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[ "Crazy Horse was a Native American war leader of the Oglala Lakota.", "He took up arms against the U.S. Federal government to fight against encroachments on the territories and way of life of the Lakota people.", "His most famous actions against the U.S. military included the Fetterman Fight (21 December 1866) and the Battle of the Little Bighorn (25–26 June 1876).", "He surrendered to U.S. troops under General Crook in May 1877 and was fatally wounded by a military guard, allegedly while resisting imprisonment at Camp Robinson in present-day Nebraska.", "He ranks among the most notable and iconic of Native American tribal members and was honored by the U.S. Postal Service in 1982 with a 13¢ postage stamp that is part of its Great Americans series.", "Henry Standing Bear (\"Mato Naji\"), an Oglala Lakota chief, and well-known statesman and elder in the Native American community, recruited and commissioned Polish-American sculptor Korczak Ziolkowski to build the Crazy Horse Memorial in the Black Hills of South Dakota.", "In October 1931, Luther Standing Bear, Henry's older brother, wrote to sculptor Gutzon Borglum, who was carving the heads of four American presidents at Mount Rushmore.", "Luther suggested that it would be \"most fitting to have the face of Crazy Horse sculpted there.", "Crazy Horse is the real patriot of the Sioux tribe and the only one worthy to place by the side of Washington and Lincoln.\"", "Borglum never replied.", "Thereafter, Henry Standing Bear began a campaign to have Borglum carve an image of Crazy Horse on Mount Rushmore.", "In summer of 1935, Standing Bear, frustrated over the stalled Crazy Horse project, wrote to James H. Cook, a long time friend of Chief Red Cloud's, \"I am struggling hopelessly with this because I am without funds, no employment and no assistance from any Indian or White.\"", "On November 7, 1939, Henry Standing Bear wrote to the Polish-American sculptor Korczak Ziolkowski, who worked on Mount Rushmore under Gutzon Borglum.", "He informed the sculptor, \"My fellow chiefs and I would like the white man to know that the red man has great heroes, too.\"", "Standing Bear also wrote a letter to Undersecretary Oscar Chapman of the Department of the Interior, offering all his own fertile 900 acres (365 ha) in exchange for the barren mountain for the purpose of paying honor to Crazy Horse.", "The government responded positively, and the U.S. Forest Service, responsible for the land, agreed to grant a permit for the use of the land, with a commission to oversee the project.", "Standing Bear chose not to seek government funds and relied instead upon influential Americans interested in the welfare of the American Indian to privately fund the project.", "In the spring of 1940, Ziolkowski spent three weeks with Standing Bear at Pine Ridge, South Dakota, discussing land ownership issues and learning about Crazy Horse and the Lakota way of life.", "According to Ziolkowski, \"Standing Bear grew very angry when he spoke of the broken Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868).", "That was the one I'd read about in which the President promised the Black Hills would belong to the Indians forever.", "I remember how his old eyes flashed out of that dark mahogany face, then he would shake his head and fall silent for a long while.", "\"", "The memorial is a non-profit undertaking, and does not accept federal or state funding.", "The Memorial Foundation finances the project by charging fees for its visitor centers, earning revenue from its gift shops and receiving private contributions.", "Ziolkowski reportedly was offered 10 million for the project from the federal government on two occasions, but he turned the offers down.", "He felt the project was more than just a mountain carving, and he feared that his plans for the broader educational and cultural goals of the memorial would be overturned by federal involvement.", "After Ziolkowski died in 1982 at age 74, his widow Ruth Ziolkowski, took charge of the sculpture, overseeing work on the project as CEO from the 1980s to the 2010s.", "Ruth Ziolkowski decided to focus on the completion of Crazy Horse's face first, instead of the horse as her husband had originally planned.", "She believed that Crazy Horse's face, once completed, would increase the sculpture's draw as a tourist attraction, which would provide additional funding.", "She also oversaw the staff, which included seven of her children.", "Sixteen years later, in 1998, both the head and face of Crazy Horse were completed and dedicated; Crazy Horse's eyes are wide, while his head is high.", "Ruth Ziolkowski and seven of the Ziolkowskis' 10 children carried on work at the memorial.", "Daughter Monique Ziolkowski, herself a sculptor, modified some of her father's plans to ensure that the weight of the outstretched arm was supported sufficiently.", "The foundation commissioned reports from two engineering firms in 2009 to help guide completion of the project.", "Work commenced on the horse after two years of careful planning and measurements.", "Since the completion of the head and face, much of the monument's sculpting work has been dedicated to the much larger horse portion.", "Ruth Ziolkowski died on May 21, 2014, at the age of 87.", "Monique Ziolkowski became CEO and three of her siblings continue to work on the project, as well as three of the Ziolkowskis' grandsons.", "The memorial is to be the centerpiece of an educational/cultural center, to include a satellite campus of the University of South Dakota, with a classroom building and residence hall, made possible by a 2.5 million donation in 2007 from T. Denny Sanford, a philanthropist from Sioux Falls, South Dakota.", "It is called the Indian University of North America and the Indian Museum of North America.", "The current visitor complex will anchor the center.", "Sanford also donated 5 million to the memorial, to be paid 1 million a year for five years as matching donations were raised, specifically to further work on the horse's head.", "Paul and Donna \"Muffy\" Christen of Huron, South Dakota, in July 2010, announced they were donating 5 million in two installments to an endowment to support the operation of the satellite campus.", "It holds classes in math, English, and American Indian studies courses for college credit, as well as outreach classes.", "The memorial foundation has awarded more than 1.2 million in scholarships, with the majority going to Native students within South Dakota.", "The Memorial foundation began its first national fund drive in October 2006.", "The goal was to raise 16.5 million by 2011.", "The first planned project was a 1.4 million dormitory to house 40 American Indian students who would work as interns at the memorial.", "Crazy Horse resisted being photographed and was deliberately buried where his grave would not be found.", "Ziolkowski envisioned the monument as a metaphoric tribute to the spirit of Crazy Horse and Native Americans.", "He reportedly said, \"My lands are where my dead lie buried.\"", "His extended hand on the monument is to symbolize that statement.", "Elaine Quiver, a descendant of one of Crazy Horse's aunts, said in 2003 that the elder Standing Bear should not have independently petitioned Ziolkowski to create the memorial, because Lakota culture dictates consensus from family members for such a decision, which was not obtained before the first rock was dynamited in 1948.", "She said:\nThey don't respect our culture because we didn't give permission for someone to carve the sacred Black Hills where our burial grounds are.", "They were there for us to enjoy and they were there for us to pray.", "But it wasn't meant to be carved into images, which is very wrong for all of us.", "The more I think about it, the more it's a desecration of our Indian culture.", "Not just Crazy Horse, but all of us.", "Seth Big Crow, whose great-grandmother was an aunt of Crazy Horse's, said he wondered about the millions of dollars which the Ziolkowski family had collected from the visitor center and shops associated with the memorial, and \"the amount of money being generated by his ancestor's name\".", "He said:\nOr did it give them free hand to try to take over the name and make money off it as long as they're alive and we're alive?", "When you start making money rather than to try to complete the project, that's when, to me, it's going off in the wrong direction.", "Other traditional Lakota oppose the memorial.", "In his 1972 autobiography, John Fire Lame Deer, a Lakota medicine man, said: \"The whole idea of making a beautiful wild mountain into a statue of him is a pollution of the landscape.", "It is against the spirit of Crazy Horse.\"", "In a 2001 interview, Lakota activist Russell Means said: \"Imagine going to the holy land in Israel, whether you're a Christian or a Jew or a Muslim, and start carving up the mountain of Zion.", "It's an insult to our entire being.", "It's bad enough getting four white faces carved in up there, the shrine of hypocrisy.", "\"\nIn his 2019 \"New Yorker\" article, ‘Who Speaks for Crazy Horse?’, author Brooke Jarvis states: “On Pine Ridge and in Rapid City, I heard a number of Lakota say that the memorial has become a tribute not to Crazy Horse but to Ziolkowski and his family”." ]

[ 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 ]

[ "The sculpture's final dimensions are planned to be long and high.", "The face of Crazy Horse, completed in 1998, is high; by comparison, the heads of the four U.S. Presidents at Mount Rushmore are each high." ]

[ "Crazy Horse was a Native American war leader of the Oglala Lakota.", "He took up arms against the U.S. Federal government to fight against encroachments on the territories and way of life of the Lakota people.", "His most famous actions against the U.S. military included the Fetterman Fight (21 December 1866) and the Battle of the Little Bighorn (25–26 June 1876).", "He surrendered to U.S. troops under General Crook in May 1877 and was fatally wounded by a military guard, allegedly while resisting imprisonment at Camp Robinson in present-day Nebraska.", "He ranks among the most notable and iconic of Native American tribal members and was honored by the U.S. Postal Service in 1982 with a 13¢ postage stamp that is part of its Great Americans series.", "Henry Standing Bear (\"Mato Naji\"), an Oglala Lakota chief, and well-known statesman and elder in the Native American community, recruited and commissioned Polish-American sculptor Korczak Ziolkowski to build the Crazy Horse Memorial in the Black Hills of South Dakota.", "In October 1931, Luther Standing Bear, Henry's older brother, wrote to sculptor Gutzon Borglum, who was carving the heads of four American presidents at Mount Rushmore.", "Luther suggested that it would be \"most fitting to have the face of Crazy Horse sculpted there.", "Crazy Horse is the real patriot of the Sioux tribe and the only one worthy to place by the side of Washington and Lincoln.\"", "Borglum never replied.", "Thereafter, Henry Standing Bear began a campaign to have Borglum carve an image of Crazy Horse on Mount Rushmore.", "In summer of 1935, Standing Bear, frustrated over the stalled Crazy Horse project, wrote to James H. Cook, a long time friend of Chief Red Cloud's, \"I am struggling hopelessly with this because I am without funds, no employment and no assistance from any Indian or White.\"", "On November 7, 1939, Henry Standing Bear wrote to the Polish-American sculptor Korczak Ziolkowski, who worked on Mount Rushmore under Gutzon Borglum.", "He informed the sculptor, \"My fellow chiefs and I would like the white man to know that the red man has great heroes, too.\"", "Standing Bear also wrote a letter to Undersecretary Oscar Chapman of the Department of the Interior, offering all his own fertile 900 acres (365 ha) in exchange for the barren mountain for the purpose of paying honor to Crazy Horse.", "The government responded positively, and the U.S. Forest Service, responsible for the land, agreed to grant a permit for the use of the land, with a commission to oversee the project.", "Standing Bear chose not to seek government funds and relied instead upon influential Americans interested in the welfare of the American Indian to privately fund the project.", "In the spring of 1940, Ziolkowski spent three weeks with Standing Bear at Pine Ridge, South Dakota, discussing land ownership issues and learning about Crazy Horse and the Lakota way of life.", "According to Ziolkowski, \"Standing Bear grew very angry when he spoke of the broken Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868).", "That was the one I'd read about in which the President promised the Black Hills would belong to the Indians forever.", "I remember how his old eyes flashed out of that dark mahogany face, then he would shake his head and fall silent for a long while.", "\"", "The memorial is a non-profit undertaking, and does not accept federal or state funding.", "The Memorial Foundation finances the project by charging fees for its visitor centers, earning revenue from its gift shops and receiving private contributions.", "Ziolkowski reportedly was offered 10 million for the project from the federal government on two occasions, but he turned the offers down.", "He felt the project was more than just a mountain carving, and he feared that his plans for the broader educational and cultural goals of the memorial would be overturned by federal involvement.", "After Ziolkowski died in 1982 at age 74, his widow Ruth Ziolkowski, took charge of the sculpture, overseeing work on the project as CEO from the 1980s to the 2010s.", "Ruth Ziolkowski decided to focus on the completion of Crazy Horse's face first, instead of the horse as her husband had originally planned.", "She believed that Crazy Horse's face, once completed, would increase the sculpture's draw as a tourist attraction, which would provide additional funding.", "She also oversaw the staff, which included seven of her children.", "Sixteen years later, in 1998, both the head and face of Crazy Horse were completed and dedicated; Crazy Horse's eyes are wide, while his head is high.", "Ruth Ziolkowski and seven of the Ziolkowskis' 10 children carried on work at the memorial.", "Daughter Monique Ziolkowski, herself a sculptor, modified some of her father's plans to ensure that the weight of the outstretched arm was supported sufficiently.", "The foundation commissioned reports from two engineering firms in 2009 to help guide completion of the project.", "Work commenced on the horse after two years of careful planning and measurements.", "Since the completion of the head and face, much of the monument's sculpting work has been dedicated to the much larger horse portion.", "Ruth Ziolkowski died on May 21, 2014, at the age of 87.", "Monique Ziolkowski became CEO and three of her siblings continue to work on the project, as well as three of the Ziolkowskis' grandsons.", "The memorial is to be the centerpiece of an educational/cultural center, to include a satellite campus of the University of South Dakota, with a classroom building and residence hall, made possible by a 2.5 million donation in 2007 from T. Denny Sanford, a philanthropist from Sioux Falls, South Dakota.", "It is called the Indian University of North America and the Indian Museum of North America.", "The current visitor complex will anchor the center.", "Sanford also donated 5 million to the memorial, to be paid 1 million a year for five years as matching donations were raised, specifically to further work on the horse's head.", "Paul and Donna \"Muffy\" Christen of Huron, South Dakota, in July 2010, announced they were donating 5 million in two installments to an endowment to support the operation of the satellite campus.", "It holds classes in math, English, and American Indian studies courses for college credit, as well as outreach classes.", "The memorial foundation has awarded more than 1.2 million in scholarships, with the majority going to Native students within South Dakota.", "The Memorial foundation began its first national fund drive in October 2006.", "The goal was to raise 16.5 million by 2011.", "The first planned project was a 1.4 million dormitory to house 40 American Indian students who would work as interns at the memorial.", "Crazy Horse resisted being photographed and was deliberately buried where his grave would not be found.", "Ziolkowski envisioned the monument as a metaphoric tribute to the spirit of Crazy Horse and Native Americans.", "He reportedly said, \"My lands are where my dead lie buried.\"", "His extended hand on the monument is to symbolize that statement.", "Elaine Quiver, a descendant of one of Crazy Horse's aunts, said in 2003 that the elder Standing Bear should not have independently petitioned Ziolkowski to create the memorial, because Lakota culture dictates consensus from family members for such a decision, which was not obtained before the first rock was dynamited in 1948.", "She said:\nThey don't respect our culture because we didn't give permission for someone to carve the sacred Black Hills where our burial grounds are.", "They were there for us to enjoy and they were there for us to pray.", "But it wasn't meant to be carved into images, which is very wrong for all of us.", "The more I think about it, the more it's a desecration of our Indian culture.", "Not just Crazy Horse, but all of us.", "Seth Big Crow, whose great-grandmother was an aunt of Crazy Horse's, said he wondered about the millions of dollars which the Ziolkowski family had collected from the visitor center and shops associated with the memorial, and \"the amount of money being generated by his ancestor's name\".", "He said:\nOr did it give them free hand to try to take over the name and make money off it as long as they're alive and we're alive?", "When you start making money rather than to try to complete the project, that's when, to me, it's going off in the wrong direction.", "Other traditional Lakota oppose the memorial.", "In his 1972 autobiography, John Fire Lame Deer, a Lakota medicine man, said: \"The whole idea of making a beautiful wild mountain into a statue of him is a pollution of the landscape.", "It is against the spirit of Crazy Horse.\"", "In a 2001 interview, Lakota activist Russell Means said: \"Imagine going to the holy land in Israel, whether you're a Christian or a Jew or a Muslim, and start carving up the mountain of Zion.", "It's an insult to our entire being.", "It's bad enough getting four white faces carved in up there, the shrine of hypocrisy.", "\"\nIn his 2019 \"New Yorker\" article, ‘Who Speaks for Crazy Horse?’, author Brooke Jarvis states: “On Pine Ridge and in Rapid City, I heard a number of Lakota say that the memorial has become a tribute not to Crazy Horse but to Ziolkowski and his family”." ]

[ 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44 ]

[ "The memorial master plan includes the mountain carving monument, an Indian Museum of North America, and a Native American Cultural Center." ]

[ "Although the written history of the region begins with the Sioux domination of the land over the native Arikara tribes, researchers have carbon-dating and stratigraphic records to analyze the early history of the area.", "Scientists have been able to utilize carbon-dating to evaluate the age of tools found in the area, which indicate a human presence that dates as far back as 11,500 BC with the Clovis culture.", "Stratigraphic records indicate environmental changes in the land, such as flood and drought patterns.", "For example, large-scale flooding of the Black Hill basins occurs at a probability rate of 0.01, making such floods occur once in every 100 years.", "However, during The Medieval Climate Anomaly, or the Medieval Warm Period, flooding increased in the basins.", "A stratigraphic record of the area shows that during these 400 years, thirteen 100-year floods occurred in four of the region's basins, while the same four basins from the previous 800 years only experienced nine floods.", "The Arikara arrived by AD 1500, followed by the Cheyenne, Crow, Kiowa and Arapaho.", "The Lakota (also known as Sioux) arrived from Minnesota in the 18th century and drove out the other tribes, who moved west.", "They claimed the land, which they called \"\" (Black Mountains).", "The mountains commonly became known as the Black Hills.", "François and Louis de La Vérendrye probably traveled near the Black Hills in 1743.", "Fur trappers and traders had some dealings with the Native Americans.", "European Americans increasingly encroached on Lakota territory.", "In order to secure safe passage of settlers on the Oregon Trail, and to end intertribal warfare, the United States government proposed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which established the Great Sioux Reservation west of the Missouri River and acknowledged indigenous control of the Black Hills.", "The treaty protected the Black Hills \"forever\" from European-American settlement.", "Both the Sioux and Cheyenne also claimed rights to the land, saying that their cultures considered it the \"axis mundi\", or sacred center of the world.", "Although rumors of gold in the Black Hills had circulated for decades (see Thoen Stone and Pierre-Jean De Smet), confirmation of the deposits came first in 1874, when Brevet Major General George Armstrong Custer of the 7th US Cavalry led an expedition there and discovered gold in French Creek.", "An official announcement of gold was made by the newspaper reporters accompanying the expedition.", "The following year, the Newton-Jenney Party conducted the first detailed survey of the Black Hills.", "The surveyor for the party, Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, became the first European American to ascend to the top of Black Elk Peak.", "This highest point in the Black Hills is above sea level.", "During the 1875–1878 gold rush thousands of miners went to the Black Hills; in 1880, the area was the most densely populated part of the Dakota Territory.", "Three large towns developed in the Northern Hills: Deadwood, Central City, and Lead.", "Around these clustered groups of smaller gold camps, towns, and villages.", "Hill City and Custer City sprang up in the Southern Hills.", "Railroads were quickly constructed to the previously remote area.", "From 1880 onwards the gold mines yielded about $4,000,000 annually, and the silver mines about $3,000,000 annually.", "The conflict over control of the region sparked the Black Hills War (1876), also known as the Great Sioux War, the last major Indian War on the Great Plains.", "Following the defeat of the Lakota and their Cheyenne and Arapaho allies in 1876, the United States took control of the Black Hills.", "Despite their forced relocations, the Lakota never accepted the validity of the US appropriation.", "They have continued to try to reclaim the property, and filed a suit against the federal government.", "On July 23, 1980, in \"United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians\", the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the Black Hills were illegally taken by the federal government and ordered remuneration of the initial offering price plus interest, nearly $106 million.", "The Lakota refused the settlement, as they wanted the Black Hills returned to them.", "The money remains in an interest-bearing account, which, as of 2015, amounts to over $1.2 billion, but the Lakota still refuse to take the money.", "They believe that accepting the settlement would allow the US government to justify taking ownership of the Black Hills.", "In 2012, United Nations Special Rapporteur James Anaya conducted a 12-day tour of Native Americans' land to determine how the U.S. is carrying out the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, endorsed in 2010 by the Obama administration.", "Anaya met with tribes in seven states on reservations and in urban areas as well as with members of the Obama administration and the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs.", "In an appeal issued August 21, 2012, Anaya brought a sale of over 1,900 acres of land in Black Hills by the Reynolds family to the attention of the U.S. government and asked that it disclose measures taken by federal or state governments to address Sioux concerns over the sale of the land within Reynolds Prairie.", "These acres consist of five land tracts, including the sacred Pe' Sla site for Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota peoples; natives to the Black Hills fundraised to buy the land during the Reynolds' sale.", "On January 15, 2013, the U.S. responded, telling Anaya that it \"understands several tribes purchased the Pe' Sla sacred site around November 30, 2012\" meaning the Pe' Sla is officially Sioux land.", "After 2,022 acres of Pe' Sla (Reynolds Prairie) were granted Federal Indian trust status by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in March 2016, the Shakopee Mdewakanton tribe released a statement acknowledging the 2012 land purchase of 1,940 acres of Pe' Sla and also stated that this purchase was the result of a joint effort by the Rosebud, Shakopee Mdewakanton, Crow Creek, and Standing Rock Sioux Tribes.", "In March 2017, Pennington County agreed to abandon its claim to the Pe' Sla area and recognize its Federal Indian trust status.", "In 2016, the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribe of Oklahoma, the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana and the Rosebud Sioux Tribe of South Dakota bought land near the sacred Bear Butte site for $1.1 million.", "In 2018, the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana and the Arapahoe Tribe of Oklahoma teamed together to purchase land near Bear Butte for $2.3 million.", "The geology of the Black Hills is complex.", "A Tertiary mountain-building episode is responsible for the uplift and current topography of the Black Hills region.", "This uplift was marked by volcanic activity in the northern Black Hills.", "The southern Black Hills are characterized by Precambrian granite, pegmatite, and metamorphic rocks that comprise the core of the entire Black Hills uplift.", "This core is rimmed by Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks.", "The stratigraphy of the Black Hills is laid out like a target, as it is an oval dome, with rings of different rock types dipping away from the center.", "The 'bull's eye' of this target is called the granite core.", "The granite of the Black Hills was emplaced by magma generated during the Trans-Hudson orogeny and contains abundant pegmatite.", "The core of the Black Hills has been dated to 1.8 billion years.", "Other localized deposits have been dated to around 2.2 to 2.8 billion years.", "One of these is located in the northern hills.", "It is called French Creek Granite although it has been metamorphosed into gneiss.", "The other is called the Bear Mountain complex, and it is located in the west-central part of the hills.", "\"Making a concentric ring around the core is the metamorphic zone.", "The rocks in this ring are all very old, as much as 2 billion years and older.", "This zone is very complex, filled with many diverse rock types.", "The rocks were originally sedimentary until there was a collision between the North American continent and a terrane.", "This collision, called the Trans-Hudson Orogeny, caused the original rocks to fold and twist into a vast mountain range.", "Over the millions of years, these tilted rocks, which in many areas are tilted to 90 degrees or more, eroded.", "Today we see the evidence of this erosion in the Black Hills, where the metamorphic rocks end in an angular unconformity below the younger sedimentary layers.", "The final layers of the Black Hills consist of sedimentary rocks.", "The oldest lie on top of the metamorphic layers at a much shallower angle.", "This rock called the Deadwood Formation is mostly sandstone and was the source of gold found in the Deadwood area.", "Above the Deadwood Formation lies the Englewood Formation and Pahasapa limestone, which is the source of the more than 200 caves found in the Black Hills, including Jewel Cave and Wind Cave.", "The Minnelusa Formation is next and is composed of highly variable sandstones and limestones followed by the Opeche shale and the Minnekahta limestone.", "The next rock layer, the Spearfish Formation, forms a valley around the hills called the Red Valley and is often referred to as the Race Track.", "It is mostly red shale with beds of gypsum, and circles much of the Black Hills.", "These shale and gypsum beds, as well as the nearby limestone beds of the Minnekahta, are used in the manufacture of cement at a cement plant in Rapid City.", "Next is the shale and sandstone Sundance Formation, which is topped by the Morrison Formation and the Unkpapa sandstone.", "The outermost feature of the dome stands out as a hogback ridge.", "The ridge is made out of the Lakota Formation and the Fallriver sandstone, which are collectively called the Inyan Kara Group.", "Above this, the layers of rocks are less distinct and are all mainly grey shale with three exceptions: the Newcastle sandstone; the Greenhorn limestone, which contains many shark teeth fossils; and the Niobrara Formation, which is composed mainly of chalk.", "These outer ridges are called cuestas.", "The preceding layers were deposited horizontally.", "All of them can be seen in core samples and well logs from the flattest parts of the Great Plains.", "It took a period of uplift to bring them to their present topographical levels in the Black Hills.", "This uplift called the Laramide orogeny, began around the beginning of the Cenozoic and left a line of igneous rocks through the northern hills superimposed on the rocks already discussed.", "This line extends from Bear Butte in the east to Devils Tower in the west.", "Evidence of Cenozoic volcanic eruptions, if this happened, has long since been eroded.", "The Black Hills also has a 'skirt' of gravel covering them in areas, which are called pediments.", "Formed as the waterways cut down into the uplifting hills, they represent the former locations of today's rivers.", "These beds are generally around 10,000 years old or younger, judging by the artifacts and fossils found.", "A few places, mainly in the high elevations, are older, as old as 20 million years, according to camel and rodent fossils found.", "Some gravels have been found but for the most part, these older beds have been eroded.", "As with the geology, the biology of the Black Hills is complex.", "Most of the Hills are a fire-climax ponderosa pine forest, with Black Hills spruce (\"Picea glauca\" var.", "\"densata\") occurring in cool moist valleys of the Northern Hills.", "Oddly, this endemic variety of spruce does not occur in the moist Bear Lodge Mountains, which make up most of the Wyoming portion of the Black Hills.", "Large open parks (mountain meadows) with lush grassland rather than forest are scattered through the Hills (especially the western portion), and the southern edge of the Hills, due to the rainshadow of the higher elevations, are covered by a dry pine savannah, with stands of mountain mahogany and Rocky Mountain juniper.", "Wildlife is both diverse and plentiful.", "Black Hills creeks are known for their trout, while the forests and grasslands offer good habitat for American bison, white-tailed and mule deer, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, mountain lions, and a variety of smaller animals, like prairie dogs, American martens, American red squirrels, Northern flying squirrels, yellow-bellied marmots, and fox squirrels.", "Biologically, the Black Hills is a meeting and mixing place, with species common to regions to the east, west, north, and south.", "The Hills do, however, support some endemic taxa, the most famous of which is probably white-winged junco (\"Junco hyemalis aikeni\").", "Some other endemics are Cooper's Rocky Mountain snail, Black Hills subspecies of red-bellied snake, and a Black Hills subspecies of southern red-backed vole.", "Some birds that are only in the Black Hills and not the rest of South Dakota are pinyon jay, Canada jay, three-toed woodpecker, black-backed woodpecker, American dipper, ruffed grouse, and others.", "The northern Black Hills approximate Lawrence and Meade Counties and are roughly equivalent to the Northern Hills District of the Black Hills National Forest.", "The central Black Hills (the Mystic District of the Black Hills National Forest) are located in Pennington County west of Rapid City.", "The southern Black Hills are in Custer County and are administered in the national forest's Hell Canyon District.", "Finally, Wyoming's Black Hills follow the Bearlodge District, approximately Weston and Crook Counties.\nGeologically separate from the Black Hills are the Elk Mountains, a small range forming the southwest portion of the region.", "The region is home to Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument, Black Elk Peak, Custer State Park (the largest state park in South Dakota, and one of the largest in the US), Bear Butte State Park, Devils Tower National Monument, and the Crazy Horse Memorial.", "The Black Hills also hosts the Sturgis Motorcycle Rally each August.", "The rally was started in 1940 and the 65th Rally in 2005 saw more than 550,000 bikers visit the Black Hills.", "It is a key part of the regional economy.", "The George S. Mickelson Trail is a recently opened multi-use path through the Black Hills that follows the abandoned track of the historic railroad route from Edgemont to Deadwood.", "The train used to be the only way to bring supplies to the miners in the Hills.", "The trail is about in length, and can be used by hikers, cross-country skiers, and cyclists.", "The cost is two dollars per day, or ten dollars annually.", "Today, the major city in the Black Hills is Rapid City, with an incorporated population of almost 70,000 and a metropolitan population of 125,000.", "It serves a market area covering much of five states: North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Montana.", "In addition to tourism and mining (including coal, specialty minerals, and the now declining gold mining), the Black Hills economy includes ranching (sheep and cattle, primarily, with bison and ratites becoming more common), timber (lumber), Ellsworth Air Force Base, and some manufacturing, including Black Hills gold jewelry, cement, electronics, cabinetry, guns and ammunition.", "In many ways, the Black Hills functions as a very spread-out urban area with a population (not counting tourists) of 250,000.", "Other important Black Hills cities and towns include:" ]

