You are here: Home / All Reviews / Our Reviews / Sunset Boulevard Sunset Boulevard December 20, 2010 by Terry Ponick 4 Comments Sunset Boulevard is not the best musical that Andrew Lloyd Webber ever composed. While its primary storyline—the decline and fall of an aging silent film diva–is oddly compelling, its score gets repetitious and its lyrics often fail to scan with the music. That having been said, Signature Theatre’s new production of this show is slick, compelling, and surprisingly moving. It’s so good that, in spite of its lack of truly memorable tunes, it might just give the touring production of the Lincoln Center’s South Pacific revival—currently playing across the river at the Kennedy Center—a run for its money. D.B. Bonds as Joe Gillis, Florence Lacey as Norma Desmond and Ed Dixon as Max von Mayerling (Photo: Chris Mueller) Sunset Boulevard has had a spotty history onstage. Inspired by Billy Wilder’s eponymous 1950 film, Webber’s musical version went through a few false starts and rewrites before its London premiere in 1993 with book and lyrics by Don Black and Christopher Hampton. Both the film and the musical focus on the sadly fading career of legendary (but fictional) silent film star Norma Desmond, portrayed brilliantly by Florence Lacey in Signature’s production. Now much older and wealthier but with her glamour days long past, Norma is convinced she can make a big Hollywood comeback playing a teenaged Salome in a biblical epic film she’s scripted herself. Enter down-and-out screenwriter Joe Gillis who gets into Norma’s palatial Sunset Boulevard mansion quite by accident. He ends up moving in to rewrite her disastrous script. Not willing to give up the good life she lavishes upon him, he becomes her reluctant boy toy, which ruins his budding romance with up-and-coming young screenwriter Betty Schaefer. Ultimately, despite the desperate machinations of Norma’s once-husband and now loyal butler Max, both Norma’s revised script and her shabby affair lead to the show’s highly dramatic, tragic denouement. After its initial London success and a decent run on Broadway, Sunset Boulevard evolved into a continuing soap opera saga of misunderstandings and lawsuits in later productions, particularly in the United States. These, combined with the lavish, costly sets required by the show regularly kept the it from turning a profit. At least partly as a result, performances over the years gradually became much less frequent. But now we arrive in Arlington, 2010. In what this critic regards as a dynamic masterstroke of fiscal and artistic creativity, the Signature Theatre brain trust chose to mount the first Washington-area run of Sunset Boulevard by trimming its outlandish stage mechanics to the minimum necessary to sustain the central metaphor of Norma’s decaying Hollywood mansion. This is not to imply that Signature’s re-imagination of Sunset Boulevard looks and feels cheap. Far from it. Before you even enter the theater proper, you travel through the small rear vestibule of the MAX space and find it littered with packing crates and stage props. As you find your seat, you notice the burlap-bagged counterweights hanging from the industrial ceiling inside, and the sliding corrugated metal doors to the rear and sides of the generous, uncluttered, and barely-elevated stage area. You suddenly realize that you’ve joined this production in medias res: you’re smack-dab in the middle of a late-1940s Hollywood soundstage (kudos to set designer Dan Conway) that’s devoid of props but ready for the directors, actors, and cameras to enter and for the magic to happen. And it does. As the lights dim and as music director Jon Kalbfleisch launches his first downbeat, you notice the show’s orchestra perched somewhat precariously above and along stage rear. They’re somewhat hidden by a semitransparent scrim and some ornate, stylish simulated ironwork—and occasionally by a movie screen. But as you listen to the opening bars of the show, amplified via the MAX’s excellent, realistic sound system, you realize that you’re not getting the all-too-familiar two violins-flute-percussion-synthesizer faux-orchestra we’ve grown accustomed to during the Great Recession. Nope. This is the real deal, 20 instrumentalists cranking away from the depths of their professional souls, giving you a real, “big musical” sound. It’s just as good as South Pacific’s big ensemble at the KenCen across the creek and far better than the dinky, tinkly ensemble employed at the Shakespeare Theatre in its current, otherwise enjoyable production of Candide. Once the show begins to unfold in earnest, the soundstage comes briskly to life, bustling with frantic staffers; tyrannical directors; obnoxious and amoral agents, producers, an ink-stained wretches from the press; and down-on-their-luck hack script writers, ingénues, and the occasional washed-up actor. This frantic hustle alternates with scenes that take place in Norma’s Tinseltown mansion. Her palace interior appears almost instantaneously as needed via a publicity photo-littered rear wall, an ornate sofa and table, and a marvelous art deco staircase that drops down stage right. It’s simplicity itself, employing a simple mechanism not much different than the pull-down for an attic trap door. The effect is grand, impressive—and blessedly quiet so as not to detract from the grandiose mood and setting. To complete the setting, the production makes frequent use of the aforementioned movie screen that slides in from time to time to cover the orchestra center. Flickering black and white silent clips run here and there, sometimes showing old movie clips, sometimes visualizing a winding road through the windshield of a speeding automobile, and (spoiler alert!) occasionally showing disturbing clips of a dead guy floating in a swimming pool. Whether the movie clips are an assemblage or derived from Billy Wilder’s film is irrelevant. Taken as a whole, they create a sense of motion and energy, helping one scene transition seamlessly into the next, making the audience feel at times like they’re watching a real movie. It’s a nice effect that subtly seduces the audience into buying the show’s whole old-Hollywood premise. While Webber’s score is distinctly less inspired than, say, his music for Phantom, the Signature’s production seems to have found a way to turn that into a virtue. In the 1970s, Billy Wilder is said to have told Stephen Sondheim—who was interested in doing Sunset Boulevard as a Broadway show himself—that the story would really be better off as an opera. Signature seems to have taken Wilder at his word. There’s little spoken dialogue. Narrative passages are sung in a kind of modernist recitatif. Signature seems to have run with this and turned Sunset Boulevard, very subtly, into a kind of verismo opera, a sung drama that’s more like Leoncavallo’s Pagliacci or Verdi’s late-career Otello. True, Webber probably didn’t have this notion in mind when he created the musical. But in staging Sunset Boulevard much like a verismo opera for our own times, Signature has turned the show’s relatively thin and somewhat repetitious score into a virtue, using music to highlight the show’s tragic story rather than using the story as a vehicle to introduce hit after hit. That said, the show does have some musical highlights, most notably its poignant, bittersweet romantic songs like “With One Look,” “As If We Never Said Goodbye,” and the title song itself. Better yet, all the vocals are presented by as fine a cast as you’re likely to get for this show, all of which is marvelously and deftly directed by Eric Schaeffer with crisp, economical choreography by Karma Camp. Sunset Boulevard The Show, like Sunset Boulevard The Movie is first and foremost a major star vehicle, a marvelous and sadly rare opportunity for an over-40 or over-50 actress to dominate the stage. The role of Norma Desmond was and is a role to die for. Wilder’s film version provided a major comeback for veteran actress Gloria Swanson. Webber’s show originally starred Patti LuPone, who was eventually bumped for Glenn Close for the Broadway staging. Later productions featured singing actresses as varied as Petula Clark and Diahann Carroll. And even Fay Dunaway was considered briefly for the show’s central role. Signature has scored by bringing veteran Broadway star Florence Lacey on board in the title role. Ms. Lacey was over-the-top great in Sunday evening’s performance, balancing her character’s essential outrageousness with surprising touches of sorrow, regret, and vulnerability. As for her showy vocals, she delivered them all with convincing passion and conviction in perhaps the greatest single performance  by a singing actress that we’ve seen here in many years. Ms. Lacey’s performance alone is worth the price of admission, particularly her grand, tragically mad final descent down her ornate, elaborate staircase resplendent in all her flamboyant, silent-film glory. Ms. Lacey is blessed by a fine supporting cast, particularly the principals. They’re led by D. B. Bonds as the tormented Joe Gillis. A failed—or at least rejected—screenwriter, it’s just Joe’s luck to get an extended gig rewriting Norma’s disastrously huge script, which initially resembles the length and girth of the Obamacare legislation. Joe ends up, with only partial regret, as Norma’s live-in paramour. D. B. Bonds embodies Joe’s artistic and personal torments, transforming what initially seems like a shallow role into one of tragic heroism. He repents his fall in the end, but he’s just too late to make amends. As a vocalist, Bonds also excels, most particularly in Sunset Boulevard’s title song. As Betty Schaefer, the real object of Joe’s affections, Susan Derry does a nice job with a relatively small and ungracious role. Her transformation from script editor ingénue to real writer to tragic, would-be lover and wife is eminently believable. It’s the whole story of Hollywood, really, where promises and dreams eventually turn to ashes for most who pursue them. And finally, a big hat tip to Ed Dixon’s portrayal of Norma’s hapless yet loyal butler-manservant-bodyguard, and onetime husband and director Max von Mayerling. Intriguingly, the character was originally created in the film by legendary German director Erich von Stroheim. Dixon differs considerably from von Stroheim, strongly resembling an ominous cross between director Otto Preminger and 1950s wrestler Tor Johnson, a frequent star in Ed Wood’s science fiction flicks. But for all his external Germanic thuggishness, Dixon’s Max still loves Norma, protecting her to a fault. Slowly, surely, his character grows in sympathy and complexity. And when he bursts out almost incongruously in song, you’re surprised to hear in his deep, mellow, and authoritative voice the soul of a fallen angel. In smaller roles, J. Fred Shiffman excelled as the vicious script-killer Sheldrake, and Harry A. Winter portrayed a sympathetic yet businesslike Cecil B. DeMille. Kathleen Geldard’s perfect period costumes and Howard Binkley’s imaginative lighting schemes complete the perfections of Signature’s production which, taken as a whole, transforms what is arguably Andrew Lloyd Webber’s weakest musical effort into a compelling, entirely new Broadway verismo opera that’s an entirely accessible triumph. Going smaller has paradoxically helped make this show both bigger and better. Well worth the price of the ticket, Sunset Boulevard is now  vivid, evocative “Hollywood Confidential” that demonstrates better than most story lines the allure, the tragedy, and sometimes even the ultimate futility of the Hollywood—and the American—Dream. Sunset Boulevard

Los Angeles

Which ground-breaking American musical was based on the book Green Grow The Lilacs?

LOTS OF FAMOUS LANDMARKS - Review of Sunset Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA - TripAdvisor Review of Sunset Boulevard Tour of Los Angeles, Hollywood and Beverly Hills See more tours on Viator More attraction details Attraction details Owner description: One of the world's most famous streets, this route links the urban streets of downtown Hollywood to the lush, green and up-scale residential avenues of Beverly Hills. There are newer reviews for this attraction “LOTS OF FAMOUS LANDMARKS” Reviewed August 30, 2012 We only drove down the famous 'Strip' as part of a coach tour, and didn't stop, which was a shame as it would have been nice to stroll around and take in the sights. There are also so many famous landmarks that I found it impossible to take photos as we passed them all by so quickly, and you were constantly looking from one side of the road to the other. Locations are often not as you picture. I'm not sure what I expected really, and although it was exciting seeing the famous sights, I was a bit disappointed, but I'm not really sure why! However, it was nice to drive past and see (albeit briefly) famous places such as Chateau Marmont (the entrance sign anyway!), the Viper Room, Comedy Store, House of Blues, Directors Guild of America etc. And, of course, the billboards (Jennifer Aniston being the major one, on this occasion). Visited July 2012 “Great for a few hours of fun” Reviewed August 29, 2012 Bring teens and 20s here and walk the strip and bar hop for a few hours of fun. Check out the bars, open to the public, at all of the cool hotels. Lunch at the Saddle Ranch or Carneys wont break the bank. Come here at night to party, but leave plenty of time for traffic on a Friday and Saturday night. Parking will gauge you so just be prepared with an extra 20 bucks. I've been to a bunch of fun shows at The Viper Room and House of Blues. Visited May 2012

i don't know

Which Lloyd Webber musical was billed as 'Now and forever'?

Andrew Lloyd Webber, Michael Dixon, John Mauceri, Anthony Bowles, Simon Lee, Harry Rabinowitz, Lorin Maazel, Michael Reed, Paul Bogaev, Chris Nightingale, David Caddick, David White, Sîan Edwards, London Philharmonic Orchestra, BBC Concert Orchestra, Welsh National Opera Orchestra, Various Artists, Sounds of Blackness, Sarah Brightman, Plácido Domingo, Ian Gillan, Yvonne Elliman, Murray Head, Steve Balsamo, Antonio Banderas, Elaine Paige, Joss Ackland, Barbara Dickson, Julie Covington, Patti LuPone, Mandy Patinkin, Susan Jane Tanner, Paul Nicholas, Marti Webb, Caron Cardelle, Samantha Lane, Reva Rice, Lon Satton, Ray Shell, Michael Crawford, Steve Barton, Michael Ball, Ann Crumb, Diana Morrison, Kevin Colson, Jason Donovan, Maria Friedman, Donny Osmond, Richard Attenborough, John Scher, Donna Stephenson, Steven Pacey, Glenn Close, Alan Campbell, James Graeme, Lottie Mayor, Marcus Lovett, Hannah Waddingham, David Shannon, Josie Walker, David Essex, Betty Buckley, Steve Harley, Cliff Richard, José Carreras, Barbra Streisand, Petula Clark, Madonna, Tina Arena, Boyzone, Tom Jones, Boy George, Charlotte Church, Sacha Distel, Tim Rice, Maynard Williams, Elvis Presley, Tony Christie, Andrew Lloyd Webber, Gemma Craven - Andrew Lloyd Webber: Now & Forever - Amazon.com Music By Jacob A. Davis on February 17, 2002 Format: Audio CD|Verified Purchase This box set could very well be the only Andrew Lloyd Webber collection someone would ever need. Of course, if you don't know much about Andrew Lloyd Webber's music, you probably wouldn't want to spend over sixty dollars on a box set. On the other hand, if you are a true Lloyd-Webber fan, then this is probably not the only one of his recordings you have, either. Anyhow, this box set contains the highlights of his greatest work performed by the people who (arguably) performed the songs best. Most Lloyd-Webber fans will have the majority of the songs on the first three CDs (with the possible exception of American fans perhaps not having those from The Beautiful Game). However, these all of these tracks have been newly digitally remastered and sound better than ever. There are also other perks for us all-time buffs. Disc 4 has many famous cover versions and singles, some of which you may already have, but you also get the bonuses on this disc of Kiri Te Kanawa's "The Heart is Slow to Learn" (which was originally going to be part of a sequel to Phantom) and the Metal Philharmonic Orchestra's breathtaking rendition of "A Kiss is A Terrible Thing To Waste" (featuring vocalist "Scarpia"). You will have chills for days after that one. Finally, there is the famous disc 5! Tracks never before realeased on CD for many of us to enjoy for the first time. This CD takes us back to the roots of ALW's music and lets us taste a few of the early moments of his career. It includes many singles for several well-known artist that didn't quite work out. It even includes the song written by Lloyd-Webber for his 1992 wedding. This is the most treasured disc of the whole set, in my opinion. Of course, this whole set is a treasure (even the extravegant and informative booklet in the box) and I highly reccomend this to anyone with a passion for Lord Lloyd-Webber's music. By Marijan Bosnar on March 20, 2005 Format: Audio CD|Verified Purchase Regardless of the fact that some of his latest efforts (most notably, The Woman in White) are disappointing, there can be little doubt that Andrew Lloyd Webber is one of the greatest composers ever to work in the musical theatre. Ever since his "Jesus Christ Superstar" hit the stage in the early 70-is, it was clear that the conception and perception of musicals are never going to be the same again. Many of his songs became standards not only in the theatre history, but also as tops on the charts. Even though he's British, his influence on the shape of the modern musical theatre expanded over the West End boundaries long ago and has thus made an enormous impact on Broadway. Two of his shows ("Cats" and "The phantom of the opera") hold the record as two the longest running shows in the history of Broadway. He has also been the only composer to have three of his shows running at Broadway concurrently. Some of his awards include three Grammies, a Golden Globe, an Oscar and a bunch of Tony awards. But perhaps most of all, Lloyd Webber is responsible for bringing the musicals and the theatre appealing to the wide audiences, who in different circumstances would not consider seeing a musical. The secret of his success is probably the mixture of beautiful and catchy melodies, interesting subject matter (though some, like Starlight Express, are too thin) and grandiose staging. Over the years many compilations of his work have emerged. In the late 80-is and early 90-is it was the "Encore" series and lately the one-disc collection called "Gold". The one in question here can be considered one of the best currently on the market. First, it includes a 3-disc selections from all of his shows, minus the latest one, i.e., "The Woman in White", which, considering the triviality of the score, is no great lost. The fourth disc covers some of his most known songs sung by the famous artists. Then, there is the fifth disc with previously unreleased material, most of which are the songs ALW wrote with Tim Rice for various artists during the 70-is. The disks are all neatly packed in a hardcover book that features 67 pages of pictures and text with information about each of ALW's shows. One of the other assets here is the perfect sound quality, since all of the tracks have been digitally remastered. Here are my basic impressions and comments regarding the material on the discs: * Disc #1 has the selections from "Jesus Christ Superstar", "Evita", "Cats" and "Song & Dance". The Superstar material mostly comes from the Concept Recording. Although the songs sound beautiful as always, their orchestration is a bit dated now. Only Steve Balsamo's "Gethsemane" from the 1996 revival cast has a modern rock sound. "Evita" comes with the material from all of the major recordings: London, Broadway and the movie productions, as well as the Concept album. No objections here; since this is one of ALW's most satisfying works, every song is just perfect, although Patti LuPone, the Broadway and overall the best Evita, is left with only a couple of lines. With the selections from "Cats", however, I have some doubts. A plus to the choice of the "Jellicle ball" impressive orchestral sequence from the 1998 movie version and "Mister Mistoffelees" from the 1981 London cast. One of the best known ALW's songs, "Memory", also comes from that album. It's a pretty version and Elaine Paige's rendition cannot be matched, but why include this when the definite version, featuring an 80-piece orchestra and Elaine Paige with much better interpretation, can be found in the same movie version. Thusly, one has to buy Elaine Paige's latest 2-disc compilation "Centre Stage: The very best of Elaine Paige" to get that one. And "Gus the theatre cat" is more a recital than a song, so there was not much point in including that. Marti Webb brings her vocal charm to the "Song & Dance" sequence, Sarah Brightman sings "Unexpected song" with her famous soprano, but as much as I like her version, Bernadette Peters, who was in this show on Broadway is strangely left out here. * Disc # 2 starts with "Starlight Express". This was never one of my favorite ALW's shows; the plot is even lighter than in "Cats" and the 1984 original cast recording is terribly dated. Yet, here we have one terrific duet, "I am starlight" from the original together with three songs from the later revivals and it seems that fresh orchestrations were just the thing Starlight needed. My favorite remains a touchy ballad, "Next time you fall in love". "Requiem" is the most solemn of all ALW's compositions, written in 1985 to commemorate the death of his father. Placido Domingo's tenor rides together with the chorus all the way through the strong "Hosanna", only to be joined by Sarah Brightman in the final moments of this song. She then gives an echoing deliverance of "Pie Jesu". What can be said of ALW's next show, "The Phantom of the Opera"? A phenomenon in its own right, it's easy to see from the six numbers included here why this is one of the best and most beloved musicals of all time. The cast, the music, the story - everything is perfect. Although "Aspects of love" was never a popular hit, it does have some of the most beautiful love melodies ALW has ever written. "Love changes everything" sung by Michael Ball is probably one of the best tunes ever about love. The rest of the selected material here has a dreamy love flavor and the melodies find their way into your brain in the best Lloyd Webber way. * ALW's first musical, "Joseph and the amazing Technicolor dreamcoat" was more successful in its revival form than the original from the 70-is. The three songs included here are sung by the show stars, Jason Donovan and Donny Osmond. Maria Friedman was not a lucky choice to play the narrator, as the track from the 1998 movie version shows. "By Jeeves" was ALW's only big flop when it came to the stage in the 70-is. The 1995 revival sounds much better though, full of funny numbers in the best manner of the musical comedy. "Travel hopefully" remains one of the show's highlights on this compilation. "Sunset Boulevard" comes next. "Sunset" remains for me one of Webber's best scores; lush and beautiful. I listen to the original cast recording with Patti LuPone all the time. However, here most of the songs are performed by Glenn Close. A big mistake. If you've ever listened the American premiere recording with her, you'll know what I am talking about. She may have a strong stage presence, but her vocal abilities are too limited, and her aggressive approach to the role lacks any subtlety. Therefore, the two big numbers from this show, "With one look" and "As if we never said goodbye" are ruined by the fact she can't sing. The same goes for the American Joe Gillis, who was played by Alan Campbell. Luckily, Patti LuPone and Kevin Anderson, the original Norma and Joe from the London production, make their brief entrance here with the "Perfect year"; enough to show how better they are. The funny thing is, on the jacket and inside of it, Glenn Close and Alan Campbell are credited as performers in this song as well. If this was a mistake on ALW's part, it was a good one. The next ALW's show, "Whistle down the wind" was never a critic's dear and yet the audiences rushed in to see it in London. The score brings back ALW to his rock and roll roots of the seventies and the story is quite interesting. But the selections here are not the happiest, since the cast recording boasts with much better songs. And finally, "The Beautiful Game". Again, we have one of those ALW's shows that is worth in its individual parts rather than as a whole. "Our kind of love" and "Let us love in peace" are two catchy ballads. The latter is a nice amalgam version not available elsewhere. The two other tracks here I could live without. * Disc # 4 has the songs from all the above shows performed by different artists. The assembled tracks have their pros and cons. For example, we have some previously unreleased stuff, like Dame Kiri Te Kanawa's operettic rendition of "The heart is slow to learn", or a stunning and epic "A kiss is a terrible thing to waste" from "Whistle down the wind", performed by The Metal Philharmonic Orchestra. Then again, what was the point in including almost identical tracks as the ones on the previous disks? So we have Michael Ball again singing "Love changes everything" with only a bit different orchestration; Sarah Brightman comes out again with the same Phantom duets, but only with the different male singers. It would be much more appropriate to include tracks from the Toronto Cast of the Phantom, with Colm Wilkinson. Other pop deliverances (Tina Arena's "Whistle down the wind", Barbra Streisand's "As if we never said goodbye", Boyzone's "No matter what" and many more) were wisely chosen. Patti LuPone is again nowhere to be found and Petula Clark's "With one look" sounds too worn-out. * The last disc is probably the one that will be of most interest to Lloyd Webber aficionados. It consists of entirely previously unreleased material ALW for the most part wrote for various artists during his early years, with Tim Rice. Some of these tunes, not successful as a singles, were later used in his shows. Thus "Down thru' summer" became "Buenos Aires"in Evita, "Try it and see", an unsuccessful attempt for the Eurovision was used for "King Herod's song" in "Superstar" and so on. Some of these songs are nicely made pop songs: "Make believe love", ALW's first recorded composition, for which he provided the lyrics; "Goodbye Seattle", sung by Paul Raven, who later became Gary Glitter; "Come back Richard, your country needs you", from a never made musical, sung here by Tim Rice, or Latin flavored "Magdalena", with Tony Christie singing. My all time favorite here is a song called "It's easy for you", sung by none other than Elvis Presley himself. Lloyd Webber and Rice sent him a demo recording that he accepted and recorded this live version a couple of weeks before he died. It's amazing to hear how his voice remained in the perfect shape. Also, there is a track of Andrew Lloyd Webber singing "Policle dogs and Jellicle cats" while plying the piano. His voice doesn't sound bad at all. Taken as a whole, this compilation makes a perfect birthday or Christmas present to any fan of Andrew Lloyd Webber shows, or just anybody interested in some of the best tunes from the modern era of the musical theatre; despite the flaws I mentioned above. To the former, it may just be the final addition for the Andrew Lloyd Webber collection. By David Brian on November 20, 2001 Format: Audio CD I was waiting for this cd for a long time, and I wasn't disappointed. It carries some of the best recordings of all of ALW's best songs. The most fascinating part of this collection is the rarities included on the last CD. It includes some of his most famous songs, before they were in their final form. Other songs included in this collection of rarities are songs that were recorded and never released in any way shape or form, until now. Another great part of this collection is the fourth cd. It includes all of the songs that have reached the tops of the charts. All by some of the greatest artists of the late 20th century, such as Elvis, Barbara Striesand, Madonna, Petula Clark, and more! The only disappointment there is with this collection is that there are still many great recordings of ALW's that weren't included. You'll have to look in other places for those. Even so, it is the best compilation of one of the worlds greatest composers

Cat

What did the Little Shop hold in the movie which premiered in 1982?