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[ "The name \"Black Hills\" is a translation of the Lakota \"\".", "Native Americans have a long history in the Black Hills.", "After conquering the Cheyenne in 1776, the Lakota took the territory of the Black Hills, which became central to their culture.", "In 1868, the U.S. government signed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, establishing the Great Sioux Reservation west of the Missouri River, and exempting the Black Hills from all white settlement forever.", "However, when settlers discovered gold there in 1874, as a result of George Armstrong Custer's Black Hills Expedition, miners swept into the area in a gold rush.", "The US government took the Black Hills and forcibly relocated the Lakota, following the Great Sioux War of 1876, to five smaller reservations in western South Dakota, selling off of their former land.", "Unlike most of South Dakota, the Black Hills were settled by European Americans primarily from population centers to the west and south of the region, as miners flocked there from earlier gold boom locations in Colorado and Montana." ]

[ "Although the written history of the region begins with the Sioux domination of the land over the native Arikara tribes, researchers have carbon-dating and stratigraphic records to analyze the early history of the area.", "Scientists have been able to utilize carbon-dating to evaluate the age of tools found in the area, which indicate a human presence that dates as far back as 11,500 BC with the Clovis culture.", "Stratigraphic records indicate environmental changes in the land, such as flood and drought patterns.", "For example, large-scale flooding of the Black Hill basins occurs at a probability rate of 0.01, making such floods occur once in every 100 years.", "However, during The Medieval Climate Anomaly, or the Medieval Warm Period, flooding increased in the basins.", "A stratigraphic record of the area shows that during these 400 years, thirteen 100-year floods occurred in four of the region's basins, while the same four basins from the previous 800 years only experienced nine floods.", "The Arikara arrived by AD 1500, followed by the Cheyenne, Crow, Kiowa and Arapaho.", "The Lakota (also known as Sioux) arrived from Minnesota in the 18th century and drove out the other tribes, who moved west.", "They claimed the land, which they called \"\" (Black Mountains).", "The mountains commonly became known as the Black Hills.", "François and Louis de La Vérendrye probably traveled near the Black Hills in 1743.", "Fur trappers and traders had some dealings with the Native Americans.", "European Americans increasingly encroached on Lakota territory.", "In order to secure safe passage of settlers on the Oregon Trail, and to end intertribal warfare, the United States government proposed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which established the Great Sioux Reservation west of the Missouri River and acknowledged indigenous control of the Black Hills.", "The treaty protected the Black Hills \"forever\" from European-American settlement.", "Both the Sioux and Cheyenne also claimed rights to the land, saying that their cultures considered it the \"axis mundi\", or sacred center of the world.", "Although rumors of gold in the Black Hills had circulated for decades (see Thoen Stone and Pierre-Jean De Smet), confirmation of the deposits came first in 1874, when Brevet Major General George Armstrong Custer of the 7th US Cavalry led an expedition there and discovered gold in French Creek.", "An official announcement of gold was made by the newspaper reporters accompanying the expedition.", "The following year, the Newton-Jenney Party conducted the first detailed survey of the Black Hills.", "The surveyor for the party, Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, became the first European American to ascend to the top of Black Elk Peak.", "This highest point in the Black Hills is above sea level.", "During the 1875–1878 gold rush thousands of miners went to the Black Hills; in 1880, the area was the most densely populated part of the Dakota Territory.", "Three large towns developed in the Northern Hills: Deadwood, Central City, and Lead.", "Around these clustered groups of smaller gold camps, towns, and villages.", "Hill City and Custer City sprang up in the Southern Hills.", "Railroads were quickly constructed to the previously remote area.", "From 1880 onwards the gold mines yielded about $4,000,000 annually, and the silver mines about $3,000,000 annually.", "The conflict over control of the region sparked the Black Hills War (1876), also known as the Great Sioux War, the last major Indian War on the Great Plains.", "Following the defeat of the Lakota and their Cheyenne and Arapaho allies in 1876, the United States took control of the Black Hills.", "Despite their forced relocations, the Lakota never accepted the validity of the US appropriation.", "They have continued to try to reclaim the property, and filed a suit against the federal government.", "On July 23, 1980, in \"United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians\", the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the Black Hills were illegally taken by the federal government and ordered remuneration of the initial offering price plus interest, nearly $106 million.", "The Lakota refused the settlement, as they wanted the Black Hills returned to them.", "The money remains in an interest-bearing account, which, as of 2015, amounts to over $1.2 billion, but the Lakota still refuse to take the money.", "They believe that accepting the settlement would allow the US government to justify taking ownership of the Black Hills.", "In 2012, United Nations Special Rapporteur James Anaya conducted a 12-day tour of Native Americans' land to determine how the U.S. is carrying out the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, endorsed in 2010 by the Obama administration.", "Anaya met with tribes in seven states on reservations and in urban areas as well as with members of the Obama administration and the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs.", "In an appeal issued August 21, 2012, Anaya brought a sale of over 1,900 acres of land in Black Hills by the Reynolds family to the attention of the U.S. government and asked that it disclose measures taken by federal or state governments to address Sioux concerns over the sale of the land within Reynolds Prairie.", "These acres consist of five land tracts, including the sacred Pe' Sla site for Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota peoples; natives to the Black Hills fundraised to buy the land during the Reynolds' sale.", "On January 15, 2013, the U.S. responded, telling Anaya that it \"understands several tribes purchased the Pe' Sla sacred site around November 30, 2012\" meaning the Pe' Sla is officially Sioux land.", "After 2,022 acres of Pe' Sla (Reynolds Prairie) were granted Federal Indian trust status by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in March 2016, the Shakopee Mdewakanton tribe released a statement acknowledging the 2012 land purchase of 1,940 acres of Pe' Sla and also stated that this purchase was the result of a joint effort by the Rosebud, Shakopee Mdewakanton, Crow Creek, and Standing Rock Sioux Tribes.", "In March 2017, Pennington County agreed to abandon its claim to the Pe' Sla area and recognize its Federal Indian trust status.", "In 2016, the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribe of Oklahoma, the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana and the Rosebud Sioux Tribe of South Dakota bought land near the sacred Bear Butte site for $1.1 million.", "In 2018, the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana and the Arapahoe Tribe of Oklahoma teamed together to purchase land near Bear Butte for $2.3 million.", "The geology of the Black Hills is complex.", "A Tertiary mountain-building episode is responsible for the uplift and current topography of the Black Hills region.", "This uplift was marked by volcanic activity in the northern Black Hills.", "The southern Black Hills are characterized by Precambrian granite, pegmatite, and metamorphic rocks that comprise the core of the entire Black Hills uplift.", "This core is rimmed by Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks.", "The stratigraphy of the Black Hills is laid out like a target, as it is an oval dome, with rings of different rock types dipping away from the center.", "The 'bull's eye' of this target is called the granite core.", "The granite of the Black Hills was emplaced by magma generated during the Trans-Hudson orogeny and contains abundant pegmatite.", "The core of the Black Hills has been dated to 1.8 billion years.", "Other localized deposits have been dated to around 2.2 to 2.8 billion years.", "One of these is located in the northern hills.", "It is called French Creek Granite although it has been metamorphosed into gneiss.", "The other is called the Bear Mountain complex, and it is located in the west-central part of the hills.", "\"Making a concentric ring around the core is the metamorphic zone.", "The rocks in this ring are all very old, as much as 2 billion years and older.", "This zone is very complex, filled with many diverse rock types.", "The rocks were originally sedimentary until there was a collision between the North American continent and a terrane.", "This collision, called the Trans-Hudson Orogeny, caused the original rocks to fold and twist into a vast mountain range.", "Over the millions of years, these tilted rocks, which in many areas are tilted to 90 degrees or more, eroded.", "Today we see the evidence of this erosion in the Black Hills, where the metamorphic rocks end in an angular unconformity below the younger sedimentary layers.", "The final layers of the Black Hills consist of sedimentary rocks.", "The oldest lie on top of the metamorphic layers at a much shallower angle.", "This rock called the Deadwood Formation is mostly sandstone and was the source of gold found in the Deadwood area.", "Above the Deadwood Formation lies the Englewood Formation and Pahasapa limestone, which is the source of the more than 200 caves found in the Black Hills, including Jewel Cave and Wind Cave.", "The Minnelusa Formation is next and is composed of highly variable sandstones and limestones followed by the Opeche shale and the Minnekahta limestone.", "The next rock layer, the Spearfish Formation, forms a valley around the hills called the Red Valley and is often referred to as the Race Track.", "It is mostly red shale with beds of gypsum, and circles much of the Black Hills.", "These shale and gypsum beds, as well as the nearby limestone beds of the Minnekahta, are used in the manufacture of cement at a cement plant in Rapid City.", "Next is the shale and sandstone Sundance Formation, which is topped by the Morrison Formation and the Unkpapa sandstone.", "The outermost feature of the dome stands out as a hogback ridge.", "The ridge is made out of the Lakota Formation and the Fallriver sandstone, which are collectively called the Inyan Kara Group.", "Above this, the layers of rocks are less distinct and are all mainly grey shale with three exceptions: the Newcastle sandstone; the Greenhorn limestone, which contains many shark teeth fossils; and the Niobrara Formation, which is composed mainly of chalk.", "These outer ridges are called cuestas.", "The preceding layers were deposited horizontally.", "All of them can be seen in core samples and well logs from the flattest parts of the Great Plains.", "It took a period of uplift to bring them to their present topographical levels in the Black Hills.", "This uplift called the Laramide orogeny, began around the beginning of the Cenozoic and left a line of igneous rocks through the northern hills superimposed on the rocks already discussed.", "This line extends from Bear Butte in the east to Devils Tower in the west.", "Evidence of Cenozoic volcanic eruptions, if this happened, has long since been eroded.", "The Black Hills also has a 'skirt' of gravel covering them in areas, which are called pediments.", "Formed as the waterways cut down into the uplifting hills, they represent the former locations of today's rivers.", "These beds are generally around 10,000 years old or younger, judging by the artifacts and fossils found.", "A few places, mainly in the high elevations, are older, as old as 20 million years, according to camel and rodent fossils found.", "Some gravels have been found but for the most part, these older beds have been eroded.", "As with the geology, the biology of the Black Hills is complex.", "Most of the Hills are a fire-climax ponderosa pine forest, with Black Hills spruce (\"Picea glauca\" var.", "\"densata\") occurring in cool moist valleys of the Northern Hills.", "Oddly, this endemic variety of spruce does not occur in the moist Bear Lodge Mountains, which make up most of the Wyoming portion of the Black Hills.", "Large open parks (mountain meadows) with lush grassland rather than forest are scattered through the Hills (especially the western portion), and the southern edge of the Hills, due to the rainshadow of the higher elevations, are covered by a dry pine savannah, with stands of mountain mahogany and Rocky Mountain juniper.", "Wildlife is both diverse and plentiful.", "Black Hills creeks are known for their trout, while the forests and grasslands offer good habitat for American bison, white-tailed and mule deer, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, mountain lions, and a variety of smaller animals, like prairie dogs, American martens, American red squirrels, Northern flying squirrels, yellow-bellied marmots, and fox squirrels.", "Biologically, the Black Hills is a meeting and mixing place, with species common to regions to the east, west, north, and south.", "The Hills do, however, support some endemic taxa, the most famous of which is probably white-winged junco (\"Junco hyemalis aikeni\").", "Some other endemics are Cooper's Rocky Mountain snail, Black Hills subspecies of red-bellied snake, and a Black Hills subspecies of southern red-backed vole.", "Some birds that are only in the Black Hills and not the rest of South Dakota are pinyon jay, Canada jay, three-toed woodpecker, black-backed woodpecker, American dipper, ruffed grouse, and others.", "The northern Black Hills approximate Lawrence and Meade Counties and are roughly equivalent to the Northern Hills District of the Black Hills National Forest.", "The central Black Hills (the Mystic District of the Black Hills National Forest) are located in Pennington County west of Rapid City.", "The southern Black Hills are in Custer County and are administered in the national forest's Hell Canyon District.", "Finally, Wyoming's Black Hills follow the Bearlodge District, approximately Weston and Crook Counties.\nGeologically separate from the Black Hills are the Elk Mountains, a small range forming the southwest portion of the region.", "The region is home to Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument, Black Elk Peak, Custer State Park (the largest state park in South Dakota, and one of the largest in the US), Bear Butte State Park, Devils Tower National Monument, and the Crazy Horse Memorial.", "The Black Hills also hosts the Sturgis Motorcycle Rally each August.", "The rally was started in 1940 and the 65th Rally in 2005 saw more than 550,000 bikers visit the Black Hills.", "It is a key part of the regional economy.", "The George S. Mickelson Trail is a recently opened multi-use path through the Black Hills that follows the abandoned track of the historic railroad route from Edgemont to Deadwood.", "The train used to be the only way to bring supplies to the miners in the Hills.", "The trail is about in length, and can be used by hikers, cross-country skiers, and cyclists.", "The cost is two dollars per day, or ten dollars annually.", "Today, the major city in the Black Hills is Rapid City, with an incorporated population of almost 70,000 and a metropolitan population of 125,000.", "It serves a market area covering much of five states: North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Montana.", "In addition to tourism and mining (including coal, specialty minerals, and the now declining gold mining), the Black Hills economy includes ranching (sheep and cattle, primarily, with bison and ratites becoming more common), timber (lumber), Ellsworth Air Force Base, and some manufacturing, including Black Hills gold jewelry, cement, electronics, cabinetry, guns and ammunition.", "In many ways, the Black Hills functions as a very spread-out urban area with a population (not counting tourists) of 250,000.", "Other important Black Hills cities and towns include:" ]

[ 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 ]

[ "Native Americans have a long history in the Black Hills.", "In 1868, the U.S. government signed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, establishing the Great Sioux Reservation west of the Missouri River, and exempting the Black Hills from all white settlement forever.", "However, when settlers discovered gold there in 1874, as a result of George Armstrong Custer's Black Hills Expedition, miners swept into the area in a gold rush." ]

[ "Although the written history of the region begins with the Sioux domination of the land over the native Arikara tribes, researchers have carbon-dating and stratigraphic records to analyze the early history of the area.", "Scientists have been able to utilize carbon-dating to evaluate the age of tools found in the area, which indicate a human presence that dates as far back as 11,500 BC with the Clovis culture.", "Stratigraphic records indicate environmental changes in the land, such as flood and drought patterns.", "For example, large-scale flooding of the Black Hill basins occurs at a probability rate of 0.01, making such floods occur once in every 100 years.", "However, during The Medieval Climate Anomaly, or the Medieval Warm Period, flooding increased in the basins.", "A stratigraphic record of the area shows that during these 400 years, thirteen 100-year floods occurred in four of the region's basins, while the same four basins from the previous 800 years only experienced nine floods.", "The Arikara arrived by AD 1500, followed by the Cheyenne, Crow, Kiowa and Arapaho.", "The Lakota (also known as Sioux) arrived from Minnesota in the 18th century and drove out the other tribes, who moved west.", "They claimed the land, which they called \"\" (Black Mountains).", "The mountains commonly became known as the Black Hills.", "François and Louis de La Vérendrye probably traveled near the Black Hills in 1743.", "Fur trappers and traders had some dealings with the Native Americans.", "European Americans increasingly encroached on Lakota territory.", "In order to secure safe passage of settlers on the Oregon Trail, and to end intertribal warfare, the United States government proposed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which established the Great Sioux Reservation west of the Missouri River and acknowledged indigenous control of the Black Hills.", "The treaty protected the Black Hills \"forever\" from European-American settlement.", "Both the Sioux and Cheyenne also claimed rights to the land, saying that their cultures considered it the \"axis mundi\", or sacred center of the world.", "Although rumors of gold in the Black Hills had circulated for decades (see Thoen Stone and Pierre-Jean De Smet), confirmation of the deposits came first in 1874, when Brevet Major General George Armstrong Custer of the 7th US Cavalry led an expedition there and discovered gold in French Creek.", "An official announcement of gold was made by the newspaper reporters accompanying the expedition.", "The following year, the Newton-Jenney Party conducted the first detailed survey of the Black Hills.", "The surveyor for the party, Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, became the first European American to ascend to the top of Black Elk Peak.", "This highest point in the Black Hills is above sea level.", "During the 1875–1878 gold rush thousands of miners went to the Black Hills; in 1880, the area was the most densely populated part of the Dakota Territory.", "Three large towns developed in the Northern Hills: Deadwood, Central City, and Lead.", "Around these clustered groups of smaller gold camps, towns, and villages.", "Hill City and Custer City sprang up in the Southern Hills.", "Railroads were quickly constructed to the previously remote area.", "From 1880 onwards the gold mines yielded about $4,000,000 annually, and the silver mines about $3,000,000 annually.", "The conflict over control of the region sparked the Black Hills War (1876), also known as the Great Sioux War, the last major Indian War on the Great Plains.", "Following the defeat of the Lakota and their Cheyenne and Arapaho allies in 1876, the United States took control of the Black Hills.", "Despite their forced relocations, the Lakota never accepted the validity of the US appropriation.", "They have continued to try to reclaim the property, and filed a suit against the federal government.", "On July 23, 1980, in \"United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians\", the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the Black Hills were illegally taken by the federal government and ordered remuneration of the initial offering price plus interest, nearly $106 million.", "The Lakota refused the settlement, as they wanted the Black Hills returned to them.", "The money remains in an interest-bearing account, which, as of 2015, amounts to over $1.2 billion, but the Lakota still refuse to take the money.", "They believe that accepting the settlement would allow the US government to justify taking ownership of the Black Hills.", "In 2012, United Nations Special Rapporteur James Anaya conducted a 12-day tour of Native Americans' land to determine how the U.S. is carrying out the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, endorsed in 2010 by the Obama administration.", "Anaya met with tribes in seven states on reservations and in urban areas as well as with members of the Obama administration and the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs.", "In an appeal issued August 21, 2012, Anaya brought a sale of over 1,900 acres of land in Black Hills by the Reynolds family to the attention of the U.S. government and asked that it disclose measures taken by federal or state governments to address Sioux concerns over the sale of the land within Reynolds Prairie.", "These acres consist of five land tracts, including the sacred Pe' Sla site for Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota peoples; natives to the Black Hills fundraised to buy the land during the Reynolds' sale.", "On January 15, 2013, the U.S. responded, telling Anaya that it \"understands several tribes purchased the Pe' Sla sacred site around November 30, 2012\" meaning the Pe' Sla is officially Sioux land.", "After 2,022 acres of Pe' Sla (Reynolds Prairie) were granted Federal Indian trust status by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in March 2016, the Shakopee Mdewakanton tribe released a statement acknowledging the 2012 land purchase of 1,940 acres of Pe' Sla and also stated that this purchase was the result of a joint effort by the Rosebud, Shakopee Mdewakanton, Crow Creek, and Standing Rock Sioux Tribes.", "In March 2017, Pennington County agreed to abandon its claim to the Pe' Sla area and recognize its Federal Indian trust status.", "In 2016, the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribe of Oklahoma, the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana and the Rosebud Sioux Tribe of South Dakota bought land near the sacred Bear Butte site for $1.1 million.", "In 2018, the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana and the Arapahoe Tribe of Oklahoma teamed together to purchase land near Bear Butte for $2.3 million.", "The geology of the Black Hills is complex.", "A Tertiary mountain-building episode is responsible for the uplift and current topography of the Black Hills region.", "This uplift was marked by volcanic activity in the northern Black Hills.", "The southern Black Hills are characterized by Precambrian granite, pegmatite, and metamorphic rocks that comprise the core of the entire Black Hills uplift.", "This core is rimmed by Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks.", "The stratigraphy of the Black Hills is laid out like a target, as it is an oval dome, with rings of different rock types dipping away from the center.", "The 'bull's eye' of this target is called the granite core.", "The granite of the Black Hills was emplaced by magma generated during the Trans-Hudson orogeny and contains abundant pegmatite.", "The core of the Black Hills has been dated to 1.8 billion years.", "Other localized deposits have been dated to around 2.2 to 2.8 billion years.", "One of these is located in the northern hills.", "It is called French Creek Granite although it has been metamorphosed into gneiss.", "The other is called the Bear Mountain complex, and it is located in the west-central part of the hills.", "\"Making a concentric ring around the core is the metamorphic zone.", "The rocks in this ring are all very old, as much as 2 billion years and older.", "This zone is very complex, filled with many diverse rock types.", "The rocks were originally sedimentary until there was a collision between the North American continent and a terrane.", "This collision, called the Trans-Hudson Orogeny, caused the original rocks to fold and twist into a vast mountain range.", "Over the millions of years, these tilted rocks, which in many areas are tilted to 90 degrees or more, eroded.", "Today we see the evidence of this erosion in the Black Hills, where the metamorphic rocks end in an angular unconformity below the younger sedimentary layers.", "The final layers of the Black Hills consist of sedimentary rocks.", "The oldest lie on top of the metamorphic layers at a much shallower angle.", "This rock called the Deadwood Formation is mostly sandstone and was the source of gold found in the Deadwood area.", "Above the Deadwood Formation lies the Englewood Formation and Pahasapa limestone, which is the source of the more than 200 caves found in the Black Hills, including Jewel Cave and Wind Cave.", "The Minnelusa Formation is next and is composed of highly variable sandstones and limestones followed by the Opeche shale and the Minnekahta limestone.", "The next rock layer, the Spearfish Formation, forms a valley around the hills called the Red Valley and is often referred to as the Race Track.", "It is mostly red shale with beds of gypsum, and circles much of the Black Hills.", "These shale and gypsum beds, as well as the nearby limestone beds of the Minnekahta, are used in the manufacture of cement at a cement plant in Rapid City.", "Next is the shale and sandstone Sundance Formation, which is topped by the Morrison Formation and the Unkpapa sandstone.", "The outermost feature of the dome stands out as a hogback ridge.", "The ridge is made out of the Lakota Formation and the Fallriver sandstone, which are collectively called the Inyan Kara Group.", "Above this, the layers of rocks are less distinct and are all mainly grey shale with three exceptions: the Newcastle sandstone; the Greenhorn limestone, which contains many shark teeth fossils; and the Niobrara Formation, which is composed mainly of chalk.", "These outer ridges are called cuestas.", "The preceding layers were deposited horizontally.", "All of them can be seen in core samples and well logs from the flattest parts of the Great Plains.", "It took a period of uplift to bring them to their present topographical levels in the Black Hills.", "This uplift called the Laramide orogeny, began around the beginning of the Cenozoic and left a line of igneous rocks through the northern hills superimposed on the rocks already discussed.", "This line extends from Bear Butte in the east to Devils Tower in the west.", "Evidence of Cenozoic volcanic eruptions, if this happened, has long since been eroded.", "The Black Hills also has a 'skirt' of gravel covering them in areas, which are called pediments.", "Formed as the waterways cut down into the uplifting hills, they represent the former locations of today's rivers.", "These beds are generally around 10,000 years old or younger, judging by the artifacts and fossils found.", "A few places, mainly in the high elevations, are older, as old as 20 million years, according to camel and rodent fossils found.", "Some gravels have been found but for the most part, these older beds have been eroded.", "As with the geology, the biology of the Black Hills is complex.", "Most of the Hills are a fire-climax ponderosa pine forest, with Black Hills spruce (\"Picea glauca\" var.", "\"densata\") occurring in cool moist valleys of the Northern Hills.", "Oddly, this endemic variety of spruce does not occur in the moist Bear Lodge Mountains, which make up most of the Wyoming portion of the Black Hills.", "Large open parks (mountain meadows) with lush grassland rather than forest are scattered through the Hills (especially the western portion), and the southern edge of the Hills, due to the rainshadow of the higher elevations, are covered by a dry pine savannah, with stands of mountain mahogany and Rocky Mountain juniper.", "Wildlife is both diverse and plentiful.", "Black Hills creeks are known for their trout, while the forests and grasslands offer good habitat for American bison, white-tailed and mule deer, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, mountain lions, and a variety of smaller animals, like prairie dogs, American martens, American red squirrels, Northern flying squirrels, yellow-bellied marmots, and fox squirrels.", "Biologically, the Black Hills is a meeting and mixing place, with species common to regions to the east, west, north, and south.", "The Hills do, however, support some endemic taxa, the most famous of which is probably white-winged junco (\"Junco hyemalis aikeni\").", "Some other endemics are Cooper's Rocky Mountain snail, Black Hills subspecies of red-bellied snake, and a Black Hills subspecies of southern red-backed vole.", "Some birds that are only in the Black Hills and not the rest of South Dakota are pinyon jay, Canada jay, three-toed woodpecker, black-backed woodpecker, American dipper, ruffed grouse, and others.", "The northern Black Hills approximate Lawrence and Meade Counties and are roughly equivalent to the Northern Hills District of the Black Hills National Forest.", "The central Black Hills (the Mystic District of the Black Hills National Forest) are located in Pennington County west of Rapid City.", "The southern Black Hills are in Custer County and are administered in the national forest's Hell Canyon District.", "Finally, Wyoming's Black Hills follow the Bearlodge District, approximately Weston and Crook Counties.\nGeologically separate from the Black Hills are the Elk Mountains, a small range forming the southwest portion of the region.", "The region is home to Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument, Black Elk Peak, Custer State Park (the largest state park in South Dakota, and one of the largest in the US), Bear Butte State Park, Devils Tower National Monument, and the Crazy Horse Memorial.", "The Black Hills also hosts the Sturgis Motorcycle Rally each August.", "The rally was started in 1940 and the 65th Rally in 2005 saw more than 550,000 bikers visit the Black Hills.", "It is a key part of the regional economy.", "The George S. Mickelson Trail is a recently opened multi-use path through the Black Hills that follows the abandoned track of the historic railroad route from Edgemont to Deadwood.", "The train used to be the only way to bring supplies to the miners in the Hills.", "The trail is about in length, and can be used by hikers, cross-country skiers, and cyclists.", "The cost is two dollars per day, or ten dollars annually.", "Today, the major city in the Black Hills is Rapid City, with an incorporated population of almost 70,000 and a metropolitan population of 125,000.", "It serves a market area covering much of five states: North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Montana.", "In addition to tourism and mining (including coal, specialty minerals, and the now declining gold mining), the Black Hills economy includes ranching (sheep and cattle, primarily, with bison and ratites becoming more common), timber (lumber), Ellsworth Air Force Base, and some manufacturing, including Black Hills gold jewelry, cement, electronics, cabinetry, guns and ammunition.", "In many ways, the Black Hills functions as a very spread-out urban area with a population (not counting tourists) of 250,000.", "Other important Black Hills cities and towns include:" ]

[ 27, 28, 29, 30 ]

[ "The name \"Black Hills\" is a translation of the Lakota \"\".", "After conquering the Cheyenne in 1776, the Lakota took the territory of the Black Hills, which became central to their culture.", "The US government took the Black Hills and forcibly relocated the Lakota, following the Great Sioux War of 1876, to five smaller reservations in western South Dakota, selling off of their former land." ]

[ "Although the written history of the region begins with the Sioux domination of the land over the native Arikara tribes, researchers have carbon-dating and stratigraphic records to analyze the early history of the area.", "Scientists have been able to utilize carbon-dating to evaluate the age of tools found in the area, which indicate a human presence that dates as far back as 11,500 BC with the Clovis culture.", "Stratigraphic records indicate environmental changes in the land, such as flood and drought patterns.", "For example, large-scale flooding of the Black Hill basins occurs at a probability rate of 0.01, making such floods occur once in every 100 years.", "However, during The Medieval Climate Anomaly, or the Medieval Warm Period, flooding increased in the basins.", "A stratigraphic record of the area shows that during these 400 years, thirteen 100-year floods occurred in four of the region's basins, while the same four basins from the previous 800 years only experienced nine floods.", "The Arikara arrived by AD 1500, followed by the Cheyenne, Crow, Kiowa and Arapaho.", "The Lakota (also known as Sioux) arrived from Minnesota in the 18th century and drove out the other tribes, who moved west.", "They claimed the land, which they called \"\" (Black Mountains).", "The mountains commonly became known as the Black Hills.", "François and Louis de La Vérendrye probably traveled near the Black Hills in 1743.", "Fur trappers and traders had some dealings with the Native Americans.", "European Americans increasingly encroached on Lakota territory.", "In order to secure safe passage of settlers on the Oregon Trail, and to end intertribal warfare, the United States government proposed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which established the Great Sioux Reservation west of the Missouri River and acknowledged indigenous control of the Black Hills.", "The treaty protected the Black Hills \"forever\" from European-American settlement.", "Both the Sioux and Cheyenne also claimed rights to the land, saying that their cultures considered it the \"axis mundi\", or sacred center of the world.", "Although rumors of gold in the Black Hills had circulated for decades (see Thoen Stone and Pierre-Jean De Smet), confirmation of the deposits came first in 1874, when Brevet Major General George Armstrong Custer of the 7th US Cavalry led an expedition there and discovered gold in French Creek.", "An official announcement of gold was made by the newspaper reporters accompanying the expedition.", "The following year, the Newton-Jenney Party conducted the first detailed survey of the Black Hills.", "The surveyor for the party, Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, became the first European American to ascend to the top of Black Elk Peak.", "This highest point in the Black Hills is above sea level.", "During the 1875–1878 gold rush thousands of miners went to the Black Hills; in 1880, the area was the most densely populated part of the Dakota Territory.", "Three large towns developed in the Northern Hills: Deadwood, Central City, and Lead.", "Around these clustered groups of smaller gold camps, towns, and villages.", "Hill City and Custer City sprang up in the Southern Hills.", "Railroads were quickly constructed to the previously remote area.", "From 1880 onwards the gold mines yielded about $4,000,000 annually, and the silver mines about $3,000,000 annually.", "The conflict over control of the region sparked the Black Hills War (1876), also known as the Great Sioux War, the last major Indian War on the Great Plains.", "Following the defeat of the Lakota and their Cheyenne and Arapaho allies in 1876, the United States took control of the Black Hills.", "Despite their forced relocations, the Lakota never accepted the validity of the US appropriation.", "They have continued to try to reclaim the property, and filed a suit against the federal government.", "On July 23, 1980, in \"United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians\", the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the Black Hills were illegally taken by the federal government and ordered remuneration of the initial offering price plus interest, nearly $106 million.", "The Lakota refused the settlement, as they wanted the Black Hills returned to them.", "The money remains in an interest-bearing account, which, as of 2015, amounts to over $1.2 billion, but the Lakota still refuse to take the money.", "They believe that accepting the settlement would allow the US government to justify taking ownership of the Black Hills.", "In 2012, United Nations Special Rapporteur James Anaya conducted a 12-day tour of Native Americans' land to determine how the U.S. is carrying out the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, endorsed in 2010 by the Obama administration.", "Anaya met with tribes in seven states on reservations and in urban areas as well as with members of the Obama administration and the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs.", "In an appeal issued August 21, 2012, Anaya brought a sale of over 1,900 acres of land in Black Hills by the Reynolds family to the attention of the U.S. government and asked that it disclose measures taken by federal or state governments to address Sioux concerns over the sale of the land within Reynolds Prairie.", "These acres consist of five land tracts, including the sacred Pe' Sla site for Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota peoples; natives to the Black Hills fundraised to buy the land during the Reynolds' sale.", "On January 15, 2013, the U.S. responded, telling Anaya that it \"understands several tribes purchased the Pe' Sla sacred site around November 30, 2012\" meaning the Pe' Sla is officially Sioux land.", "After 2,022 acres of Pe' Sla (Reynolds Prairie) were granted Federal Indian trust status by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in March 2016, the Shakopee Mdewakanton tribe released a statement acknowledging the 2012 land purchase of 1,940 acres of Pe' Sla and also stated that this purchase was the result of a joint effort by the Rosebud, Shakopee Mdewakanton, Crow Creek, and Standing Rock Sioux Tribes.", "In March 2017, Pennington County agreed to abandon its claim to the Pe' Sla area and recognize its Federal Indian trust status.", "In 2016, the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribe of Oklahoma, the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana and the Rosebud Sioux Tribe of South Dakota bought land near the sacred Bear Butte site for $1.1 million.", "In 2018, the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana and the Arapahoe Tribe of Oklahoma teamed together to purchase land near Bear Butte for $2.3 million.", "The geology of the Black Hills is complex.", "A Tertiary mountain-building episode is responsible for the uplift and current topography of the Black Hills region.", "This uplift was marked by volcanic activity in the northern Black Hills.", "The southern Black Hills are characterized by Precambrian granite, pegmatite, and metamorphic rocks that comprise the core of the entire Black Hills uplift.", "This core is rimmed by Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks.", "The stratigraphy of the Black Hills is laid out like a target, as it is an oval dome, with rings of different rock types dipping away from the center.", "The 'bull's eye' of this target is called the granite core.", "The granite of the Black Hills was emplaced by magma generated during the Trans-Hudson orogeny and contains abundant pegmatite.", "The core of the Black Hills has been dated to 1.8 billion years.", "Other localized deposits have been dated to around 2.2 to 2.8 billion years.", "One of these is located in the northern hills.", "It is called French Creek Granite although it has been metamorphosed into gneiss.", "The other is called the Bear Mountain complex, and it is located in the west-central part of the hills.", "\"Making a concentric ring around the core is the metamorphic zone.", "The rocks in this ring are all very old, as much as 2 billion years and older.", "This zone is very complex, filled with many diverse rock types.", "The rocks were originally sedimentary until there was a collision between the North American continent and a terrane.", "This collision, called the Trans-Hudson Orogeny, caused the original rocks to fold and twist into a vast mountain range.", "Over the millions of years, these tilted rocks, which in many areas are tilted to 90 degrees or more, eroded.", "Today we see the evidence of this erosion in the Black Hills, where the metamorphic rocks end in an angular unconformity below the younger sedimentary layers.", "The final layers of the Black Hills consist of sedimentary rocks.", "The oldest lie on top of the metamorphic layers at a much shallower angle.", "This rock called the Deadwood Formation is mostly sandstone and was the source of gold found in the Deadwood area.", "Above the Deadwood Formation lies the Englewood Formation and Pahasapa limestone, which is the source of the more than 200 caves found in the Black Hills, including Jewel Cave and Wind Cave.", "The Minnelusa Formation is next and is composed of highly variable sandstones and limestones followed by the Opeche shale and the Minnekahta limestone.", "The next rock layer, the Spearfish Formation, forms a valley around the hills called the Red Valley and is often referred to as the Race Track.", "It is mostly red shale with beds of gypsum, and circles much of the Black Hills.", "These shale and gypsum beds, as well as the nearby limestone beds of the Minnekahta, are used in the manufacture of cement at a cement plant in Rapid City.", "Next is the shale and sandstone Sundance Formation, which is topped by the Morrison Formation and the Unkpapa sandstone.", "The outermost feature of the dome stands out as a hogback ridge.", "The ridge is made out of the Lakota Formation and the Fallriver sandstone, which are collectively called the Inyan Kara Group.", "Above this, the layers of rocks are less distinct and are all mainly grey shale with three exceptions: the Newcastle sandstone; the Greenhorn limestone, which contains many shark teeth fossils; and the Niobrara Formation, which is composed mainly of chalk.", "These outer ridges are called cuestas.", "The preceding layers were deposited horizontally.", "All of them can be seen in core samples and well logs from the flattest parts of the Great Plains.", "It took a period of uplift to bring them to their present topographical levels in the Black Hills.", "This uplift called the Laramide orogeny, began around the beginning of the Cenozoic and left a line of igneous rocks through the northern hills superimposed on the rocks already discussed.", "This line extends from Bear Butte in the east to Devils Tower in the west.", "Evidence of Cenozoic volcanic eruptions, if this happened, has long since been eroded.", "The Black Hills also has a 'skirt' of gravel covering them in areas, which are called pediments.", "Formed as the waterways cut down into the uplifting hills, they represent the former locations of today's rivers.", "These beds are generally around 10,000 years old or younger, judging by the artifacts and fossils found.", "A few places, mainly in the high elevations, are older, as old as 20 million years, according to camel and rodent fossils found.", "Some gravels have been found but for the most part, these older beds have been eroded.", "As with the geology, the biology of the Black Hills is complex.", "Most of the Hills are a fire-climax ponderosa pine forest, with Black Hills spruce (\"Picea glauca\" var.", "\"densata\") occurring in cool moist valleys of the Northern Hills.", "Oddly, this endemic variety of spruce does not occur in the moist Bear Lodge Mountains, which make up most of the Wyoming portion of the Black Hills.", "Large open parks (mountain meadows) with lush grassland rather than forest are scattered through the Hills (especially the western portion), and the southern edge of the Hills, due to the rainshadow of the higher elevations, are covered by a dry pine savannah, with stands of mountain mahogany and Rocky Mountain juniper.", "Wildlife is both diverse and plentiful.", "Black Hills creeks are known for their trout, while the forests and grasslands offer good habitat for American bison, white-tailed and mule deer, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, mountain lions, and a variety of smaller animals, like prairie dogs, American martens, American red squirrels, Northern flying squirrels, yellow-bellied marmots, and fox squirrels.", "Biologically, the Black Hills is a meeting and mixing place, with species common to regions to the east, west, north, and south.", "The Hills do, however, support some endemic taxa, the most famous of which is probably white-winged junco (\"Junco hyemalis aikeni\").", "Some other endemics are Cooper's Rocky Mountain snail, Black Hills subspecies of red-bellied snake, and a Black Hills subspecies of southern red-backed vole.", "Some birds that are only in the Black Hills and not the rest of South Dakota are pinyon jay, Canada jay, three-toed woodpecker, black-backed woodpecker, American dipper, ruffed grouse, and others.", "The northern Black Hills approximate Lawrence and Meade Counties and are roughly equivalent to the Northern Hills District of the Black Hills National Forest.", "The central Black Hills (the Mystic District of the Black Hills National Forest) are located in Pennington County west of Rapid City.", "The southern Black Hills are in Custer County and are administered in the national forest's Hell Canyon District.", "Finally, Wyoming's Black Hills follow the Bearlodge District, approximately Weston and Crook Counties.\nGeologically separate from the Black Hills are the Elk Mountains, a small range forming the southwest portion of the region.", "The region is home to Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument, Black Elk Peak, Custer State Park (the largest state park in South Dakota, and one of the largest in the US), Bear Butte State Park, Devils Tower National Monument, and the Crazy Horse Memorial.", "The Black Hills also hosts the Sturgis Motorcycle Rally each August.", "The rally was started in 1940 and the 65th Rally in 2005 saw more than 550,000 bikers visit the Black Hills.", "It is a key part of the regional economy.", "The George S. Mickelson Trail is a recently opened multi-use path through the Black Hills that follows the abandoned track of the historic railroad route from Edgemont to Deadwood.", "The train used to be the only way to bring supplies to the miners in the Hills.", "The trail is about in length, and can be used by hikers, cross-country skiers, and cyclists.", "The cost is two dollars per day, or ten dollars annually.", "Today, the major city in the Black Hills is Rapid City, with an incorporated population of almost 70,000 and a metropolitan population of 125,000.", "It serves a market area covering much of five states: North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Montana.", "In addition to tourism and mining (including coal, specialty minerals, and the now declining gold mining), the Black Hills economy includes ranching (sheep and cattle, primarily, with bison and ratites becoming more common), timber (lumber), Ellsworth Air Force Base, and some manufacturing, including Black Hills gold jewelry, cement, electronics, cabinetry, guns and ammunition.", "In many ways, the Black Hills functions as a very spread-out urban area with a population (not counting tourists) of 250,000.", "Other important Black Hills cities and towns include:" ]

[ 99, 100, 101, 102 ]

[ "The Black Hills encompass the Black Hills National Forest.", "Locals tend to divide the Black Hills into two areas: \"The Southern Hills\" and \"The Northern Hills.\"" ]

[ "Although the written history of the region begins with the Sioux domination of the land over the native Arikara tribes, researchers have carbon-dating and stratigraphic records to analyze the early history of the area.", "Scientists have been able to utilize carbon-dating to evaluate the age of tools found in the area, which indicate a human presence that dates as far back as 11,500 BC with the Clovis culture.", "Stratigraphic records indicate environmental changes in the land, such as flood and drought patterns.", "For example, large-scale flooding of the Black Hill basins occurs at a probability rate of 0.01, making such floods occur once in every 100 years.", "However, during The Medieval Climate Anomaly, or the Medieval Warm Period, flooding increased in the basins.", "A stratigraphic record of the area shows that during these 400 years, thirteen 100-year floods occurred in four of the region's basins, while the same four basins from the previous 800 years only experienced nine floods.", "The Arikara arrived by AD 1500, followed by the Cheyenne, Crow, Kiowa and Arapaho.", "The Lakota (also known as Sioux) arrived from Minnesota in the 18th century and drove out the other tribes, who moved west.", "They claimed the land, which they called \"\" (Black Mountains).", "The mountains commonly became known as the Black Hills.", "François and Louis de La Vérendrye probably traveled near the Black Hills in 1743.", "Fur trappers and traders had some dealings with the Native Americans.", "European Americans increasingly encroached on Lakota territory.", "In order to secure safe passage of settlers on the Oregon Trail, and to end intertribal warfare, the United States government proposed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which established the Great Sioux Reservation west of the Missouri River and acknowledged indigenous control of the Black Hills.", "The treaty protected the Black Hills \"forever\" from European-American settlement.", "Both the Sioux and Cheyenne also claimed rights to the land, saying that their cultures considered it the \"axis mundi\", or sacred center of the world.", "Although rumors of gold in the Black Hills had circulated for decades (see Thoen Stone and Pierre-Jean De Smet), confirmation of the deposits came first in 1874, when Brevet Major General George Armstrong Custer of the 7th US Cavalry led an expedition there and discovered gold in French Creek.", "An official announcement of gold was made by the newspaper reporters accompanying the expedition.", "The following year, the Newton-Jenney Party conducted the first detailed survey of the Black Hills.", "The surveyor for the party, Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, became the first European American to ascend to the top of Black Elk Peak.", "This highest point in the Black Hills is above sea level.", "During the 1875–1878 gold rush thousands of miners went to the Black Hills; in 1880, the area was the most densely populated part of the Dakota Territory.", "Three large towns developed in the Northern Hills: Deadwood, Central City, and Lead.", "Around these clustered groups of smaller gold camps, towns, and villages.", "Hill City and Custer City sprang up in the Southern Hills.", "Railroads were quickly constructed to the previously remote area.", "From 1880 onwards the gold mines yielded about $4,000,000 annually, and the silver mines about $3,000,000 annually.", "The conflict over control of the region sparked the Black Hills War (1876), also known as the Great Sioux War, the last major Indian War on the Great Plains.", "Following the defeat of the Lakota and their Cheyenne and Arapaho allies in 1876, the United States took control of the Black Hills.", "Despite their forced relocations, the Lakota never accepted the validity of the US appropriation.", "They have continued to try to reclaim the property, and filed a suit against the federal government.", "On July 23, 1980, in \"United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians\", the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the Black Hills were illegally taken by the federal government and ordered remuneration of the initial offering price plus interest, nearly $106 million.", "The Lakota refused the settlement, as they wanted the Black Hills returned to them.", "The money remains in an interest-bearing account, which, as of 2015, amounts to over $1.2 billion, but the Lakota still refuse to take the money.", "They believe that accepting the settlement would allow the US government to justify taking ownership of the Black Hills.", "In 2012, United Nations Special Rapporteur James Anaya conducted a 12-day tour of Native Americans' land to determine how the U.S. is carrying out the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, endorsed in 2010 by the Obama administration.", "Anaya met with tribes in seven states on reservations and in urban areas as well as with members of the Obama administration and the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs.", "In an appeal issued August 21, 2012, Anaya brought a sale of over 1,900 acres of land in Black Hills by the Reynolds family to the attention of the U.S. government and asked that it disclose measures taken by federal or state governments to address Sioux concerns over the sale of the land within Reynolds Prairie.", "These acres consist of five land tracts, including the sacred Pe' Sla site for Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota peoples; natives to the Black Hills fundraised to buy the land during the Reynolds' sale.", "On January 15, 2013, the U.S. responded, telling Anaya that it \"understands several tribes purchased the Pe' Sla sacred site around November 30, 2012\" meaning the Pe' Sla is officially Sioux land.", "After 2,022 acres of Pe' Sla (Reynolds Prairie) were granted Federal Indian trust status by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in March 2016, the Shakopee Mdewakanton tribe released a statement acknowledging the 2012 land purchase of 1,940 acres of Pe' Sla and also stated that this purchase was the result of a joint effort by the Rosebud, Shakopee Mdewakanton, Crow Creek, and Standing Rock Sioux Tribes.", "In March 2017, Pennington County agreed to abandon its claim to the Pe' Sla area and recognize its Federal Indian trust status.", "In 2016, the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribe of Oklahoma, the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana and the Rosebud Sioux Tribe of South Dakota bought land near the sacred Bear Butte site for $1.1 million.", "In 2018, the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana and the Arapahoe Tribe of Oklahoma teamed together to purchase land near Bear Butte for $2.3 million.", "The geology of the Black Hills is complex.", "A Tertiary mountain-building episode is responsible for the uplift and current topography of the Black Hills region.", "This uplift was marked by volcanic activity in the northern Black Hills.", "The southern Black Hills are characterized by Precambrian granite, pegmatite, and metamorphic rocks that comprise the core of the entire Black Hills uplift.", "This core is rimmed by Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks.", "The stratigraphy of the Black Hills is laid out like a target, as it is an oval dome, with rings of different rock types dipping away from the center.", "The 'bull's eye' of this target is called the granite core.", "The granite of the Black Hills was emplaced by magma generated during the Trans-Hudson orogeny and contains abundant pegmatite.", "The core of the Black Hills has been dated to 1.8 billion years.", "Other localized deposits have been dated to around 2.2 to 2.8 billion years.", "One of these is located in the northern hills.", "It is called French Creek Granite although it has been metamorphosed into gneiss.", "The other is called the Bear Mountain complex, and it is located in the west-central part of the hills.", "\"Making a concentric ring around the core is the metamorphic zone.", "The rocks in this ring are all very old, as much as 2 billion years and older.", "This zone is very complex, filled with many diverse rock types.", "The rocks were originally sedimentary until there was a collision between the North American continent and a terrane.", "This collision, called the Trans-Hudson Orogeny, caused the original rocks to fold and twist into a vast mountain range.", "Over the millions of years, these tilted rocks, which in many areas are tilted to 90 degrees or more, eroded.", "Today we see the evidence of this erosion in the Black Hills, where the metamorphic rocks end in an angular unconformity below the younger sedimentary layers.", "The final layers of the Black Hills consist of sedimentary rocks.", "The oldest lie on top of the metamorphic layers at a much shallower angle.", "This rock called the Deadwood Formation is mostly sandstone and was the source of gold found in the Deadwood area.", "Above the Deadwood Formation lies the Englewood Formation and Pahasapa limestone, which is the source of the more than 200 caves found in the Black Hills, including Jewel Cave and Wind Cave.", "The Minnelusa Formation is next and is composed of highly variable sandstones and limestones followed by the Opeche shale and the Minnekahta limestone.", "The next rock layer, the Spearfish Formation, forms a valley around the hills called the Red Valley and is often referred to as the Race Track.", "It is mostly red shale with beds of gypsum, and circles much of the Black Hills.", "These shale and gypsum beds, as well as the nearby limestone beds of the Minnekahta, are used in the manufacture of cement at a cement plant in Rapid City.", "Next is the shale and sandstone Sundance Formation, which is topped by the Morrison Formation and the Unkpapa sandstone.", "The outermost feature of the dome stands out as a hogback ridge.", "The ridge is made out of the Lakota Formation and the Fallriver sandstone, which are collectively called the Inyan Kara Group.", "Above this, the layers of rocks are less distinct and are all mainly grey shale with three exceptions: the Newcastle sandstone; the Greenhorn limestone, which contains many shark teeth fossils; and the Niobrara Formation, which is composed mainly of chalk.", "These outer ridges are called cuestas.", "The preceding layers were deposited horizontally.", "All of them can be seen in core samples and well logs from the flattest parts of the Great Plains.", "It took a period of uplift to bring them to their present topographical levels in the Black Hills.", "This uplift called the Laramide orogeny, began around the beginning of the Cenozoic and left a line of igneous rocks through the northern hills superimposed on the rocks already discussed.", "This line extends from Bear Butte in the east to Devils Tower in the west.", "Evidence of Cenozoic volcanic eruptions, if this happened, has long since been eroded.", "The Black Hills also has a 'skirt' of gravel covering them in areas, which are called pediments.", "Formed as the waterways cut down into the uplifting hills, they represent the former locations of today's rivers.", "These beds are generally around 10,000 years old or younger, judging by the artifacts and fossils found.", "A few places, mainly in the high elevations, are older, as old as 20 million years, according to camel and rodent fossils found.", "Some gravels have been found but for the most part, these older beds have been eroded.", "As with the geology, the biology of the Black Hills is complex.", "Most of the Hills are a fire-climax ponderosa pine forest, with Black Hills spruce (\"Picea glauca\" var.", "\"densata\") occurring in cool moist valleys of the Northern Hills.", "Oddly, this endemic variety of spruce does not occur in the moist Bear Lodge Mountains, which make up most of the Wyoming portion of the Black Hills.", "Large open parks (mountain meadows) with lush grassland rather than forest are scattered through the Hills (especially the western portion), and the southern edge of the Hills, due to the rainshadow of the higher elevations, are covered by a dry pine savannah, with stands of mountain mahogany and Rocky Mountain juniper.", "Wildlife is both diverse and plentiful.", "Black Hills creeks are known for their trout, while the forests and grasslands offer good habitat for American bison, white-tailed and mule deer, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, mountain lions, and a variety of smaller animals, like prairie dogs, American martens, American red squirrels, Northern flying squirrels, yellow-bellied marmots, and fox squirrels.", "Biologically, the Black Hills is a meeting and mixing place, with species common to regions to the east, west, north, and south.", "The Hills do, however, support some endemic taxa, the most famous of which is probably white-winged junco (\"Junco hyemalis aikeni\").", "Some other endemics are Cooper's Rocky Mountain snail, Black Hills subspecies of red-bellied snake, and a Black Hills subspecies of southern red-backed vole.", "Some birds that are only in the Black Hills and not the rest of South Dakota are pinyon jay, Canada jay, three-toed woodpecker, black-backed woodpecker, American dipper, ruffed grouse, and others.", "The northern Black Hills approximate Lawrence and Meade Counties and are roughly equivalent to the Northern Hills District of the Black Hills National Forest.", "The central Black Hills (the Mystic District of the Black Hills National Forest) are located in Pennington County west of Rapid City.", "The southern Black Hills are in Custer County and are administered in the national forest's Hell Canyon District.", "Finally, Wyoming's Black Hills follow the Bearlodge District, approximately Weston and Crook Counties.\nGeologically separate from the Black Hills are the Elk Mountains, a small range forming the southwest portion of the region.", "The region is home to Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument, Black Elk Peak, Custer State Park (the largest state park in South Dakota, and one of the largest in the US), Bear Butte State Park, Devils Tower National Monument, and the Crazy Horse Memorial.", "The Black Hills also hosts the Sturgis Motorcycle Rally each August.", "The rally was started in 1940 and the 65th Rally in 2005 saw more than 550,000 bikers visit the Black Hills.", "It is a key part of the regional economy.", "The George S. Mickelson Trail is a recently opened multi-use path through the Black Hills that follows the abandoned track of the historic railroad route from Edgemont to Deadwood.", "The train used to be the only way to bring supplies to the miners in the Hills.", "The trail is about in length, and can be used by hikers, cross-country skiers, and cyclists.", "The cost is two dollars per day, or ten dollars annually.", "Today, the major city in the Black Hills is Rapid City, with an incorporated population of almost 70,000 and a metropolitan population of 125,000.", "It serves a market area covering much of five states: North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Montana.", "In addition to tourism and mining (including coal, specialty minerals, and the now declining gold mining), the Black Hills economy includes ranching (sheep and cattle, primarily, with bison and ratites becoming more common), timber (lumber), Ellsworth Air Force Base, and some manufacturing, including Black Hills gold jewelry, cement, electronics, cabinetry, guns and ammunition.", "In many ways, the Black Hills functions as a very spread-out urban area with a population (not counting tourists) of 250,000.", "Other important Black Hills cities and towns include:" ]