Andrew Lloyd Webber - Now & Forever: Andrew Lloyd Webber: 9780634056710: Amazon.com: Books Andrew Lloyd Webber - Now & Forever click to open popover Special Offers and Product Promotions Don't have a Kindle? Get your Kindle here , or download a FREE Kindle Reading App . New York Times best sellers Browse the New York Times best sellers in popular categories like Fiction, Nonfiction, Picture Books and more. See more Product Details Publisher: Hal Leonard Corporation (November 1, 2003) Language: English Product Dimensions: 9 x 0.8 x 12 inches Shipping Weight: 2.4 pounds By MD2KNF on January 30, 2016 Verified Purchase This is a nicely comprehensive collection of Andrew Lloyd Webber. It contains several songs from his shows, and includes several very beautiful songs from less well-known shows that I probably would never have stumbled across otherwise. It's a shame this appears to be out-of-print, but the used copy I received was in perfect shape.

i don't know

Which star Fred starred in vaudeville with his sister Adele?

Fred Astaire | Biography and Filmography | 1899 Appeared as himself in the documentary feature, "George Stevens: A Filmmaker's Journey" 1980 Last acting role in a feature film, "Ghost Story" 1979 Played eight roles in the NBC holiday movie "The Man in the Santa Claus Suit" 1978 Received Emmy for dramatic performance as elderly house painter whose heart attack makes him dependent on his family in the NBC movie "A Family Upside Down"; starred opposite Helen Hayes 1977 Had featured role in "Un Taxi Mauve/The Purple Taxi" 1976 Narrated the children's animated holiday special "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town" (ABC) 1974 Paired on screen with Jennifer Jones in the all-star "disaster" flick "The Towering Inferno"; receieved a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award nomination 1974 Was one of the narrators for the compilation film "That's Entertainment!", a collection of MGM's great movie musical scenes 1972 Appeared in the award-winning NBC variety special "Jack Lemmon in 'S Wonderful, 'S Marvelous, 'S Gershwin" 1969 Starred in the ABC movie sequel "The Over-the-Hill Gang Ride Again" 1969 Narrated the animated children's holiday special "Santa Claus Is Coming to Town" 1968 One-shot return to musical films, "Finian's Rainbow" 1968 Starred in the NBC variety special "The Fred Astaire Show"; also produced 1961 Acted in "The Pleasure of His Company" 1960 Won Emmy Award for the NBC variety special "Astaire Time" 1959 First dramatic role, "On the Beach" 1959 Starred in the NBC variety special "Another Evening with Fred Astaire"; received Emmy nomination 1958 Appeared in "An Evening with Fred Astaire" (NBC), the first of four highly acclaimed, Emmy-winning TV specials over the span of a decade, partnering him with dancer Barrie Chase; won Emmy 1957 Made his last regular song-and-dance films, "Funny Face" and "Silk Stockings" 1953 Appeared in one of his best films, the semi-autobiographical "The Band Wagon", loosely based on the stage musical 1949 Reteamed with Ginger Rogers after an ailing Judy Garland withdrew from "The Barkleys of Broadway" 1948 Returned to films to replace an injured Gene Kelly opposite Judy Garland in "Easter Parade" 1947 Opened chain of Fred Astaire Dance Studios (date approximate) 1946 Announced retirement after box-office failure of "Yolanda and the Thief" (1945) and subsidiary role in "Blue Skies" (1946) 1943 Signed by MGM; worked on first film there, the all-star revue, "Ziegfeld Follies", which featured "The Babbitt and the Bromide", a comic dance number which paired him with Gene Kelly; Astaire had introduced the number on Broadway with his sister Adele in 1940 First film at MGM, "Broadway Melody of 1940", opposite Eleanor Powell 1939 Left RKO after last 1930s film with Rogers, "The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle" 1938 After box office failure of first starring film without Rogers, "A Damsel in Distress", voted "box office poison" by motion picture exhibitors along with Marlene Dietrich, Katharine Hepburn, Joan Crawford, Edward Arnold and others 1935 Team of Astaire and Rogers listed in annual motion picture exhibitors poll of top ten box office stars three years in a row; placed fourth, third and seventh 1934 First starring role, opposite Rogers, in "The Gay Divorcee"; introduced the Oscar-winning song "The Continental" 1933 First sizable film role and first on screen partnering with Ginger Rogers in RKO's "Flying Down to Rio"; introduced the "Carioca" dance 1933 Film debut, a small guest star part as Joan Crawford's partner in climactic production numbers of "Dancing Lady" 1932 Last Broadway and London stage show before venturing to Hollywood, "Gay Divorce" (later adapted to film as "The Gay Divorcee"), with Claire Luce as his leading lady and dance partner 1931 Last stage show in which he co-starred with his sister Adele, "The Band Wagon" 1930 Assisted in choreographing numbers for the Gershwin show "Girl Crazy", starring Ethel Merman and Ginger Rogers 1927 Acted opposite sister Adele in "Funny Face"; score by George and Ira Gershwin 1924 First formal collaboration with George and Ira Gershwin, "Lady, Be Good"; reprised roles in London 1923 London stage debut, "Stop Flirting", the retitled version of "For Goodness' Sake" 1922 Appeared in the Broadway musical "For Goodness' Sake" with a score that included songs by George Gershwin 1917 Broadway debut with Adele in "Over the Top" 1905 Began performing in vaudeville, paired with sister Adele; first act had them portray a miniature bride and groom Made two popular films opposite Rita Hayworth at Columbia, "You'll Never Get Rich" and "You Were Never Lovelier" Hosted and occasionally acted in "Alcoa Premiere", an anthology series aired on ABC; appeared as the Devil in six different personas in one entry entitled "Mr. Lucifer" Had recurring role as the debonaire retired burglar Alister Mundy, father of Robert Wagner's Alexander Mundy in the ABC series "It Takes a Thief"

Astaire

On whose fable was Guys and Dolls based?

Fred Astaire | Biography, Movie Highlights and Photos | AllMovie twitter Biography by Hal Erickson Few would argue with the opinion that American entertainer Fred Astaire was the greatest dancer ever seen on film. Born to a wealthy Omaha family, young Astaire was trained at the Alvienne School of Dance and the Ned Wayburn School of Dancing. In a double act with his sister Adele, Fred danced in cabarets, vaudeville houses, and music halls all over the world before he was 20. The Astaires reportedly made their film bow in a 1917 Mary Pickford vehicle, same year of their first major Broadway success, Over the Top. The two headlined one New York stage hit after another in the 1920s, their grace and sophistication spilling into their social life, in which they hobnobbed with literary and theatrical giants, as well as millionaires and European royalty. When Adele married the British Lord Charles Cavendish in 1931, Fred found himself soloing for the first time in his life. As with many other Broadway luminaries, Astaire was beckoned to Hollywood, where legend has it his first screen test was dismissed with "Can't act; slightly bald; can dance a little." He danced more than a little in his first film, Dancing Lady (1933), though he didn't actually play a role and was confined to the production numbers. Later that year, Astaire was cast as comic/dancing relief in the RKO musical Flying Down to Rio , which top-billed Dolores Del Rio and Gene Raymond . Astaire was billed fifth, just below the film's female comedy relief Ginger Rogers . Spending most of the picture trading wisecracks while the "real" stars wooed each other, Astaire and Rogers did a very brief dance during a production number called "The Carioca." As it turned out, Flying Down to Rio was an enormous moneymaker -- in fact, it was the film that saved the studio from receivership. Fans of the film besieged the studio with demands to see more of those two funny people who danced in the middle of the picture. RKO complied with 1934's The Gay Divorcee , based on one of Astaire 's Broadway hits. Supporting no one this time, Fred and Ginger were the whole show as they sang and danced their way through such Cole Porter hits as "Night and Day" and the Oscar-winning "The Continental." Astaire and Rogers were fast friends, but both yearned to be appreciated as individuals rather than a part of a team. After six films with Rogers , Astaire finally got a chance to work as a single in Damsel in Distress (1937), which, despite a superb George Gershwin score and top-notch supporting cast, was a box-office disappointment, leading RKO to re-team him with Rogers in Carefree (1938). After The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle (1939), Astaire decided to go solo again, and, after a few secondary films, he found the person he would later insist was his favorite female co-star, Rita Hayworth , with whom he appeared in You'll Never Get Rich (1942) and You Were Never Lovelier (1946). Other partners followed, including Lucille Bremer , Judy Garland , Betty Hutton , Jane Powell , Cyd Charisse , and Barrie Chase , but, in the minds of moviegoers, Astaire would forever be linked with Ginger Rogers -- even though a re-teaming in The Barkeleys of Broadway (1949) seemed to prove how much they didn't need each other. Astaire set himself apart from other musical performers by insisting that he be photographed full-figure, rather than have his numbers "improved" by tricky camera techniques or unnecessary close-ups. And unlike certain venerable performers who found a specialty early in life and never varied from it, Astaire 's dancing matured with him. He was in his fifties in such films as The Band Wagon (1953) and Funny Face (1957), but he had adapted his style so that he neither drew attention to his age nor tried to pretend to be any younger than he was. Perhaps his most distinctive characteristic was making it look so easy. One seldom got the impression that Astaire worked hard to get his effects, although, of course, he did. To the audience, it seemed as though he was doing it for the first time and making it up as he went along. With the exceptions of his multi-Emmy-award-winning television specials of the late '50s and early '60s, Astaire cut down on his dancing in the latter stages of his career to concentrate on straight acting. While he was superb as a troubled, suicidal scientist in On the Beach (1959) and was nominated for an Oscar for his work in The Towering Inferno (1974), few of his later films took full advantage of his acting abilities. (By 1976, he was appearing in such films as The Amazing Dobermans .) In 1981, more than a decade after he last danced in public, Astaire was honored with a Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Film Institute. While this award was usually bestowed upon personalities who had no work left in them, Astaire remained busy as an actor almost until his death in 1987. The same year as his AFI prize, Astaire joined fellow show business veterans Melvyn Douglas , Douglas Fairbanks Jr. , and John Houseman in the movie thriller Ghost Story . Movie Highlights See Full Filmography Factsheet At age 7, he began touring the vaudeville circuit with his sister Adele. They remained dance partners until 1932. Made 10 musicals with Ginger Rogers, starting with 1933's Flying Down to Rio. Nine were made by RKO, but the 10th, The Barkleys of Broadway, was made by MGM and filmed a decade after their last collaboration, 1939's The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle. Published his autobiography, Steps in Time, in 1959. Received the American Film Institute's Life Achievement Award in 1981.

i don't know

Which show featured Hernando's Hideaway and Hey There?

Hernando's Hideaway - 3 versions - YouTube Hernando's Hideaway - 3 versions Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Jun 12, 2008 The great song Hernando's Hideaway, written by Adler and Ross for the musical Pajama Game in 1953. A cool song like this deserves cool performances, and who better than Johnnie Ray to start. 1) Johnnie Ray - 1954 single with Hey There. 2) Boston Pops Orchestra under Arthur Fiedler, from the album "Boston Tea Party". Hey Arthur, The Ventures also did a good version. 3) The Four Lads - from the 1961 Kapp LP "12 Hits" [not their hits, other people's hits]. Johnnie Ray also recorded new renditions of his songs later, on the pictured CD. Mine is the original. Category

The Pajama Game

Where was the Best Little Whorehouse according to the musical title?

The Pajama Game - The Guide to Musical Theatre   The Pajama Game Musical in 2 Acts, 17 Scenes - Book by George Abbott and Richard Bissell; Music and Lyrics by Richard Adler & Jerry Ross; Based on the novel "Seven And A Half Cents" by Richard Bissell St James Theatre, Broadway - 13 May, 1954 (1061 perfs) Synopsis ONLY American expertise could have created such a musical as this; a story about a Trade Union dispute set against a background of factory machines, played by factory hands, office workers and shop stewards. Yet it is one of the happiest, most romantic and richly comical musicals ever to be imported and packed with hit tunes.  The Leading Man has baritone songs such as "Hey There" and "A New Town Is a Blue Town". The modern-mezzo leading lady has "I'm Not At All In Love", while together they sing "Small Talk" and "There Once Was A Man".  The young dancer-singer, Elizabeth Seal, made her name in the smaller part of Gladys, and stopped the show with "Steam Heat" and "Hernando's Hideaway". The comedy part of Hines has "Think Of the Time I Save" and "I Would Trust Her" (I'll Never be Jealous Again"). There is exciting chorus work in the ensembles "Racing With the Clock". "Seven and a Half Cents" and the rousing "Once A Year Day". All of the music has great appeal to young audiences. The Story (The Present) A strike is imminent at the Sleep-Tite Pajama Factory. The Union is seeking a wage rise of seven and a half cents an hour. Sid and Babe are in opposite camps yet a romance is born between them. At first Babe rejects him and Sid is forced to confide his feelings to a dictaphone. During the picnic for the factory workers he makes better progress but their estrangement is reinforced when they return to the factory. A go-slow is staged by the Union, strongly supported by Babe. Sid, as factory superintendent, demands an 'honest day's work' and threatens to fire slackers. Babe is enraged by his attitude and kicks her foot into the machinery, causes a general breakdown and is immediately fired by Sid. Hines, the popular efficiency expert, is in love with Gladys the President's secretary. Periodically, he brings a more optimistic outlook to the life of the factory. Becoming convinced that Babe's championship of the Union is justified, Sid simulates an interest in Gladys by taking her out for the evening to the night club, Hernando's Hideaway. Through her help he is eventually able to gain access to the firm's books and discovers that the boss has been adding to his price the pay increase demanded by the workers. Sid then brings about his boss, Hasler's, consent to a pay rise and is able to bring peace to the factory and to his love life. Everyone goes out to celebrate - at Hernando's Hideaway. Cast (plus Chorus) The Pajama Game - Opening (Hines) - "The pajama game is the game I'm in" Racing With the Clock - Girls - "Hurry up!" SONG - A New Town Is a Blue Town - (Sid) - ""A new town is a blue town" Racing With the Clock - Reprise SONG - I'm Not At All In Love - (Babe, Girls) - "All you gotta do is say "Hello" to a man" I'm NOt at All In Love - Change DUET - I'll Never Be Jealous Again - (Mabel, Hines) - "That's easier said than done" INTRODUCTION to Hey, There 8a - Hey There - (Sid) - "Hey there, you with the stars in your eyes" DUET - Her Is - (Prez, Gladys) - "I wouldn't never tell this to nobody" 9a - Her Is - (Chorus) - "Her is a kinda doll what drives a person bats" 9b - Her Is - Dance 9c - Sleep Tite - (Factory employees) - "Sleep-tite, we pledge our hearts" ENSEMBLE & DANCE - Once A Year Day - (Company) - "This is my once a year day" 10a - Once a Year Day - Crossover REPRISE - Her Is DUET: Small Talk - (Babe, Sid) - "I don't wanna talk small talk" 12a - INCIDENTAL - I'm Not In Love DUET - There Once Was a Man - Sid, Babe - "There once was a man who loved a woman" FACTORY MUSIC FINALE Act 1 - "Better forget her" ENTR'ACTE TRIO - Steam Heat - (Gladys, Boys) - "I got steam heat" 17a - INCIDENTAL - Small Talk REPRISE - Hey There - (Babe) - "Hey there, you withthe stars in your eyes" 18a - FACTORY MUSIC SONG - Think Of the Time I Save - (Hines) - "I'm a time study man" ENSEMBLE - Hernando's Hideaway - (Gladys, Chorus) - "I know a dark secluded place" 20b - INCIDENTAL - Hernando's Hideaway BALLET (Part 1) - I'll Never Be Jealous Again 21b - BALLET - Part 2 ENSEMBLE - Seven and a Half Cents - (Prez, Babe and company) - "I figured it out" 23a - RUSH MUSIC REPRISE - There Once Was a Man - (Babe, Sid) - "More than a lion loves her cub" CLOSING - The Pajama Game

i don't know

Which musical featured the songs A Secretary is Not A Toy, and The Company Way?

HOW TO SUCCEED IN BUSINESS WITHOUT REALLY TRYING - A SECRETARY IS NOT A TOY LYRICS A Secretary Is Not A Toy Lyrics How To Succeed In Business Without Really Trying - A Secretary Is Not A Toy Lyrics A secretary is not a toy, no, my boy, not a toy To fondle and dandle and playfully handle In search of some puerile joy No, a secretary is not, definitely not a toy You're absolutely right, Mr Bratt We wouldn't have it any other way, Mr Bratt It's a company rule, Mr Bratt A secretary is not a toy, no, my boy, not a toy So do not go jumping for joy, boy A secretary is not, a secretary is not A secretary is not a toy A secretary is not a pet nor an Erector Set It happened to Charlie McCoy, boy They fired him like a shot The day the fellow forgot a secretary is not a toy She's a highly specialized key component Of operational unity A fine and sensitive mechanism To serve the office community With a mother at home she supports And you'll find nothing like her at FAO Schwarz A secretary is not to be used for play therapy Be good to the girl you employ, boy Remember no matter what neurotic trouble you've got A secretary is not a toy A secretary is not a thing Wound by key, pulled by string Her pad is to write in and not spend the night in If that's what you plan to enjoy, no The secretary you got is definitely not Employed to do a gavotte or you know what Before you jump for joy, remember this, my boy A secretary is not a tinker toy

How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying

Which Fanny was the subject of Funny Girl?

Robert Morse, Brotherhood of Man, How to Succeed in Business - YouTube Robert Morse, Brotherhood of Man, How to Succeed in Business Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Jan 28, 2008 Big musical number from the movie "How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying." Category

i don't know

Who was the first American actress to have a principal role with the Royal Shakespeare Company, in Les Miserable's?

Patti Lupone | The Stars | Broadway: The American Musical | PBS Tim Rice Andrew Lloyd Webber An actress and singer who left several well-known Hollywood and Broadway stars feeling bitterly disappointed and distraught when she won the role of Norma Desmond in Andrew Lloyd Webber’s 1993 London production of “Sunset Boulevard.” LuPone made her stage debut, tap dancing, at the age of four, and later took dancing classes with Martha Graham. She trained for the stage at the Juilliard School. where she met the actor Kevin Kline. A six-year personal relationship was supplemented by a joint association with John Housman’s Actor’s Company, which gave them both invaluable experience in the straight theater, and resulted in their appearance together — as the bride and bridegroom — in a short-lived Broadway musical, “The Robber Bridegroom” (1975). After several other flops, including “The Baker’s Wife” (1976) and “Working” (1978), LuPone won a Drama Desk Award and a Tony Award for her performance in the leading role of “Evita” (1979) on Broadway, and stayed with the show “until the strain of being obnoxious and dying from cancer every night got too much.” She returned to serious theater in the provinces and had occasionally effective roles in movies such as 1941 and WITNESS. In 1985, LuPone moved to London and appeared first in “The Cradle Will Rock.” In the same year, she became the first American actress and singer to gain a principal role with the Royal Shakespeare Company, in the hit musical “Les Misérables.” The names of both shows appeared on her 1985 Laurence Olivier Award. In complete contrast to those two roles, in 1986 she played Lady Bird Johnson in a U.S. miniseries based on the ex-president’s life, and, a year later, was back on Broadway in an acclaimed revival of “Anything Goes.” LuPone made her stage debut, tap dancing, at the age of four. In the late ’80s and early ’90s LuPone had a major role in the popular U.S. situation comedy LIFE GOES ON, and experienced some difficulty breaking free from her contract when the call came from Lloyd Webber. She first played Norma Desmond at the composer’s Sydmonton Festival in the summer of 1992. Declining the use of the book on stage, she learned the part and gave what was regarded as a “sensational” performance. Soon afterward it became obvious that she had stolen the role of a lifetime from under the noses” of bigger names such as Meryl Streep, Angela Lansbury, Liza Minnelli, and Julie Andrews. Sunset Boulevard” opened in the West End in July 1993, and although LuPone enjoyed a personal triumph, her contract to take the show to Broadway was canceled, resulting in a payoff “in the region of $1 million.” During the remainder of the ’90s LuPone appeared in New York in her own “Patti LuPone on Broadway” (1995) and as opera diva Maria Callas in Terrence McNally’s “Master Class” on Broadway (1996) and in London (1997). Early in 1999, she took her acclaimed new concert act, “Matters of the Heart,” to the Sydney Opera House, in Sydney, Australia. The eclectic program of original and contemporary music included works by John Lennon and Paul McCartney, Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein, Randy Newman, and Cole Porter. Source: Biographical information provided by MUZE. Excerpted from the ENCYCLOPEDIA OF POPULAR MUSIC, edited by Colin Larkin. © 2004 MUZE UK Ltd. Photo credits: Photofest

Patti LuPone

Which musical was Lerner and Loewe's last major success, in 1960?

Les Misérables: The Musical | Les Misérables Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Les Misérables: The Musical Share Ad blocker interference detected! Wikia is a free-to-use site that makes money from advertising. We have a modified experience for viewers using ad blockers Wikia is not accessible if you’ve made further modifications. Remove the custom ad blocker rule(s) and the page will load as expected. This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia ( view authors) . Les Misérables, or popularly referred to as Les Mis, Les Miz, is a musical based on the novel of the same name by French poet and playwright, Victor Hugo . The music was composed by Claude-Michel Schönberg, and the lyrics were written by Alain Boublil and Jean-Marc Natel, with an English-language libretto by Herbert Kretzmer . Set in early 19th-century France, the plot follows the stories of many characters as they struggle for redemption and revolution. An ensemble that includes prostitutes, student revolutionaries, factory workers, and others joins the lead characters. The musical opened at the Barbican Centre in London, England on 8 October 1985. It is the second longest-running musical in the world after The Fantasticks, the longest-running show in the West End, and the fifth longest-running show in Broadway history. In January 2010, it played its ten-thousandth performance in London, at Queen's Theatre in London's West End. On 3 October 2010, the show celebrated its 25th anniversary with three productions running in the same city: the original show at the Queen's Theatre in London's West End; the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary touring production at the original home of the show, the Barbican Centre; and the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary concert at London's O2 Arena. Contents Edit The Broadway production opened on March 12, 1987, and ran until May 18, 2003, closing after 6,680 performances. It is the fifth longest-running Broadway show in history. A fully re-orchestrated Broadway revival opened on November 9, 2006 at the Broadhurst Theatre. The show was nominated for twelve Tony Awards, winning eight, including Best Musical and Best Original Score. Les Misérables placed first in a BBC Radio 2 listener poll of the "Nation's Number One Essential Musicals" in June 2005, receiving more than 40% of the votes cast. Les Misérables was one of a slew of the British musicals running on Broadway in the 1980s alongside Evita, Cats, The Phantom of the Opera, and Miss Saigon. Emblem Edit The musical's emblem is a picture of the waif Cosette sweeping the Thénardier's Inn, usually shown cropped to a head-and-shoulders portrait with the French national flag superimposed. The picture is based on the illustration by Émile Bayard that appeared in the original edition of the novel in 1862. Characters Edit Jean Valjean , a paroled convict, prisoner 24601, and the protagonist. Failing to find work with his yellow parole note and redeemed by the Bishop of Digne's mercy, he tears his passport up and conceals his identity (under the alias "Monsieur Madeleine") in order to live his life again as an honest man. However, Javert constantly pursues him. Fantine , a single mother who is forced into prostitution in order to pay for her child's well-being. Javert , a police inspector, originally a prison-guard, who becomes obsessed with hunting down Valjean to whom he refers as "Prisoner 24601." Éponine , the young daughter of the sinister Thénardiers who was pampered and spoiled as a child but grows up to be ragged in Paris. She secretly loves Marius. Cosette , Fantine's daughter, who is abused and mistreated by the Thénardiers but whom Valjean later adopts - she soon grows into a beautiful young woman. Marius Pontmercy , a French student and revolutionary who falls in love with Cosette. Monsieur and Madame Thénardier , a crooked couple who own an inn and exploit their customers. They later become a feared band of thieves in the streets of Paris. Enjolras , leader of the student revolutionaries who seek to free the oppressed lower class of France. Gavroche , a hotheaded young boy who is adored by the people and aligns himself with their revolution—he is a true symbol of the youth and boldness of the rebellion. Songs The following are songs featured in the English version of the musical. The lyrics were written by Herbert Kretzmer. Act I Edit French songwriter Alain Boublil had the idea to adapt Victor Hugo's novel into a musical while at a performance of the musical Oliver! in London: "As soon as the Artful Dodger came onstage, Gavroche came to mind. It was like a blow to the solar plexus. I started seeing all the characters of Victor Hugo's Les Misérables— Valjean, Javert, Gavroche, Cosette, Marius, and Éponine — in my mind's eye, laughing, crying, and singing onstage." He pitched the idea to French composer Claude-Michel Schönberg, and developed a rough synopsis of what they believed would work in a musical. They worked up an analysis of each character's mental and emotional state, as well as that of an audience watching the show. Schönberg then began to write the music. Two years later, a two-hour demo tape with Schönberg accompanying himself on the piano and singing every role was finally completed. An album of this collaboration was recorded at CTS Studios in Wembley and was released in 1980, selling 260,000 copies. The concept album includes Maurice Barrier as Jean Valjean, Jacques Mercier as Javert, Rose Laurens as Fantine, Yvan Dautin as Thénardier, Marie-France Roussel as Mme. Thénardier, Richard Dewitte as Marius, Fabienne Guyon as Cosette, Marie-France Dufour as Éponine, Michel Sardou as Enjolras, Fabrice Bernard as Gavroche, Maryse Cédolin as Young Cosette, Claude-Michel Schönberg as Courfeyrac, Salvatore Adamo as Combeferre, Michel Delpech as Feuilly, Dominique Tirmont as M. Gillenormand, and Mireille as the hair buyer. That year, in September 1980, a stage version directed by veteran French film director Robert Hossein was produced at the Palais des Sports in Paris. The show was a success, with 100 performances seen by over 500,000 people. Most of the cast from the concept album performed in the production. The cast included Maurice Barrier as Valjean, Jean Vallée as Javert, Rose Laurens as Fantine, Maryse Cédolin and Sylvie Camacho and Priscilla Patron as Young Cosette, Marie-France Roussel as Mme. Thénardier, Yvan Dautin as M. Thénardier, Florence Davis and Fabrice Ploquin and Cyrille Dupont as Gavroche, Marianne Mille as Éponine, Gilles Buhlmann as Marius, Christian Ratellin as Enjolras, Fabienne Guyon as Cosette, René-Louis Baron as Combeferre, Dominique Tirmont as M. Gillenormand, and Anne Forrez as Mme. Gillenormand. London production Edit The English language version, with lyrics by Herbert Kretzmer and additional material by James Fenton, was substantially expanded and reworked from a literal translation by Siobhan Bracke of the original Paris version, in particular adding a prologue to tell Jean Valjean's back story. Kretzmer's work is not a direct "translation" of the French, a term that Kretzmer refuses to use. A third of the English lyrics were a rough translation, another third were adapted from the French lyrics and the final third consisted of new material. The first production in English, produced by Cameron Mackintosh and adapted and directed by Trevor Nunn and John Caird, opened on 8 October 1985 (five years after the original production) at the Barbican Arts Centre, London. It was billed in the RSC Barbican Theatre programme as "The Royal Shakespeare Company presentation of the RSC/Cameron Mackintosh production", and played to preview performances beginning on September 28, 1985. The set was designed by John Napier, costumes by Andreane Neofitou and lighting by David Hersey. Musical supervision and orchestrations were by John Cameron, who had been involved with the show since Claude-Michel and Alain hired him to orchestrate the original French concept album. Musical staging was by Kate Flatt with musical direction by Martin Koch. The production starred Colm Wilkinson as Jean Valjean, Frances Ruffelle as Éponine, Rebecca Caine as Cosette, Patti LuPone as Fantine, Roger Allam as the persistent Inspector Javert, Michael Ball as Marius, Zoe Hart as young Cosette, Susan Jane Tanner as Madame Thénardier, David Burt as Enjolras, Ian Tucker and Oliver Spencer as Gavroche, and Alun Armstrong as the villainous, but funny rogue Thénardier. On December 4, 1985, the show transferred to the Palace Theatre, London and moved again on April 3, 2004, to a much more intimate Queen's Theatre, with some revisions of staging, where it is still playing. It celebrated its ten-thousandth performance on 5 January 2010. The drummer from the original cast album, Peter Boita, is still with the show – the only musician still associated with the show that was there from the beginning.[10] The co-production has generated valuable income for the Royal Shakespeare Company. Broadway production Edit After a highly successful out-of-town tryout at the Kennedy Center's Opera House in Washington D.C., the show had its Broadway début on March 12, 1987 at the Broadway Theatre. Colm Wilkinson and Frances Ruffelle reprised their roles from the London production. With record advance ticket sales, the New York production recouped its entire $4.5 million investment before the first performance. The show underwent further tightening of plot, and an improved sewer lighting effect was incorporated into the staging. In addition, two songs were deleted – the complete version of Gavroche's song "Little People" and the adult Cosette's "I Saw Him Once." A short section at the beginning of "In My Life" replaced "I Saw Him Once". The lyrics in Javert's "Stars" have been changed. It now ends with the line, "This I swear by the stars!", while the London production and cast recording ended with the repeated line, "Keeping watch in the night." The original Broadway cast included Colm Wilkinson as Jean Valjean, David Bryant as Marius, Judy Kuhn as Cosette, Michael Maguire as Enjolras, Frances Ruffelle as Éponine, Braden Danner as Gavroche, Donna Vivino as Young Cosette, Jennifer Butt as Madame Thénardier, Leo Burmester as Thénardier, Randy Graff as Fantine and Terrence Mann as Javert. Other members of the original Broadway cast included: Kevin Marcum, Paul Harman, Anthony Crivello, John Dewar, Joseph Kolinski, Alex Santoriello, Jesse Corti, Susan Goodman, John Norman, Norman Large, Marcus Lovett, Steve Shocket, Cindy Benson, Marcie Shaw, Jane Bodle, Joanna Glushak, Ann Crumb, Kelli James, Gretchen Kingsley-Weihe, Chrissie McDonald. Michael Hinton was the original drummer and credited on the cast album. The musical ran at the Broadway Theatre through October 10, 1990, when it moved to the Imperial Theatre. It was scheduled to close on March 15, 2003, but the closing was postponed by a surge in public interest. After 6,680 performances in sixteen years, when it closed on May 18, 2003, it was the second-longest-running Broadway musical after Cats. More recently, its position has fallen to the third-longest-running Broadway musical after The Phantom of the Opera ascended initially to the second and, in 2006, to the number one spot. This Broadway production of Les Misérables and its advertising in New York City is a reoccurring themes in Bret Easton Ellis' 1991 novel American Psycho. 2006 Broadway revival Edit Only three years after the original run closed, Les Misérables began a limited return to Broadway on November 9, 2006 at the Broadhurst Theatre. On December 19, 2006, it was announced that Les Misérables would extend its run until September 1, 2007. It was subsequently announced that the show would have an open-ended run rather than a set closing date. Using the set, costumes, performers, and other resources from the recently closed third U.S. national touring production, the production was only slightly altered. Minor changes included a new costume for Cosette, the use of colourful projections blended into its existing lighting design, and a proscenium that extended out into the first two boxes on either side of the stage. Some cuts previously made to the show during its original Broadway run were restored, new lyrics were penned for Gavroche's death scene (known in the revival as "Ten Little Bullets"), and much of the show was re-orchestrated by Christopher Janke, introducing a snare and timpani heavy sound played by a 14 member band, a reduction of about 10 musicians from the original score's requirement of 23–25. The original 2006 Broadway revival cast included Alexander Gemignani as Jean Valjean, Norm Lewis as Javert, Daphne Rubin-Vega as Fantine, Celia Keenan-Bolger as Éponine, Aaron Lazar as Enjolras, Adam Jacobs as Marius Pontmercy, Ali Ewoldt as Cosette, Gary Beach as Thénardier, Jenny Galloway as Madame Thénardier, Austyn Myers as Gavroche, Steve LeFayt as The Bishop of Digne and Drew Sarich as Grantaire. Fantine was played by Lea Salonga beginning on March 2, 2007. Ann Harada replaced Jenny Galloway as Mme. Thénardier on April 24, 2007. Ben Davis joined playing Javert, and Max von Essen playing Enjolras. Ben Crawford and Mandy Bruno joined the cast that day too, playing Brujon and Éponine respectively. On July 23, 2007, Drew Sarich took over the role of Jean Valjean, following Alexander Gemignani's departure. On September 5, 2007, it was announced that John Owen-Jones (who played Valjean in London) was to join the Broadway cast. In return, Drew Sarich (the Valjean on Broadway) was joining the London cast in Owen-Jones' place. Judy Kuhn, who originated the role of Cosette returned to the show after 20 years as Fantine, succeeding Lea Salonga, who previously played the role of Éponine. On September 27, 2007, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo attended the Broadhurst Theatre to watch Lea Salonga in her role as Fantine in Les Misérables. Salonga's cast included Adam Jacobs as Marius and Ali Ewoldt as Cosette. Later that year, the show went temporarily dark because of the Broadway stagehands' strike. The revival closed on January 6, 2008. Combined with the original production's 6,680 performances, Les Misérables has played 7,176 performances on Broadway. Other concert performances Edit The musical has also been performed in concert at Cardiff Castle and several venues in southern England, produced by Earl Carpenter Concerts. A concert version starring Jeff Leyton was also performed at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast. In 1989, a one-night concert performance was performed at the Toronto Skydome, and the largest concert production attracted an audience of approximately 125,000 as part of the Australia day celebrations in Sydney's Domain Park. The Scandinavian concert tour, produced by Cameron Mackintosh in association with Noble Art, starred Danish musical icon Stig Rossen in the leading role and commemorated author Victor Hugo's 200th birthday. Venues on the tour included the Stockholm Globen, Oslo Spektrum, the Helsinki Hartwell Areena, and the Gothenburg Scandinavium, with audiences totalling over 150,000 for the complete tour. In February 2008, Les Misérables was performed at the BIC in Bournemouth, England with a cast of West End stars accompanied by the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra. In August 2008, a concert version,directed by Richard Jay-Alexander, was performed at the Hollywood Bowl. The cast included veteran Les Misérables star J. Mark McVey as Valjean, The Office star Melora Hardin as Fantine, Broadway star and Bowl veteran Brian Stokes Mitchell as Javert, Spring Awakening star Lea Michele as Éponine, Tony winning Jersey Boys star John Lloyd Young as Marius, West End star Tom Lowe as Enjolras, Michael McCormick as Thénardier, Ruth Williamson as Madame Thénardier, Michele Maika as Cosette, Maddie Levy as Young Cosette, and Sage Ryan as Gavroche. In September 2008, it was performed at the St John Loveridge Hall in Guernsey with a cast of West End performers—the first time that it had been professionally performed on the Island where Victor Hugo wrote the novel. Former London Valjean Phil Cavill reprised his role alongside Les Misérables veteran Michael McCarthy as Javert. In March 2009, the Guernsey production was remounted at Fort Regent in Jersey; and in July 2009, the musical was performed in concert at Osborne House on the Isle Of Wight. National U.S. Broadway tours Edit The show had three national touring productions in the U.S., all of which shared the Broadway producer and manager, cast, creative teams, sets, costumes, and lighting. While the touring production and the New York production were running simultaneously, the staff, cast members, crew, and musicians of the two productions interchanged often, which contributed to keeping both companies of the show in form. When the New York production closed in 2003, the Third National Tour continued for another three years, and enjoyed the influx of many members from the original and subsequent New York companies. The First National Tour opened at Boston's Shubert Theatre on December 12, 1987, and continued to play until late 1991. The Second National Tour opened at Los Angeles' Shubert Theatre on June 1, 1988. The production played for 14 months then closed. The 2nd, Second National Company (Fantine #2) was assembled for San Francisco. The company rehearsed for 3 weeks at Theatre Artaud in San Francisco and Opened as a sit down Company at San Francisco's Curran Theatre. Delays caused from the damages the city suffered from the Loma Prieta Earthquake, the orginal opening date was delayed till Nov. 1st. It played till Spring 1991. The Cast included members from the Broadway, 1st, 2nd & 3rd National and Austrailian Companies. Jean Valjean: Rich Hebert, Javert: Richard Kinsey, Fantine: Kelly Ground, Tenardier: Gary Beach, Madame Tenardier: Gina Ferrall, Marius: Matthew Porretta, Cosette: Jacquelyn Piro, Eponine: Michele Maika, Enjolras: Craig Oldfather, Gavroche: Rider Strong, Ian Werkheiser, Young Cossette-Eponine: Larisa Oleynik, Sabrina Harris The Third National Tour of Les Misérables (called "The Marius Company") was one of the longest running American touring musicals. Opening on 28 November 1988 at the Tampa Bay Performing Arts Center in Florida and closing on July 23, 2006, at the Fox Theatre in Saint Louis, Missouri, the tour ran for seventeen years and seven thousand sixty-one performances. The tour played in one hundred forty-five cities in forty-three states. The same touring company also frequently performed in Canada, and made a diversion in 2002 to visit Shanghai, China for three weeks. The final company of the Third National Broadway Tour included Randal Keith as Valjean (Keith also played Valjean in the final company of the original Broadway engagement), Robert Hunt as Javert, Joan Almedilla as Fantine, Daniel Bogart as Marius, Norman Large (from Original Broadway Cast) as Monsieur Thénardier, Jennifer Butt (from Original Broadway Cast) as Madame Thénardier, Melissa Lyons as Éponine, Ali Ewoldt as Cosette, Victor Wallace as Enjolras, Meg Guzulescu and Rachel Schier alternating as Young Cosette and Young Éponine, Austyn Myers and Anthony Skillman alternating as Gavroche 25th anniversary international tour Edit A new tour to commemorate the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the London Production began performances on December 12, 2009, at the Wales Millennium Centre in Cardiff, which was scheduled to run to January 16, 2010. The production has a new set, new direction and alterations to the original orchestrations. The tour is scheduled to tour the UK with confirmed stops at the Palace Theatre, Manchester; Theatre Royal, Norwich; Birmingham Hippodrome; Edinburgh Playhouse & Bristol Hippodrome. The tour will also play a limited engagement at the Chatelet Theatre, Paris from May 26 – July 4, 2010; The Lowry Centre, Salford from 10–21 August 2010; the Mayflower Theatre, Southampton from 24 August-11 September and then onto a strictly limited engagement at the Barbican Centre, London from 14 September – 2 October 2010. The tour stars John Owen-Jones as Valjean; Earl Carpenter as Javert; Gareth Gates as Marius, Jon Robyns as Enjolras, Ashley Artus as Thénardier, Rosalind James as Éponine, Madalena Alberto as Fantine, Lynne Wilmot as Madame Thénardier and Katie Hall as Cosette. International productions Edit The show has been produced in fourty-two countries and translated into twenty-two languages (English, French, German (two from Austria and Germany), Spanish (three from Spain, Argentinia and Mexico), Japanese, Korean, Hebrew, Hungarian, Icelandic, Norwegian (two in Bokmål and Nynorsk), Polish, Swedish, Dutch (two from the Netherlands and Belgium), Danish, Finnish, Brazilian Portuguese, Estonian, Czech, Mauritian Creole, Basque, Catalan). Including singles and promos, there have been over fifty-five official recordings from worldwide productions. [1] Unless otherwise indicated by "NR" (denoting a non-replica production) productions listed here featured the full London/Broadway staging (revolving stage, automated barricades, etc.) 1980 Palais des Sports, Paris. Opened September 17. Closed December 14. (NR) 1985 Barbican Theatre, London. Opened October 8. Production transferred to the Palace Theatre on December 4. In April 2004, production moved to the Queen's Theatre, where it is currently running. 