[ 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115 ]

[ "The Southern Hills is home to Mount Rushmore, Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument, Black Elk Peak (the highest point in the United States east of the Rockies, formerly and still more commonly known as Harney Peak), Custer State Park (the largest state park in South Dakota), the Crazy Horse Memorial, and The Mammoth Site in Hot Springs, the world's largest mammoth research facility.", "Attractions in the Northern Hills include Spearfish Canyon, historic Deadwood, and the Sturgis Motorcycle Rally, held each August.", "The first Rally was held on August 14, 1938, and the 75th Rally in 2015 saw more than one million bikers visit the Black Hills.", "Devils Tower National Monument, located in the Wyoming Black Hills, is an important nearby attraction and was the United States' first national monument." ]

[ "In 1927 Renault created two new models, one luxury and expensive called \"Type RA\" and a second, simpler model called \"Type PG\".", "The two models together were known as the Vivasix.", "The Vivasix model was one of the larger cars produced by Renault in that period.", "The \"Type RA\" and the \"Type PG\" were replaced by a new luxury car called the Renault Vivastella between 1928 and 1929.", "The top speed of the Vivasix was ." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ]

[ "In 1930 the Vivasix was replaced by the Vivastella." ]

[ "Designed as a basic trainer to complement the M.416 in Italian military service, the MB.323 first flew in 1952.", "It was a single-engine, low-wing cantilever monoplane powered by a nose-mounted Pratt & Whitney Wasp radial engine and a retractable tailwheel landing gear.", "It had two tandem cockpits covered by a sliding one-piece canopy.", "The type was evaluated against the Fiat G.49 which was preferred by the air force and the MB.323 did not enter production." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3 ]

[ "The Macchi MB.323 was an Italian single-engine basic training monoplane designed and built by Macchi." ]

[ "According to the \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" of 1913, \nEcclesiastical history is the scientific investigation and the methodical description of the temporal development of the Church considered as an institution founded by Jesus Christ and guided by the Holy Ghost for the salvation of mankind.", "...", "[It covers] the life of the Church in all its manifestations from the beginning of its existence to our own day among the various divisions of mankind hitherto reached by Christianity.", "While the Church remains essentially the same despite the changes which she undergoes in time, these changes help to exhibit more fully her internal and external life.", "Its branches therefore include:", "Critical treatment of the sources requires palaeography, diplomatics, and criticism.", "Apart from that, the approach is not that of a skeptic:\nThe ecclesiastical historian … can by no means exclude the possibility of supernatural factors.", "That God cannot intervene in the course of nature, and that miracles are therefore impossible is an assumption which has not been and cannot be proved, and which makes a correct appreciation of facts in their objective reality impossible.", "Herein appears the difference between the standpoint of the believing Christian historian, who bears in mind not only the existence of God but also the relations of creatures to Him, and that of the rationalistic and infidel historian, who rejects even the possibility of Divine intervention in the course of natural law.", "It is based in teleology:\nThe Christian historian keeps in view the fact that the founder of the Church is the Son of God, and that the Church was instituted by Him in order to communicate to the whole human race, with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, its salvation through Christ.", "It is from this standpoint that the Christian historian estimates all particular events in their relation to the end or purpose of the Church.", "The unbelieving historian on the other hand recognizing only natural forces both at the origin and throughout the development of Christianity, and rejecting the possibility of any supernatural intervention is incapable of appreciating the work of the Church in as far as it is the agent of Divine design.", "As well as taking the Church as its subject matter, it is Church-centered, and takes the Church's teachings at their own estimation:\nThe Catholic historian insists on the supernatural character of the Church, its doctrines, institutions, and standards of life, in so far as they rest on Divine revelation, and acknowledge the continual guidance of the Church by the Holy Ghost.", "All this is for him objective reality, certain truth, and the only foundation for the true, scientific pragmatism of ecclesiastical history.", "The fact that schisms have occurred in Christian history is subordinated to the claim to universality of the Catholic Church, which is not treated as one church among many:\nThe Catholic historian does not admit that the various forms of the Christian religion may be taken, roughly speaking, as a connected whole, nor does he consider them one and all as so many imperfect attempts to adapt the teachings and institutions of Christ to the changing needs of the times, nor as progressive steps towards a future higher unity wherein alone we must seek the perfect ideal of Christianity.", "There is but one Divine revelation given us by Christ, but one ecclesiastical tradition based on it; hence one only Church can be the true one, i. e. the Church in which the aforesaid revelation is found in its entirety, and whose institutions have developed on the basis of this revelation and under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.", "On the other hand, the effect of churches outside the Catholic Church is factored into the discussion.", "The foundation of the Church and the development of fixed standards of ecclesiastical life within the limits of Græco-Roman civilization.", "The Church as a major force in the new Romanic, German, and Slavic states of Europe, the secession of Oriental Christendom from ecclesiastical unity and the final overthrow of the Byzantine empire.", "The collapse of religious unity among the Western European nations, and the reformation from within of Catholic Church faced with Protestantism.", "Immense geographical expansion of the Church, with missionaries in South America, part of North America and numerous in Asia and Africa.", "Some considered the pontificate of Gregory the Great in 590, or, more generally, the end of the 6th and the middle of the 7th century as the close of the first period; others took the Sixth General Council in 680, or the Trullan synod of 692, or the end of the 7th century; others again close the first period with St. Boniface, or with the Iconoclasts, or with Charlemagne.", "For the West, Kraus regards the beginning of the 7th century as the close of the first period; for the East, the end of the same century.", "Similarly, along the line of division between the second and the third periods are crowded events of great importance to ecclesiastical life: the Renaissance with its influence upon all intellectual life, the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, the discovery of the Americas and the new problems which the Church had to solve in consequence, the appearance of Luther and the heresy of Protestantism, the Council of Trent with its decisive influence on the evolution of the interior life of the Church.", "Protestant historians have regarded the appearance of Luther as the beginning of the third period.", "A few Catholic authors (e.g. Kraus) closed the second period with the middle of the 15th century.", "Nor do authors perfectly agree on the turning-points which are to be inserted within the chief periods.", "It is true that the conversion of Constantine the Great affected the life of the Church so profoundly that the reign of this first Christian emperor is generally accepted as marking a sub-division in the first period.", "In the second period, especially prominent personalities usually mark the limits of the several sub-divisions, e.g. Charlemagne, Gregory VII, Boniface VIII, though this leads to the undervaluation of other important factors, e. g. the Greek Schism, the Crusades.", "Recent writers, therefore, assume other boundary lines which emphasize the forces active in the life of the Church rather than prominent personalities.", "In subdividing the third period the same difficulty presents itself.", "Many historians consider the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century as an event of sufficient importance to demand a new epoch; others see a distinct epochal line in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), with which the formation of great Protestant territories came to an end.", "Sources fall naturally into two classes:\n# Remains (\"reliquiae, Ueberreste\") or immediate sources, i. e. such as prove a fact directly, being themselves part or remnant of the fact.", "To this class belong e. g. liturgical customs, ecclesiastical institutions, acts of the popes and councils, art-products, etc.; also monuments set up to commemorate events, e. g. inscriptions.", "# Tradition or mediate sources, i. e. such as rest upon the statements of witnesses who communicate an event to others.", "Tradition may be oral (narrative and legends), written (writings of particular authors), or pictorial (pictures, statues).", "The remains of the Church's past, which give direct evidence of historical facts, are the following:\n# Inscriptions, i.e. texts written on durable material, which were either meant to perpetuate the knowledge of certain acts or which describe the character and purpose of a particular object.", "The Christian inscriptions of different epochs and countries are now accessible in numerous collections.", "# Monuments erected for Christian purposes, especially tombs, sacred edifices, monasteries, hospitals for the sick and pilgrims; objects used in the liturgy or private devotions.", "# Liturgies, rituals, particularly liturgical books of various kinds, which were once used in Divine service.", "# Necrologies and confraternity-books used at the prayers and public services for the living and the dead.\n# Papal acts, Bulls and Briefs to a great extent edited in the papal \"\"Bullaria\", \"Regesta\"\", and special ecclesiastico-national collections.", "# Acts and decrees of general councils and of particular synods.\n# Collections of official decrees of Roman congregations, bishops, and other ecclesiastical authorities.", "# Rules of faith (\"symbola fldei\") drawn up for the public use of the Church, various collections of which have been made.", "# Official collections of ecclesiastical laws juridically obligatory for the whole Church.", "# Rules and constitutions of orders and congregations.", "# Concordats between the ecclesiastical and the secular power.", "# Civil laws, since they often contain matters bearing on religion or of ecclesiastical interest.", "These comprise those sources which rest on tradition alone, and which, unlike the remains, are themselves no part of the fact.", "They are:\n# Collections of acts of the martyrs, of legends and lives of the saints.", "# Collections of lives of the popes (\"Liber Pontificalis\") and of bishops of particular Churches.\n# Works of ecclesiastical writers, which contain information about historical events; to some extent all ecclesiastical literature belongs to this category.", "# Ecclesiastico-historical works, which take on more or less the character of sources, especially for the time in which their authors lived.", "# Pictorial representations (paintings, sculptures, etc.).", "Special auxiliary sciences (e. g. epigraphy, palaeography, numismatics) deal with certain particular kinds of the above-mentioned sources.", "# The study of the languages of the sources, which necessitates the use of lexicons, either general or special (i. e. for the language of particular authors).", "# Palaeography, a methodical introduction to the reading and dating of all kinds of manuscript sources.", "It was first scientifically investigated and formulated by Mabillon, \"De re diplomaticâ\" (Paris, 1681).", "#Diplomatics, which teaches how to examine critically the form and content of historical documents (e. g. charters, privileges), to pronounce on their genuineness, to understand them correctly, and to use them methodically.", "It is usually combined with paleography.", "# Historical Methodology, which enables the student to treat in a correct and critical way all the sources known to him and to combine the results of his researches in a methodical narrative.", "# Bibliography, the practical science of finding quickly the literature bearing on a given ecclesiastico-historical subject.", "# Chronology: how to recognize and fix with accuracy the dates found in the sources.", "The first important chronological investigations were undertaken by Scaliger (\"De emendatione temporum\", Jena, 1629-), Petavius (\"Rationarium temporum\", Leyden, 1624; \"De doctrinâ temporum\", Antwerp, 1703), and the authors of \"Art de vérifier les dates des faits historiques\" (Paris, 1750-).", "# Ecclesiastical Geography and Statistics: the first teaches us to recognize the places in which historical events took place, the other represents the development of the Church and the actual condition of her institutions exhibited synoptically, in tables with corresponding figures, etc.\n# Epigraphy, a guide for the reading and methodical use of the Christian inscriptions on monuments.", "# Christian Archaeology and History of the Fine Arts, from which the student learns how to study scientifically and to use the monuments which owe their origin to Christian influences.", "# Numismatics, the science of the coins of various countries and ages.", "Since not only the popes but also the numerous bishops, who once possessed secular power, exercised the right of coinage, numismatics belongs, at least for certain epochs, to the auxiliary sciences of church history.", "# Sphragistics, or the science of seals (Gk. \"spragis\", a seal).", "Its object is the study of the various seals and stamps used in sealing letters and documents as a guarantee of their authenticity.", "# Heraldry, which teaches the student how to read accurately the coats of arms etc., used by ecclesiastical and secular lords.", "It frequently throws light on the family of historical personages, the time or character of particular events, the history of religious monuments.", "The peoples among which Christianity first spread, possessed a highly developed civilization and a literature rich in works of history.", "Chronicles were compiled in the 3rd century by Julius Africanus and by Hippolytus of Rome, some fragments of which survive.", "It is only during the 4th century that ecclesiastical history, properly so called, makes its appearance.", "Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea in Palestine (died 340) is styled the \"Father of Church History\", and wrote a \"Chronicle\" as well as a \"Church History\".", "The \"Church History\" was an outgrowth of the \"Chronicle\", and first appeared in nine books; it covered the time from the death of Christ to the victories of Constantine and Licinius (312 and 313).", "Eusebius afterwards added a tenth book, which carried the narrative to the victory of Constantine over Licinius (323).", "He sought to set forth in the most favourable light the Christian sentiments of the imperial convert Constantine and his services to the Christian Church, and has been criticised for his partiality towards Constantine and his palliation of the latter's faults.", "A brief historical treatise of Eusebius, \"On the Martyrs of Palestine\", has also been preserved.", "This major Christian historian found several imitators in the first half of the 5th century, but their works survive partially if at all.", "The originals of the first two general narratives of ecclesiastical history after Eusebius have been lost, i.e. the \"Christian History\" of the presbyter Philip of Side, and the \"Church History\" of the Arian Philostorgius.", "Three other early ecclesiastical histories written about this period are also lost, from the presbyter Hesychius of Jerusalem (died 433), the Apollinarian Timotheus of Berytus, and Sabinus of Heraclea.", "About the middle of the 5th century the \"Church History\" of Eusebius was continued simultaneously by three writers.", "All three continuations have reached us.", "The first was written by Socrates Scholasticus, an advocate (\"scholasticus\") of Constantinople, who, in his \"Church History\", which he expressly (I, 1) calls a continuation of the work of Eusebius, describes in seven books the period from 305 (Abdication of Diocletian) to 439.", "The author is honest, exhibits critical acumen in the use of his sources, and has a clear and simple style.", "After him, and frequently making use of his history, comes Hermias Sozomenus (or Sozomen), also an advocate in Constantinople, whose \"Church History\" in nine books comprises the period from 324 to 425.", "Both these writers are surpassed by Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus (died about 458), who, in his \"Church History\", a continuation of the work of Eusebius, describes in five books the period from the beginning of Arianism (320) to the beginning of the Nestorian troubles (428).", "In addition to the writings of his predecessors, Socrates and Sozomen, he also used those of the Latin scholar Rufinus, and wove many documents into his narrative.", "Theodoret wrote also a \"History of the Monks\", in which he sets forth the lives of thirty famous ascetics of the Orient.", "Like the \"History of the Holy Fathers\" or \"Historia Lausiaca\"\", so called from one Lausus to whom the book was dedicated by Palladius, written about 420, this work of Theodoret is one of the principal sources for the history of Oriental monasticism.", "Theodoret also published a \"Compendium of Heretical Falsehoods\", i. e. a short history of heresies with a refutation of each.", "Together with the similar \"Panarion\" of \"Epiphanius\", it offers material on the earliest heresies.", "During the 6th century these historians found other continuators.", "Theodorus Lector compiled a brief compendium from the works of the above-mentioned three continuators of Eusebius: Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret.", "He then wrote in two books an independent continuation of this summary as far as the reign of Emperor Justin I (518-27); only fragments of this work have reached us.", "Zacharias Rhetor, at first an advocate at Berytus in Phoenicia and then (at least from 536) Bishop of Mitylene in the Island of Lesbos, composed, while yet a layman, an ecclesiastical history, which describes the period from 450 to 491, but is mostly taken up with personal experiences of the author in Egypt and Palestine.", "A Syriac version of this work is extant as books III-VI of a Syriac universal history, while there are also extant some chapters in a Latin version.", "Apart from this history, his inclination towards Monophysitism is also apparent from his biography of the Monophysite patriarch, Severus of Antioch, and from his biography of the monk Isaias, two works extant in a Syriac version.", "More important still is the \"Church History\" of Evagrius Scholasticus, who died about the end of the 6th century.", "His work is a continuation of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, and treats in six books the period from 431 to 594.", "It is based on good sources, and borrows from profane historians but occasionally Evagrius is too credulous.", "For Nestorianism and Monophysitism, however, his work deserves careful attention.", "Among the chronicles that belong to the close of Græco-Roman antiquity, special mention is due to the \"Chronicon Paschale\", so called because the Paschal or Easter canon forms the basis of its Christian chronology.", "About the year 700 the Monophysite bishop, John of Nikiu (Egypt) compiled a universal chronicle; its \"notitiae\" are of great value for the 7th century.", "This chronicle has been preserved in an Ethiopic version (\"Chronique de Jean, évêque de Nikiou\", publ.", "par.", "H. Zotenberg, Paris, 1883).", "Zotenberg believes that the work was originally written in Greek and then translated; Nöldeke (\"Gottinger gelehrte Anzeigen\", 1881, 587 sqq.) thinks it more probable that the original was Coptic.", "To the Alexandrian Cosmas, known as the \"Indian Voyager\" we owe a Christian \"topography\" of great value for ecclesiastical geography (ed.", "Montfaucon, \"Collectio nova Patrum et Scriptor.", "græc\", II, Paris, 1706; translated into English by McCrindle, London, 1897).", "Of great value also for ecclesiastical geography are the \"Notitiae episcopatuum\" (\"Taktika\"), or lists of the patriarchal, metropolitan, and episcopal sees of the Greek Church (\"Hieroclis Synecdemus et Notitiae graecae episcopatuum\", ed.", "Parthey, Berlin, 1866; \"Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis Romani\", ed.", "Geizer, Leipzig, 1890).", "A major collection of the early Greek historians of the Church is that of Henri de Valois in three folio volumes (Paris, 1659–73; improved by William Reading, Cambridge, 1720); it contains Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, Evagrius, and the fragments of Philostorgius and Theodorus Lector.", "The ancient Syrian writings of ecclesiastico-historical interest are chiefly Acts of martyrs and hymns to the saints (\"Acta martyrum et sanctorum\", ed.", "Bedjan, Paris, 1890-).", "The \"Chronicle of Edessa\", based on ancient sources, was written in the 6th century (ed.", "Assemani, \"Bibliotheca orientalis\", I, 394).", "In the same century the Monophysite bishop, John of Ephesus, wrote a history of the Church, but only its third part (571 to 586) is preserved (ed.", "William Cureton, Oxford, 1853; tr., Oxford, 1860).", "Lengthy extracts from the second part are found in the annals of Dionysius of Telmera.", "His work covers the years 583-843 (fragments in Assemani, \"Bibliotheca orientalis\", II, 72 sqq.).", "Among the Armenians we meet with versions of Greek and Syriac works.", "The most important native Armenian chronicle of an ecclesiastico-historical character is ascribed to Moses of Chorene, a historical personage of the 5th century.", "The author of the \"History of Greater Armenia\" calls himself Moses of Chorene, and claims to have lived in the 5th century and to have been a disciple of the famous St. Mesrop (q. v.).", "The self-testimony of the compiler must be rejected, since the work makes use of sources of the 6th and 7th centuries, and there is no trace of it to be found in Armenian literature before the 9th century.", "Probably, therefore, it originated about the 8th century.", "In the known manuscripts the work contains three parts: the \"Genealogy of Greater Armenia\" extends to the dynasty of the Arsacides, the \"Middle Period of our Ancestry\" to the death of St. Gregory the Illuminator, and the \"End of the History of our Country\" to the downfall of the Armenian Arsacides (ed.", "Amsterdam, 1695; Venice, 1881; French translation in Langlois, \"Collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'Arménie\", 2 vols., Paris, 1867–9).", "In the Middle Ages there was still extant a fourth part.", "The work seems to be on the whole reliable.", "The ancient history, down to the 2nd or 3rd century after Christ, is based on popular legends.", "Another Armenian historian is Eliseus Vartaped (q. v.).", "Comprehensive ecclesiastico-historical works appear in the Latin West later than in the Greek East.", "The first beginnings of historical science are confined to translations with additions.", "Thus St. Jerome translated the \"Chronicle\" of Eusebius and continued it down to 378.", "At the same time he opened up a special field, the history of Christian literature, in his \"De viris illustribus\"; (\"Chronicon\", ed.", "Schoene, 2 vols., Berlin, 1866–75; \"De vir.", "ill.