1986 Kennedy Center Opera House, Washington D.C. American premiere/out-of-town tryout. Opened December 27. Closed February 14, 1987. 1987 Broadway Theatre, New York. Opened March 12. Production moved to the Imperial Theatre in October 1990. Closed May 18, 2003. Imperial Theatre: Tokyo, Japan. Opened June 17. Closed November 30. Production has toured Japan ever since with stops in Nagoya; Osaka; Sendai; Sapporo; and Tokyo. In repertory since '87. Cameri Theatre: Tel Aviv, Israel. Opened August 9. Closed March 31, 1989. (NR) Rock Theatre: Szeged, Hungary. Opened August 14. Closed August 21. (NR) Vigszinhaz Theatre: Budapest, Hungary. Opened September 14. Closed September 21. In repertory. (NR) Theatre Royal, Sydney, Australia. Opened November 27. Closed July 15, 1989. Production then toured Australia and New Zealand with stops in Perth; Melbourne; Adelaide; Brisbane; and Auckland. Shubert Theatre: Boston, MA. Opened December 15. Closed June 26, 1988. First U.S. national tour launched with stops in Washington D.C.; Philadelphia; Chicago; Detroit; Baltimore; and Los Angeles. Tour closed in Chicago on September 29, 1991. National Theatre of Iceland: Reykjavik, Iceland. Opened December 26. Closed June 5, 1988. (NR) 1988 Det Norske Teatret: Oslo, Norway. Opened March 17. Closed December 31. Shubert Theatre: Los Angeles, CA. Opened 1 June. Closed July 23, 1989. Raimund Theatre: Vienna, Austria. Opened September 15. Closed March 31, 1990. Tampa Bay Performing Arts Center: Tampa, FL. Opened November 28. Closed December 11. Third U.S. national tour launched with stops in 145 cities, in 43 states, including engagements in Canada, Singapore, and China. Tour closed in St. Louis, MO on July 23, 2006. 1989 Royal Alexandra Theatre: Toronto, Canada. Opened March 15. Closed May 26, 1992. Production then toured Canada with stops in Calgary; Vancouver; Montreal (bilingual cast); Winnipeg; Ottawa; Edmonton; Hamilton; Honolulu, HI; and Regina. Teatr Muzyczny: Gdynia, Poland. Opened June 30. In repertory to date. (NR) Curran Theatre: San Francisco, CA. Second National (Sit Down) Tour.  Opened Nov. 1, Closed Januray 27, 1991 1990 Cirkus Theatre: Stockholm, Sweden. Opened October 12. Closed December 14, 1991. 1991 Carre Theatre: Amsterdam, Netherlands. Opened February 28. Closed October 20. Production then transferred to the Cirkustheater in Scheveningen and closed March 8, 1992. Odense Teater: Odense, Denmark. Opened April 20. Closed June 22. (NR) Mogador Theatre: Paris, France. Opened October 23. Closed May 24, 1992. 1992 Palace Theatre: Manchester, England. Opened April 14. Closed May 1, 1993. Production went on to play Dublin; and Edinburgh. Vinorhady Theatre: Prague, Czech Republic. Opened June 25. Closed September 13. (NR) Teatro Nuevo Apolo: Madrid, Spain. Opened September 16. Closed May 29, 1994. Ostre Gasvaerk Teater: Copenhagen, Denmark. Opened December 27. Closed December 31, 1993. (NR) 1993 Point Theatre: Dublin, Ireland. Opened June 30. Closed in September. Edinburgh Playhouse: Edinburgh, Scotland. Opened September 23. Closed February 19, 1994. Meralco Theatre: Manila, Philippines. Opened October 7. Closed October 31. (NR) 1994 Kallang Theatre: U.S. third national tour makes a special trip to Singapore. Opened February 3. Closed April 17. 1996 Music Hall/Theater am Marientor: Duisburg, Germany. Opened January 26. Closed November 28, 1999. Kallang Theatre: Asian/African tour launched in Singapore. Opened February 28. Closed March 31. Production continued on to Hong Kong, Seoul, and Cape Town, South Africa. Karlstads Teater: Karlstad, Sweden. Opened October 15. Closed April 27, 1997. (NR) Aalborg Teater: Aalborg, Denmark. Opened 14 November. Closed 4 January 1997. (NR) 1997 Imperial Theatre, Broadway. Opened March 12. Special 10th anniversary performance and first look at slightly revamped production. Theatre Royal, Sydney, Australia. Opened November 29. Closed June 13, 1998. Launch of the 10th anniversary Australian tour, with stops in Melbourne; Auckland, New Zealand; Perth; and Brisbane. 1998 Music Hall: Antwerp, Belgium. Opened May 24. Closed April 25, 1999. This production was performed in both French and Flemish. Aarhus Theatre: Aarhus, Denmark. Opened September 4. Closed December 31. (NR) City Hall: Hamilton, Bermuda. Opened October 5. Closed October 17. (NR) 1999 City Theatre: Helsinki, Finland. Opened February 25. Closed May 29. In repertory. (NR) Kongrescenter: Herning, Denmark. Opened April 15. Closed May 30. (NR) Municipal Theatre: Mahebourg, Mauritius. Opened June 12. Closed June 28. (NR) Performing Arts Center: Tel Aviv, Israel. Opened July 20. Closed September 4. (NR) Madach Theatre: Budapest, Hungary. Opened November 20. In repertory to date. (NR) 2000 Teatro Opera: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Opened March 22. Closed October 15. Opera House: Gothenburg, Sweden. Opened April 22. Closed September 23. (NR) 2001 Opera Bonn: Bonn, Germany. Opened April 8. Closed July 7. (NR) Teatro Abril: São Paulo, Brazil. Opened April 25. Roadside Theatre: Heidelberg, Patton Barracks, Germany. Opened May 11. Closed June 10. (NR) Opernhaus: Chemnitz, Germany. Opened October 21. In repertory to date. (NR) City Hall Theatre: Tallinn, Estonia. Opened November 1. Closed November 25. (NR) 2002 Centro Cultural Telmex: Mexico City, Mexico. Opened November 14. Closed August 30, 2004. Staatstheater: Saarbrücken, Germany. Opened December 7. In repertory to date. (NR) 2003 Anhalitisches Theatre: Dessau, Germany. Opened March 21. Closed June 27. (NR) Moster Amfi: Bolmo, Norway. Opened August 8. Closed August 16. (NR) Goja Music Hall: Prague, Czech Republic. Opened September 16. In repertory to date. (NR) Theater des Westens: Berlin, Germany. Opened September 26. Closed December 31, 2004. 2006 Trøndelag Teater: Trondheim, Norway. Opened February 25. Closed October 14, 2005. 2007 Madlenianum Opera and Theatre: Belgrade, Serbia. Opened October 18. In repertory to date. (NR) Akershus Teater: Lillestrøm, Norway. Opened January 29 for a limited run. (NR) 2008 Theatre Du Capitole: Quebec, Canada. (NR) Luxor Theatre: Rotterdam, Netherlands. Opened April 20. Closed January 4, 2009. 2009 Carré Theatre: Amsterdam, Netherlands. Opened January 17. Closed February 22. Oslo Nye Teater: Oslo, Norway. Opened February 4. Closed June 20. (NR) Det Ny Teater: Copenhagen, Denmark. Opened September 17. Closed December 31. (NR) Wales Millennium Centre: Cardiff, UK. Opened December 12. Closed January 16, 2010. (NR). The tour will commemorate the 25th Anniversary of the show with stops in Manchester, Norwich, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Paris, and London. 2010 Palace Theatre, Manchester: UK. Opened January 19. Closed February 13. (NR)\ Theatre Royal, Norwich: UK. Opened February 16 . Closed March 20. (NR) Birmingham Hippodrome: Birmingham, UK. Opened March 23. Closed April 17. (NR) Edinburgh Playhouse: Edinburgh, UK. Opened April 20. Closed May 15. (NR) Théâtre du Châtelet: Paris, France. Opened May 26. Will close July 4. (NR) Bristol Hippodrome: Bristol, UK. Will open July 13. Will close August 7. (NR) The Lowry: Salford: UK. Will open August 10. Will close August 21. (NR) The Mayflower Theatre, Southampton: UK. Will open August 24. Will close September 11. (NR) Barbican Centre: London, UK. Will open September 14. Will close October 2. (NR) Teatr Muzyczny Roma: Warsaw, Poland. Will open September 20. Teatro Lope de Vega: Madrid, Spain. Will open November 18. 2012 Poeun Art Hall,Yongin, Korea. Opened November 3. (NR) 2013 Blue Square’s Samsung Electronics Hall, Seoul, Korea. Opened April 26. Closed September 1.(NR) North American regional productions Edit With the approval of the Cameron Mackintosh organization, Music Theatre International selected the USAREUR Roadside Theater in Heidelberg, Germany for the American Community Theater World Premiere of Les Misérables. The premiere took place May 11, 2001, with the production closing June 10, 2001. This production was also one of the first uses of the Sinfonia system by MTI in collaboration with Realtime Music Solutions, later used in the London production. Beginning in 2007, a limited number of regional productions (five in the US, two in Canada) of Les Misérables licensed by Cameron Mackintosh have been staged. The California Musical Theatre (CMT) (Sacramento, California) in its Music Circus summer series (production ran from July 10 thru July 22, 2007) staged the show as theater in the round. Glenn Casale, choreographed by Bob Richard, with music directed by Andrew Bryan, directed the production that featured Ivan Rutherford who gave over one thousand eight hundred performances as Jean Valjean on Broadway as well as performing in the 10th Anniversary Company. Other regional productions of Les Misérables include the Pioneer Theatre Company (PTC) of Salt Lake City which was honoured to be the first company to present a regional production. This production ran from April 27, 2007, to July 7, 2007, making it the longest running production in PTC's history. It was directed by PTC Artistic Director Charles Morey and brought both William Solo as Jean Valjean and Merwin Foard as Inspector Javert to the PTC re-enacting roles both men played previously on Broadway. The first independent regional theatre production of "Les Misérables" in Canada was directed by Linda Moore at the Neptune Theatre in Halifax Nova Scotia, starring Frank Mackay as Jean Valjean in 1994. The Thousand Islands Playhouse in Gananoque Canada staged a production, which opened July 4, 2008, featured Lee B.Siegel as Valjean, Shane Carty as Javert, Kevin Power as Thénardier, Marcia Tratt as Madame Thénardier, Ramona Gilmour-Darling as Éponine, Ashley Taylor as Cosette, Shannon Barnett as Fantine, Dale R. Miller as Marius, Gabriel Burrafato as Enjolras, and Derrick Paul Miller as the Bishop of Digne. Derrick Paul Miller played the role of Valjean on July 22, July 23 (matinee), July 24, and July 26 (matinee). It is directed by Greg Wanless, and musical director Sandy Thorburn. An outdoor production played at The Muny, the nation's oldest and largest outdoor theatre, which seats 12,000 people. The theatre is located in Saint Louis, MO. Directed by Fred Hanson, Les Misérables was the final production of the Muny's 89th season, playing August 6–15, 2007. Ivan Rutherford, who was a Valjean in the original Broadway production, reprised his role in the production. Kevin Kern and Diana Kaarina, who played Marius and Éponine in the closing cast of the original Broadway production, reprised their roles. Another outdoor production has been staged at Tuacahn Center for the Arts in Ivins, UT and runs June through mid-October, 2008. In September 2008, a mini tour produced by Atlanta's Theater of the Stars played Eisenhower Hall at the United States Military Academy, in West Point, NY; the Filene Center at the Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts in Vienna, VA; Kansas City Starlight Theater; and The Fox Theater in Atlanta. The show featured a new set of original pictures painted by Victor Hugo himself. Robert Evan played Valjean, returning to the role he played in the mid-nineties on Broadway. Also featured were Nikki Rene Daniels as Fantine and Robert Hunt as Javert, both reprising their roles from the Broadway revival. Fred Hanson directed the production. The creative team included Matt Kinley as Scenic Designer, Ken Billington as Lighting Designer, Peter Fitzgerald and Erich Bechtel as Sound Designers, Zachary Borovay as Projection Designer, and Dan Riddle as Musical Director and Conductor. In 2008, the Signature Theatre in Arlington, Virginia staged a small venue "black box" version of the play. Signature was honoured to receive Mackintosh's special permission for the production: "One of the great pleasures of being involved with the creation of Les Misérables is seeing this marvelous musical being done in a completely different and original way. Having seen many shows brilliantly reimagined at Signature I have no doubt that Eric and his team will come up with a revolutionary new take on Les Miz unlike anything anyone has seen before. Viva la différence!" This triumph, coupled with years of imaginative productions, earned Signature the 2009 Regional Theater Tony Award. The production officially opened on December 14, 2008 (after previews from December 2), and runs through February 22, 2009 (extended from January 25, 2009). Northern Stage, a regional theatre company in White River Junction, VT, also staged a December 2008 production on a small stage; in their case, it was a three-quarter-thrust stage in a 245-seat house. This production featured Timothy Shew as Jean Valjean, Mary Gutzi as Madame Thénardier and Kevin David Thomas as Marius, all of whom appeared in the Broadway production (where Shew starred as Valjean, Gutzi as Fantine and Thomas as Marius). The production also featured Broadway veterans Dan Sharkey (The Music Man) and David DeWitt (Phantom of the Opera). The production was directed by Northern Stage Artistic Director Brooke Ciardelli. In July 2009, the Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera (CLO) staged Les Misérables as part of their summer show collection. Les Misérables school edition Edit The School Edition cuts a considerable amount of material from the original show. It is divided into thirty scenes and, although no "critical" scenes or songs have been removed, it runs twenty-five–thirty minutes shorter than the "official" version. A few subtle changes of vocal pitch have been made: "What Have I Done?", Valjean's Soliloquy, "Stars" by Javert, "A Little Fall of Rain" by Éponine and Marius, "Turning" by the women of the Revolution, and "Castle on a Cloud" lose a verse each. The song "Fantine's Death/Confrontation" is edited, removing the signature counterpoint duel between Valjean and Javert. "Dog Eats Dog" by Thénardier is truncated, as is as "Beggars at the Feast", with the song before it, "Wedding Chorale" is considerably shortened. After The King's Theatre, The King's School and Tara Anglican School for Girls, in Sydney, Australia, gained rights for the full production in late 2000 from Cameron Mackintosh to perform the show, Music Theatre International developed a school version, available only to productions with an entirely amateur cast aged under 19. Hundreds of schools worldwide have purchased the rights and staged performances, and it was the best selling play for high schools in the year 2006. The Helen Hayes Theatre Company in Nyack, New York marked the American premiere of the student edition in October 2001. From this version, Cameron Mackintosh and Music Theatre International produced the Les Misérables: School Edition Cast Recording in 2002. The album has recognition to hundreds of theatres housing the production worldwide. Concerts Edit On October 8, 1995, the show celebrated its tenth anniversary with a concert at the Royal Albert Hall. This Tenth Anniversary Concert is nearly 'complete', missing only a handful of scenes, including "The Death of Gavroche" and the confrontation between Marius and Thénardier at the wedding feast. Sir Cameron Mackintosh hand-selected the cast, which has come to be called the Les Misérables Dream Cast, assembling cast members from around the world. The concert concluded with Valjeans from various international productions singing, "Do You Hear the People Sing?" in their native languages. The cast: Colm Wilkinson as Jean Valjean, Philip Quast as Javert, Michael Ball as Marius Pontmercy, Lea Salonga as Éponine, Judy Kahn as Cosette, Ruthie Henshall as Fantine, Michael Maguire as Enjolras, Alun Armstron as Thénardier and Jenny Galloway as Madame Thénardier. 25th Anniversary Concert Edit The 25th Anniversary Concert of Les Misérables was held at The O2 in North Greenwich on Sunday, 3 October 2010 at 1:30 pm and 7:00 pm. It featured Alfie Boe as Jean Valjean, Norm Lewis as Javert, Lea Salonga as Fantine, Nick Jonas as Marius, Katie Hall as Cosette, Jenny Galloway as Madame Thénardier, Ramin Karimloo as Enjolras, Samantha Barks as Éponine, Matt Lucas as Thénardier, Mia Jenkins as Young Cosette, Robert Madge as Gavroche and Earl Carpenter as the Bishop of Digne. (Originally, Camilla Kerslake had been selected to perform as Cosette, however she was unable to attend. Katie Hall was selected in her place. Hall had previously acted the role at the Queen's Theatre from 2009 and in the 25th Anniversary Tour production at the Barbican.) Casts of the current London, international tour and original 1985 London productions took part, comprising an ensemble of three hundred performers and musicians. The concert was staged by Ken Caswell who had been an original cast member in 1985. The 25th Anniversary Concert was recorded live at The O2 (London) on 3 October 2010 and is available on DVD in the UK while the Blu-ray was released worldwide. It was shown in select US theaters via NCM Fathom Events. The release for the DVD in the United States was 22 February 2011. A CD single of the 'Valjean Quartet' singing "Bring Him Home" was also recorded and released with proceeds going to the charity "Tickets For Troops." Films Edit Although numerous films of the Les Misérables story have been made, no film adaptation of the stage musical was produced for many years. A film adaptation has been in development several times since the late 1980s. Alan Parker was reported to be connected to an adaptation at an early stage. In 1992 Mackintosh announced planning for a film to be directed by Bruce Beresford and co-produced by Tri-Star Pictures, but the project was later abandoned. The 2010 DVD/Blu-ray release of Les Misérables: 25th Anniversary Concert included an announcement of revised plans for a film adaptation which was later confirmed by Mackintosh. Tom Hooper signed on in March 2011 to direct the Mackintosh-produced film from a screenplay by William Nicholson. In June 2011 Working Title and Mackintosh announced that the film would begin principal photography in early 2012 for a December release date. The film, starring Hugh Jackman as Jean Valjean, Russell Crowe as Javert, and Anne Hathaway as Fantine, opened on Christmas Day of 2012, and went on to win three Golden Globe Awards including Best Picture - Musical or Comedy, Best Actor (Jackman) and Best Supporting Actress (Hathaway). It was also nominated for eight Academy Awards. Cast Recordings

i don't know

Which 90s revival hit shares its name with a gangster city?

THE SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF RAP & HIP-HOP CULTURE The Social Significance of Rap & Hip-Hop Culture Becky Blanchard Poverty & Prejudice: Media and Race "Keep in mind when brothas start flexing the verbal skillz, it always reflects what's going on politically, socially, and economical/y." --Musician Davey D In recent years, controversy surrounding rap music has been in the forefront of the American media. From the hype of the East Coast-West Coast rivalry that shadowed the murders of rappers Tupac Shakur and Notorious B.I.G. to the demonization of modem music in the wake of school shootings in Littleton, Colorado, it seems that political and media groups have been quick to place blame on rap for a seeming trend in youth violence. however, though critics are quick to point out the violent lyrics of some rappers, they are missing the point of rap's message. Rap, like other forms of music, cannot be understood unless it is studied without the frame of its historical and social context. Today's rap music reflects its origin in the hip-hop culture of young, urban, working-class African-Americans, its roots in the African oral tradition, its function as the voice of an otherwise underrepresented group, and, as its popularity has grown, its commercialization and appropriation by the music industry. Hip-hop music is generally considered to have been pioneered in New York's South Bronx in 1973 by Jamaican-born Kool DJ Herc. At a Halloween dance party thrown by his younger sister, Herc used an innovative turntable technique to stretch a song's drum break by playing the break portion of two identical records consecutively. The popularity of the extended break lent its name to "breakdancing"--a style specific to hip-hop culture, which was facilitated by extended drumbreaks played by DJs at New York dance parties. By the mid-1970s, New York's hip-hop scene was dominated by seminal turntablists DJ Grandmaster Flash, Afrika Bambaataa, and Herc. The rappers of Sugarhill Gang produced hip-hop's first commercially successful hit, "Rapper's Delight," in 1979'. Rap itself--the rhymes spoken over hip-hop music--began as a commentary on the ability--or "skillz"--of a particular DJ while that DJ was playing records at a hip-hop event. MCs, the forerunners of today's rap artists, introduced DJs and their songs and often recognized the presence of friends in the audience at hip-hop performances. Their role was carved out by popular African-American radio disc jockeys in New York during the latel96Os, who introduced songs and artists with spontaneous rhymes. The innovation of MCs caught the attention of hip-hop fans. Their rhymes lapped over from the transition period between the end of one song and the introduction of the next to the songs themselves. Their commentaries moved solely from a DJ's skillz to their own personal experiences and stories. The role of MCs in performances rose steadily, and they began to be recognized as artists in their own right2. The local popularity of the rhythmic music served by DJs at dance parties and clubs, combined with an increase in "b-boys"--breakdancers--and graffiti artists and the growing importance of MCs, created a distinctive culture known as hip-hop. For the most part, hip-hop culture was defined and embraced by young, urban, working-class African-Americans. Hip-hop music originated from a combination of traditionally African-American forms of music--including jazz, soul, gospel, and reggae. It was created by working-class African-Americans, who, like Herc, took advantage of available tools--vinyl records and turntables--to invent a new form of music that both expressed and shaped the culture of black New York City youth in the 1970s. While rap's history appears brief its relation to the African oral tradition, which provides rap with much of its current social significance, also roots rap in a long-standing history of oral historians, lyrical fetishism, and political advocacy. At the heart of the African oral tradition is the West African3 idea of nommo. In Malian Dogon cosmology, Nommo is the first human, a creation of the supreme deity, Amma, whose creative power lies in the generative property of the spoken word4. As a philosophical concept, nommo is the animative ability of words and the delivery of words to act upon objects, giving life. The significance of nommo in the African oral tradition has given power to rappers and rap music within many African-American communities. Rap's common designation as "CNN for black people" may result from the descendence of rappers from griots, respected African oral historians and praise-singers. Griots were the keepers and purveyors of knowledge, including tribal history, family lineage, and news of births, deaths, and wars5. Travelling griots spread knowledge in an accessible form--the spoken word--to members of tribal villages. Similarly, in the United States, many rappers create songs that, through performances and records, spread news of their daily lives, dreams, and discontents outside of their immediate neighborhoods. Rappers are viewed as the voice of poor, urban African-American youth, whose lives are generally dismissed or misrepresented by the mainstream media. They are the keepers of contemporary African-American working-class history and concerns. Additionally, rap's potential for political advocacy stems from the function of its predecessors, African-American rhyming games, as forms of resistance to systems of subjugation and slavery. Rhyming games6 encoded race relations between African-American slaves and their white masters in a way that allowed them to pass the scrutiny of suspicious overseers. Additionally, rhyming games allowed slaves to use their creative intellect to provide inspiration and entertainment. For example, by characterizing the slave as a rabbit and the master as a fox, "Bre'r Rabbit tales" disguised stories of slaves outwitting their masters and escaping plantations behind the facade of a comical adventure. Hip-hop journalist Davey D connects the African oral tradition to modern rap: "You see, the slaves were smart and they talked in metaphors. They would be killed if the slave masters heard them speaking in unfamiliar tongues. So they did what modern-day rappers do--they flexed their lyrical skillz."7 Rap has developed as a form of resistance to the subjugation of working-class African-Americans in urban centers. Though it may be seen primarily as a form of entertainment, rap has the powerful potential to address social, economic, and political issues and act as a unifying voice for its audience.8 Rap shares its roots with other forms of traditionally African-American music, such as jazz, blues, and soul. Rap may also be closely linked to reggae music, a genre that also developed from the combination of traditional African drumming9 and the music of the Buropean ruling class by youth of limited economic means within a system of African economic subjugation. In an ironic circle of influence, Jamaican reggae was played on African-American radio stations in New York in the 1960s. DJs used rhymes to introduce reggae songs. These AM stations could be received in Jamaica, where listeners picked up on the DJs' rhyming styles, extending them over reggae songs to create "dub"--another forerunner of rap10. Kool DJ Herc, before introducing his innovative turntable style, brought his dub style to New York, but it failed to gain popularity. He concentrated on developing his DJing skills, which later allowed for the acceptance of MCing and, eventually, rap. The development of rap and reggae has been an intertwined path of two different styles, which have grown from and have thrived, in similar circumstances. Finally, just as reggae has been under attack for some artists' seeming advocacy of violence to solve social, political, and economic problems, rap has become the scapegoat of the American musical fabric, as it, too, has faced mass popularity and commercialization. Just as reggae is now under threat of losing its power as an art form and a social voice" after being appropriated by those outside of the Rastafarian culture, rap struggles to survive adoption and commodification by those outside of the world of hip-hop. In the last decade, hip-hop music has followed the path of commercialization that destroyed African-American radio stations in the 1 970s. Whereas prior to commercialization, African-American owners, programmers, and DJs had the freedom to use their stations to serve the specific needs of their listeners --New York's working-class African-American community. They were able to promote local artists and events and to address news events and social concerns as members of the same community from which they drew their audience. However, as corporations owned by businesspeople outside of the community consolidated power by purchasing local stations, African-American AM stations were forced out of the market by more economically-powerful stations owned and controlled mainly by members of the white upper-class. African - American DJs lost their power as the modern-day griots of their communities and as the presenters of hip-hop music and culture. Similarly, with the "discovery" of hip-hop artists by corporate record labels, rap music was stolen from its community, repackaged by money-minded businesspeople looking to create a wider appeal by erasing hip-hop's historic function, and sold back to the streets through marketing ploys such as music videos and Top-40 charts. By the I 980s, hip-hop had become a business and rap music was a valuable commodity'3. However, according to journalist Christopher John Farley, rap's commodification has also disenfranchised it as a form of resistance: Corporate America's infatuation with rap has increased as the genre's political content has withered. Ice Cube's early songs attacked white racism; Ice-T sang a song about a cop killer; Public Enemy challenged listeners to "fight the power". But many newer acts are focused almost entirely on pathologies within the black community. They rap about shooting other blacks, but almost never about challenging govemmental authority or encouraging social activism. 14 Though not new themes, many of the aspects of rap that have been pointed out by politicians as "objectionable"--violence, misogyny, and homophobia in the lyrics and lifestyles of some rappers--may be seen as a function of rap's commodification. While rappers struggle to "keep it real"--a term which reminds those inside hip-hop to be true to their roots--some admit that many rappers do as their record labels wish--simply, they write lyrics that se1115. In an audience which has become increasingly ethnically and economically diverse' 6, business-minded rappers have been pressured to take on the limited roles that have proven profitable for young, African-American male artists--that of the "pimp", the "gansta", and the "playa." According to African-American musician Michael Franti, "In order to be real, we don9t all have to be the same. Through the commercialization of today's music, there is a lot of pressure for young black men to conform to very specific roles." 17 The commodification of rap has allowed large paychecks and platinum records to erase the historical, social, and economic contexts, out of which rap has emerged, from public consciousness. According to Davey D, "The business of music has bastardized rap."18 From its roots as resistance against slavery to its connection to the reggae movement in Jamaica to the appearance of rappers as modern-day griots, rap has traditionally been the music of the subjugated African-American working class. While it is important to celebrate hip-hop culture today as inclusive of vastly diverse ethnic and economic groups, it is equally important to recognize and preserve the function that rap has served for its original community. In order to understand the themes and forms of rap music, it is important to follow the history of African-Americans from their beginnings in West Africa, to their enslavement throughout the early history of the United States, to their struggles against racial prejudice and segregation after Emancipation, to the continuing battles against de facto economic segregation and reclamation of cultural identity of many African-Americans today. If rap music appears to be excessively violent when compared to country-western or popular rock, it is because rap stems from a culture that has been seeped in the fight against political, social, and economic oppression. Despite the theatrics sometimes put on for major-label albums or MTV videos'9, for many artists, rapping about guns20 and gang life is a reflection of daily life in racially- and economically-stratified inner-city ghettos and housing projects. Violence in rap is not an affective agent that threatens to harm America's youth; rather, it is the outcry of an already-existing problem from youth whose woridviews have been shaped by experiencing deep economic inequalities divided largely along racial lines. The nihilistic approach to violence and criminal activity for which rap is often criticized is defended by some artists as the understandable result of the disparities that face African-American communities, from which rap originated and remains rooted. America's most recent census reported that African-American youth are the most likely group in the nation to live in poor households and neighborhoods, to be unemployed, to be the victims of homicide or AIDS, or to spend time in prison at some point in their lifetimes . According to Cornel West, a professor of Religions and Afro-American studies at Harvard University, "It's no accident that one would see various [rap] songs and various lyrics that revolve around death. ,,22 Perhaps some of the popularity of the "thug life" celebrated in the "gangsta rap" sub-genre23 is the opportunity it may provide for economic and social power in neighborhoods where hope has been lost. For many poor, inner-city youth, the gun, which has had a central role in the lyrics of many gangsta rappers, represents a way to empower oneself 24 and gain respect within continuing cycles of racial and economic prejudice. Additionally, some rappers defend the presence of violence in their lyrics as the manifestation of Anierican history and culture. Journalist Michael Saunders writes: "[T] he violence and misogyny and lustful materialism that characterize some rap songs are as deeply American as the hokey music that rappers appropriate. The fact is, this country was in love with outlaws and crime and violence long before hip-hop."25 Specifically, the African-American experience has been shaped by the legacies of slavery, segregation, and economic and political subjugation, and has been marked by institutions and incidents of violence. Rapper Chuck D thinks that much of the violence and nihilism in rap music is the legacy of the hate that minorities have faced in the United States: "We [African-Americans] were a product of what hate produced. We were taught to hate ourselves, so a lot of [intraracial conflict] is breemed off of ignorance." 26 Further, these rappers claim that it is not only African-Americans who are gangsters, but rather that American history, also, has been characterized by conquest, rebellion, and bloodshed. Rapper Ice Cube points to the hypocrisy of politicians, who use bombing campaigns to kill on a worldwide level, to blame gangsters for violence in American culture: "We do things on a small level, but America does it on a big level. It ain't just us. White people do everything we do."27 Politicians 28 and groups searching for easy solutions to America's struggle with youth violence have tried to blame rap music for desensitizing teenagers to the effects of guns, drugs, and gangs and inciting violent incidents, such as the recent shootings in Littleton, Colorado. They have attempted to present the "objectionable" aspects of some songs as a universal aspect of the rap genre. Groups have attempted to set up musical rating systems, parental advisory warnings, and outright censorship of albums that contain lyrics or images that could be harmful for young people 29. Yet, is music regulation worth the censorship of artists, especially when it targets certain genres, such as rap? It would be virtually impossible to implement a system of regulation that could be entirely objective and free of cultural bias regarding the definition and execution of blanket-definitions of obscenity and potential for harm. In the end, a system that would regulate the lyrical content of music would hurt rappers and their audiences and further weaken rap's ability to reflect and express the true concerns of inner-city working-class youth30. It seems that an increasing number of public figures have attempted to capitalize upon remaining cultural biases and fear of African-American uprising to vilify rap music as the causative agent in a recent string of incidents of youth violence 31 . Although some rap songs may appear to focus on themes of violence, they are reflections of preexisting political, social, and economic disparities. In a statement to the Senate Hearing on Lyrics & Labeling, the National Campaign for Freedom of Expression wrote: Discussions about direct correlation between media messages and actual acts of violence distract us from getting at the real causes of mediated violence [...] The discussion distracts us from the real causes of crime: things like child abuse, poverty, parental neglect in care and time spent with their child.32 Violence in rap, and in other forms of self-expression, is the manifestation of a feeling of hopelessness and discontent in America's working class, especially working-class minority communities. By pointing to rap as the cause of violence, politicians attempt to erase from the consciousness of their constituents the history of oppression that has given birth to hip-hop culture. In order to truly change the looming presence of violence in American society, as symptomized by violence in movies, television, and music, the remaining problems of poverty and prejudice in America's cities must be aggressively addressed. Ironically, many of the same politicians and groups who cry out against violence in rap music are also leading the attack on Welfare, Affirmative Action, funding for education, and proposals for universal health care. It is disparities in economic and political power, not hip-hop music, that create violence in American society. Cutting programs that provide social services to help alleviate the unequal opportunity to jobs, resources, and social mobility will only serve to aggravate problems. Voters must not allow themselves to be fooled into believing that censorship can safe-guard children from the ramifications of violence in American culture; they must not play into the problem by cutting programs that provide hope for escape from economic and political discrepancies that feed into the cycle of violence. Instead, those who truly wish to put an end to the problems expressed by some rappers in their lyrics and lifestyles, must focus on providing services and opportunities that will combat the feeling of nihilism in many of America's communities today. Social services must be supported, expanded, and reorganized to more effectively administer programs for those who have been economically and politically disadvantaged. It is necessary to address the basic needs of the urban working class--affordable housing, health care, and food--before there can be any attempts to eliminate violence in America's cities. Additionally, it is necessary that working-class adults are able to earn a living wage before they may begin to be expected to have hope for their future or the future of their children. Minimum wage, as it exists today, is not an adequate family wage, and, as a result, many parents have been forced to work several jobs, keeping them away from the home, in order to provide for their children and relatives. Finally, in order to prevent violence and crime before it begins, federal, state, and local funding should be diverted from law enforcement and prison systems into public education and youth programs. Youth cannot have hope unless they have access to a useful, relevant education that can provide them with the opportunity to choose the path of their futures. I believe that few youth, given sufficient resources, respect, and support, would choose violence. However, for many youth today, options are limited by a disparity of access to the resources that provide that choice. For many youth the heroes and success stories of the inner-city are rappers. The popularity of rap and the spin-offs of hip-hop culture--fashion lines like FUBU and Tommy Hilfiger33, movies such as Boyz N Da Hood and Friday, and television shows like The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air and In the House--have had a major impact on American marketing trends. The appeal of hip-hop culture has pushed out of urban areas and into the suburbs. Hip-hop has had a tremendous influence on mainstream fashion, television, movies, advertising, and language 34. Hoping to follow the success of rappers like LL Cool J, Will Smith, Sean "Puffy" Combs, and Wyclef, many youth see the music industry as one of their only opportunities to achieve the notoriety and money to escape the hopelessness of the inner-city. However, those who attempt to succeed in hip-hop music face a difficult challenge. In an industry controlled by mainly by upper-class white men, young, urban minority musicians are often treated as commodities, not as artists. They must balance a need for artistic control and "keepin' it real" with the limitations and pressures from record companies interested in generating sales and massive appeal. Often the message and artistic integrity of rappers can be lost amidst national marketing campaigns and concern for approval by important commercial allies such as Wal-Mart and MTV. In the growing success of the hip-hop market, musicians have struggled to maintain rap's potency as a form of resistance and empowerment. In order to preserve rap's cultural function and, simultaneously, to promote artistic and commercial progress, the communities that have traditionally been the ones making the music should be the ones that control its production and distribution. Hip-hop must be recognized as a musical form and not merely a commercial trend. Hip-hop, including its history, its forms, and its social importance, should be taught in school music curriculum alongside classical music, folk music, and jazz35. The inclusion of rap in music education programs may also allow students and teachers to have an open discourse on related issues such as the relationship between rap and gangs, the presence of violence, misogyny, and homophobia in some rap songs, and the debate over musical rating and advisory systems. Hip-hop should be embraced in public school music programs as an American innovation and a way to relate student interests with curriculum. Additionally, rap could be integrated into English and language arts curriculum as a form of both poetry and drama. Allowing students to write and perform their own rap encourages them to think critically, to practice writing in the narrative form, to increase vocabulary, and to develop an understanding of rhyme and rhythm. Inner-city youth organizations, such as the Boys & Girls Club or the YMCA, can implement programs that promote an interest in hip-hop music. These organizations give youth the discipline, self-confidence, leadership, and other tools necessary for success in the music industry. They may be able to work with local radio and television stations and record labels--especially those started and owned by African-Americans, such as Def Jam and Bad Boy--to provide opportunities for internships, tours, and job shadow days that give youth experience in the music industry. They may allow youth to organize, promote, and perform in hip-hop concerts held regularly at the club. Involving youth at all levels of planning provides valuable experience that empowers them in the music industry and other facets of business36. Ultimately, by allowing youth to see and experience the way that hip-hop is shaped, negatively and positively, by the business of the music industry, they have the knowledge to make informed musical decisions and, possibly, to make change in the workings of the music industry. In conclusion, despite the blame placed on rap for the prominence of violence in American society, hip-hop music is a symptom of cultural violence, not the cause. In order to understand hip-hop, it is necessary to look at it as the product of a set of historical, political, and economic circumstances and to study the role it has served as voice for those subjugated by systematic political and economic oppression. If the issue of violence in rap music is to be effectively addressed, the root of the problem--disparity in resources and opportunities for urban minorities--must be aggressively dealt with. Rap music is a form of resistance to the systems of subjugation that have created class discrepancies in the United States. In order to put an end to violence, we must focus on alleviating the burden of the inner-city working class. In order to put an end to the cycle of nihilism present in the contemporary culture of inner-city minority youth, we must provide them with the resources and opportunities to view the future with hope.   WORKS CITED Crowley, Nina M. "Lyrics Aren't Lethal!!!" Massachusetts Music Industry Coalition HomePage. http://www.u1tranet.com/~crowleyn/mmic.html. 5/31/99. Crowley, Nina M. "Senate Hearing Press Conference Statement." Massachusetts Music Industry Coalition HomePage. http://www.mediasignals.com/~crowleyn/pcmmic.html. 5/31/99. Daredevil. "Straight Sound--The future of hip-hop". The Bomb Hip-Hop Magazine. http://www.bombhiphop.com/straight.html. Issue 42, August/September 1995. 5/31/99. Davey D. "Why Is Rap So Powerful". Davey D's Hip-Hop Corner. http://www.daveyd.com/whyrapispowerart.html. 5/30/99. Farley, Christopher John. "Hip-hop nation". Time Magazine. February 8, 1999. Hebdige, Dick. Cut 'n' Mix: Culture, identity, and Caribbean music. London: Routledge, 1987. "Hip-Hop: A Brief History". http://www.wam.umd.edu/~mwm/hip-hop/pfolio.html. 5/31/99. Hoch, Danny. "Introduction". Jails, Hospitals, & Hip-Hop and Some People. New York: Villard, 1993. Leland, John and Allison Samuels. "Taking to the Streets". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/nw-srv/issue/18_98b/printed/us/cu/ms0118_1/htm. November 2, 1998. 5/31/99 National Campaign for Freedom of Expression. "Statement by National Campaign for Freedom of Expression". Massachusetts Music Industry Coalition HomePage. http://www.u1tranet.com/~crow1eyn/pcncfe.html. June 16, 1998. 5/31/99. Romero, D. James. "Influence of hip-hop resonates worldwide". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/HOME/ENT/MUSlC/HIPHOP/hiphop.htm. March 14, 1997. 5/30/99. Watkins, S. Craig. Representing: hip-hop culture and the production of black cinema. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. Wolf, Eric. "The Slave Trade". Europe and the People Without History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982. pp. 195-208. Information on rap history found in Davey D's "Why Is Rap So Powerful?" and the University of Maryland's "A Brief History of Hip-Hop Culture" Information on MCs drawn from the University of Maryland's "Mcing: The Past" and "MCing: The Present" in "A Brief History of Hip-Hop Culture" According to historian Eric Wolfs "The Slave Trade", the vast majority of slaves captured and shipped to the United States came from West Africa's Gold Coast. As defined by the "African Glossary" of "The Kennedy Center Interactive African Odyssey As defined by the "African Glossary" of "The Kennedy Center Interactive African Odyssey. Griot is the French term for the Mandingo word jali (m) or jalimusolu (fi. This is similar to the role played by the limusizi in Rwanda, the imbongi in Zulu, and the kwadwumfo in Ghana. Some word games that have been popular within the African-American community include "Signifying Monkey", "John the Conqueror", and "Stag 0 Lee." A more modern example is Double Dutch jump rope rhymes. As quoted from Davey D's "Why Is Rap So Powerful?" Another important cultural artifact of the African oral tradition is the importance of the spoken word in African-American religious life. Many African-American congregations emphasize the oratorical style of the preacher and involve the congregation through a calI-and4esponse style of preaching. African-American preachers have been prominent community leaders, including Nat Turner, Marcus Garvey, Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X, and Jesse Jackson. In Dick Hebdige's Cut 'n' Mix, he writes: "By preserving African drumming traditions, by remembering African rhythms, the slaves could keep alive the memory of the freedom they had lost" (p.26) Information gathered from Davey D's "Why Is Rap So Powerful?" Hebdige's Cut 'n' Mix also states: "The second feature common to all traditional West African music is that it serves an important social function. As one writer puts it, music acts as a 'social glue', binding the people together as a group" (p.30) According to Davey D's "Why Is Rap So Powerful?" African-American DJs played an important role in their communities and were some of the most powerful orators in the African-American community during the 1960s and 1970s. In 1967, Martin Luther King, Jr. applauded them for their work in the civil rights movement. Minister Louis Farrakhon did the same in 1980. In 1998, rap outsold country, formerly the top-selling genre in the US, for the first time ever, selling more than 81 million CDs, tapes, and albums, according to the February 8, 1999 issue of Time. Farley writes: "[H]Hip-hop, like every culture of resistance in this country, has been co-opted to sell fast-food, beer, liquor, and soda." S.Craig Watkins further discusses the unique market position of African-American youth in his book Representing: Hip-hop culture and the production of black cinema: " [A]t the same moment black youth have become the targets of a fiercely determined social and political backlash, they have also flowered as a source of entertainment upon which the growth and cross-fertilization of the various popular culture industries--film, television, music, sports, and advertising--have enabled new regimes of cultural production, performance, and representation to emerge. It is, in fact, a great irony that at the same time black youth are so prominently figured in the nation's war on drugs, the largest prison industrial complex build-up in history, and tightening welfare restrictions, they are equally prominent in the marketing of $100 athletic shoes, the corporatization of collegiate athletics, and the breaking of new trends to a robust youth consumer economy"(pp. 1-2). The popularity of hip-hop can also be illustrated by the marketing success of Sprite soda. According to Farley's "Hip-hop nation", Sprite brand manager Pina Sciarra claims that after the company ran an ad campaign featuring rap music, the number of people who named Sprite as their favorite soda quadrupled. Farley also notes the economic success of the hip-hop label Def Jam records, which took in nearly $200 million in 1998. As quoted from Farley's article "Hip-hop nation". According to music critic Daredevil of the hip-hop zine The Bomb Hip-Hop Magazine: "Mass popularity leads to oversaturation, which in turn leads to redundancy, predictability, stagnance of the form [...] Another factor in hip-hop's stunted musical growth is the industry's reliance on fashions, symbols, and stereotypes perpetuated through music videos." According to Time Magazine, more than 70% of hip-hop albums are purchased by whites. The suburbs are now the major markets for hip-hop music. However, I believe that this is because of the tremendous buying power of wealthier suburban youth and the infusion of hip-hop into mainstream culture through movies, advertising, and MTV, not because hip-hop as a whole has been taken over from inner-city youth by suburban youth. Oliver Wang addresses the movement of hip-hop music across cultures in the zine Addicted to Noise: "While the gender barrier remains hard to break, DJs are one of the most diverse hip-hop communities, pioneered by African-Americans, innovated upon by Asian-Americans, and now dominated by DJs of all classes and cultures." According to playwright and hip-hop fan Danny Hoch, "Hip-hop is the future of language and culture in the multicultural society. It crosses all lines of color, race, economics, nationality, and gender, and hip-hop still has something to say" (p. xvii). From the film The Darker Side of Black.. As quoted from Davey D's "Why Is Rap So Powerful?" According to an LA Times article by D. James Romero, it is the commodification of rap and the demand for gangsta rap that allows the subgenre to thrive: " [C]ritics say the music industry and suburban audiences only work to keep the gangster game going, that is, young, white youth fuel America's voracious appetite for gangsta rap that encourages violence." In the film The Darker Side of Black, African-American scholar Cornel West claims, "America is a gunfighter nation. It's a nihilistic response to a nihilistic situation." As reported in Time Magazine February 8, 1999 in Farley's "Hip-hop nation." As quoted from the film The Darker Side of Black. In a March 10, 1996 Boston Globe article, Michael Saunders reports: "'Gangsta rap' songs are street tales told in ragged unblushing rhymes, where life is often a race to 'get paid and get laid' before a bullet stops the party. Women are usually absent from this million-record-selling landscape of guns and money, except in their roles as gold-digging 'bitches' and sex-dispensing 'hos'. This world is distinguished by its colors, the ones that identify friend or foe, and those cordoned behind yellow crime-scene tape: brown bodies with congealed blood, a lifeless maroon, and the red-rimmed eyes of a new statistic's mother." This is similar to the prominence of the gun in reggae. In The Darker Side of Black, reggae artist Ranks provides justification for the presence of the gun in reggae music: "They just be preaching about the gun, because we see the gun dong such damage within our circle and our society--so we talk about the gun. What else can we do?" As quoted from his Boston Globe article "Gangsta Warfare" From the film The Darker Side of Black From the film The Darker Side of Black One example is Senator Joseph Lieberman, who has attacked the music industry, especially rap music, for inciting violence in youth. Henry Jenkins, Director of Media Studies at MIT, said in a 1997 interview with Next Generation Magazine, as quoted by the National Campaign for Freedom of Expression: "'I think [Sen. Lieberman's] focus is on the symptom rather than the problem. I think it's part of a larger denial of where the real violence in children's lives falls. Senator Lieberman and his political allies cry crocodile tears over violence in children's media and proceed to vote to cut down welfare funds for young children, encourage us to try juveniles as adults so that they're thrown into adult prisons, vote in favor of taking illegal immigrants' children out of public schools, and do relatively little about the financial support that dead-beat fathers owe to their children. We have a whole culture of economic deprivation and domestic violence, and these are the real problems confronting children." According to a statement written for the Senate Hearing on Lyrics & Labeling, Nina Crowley, Director of the Massachusetts Music Industry Coalition expresses her belief that it is important to allow youth access to music as a means of fostering freedom of expression: "For many teenagers, one of the most important statements of who they are and what they believe, is their favorite band or the music they enjoy. Whether that music contains the political statements of a band like Rage Against the Machine, or the message of individuality of Marilyn Manson, the sexuality of Li'l Kim, or the affirmation of community of Public Enemy, teens express themselves through their musical preferences." In a statement in Romero's LA Times article, rap mogul Simmons describes the unique function and significance of hip-hop music: "It gives voice to people who wouldn't otherwise have one. Rock 'n' roll never got to do what hip-hop does." This is disputed in the article "Lyrics aren't lethal", as quoted from the Massachusetts Music Industry Coalition website: "Kids struggle to understand violence in society; not just in entertainment. It is difficult for a child who is taught in the home and in school that America is the land of opportunity to reconcile the fact that inner-city kids and adults are pushed to violent behavior in order to survive in neighborhoods where there is no opportunity, no services, and no rewards." As reported by the Massachusetts Music Industry Coalition website. Time Magazine reports that in recent years, Tommy Hilfiger has made nearly a billion dollars a year on its hip-hop-inspired apparel. According to Saunders, "Hip-hop has forced advertisers, filmmakers, and writers to adopt 'street' signifiers like cornrows and terms like 'player hater'. Invisibility has been a long-standing metaphor for the status of blacks in America. Hip-hop has given invisibility a voice." In his "Why Is Rap So Powerful?" Davey D explains the need that he sees for urban African-American youth to understand their history and the history of rap music: "My ideal hope is for all of us to become better educated. It's important that today's rappers learn their history and that folks who know sit them down and explain things to them ~ .1 Once this happens, hip-hop will move forward and reach its true potential." Inner-city youth have played an important historical role in the early commercial success of hip-hop. According to a l99~ Newsweek article by John Leland and Allison Samuels: "Hip-hop was born of the drive to make the most of limited resources. When shut out of radio and TV, the companies made their own media. Labels developed street teams--corps of hungry urban youth looking for a break in the business and a few free CDs-4o get the word out. An outgrowth of the culture's mid-70s roots, when entrepreneurial DJs like Kool Di Herc and Afrika Bambaataa aggressively promoted their parties through graffiti-style fliers, street teams carpet-bomb urban neighborhoods and clubs with posters, stickers, fliers, a and even free cassettes of upcoming music. Ethics of Development in a Global Environment (EDGE) | Poverty & Prejudice | Media and Race | Updated July 26, 1999

Chicago

Which musical about King Arthur became a byword for the JFK years?