\", ed.", "Richardson, Leipzig, 1896).", "About 400 the \"Church History\" of Eusebius was translated by Rufinus who added the history of the Church from 318 to 395 in two new books (X and XI).", "Rufinus's continuation was itself soon translated into Greek.", "The latest edition is in the Berlin collection of Greek Christian writings mentioned above in connexion with Eusebius.", "St. Jerome's Latin recension of the \"Chronicle\" of Eusebius was followed later by many other chronicles, among which may be mentioned the works of Prosper, Idacius, Marcellinus, Victor of Tununum, Marius of Avenches, Isidore of Seville, and Venerable Bede.", "In the West, the first independent history of revelation and of the Church was written by Sulpicius Severus, who published in 403 his \"Historia (Chronica) Sacra\" in two books; it reaches from the beginning of the world to about 400 (P. L., XX; ed.", "Hahn, Vienna, 1866).", "It is a short treatise and contains little historical information.", "A little later, Orosius wrote his \"Historia adversus paganos\" in seven books—a universal history from the standpoint of the Christian apologist.", "It begins with the deluge and comes down to 416.", "The purpose of Orosius was to refute the pagan charge that the great misfortunes of the Roman Empire were due to the victory of Christianity (P. L., XXXI; ed.", "Zangemeister, Vienna, 1882).", "With the same end in view, but with a far grander and loftier conception, St. Augustine wrote his famous \"De civitate Dei\", composed between 413 and 428, and issued in sections.", "It is an apologetic philosophy of history from the standpoint of Divine revelation.", "The work is important for church history on account of its numerous historical and archaeological digressions (ed.", "Dombart, 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1877).", "About the middle of the 6th century, Cassiodorus caused the works of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret to be translated into Latin, and then amalgamated this version into one complete narrative under the title \"Historia tripartita\" (P. L., LXIX-LXX).", "Together with the works of Rufinus and Orosius, it was one of the principal sources from which through the Middle Ages the Western peoples drew their knowledge of early church history.", "Rich material for ecclesiastical history is also contained in the national histories of some Western peoples.", "Of the \"History of the Goths\", written by Cassiodorus, we possess only an extract in Jordanis, \"De origine actibusque Getarum\" (ed.", "Mommsen in \"Mon. Germ.", "Hist: Auct.", "antiquissimi\", V., Berlin, 1882).", "Especially important is the \"History of the Franks\" in ten books by Gregory of Tours, which reaches to 591 (ed.", "Arndt, \"Mon. Germ.", "Hist: Scriptores rerum Meroving\", I, Hanover, 1884–5).", "Gregory wrote also a \"Liber de vitâ Patrum\", a work entitled \"In gloriâ martyrum\", and the book \"De virtutibus (i.e. miracles) S. Juliani\" and \"De virtutibus S. Martini\" (ed", ". cit., pt. II, ad. Krusch).", "In the beginning of the 7th century St. Isidore of Seville composed a \"Chronicle of the West Goths\" (\"Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum\", ed.", "Mommsen, \"Chronica Minora\", II, 241–303).", "Several other similar chronicles, from the 4th to the 7th century, were edited by Mommsen in the \"Monumenta Germaniae Historica:", "Auctores Antiquissimi\" under the title of \"Chronica Minora\".", "The second period of church history produced a copious specialized historical literature.", "Its works deal more often with particular nations, dioceses, and abbeys; general histories are rare.", "Moreover, owing to the dominant position of the Church among the Western peoples, ecclesiastical and secular history are in this epoch closely interwoven.", "In the East church history is almost completely identified with the history of the imperial court owing to the close relations of State and Church.", "For the same reason the Byzantine chronicles from Justinian the Great to the destruction of the empire in the middle of the 15th century contain information about the history of the Greek Church.", "The major church historian of the Byzantine period is Nicephorus Callistus, who flourished in the beginning of the 14th century.", "In Syriac we possess the aforesaid chronicle of Dionysius of Telmera.", "Towards the end of the 12th century Michael Kandis, Patriarch of the Jacobites (died 1199), wrote a chronicle from the creation to 1196.", "It is an important source for the history of the Syriac Church after the 6th century, particularly for the history of the Crusades.", "Another patriarch of the Jacobites, Gregory Abulpharagius or Bar-Hebraeus, Maphrian (i. e. primate) of the Syro-Jacobite Church (1266–86), also wrote a universal chronicle in three parts.", "We must also mention the \"Bibliotheca\" (\"Myriobiblon\") of Photios I of Constantinople (died 891), in which about 280 authors are described and passages quoted from them, and the work \"On Heresies\" of St. John Damascene.", "Throughout this period the West was furnishing abundant material for ecclesiastical history, but few genuinely historical works.", "In the 9th century, Haymo, Bishop of Halberstadt (died 853), undertook to write an ecclesiastical history of the first four centuries, taking Rufinus as his principal authority.", "Subsequently, with the aid of Latin versions of Georgius Syncellus, Nicephorus, and especially of Theophanes, to which he added his own material, the Roman Abbot Anastasius Bibliothecarius (the Librarian) wrote a \"Church History\" to the time of Leo the Armenian, who died in 829.", "About the middle of the 12th century, Ordericus Vitalis, Abbot of St. Evroul in Normandy, wrote an \"Historia ecclesiastica\" in thirteen books; it reaches to 1142, and is of especial value for the history of Normandy, England, and the Crusades.", "The Dominican Bartholomew of Lucca, called also Ptolemæus de Fiadonibus (died 1327), covered a longer period.", "His work in twenty-four books reaches to 1313, and was continued to 1361 by Henry of Diessenhofen.", "The \"Flores chronicorum seu Catalogus Pontificum Romanorum\" of Bernard Guidonis, Bishop of Lodève (died 1331), may be counted among the works on the general history of the Church.", "The most extensive, and relatively the best, historical work during this period is the \"Summa Historialis\" of St. Antoninus.", "It deals with secular and ecclesiastical history from the creation to 1457.", "The national histories which appeared towards the end of the last period (of Cassiodorus, Jordanis, Gregory of Tours) were followed by similar works giving the history of other peoples.", "Venerable Bede wrote his admirable \"Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum\", which describes in five books the history of England from the Roman conquest to 731, though treating principally of events after Augustine of Canterbury's mission in 596.", "Paulus Warnefrid (Diaconus) wrote the history of his fellow-Lombards (\"Historia Langobardorum\") from 568 to 733; it still remains the principal source for the history of his people.", "An unknown writer continued it to 774, and in the 9th century the monk Erchembert added the history of the Lombards of Beneventum to 889.", "Paulus wrote also a history of the bishops of Metz (\"Gesta episcoporum Mettensium\", ad.", "in \"Mon. Germ.", "Hist: Script.\", II) and other historical works.", "The Scandinavian North found its ecclesiastical historian in Adam of Bremen; he covers the period between 788 and 1072, and his work is of special importance for the history of the Diocese of Hamburg-Bremen.", "Flodoard (died 966) wrote the history of the Archdiocese of Reims (\"Historia ecclesiæ Remensis\") to 948, a very important source for the history of the Church of France to that time.", "The ecclesiastical history of Northern Germany was described by Albert Crantz, a canon of Hamburg (died 1517), in his \"Metropolis\" or \"Historia de ecclesiis sub Carolo Magno in Saxoniâ instauratis\" (i. e. from 780 to 1504; Frankfort, 1576 and often reprinted).", "Among the special historical works of this period of the Western Church we must mention the \"Liber Pontificalis\", an important collection of papal biographies that take on larger proportions after the 4th century, are occasionally very lengthy in the 8th and 9th centuries, and through various continuations reach to the death of Pope Martin V in 1431.", "The German, Italian, French, and English chronicles, annals, and biographies of this epoch are very numerous.", "With the 16th century a new epoch dawned for ecclesiastical history: historical criticism went hand in hand with the growth of humanist education.", "The sources of historical events were examined as to their authenticity.", "The religious controversies that followed the rise of Protestantism were also an incentive to historical study.", "Printing made possible a rapid distribution of all kinds of writings, so that the sources of church history soon became known and studied in the widest circles, and new works on church history could be circulated in all directions.", "The first large work on church history which appeared in this period was composed in the interests of Lutheranism.", "Mathias Flacius, called \"Illyricus\" (a native of Illyria), united with five other Lutherans (John Wigand, Mathias Judex, Basilius Faber, Andreas Corvinus, and Thomas Holzschuher), to produce an extensive work, that should exhibit the history of the Church as a convincing apology for strict Lutheranism.", "(See \"Centuriators of Magdeburg\".)", "In the \"Centuriæ\", a partisan work, the institutions of the Roman Church appear as works of Satan and darkness.", "It called forth Catholic refutations, particularly that of Cæsar Baronius.", "Urged by Philip Neri, he undertook in 1568 the task of producing an ecclesiastical history, which he brought down to the end of the 12th century and published under the title, \"Annales ecclesiastici\" (12 vols., Rome, 1588–1607).", "Numerous editions and continuations of it then appeared.", "Catholic Church historians", "From the middle of the 17th century French writers were active in ecclesiastico-historical research.", "The writings of the Fathers of the Church and other ancient sources were published in better editions, and the auxiliary sciences of history were well cultivated.", "Antoine Godeau, Bishop of Vence, wrote a \"Histoire de l'église\" reaching to the 9th century (5 vols., Paris, 1655–78; several other editions appeared and the work was translated into Italian and German), and to the Oratorian Cabassut for \"Historia ecclesiastica\" (Lyons, 1685).", "Although the Jesuit Louis Maimbourg did not write a continuous ecclesiastical history, he published numerous treatises (Paris, 1673–83): on Arianism, Iconoclasm, the Greek Schism, struggle between the popes and the emperors, Western Schism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism.", "Among the major ecclesiastical historians of this period are: Noël Alexandre (Natalis Alexander) a Dominican; Claude Fleury, who wrote a \"Histoire ecclésiastique\" in 20 volumes, reaching to 1414 (Paris, 1691–1720) as a moderate Gallican; and Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont.", "To these must be added Bossuet, who, in his \"Discours sur l'histoire universelle\" (Paris, 1681), treated the history of the Church as far as Charlemagne.", "His \"Histoire des variations des églises protestantes\" (2 vols., Paris, 1688) describes the changes which the Waldenses, Albigenses, Wyclifites, and Hussites, as well as Luther and Calvin, made to the fundamental doctrines of the Catholic Church.", "Their successors in the 18th century compare unfavourably with their predecessors, in criticism of their sources and in scientific accuracy.", "The following are noteworthy: François Timoléon de Choisy, \"Histoire de l'Église\" (11 vols.", ", Paris, 1706–23); Bonaventure Racine (Jansenist), \"Abrégé de l'histoire ecclesiastique\" (13 vols., Cologne, properly Paris, 1762–7); Gabriel Ducreu, \"Les siècles chrétiens\" (9 vols., Paris, 1775; 2nd ad.", "in 10 vols., Paris, 1783).", "The widest circulation was attained by the \"Histoire de l'Église\" of Bérault-Bercastel.", "Italy during this period was productive mainly, however, in Christian archæology and special departments of history.", "The names of Cardinals Noris, Bona, and Pallavicini, Archbishop Mansi of Lucca, the Vatican librarian Zacagni, Ferdinando Ughelli, Roncaglia, Bianchini, Muratori, the brothers Pietro and Girolamo Ballerini, Gallandi, and Zaccaria, indicate the extent of historical research carried on in Italy during the 18th century.", "Among the general histories of the Church is the \"Storia Ecclesiastica\" of the Dominican Giuseppe Agostino Orsi.", "A church history of similarly vast proportions was undertaken by the Oratorian Sacarelli.", "A third work, of an even more comprehensive nature and reaching to the beginning of the 18th century, was written by the French Dominican, Hyacinthe Graveson, resident in Italy, \"Historia ecclesiastica variis colloquiia digesta\" (12 vols., Rome, 1717-).", "Mansi continued it in two volumes to 1760.", "Compendia of general church history, widely read, were written by the Augustinian Lorenzo Berti (\"Breviarium historiæ ecclesiasticæ\", Pisa and Turin, 1761–8), who also wrote three volumes of \"Dissertationes historicæ\" (Florence, 1753–6); Carlo Sigonio treated the first three centuries (2 vols., Milan, 1758), and Giuseppe Zola, treats the same period in his \"Commentarium de rebus ecclesiasticis\" (3 vols., Pavia, 1780-), and also wrote \"Prolegomena comment.", "de rebus eccl.\"", "(3 vols., Pavia, 1779).", "In Spain, the Augustinian Enrique Flórez began at this period a monumental work on the ecclesiastical history of Spain, \"España sagrada\", which at the death of the author in 1773 had reached its twenty-ninth volume.", "Manuel Risco continued it to the forty-second volume, and, since his death, it has been carried still nearer to completion, the fifty-first volume appearing in 1886.", "Some special works appeared in Germany, monographs of particular dioceses and monasteries, but general church history was not cultivated until Joseph II had executed his reform of theological studies.", "Among them are Lumper's \"Institutiones historiæ ecclesiasticæ\" (Vienna, 1790); the \"Institutiones historiæ eccl.\"", "of Dannenmeyer (2 vols., Vienna, 1788), relatively the best; the \"Synopsis histor.", "relig.", "et eccles.", "christ.\" of Royko (Prague, 1785); the \"Epitome hist.", "eccl.\" of Gmeiner (2 vols., Gratz, 1787–1803), and similar works by Wolf, Schmalzfuss, Stöger, Becker.", "The Netherlands produced compendia, e. g. those of Mutsaerts (2 vols., Antwerp, 1822), Rosweyde (2 vols., Antwerp, 1622), M. Chefneux (\"Eccl.", "Cathol.", "speculum chronographicum\", 3 vols., Liège, 1666–70).", "Protestant Church historians\nIt was some time after the publication of the \"Magdeburg Centuries\" (see above) before Protestant scholars again undertook extensive independent work in the province of church history.", "Their division into Reformed and Lutherans on the one hand, and the domestic feuds among the Lutherans on the other, were distractions.", "When Protestant scholarship again arose, the Reformed Churches took the lead and retained it into the 18th century.", "This was true not only in the domain of special history, in which they issued important publications (e. g. Bingham's \"Antiquitates ecclesiasticæ\", 1722; the works of Grabe, Beveridge, Blondel, Daillé, Saumaise, Usher, Pearson, Dodwell, etc.), but also in that of general church history.", "Among these writers are: Johann Heinrich Hottinger, whose \"Historia ecclesiastica Novi Test.\"", "(9 vols., Hanover, 1655–67) is hostile to the Catholic Church; Jacques Basnage, the opponent of Bossuet (\"Histoire de l'Église depuis Jésus-Christ jusqu'à présent\", Rotterdam, 1699); Antoine Basnage, the opponent of Baronius (\"Annales politico-eccles.\"", "3 vols., Rotterdam, 1706), and Spanheim (\"Introductio ad hist.", "et antiquit.", "sacr.", "\", Leyden, 1687; \"Historia ecclesiastica\", Leyden, 1701).", "The Reformed Churches produced moreover a number of manuals of church history, e. g. Turettini, \"Hist. eccles.", "compendium\" (Halle, 1750); Venema, \"Institut.", "histor.", "eccl.\"", "(5 vols., Leyden, 1777); Jablonski, \"Institut.", "hist.", "eccl.\"", "(2 vols., Frankfort, 1753).", "Similar Protestant manuals appeared in England, e. g. Milner, \"History of the Church of Christ\" (4 vols., London, 1794); Murray \"History of Religion\" (4 vols., London, 1794), and Priestley, \"History of the Christian Church\".", "Dring the 17th century, the Lutherans produced a \"Compendium histor.", "eccl.\"", "by Seckendorf and Bockler (Gotha, 1670–6).", "But a new era in Lutheran ecclesiastical historiography dates from Arnold's \"Unparteiische Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie\" (2 vols.", ", Frankfort am M., 1699).", "This pietist author is friendly to all the sects, but hostile to the Catholic Church and orthodox Lutheranism.", "Calmer is Eberhard Weissmann's \"Introductio in memorabilia ecclesiastica historiæ sacræ Novi Test.\"", "(2 vols., Tübingen, 1718).", "The Latin historical writings of Joh.", "Lor.", "Mosheim, particularly his \"De rebus christ.", "ante Constantinum Magnum\" (Helmstadt, 1753), and \"Institutiones histor.", "eccles.", "antiquioris et recentioris\" (Helmstadt, 1755), treat the Church as an institution of secular origin.", "His \"Institutiones\" were translated into German and continued by two of his pupils, J. von Einem and Rud.", "Schlegel (Leipzig, 1769-; Heilbronn, 1770-).", "Further progress was made in the works of Pfaff, chancellor of Tübingen (\"Institutiones histor.", "eccl.", "\", Tübingen, 1721), of Baumgarten (\"Auszug der Kirchengeschichte\", 3 vols., Halle, 1743-), Pertsch (\"Versuch einer Kirchengeschichte\", 5 vols, Leipzig, 1736-), Cotta (\"Versuch einer ausführlichen Kirchenhistorie des neuen Testamentes\", 3 vols., Tübingen, 1768–73).", "Specialised works were written by the two Walchs-Joh.", "Georg Walch issuing \"Eine Geschichte der Reigionsstreitigkeiten innerhalb und ausserhalb der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche\" in two parts, each comprising five volumes (Jena, 1733–9) while his son Christian Wilhelm published a lengthy \"ketzergeschichte\", whose eleventh volume reaches to the Iconoclasts (Leipzig, 1762–85).", "The latter also wrote a \"Religionsgeschichte der neuesten Zeit\", beginning with Clement XIV (to which Planck added three volumes), a \"Historie der Kirchenversammlungen\" (Leipzig, 1759), and a \"Historic der röm.", "Päpste\" (Göttingen, 1758).", "The major Lutheran work on general church history is that of J. Mathias Schröckh, a pupil of Mosheim and a professor at Wittenberg: \"Christliche Kirchengeschichte bis zur Reformation\" in thirty-five volumes (Leipzig, 1768–1803), continued as \"Kirchengeschichte seit der Reformation\" in eight volumes (Leipzig, 1803–8), to which Tzschirmer added two others (1810–12).", "The whole work includes forty-five volumes and closes with the beginning of the 19th century.", "The works of Johannes Salomon Semler were his \"Historiæ eccles.", "selecta capita\" (3 vols., Halle 1767-), \"Versuch eines fruchtbaren Auszuges der kirchengeschichte\" (3 parts, Halle, 1778), and \"Versuch christlicher Jahrbücber\" (2 parts, Halle, 1782).", "Most of his contemporaries wrote church history as a chronicle of scandals (\"Scandalchronik\"): superstition, fanaticism, and human passion.", "This spirit is particularly characteristic of Spittler, \"Grundriss der Gesch.", "der christl.", "Kirche\"\" and Henke, \"Allgem.", "Geschichte der chr.", "K.\"", "Romanticism led to an appreciation of the Catholic medieval world, while in all departments of learning there appeared a desire to be objective in judgment.", "The sources of ecclesiastical history were studied via historical criticism.", "It was in Catholic Germany that these changes were first noticeable, particularly in the work of the convert, Count Leopold von Stolberg.", "His \"Geschichte der Religion Jesu Christi\" was issued in fifteen volumes, the first four of which contain the history of the Old Testament and reach to 430.", "Similarly, the less important \"Geschichte der christlichen Kirche\" (9 vols., Ravensburg, 1824–34) by Locherer, rather uncritical and exhibiting the influence of Schröckh, remained unfinished, and reaches only to 1073.", "The excellent \"Geschichte der christlichen Kirche\" by J. Othmar von Rauschen is also incomplete.", "A useful compendium, serious and scientific in character, was begun by Hortig, professor at Landshut, the \"Handbuch der christlichen Kirchengeschichte\".", "He completed two volumes (Landshut, 1821-), and reached the Reformation; a third volume, that brought the work down to the French revolution, was added by his successor Döllinger.", "This scholar, who later on abandoned the Catholic attitude and principles of his earlier days, excelled previous writers.", "Johann Adam Möhler wrote several special historical works and dissertations of exceptional merit.", "His lectures on general church history were published after his death by his pupil, the Benedictine Pius Gams (\"Kirchengeschichte\", 3 vols., Ratisbon, 1867).", "To these larger and epoch-making works must be added several compendia, some of which like Klein (\"Historia ecclesiastica\", Gratz, 1827), Ruttenstock (\"Institutiones hist.", "eccl.", "\", 3 vols., Vienna, 1832–4), Cherrier (\"Instit.", "hist.", "eccl.", "\", 4 vols., Pestini, 1840-), were bare summaries of facts; others, like Ritter (\"Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte\", 3 vols., Bonn, 1830; 6th ed.", "by Ennen, 1861), and Alzog (\"Universalgeschichte der christlichen Kirche\", Mains, 1840; 10th ed.", "by F. X. Kraus, 1882), are lengthy narratives, critical and thorough.", "Particular periods or epochs of ecclesiastical history soon found careful cultivation, e. g. by Riffel, \"Kirchengeschichte der neuen und neuesten Zeit, vom Anfang der Glaubensspaltung im 16.", "Jahrhundert\" (3 vols., Mainz, 1841–6); Damberger, \"Synchronistische Geschichte der Kirche und der Welt im Mittelalter\" (in 15 volumes, Ratisbon, 1850–63; the last volume edited by Rattinger), which reaches to 1378.", "With Döllinger and Möhler we must rank Karl Joseph Hefele, the third of the great German Catholic historians, whose valuable \"Konziliengeschichte\" is really a comprehensive work on general church history;.", "the first seven volumes of the work (Freiburg, 1855–74) reach to 1448.", "A new edition was begun by the author (Freiburg, 1873-); it was carried on by Knöpfler (vole.", "V-VII), while Hergenröther (later cardinal) undertook to continue the work and published two more volumes (VIII-IX, 1887–90); which carry the history of the Councils to the opening of the Council of Trent.", "Hergenröther is the fourth great church historian of Catholic Germany.", "His \"Handbuch der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte\" (3 vols., Freiburg im B., 1876–80; 3rd ed., 1884–6; 4th ed., revised by J. P. Kirsch, 1902 sqq.) exhibits vast erudition and won recognition, even from Protestants as the most independent and instructive Catholic Church history.", "In recent years smaller, but scholarly compendia have been written by Brück, Krause Funk, Knöpfler, Marx, and Weiss.", "Numerous periodicals of a scientific nature bear evidence to the vigorous activity at present displayed in the field of ecclesiastical history, e. g. the \"Kirchengeschichtliche Studien\" (Münster), the \"Quellen und Forschungen aus dem Gebiet der Geschichte\" (Paderborn), the \"Forschungen zur christlichen Literatur- und Dogmengeschichte\" (Mainz and Paderborn), the \"Veröffentlichungen aus dem kirchenhistorischen Seminar München\".", "In France the study of church history was long in attaining the high standard it reached in the 17th century.", "Two extensive narratives of general church history appeared.", "That of Rohrbacher is the better, \"Histoire universelle de l'Église catholique\" (Nancy, 1842–9).", "It exhibits little independent research, but is a diligently executed work, and the author made a generous and skilful use of the best and most recent literature (new ed.", "with continuation by Guillaume, Paris, 1877).", "The second work is by Darras (q. v.).", "In recent years the science of ecclesiastical history has made great progress in France, both as to genuine criticism and thorough scholarly narrative.", "The critical tendency, aroused and sustained principally by Louis Duchesne, continues to flourish and inspires very important works, particularly in special ecclesiastical history.", "Among the writings of Duchesne the \"Histoire ancienne de l'Église\" (2 vols., already issued, Paris, 1906-) deserves particular mention.", "Another important publication is the \"Bibliothèque de l'enseignement de l'histoire ecclésiastique,\" a series of monographs by different authors, of which fourteen volumes have so far appeared (Paris, 1896-), and some have gone through several editions.", "A very useful manual is Marion's \"Histoire de l'Église\" (Paris, 1906).", "The Bollandist de Smedt wrote an \"Introductio generalis in Historiam ecclesiasticam critice tractandam\" (Louvain, 1876).", "A manual of church history was published by Wouters (\"Compendium hist.", "eccl.", "\", 3 vols., Louvain, 1874), who also wrote \"Dissertationes in selecta capita hist.", "eccl.\"", "(6 vols.", "Louvain, 1868–72).", "Josef Andreas Jungmann dealt with general church history to the end of the 18th century in his \"Dissertationes selectæ in historiam ecclesiasticam\".", "The character of ecclesiastico-historical studies at Louvain is seen in the \"Revue d'Histoire Ecclésiastique\" edited by Cauchie and Ladeuze.", "Some manuals appeared in Italy in church history, e. g. Delsignore, \"Institutiones histor.", "eccles.", "\", edited by Tissani (4 vols., Rome, 1837–46); Palma, \"Prælectiones hist.", "eccl.\"", "(4 vols., Rome, 1838–46); Prezziner, Storia della Chiesa (9 vols., Florence, 1822-); Ign.", "Mozzoni, \"Prolegomena alla storia universale della chiesa\" (Florence, 1861), and \"Tavole chronologiche critiche della storia universale della chiesa\" (Venice 1856-).", "Balan published as a continuation of Rohrbacher's universal ecclesiastical history the \"Storia della chiesa dall' anno 1846 sino ai giorni nostri\" (3 vols., Turin, 1886).", "Special works of great value were produced in various departments, above all by Giovanni Battista de Rossi in Christian archæology.", "However, certain recent works on general church history—e. g. Amelli, \"Storia della chiesa\" (2 vols., Milan, 1877); Taglialatelá, \"Lezioni di storia eccles.", "e di archeologia cristiana\" (4 vols., Naples, 1897); Pighi, \"Inst. hist.", "eccl.", "\", I (Verona, 1901)—do not come up to the present standard, at any rate, from the standpoint of methodical and critical treatment.", "The ecclesiastical history of Spain inspired two major works, one by Villanueva (\"Viage literario a las iglesias de España\", Madrid, 1803–21; 1850–2), the other by de la Fuente (\"Historia ecclesiastica de España\", 2nd ed., 2 vols., Madrid, 1873–5).", "In the field of general history, only Amat's \"Historia ecclesiastica o tratado de la Iglesia de Jesu Christo\" (12 vols., Madrid, 1793–1803, 2nd ed. 1807) appeared—not a very thorough work.", "Juan Manuel de Berriozobal wrote \"Historia de la Iglesia en sus primos siglos\" (4 vols., Madrid, 1867).", "The Dominican Francisco Rivaz y Madrazo published a manual (\"Curso de historia ecclesiastica\", 3 vols., 3rd ed., Madrid, 1905).", "The first scientific Catholic manual of church history in Dutch was written by Albers (\"Handboek der algemeene Kerkgeschiedenis\", 2 vols., Nijmegen, 1905–7; 2nd ed., 1908).", "Special ecclesiastical history can point to a multitude of English works.", "A brief Catholic general account of the history of the Church in Scotland is that of T. Walsh, \"History of the Catholic Church in Scotland\" (1876).", "That of Alphons Bellesheim has a full bibliography, translated into English by Dom Hunter-Blair, \"History of the Catholic Church in Scotland\" (4 vols., London, 1887, sqq.).", "A non-Catholic work is Calderwood's \"History of the Kirk\" (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842).", "The first major Catholic work on the general ecclesiastical history of Ireland was that of Lanigan, \"Ecclesiastical History of Ireland\" (4 vols., 2nd ed., Dublin, 1829), reaching only to the beginning of the 13th century.", "A single volume work is that of the Franciscan Michael John Brenan, \"Ecclesiastical History of Ireland\" (2nd edition, Dublin, 1864).", "A learned documentary work is that of John Gilmary Shea, \"History of the Catholic Church in the United States\" (4 vols., New York, 1886).", "O'Gorman's, \"A History of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States\" (New York, 1895), contains a useful bibliography.", "For Australia see Cardinal Moran's \"History of the Catholic Church in Australasia\" (Sydney, 1896).", "Among Protestants, Church history was cultivated chiefly by German Lutherans; their works came to be authoritative among non-Catholics.\nAnother Protestant school is more in sympathy with Semler's views.", "Its first leaders were the so-called \"Neo-Tübingen School\" under Johann Christian Baur, whose ecclesiastico-historical writings are directly anti-Christian: \"Das Christentum und die Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte\" (Tübingen, 1853); \"Die christliche Kirche vom 4.", "bis zum 6. Jahrhundert\" (Tübingen, 1859); \"Die christliche Kirche des Mittelalters\" (Tübingen, 1860); \"Die neuere Zeit\" (Tübingen, 1861–3); \"Das neunzehnte Jahrhundert\" (Tübingen, 1863–73).", "Baur himself and his rationalistic adherents, Schwegler, Ritsçhl, Rothe, wrote also special works on the origins of the Church.", "The \"Allgemeine Kirchengeschichte\" of Gfrörer (7 parts, Stuttgart, 1841), written prior to his conversion, is a product of this spirit.", "Though constantly attacked, this school, whose chief representative was Adolf Harnack, predominated in German Protestantism.", "Möller, in his \"Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte\" writes with moderation; similarly in his \"Kirchengeschichte\" (Tübingen, 1892, sqq.).", "In the 19th century also the Reformed (see above) produced less in the province of general church history than the Lutherans.\nAn important general ecclesiastical history produced by Anglican scholars was edited by W. Stephens and W. Hunt—\"A History of the English Church\" by various writers (Hunt, Stephens, Capes, Gairdner, Hutton, Overton).", "Greek Orthodox writers produced two works of general Church history: the \"Historia Ekklesiastike\" by Diomedes Kyriakus (2 vols., Athens, 1882), and the \"Ekklesiastike historia apo Iesou Christou mechri ton kath hemas chronon\" by Philaretes Bapheides (Constantinople, 1884–)." ]