Image Comics Image Comics Find a Local Comic Shop Go More New Comics Spotlight Wizord! He's the most popular wizard in New York City—nay, the world! When you're in a pinch, when you need a quick fix, he's your guy...but he isn't what he seems, not really. He first came to Earth with nefarious goals, but found that he liked the fame and adoration that came with being the only wizard in a mundane land a whole lot more than working toward total domination. CURSE WORDS comes to you live and direct from Charles Soule, Ryan Browne, and Jordan Boyd this January, and Sam Stone interviewed Charles & Ryan to help us figure out exactly what that means. Expand IMAGE COMICS: Introduce us to the world of CURSE WORDS. What's going on in this series? CHARLES SOULE: CURSE WORDS is a story about a wizard who appears in the modern world—just pops up in Central Park one day—and starts doing magic for money. This isn't a Harry Potter thing, where magic already exists but is kept secret. It's literally our world—the only difference is that now it has a dude who will cast spells for cash. The wizard is named Wizord, and he's a pretty cool cat—he's helping folks, getting rich and famous, settling in. We like him, and he likes us, especially the conveniences and enticements of the modern world. Wizord comes from a place that's much more like your typical dark medieval fantasy land, and so NYC, with its cool clubs, great food, and flushing toilets, really works for him. The twist, the trouble, is that he's actually an extremely evil wizard wearing a good wizard disguise. He's come to our world for a nefarious purpose, and he could pull the trigger on it at any time. For the moment, he likes his life here too much to go full on dark wizard...but the possibility is always there. We call it The Lord of the Rings meets Breaking Bad, but with magic instead of meth...and it's kind of funny, too. The genre is "gonzo fantasy," the idea being that anything can happen at any time—you literally have no idea what will happen on any page turn, which is both a real tightrope walk for us as creators and hopefully really fun for the readers. A surprise on every page, we like to say. IC: Your previous creator-owned works (Letter 44 and Strange Attractors for Charles, and GOD HATES ASTRONAUTS for Ryan) have very strong science fiction elements. How does it feel to change gears and tackle more mystical subject matter with this story? SOULE: As a writer, I love the idea of a story with no boundaries. CURSE WORDS is about magic, which means we can set up our own rules and limits—and in this case, we've more or less decided that there are none. The challenge there is to create situations with drama and tension when the characters can hypothetically magic themselves out of any problem, but I think we've done all right.  RYAN BROWNE: It's nice to get away from the muscles of the sci-fi superhero parody I was doing before. With fantasy I get to draw from a new set of tropes and twist them on their ear. When Charles and I were developing CURSE WORDS, we wanted to utilize the unique visual fun that can happen only in comics. We started with gonzo absurdity and slowly defined and whittled the story into an epic fantasy with a lot of heavy emotions, intense battles, and a talking koala. IC: From the opening showdown, it appears color plays a strong role in the story, particularly in regards to magic. Can you share some of your plans or intentions with the color in this story? SOULE: Wizord is not the only sorcerer in the story, and I think Ryan and I each liked the idea of giving each wizard/witch/magician their own unique look and power set. Each wizard (there are nine, including Wizord) is associated with a specific type of gem or jewel, from sapphires to chocolate diamonds. That presents some fascinating possibilities as far as telling stories with color. We're fortunate to have Jordan Boyd on board for coloring duties—he worked with Ryan on his GOD HATES ASTRONAUTS series for Image, and he's completely up for the challenges and opportunities of a story like this. It's important to create a juxtaposition between the modern world and the magical world in CURSE WORDS—Wizord and his spells need to seem like they're completely fantastic, literally changing the world around him, and color is a huge part of that. BROWNE: Yeah, color is essential to our story. There have been plenty of other stories that have used gem powers and color themes for characters, but Charles and I are using the idea in a new way that is quite cool—and very dark. The color helps inform the character design when I am figuring out the look and feel of each evil wizard. I have also been assigning different animals to the various characters, in the same vein as Blade Runner or a reverse Disney's Robin Hood. Wizord is a tiger, and I use that for posture and expression when I draw him—specifically when in battle.  IC: Wizord appears to acclimate to his surroundings relatively quickly despite the big time gap. What made New York City the right backdrop for the story? SOULE: I've lived in NYC for twenty years, and I know the city extremely well. It's one of my favorite places in the world, and it's also very well known as a story backdrop because of its prevalence in so many other movies, comics, novels, TV shows, etc. It's that familiarity that's helpful to us, because, again, we're working with a character who is doing some very unfamiliar things. We kicked around other cities—Ryan lives in Chicago, and he and I both have a big background in Detroit—but NYC has its own gravity, and that's where Wizord ended up. That said, the story goes all over the world—we hit Sri Lanka in issue two, and there's sort of a globetrotting element that will kick in with issue three that will allow us to go almost anywhere.  IC: Despite his malevolent background, Wizord seems easily approachable by the locals. How do they see him and how does he see himself in this different setting? SOULE: Wizord LOVES our world. He comes from a very dark place, literally. The meaning of fame over there is very different—if you're well known, it's generally because you're excellent at murdering many people. Being famous and being feared are the same thing. Here, though, celebrity can come from doing good things. He's never really encountered the idea of a "hero" before, in every sense of the word, and he finds it seductive. The question is whether that will allow him to overcome his own dark past, and even if he does start being all nice and so on, whether that cancels out some of the heinous stuff he's trying to leave behind. As far as how we see him? We think he's amazing. He's got cool shades, dresses well, has a luxurious beard and a talking koala assistant, and he can DO MAGIC. Within a very short time after revealing himself to the world, Wizord is the most famous and beloved guy on the planet, to such an extent that we don't really ask the questions about him that we should. That begins to change as dark things start happening, but by then it might be too late. IC: Ryan, GOD HATES ASTRONAUTS had a very surreal, weird science feel to it, while this initially appears more grounded, despite its mystical elements. What were you going for when building CURSE WORDS? Were you inspired by anything in particular? BROWNE: Charles and I originally started by looking at Stardust The Super Wizard and Fantomah The Mystery Woman of The Jungle. Both are outrageously surreal comics by Fletcher Hanks (pause here to Google if you are unaware) that use magic and imagination in truly bizarre ways—like magically creating tigers to drop on the parachutes of invading soldiers so they will rip holes in the silk. I have this problem that I can't fake interest in a project, and if I don't like what I'm drawing, it gets a little stiff and laborious. From the outset we wanted to design something fun for me to draw. In GOD HATES ASTRONAUTS I drew only what I wanted to draw and let that drive the narrative—which lead to the most WTF moments in the history of comics. Working with Charles I knew I wanted more structure to the project. So as the book developed we really focused in on character, motivation, and a clear overall path for the story. We still kept the absurd, but now it isn't the driving element. Trust me, it's better this way.  IC: From the book's opening, it's clear that Wizord can't escape his past no matter how far into the future he runs. Will we explore his personal history before the time jump? How heavily will its repercussions play into the future? SOULE: Absolutely. Wizord's time before he pops up in Central Park is a huge element of the story. We'll see a lot of the dark dimension from which he hails, as well as many of the people he left behind. He's trying to reinvent himself, but no one from the old days feels like he should be able to do that. It's like when you go to college and try to act like an entirely awesome new person...until one of your high school friends comes to visit and reveals that you used to be a total dork. It's like that, except instead of "dork," we'd probably say "monstrously evil dark wizard." IC: Wizord isn't entirely alone in his journey to NYC. He's accompanied by what appears to be an animal familiar. Can you shed some light on Wizord's companion? SOULE: Yes! Wizord's best friend, conscience, and guide to our world is a talking koala named Margaret. While she's originally from the same dark place as Wizord, she was sent here ahead of him to prepare the way, and lived here for five years scouting things out and getting the lay of the land. Wizord and Margaret have a complex relationship—she knows everything he was, but also understands what he's trying to be, and is trying to help him get there. Or maybe she's just trying to save her own furry skin. Time will tell, but I will say that Ryan LOVES drawing animals. I think he would prefer if every character in CURSE WORDS was an animal. Having known him for a while, I was very aware of his artistic sweet spot and wanted to get as many creatures into the book as possible. Margaret is just the beginning. BROWNE: I can confirm that I love drawing animals.  IC: You've previously described CURSE WORDS as Breaking Bad with magic instead of meth. I've gotta ask: how do the authorities view and react to a figure like Wizord? SOULE: At first, they see him as an incredibly useful tool. He seems benign, and his three rules for his magical "clients" (No Cures, No Love, and No Wars) suggest that he holds to at least some kind of personal responsibility about the magic he's willing to do for folks. I'm sure that the President and all sorts of higher-ups have had terrified, sweat-soaked meetings about what the hell they're going to do about a wizard being active in NYC...but what can they do? Wizord is magic! The last thing they want to do is antagonize him—at least until things really start to go south. IC: You two previously worked together on an issue of GOD HATES ASTRONAUTS. How has your working relationship changed, especially building this story from the ground up together? SOULE: Ryan Browne is an incredible talent—incredible. We've been able to do a few things together here and there, and I've wanted to do something bigger with him for a long time. I really think CURSE WORDS started with the two of us just sitting around in bars at conventions making up stories to make each other laugh. Nothing about wizards, not then, just riffing—taking a story premise and kicking it back and forth for hours. None of that will ever see the light of day (probably), but I think it gave us both some confidence that we're in good storytelling hands with the other. This book is so much fun to create, just a blast, and I think that the readers will be able to feel that from page one. BROWNE: Charles Soule (Soul) is the best co-riffer I've ever co-riffed with. He loves to find connections and build drama, and I love to find connections and make it dumb as hell. It's fantastic when one of my awful ideas actually makes sense to him and he starts to build on it. We seem to balance each other perfectly and it's great to finally collaborate long form. I don't know if you guys are aware of this, but Charles is a superhuman writing dynamo. Between his words and ideas and my koala drawing abilities, this book is going to explode the socks of all that stand near it. Look out, world. Look out. CURSE WORDS #1 is available for pre-order now, and debuts 1/18.

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Annie Warbucks was the sequel to which one-word-titled musical?

Annie Warbucks | Variety Print August 10, 1993 | 12:00AM PT At long last, "Annie Warbucks" alights in Manhattan, a small miracle given the fact that this famously troubled show has been killed once, orphaned twice and has boasted three Annies since its debut in January 1990 as "Annie 2: Miss Hannigan's Revenge," a musical fondly remembered for its legendary badness. At long last, “Annie Warbucks” alights in Manhattan, a small miracle given the fact that this famously troubled show has been killed once, orphaned twice and has boasted three Annies since its debut in January 1990 as “Annie 2: Miss Hannigan’s Revenge,” a musical fondly remembered for its legendary badness. “Annie Warbucks” is an infinitely better show than “Miss Hannigan’s Revenge.” It has charm (though not nearly as much as the original “Annie” in 1977), several good songs from Martin Charnin and Charles Strouse and — the real miracle in this production, which has been downsized from a $ 5.5 million Broadway promise to a $ 1 million Off Broadway reality — simply beautiful, elegant settings by Ming Cho Lee that unfold like origami. At 2 1/2 hours, it still runs too long for the target family audience, especially in the first act, and no one would miss the 20 minutes it could easily lose. Conversely, Thomas Meehan’s book, though much improved, has the staccato sound of a piece that has been endlessly cut, patched and rewritten (which, of course, it has). In Kathryn Zaremba, this sequel has a good, though only good, Annie. She’s cute and blessed with a sturdy, attractive voice, but she has to fake Annie’s charisma and she’s completely unformed as an actress. Such artlessness can be a virtue, especially in child actors; here, however, it leaves a noticeable hole in the proceedings. Happily, that hole is amply filled by most of the adult cast, starting with Harve Presnell’s Oliver “Daddy” Warbucks. It’s Christmas morning, 1933; Warbucks’ adoption of Annie seems complete, and a holiday celebration is under way. But the festivities are interrupted by New York City child welfare commissioner Harriet Doyle, a comic villainess easily the rival of Miss Hannigan and played with shlumpy, grumpy relish by Alene Robertson. She directs Daddy to find a wife within 60 days or it’s back to the orphanage for Annie. The obvious choice is right under Warbucks’ nose, in the person of his young, attractive secretary Grace (Marguerite MacIntyre). To press the point, Annie and the service staff, headed by the fine butler Drake (a smooth Kip Niven), sing “That’s the Kind of Woman.” Daddy, however, is convinced he’s too old for Grace, explaining why in the lovely “A Younger Man.” Eventually, he falls — or thinks he falls — for the more seasoned Sheila Kelly, and who wouldn’t? She’s played by Donna McKechnie in a gleeful comic turn and she’s a revelation, particularly in her mean, rousing duet with the commish. Before the show wends its way to a completely predictable ending, Annie will have learned about love from a family of sharecroppers in Tennessee (all awfully played), helped FDR (Raymond Thorne) create the Tennessee Valley Authority, and brought her pals from the orphanage (a pitifully underpopulated group) aboard the Staten Island Ferry for a wedding party, where they and the grownups have a terrific dance number in “All Dolled Up.” And Grace will have delivered the musical’s sole standout number, the torchy “It Would Have Been Wonderful.” This is a show that gives away its entire plot and nearly all its secrets in the song titles. Despite the years of development, Strouse and Charnin still haven’t come up with a number for Annie to equal “Tomorrow,” and the one that tries, “I Always Knew,” is derivative and illiterate (“Tomorrow can come true”). Along with that anemic kids’ chorus, the limitations of the move to Off Broadway are most apparent in Keith Levinson’s thin orchestrations and the thin-sounding band he leads. But Charnin and choreographer Peter Gennaro deploy their comparatively large company with considerable finesse, even if Presnell sometimes seems on the verge of bursting through the proscenium. Theoni V. Aldredge’s costumes are characteristically in-period with a sense of humor, and Ken Billington’s lovely lighting adds greatly to the first-rate look of the settings. The show still seems unfinished — among other quibbles, one could complain that there’s not enough Annie Warbucks in “Annie Warbucks”– but it’s a competent and frequently pleasant show. That should satisfy a lot of customers, who may give the expensively refurbished Variety Arts Theater the validation it needs. The show will never make Charnin, Strouse and Meehan the millions they earned from “Annie,” but it will finally let them get on with their lives, for which we can all be grateful. Annie Warbucks

Annie

In which city is the Glynn Vivian Art Gallery and Museum?

Oliver Warbucks | Annie Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Share Oliver "Daddy" Warbucks is the deuteragonist of the musical "Annie" and all films (including the 1995 sequel "Annie: A Royal Adventure!"). He is a bald millionaire and is in love with his secretary, Grace Farrell . He doesn't like Annie at first, considering he only intended to adopt a male orphan, but he didn't specify the gender. Nor did he seem to like Sandy for some reason. However, he begins to warm up to them. In fact, in the end of the musical and the films, he adopts them as his own daughter and pet, respectively. Oliver is played by the late Reid Shelton in the original musical, Albert Finney in the 1982 film, George Hearn in its sequel, and Victor Garber in the 1999 film. The musical and two films follow the same way. First, he meets Annie, only to be disappointed at first. He and Grace take Annie out on outings (a movie in the 1982 film, and ice cream and ending with a Broadway show in that from 1999). He then decides to adopt Annie, while still trying to find Annie's parents. Later, he decides to allow the Mudges (whom he is led to think are her parents) to adopt her (unaware that they are actually Rooster Hannigan and Lily St. Regis  ( In the 1999 film, it is Miss Hannigan who pretends to be Mrs. Mudge] pretending to be her parents just for the $50,000). However, when their cover is blown, and the duo are arrested (and so is Miss Hannigan in the musical, while she reforms in the 1982 film, and she is sent to an asylum in the 1999 film), and (according to the 1999 film) Oliver learns from the president that David and Margaret Bennett were Annie's real parents, whose death some time ago was why they never found her all these years. So, he adopts Annie and becomes engaged to Grace. In the sequel, "Annie: A Royal Adventure!", Oliver Warbucks is on a trip to London with Annie, her friend Hannah (with her parents' permission), and her other friend Molly (despite Miss Hannigan saying no, so they are stowing her away), because he is supposed to be knighted by the King. In the 2014 Film he is replaced by a character named Will Stacks played by Jamie Foxx. Though in the Broadway musicals and the three movie adaptations Oliver gets married to Grace, he is already married to a snobby woman that adopts Annie just for popularity. When Oliver Warbucks instantly falls in love with the orphan , she becomes Annie's enemie and adopts another named Selby Adelbert Piffeberry. She neglects Annie but her husband often puts her into place.

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What is the second largest of the Ionian Islands?

Corfu guide | In depth info about the Greek island of Corfu Gallery A little bit about Corfu Corfu is the second largest of the Ionian islands behind Kefalonia It is often known as Kérkyra in Greek and that is also the name of the main town. Corfu was a strategic position in Europe for many years and was heavily fortified, that’s why there are many castles on the island. It was ruled by the Venetian republic for 5 centuries up until 1797 so many of the islands buildings have a Venetian feel to them, particularly the main town of Kerkyra. Corfu has something for everyone, from nature reserves to all night parties, beautiful beaches and historical sites are also in abundance here. Getting to Corfu As Corfu is the closest island to the UK it’s also a very popular one so expect to find an abundance of flights from your nearest international airport, we found 16 airports in the UK flying direct to Corfu so you should find it easy to get a flight to suit you. Flight time is around 3 hours so by the time you’ve taken off, had an overpriced drink, played a couple of games on your phone and queued for the toilet it’ll probably be time to land again. Current Weather in Corfu ° Weather from OpenWeatherMap Take a look at the current Corfu weather above or the climate info below showing average high, low and sea temperatures as well as average rainfall per month and hours of sunshine per day. When to go to Corfu The best time to visit Corfu is from late April to early September, it rains more in Corfu as it’s more northern than the other Greek islands that are hotter and dryer. June to August offers the highest temperatures and minimal rain so if you like it hot that’s the time for you. Just remember that these months are also the busiest and most expensive times to go to Corfu. Top 3 resorts in Corfu Below are the 3 resorts in Corfu that cover a large portion of the people travelling to the island. If you’re wanting to party then you head for Kavos, if you want nightlife but not too crazy then go for Sidari, if you want a little more culture then Kerkyra is the place for you. Click on each of the headings to go to that page and find out more about that particular resort. Kerkyra Couples, Families, Greek Dancing, Harbour, Historical Sites, Karaoke, Live Music, Night Clubs, Picturesque, Plenty of Hotels, Popular, Traditional, Variety of Nightlife Kerkyra or Corfu town is roughly in the centre of the east coast and just a couple of kilometers from the airport, it's the... Full Corfu resort guide From the low key villages of Gouvia or Agios Stephanos to the more lively Sidari, Kerkyra or the booze fueled intensity of Kavos there’s something for everyone in Corfu. Click the button below to be taken to a filterable list of all the resorts in Corfu where you can figure out the best place to base your holiday. Corfu Resort Guide Corfu has over 200km of coast line so if you can’t find a bit of beach to enjoy relaxing on whilst on the island then you’re probably not looking hard enough. It doesn’t matter if your based in the north, south, east or west of the island there’s always a near by beach to suit your needs. Top 3 beaches in Corfu The three beaches that we recommend you try to take in whilst in Corfu are the always popular Agios Gordios, the picturesque bay of Paleokastritsa and the lively Glyfada. There are other great beaches of course but if you visit any of these you wont be disappointed. That is unless you prefer quieter more secluded beaches, if that’s the case then take a look at the full guide below where you can find some more remote beaches. Agios Gordios Bar, Families, Food, Naturism, Parking, Popular, Showers, Sun Loungers, Toilets, Water Sports The long golden sand beach at Agios Gordios stretches for 1.5km and has crystal clear water. You can hire sunbeds and umbrellas, boats, canoes... All Corfu Beaches The most popular beaches are found in the north of the island and tend to coincide with the popular resorts like Sidari and Paleokastritsa as well as Kavos in the south. Click on the button below to go to our Corfu beach guide to get the full low down on all the beaches. Corfu offers activities for all the family, from water parks with slides and swimming pools to castles and monastery’s. Most of the sites are concentrated in and around Kerkyra and up in the north of the island. Top 3 Corfu attractions If you’re in Kerkyra then you should definitely take a stroll over to the old fort and have a look around, it’s a large fort that offers a window into the history of the island as well as some great views over the island. The second place we recommend is for the families, Hydropolis water park has slides and pools for all ages and should keep your little ones entertained so you can relax. The last place we recommend is Mouse Island, there isn’t a great deal to do but it’s a lovely place, again offering great views and definitely worth the short boat ride. Old Fortress (Paleo Frourio) Couples, Families, Great Views, Historical Site, Museum, Picturesque, Walking The Old Fortress Corfu photo by Alan About the Old Fortress Corfu The Old Fortress, otherwise known as Paleo Frourio is a Venetian fort in the... All Corfu attractions If you want to know more about the attractions on the island then use the full Corfu sight seeing guide below which gives you in depth info on all the best places to visit whilst on the island. Click the blue button below to go to our full Corfu sight seeing guide. Corfu Sight Seeing Guide What’s the nightlife in Corfu like? The nightlife in Corfu can be very different depending on where you stay. Kavos is the loud, 18-30, party capital with large amounts of cheap drink and general excess. Sidari has a good mix of bars to dance in, entertainment like karaoke or live music and quiet tavernas as well but may still be a bit too much for some people. Most people will find something to entertain them in the evenings in Corfu town, there’s the always lively Liston, a few clubs out west past the new port and quieter more relaxing bars in the center of town. Gouvia Marina Night

Corfu

"What color did Air France repaint some ""Concorde jets to advertize Pepsi?"