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[ "Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church refers to the history of the Catholic Church as an institution, written from a particular perspective.", "There is a traditional approach to such historiography." ]

[ "According to the \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" of 1913, \nEcclesiastical history is the scientific investigation and the methodical description of the temporal development of the Church considered as an institution founded by Jesus Christ and guided by the Holy Ghost for the salvation of mankind.", "...", "[It covers] the life of the Church in all its manifestations from the beginning of its existence to our own day among the various divisions of mankind hitherto reached by Christianity.", "While the Church remains essentially the same despite the changes which she undergoes in time, these changes help to exhibit more fully her internal and external life.", "Its branches therefore include:", "Critical treatment of the sources requires palaeography, diplomatics, and criticism.", "Apart from that, the approach is not that of a skeptic:\nThe ecclesiastical historian … can by no means exclude the possibility of supernatural factors.", "That God cannot intervene in the course of nature, and that miracles are therefore impossible is an assumption which has not been and cannot be proved, and which makes a correct appreciation of facts in their objective reality impossible.", "Herein appears the difference between the standpoint of the believing Christian historian, who bears in mind not only the existence of God but also the relations of creatures to Him, and that of the rationalistic and infidel historian, who rejects even the possibility of Divine intervention in the course of natural law.", "It is based in teleology:\nThe Christian historian keeps in view the fact that the founder of the Church is the Son of God, and that the Church was instituted by Him in order to communicate to the whole human race, with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, its salvation through Christ.", "It is from this standpoint that the Christian historian estimates all particular events in their relation to the end or purpose of the Church.", "The unbelieving historian on the other hand recognizing only natural forces both at the origin and throughout the development of Christianity, and rejecting the possibility of any supernatural intervention is incapable of appreciating the work of the Church in as far as it is the agent of Divine design.", "As well as taking the Church as its subject matter, it is Church-centered, and takes the Church's teachings at their own estimation:\nThe Catholic historian insists on the supernatural character of the Church, its doctrines, institutions, and standards of life, in so far as they rest on Divine revelation, and acknowledge the continual guidance of the Church by the Holy Ghost.", "All this is for him objective reality, certain truth, and the only foundation for the true, scientific pragmatism of ecclesiastical history.", "The fact that schisms have occurred in Christian history is subordinated to the claim to universality of the Catholic Church, which is not treated as one church among many:\nThe Catholic historian does not admit that the various forms of the Christian religion may be taken, roughly speaking, as a connected whole, nor does he consider them one and all as so many imperfect attempts to adapt the teachings and institutions of Christ to the changing needs of the times, nor as progressive steps towards a future higher unity wherein alone we must seek the perfect ideal of Christianity.", "There is but one Divine revelation given us by Christ, but one ecclesiastical tradition based on it; hence one only Church can be the true one, i. e. the Church in which the aforesaid revelation is found in its entirety, and whose institutions have developed on the basis of this revelation and under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.", "On the other hand, the effect of churches outside the Catholic Church is factored into the discussion.", "The foundation of the Church and the development of fixed standards of ecclesiastical life within the limits of Græco-Roman civilization.", "The Church as a major force in the new Romanic, German, and Slavic states of Europe, the secession of Oriental Christendom from ecclesiastical unity and the final overthrow of the Byzantine empire.", "The collapse of religious unity among the Western European nations, and the reformation from within of Catholic Church faced with Protestantism.", "Immense geographical expansion of the Church, with missionaries in South America, part of North America and numerous in Asia and Africa.", "Some considered the pontificate of Gregory the Great in 590, or, more generally, the end of the 6th and the middle of the 7th century as the close of the first period; others took the Sixth General Council in 680, or the Trullan synod of 692, or the end of the 7th century; others again close the first period with St. Boniface, or with the Iconoclasts, or with Charlemagne.", "For the West, Kraus regards the beginning of the 7th century as the close of the first period; for the East, the end of the same century.", "Similarly, along the line of division between the second and the third periods are crowded events of great importance to ecclesiastical life: the Renaissance with its influence upon all intellectual life, the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, the discovery of the Americas and the new problems which the Church had to solve in consequence, the appearance of Luther and the heresy of Protestantism, the Council of Trent with its decisive influence on the evolution of the interior life of the Church.", "Protestant historians have regarded the appearance of Luther as the beginning of the third period.", "A few Catholic authors (e.g. Kraus) closed the second period with the middle of the 15th century.", "Nor do authors perfectly agree on the turning-points which are to be inserted within the chief periods.", "It is true that the conversion of Constantine the Great affected the life of the Church so profoundly that the reign of this first Christian emperor is generally accepted as marking a sub-division in the first period.", "In the second period, especially prominent personalities usually mark the limits of the several sub-divisions, e.g. Charlemagne, Gregory VII, Boniface VIII, though this leads to the undervaluation of other important factors, e. g. the Greek Schism, the Crusades.", "Recent writers, therefore, assume other boundary lines which emphasize the forces active in the life of the Church rather than prominent personalities.", "In subdividing the third period the same difficulty presents itself.", "Many historians consider the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century as an event of sufficient importance to demand a new epoch; others see a distinct epochal line in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), with which the formation of great Protestant territories came to an end.", "Sources fall naturally into two classes:\n# Remains (\"reliquiae, Ueberreste\") or immediate sources, i. e. such as prove a fact directly, being themselves part or remnant of the fact.", "To this class belong e. g. liturgical customs, ecclesiastical institutions, acts of the popes and councils, art-products, etc.; also monuments set up to commemorate events, e. g. inscriptions.", "# Tradition or mediate sources, i. e. such as rest upon the statements of witnesses who communicate an event to others.", "Tradition may be oral (narrative and legends), written (writings of particular authors), or pictorial (pictures, statues).", "The remains of the Church's past, which give direct evidence of historical facts, are the following:\n# Inscriptions, i.e. texts written on durable material, which were either meant to perpetuate the knowledge of certain acts or which describe the character and purpose of a particular object.", "The Christian inscriptions of different epochs and countries are now accessible in numerous collections.", "# Monuments erected for Christian purposes, especially tombs, sacred edifices, monasteries, hospitals for the sick and pilgrims; objects used in the liturgy or private devotions.", "# Liturgies, rituals, particularly liturgical books of various kinds, which were once used in Divine service.", "# Necrologies and confraternity-books used at the prayers and public services for the living and the dead.\n# Papal acts, Bulls and Briefs to a great extent edited in the papal \"\"Bullaria\", \"Regesta\"\", and special ecclesiastico-national collections.", "# Acts and decrees of general councils and of particular synods.\n# Collections of official decrees of Roman congregations, bishops, and other ecclesiastical authorities.", "# Rules of faith (\"symbola fldei\") drawn up for the public use of the Church, various collections of which have been made.", "# Official collections of ecclesiastical laws juridically obligatory for the whole Church.", "# Rules and constitutions of orders and congregations.", "# Concordats between the ecclesiastical and the secular power.", "# Civil laws, since they often contain matters bearing on religion or of ecclesiastical interest.", "These comprise those sources which rest on tradition alone, and which, unlike the remains, are themselves no part of the fact.", "They are:\n# Collections of acts of the martyrs, of legends and lives of the saints.", "# Collections of lives of the popes (\"Liber Pontificalis\") and of bishops of particular Churches.\n# Works of ecclesiastical writers, which contain information about historical events; to some extent all ecclesiastical literature belongs to this category.", "# Ecclesiastico-historical works, which take on more or less the character of sources, especially for the time in which their authors lived.", "# Pictorial representations (paintings, sculptures, etc.).", "Special auxiliary sciences (e. g. epigraphy, palaeography, numismatics) deal with certain particular kinds of the above-mentioned sources.", "# The study of the languages of the sources, which necessitates the use of lexicons, either general or special (i. e. for the language of particular authors).", "# Palaeography, a methodical introduction to the reading and dating of all kinds of manuscript sources.", "It was first scientifically investigated and formulated by Mabillon, \"De re diplomaticâ\" (Paris, 1681).", "#Diplomatics, which teaches how to examine critically the form and content of historical documents (e. g. charters, privileges), to pronounce on their genuineness, to understand them correctly, and to use them methodically.", "It is usually combined with paleography.", "# Historical Methodology, which enables the student to treat in a correct and critical way all the sources known to him and to combine the results of his researches in a methodical narrative.", "# Bibliography, the practical science of finding quickly the literature bearing on a given ecclesiastico-historical subject.", "# Chronology: how to recognize and fix with accuracy the dates found in the sources.", "The first important chronological investigations were undertaken by Scaliger (\"De emendatione temporum\", Jena, 1629-), Petavius (\"Rationarium temporum\", Leyden, 1624; \"De doctrinâ temporum\", Antwerp, 1703), and the authors of \"Art de vérifier les dates des faits historiques\" (Paris, 1750-).", "# Ecclesiastical Geography and Statistics: the first teaches us to recognize the places in which historical events took place, the other represents the development of the Church and the actual condition of her institutions exhibited synoptically, in tables with corresponding figures, etc.\n# Epigraphy, a guide for the reading and methodical use of the Christian inscriptions on monuments.", "# Christian Archaeology and History of the Fine Arts, from which the student learns how to study scientifically and to use the monuments which owe their origin to Christian influences.", "# Numismatics, the science of the coins of various countries and ages.", "Since not only the popes but also the numerous bishops, who once possessed secular power, exercised the right of coinage, numismatics belongs, at least for certain epochs, to the auxiliary sciences of church history.", "# Sphragistics, or the science of seals (Gk. \"spragis\", a seal).", "Its object is the study of the various seals and stamps used in sealing letters and documents as a guarantee of their authenticity.", "# Heraldry, which teaches the student how to read accurately the coats of arms etc., used by ecclesiastical and secular lords.", "It frequently throws light on the family of historical personages, the time or character of particular events, the history of religious monuments.", "The peoples among which Christianity first spread, possessed a highly developed civilization and a literature rich in works of history.", "Chronicles were compiled in the 3rd century by Julius Africanus and by Hippolytus of Rome, some fragments of which survive.", "It is only during the 4th century that ecclesiastical history, properly so called, makes its appearance.", "Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea in Palestine (died 340) is styled the \"Father of Church History\", and wrote a \"Chronicle\" as well as a \"Church History\".", "The \"Church History\" was an outgrowth of the \"Chronicle\", and first appeared in nine books; it covered the time from the death of Christ to the victories of Constantine and Licinius (312 and 313).", "Eusebius afterwards added a tenth book, which carried the narrative to the victory of Constantine over Licinius (323).", "He sought to set forth in the most favourable light the Christian sentiments of the imperial convert Constantine and his services to the Christian Church, and has been criticised for his partiality towards Constantine and his palliation of the latter's faults.", "A brief historical treatise of Eusebius, \"On the Martyrs of Palestine\", has also been preserved.", "This major Christian historian found several imitators in the first half of the 5th century, but their works survive partially if at all.", "The originals of the first two general narratives of ecclesiastical history after Eusebius have been lost, i.e. the \"Christian History\" of the presbyter Philip of Side, and the \"Church History\" of the Arian Philostorgius.", "Three other early ecclesiastical histories written about this period are also lost, from the presbyter Hesychius of Jerusalem (died 433), the Apollinarian Timotheus of Berytus, and Sabinus of Heraclea.", "About the middle of the 5th century the \"Church History\" of Eusebius was continued simultaneously by three writers.", "All three continuations have reached us.", "The first was written by Socrates Scholasticus, an advocate (\"scholasticus\") of Constantinople, who, in his \"Church History\", which he expressly (I, 1) calls a continuation of the work of Eusebius, describes in seven books the period from 305 (Abdication of Diocletian) to 439.", "The author is honest, exhibits critical acumen in the use of his sources, and has a clear and simple style.", "After him, and frequently making use of his history, comes Hermias Sozomenus (or Sozomen), also an advocate in Constantinople, whose \"Church History\" in nine books comprises the period from 324 to 425.", "Both these writers are surpassed by Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus (died about 458), who, in his \"Church History\", a continuation of the work of Eusebius, describes in five books the period from the beginning of Arianism (320) to the beginning of the Nestorian troubles (428).", "In addition to the writings of his predecessors, Socrates and Sozomen, he also used those of the Latin scholar Rufinus, and wove many documents into his narrative.", "Theodoret wrote also a \"History of the Monks\", in which he sets forth the lives of thirty famous ascetics of the Orient.", "Like the \"History of the Holy Fathers\" or \"Historia Lausiaca\"\", so called from one Lausus to whom the book was dedicated by Palladius, written about 420, this work of Theodoret is one of the principal sources for the history of Oriental monasticism.", "Theodoret also published a \"Compendium of Heretical Falsehoods\", i. e. a short history of heresies with a refutation of each.", "Together with the similar \"Panarion\" of \"Epiphanius\", it offers material on the earliest heresies.", "During the 6th century these historians found other continuators.", "Theodorus Lector compiled a brief compendium from the works of the above-mentioned three continuators of Eusebius: Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret.", "He then wrote in two books an independent continuation of this summary as far as the reign of Emperor Justin I (518-27); only fragments of this work have reached us.", "Zacharias Rhetor, at first an advocate at Berytus in Phoenicia and then (at least from 536) Bishop of Mitylene in the Island of Lesbos, composed, while yet a layman, an ecclesiastical history, which describes the period from 450 to 491, but is mostly taken up with personal experiences of the author in Egypt and Palestine.", "A Syriac version of this work is extant as books III-VI of a Syriac universal history, while there are also extant some chapters in a Latin version.", "Apart from this history, his inclination towards Monophysitism is also apparent from his biography of the Monophysite patriarch, Severus of Antioch, and from his biography of the monk Isaias, two works extant in a Syriac version.", "More important still is the \"Church History\" of Evagrius Scholasticus, who died about the end of the 6th century.", "His work is a continuation of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, and treats in six books the period from 431 to 594.", "It is based on good sources, and borrows from profane historians but occasionally Evagrius is too credulous.", "For Nestorianism and Monophysitism, however, his work deserves careful attention.", "Among the chronicles that belong to the close of Græco-Roman antiquity, special mention is due to the \"Chronicon Paschale\", so called because the Paschal or Easter canon forms the basis of its Christian chronology.", "About the year 700 the Monophysite bishop, John of Nikiu (Egypt) compiled a universal chronicle; its \"notitiae\" are of great value for the 7th century.", "This chronicle has been preserved in an Ethiopic version (\"Chronique de Jean, évêque de Nikiou\", publ.", "par.", "H. Zotenberg, Paris, 1883).", "Zotenberg believes that the work was originally written in Greek and then translated; Nöldeke (\"Gottinger gelehrte Anzeigen\", 1881, 587 sqq.) thinks it more probable that the original was Coptic.", "To the Alexandrian Cosmas, known as the \"Indian Voyager\" we owe a Christian \"topography\" of great value for ecclesiastical geography (ed.", "Montfaucon, \"Collectio nova Patrum et Scriptor.", "græc\", II, Paris, 1706; translated into English by McCrindle, London, 1897).", "Of great value also for ecclesiastical geography are the \"Notitiae episcopatuum\" (\"Taktika\"), or lists of the patriarchal, metropolitan, and episcopal sees of the Greek Church (\"Hieroclis Synecdemus et Notitiae graecae episcopatuum\", ed.", "Parthey, Berlin, 1866; \"Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis Romani\", ed.", "Geizer, Leipzig, 1890).", "A major collection of the early Greek historians of the Church is that of Henri de Valois in three folio volumes (Paris, 1659–73; improved by William Reading, Cambridge, 1720); it contains Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, Evagrius, and the fragments of Philostorgius and Theodorus Lector.", "The ancient Syrian writings of ecclesiastico-historical interest are chiefly Acts of martyrs and hymns to the saints (\"Acta martyrum et sanctorum\", ed.", "Bedjan, Paris, 1890-).", "The \"Chronicle of Edessa\", based on ancient sources, was written in the 6th century (ed.", "Assemani, \"Bibliotheca orientalis\", I, 394).", "In the same century the Monophysite bishop, John of Ephesus, wrote a history of the Church, but only its third part (571 to 586) is preserved (ed.", "William Cureton, Oxford, 1853; tr., Oxford, 1860).", "Lengthy extracts from the second part are found in the annals of Dionysius of Telmera.", "His work covers the years 583-843 (fragments in Assemani, \"Bibliotheca orientalis\", II, 72 sqq.).", "Among the Armenians we meet with versions of Greek and Syriac works.", "The most important native Armenian chronicle of an ecclesiastico-historical character is ascribed to Moses of Chorene, a historical personage of the 5th century.", "The author of the \"History of Greater Armenia\" calls himself Moses of Chorene, and claims to have lived in the 5th century and to have been a disciple of the famous St. Mesrop (q. v.).", "The self-testimony of the compiler must be rejected, since the work makes use of sources of the 6th and 7th centuries, and there is no trace of it to be found in Armenian literature before the 9th century.", "Probably, therefore, it originated about the 8th century.", "In the known manuscripts the work contains three parts: the \"Genealogy of Greater Armenia\" extends to the dynasty of the Arsacides, the \"Middle Period of our Ancestry\" to the death of St. Gregory the Illuminator, and the \"End of the History of our Country\" to the downfall of the Armenian Arsacides (ed.", "Amsterdam, 1695; Venice, 1881; French translation in Langlois, \"Collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'Arménie\", 2 vols., Paris, 1867–9).", "In the Middle Ages there was still extant a fourth part.", "The work seems to be on the whole reliable.", "The ancient history, down to the 2nd or 3rd century after Christ, is based on popular legends.", "Another Armenian historian is Eliseus Vartaped (q. v.).", "Comprehensive ecclesiastico-historical works appear in the Latin West later than in the Greek East.", "The first beginnings of historical science are confined to translations with additions.", "Thus St. Jerome translated the \"Chronicle\" of Eusebius and continued it down to 378.", "At the same time he opened up a special field, the history of Christian literature, in his \"De viris illustribus\"; (\"Chronicon\", ed.", "Schoene, 2 vols., Berlin, 1866–75; \"De vir.", "ill.\", ed.", "Richardson, Leipzig, 1896).", "About 400 the \"Church History\" of Eusebius was translated by Rufinus who added the history of the Church from 318 to 395 in two new books (X and XI).", "Rufinus's continuation was itself soon translated into Greek.", "The latest edition is in the Berlin collection of Greek Christian writings mentioned above in connexion with Eusebius.", "St. Jerome's Latin recension of the \"Chronicle\" of Eusebius was followed later by many other chronicles, among which may be mentioned the works of Prosper, Idacius, Marcellinus, Victor of Tununum, Marius of Avenches, Isidore of Seville, and Venerable Bede.", "In the West, the first independent history of revelation and of the Church was written by Sulpicius Severus, who published in 403 his \"Historia (Chronica) Sacra\" in two books; it reaches from the beginning of the world to about 400 (P. L., XX; ed.", "Hahn, Vienna, 1866).", "It is a short treatise and contains little historical information.", "A little later, Orosius wrote his \"Historia adversus paganos\" in seven books—a universal history from the standpoint of the Christian apologist.", "It begins with the deluge and comes down to 416.", "The purpose of Orosius was to refute the pagan charge that the great misfortunes of the Roman Empire were due to the victory of Christianity (P. L., XXXI; ed.", "Zangemeister, Vienna, 1882).", "With the same end in view, but with a far grander and loftier conception, St. Augustine wrote his famous \"De civitate Dei\", composed between 413 and 428, and issued in sections.", "It is an apologetic philosophy of history from the standpoint of Divine revelation.", "The work is important for church history on account of its numerous historical and archaeological digressions (ed.", "Dombart, 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1877).", "About the middle of the 6th century, Cassiodorus caused the works of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret to be translated into Latin, and then amalgamated this version into one complete narrative under the title \"Historia tripartita\" (P. L., LXIX-LXX).", "Together with the works of Rufinus and Orosius, it was one of the principal sources from which through the Middle Ages the Western peoples drew their knowledge of early church history.", "Rich material for ecclesiastical history is also contained in the national histories of some Western peoples.", "Of the \"History of the Goths\", written by Cassiodorus, we possess only an extract in Jordanis, \"De origine actibusque Getarum\" (ed.", "Mommsen in \"Mon. Germ.", "Hist: Auct.", "antiquissimi\", V., Berlin, 1882).", "Especially important is the \"History of the Franks\" in ten books by Gregory of Tours, which reaches to 591 (ed.", "Arndt, \"Mon. Germ.", "Hist: Scriptores rerum Meroving\", I, Hanover, 1884–5).", "Gregory wrote also a \"Liber de vitâ Patrum\", a work entitled \"In gloriâ martyrum\", and the book \"De virtutibus (i.e. miracles) S. Juliani\" and \"De virtutibus S. Martini\" (ed", ". cit., pt. II, ad. Krusch).", "In the beginning of the 7th century St. Isidore of Seville composed a \"Chronicle of the West Goths\" (\"Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum\", ed.", "Mommsen, \"Chronica Minora\", II, 241–303).", "Several other similar chronicles, from the 4th to the 7th century, were edited by Mommsen in the \"Monumenta Germaniae Historica:", "Auctores Antiquissimi\" under the title of \"Chronica Minora\".", "The second period of church history produced a copious specialized historical literature.", "Its works deal more often with particular nations, dioceses, and abbeys; general histories are rare.", "Moreover, owing to the dominant position of the Church among the Western peoples, ecclesiastical and secular history are in this epoch closely interwoven.", "In the East church history is almost completely identified with the history of the imperial court owing to the close relations of State and Church.", "For the same reason the Byzantine chronicles from Justinian the Great to the destruction of the empire in the middle of the 15th century contain information about the history of the Greek Church.", "The major church historian of the Byzantine period is Nicephorus Callistus, who flourished in the beginning of the 14th century.", "In Syriac we possess the aforesaid chronicle of Dionysius of Telmera.", "Towards the end of the 12th century Michael Kandis, Patriarch of the Jacobites (died 1199), wrote a chronicle from the creation to 1196.", "It is an important source for the history of the Syriac Church after the 6th century, particularly for the history of the Crusades.", "Another patriarch of the Jacobites, Gregory Abulpharagius or Bar-Hebraeus, Maphrian (i. e. primate) of the Syro-Jacobite Church (1266–86), also wrote a universal chronicle in three parts.", "We must also mention the \"Bibliotheca\" (\"Myriobiblon\") of Photios I of Constantinople (died 891), in which about 280 authors are described and passages quoted from them, and the work \"On Heresies\" of St. John Damascene.", "Throughout this period the West was furnishing abundant material for ecclesiastical history, but few genuinely historical works.", "In the 9th century, Haymo, Bishop of Halberstadt (died 853), undertook to write an ecclesiastical history of the first four centuries, taking Rufinus as his principal authority.", "Subsequently, with the aid of Latin versions of Georgius Syncellus, Nicephorus, and especially of Theophanes, to which he added his own material, the Roman Abbot Anastasius Bibliothecarius (the Librarian) wrote a \"Church History\" to the time of Leo the Armenian, who died in 829.", "About the middle of the 12th century, Ordericus Vitalis, Abbot of St. Evroul in Normandy, wrote an \"Historia ecclesiastica\" in thirteen books; it reaches to 1142, and is of especial value for the history of Normandy, England, and the Crusades.", "The Dominican Bartholomew of Lucca, called also Ptolemæus de Fiadonibus (died 1327), covered a longer period.", "His work in twenty-four books reaches to 1313, and was continued to 1361 by Henry of Diessenhofen.", "The \"Flores chronicorum seu Catalogus Pontificum Romanorum\" of Bernard Guidonis, Bishop of Lodève (died 1331), may be counted among the works on the general history of the Church.", "The most extensive, and relatively the best, historical work during this period is the \"Summa Historialis\" of St. Antoninus.", "It deals with secular and ecclesiastical history from the creation to 1457.", "The national histories which appeared towards the end of the last period (of Cassiodorus, Jordanis, Gregory of Tours) were followed by similar works giving the history of other peoples.", "Venerable Bede wrote his admirable \"Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum\", which describes in five books the history of England from the Roman conquest to 731, though treating principally of events after Augustine of Canterbury's mission in 596.", "Paulus Warnefrid (Diaconus) wrote the history of his fellow-Lombards (\"Historia Langobardorum\") from 568 to 733; it still remains the principal source for the history of his people.", "An unknown writer continued it to 774, and in the 9th century the monk Erchembert added the history of the Lombards of Beneventum to 889.", "Paulus wrote also a history of the bishops of Metz (\"Gesta episcoporum Mettensium\", ad.", "in \"Mon. Germ.", "Hist: Script.\", II) and other historical works.", "The Scandinavian North found its ecclesiastical historian in Adam of Bremen; he covers the period between 788 and 1072, and his work is of special importance for the history of the Diocese of Hamburg-Bremen.", "Flodoard (died 966) wrote the history of the Archdiocese of Reims (\"Historia ecclesiæ Remensis\") to 948, a very important source for the history of the Church of France to that time.", "The ecclesiastical history of Northern Germany was described by Albert Crantz, a canon of Hamburg (died 1517), in his \"Metropolis\" or \"Historia de ecclesiis sub Carolo Magno in Saxoniâ instauratis\" (i. e. from 780 to 1504; Frankfort, 1576 and often reprinted).", "Among the special historical works of this period of the Western Church we must mention the \"Liber Pontificalis\", an important collection of papal biographies that take on larger proportions after the 4th century, are occasionally very lengthy in the 8th and 9th centuries, and through various continuations reach to the death of Pope Martin V in 1431.", "The German, Italian, French, and English chronicles, annals, and biographies of this epoch are very numerous.", "With the 16th century a new epoch dawned for ecclesiastical history: historical criticism went hand in hand with the growth of humanist education.", "The sources of historical events were examined as to their authenticity.", "The religious controversies that followed the rise of Protestantism were also an incentive to historical study.", "Printing made possible a rapid distribution of all kinds of writings, so that the sources of church history soon became known and studied in the widest circles, and new works on church history could be circulated in all directions.", "The first large work on church history which appeared in this period was composed in the interests of Lutheranism.", "Mathias Flacius, called \"Illyricus\" (a native of Illyria), united with five other Lutherans (John Wigand, Mathias Judex, Basilius Faber, Andreas Corvinus, and Thomas Holzschuher), to produce an extensive work, that should exhibit the history of the Church as a convincing apology for strict Lutheranism.", "(See \"Centuriators of Magdeburg\".)", "In the \"Centuriæ\", a partisan work, the institutions of the Roman Church appear as works of Satan and darkness.", "It called forth Catholic refutations, particularly that of Cæsar Baronius.", "Urged by Philip Neri, he undertook in 1568 the task of producing an ecclesiastical history, which he brought down to the end of the 12th century and published under the title, \"Annales ecclesiastici\" (12 vols., Rome, 1588–1607).", "Numerous editions and continuations of it then appeared.", "Catholic Church historians", "From the middle of the 17th century French writers were active in ecclesiastico-historical research.", "The writings of the Fathers of the Church and other ancient sources were published in better editions, and the auxiliary sciences of history were well cultivated.", "Antoine Godeau, Bishop of Vence, wrote a \"Histoire de l'église\" reaching to the 9th century (5 vols., Paris, 1655–78; several other editions appeared and the work was translated into Italian and German), and to the Oratorian Cabassut for \"Historia ecclesiastica\" (Lyons, 1685).", "Although the Jesuit Louis Maimbourg did not write a continuous ecclesiastical history, he published numerous treatises (Paris, 1673–83): on Arianism, Iconoclasm, the Greek Schism, struggle between the popes and the emperors, Western Schism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism.", "Among the major ecclesiastical historians of this period are: Noël Alexandre (Natalis Alexander) a Dominican; Claude Fleury, who wrote a \"Histoire ecclésiastique\" in 20 volumes, reaching to 1414 (Paris, 1691–1720) as a moderate Gallican; and Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont.", "To these must be added Bossuet, who, in his \"Discours sur l'histoire universelle\" (Paris, 1681), treated the history of the Church as far as Charlemagne.", "His \"Histoire des variations des églises protestantes\" (2 vols., Paris, 1688) describes the changes which the Waldenses, Albigenses, Wyclifites, and Hussites, as well as Luther and Calvin, made to the fundamental doctrines of the Catholic Church.", "Their successors in the 18th century compare unfavourably with their predecessors, in criticism of their sources and in scientific accuracy.", "The following are noteworthy: François Timoléon de Choisy, \"Histoire de l'Église\" (11 vols.", ", Paris, 1706–23); Bonaventure Racine (Jansenist), \"Abrégé de l'histoire ecclesiastique\" (13 vols., Cologne, properly Paris, 1762–7); Gabriel Ducreu, \"Les siècles chrétiens\" (9 vols., Paris, 1775; 2nd ad.", "in 10 vols., Paris, 1783).", "The widest circulation was attained by the \"Histoire de l'Église\" of Bérault-Bercastel.", "Italy during this period was productive mainly, however, in Christian archæology and special departments of history.", "The names of Cardinals Noris, Bona, and Pallavicini, Archbishop Mansi of Lucca, the Vatican librarian Zacagni, Ferdinando Ughelli, Roncaglia, Bianchini, Muratori, the brothers Pietro and Girolamo Ballerini, Gallandi, and Zaccaria, indicate the extent of historical research carried on in Italy during the 18th century.", "Among the general histories of the Church is the \"Storia Ecclesiastica\" of the Dominican Giuseppe Agostino Orsi.", "A church history of similarly vast proportions was undertaken by the Oratorian Sacarelli.", "A third work, of an even more comprehensive nature and reaching to the beginning of the 18th century, was written by the French Dominican, Hyacinthe Graveson, resident in Italy, \"Historia ecclesiastica variis colloquiia digesta\" (12 vols., Rome, 1717-).", "Mansi continued it in two volumes to 1760.", "Compendia of general church history, widely read, were written by the Augustinian Lorenzo Berti (\"Breviarium historiæ ecclesiasticæ\", Pisa and Turin, 1761–8), who also wrote three volumes of \"Dissertationes historicæ\" (Florence, 1753–6); Carlo Sigonio treated the first three centuries (2 vols., Milan, 1758), and Giuseppe Zola, treats the same period in his \"Commentarium de rebus ecclesiasticis\" (3 vols., Pavia, 1780-), and also wrote \"Prolegomena comment.", "de rebus eccl.\"", "(3 vols., Pavia, 1779).", "In Spain, the Augustinian Enrique Flórez began at this period a monumental work on the ecclesiastical history of Spain, \"España sagrada\", which at the death of the author in 1773 had reached its twenty-ninth volume.", "Manuel Risco continued it to the forty-second volume, and, since his death, it has been carried still nearer to completion, the fifty-first volume appearing in 1886.", "Some special works appeared in Germany, monographs of particular dioceses and monasteries, but general church history was not cultivated until Joseph II had executed his reform of theological studies.", "Among them are Lumper's \"Institutiones historiæ ecclesiasticæ\" (Vienna, 1790); the \"Institutiones historiæ eccl.\"", "of Dannenmeyer (2 vols., Vienna, 1788), relatively the best; the \"Synopsis histor.", "relig.", "et eccles.", "christ.\" of Royko (Prague, 1785); the \"Epitome hist.", "eccl.\" of Gmeiner (2 vols., Gratz, 1787–1803), and similar works by Wolf, Schmalzfuss, Stöger, Becker.", "The Netherlands produced compendia, e. g. those of Mutsaerts (2 vols., Antwerp, 1822), Rosweyde (2 vols., Antwerp, 1622), M. Chefneux (\"Eccl.", "Cathol.", "speculum chronographicum\", 3 vols., Liège, 1666–70).", "Protestant Church historians\nIt was some time after the publication of the \"Magdeburg Centuries\" (see above) before Protestant scholars again undertook extensive independent work in the province of church history.", "Their division into Reformed and Lutherans on the one hand, and the domestic feuds among the Lutherans on the other, were distractions.", "When Protestant scholarship again arose, the Reformed Churches took the lead and retained it into the 18th century.", "This was true not only in the domain of special history, in which they issued important publications (e. g. Bingham's \"Antiquitates ecclesiasticæ\", 1722; the works of Grabe, Beveridge, Blondel, Daillé, Saumaise, Usher, Pearson, Dodwell, etc.), but also in that of general church history.", "Among these writers are: Johann Heinrich Hottinger, whose \"Historia ecclesiastica Novi Test.\"", "(9 vols., Hanover, 1655–67) is hostile to the Catholic Church; Jacques Basnage, the opponent of Bossuet (\"Histoire de l'Église depuis Jésus-Christ jusqu'à présent\", Rotterdam, 1699); Antoine Basnage, the opponent of Baronius (\"Annales politico-eccles.\"", "3 vols., Rotterdam, 1706), and Spanheim (\"Introductio ad hist.", "et antiquit.", "sacr.", "\", Leyden, 1687; \"Historia ecclesiastica\", Leyden, 1701).", "The Reformed Churches produced moreover a number of manuals of church history, e. g. Turettini, \"Hist. eccles.", "compendium\" (Halle, 1750); Venema, \"Institut.", "histor.", "eccl.\"", "(5 vols., Leyden, 1777); Jablonski, \"Institut.", "hist.", "eccl.\"", "(2 vols., Frankfort, 1753).", "Similar Protestant manuals appeared in England, e. g. Milner, \"History of the Church of Christ\" (4 vols., London, 1794); Murray \"History of Religion\" (4 vols., London, 1794), and Priestley, \"History of the Christian Church\".", "Dring the 17th century, the Lutherans produced a \"Compendium histor.", "eccl.\"", "by Seckendorf and Bockler (Gotha, 1670–6).", "But a new era in Lutheran ecclesiastical historiography dates from Arnold's \"Unparteiische Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie\" (2 vols.", ", Frankfort am M., 1699).", "This pietist author is friendly to all the sects, but hostile to the Catholic Church and orthodox Lutheranism.", "Calmer is Eberhard Weissmann's \"Introductio in memorabilia ecclesiastica historiæ sacræ Novi Test.\"", "(2 vols., Tübingen, 1718).", "The Latin historical writings of Joh.", "Lor.", "Mosheim, particularly his \"De rebus christ.", "ante Constantinum Magnum\" (Helmstadt, 1753), and \"Institutiones histor.", "eccles.", "antiquioris et recentioris\" (Helmstadt, 1755), treat the Church as an institution of secular origin.", "His \"Institutiones\" were translated into German and continued by two of his pupils, J. von Einem and Rud.", "Schlegel (Leipzig, 1769-; Heilbronn, 1770-).", "Further progress was made in the works of Pfaff, chancellor of Tübingen (\"Institutiones histor.", "eccl.", "\", Tübingen, 1721), of Baumgarten (\"Auszug der Kirchengeschichte\", 3 vols., Halle, 1743-), Pertsch (\"Versuch einer Kirchengeschichte\", 5 vols, Leipzig, 1736-), Cotta (\"Versuch einer ausführlichen Kirchenhistorie des neuen Testamentes\", 3 vols., Tübingen, 1768–73).", "Specialised works were written by the two Walchs-Joh.", "Georg Walch issuing \"Eine Geschichte der Reigionsstreitigkeiten innerhalb und ausserhalb der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche\" in two parts, each comprising five volumes (Jena, 1733–9) while his son Christian Wilhelm published a lengthy \"ketzergeschichte\", whose eleventh volume reaches to the Iconoclasts (Leipzig, 1762–85).", "The latter also wrote a \"Religionsgeschichte der neuesten Zeit\", beginning with Clement XIV (to which Planck added three volumes), a \"Historie der Kirchenversammlungen\" (Leipzig, 1759), and a \"Historic der röm.", "Päpste\" (Göttingen, 1758).", "The major Lutheran work on general church history is that of J. Mathias Schröckh, a pupil of Mosheim and a professor at Wittenberg: \"Christliche Kirchengeschichte bis zur Reformation\" in thirty-five volumes (Leipzig, 1768–1803), continued as \"Kirchengeschichte seit der Reformation\" in eight volumes (Leipzig, 1803–8), to which Tzschirmer added two others (1810–12).", "The whole work includes forty-five volumes and closes with the beginning of the 19th century.", "The works of Johannes Salomon Semler were his \"Historiæ eccles.", "selecta capita\" (3 vols., Halle 1767-), \"Versuch eines fruchtbaren Auszuges der kirchengeschichte\" (3 parts, Halle, 1778), and \"Versuch christlicher Jahrbücber\" (2 parts, Halle, 1782).", "Most of his contemporaries wrote church history as a chronicle of scandals (\"Scandalchronik\"): superstition, fanaticism, and human passion.", "This spirit is particularly characteristic of Spittler, \"Grundriss der Gesch.", "der christl.", "Kirche\"\" and Henke, \"Allgem.", "Geschichte der chr.", "K.\"", "Romanticism led to an appreciation of the Catholic medieval world, while in all departments of learning there appeared a desire to be objective in judgment.", "The sources of ecclesiastical history were studied via historical criticism.", "It was in Catholic Germany that these changes were first noticeable, particularly in the work of the convert, Count Leopold von Stolberg.", "His \"Geschichte der Religion Jesu Christi\" was issued in fifteen volumes, the first four of which contain the history of the Old Testament and reach to 430.", "Similarly, the less important \"Geschichte der christlichen Kirche\" (9 vols., Ravensburg, 1824–34) by Locherer, rather uncritical and exhibiting the influence of Schröckh, remained unfinished, and reaches only to 1073.", "The excellent \"Geschichte der christlichen Kirche\" by J. Othmar von Rauschen is also incomplete.", "A useful compendium, serious and scientific in character, was begun by Hortig, professor at Landshut, the \"Handbuch der christlichen Kirchengeschichte\".", "He completed two volumes (Landshut, 1821-), and reached the Reformation; a third volume, that brought the work down to the French revolution, was added by his successor Döllinger.", "This scholar, who later on abandoned the Catholic attitude and principles of his earlier days, excelled previous writers.", "Johann Adam Möhler wrote several special historical works and dissertations of exceptional merit.", "His lectures on general church history were published after his death by his pupil, the Benedictine Pius Gams (\"Kirchengeschichte\", 3 vols., Ratisbon, 1867).", "To these larger and epoch-making works must be added several compendia, some of which like Klein (\"Historia ecclesiastica\", Gratz, 1827), Ruttenstock (\"Institutiones hist.", "eccl.", "\", 3 vols., Vienna, 1832–4), Cherrier (\"Instit.", "hist.", "eccl.", "\", 4 vols., Pestini, 1840-), were bare summaries of facts; others, like Ritter (\"Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte\", 3 vols., Bonn, 1830; 6th ed.", "by Ennen, 1861), and Alzog (\"Universalgeschichte der christlichen Kirche\", Mains, 1840; 10th ed.", "by F. X. Kraus, 1882), are lengthy narratives, critical and thorough.", "Particular periods or epochs of ecclesiastical history soon found careful cultivation, e. g. by Riffel, \"Kirchengeschichte der neuen und neuesten Zeit, vom Anfang der Glaubensspaltung im 16.", "Jahrhundert\" (3 vols., Mainz, 1841–6); Damberger, \"Synchronistische Geschichte der Kirche und der Welt im Mittelalter\" (in 15 volumes, Ratisbon, 1850–63; the last volume edited by Rattinger), which reaches to 1378.", "With Döllinger and Möhler we must rank Karl Joseph Hefele, the third of the great German Catholic historians, whose valuable \"Konziliengeschichte\" is really a comprehensive work on general church history;.", "the first seven volumes of the work (Freiburg, 1855–74) reach to 1448.", "A new edition was begun by the author (Freiburg, 1873-); it was carried on by Knöpfler (vole.", "V-VII), while Hergenröther (later cardinal) undertook to continue the work and published two more volumes (VIII-IX, 1887–90); which carry the history of the Councils to the opening of the Council of Trent.", "Hergenröther is the fourth great church historian of Catholic Germany.", "His \"Handbuch der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte\" (3 vols., Freiburg im B., 1876–80; 3rd ed., 1884–6; 4th ed., revised by J. P. Kirsch, 1902 sqq.) exhibits vast erudition and won recognition, even from Protestants as the most independent and instructive Catholic Church history.", "In recent years smaller, but scholarly compendia have been written by Brück, Krause Funk, Knöpfler, Marx, and Weiss.", "Numerous periodicals of a scientific nature bear evidence to the vigorous activity at present displayed in the field of ecclesiastical history, e. g. the \"Kirchengeschichtliche Studien\" (Münster), the \"Quellen und Forschungen aus dem Gebiet der Geschichte\" (Paderborn), the \"Forschungen zur christlichen Literatur- und Dogmengeschichte\" (Mainz and Paderborn), the \"Veröffentlichungen aus dem kirchenhistorischen Seminar München\".", "In France the study of church history was long in attaining the high standard it reached in the 17th century.", "Two extensive narratives of general church history appeared.", "That of Rohrbacher is the better, \"Histoire universelle de l'Église catholique\" (Nancy, 1842–9).", "It exhibits little independent research, but is a diligently executed work, and the author made a generous and skilful use of the best and most recent literature (new ed.", "with continuation by Guillaume, Paris, 1877).", "The second work is by Darras (q. v.).", "In recent years the science of ecclesiastical history has made great progress in France, both as to genuine criticism and thorough scholarly narrative.", "The critical tendency, aroused and sustained principally by Louis Duchesne, continues to flourish and inspires very important works, particularly in special ecclesiastical history.", "Among the writings of Duchesne the \"Histoire ancienne de l'Église\" (2 vols., already issued, Paris, 1906-) deserves particular mention.", "Another important publication is the \"Bibliothèque de l'enseignement de l'histoire ecclésiastique,\" a series of monographs by different authors, of which fourteen volumes have so far appeared (Paris, 1896-), and some have gone through several editions.", "A very useful manual is Marion's \"Histoire de l'Église\" (Paris, 1906).", "The Bollandist de Smedt wrote an \"Introductio generalis in Historiam ecclesiasticam critice tractandam\" (Louvain, 1876).", "A manual of church history was published by Wouters (\"Compendium hist.", "eccl.", "\", 3 vols., Louvain, 1874), who also wrote \"Dissertationes in selecta capita hist.", "eccl.\"", "(6 vols.", "Louvain, 1868–72).", "Josef Andreas Jungmann dealt with general church history to the end of the 18th century in his \"Dissertationes selectæ in historiam ecclesiasticam\".", "The character of ecclesiastico-historical studies at Louvain is seen in the \"Revue d'Histoire Ecclésiastique\" edited by Cauchie and Ladeuze.", "Some manuals appeared in Italy in church history, e. g. Delsignore, \"Institutiones histor.", "eccles.", "\", edited by Tissani (4 vols., Rome, 1837–46); Palma, \"Prælectiones hist.", "eccl.\"", "(4 vols., Rome, 1838–46); Prezziner, Storia della Chiesa (9 vols., Florence, 1822-); Ign.", "Mozzoni, \"Prolegomena alla storia universale della chiesa\" (Florence, 1861), and \"Tavole chronologiche critiche della storia universale della chiesa\" (Venice 1856-).", "Balan published as a continuation of Rohrbacher's universal ecclesiastical history the \"Storia della chiesa dall' anno 1846 sino ai giorni nostri\" (3 vols., Turin, 1886).", "Special works of great value were produced in various departments, above all by Giovanni Battista de Rossi in Christian archæology.", "However, certain recent works on general church history—e. g. Amelli, \"Storia della chiesa\" (2 vols., Milan, 1877); Taglialatelá, \"Lezioni di storia eccles.", "e di archeologia cristiana\" (4 vols., Naples, 1897); Pighi, \"Inst. hist.", "eccl.", "\", I (Verona, 1901)—do not come up to the present standard, at any rate, from the standpoint of methodical and critical treatment.", "The ecclesiastical history of Spain inspired two major works, one by Villanueva (\"Viage literario a las iglesias de España\", Madrid, 1803–21; 1850–2), the other by de la Fuente (\"Historia ecclesiastica de España\", 2nd ed., 2 vols., Madrid, 1873–5).", "In the field of general history, only Amat's \"Historia ecclesiastica o tratado de la Iglesia de Jesu Christo\" (12 vols., Madrid, 1793–1803, 2nd ed. 1807) appeared—not a very thorough work.", "Juan Manuel de Berriozobal wrote \"Historia de la Iglesia en sus primos siglos\" (4 vols., Madrid, 1867).", "The Dominican Francisco Rivaz y Madrazo published a manual (\"Curso de historia ecclesiastica\", 3 vols., 3rd ed., Madrid, 1905).", "The first scientific Catholic manual of church history in Dutch was written by Albers (\"Handboek der algemeene Kerkgeschiedenis\", 2 vols., Nijmegen, 1905–7; 2nd ed., 1908).", "Special ecclesiastical history can point to a multitude of English works.", "A brief Catholic general account of the history of the Church in Scotland is that of T. Walsh, \"History of the Catholic Church in Scotland\" (1876).", "That of Alphons Bellesheim has a full bibliography, translated into English by Dom Hunter-Blair, \"History of the Catholic Church in Scotland\" (4 vols., London, 1887, sqq.).", "A non-Catholic work is Calderwood's \"History of the Kirk\" (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842).", "The first major Catholic work on the general ecclesiastical history of Ireland was that of Lanigan, \"Ecclesiastical History of Ireland\" (4 vols., 2nd ed., Dublin, 1829), reaching only to the beginning of the 13th century.", "A single volume work is that of the Franciscan Michael John Brenan, \"Ecclesiastical History of Ireland\" (2nd edition, Dublin, 1864).", "A learned documentary work is that of John Gilmary Shea, \"History of the Catholic Church in the United States\" (4 vols., New York, 1886).", "O'Gorman's, \"A History of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States\" (New York, 1895), contains a useful bibliography.", "For Australia see Cardinal Moran's \"History of the Catholic Church in Australasia\" (Sydney, 1896).", "Among Protestants, Church history was cultivated chiefly by German Lutherans; their works came to be authoritative among non-Catholics.\nAnother Protestant school is more in sympathy with Semler's views.", "Its first leaders were the so-called \"Neo-Tübingen School\" under Johann Christian Baur, whose ecclesiastico-historical writings are directly anti-Christian: \"Das Christentum und die Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte\" (Tübingen, 1853); \"Die christliche Kirche vom 4.", "bis zum 6. Jahrhundert\" (Tübingen, 1859); \"Die christliche Kirche des Mittelalters\" (Tübingen, 1860); \"Die neuere Zeit\" (Tübingen, 1861–3); \"Das neunzehnte Jahrhundert\" (Tübingen, 1863–73).", "Baur himself and his rationalistic adherents, Schwegler, Ritsçhl, Rothe, wrote also special works on the origins of the Church.", "The \"Allgemeine Kirchengeschichte\" of Gfrörer (7 parts, Stuttgart, 1841), written prior to his conversion, is a product of this spirit.", "Though constantly attacked, this school, whose chief representative was Adolf Harnack, predominated in German Protestantism.", "Möller, in his \"Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte\" writes with moderation; similarly in his \"Kirchengeschichte\" (Tübingen, 1892, sqq.).", "In the 19th century also the Reformed (see above) produced less in the province of general church history than the Lutherans.\nAn important general ecclesiastical history produced by Anglican scholars was edited by W. Stephens and W. Hunt—\"A History of the English Church\" by various writers (Hunt, Stephens, Capes, Gairdner, Hutton, Overton).", "Greek Orthodox writers produced two works of general Church history: the \"Historia Ekklesiastike\" by Diomedes Kyriakus (2 vols., Athens, 1882), and the \"Ekklesiastike historia apo Iesou Christou mechri ton kath hemas chronon\" by Philaretes Bapheides (Constantinople, 1884–)." ]