Visit Greece | Ionian islands Ionian islands Tweet   The temperate climate; the deep and cool sea waters; the mountains; the lush vegetation; the cultural heritage; and the cheerfulness of the inhabitants, make the Ionian Islands the ideal place for a holiday as well as rest and relaxation.   What is more, the traits of the Ionian Islands are perfectly combined with a flawless tourism infrastructure, excellent hotel accommodations, restaurants, diving centers, sea sports, cultural events, and a multitude of sights, historic monuments and museums worth visiting.  Scattered along the western coastline of Central Greece, the Ionian Islands as they are known, are an island cluster comprising twelve small and large islands whose total surface area comes to 2,200 square kilometers. Zakynthos , Ithaca , Corfu (Kerkyra), Kefalonia , Lefkada , and Paxi  are the six, large Ionian Islands.  Antipaxi, Erikousa, Mathraki, Othoni, Meganisi and the deserted islets of Strofades south of Zakynthos are the smaller Ionian Islands. Together with the island of Kythira and the neighboring Antikythira the islands form the island cluster of Eptanisa. Nevertheless it should be noted that Kythira and Antikythira are completely cut off from the rest of the Ionian islands situated as they are across southern Peloponnese and the coast of Laconia.   Once, the Ionian Islands were part of Central Greece but were torn apart when the terrain sank due to the seismic activity along the great coastline fault of the Ionian Sea. This accounts not only for the ragged shores and hauntingly beautiful beaches but it also accounts for the islands’ tall mountains, once part of the Pindos mountain range which crosses Central Greece. It also accounts for the great depth of the waters in the area which, at 4,406 meters, is the greatest in the Mediterranean.  The Ionian islands have a mild and temperate climate which makes them the ideal location for vacation or residence.  In winter, the mountains of Central Greece stop the cold northern winds from reaching the islands while, in summer, the heat is tempered by the meltemia, the soft, northwestern winds, and the sea breezes.  Due to the air currents prevalent on the Ionian islands, many of the island beaches have developed into internationally acclaimed windsurfing centers.  The Ionian Islands have been inhabited since Paleolithic times, have been through many invasions, and have received the influence of a variety of cultures. The Ionian Islands were part of the Byzantine Empire until1204 when the Franks took over Constantinople and the Ionian Islands were eventually ceded to the Venetians.  Under Venetian rule, the Ionian Islands formed their own local nobility whose register survived as late as the 19th century.   From the time of Frankish rule until 1864 when they were joined with Greece, the Ionian Islands were also ruled by a number of foreign conquerors.  The presence of the Europeans on the Ionian Islands at a time when Greece was still under Ottoman rule gave rise to significant intellectual activity something that is still visible today both in the islands’ architectural tradition as well as their charming cultural traits. Related Links

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In 1998 a new breed of mosquito was discovered on which underground system?

London underground source of new insect forms London underground source of new insect forms To: [email protected], [email protected] Subject: London underground source of new insect forms From: MichaelP <[email protected]> Date: Wed, 26 Aug 1998 06:51:16 -0700 (PDT) Content-Type: TEXT/PLAIN; charset=US-ASCII Resent-Message-ID: <"99waf.A.i_E.NTB51"@data.free.de> Resent-Sender: [email protected] London Times August 26 1998 A NEW species of mosquito is evolving on the London Underground in a development that has astonished scientists. The insects are believed to be the descendants of mosquitoes which colonised the tunnels a hundred years ago when the Tube was being dug. When they went below ground they were bird-biting pests. But over a century, deprived of their normal diet, the mosquitoes have evolved new feeding behaviour, dining on mammals including rats and mice - and human beings. They now plague maintenance workers. Kate Byne and Richard Nichols of Queen Mary and Westfield College in London have carried out tests to see if the Tube's mosquitoes, which have been named molestus, are now different from Culex pipiens, the bird-biting species which entered the Underground last century. To their amazement they found that it was almost impossible to mate those living above ground with those in the subterranean world, indicating that the genetic differences are now so great that the ones underground are well on their way to becoming a separate species. This usually happens only when species are isolated for thousands rather than tens of years. The team, whose findings are reported in BBC Wildlife magazine today, have also found genetic differences between mosquitoes on different Tube lines. They believe this is due to the draughts dispersing the insects along but not between lines. During the Second World War the insects attacked Londoners sheltering from Hitler's bombs. Roz Kidman Cox, the magazine editor, said: "It's a remarkable story of evolution. The scientists say that the differences between the above and below-ground forms are as great as if the species had been separated for thousands of years." The conditions on the Underground are probably ideal for mosquitoes to breed rapidly and frequently throughout the year. Temperatures can be balmy and the network is prone to penetration by water creating pools of stagnant water for breeding. There are more than 1,600 varieties of mosquitoes which live from the Arctic tundra to the tropical rain forests. ** NOTICE: In accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107, this material is distributed without profit to those who have expressed a prior interest in receiving the included information for research and educational purposes. **

London

"Which city did Truman Capote describe as ""eating an entire box of chocolate liqueurs in one go?"""

32 Things You Did Not Know about Mosquitoes 32 Things You Did Not Know about Mosquitoes GO Aug 8, 2007 18:06 GMT  ·  By Stefan Anitei  ·  Share:  These are the strangest females invented by nature. But they do not ruin the life of their own males but ours. Mosquitoes are insects of the Order Diptera (thus related with the flies, even "mosquito" is a Spanish word meaning "little fly"), suborder Nematocera ("with thin antennae") and belong to the Culicidae family. 1. Mosquitoes came into being during the Jurassic Epoch, over 175 million years ago, so dinosaurs did experience the 'mosquito nightmare'... 2. There are over 3,000 varieties of mosquitoes, from the Arctic tundra to the tropical rain forests, and from the sea level to the height of Himalaya. In fact, all that mosquitoes require to remain active are temperatures over 55 ?F (12.7 ?C). Thus, they are practically anywhere, even in the desert oases, even if the highest diversity of species is encountered in wet and warm areas. 3. Most are active at dawn and dusk, sheltering during the day in dense vegetation, houses, farms but for many tropical species they are midday food. 4. Mosquitoes vary in their size: they reach 1.6-12.5 mm (0.5 inch). Fossil mosquitoes were even 5 cm (2 inch) long. 5. Mosquitoes do not bite, they suck. 1,200,000 mosquitoes would be necessary to completely drain the average human of blood. Well, unless you die before, but of irritation. 6. An experiment in the Canadian tundra found that people who bared arms, legs and torsos reported approximately 9,000 bites per minute from swarming, newly hatched mosquitoes. In two hours, an individual could lose 50 % of his blood. 7. Only the female bites and she does this on humans but also on other vertebrates, from elephants to mice and turtles, sucking their blood. This food is necessary for the development of the ovaries and maturing of the eggs. Some species can develop without the female ingesting previously blood, but when the opportunity appears, they will do it (like in some Culex). A sole blood droplet ensures the growth of hundreds of mosquito eggs. The most exposed persons to mosquito bite are those of blood types 0 and A and younger persons. 8. The males do not bite; they eat just plant juices and nectar. 9. The sting of the mosquito may look simple but on microscope it is extremely complicated; it is formed of 6 pieces: two tubes, a salivary one and a feeding one, surrounded by two sharp mandibles and two scalpels with saw-like teeth. All 6 pieces are wrapped in a sheath that protects them on all their length. The sting is implanted into the skin for a few mm till it reaches a minute blood vessel. 10. Mosquitoes possess olfactive and thermic organs onto their hairy pair of antennae and the three pairs of legs that head them to the their victim based on their expelled carbon dioxide, warmth and sweat. 11. Eyes occupy most of a mosquito`s head. These compound-lensed organs deliver infrared images of heat emanated from a body. 12. Male mosquito "ears" have as many sensory cells as human ears, they help males identify and pursue the females. When a mosquito tracks down the whine of the opposite sex, it begins to synchronize its own pitch to fit that of the potential mate. Males can "relate" to girl frequencies in a second or two. Females take several times longer to synchronize. 13. Mosquitoes can mate in midair, often in just 15 seconds from approaching to fare-thee-well. 14. Mosquitoes can smell their dinner from up to 50 meters (166 ft). Mosquitoes can travel 40 miles (64 km) looking for a meal. 15. To detect you, mosquitoes use the carbon dioxide you exhale. People with high concentrations of steroids or cholesterol on their skin surface attract mosquitoes and this is a genetic trait. Mosquitoes are also attracted by uric acid present in the sweat and movement. Practicing sports in a mosquito-infested area is a bad idea as increased exhaled carbon dioxide (due to panting) and uric acid (due to sweating) turns you into a mosquitoes' magnet. 16. The blood has the ability to clot, so, through the salivary tube, the mosquito female pumps anti-clotting chemicals that keep the blood fluid, so she can suck it easily. The saliva also has an anesthetic chemical. The saliva that remains inside the skin is extremely irritating for the victim after the anesthetic effect is gone, causing an unbearable itch. 17. Do not scratch the bitten place. The best solution is alcohol, which eases the pain. 18. The greatest problem of the mosquito bite is not the itch, but the parasites that mosquitoes, mostly in tropics, can transmit through their saliva. Anopheles mosquitoes transmit malaria, a blood parasite that kills up to 3 million people annually (over one million just in Africa) and infects 300 million people each year on the tropics. The Aedes mosquitoes are vectors for many viruses like those of the yellow fever, hepatitis or encephalitis. Dengue and West Nile viruses are also transmitted by mosquitoes. In fact, mosquitoes are considered the animals responsible for the highest number of human deaths worldwide annually. But remember: they do not transmit HIV, as the virus would die in the mosquito`s digestive system. 19. Mosquitoes can fly between the rain droplets and with 1.5-2.5 km (0.9-1.6 mi)/h at most 5 minutes at once with a wing rhythm of 250 beats/seconds! This rhythm determines their buzz and they would like not to generate it; otherwise their presence would be undetectable till they bite. Mosquitoes can make various aerial stunts, like turns, loopings, forced landings, dives. Unlike other insects, mosquitoes and flies have just one pair of wings (not two), the second being turned into two organs that detect altitude and acceleration, allowing the insect to adapt permanently to the flight's parameters. 20. Their step on the victim is so smooth that it cannot be detected. They can even step on spider webs without the spider to feel anything!... 21. They have the rare ability of walking on the water. Only a type of water bug is known to do this (except mosquitoes). 22. In temperate zones, adult females winter in various sheltered places and when the winter is gone, they start feeding with blood and another mosquito generation is on the way. 23. Mosquitoes larvae are aquatic and as little as the water from garbage cans, old tiles, barrels, washbasins, wet basements, bathrooms, kitchens, balconies is enough to ensure their development, and combating the mosquito population in an area can result a tough task. As the larvae breathe oxygen from the air, they are not affected by the water quality. 24. The mosquito eggs are very resistant to drought and cold, being able to resist till five years in cold and dry ground till the next warm rain and in a week, the larvae go out from the eggs. 25. There are other insects from Nematocera that look like mosquitoes, are found also around waters and are completely harmless, as their females do not suck blood and they ingest just plant sap, like midges from Chironomidae, Tipulidae (crane flies) while other diptera that do not look quite like a mosquito, from Simuliidae (black flies), Ceratopogonidae (biting midges), Glossinidae (tsetse flies) families (only some examples) but DO bite for blood and transmit extremely severe parasites, like sleeping sickness and worms that provoke river blindness, filariasis or elephantiasis. 26. The world`s largest statue of a mosquito is a local attraction in Komarno, Manitoba, the Mosquito Capital of Canada. ("Komarno" means in Ukrainian "mosquito"). The steel statue was made in 1984 and has a wingspan of 15 feet (5 m). 27. In 1998, researchers discovered a new mosquito species in the London Underground, evolved from ancestors that flew in when the tunnels were dug 100 years ago. Once bird feeders, they now enjoy a menu of rats, mice and human blood. They do not interbreed with their aboveground counterparts. Their DNA actually varies from one subway line to another. 28. Central America`s so-called Mosquito Coast (a thin strip of land along the Caribbean in Honduras and Nicaragua) is not named after the insect, but after the indigenous Miskito Indians. 29. In Abuja, Nigeria, in 2000 the world`s biggest mosquito net was unveiled, as part of a national campaign against malaria and other insect-borne diseases. Two hundred children fit under it. 30. The best mosquito repellent is DEET, but other solutions are lemon eucalyptus oil (traded as Repel) and soybean oil, citronella, cedar, peppermint, lemongrass and geranium. Mosquito traps can also offer protection. They emit mosquitoes attracting factors, like carbon dioxide, heat, moisture and others, trapping or destroying mosquitoes. When located in good breeding spots, they can knock mosquito populations down. 31.A radio station from Poland used an odd method of combating mosquitoes. Radio Zet emitted a continuous ultrasound signal, which even if not heard by the human ear, imitated the bat sonar and could be heard by mosquitoes. This kept away of this radio channel listeners any mosquito. 32.Some plants with prickly scent can chase away the mosquitoes, like the garlic.

i don't know

How is the Eurotunnel also known?

How the Channel Tunnel Was Built and Designed Updated December 04, 2015. What Is the Channel Tunnel? The Channel Tunnel, often called the Chunnel, is a railway tunnel that lies underneath the water of the English Channel and connects the island of Great Britain with mainland France. The Channel Tunnel , completed in 1994, is considered one of the most amazing engineering feats of the 20th century. Dates: Officially opened on May 6, 1994 Also Known As: The Chunnel, the Euro Tunnel Overview of the Channel Tunnel: For centuries, crossing the English Channel via boat or ferry had been considered a miserable task. The often inclement weather and choppy water could make even the most seasoned traveler seasick. It is perhaps not surprising then that as early as 1802 plans were being made for an alternate route across the English Channel. Early Plans This first plan, made by French engineer Albert Mathieu Favier, called for a tunnel to be dug under the water of the English Channel. This tunnel was to be large enough for horse-drawn carriages to travel through. continue reading below our video 10 Best Universities in the United States Although Favier was able to get the backing of French leader Napoleon Bonaparte , the British rejected Favier's plan. (The British feared, perhaps correctly, that Napoleon wanted to build the tunnel in order to invade England.) Over the next two centuries, others created plans to connect Great Britain with France. Despite progress made on a number of these plans, including actual drilling, they all eventually fell through. Sometimes the reason was political discord, other times is was financial problems. Still other times it was Britain's fear of invasion. All of these factors had to be solved before the Channel Tunnel could be built. A Contest In 1984, French president Francois Mitterrand and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher jointly agreed that a link across the English Channel would be mutually beneficial. However, both governments realized that although the project would create much needed jobs, neither country's government could fund such a massive project. Thus, they decided to hold a contest. This contest invited companies to submit their plans to create a link across the English Channel. As part of the contest's requirements, the submitting company was to provide a plan to raise the needed funds to build the project, have the ability to operate the proposed Channel link once the project was completed, and the proposed link must be able to endure for at least 120 years. Ten proposals were submitted, including various tunnels and bridges. Some of the proposals were so outlandish in design that they were easily dismissed; others would be so expensive that they were unlikely to ever be completed. The proposal that was accepted was the plan for the Channel Tunnel, submitted by the Balfour Beatty Construction Company (this later became Transmanche Link). The Design for the Channel Tunnels The Channel Tunnel was to be made up of two, parallel railway tunnels that would be dug under the English Channel. Between these two railway tunnels would run a third, smaller tunnel that would be used for maintenance, including drainage pipes, communication cables, drainage pipes, etc. Each of the trains that would run through the Chunnel would be able to hold cars and trucks. This would enable personal vehicles to go through the Channel Tunnel without having individual drivers face such a long, underground drive. The plan was expected to cost $3.6 billion. Getting Started Just getting started on the Channel Tunnel was a monumental task. Funds had to be raised (over 50 large banks gave loans), experienced engineers had to be found, 13,000 skilled and unskilled workers had to be hired and housed, and special tunnel boring machines had to be designed and built. As these things were getting done, the designers had to determine exactly where the tunnel was to be dug. Specifically, the geology of the bottom of the English Channel had to be carefully examined. It was determined that although the bottom was made of a thick layer of chalk, the Lower Chalk layer, made up of chalk marl, would be the easiest to bore through. Building the Channel Tunnel The digging of the Channel Tunnel began simultaneously from the British and the French coasts, with the finished tunnel meeting in the middle. On the British side, the digging began near Shakespeare Cliff outside of Dover; the French side began near the village of Sangatte. The digging was done by huge tunnel boring machines, known as TBMs, which cut through the chalk, collected the debris, and transported the debris behind it using conveyor belts. Then this debris, known as spoil, would be would be hauled up to the surface via railroad wagons (British side) or mixed with water and pumped out through a pipeline (French side). As the TBMs bore through the chalk, the sides of the newly dug tunnel had to be lined with concrete. This concrete lining was to help the tunnel withstand the intense pressure from above as well as to help waterproof the tunnel. Connecting the Tunnels One of the most difficult tasks on the Channel Tunnel project was making sure that both the British side of the tunnel and the French side actually met up in the middle. Special lasers and surveying equipment was used; however, with such a large project, no one was sure it would actually work. Since the service tunnel was the first to be dug, it was the joining of the two sides of this tunnel that caused the most fanfare. On December 1, 1990, the meeting of the two sides was officially celebrated. Two workers, one British (Graham Fagg) and one French (Philippe Cozette), were chosen by lottery to be the first to shake hands through the opening. After them, hundreds of workers crossed to the other side in celebration of this amazing achievement. For the first time in history, Great Britain and France were connected. Finishing the Channel Tunnel Although the meeting of the two sides of the service tunnel was a cause of great celebration, it certainly wasn't the end of the Channel Tunnel building project. Both the British and the French kept digging. The two sides met in the northern running tunnel on May 22, 1991 and then only a month later, the two sides met in the middle of the southern running tunnel on June 28, 1991. That too wasn't the end of the Chunnel construction . Crossover tunnels, land tunnels from the coast to the terminals, piston relief ducts, electrical systems, fireproof doors, the ventilation system, and train tracks all had to be added. Also, large train terminals had to be built at Folkestone in Great Britain and Coquelles in France. The Channel Tunnel Opens On December 10, 1993, the first test run was completed through the entire Channel Tunnel. After additional fine tuning, the Channel Tunnel officially opened on May 6, 1994. After six years of construction and $15 billion spent (some sources say upwards of $21 billion), the Channel Tunnel was finally complete.

Channel Tunnel

Which British monarch popularized the Homgburg which came from the German town of the same name?

Hundreds of Eurostar passengers stranded by migrants trying to get through tunnel Hundreds of Eurostar passengers stranded by migrants trying to get through tunnel By John Pullman Share View photos Passengers wrapped in thermal foil blankets given out by emergency services after their Eurostar train was stranded at Calais Station, after intruders were seen near the Eurotunnel, in Calais, France September 2, 2015. REUTERS/John Pullman More By John Pullman CALAIS, France (Reuters) - Hundreds of passengers were stranded for hours on five Eurostar high-speed trains after reports that migrants were blocking the tracks leading to the tunnel under the English Channel and were attempting to climb aboard. According to the Eurostar Twitter feed, three of the trains then went on to London early on Wednesday, while two others returned to their original departure stations in London and Paris. Eurostar had announced on Twitter late on Tuesday that it was holding its trains "whilst authorities deal with trespassers" and then said the trespassers had been spotted on the tracks at the station in Calais. The trains stayed in place as the trespassers were removed from the tunnel and away from the tracks, it said. Local media reported that the trespassers were migrants attempting to cross into the United Kingdom through the Eurotunnel, also known as the Chunnel. So far this year, thousands of refugees have attempted to make the dangerous crossing. Passengers on one of the London-bound trains, which stopped less than a mile (1.6 km) from the tunnel, were told at one point to be very quiet and listen for the sound of people climbing on the roof. A helicopter with a searchlight then circled the train as guards walked the tracks looking for migrants, but seemingly none were spotted. With the power out, passengers on that train sat in the dark for nearly four hours. The heat and mugginess in the cars rose as conductors walked the aisles with wind-up torches. A woman in business class wept and many passengers said they could not breathe in the stifling air. Eurostar then pulled the train back to Calais, where passengers disembarked for fresh air and bottled water. But when some attempted to leave the station to cross the English Channel by ferry, French gendarmes stopped them, saying that customs and immigration laws required that the passengers return to Paris. However, Eurostar tweeted that the train, ES9055, "is unable to be used to take passengers in Calais back to Paris and alternative options are being sought." "We've been abandoned on a platform somewhere in the cold with NO INFORMATION," tweeted one of the passengers, Danny Bell. "And enlighten me - at 4am in the middle of nowhere what are those options? For hundreds and hundreds of people?" Eurostar has offered to exchange tickets. (Writing by Lisa Lambert; Editing by Peter Cooney and Eric Beech) Reblog

i don't know

Where is the French terminus for the Hoverspeed service?

Hoverspeed Fast Ferries The Hovercraft: End of an Era Archived Article ABOVE: Hoverspeed's Princess Anne carried 396 passengers and 53 cars between Dover and Calais in 35 minutes. On October 1, 2000, Hoverspeed ended more than 32 years of cross-Channel ferry service by hovercraft. The retirement of its two SRN4 Mark III hovercraft, the Princess Margaret and the newer Princess Anne (see photo), completed Hoverspeed's transitition to a Seacat- and Superseacat-based catamaran ferry service. The following archived article, which was written to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the Princess Margaret in 1998, describes what it was like to travel from Dover to Calais by hovercraft. By Durant Imboden I n July, 1998, Hoverspeed Fast Ferries celebrated 30 years of service by its first commercial hovercraft, the Princess Margaret (a sister to the Princess Anne, shown above). Both SRN4 Mark III craft remain the largest hovercraft in the world, and they continue to offer frequent daily service on the English Channel's Dover-Calais route. If you've never traveled by hovercraft, you're missing a unique experience. You drive or walk aboard, then settle into an airline-style seat in one of the two passenger cabins that flank the vehicle deck. The car hatches are closed, the four 3,800-hp gas turbines rev up, and air fills the rubber skirts beneath the craft.. Moments later, four huge propellers send the craft blasting across the English Channel at more than 50 knots (58 mph or 98 km/h). You can read a free newspaper, have a cup of coffee, and have duty-free goods delivered to your seat during the brief "flight" (as hovercraft journeys are called). When the channel is rough, you may feel a bit of chop despite the 3m/10-foot air cushion that separates the hovercraft from the water. This shouldn't be a cause for alarm--the craft are approved for operation in 50-knot winds and 3.5-meter or 11.5-foot waves. As you approach the French or English coast, you may experience a moment of alarm as the hovercraft continues to speed ahead in a torrent of spray. But the craft makes a seamless transition from water to land, settling onto the concrete pad of the hoverport after its dramatic arrival. Elapsed time: 35 minutes, making Hoverspeed the fastest connection between England and France. Hovercraft meets Seacat Since 1991, Hoverspeed Fast Ferries has supplemented its hovercraft with fast catamarans. Dover-Calais. The Seacat Isle of Man crosses the channel in 50 minutes, carrying up to 573 passengers and 85 cars. Dover-Ostend. Two state-of-the-art catamarans, the Rapide and the Diamant, traverse this 152-year-old route between England and Belgium in just under two hours. The 81-meter or 266-foot boats feature computerized ride control and carry 674 passengers with 155 cars. Folkstone-Boulogne. The Seacat Great Britain covers this route in 55 minutes. (In 1990, the Great Britain captured the Hales Trophy for the fastest transatlantic sea crossing with a time of 3 days 7 hours 57 minutes. The previous record, set by the S.S. United States, had been unbeaten since 1952.) Newhaven-Dieppe. This newer route has two to three crossings a day, with the journey taking two hours. The Superseacat hauls up to 700 passengers and 175 vehicles across the Channel at speeds exceeding 40 knots. Hovercraft background reading

Boulogne-sur-Mer

In which country was the Angel of the North erected in 1998?

Ferry Fantastic: S. R. N. 4 'Mountbatten Class' Hovercraft The Princess Anne & The Princess Margaret Registered with the Civil Aviation Authority as 'GH-2006', The Princess Margaret is captured in her original 'Mark I' configuration at Dover's first hoverport (situated at the Eastern Docks). The cars driving away in the foreground give a strong indication that this is a late 1960s/early 1970s scene. Photo: Ferry Fantastic Collection. British Rail opened the extraordinary first chapter in the evolution of the high speed car ferry when it ordered the world�s first ever vehicle and passenger carrying hovercraft from the factory of the British Hovercraft Corporation at Cowes, on the Isle of Wight. The subsidiary set up to operate the proposed fast ferry service between Dover and Boulogne was Seaspeed. The first hovercraft built to traverse the English Channel was the Saunders Row Nautical 1, a tiny vessel which made its historic �flight� between Dover and Calais in 1959. The S. R. N. (Saunders Roe Nautical) 1 was slow, fragile, and carried only her pilot. She was merely a prototype which demonstrated how �air cushion� technology could be developed to offer an exciting new method of sea travel. She was designed by Christopher Cockerill, the inventor of the hovercraft, who probably would never have imagined how his original concept would evolve into a Cross-Channel phenomenon which lasted over three decades. The hovercraft is an amphibious vehicle which floats on a cushion of air contained by a rubber �skirt� fitted to the outside rim of the vessel�s superstructure. Manoeuvrability is achieved by propellers that are mounted on pylons. The propellers, in turn, drive internal fans that inflate the skirt in order to traverse surfaces on an �air cushion�. Additional control to direction of movement is aided by tail-end �fins�. Hovercraft do not require docking facilities and are exceptionally fast, travelling at well over twice the speed of conventional ships. Their pitfall is their very uncomfortable ride in rough sea conditions. British Rail made history by introducing the first S. R. N. 4 'Mountbatten Class' car carrying hovercraft, The Princess Margaret in June of 1968. After extensive trials she took her inaugural commercial flight from the hoverport at Dover Eastern Docks to Boulogne on 1st August that year. There were inevitable �teething troubles� and adjustments were made to her skirt which was raised in height at her forward end. Pegwell Bay based rival, Hoverlloyd, took delivery of numbers 002 and 003 in the series, whilst 004 was ordered by Seaspeed for the 1969 season: She was named The Princess Anne and joined her sister at Dover where operations were expanded to include flights to Calais Hoverport. Initially it was expected that these hovercraft would only last five years as they were prototypes; the first car and passenger carrying hovercraft in the world. Ironically they were to become the only remaining such vessels in existence. During 1977 and 1978 The Princess Anne and The Princess Margaret were returned to The British Hovercraft Corporation (B. H. C.) at Cowes for lengthening to 'Mark III' or 'Super 4' proportions. This included the fitting of larger skirts and propellers. They returned to service much bigger and more powerful, with a nearly 100% increase in vehicle and passenger capacity. After the formation of Hoverspeed in 1981, new diesel-powered hovercraft were promised, but never materialised. The future looked uncertain. Generally regarded as a very safe form of transport, the hovercraft were not immune from unfortunate incidents. The Princess Margaret seemed to suffer more than her fair share of mishaps. In October 1980 she was hit by a freak wave and sustained damage to her forward starboard superstructure. The following January she collided head on with The Prince of Wales Pier in Dover in thick fog. By far the worst calamity occurred in March 1985 when she was blown in high winds against the Southern Breakwater. A large chunk was knocked out of her starboard passenger cabin and of those that fell into the sea, four lost their lives. By 1992, the 'Super 4s' were the only hovercraft still in Cross-Channel service. The Seacat made a much heralded arrival, but could never match the superb speed of the hovercraft. The Princess Anne broke a world record by crossing the Channel in just twenty two minutes in September 1995. But the cost of fuelling the hovercraft�s gas turbines was massive, and their continued operation was an expensive novelty. The 'noisy ladies' were retired on 1st October 2000 after over three decades of remarkable service and have since rested at The Hovercraft Museum at Lee-on-The Solent. It is hoped that at least one of these extraordinary vessels can be preserved. The Princess Margaret & The Princess Anne Builder: British Hovercraft Corporation, East Cowes, Isle of Wight, England. Yard numbers: 001, 004. Dimensions (length, breadth, depth): 39.7 x 23.7 x 2.4 metres. After lengthening: 56.4 x 23.7 x 2.4 metres. Gross tonnage: 200. After lengthening: 300. Engines: Four Rolls Royce Proteus gas turbines. Power: 15,200 B. H. P. Speed (knots): 60. 19.9.1977: Returned to Cowes for lengthening to Mark III status. 25.10.1981: Registered for Hoverspeed Limited, Dover. 30.3.1985: Collided with the Southern Breakwater, Dover. Four passengers killed. 1.10.2000: Hoverspeed hovercraft services withdrawn. Moved to the Hovercraft Museum at Lee-on-Solent. 8.8.1969: The Princess Anne entered service Dover/Boulogne. 21.10.1969: Christened by H. R. H. Princess Anne. 21.2.1977: Returned to Cowes for lengthening to Mark III status. 7.1978: Visited Oostende on trials. 25.10.1981: Registered for Hoverspeed Limited, Dover. 1.10.2000: Hoverspeed hovercraft services withdrawn. Moved to the Hovercraft Museum at Lee-on-Solent. Sister vessel, The Princess Anne is found resting at Dover Hoverport on a damp and dreary day in the early 1980s. The formation of Hoverspeed saw the propellers of the S. R. N. 4s painted white with red flashes at the tips. This was a shortlived livery feature. The two stretched 'Mark III' craft were fitted with the world's largest propellers and were themselves the largest hovercraft in existence. Photo: Ferry Fantastic Collection. The Princess Anne is seen at full height on the pad at Calais, a formidable sight to behold. She is seen wearing the 'British Ferries' brand on her cockpit and tail end fins. This was during the era that Sea Containers owned Sealink U. K. and Hoverspeed; effectively competing against itself on the Dover Straits. Photo: Ferry Fantastic Collection. Competition for British Rails' Seaspeed venture came from Ramsgate-based Hoverlloyd. The privately owned Swedish firm had already initiated foot passenger services to Calais using small S. R. N. 6 hovercraft. Having allowed Seaspeed to take the risk of experimenting with the first of the car carrying generation of hovercraft, the success of The Princess Margaret gave Hoverlloyd the confidence to go ahead with an order for two of its own. According to the B. B. C. 's 'Inside Out' programme Hoverlloyd ran a more glamourous operation; "In terms of enterprise, staff motivation and sheer sexiness, Hoverlloyd won hands down". The aptly named Swift and Sure were delivered within a few months of each other in 1969. Swift was named by Mrs. Mary Wilson, the wife of the then British Prime Minister. She inaugurated services to Calais from the newly constructed hoverport at Pegwell Bay, just South of Ramsgate. Swift reached speeds of up to one hundred knots on trials, but the operating maximum was limited to seventy knots. There followed two further S. R. N. 4 craft for Hoverlloyd in 1972 and 1977. However, the merger with Seaspeed saw Pegwell Bay closed to traffic at the end of 1982, after just thirteen years of use. All 'flights' transferred to a crowded hoverport at Dover Western Docks. In 1983 Sure was ruthlessly taken to pieces for spares to keep her fleetmates maintained. Hoverspeed were later to regret this when they were short of capacity in the mid 1980s. Swift stayed in service until September 1991, by which time Seacats were now operating. During her working life, she completed over thirty thousand Channel crossings. She sat idle on the pad at Dover in the company of her other redundant sisters whilst a buyer was sought for them. No such luck. She incurred damage to her forward port superstructure when a 'Mark III' craft was accidentally reversed into her. Hoverspeed engineers performed some ingenious cosmetic repairs before she was donated to The Hovercraft Museum in June 1994. She had already been stripped of her propellers and any other useful parts, and therefore could not complete her last ever journey under her own power. She was towed to her final resting place. Sadly her structural condition deteriorated badly and the cost of her pitch at the H. M. S. Daedalus Site became too much for the charitable organisation to afford. She had to be broken up in 2004. Swift & Sure 25.10.1981: Registered for Hoverspeed Limited, Dover. 11.10.1991: Laid up at Dover International Hoverport. 25.5.1994: Donated to The Hovercraft Museum at H. M. S. Daedalus, Lee-on-Solent. 3.6.1969: Sure delivered to Hoverlloyd Limited, Ramsgate. Entered service Ramsgate/Calais. 7.10.1970: Chartered for a special flight from London (Tower Pier) to Tilbury. 25.10.1981: Registered for Hoverspeed Limited, Dover. 1983: Dismantled for spare parts at Pegwell Bay International Hoverport. This time Sure is seen in 1982 - her second and final season of Hoverspeed service. Photo: � Calais Chamber of Commerce & Industry An aerial view of Swift approaching the French Coast in favourable sea conditions. This was during the short-lived period of Hoverspeed services from Dover and Ramsgate (Pegwell Bay). Photo: Francois Dupiech Collection Sir Christopher GH-2008 Sir Christopher is shown during one of her �flights� of the Channel for Hoverspeed. The 'British Ferries' branding has been airbrushed on to the tail-end fins. In reality this logo also appeared on her cockpit too. It reverted back to 'HS' when Stena Line bought out sister company, Sealink British Ferries, in 1990. Photo: � Fotoflite After the success of Swift and Sure, Hoverlloyd augmented their service by ordering their third S. R. N. 4 hovercraft from the Cowes based factory of the British Hovercraft Corporation (subsequently inherited by British Aerospace). Named after her inventor, Sir Christopher Cockerill, Sir Christopher was delivered to Pegwell Bay in 1972. In September of that year Hoverlloyd began sending their three 'Mark I' craft back to their builder for widening to 'Mark II' standard. The two inner cabins on the car deck level were removed to provide additional car spaces and the passenger cabins were extended out to the periphery to make up for the lost space. The additional weight only made a marginal difference to the performance. A tapered skirt was fitted retrospectively to all S. R. N. 4 craft as this was found to give a much better all round performance, particularly in rough weather, and it also improved visibility for passengers. Sir Christopher was part of the on-going party when operations in the combined Hoverspeed fleet were concentrated at Dover in 1983. However her future was bleak when hovercraft services were drastically scaled down to make way for the Seacat. Sir Christopher made her last crossings of the Channel in 1991 and the following years ensued the undignified process of her decay on the pad at Dover Hoverport. Being of outdated and expensive technology, Sir Christopher did not attract any buyers and therefore suffered a similar fate to her other 'Mark II' sisters, Sure and The Prince of Wales; being broken up for spare parts for the still operational 'Mark III' hovercraft. The process was painfully protracted, starting in 1994 and finally finishing in 1998 when the remains of her shell were cleared away. Some attempt had been made to disguise the unedifying spectacle of her cannabilised hulk during the earlier stages of her demolition by updating the livery of her port side (which was in full view of hoverport traffic). Those who recognised the potential of the hovercraft, a marvellous British invention, were saddened to see how the opportunity to develop a new generation of more efficient diesel powered craft was passed up. The likes of Sir Christopher are never likely to be seen again on the Channel. Sir Christopher An aerial view of GH-2054 The Prince of Wales on a calm Channel. Photo: � Fotoflite This was the last one; the final British hovercraft ever built for Cross-Channel service. Although essentially a repeat of her earlier sisters, the five years that followed the delivery of Sir Christopher saw an amazing number of minor modifications incorporated into The Prince of Wales. The most visible difference was the extra window either side of her 'cockpit'. This would have gone unnoticed by the majority who ever saw her! She was first and only S. R. N. 4 delivered to the widened 'Mark II' specification, with a modest increase in vehicle and passenger capacity compared to the original 'Mark I' standard. She made her maiden 'flight' in 1977 between Pegwell Bay and Calais for Hoverlloyd. Meanwhile, S. N. C. F. had invested in the construction of two hovercraft that same year to operate with Seaspeed. The first of the French triple-propeller craft was destroyed by fire whilst being fitted out. The second, Ing�nieur Jean Bertin, was a complete and utter technical failure and never saw regular service. The tried and tested model which The Prince of Wales was based on was old fashioned in appearance but reliable. Upon the inauguration of Seacat services from Dover in 1991, The Prince of Wales was retired at just thirteen years old. She languished at the hoverport for a considerable period before suffering a devastating electrical fire which effectively gutted half of her port side superstructure in April 1993. As no buyers had come forward previously, it was not considered worthwhile repairing her, so instead, like Sure a decade previously, she was broken up for spare parts. A sad end to a very short life. The Prince of Wales

i don't know

What is Switzerland's largest City?

Switzerland Facts on Largest Cities, Populations, Symbols - Worldatlas.com Ethnicity: German 65%, French 18%, Italian 10%, Romansch 1%, other 6% GDP total: $362.4 billion (2012 est.) GDP per capita: $54,600 (2012 est.) Language: German (official) 63.7%, French (official) 20.4%, Italian (official) 6.5%, Serbo-Croatian 1.5%, Albanian 1.3%, Portuguese 1.2%, Spanish 1.1%, English 1%, Romansch (official) 0.5%, other 2.8% note: German, French, Italian, and Romansch are all national and official languages Largest Cities: (by population) Zurich, Geneva, Basel, Bern, Lausanne Name: Switzerland's name comes from the German derivative Suito and the Schwyz canton in the central part of the country National Day: August 1 Religion: Roman Catholic 41.8%, Protestant 35.3%, Muslim 4.3%, Orthodox 1.8%, other Christian 0.4%, other 1%, unspecified 4.3%, none 11.1%

Zürich

Which city was the cultural capital of Europe in 1990?

Geography of Switzerland   Geography of Switzerland Switzerland is a small, landlocked country in the heart of Europe. It has a strategic location at the crossroads of central Europe with many easily traversable passes ("Passstrasse", short term "Pass"). Table of contents: Hint: If you are not familiar with our metric unit system, see explanations about metric versus U.S. unit systems 1. Dimensions: Area: 41285 km² (approx. 10'201'746 acres or 15'940 square miles) Boundary: 1858 km (1150 miles) Germany: 346 km (215 miles) France: 572 km (355 miles) Italy: 734 km (456 miles) Austria: 165 km (103 miles) Liechtenstein: 41 km (25 miles) Largest extension north - south: 220 km (137 miles) Largest extension west - east: 348 km (216 miles) Most northern dimension: Oberbargen (N 47° 48' 35") Most eastern dimension: Piz Chavalatsch (E 10° 29' 36") Most southern dimension: Chiasso (N 45° 49' 08") Most western dimension: Chancy (E 5° 57' 24") Highest elevation: Mount Monte Rosa ("Dufourspitze"), 4634 m.a.s (15200 feet) Lowest elevation: Lake Maggiore ("Lago Maggiore"), 193 m.a.s (633 feet) Time Zone: Central Europe (GMT +1 hour) Switzerland is divided in three major geographical areas: Alps ("Alpen"): 60% To table of contents 2. Time zone: Switzerland is located in the Central European Time zone (CET), also known as Middle European Time zone (MET). It is one hour ahead of Greenwich Time (GMT+1). Daylight saving time (one hour ahead of the standard time) starts in early spring and ends in late fall. Begin and end are synchronized with the countries of the European Union (EU). To table of contents 3. Mountains: Switzerland hosts about 20% of the Alps. Approximately 100 peaks are close to or higher than 4000 meters (13125 feet) above sea level. Many mountain areas are developed, there are trains, cog railways, aerial cable cars and other means of transportation. Swiss mountains are famous for climbing, skiing, snowboarding, biking, hiking and other recreational activities. Some of the most famous mountains: Name To table of contents 4. Passes ("Alpenpässe): Switzerland is famous for its alpine passes. Ever since people move around, these passes are important pathways between the northern and the southern part of Europe. Before you hit the road, check the local road conditions online. Some of the most important passes: Name 11% all year ¹ They try to keep the Lukmanier open all year, so check before making your final decision. To table of contents 5. Lakes: Switzerland hosts many lakes, from the large Lake Geneva to hundreds of tiny little lakes in the mountains. There are also many dammed-up lakes, mainly to drive water turbines of power plants. The largest lakes: To table of contents 6. Rivers: The rivers of Switzerland lead to three different seas: The Rhein with its tributaries Aare and Thur drains 67.7% of the water into the North Sea. The Rhone and the Ticino (a tributary to the river Po in Italy) drain 18% into the Mediterranean Sea. The Inn (a tributary to the river Donau in Germany/Austria) drains 4.4% into the Black Sea. The major rivers: Ends in or leaves Switzerland in Rhein Flows into Rhein near Koblenz, AG Rhone Leaves in Vinadi (Engadin), GR Thur Flows into Rhein near Ellikon, ZH Ticino To table of contents 7. Glaciers: There are more than 3000 km² of glaciers and firn in Switzerland. Most of the glaciers are decreasing. The largest glaciers: To table of contents 8. Climate: From a climate point of view, Switzerland is located in a transition zone. In the west, there is a strong influence of the Atlantic ocean. Winds bring a lot of moisture into Switzerland and cause rainfall. In the east, there is an almost continental climate, with lower temperatures and less precipitation. On the other hand, the alps - which run from east to west - act as a climatic divide. South of the alps, there is an almost Mediterranean climate, with significantly higher temperatures but also a lot of precipitation. Generally speaking, spring is wet and cool, April is well known for fast and often changing weather conditions. Summer is supposed to be warm and dry with maximum temperature up to 35°C (95°F). The temperature depends primarily on the elevation, the zero line (0°C or 32°F) may raise as high as 4000 meters above sea level (13125 feet). Fall is usually dry, but cool. The temperature will drop significantly in September or October, with the zero line around 2000 meter above sea level (6560 feet). Winter is supposed to be cold and dry. The temperature may drop below 0°C everywhere in Switzerland, especially at night. In the alps, they usually get a lot of snow, but even at lower elevations, there is a good chance that they will get a foot of snow every now and then. See Climate in Switzerland for much more detailed information and links to weather forecast services. 9. Major highways: The map below shows the major highways in Switzerland and their names plus some major cities. In Switzerland, names of towns are used for navigation on the roads, rather than highway numbers. Signs show the names of the major cities, road numbers are rarely seen. Signs on or for highways use white letters on green background. Signs for major roads use white letters on blue background, signs for local roads use black letters on white background. Highways in Switzerland are often congested, particularly in summertime. Weekends are especially bad. The most busy highway is the highway A1 between Zürich and Bern, but also the Gotthard tunnel between Göschenen and Airolo is often very crowded. Cars may build up for as long as 20 km and it needs a lot of patience to get to the other side of the Alps. An alternative is to use the San Bernardino pass but congestions are there very likely too. In order to use the highways in Switzerland, a toll has to be paid. But there are no toll booth, instead a special sticker - known as "Autobahn Vignette" - is required. The sticker is valid for one calendar year (actually from beginning of December of the previous year until end of January of the following year = 14 months), there is nothing like a one day or one week pass. It costs CHF 40.00 and is available at customs at the borders and at all gas stations and post offices throughout the country. The sticker must be fixed to the windshield on cars and trucks, there are particular rules for where it has to be placed on motorbikes and trailers. The best choice is the avoid cars at all and use public transportation instead. Trains and busses are available everywhere and on the larger lakes, taking a boat may be a very enjoyable alternative. The "Schweizerische Bundesbahnen" (SBB) - the Swiss Federal Railroad - has a nice website with an on-line time table where you can also purchase tickets and print them on your own printer. Before you hit the road, check the local road conditions online. There is an interactive map of Switzerland available at map.search.ch . To table of contents 10. Distances and estimated driving times between major cities: Distances are measured in kilometers, driving times in hours and minutes (hh:mm). Routes are supposed to be the fastest possible but not necessarily the shortest path. Highways in Switzerland are often under construction and traffic jams occur frequently. During winter seasons, many roads in the mountains are closed and in higher elevations, winter tires or chains may be enforced by law. Before you hit the road, check the local road conditions online. Distance Border to Austria (and Germany) in the very north east of Switzerland at the Bodensee Border to Italy in the very south of Switzerland

i don't know