[ 14, 15, 16 ]

[ "Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church refers to the history of the Catholic Church as an institution, written from a particular perspective." ]

[ "According to the \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" of 1913, \nEcclesiastical history is the scientific investigation and the methodical description of the temporal development of the Church considered as an institution founded by Jesus Christ and guided by the Holy Ghost for the salvation of mankind.", "...", "[It covers] the life of the Church in all its manifestations from the beginning of its existence to our own day among the various divisions of mankind hitherto reached by Christianity.", "While the Church remains essentially the same despite the changes which she undergoes in time, these changes help to exhibit more fully her internal and external life.", "Its branches therefore include:", "Critical treatment of the sources requires palaeography, diplomatics, and criticism.", "Apart from that, the approach is not that of a skeptic:\nThe ecclesiastical historian … can by no means exclude the possibility of supernatural factors.", "That God cannot intervene in the course of nature, and that miracles are therefore impossible is an assumption which has not been and cannot be proved, and which makes a correct appreciation of facts in their objective reality impossible.", "Herein appears the difference between the standpoint of the believing Christian historian, who bears in mind not only the existence of God but also the relations of creatures to Him, and that of the rationalistic and infidel historian, who rejects even the possibility of Divine intervention in the course of natural law.", "It is based in teleology:\nThe Christian historian keeps in view the fact that the founder of the Church is the Son of God, and that the Church was instituted by Him in order to communicate to the whole human race, with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, its salvation through Christ.", "It is from this standpoint that the Christian historian estimates all particular events in their relation to the end or purpose of the Church.", "The unbelieving historian on the other hand recognizing only natural forces both at the origin and throughout the development of Christianity, and rejecting the possibility of any supernatural intervention is incapable of appreciating the work of the Church in as far as it is the agent of Divine design.", "As well as taking the Church as its subject matter, it is Church-centered, and takes the Church's teachings at their own estimation:\nThe Catholic historian insists on the supernatural character of the Church, its doctrines, institutions, and standards of life, in so far as they rest on Divine revelation, and acknowledge the continual guidance of the Church by the Holy Ghost.", "All this is for him objective reality, certain truth, and the only foundation for the true, scientific pragmatism of ecclesiastical history.", "The fact that schisms have occurred in Christian history is subordinated to the claim to universality of the Catholic Church, which is not treated as one church among many:\nThe Catholic historian does not admit that the various forms of the Christian religion may be taken, roughly speaking, as a connected whole, nor does he consider them one and all as so many imperfect attempts to adapt the teachings and institutions of Christ to the changing needs of the times, nor as progressive steps towards a future higher unity wherein alone we must seek the perfect ideal of Christianity.", "There is but one Divine revelation given us by Christ, but one ecclesiastical tradition based on it; hence one only Church can be the true one, i. e. the Church in which the aforesaid revelation is found in its entirety, and whose institutions have developed on the basis of this revelation and under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.", "On the other hand, the effect of churches outside the Catholic Church is factored into the discussion.", "The foundation of the Church and the development of fixed standards of ecclesiastical life within the limits of Græco-Roman civilization.", "The Church as a major force in the new Romanic, German, and Slavic states of Europe, the secession of Oriental Christendom from ecclesiastical unity and the final overthrow of the Byzantine empire.", "The collapse of religious unity among the Western European nations, and the reformation from within of Catholic Church faced with Protestantism.", "Immense geographical expansion of the Church, with missionaries in South America, part of North America and numerous in Asia and Africa.", "Some considered the pontificate of Gregory the Great in 590, or, more generally, the end of the 6th and the middle of the 7th century as the close of the first period; others took the Sixth General Council in 680, or the Trullan synod of 692, or the end of the 7th century; others again close the first period with St. Boniface, or with the Iconoclasts, or with Charlemagne.", "For the West, Kraus regards the beginning of the 7th century as the close of the first period; for the East, the end of the same century.", "Similarly, along the line of division between the second and the third periods are crowded events of great importance to ecclesiastical life: the Renaissance with its influence upon all intellectual life, the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, the discovery of the Americas and the new problems which the Church had to solve in consequence, the appearance of Luther and the heresy of Protestantism, the Council of Trent with its decisive influence on the evolution of the interior life of the Church.", "Protestant historians have regarded the appearance of Luther as the beginning of the third period.", "A few Catholic authors (e.g. Kraus) closed the second period with the middle of the 15th century.", "Nor do authors perfectly agree on the turning-points which are to be inserted within the chief periods.", "It is true that the conversion of Constantine the Great affected the life of the Church so profoundly that the reign of this first Christian emperor is generally accepted as marking a sub-division in the first period.", "In the second period, especially prominent personalities usually mark the limits of the several sub-divisions, e.g. Charlemagne, Gregory VII, Boniface VIII, though this leads to the undervaluation of other important factors, e. g. the Greek Schism, the Crusades.", "Recent writers, therefore, assume other boundary lines which emphasize the forces active in the life of the Church rather than prominent personalities.", "In subdividing the third period the same difficulty presents itself.", "Many historians consider the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century as an event of sufficient importance to demand a new epoch; others see a distinct epochal line in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), with which the formation of great Protestant territories came to an end.", "Sources fall naturally into two classes:\n# Remains (\"reliquiae, Ueberreste\") or immediate sources, i. e. such as prove a fact directly, being themselves part or remnant of the fact.", "To this class belong e. g. liturgical customs, ecclesiastical institutions, acts of the popes and councils, art-products, etc.; also monuments set up to commemorate events, e. g. inscriptions.", "# Tradition or mediate sources, i. e. such as rest upon the statements of witnesses who communicate an event to others.", "Tradition may be oral (narrative and legends), written (writings of particular authors), or pictorial (pictures, statues).", "The remains of the Church's past, which give direct evidence of historical facts, are the following:\n# Inscriptions, i.e. texts written on durable material, which were either meant to perpetuate the knowledge of certain acts or which describe the character and purpose of a particular object.", "The Christian inscriptions of different epochs and countries are now accessible in numerous collections.", "# Monuments erected for Christian purposes, especially tombs, sacred edifices, monasteries, hospitals for the sick and pilgrims; objects used in the liturgy or private devotions.", "# Liturgies, rituals, particularly liturgical books of various kinds, which were once used in Divine service.", "# Necrologies and confraternity-books used at the prayers and public services for the living and the dead.\n# Papal acts, Bulls and Briefs to a great extent edited in the papal \"\"Bullaria\", \"Regesta\"\", and special ecclesiastico-national collections.", "# Acts and decrees of general councils and of particular synods.\n# Collections of official decrees of Roman congregations, bishops, and other ecclesiastical authorities.", "# Rules of faith (\"symbola fldei\") drawn up for the public use of the Church, various collections of which have been made.", "# Official collections of ecclesiastical laws juridically obligatory for the whole Church.", "# Rules and constitutions of orders and congregations.", "# Concordats between the ecclesiastical and the secular power.", "# Civil laws, since they often contain matters bearing on religion or of ecclesiastical interest.", "These comprise those sources which rest on tradition alone, and which, unlike the remains, are themselves no part of the fact.", "They are:\n# Collections of acts of the martyrs, of legends and lives of the saints.", "# Collections of lives of the popes (\"Liber Pontificalis\") and of bishops of particular Churches.\n# Works of ecclesiastical writers, which contain information about historical events; to some extent all ecclesiastical literature belongs to this category.", "# Ecclesiastico-historical works, which take on more or less the character of sources, especially for the time in which their authors lived.", "# Pictorial representations (paintings, sculptures, etc.).", "Special auxiliary sciences (e. g. epigraphy, palaeography, numismatics) deal with certain particular kinds of the above-mentioned sources.", "# The study of the languages of the sources, which necessitates the use of lexicons, either general or special (i. e. for the language of particular authors).", "# Palaeography, a methodical introduction to the reading and dating of all kinds of manuscript sources.", "It was first scientifically investigated and formulated by Mabillon, \"De re diplomaticâ\" (Paris, 1681).", "#Diplomatics, which teaches how to examine critically the form and content of historical documents (e. g. charters, privileges), to pronounce on their genuineness, to understand them correctly, and to use them methodically.", "It is usually combined with paleography.", "# Historical Methodology, which enables the student to treat in a correct and critical way all the sources known to him and to combine the results of his researches in a methodical narrative.", "# Bibliography, the practical science of finding quickly the literature bearing on a given ecclesiastico-historical subject.", "# Chronology: how to recognize and fix with accuracy the dates found in the sources.", "The first important chronological investigations were undertaken by Scaliger (\"De emendatione temporum\", Jena, 1629-), Petavius (\"Rationarium temporum\", Leyden, 1624; \"De doctrinâ temporum\", Antwerp, 1703), and the authors of \"Art de vérifier les dates des faits historiques\" (Paris, 1750-).", "# Ecclesiastical Geography and Statistics: the first teaches us to recognize the places in which historical events took place, the other represents the development of the Church and the actual condition of her institutions exhibited synoptically, in tables with corresponding figures, etc.\n# Epigraphy, a guide for the reading and methodical use of the Christian inscriptions on monuments.", "# Christian Archaeology and History of the Fine Arts, from which the student learns how to study scientifically and to use the monuments which owe their origin to Christian influences.", "# Numismatics, the science of the coins of various countries and ages.", "Since not only the popes but also the numerous bishops, who once possessed secular power, exercised the right of coinage, numismatics belongs, at least for certain epochs, to the auxiliary sciences of church history.", "# Sphragistics, or the science of seals (Gk. \"spragis\", a seal).", "Its object is the study of the various seals and stamps used in sealing letters and documents as a guarantee of their authenticity.", "# Heraldry, which teaches the student how to read accurately the coats of arms etc., used by ecclesiastical and secular lords.", "It frequently throws light on the family of historical personages, the time or character of particular events, the history of religious monuments.", "The peoples among which Christianity first spread, possessed a highly developed civilization and a literature rich in works of history.", "Chronicles were compiled in the 3rd century by Julius Africanus and by Hippolytus of Rome, some fragments of which survive.", "It is only during the 4th century that ecclesiastical history, properly so called, makes its appearance.", "Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea in Palestine (died 340) is styled the \"Father of Church History\", and wrote a \"Chronicle\" as well as a \"Church History\".", "The \"Church History\" was an outgrowth of the \"Chronicle\", and first appeared in nine books; it covered the time from the death of Christ to the victories of Constantine and Licinius (312 and 313).", "Eusebius afterwards added a tenth book, which carried the narrative to the victory of Constantine over Licinius (323).", "He sought to set forth in the most favourable light the Christian sentiments of the imperial convert Constantine and his services to the Christian Church, and has been criticised for his partiality towards Constantine and his palliation of the latter's faults.", "A brief historical treatise of Eusebius, \"On the Martyrs of Palestine\", has also been preserved.", "This major Christian historian found several imitators in the first half of the 5th century, but their works survive partially if at all.", "The originals of the first two general narratives of ecclesiastical history after Eusebius have been lost, i.e. the \"Christian History\" of the presbyter Philip of Side, and the \"Church History\" of the Arian Philostorgius.", "Three other early ecclesiastical histories written about this period are also lost, from the presbyter Hesychius of Jerusalem (died 433), the Apollinarian Timotheus of Berytus, and Sabinus of Heraclea.", "About the middle of the 5th century the \"Church History\" of Eusebius was continued simultaneously by three writers.", "All three continuations have reached us.", "The first was written by Socrates Scholasticus, an advocate (\"scholasticus\") of Constantinople, who, in his \"Church History\", which he expressly (I, 1) calls a continuation of the work of Eusebius, describes in seven books the period from 305 (Abdication of Diocletian) to 439.", "The author is honest, exhibits critical acumen in the use of his sources, and has a clear and simple style.", "After him, and frequently making use of his history, comes Hermias Sozomenus (or Sozomen), also an advocate in Constantinople, whose \"Church History\" in nine books comprises the period from 324 to 425.", "Both these writers are surpassed by Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus (died about 458), who, in his \"Church History\", a continuation of the work of Eusebius, describes in five books the period from the beginning of Arianism (320) to the beginning of the Nestorian troubles (428).", "In addition to the writings of his predecessors, Socrates and Sozomen, he also used those of the Latin scholar Rufinus, and wove many documents into his narrative.", "Theodoret wrote also a \"History of the Monks\", in which he sets forth the lives of thirty famous ascetics of the Orient.", "Like the \"History of the Holy Fathers\" or \"Historia Lausiaca\"\", so called from one Lausus to whom the book was dedicated by Palladius, written about 420, this work of Theodoret is one of the principal sources for the history of Oriental monasticism.", "Theodoret also published a \"Compendium of Heretical Falsehoods\", i. e. a short history of heresies with a refutation of each.", "Together with the similar \"Panarion\" of \"Epiphanius\", it offers material on the earliest heresies.", "During the 6th century these historians found other continuators.", "Theodorus Lector compiled a brief compendium from the works of the above-mentioned three continuators of Eusebius: Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret.", "He then wrote in two books an independent continuation of this summary as far as the reign of Emperor Justin I (518-27); only fragments of this work have reached us.", "Zacharias Rhetor, at first an advocate at Berytus in Phoenicia and then (at least from 536) Bishop of Mitylene in the Island of Lesbos, composed, while yet a layman, an ecclesiastical history, which describes the period from 450 to 491, but is mostly taken up with personal experiences of the author in Egypt and Palestine.", "A Syriac version of this work is extant as books III-VI of a Syriac universal history, while there are also extant some chapters in a Latin version.", "Apart from this history, his inclination towards Monophysitism is also apparent from his biography of the Monophysite patriarch, Severus of Antioch, and from his biography of the monk Isaias, two works extant in a Syriac version.", "More important still is the \"Church History\" of Evagrius Scholasticus, who died about the end of the 6th century.", "His work is a continuation of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, and treats in six books the period from 431 to 594.", "It is based on good sources, and borrows from profane historians but occasionally Evagrius is too credulous.", "For Nestorianism and Monophysitism, however, his work deserves careful attention.", "Among the chronicles that belong to the close of Græco-Roman antiquity, special mention is due to the \"Chronicon Paschale\", so called because the Paschal or Easter canon forms the basis of its Christian chronology.", "About the year 700 the Monophysite bishop, John of Nikiu (Egypt) compiled a universal chronicle; its \"notitiae\" are of great value for the 7th century.", "This chronicle has been preserved in an Ethiopic version (\"Chronique de Jean, évêque de Nikiou\", publ.", "par.", "H. Zotenberg, Paris, 1883).", "Zotenberg believes that the work was originally written in Greek and then translated; Nöldeke (\"Gottinger gelehrte Anzeigen\", 1881, 587 sqq.) thinks it more probable that the original was Coptic.", "To the Alexandrian Cosmas, known as the \"Indian Voyager\" we owe a Christian \"topography\" of great value for ecclesiastical geography (ed.", "Montfaucon, \"Collectio nova Patrum et Scriptor.", "græc\", II, Paris, 1706; translated into English by McCrindle, London, 1897).", "Of great value also for ecclesiastical geography are the \"Notitiae episcopatuum\" (\"Taktika\"), or lists of the patriarchal, metropolitan, and episcopal sees of the Greek Church (\"Hieroclis Synecdemus et Notitiae graecae episcopatuum\", ed.", "Parthey, Berlin, 1866; \"Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis Romani\", ed.", "Geizer, Leipzig, 1890).", "A major collection of the early Greek historians of the Church is that of Henri de Valois in three folio volumes (Paris, 1659–73; improved by William Reading, Cambridge, 1720); it contains Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, Evagrius, and the fragments of Philostorgius and Theodorus Lector.", "The ancient Syrian writings of ecclesiastico-historical interest are chiefly Acts of martyrs and hymns to the saints (\"Acta martyrum et sanctorum\", ed.", "Bedjan, Paris, 1890-).", "The \"Chronicle of Edessa\", based on ancient sources, was written in the 6th century (ed.", "Assemani, \"Bibliotheca orientalis\", I, 394).", "In the same century the Monophysite bishop, John of Ephesus, wrote a history of the Church, but only its third part (571 to 586) is preserved (ed.", "William Cureton, Oxford, 1853; tr., Oxford, 1860).", "Lengthy extracts from the second part are found in the annals of Dionysius of Telmera.", "His work covers the years 583-843 (fragments in Assemani, \"Bibliotheca orientalis\", II, 72 sqq.).", "Among the Armenians we meet with versions of Greek and Syriac works.", "The most important native Armenian chronicle of an ecclesiastico-historical character is ascribed to Moses of Chorene, a historical personage of the 5th century.", "The author of the \"History of Greater Armenia\" calls himself Moses of Chorene, and claims to have lived in the 5th century and to have been a disciple of the famous St. Mesrop (q. v.).", "The self-testimony of the compiler must be rejected, since the work makes use of sources of the 6th and 7th centuries, and there is no trace of it to be found in Armenian literature before the 9th century.", "Probably, therefore, it originated about the 8th century.", "In the known manuscripts the work contains three parts: the \"Genealogy of Greater Armenia\" extends to the dynasty of the Arsacides, the \"Middle Period of our Ancestry\" to the death of St. Gregory the Illuminator, and the \"End of the History of our Country\" to the downfall of the Armenian Arsacides (ed.", "Amsterdam, 1695; Venice, 1881; French translation in Langlois, \"Collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'Arménie\", 2 vols., Paris, 1867–9).", "In the Middle Ages there was still extant a fourth part.", "The work seems to be on the whole reliable.", "The ancient history, down to the 2nd or 3rd century after Christ, is based on popular legends.", "Another Armenian historian is Eliseus Vartaped (q. v.).", "Comprehensive ecclesiastico-historical works appear in the Latin West later than in the Greek East.", "The first beginnings of historical science are confined to translations with additions.", "Thus St. Jerome translated the \"Chronicle\" of Eusebius and continued it down to 378.", "At the same time he opened up a special field, the history of Christian literature, in his \"De viris illustribus\"; (\"Chronicon\", ed.", "Schoene, 2 vols., Berlin, 1866–75; \"De vir.", "ill.\", ed.", "Richardson, Leipzig, 1896).", "About 400 the \"Church History\" of Eusebius was translated by Rufinus who added the history of the Church from 318 to 395 in two new books (X and XI).", "Rufinus's continuation was itself soon translated into Greek.", "The latest edition is in the Berlin collection of Greek Christian writings mentioned above in connexion with Eusebius.", "St. Jerome's Latin recension of the \"Chronicle\" of Eusebius was followed later by many other chronicles, among which may be mentioned the works of Prosper, Idacius, Marcellinus, Victor of Tununum, Marius of Avenches, Isidore of Seville, and Venerable Bede.", "In the West, the first independent history of revelation and of the Church was written by Sulpicius Severus, who published in 403 his \"Historia (Chronica) Sacra\" in two books; it reaches from the beginning of the world to about 400 (P. L., XX; ed.", "Hahn, Vienna, 1866).", "It is a short treatise and contains little historical information.", "A little later, Orosius wrote his \"Historia adversus paganos\" in seven books—a universal history from the standpoint of the Christian apologist.", "It begins with the deluge and comes down to 416.", "The purpose of Orosius was to refute the pagan charge that the great misfortunes of the Roman Empire were due to the victory of Christianity (P. L., XXXI; ed.", "Zangemeister, Vienna, 1882).", "With the same end in view, but with a far grander and loftier conception, St. Augustine wrote his famous \"De civitate Dei\", composed between 413 and 428, and issued in sections.", "It is an apologetic philosophy of history from the standpoint of Divine revelation.", "The work is important for church history on account of its numerous historical and archaeological digressions (ed.", "Dombart, 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1877).", "About the middle of the 6th century, Cassiodorus caused the works of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret to be translated into Latin, and then amalgamated this version into one complete narrative under the title \"Historia tripartita\" (P. L., LXIX-LXX).", "Together with the works of Rufinus and Orosius, it was one of the principal sources from which through the Middle Ages the Western peoples drew their knowledge of early church history.", "Rich material for ecclesiastical history is also contained in the national histories of some Western peoples.", "Of the \"History of the Goths\", written by Cassiodorus, we possess only an extract in Jordanis, \"De origine actibusque Getarum\" (ed.", "Mommsen in \"Mon. Germ.", "Hist: Auct.", "antiquissimi\", V., Berlin, 1882).", "Especially important is the \"History of the Franks\" in ten books by Gregory of Tours, which reaches to 591 (ed.", "Arndt, \"Mon. Germ.", "Hist: Scriptores rerum Meroving\", I, Hanover, 1884–5).", "Gregory wrote also a \"Liber de vitâ Patrum\", a work entitled \"In gloriâ martyrum\", and the book \"De virtutibus (i.e. miracles) S. Juliani\" and \"De virtutibus S. Martini\" (ed", ". cit., pt. II, ad. Krusch).", "In the beginning of the 7th century St. Isidore of Seville composed a \"Chronicle of the West Goths\" (\"Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum\", ed.", "Mommsen, \"Chronica Minora\", II, 241–303).", "Several other similar chronicles, from the 4th to the 7th century, were edited by Mommsen in the \"Monumenta Germaniae Historica:", "Auctores Antiquissimi\" under the title of \"Chronica Minora\".", "The second period of church history produced a copious specialized historical literature.", "Its works deal more often with particular nations, dioceses, and abbeys; general histories are rare.", "Moreover, owing to the dominant position of the Church among the Western peoples, ecclesiastical and secular history are in this epoch closely interwoven.", "In the East church history is almost completely identified with the history of the imperial court owing to the close relations of State and Church.", "For the same reason the Byzantine chronicles from Justinian the Great to the destruction of the empire in the middle of the 15th century contain information about the history of the Greek Church.", "The major church historian of the Byzantine period is Nicephorus Callistus, who flourished in the beginning of the 14th century.", "In Syriac we possess the aforesaid chronicle of Dionysius of Telmera.", "Towards the end of the 12th century Michael Kandis, Patriarch of the Jacobites (died 1199), wrote a chronicle from the creation to 1196.", "It is an important source for the history of the Syriac Church after the 6th century, particularly for the history of the Crusades.", "Another patriarch of the Jacobites, Gregory Abulpharagius or Bar-Hebraeus, Maphrian (i. e. primate) of the Syro-Jacobite Church (1266–86), also wrote a universal chronicle in three parts.", "We must also mention the \"Bibliotheca\" (\"Myriobiblon\") of Photios I of Constantinople (died 891), in which about 280 authors are described and passages quoted from them, and the work \"On Heresies\" of St. John Damascene.", "Throughout this period the West was furnishing abundant material for ecclesiastical history, but few genuinely historical works.", "In the 9th century, Haymo, Bishop of Halberstadt (died 853), undertook to write an ecclesiastical history of the first four centuries, taking Rufinus as his principal authority.", "Subsequently, with the aid of Latin versions of Georgius Syncellus, Nicephorus, and especially of Theophanes, to which he added his own material, the Roman Abbot Anastasius Bibliothecarius (the Librarian) wrote a \"Church History\" to the time of Leo the Armenian, who died in 829.", "About the middle of the 12th century, Ordericus Vitalis, Abbot of St. Evroul in Normandy, wrote an \"Historia ecclesiastica\" in thirteen books; it reaches to 1142, and is of especial value for the history of Normandy, England, and the Crusades.", "The Dominican Bartholomew of Lucca, called also Ptolemæus de Fiadonibus (died 1327), covered a longer period.", "His work in twenty-four books reaches to 1313, and was continued to 1361 by Henry of Diessenhofen.", "The \"Flores chronicorum seu Catalogus Pontificum Romanorum\" of Bernard Guidonis, Bishop of Lodève (died 1331), may be counted among the works on the general history of the Church.", "The most extensive, and relatively the best, historical work during this period is the \"Summa Historialis\" of St. Antoninus.", "It deals with secular and ecclesiastical history from the creation to 1457.", "The national histories which appeared towards the end of the last period (of Cassiodorus, Jordanis, Gregory of Tours) were followed by similar works giving the history of other peoples.", "Venerable Bede wrote his admirable \"Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum\", which describes in five books the history of England from the Roman conquest to 731, though treating principally of events after Augustine of Canterbury's mission in 596.", "Paulus Warnefrid (Diaconus) wrote the history of his fellow-Lombards (\"Historia Langobardorum\") from 568 to 733; it still remains the principal source for the history of his people.", "An unknown writer continued it to 774, and in the 9th century the monk Erchembert added the history of the Lombards of Beneventum to 889.", "Paulus wrote also a history of the bishops of Metz (\"Gesta episcoporum Mettensium\", ad.", "in \"Mon. Germ.", "Hist: Script.\", II) and other historical works.", "The Scandinavian North found its ecclesiastical historian in Adam of Bremen; he covers the period between 788 and 1072, and his work is of special importance for the history of the Diocese of Hamburg-Bremen.", "Flodoard (died 966) wrote the history of the Archdiocese of Reims (\"Historia ecclesiæ Remensis\") to 948, a very important source for the history of the Church of France to that time.", "The ecclesiastical history of Northern Germany was described by Albert Crantz, a canon of Hamburg (died 1517), in his \"Metropolis\" or \"Historia de ecclesiis sub Carolo Magno in Saxoniâ instauratis\" (i. e. from 780 to 1504; Frankfort, 1576 and often reprinted).", "Among the special historical works of this period of the Western Church we must mention the \"Liber Pontificalis\", an important collection of papal biographies that take on larger proportions after the 4th century, are occasionally very lengthy in the 8th and 9th centuries, and through various continuations reach to the death of Pope Martin V in 1431.", "The German, Italian, French, and English chronicles, annals, and biographies of this epoch are very numerous.", "With the 16th century a new epoch dawned for ecclesiastical history: historical criticism went hand in hand with the growth of humanist education.", "The sources of historical events were examined as to their authenticity.", "The religious controversies that followed the rise of Protestantism were also an incentive to historical study.", "Printing made possible a rapid distribution of all kinds of writings, so that the sources of church history soon became known and studied in the widest circles, and new works on church history could be circulated in all directions.", "The first large work on church history which appeared in this period was composed in the interests of Lutheranism.", "Mathias Flacius, called \"Illyricus\" (a native of Illyria), united with five other Lutherans (John Wigand, Mathias Judex, Basilius Faber, Andreas Corvinus, and Thomas Holzschuher), to produce an extensive work, that should exhibit the history of the Church as a convincing apology for strict Lutheranism.", "(See \"Centuriators of Magdeburg\".)", "In the \"Centuriæ\", a partisan work, the institutions of the Roman Church appear as works of Satan and darkness.", "It called forth Catholic refutations, particularly that of Cæsar Baronius.", "Urged by Philip Neri, he undertook in 1568 the task of producing an ecclesiastical history, which he brought down to the end of the 12th century and published under the title, \"Annales ecclesiastici\" (12 vols., Rome, 1588–1607).", "Numerous editions and continuations of it then appeared.", "Catholic Church historians", "From the middle of the 17th century French writers were active in ecclesiastico-historical research.", "The writings of the Fathers of the Church and other ancient sources were published in better editions, and the auxiliary sciences of history were well cultivated.", "Antoine Godeau, Bishop of Vence, wrote a \"Histoire de l'église\" reaching to the 9th century (5 vols., Paris, 1655–78; several other editions appeared and the work was translated into Italian and German), and to the Oratorian Cabassut for \"Historia ecclesiastica\" (Lyons, 1685).", "Although the Jesuit Louis Maimbourg did not write a continuous ecclesiastical history, he published numerous treatises (Paris, 1673–83): on Arianism, Iconoclasm, the Greek Schism, struggle between the popes and the emperors, Western Schism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism.", "Among the major ecclesiastical historians of this period are: Noël Alexandre (Natalis Alexander) a Dominican; Claude Fleury, who wrote a \"Histoire ecclésiastique\" in 20 volumes, reaching to 1414 (Paris, 1691–1720) as a moderate Gallican; and Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont.", "To these must be added Bossuet, who, in his \"Discours sur l'histoire universelle\" (Paris, 1681), treated the history of the Church as far as Charlemagne.", "His \"Histoire des variations des églises protestantes\" (2 vols., Paris, 1688) describes the changes which the Waldenses, Albigenses, Wyclifites, and Hussites, as well as Luther and Calvin, made to the fundamental doctrines of the Catholic Church.", "Their successors in the 18th century compare unfavourably with their predecessors, in criticism of their sources and in scientific accuracy.", "The following are noteworthy: François Timoléon de Choisy, \"Histoire de l'Église\" (11 vols.", ", Paris, 1706–23); Bonaventure Racine (Jansenist), \"Abrégé de l'histoire ecclesiastique\" (13 vols., Cologne, properly Paris, 1762–7); Gabriel Ducreu, \"Les siècles chrétiens\" (9 vols., Paris, 1775; 2nd ad.", "in 10 vols., Paris, 1783).", "The widest circulation was attained by the \"Histoire de l'Église\" of Bérault-Bercastel.", "Italy during this period was productive mainly, however, in Christian archæology and special departments of history.", "The names of Cardinals Noris, Bona, and Pallavicini, Archbishop Mansi of Lucca, the Vatican librarian Zacagni, Ferdinando Ughelli, Roncaglia, Bianchini, Muratori, the brothers Pietro and Girolamo Ballerini, Gallandi, and Zaccaria, indicate the extent of historical research carried on in Italy during the 18th century.", "Among the general histories of the Church is the \"Storia Ecclesiastica\" of the Dominican Giuseppe Agostino Orsi.", "A church history of similarly vast proportions was undertaken by the Oratorian Sacarelli.", "A third work, of an even more comprehensive nature and reaching to the beginning of the 18th century, was written by the French Dominican, Hyacinthe Graveson, resident in Italy, \"Historia ecclesiastica variis colloquiia digesta\" (12 vols., Rome, 1717-).", "Mansi continued it in two volumes to 1760.", "Compendia of general church history, widely read, were written by the Augustinian Lorenzo Berti (\"Breviarium historiæ ecclesiasticæ\", Pisa and Turin, 1761–8), who also wrote three volumes of \"Dissertationes historicæ\" (Florence, 1753–6); Carlo Sigonio treated the first three centuries (2 vols., Milan, 1758), and Giuseppe Zola, treats the same period in his \"Commentarium de rebus ecclesiasticis\" (3 vols., Pavia, 1780-), and also wrote \"Prolegomena comment.", "de rebus eccl.\"", "(3 vols., Pavia, 1779).", "In Spain, the Augustinian Enrique Flórez began at this period a monumental work on the ecclesiastical history of Spain, \"España sagrada\", which at the death of the author in 1773 had reached its twenty-ninth volume.", "Manuel Risco continued it to the forty-second volume, and, since his death, it has been carried still nearer to completion, the fifty-first volume appearing in 1886.", "Some special works appeared in Germany, monographs of particular dioceses and monasteries, but general church history was not cultivated until Joseph II had executed his reform of theological studies.", "Among them are Lumper's \"Institutiones historiæ ecclesiasticæ\" (Vienna, 1790); the \"Institutiones historiæ eccl.\"", "of Dannenmeyer (2 vols., Vienna, 1788), relatively the best; the \"Synopsis histor.", "relig.", "et eccles.", "christ.\" of Royko (Prague, 1785); the \"Epitome hist.", "eccl.\" of Gmeiner (2 vols., Gratz, 1787–1803), and similar works by Wolf, Schmalzfuss, Stöger, Becker.", "The Netherlands produced compendia, e. g. those of Mutsaerts (2 vols., Antwerp, 1822), Rosweyde (2 vols., Antwerp, 1622), M. Chefneux (\"Eccl.", "Cathol.", "speculum chronographicum\", 3 vols., Liège, 1666–70).", "Protestant Church historians\nIt was some time after the publication of the \"Magdeburg Centuries\" (see above) before Protestant scholars again undertook extensive independent work in the province of church history.", "Their division into Reformed and Lutherans on the one hand, and the domestic feuds among the Lutherans on the other, were distractions.", "When Protestant scholarship again arose, the Reformed Churches took the lead and retained it into the 18th century.", "This was true not only in the domain of special history, in which they issued important publications (e. g. Bingham's \"Antiquitates ecclesiasticæ\", 1722; the works of Grabe, Beveridge, Blondel, Daillé, Saumaise, Usher, Pearson, Dodwell, etc.), but also in that of general church history.", "Among these writers are: Johann Heinrich Hottinger, whose \"Historia ecclesiastica Novi Test.\"", "(9 vols., Hanover, 1655–67) is hostile to the Catholic Church; Jacques Basnage, the opponent of Bossuet (\"Histoire de l'Église depuis Jésus-Christ jusqu'à présent\", Rotterdam, 1699); Antoine Basnage, the opponent of Baronius (\"Annales politico-eccles.\"", "3 vols., Rotterdam, 1706), and Spanheim (\"Introductio ad hist.", "et antiquit.", "sacr.", "\", Leyden, 1687; \"Historia ecclesiastica\", Leyden, 1701).", "The Reformed Churches produced moreover a number of manuals of church history, e. g. Turettini, \"Hist. eccles.", "compendium\" (Halle, 1750); Venema, \"Institut.", "histor.", "eccl.\"", "(5 vols., Leyden, 1777); Jablonski, \"Institut.", "hist.", "eccl.\"", "(2 vols., Frankfort, 1753).", "Similar Protestant manuals appeared in England, e. g. Milner, \"History of the Church of Christ\" (4 vols., London, 1794); Murray \"History of Religion\" (4 vols., London, 1794), and Priestley, \"History of the Christian Church\".", "Dring the 17th century, the Lutherans produced a \"Compendium histor.", "eccl.\"", "by Seckendorf and Bockler (Gotha, 1670–6).", "But a new era in Lutheran ecclesiastical historiography dates from Arnold's \"Unparteiische Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie\" (2 vols.", ", Frankfort am M., 1699).", "This pietist author is friendly to all the sects, but hostile to the Catholic Church and orthodox Lutheranism.", "Calmer is Eberhard Weissmann's \"Introductio in memorabilia ecclesiastica historiæ sacræ Novi Test.\"", "(2 vols., Tübingen, 1718).", "The Latin historical writings of Joh.", "Lor.", "Mosheim, particularly his \"De rebus christ.", "ante Constantinum Magnum\" (Helmstadt, 1753), and \"Institutiones histor.", "eccles.", "antiquioris et recentioris\" (Helmstadt, 1755), treat the Church as an institution of secular origin.", "His \"Institutiones\" were translated into German and continued by two of his pupils, J. von Einem and Rud.", "Schlegel (Leipzig, 1769-; Heilbronn, 1770-).", "Further progress was made in the works of Pfaff, chancellor of Tübingen (\"Institutiones histor.", "eccl.", "\", Tübingen, 1721), of Baumgarten (\"Auszug der Kirchengeschichte\", 3 vols., Halle, 1743-), Pertsch (\"Versuch einer Kirchengeschichte\", 5 vols, Leipzig, 1736-), Cotta (\"Versuch einer ausführlichen Kirchenhistorie des neuen Testamentes\", 3 vols., Tübingen, 1768–73).", "Specialised works were written by the two Walchs-Joh.", "Georg Walch issuing \"Eine Geschichte der Reigionsstreitigkeiten innerhalb und ausserhalb der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche\" in two parts, each comprising five volumes (Jena, 1733–9) while his son Christian Wilhelm published a lengthy \"ketzergeschichte\", whose eleventh volume reaches to the Iconoclasts (Leipzig, 1762–85).", "The latter also wrote a \"Religionsgeschichte der neuesten Zeit\", beginning with Clement XIV (to which Planck added three volumes), a \"Historie der Kirchenversammlungen\" (Leipzig, 1759), and a \"Historic der röm.", "Päpste\" (Göttingen, 1758).", "The major Lutheran work on general church history is that of J. Mathias Schröckh, a pupil of Mosheim and a professor at Wittenberg: \"Christliche Kirchengeschichte bis zur Reformation\" in thirty-five volumes (Leipzig, 1768–1803), continued as \"Kirchengeschichte seit der Reformation\" in eight volumes (Leipzig, 1803–8), to which Tzschirmer added two others (1810–12).", "The whole work includes forty-five volumes and closes with the beginning of the 19th century.", "The works of Johannes Salomon Semler were his \"Historiæ eccles.", "selecta capita\" (3 vols., Halle 1767-), \"Versuch eines fruchtbaren Auszuges der kirchengeschichte\" (3 parts, Halle, 1778), and \"Versuch christlicher Jahrbücber\" (2 parts, Halle, 1782).", "Most of his contemporaries wrote church history as a chronicle of scandals (\"Scandalchronik\"): superstition, fanaticism, and human passion.", "This spirit is particularly characteristic of Spittler, \"Grundriss der Gesch.", "der christl.", "Kirche\"\" and Henke, \"Allgem.", "Geschichte der chr.", "K.\"", "Romanticism led to an appreciation of the Catholic medieval world, while in all departments of learning there appeared a desire to be objective in judgment.", "The sources of ecclesiastical history were studied via historical criticism.", "It was in Catholic Germany that these changes were first noticeable, particularly in the work of the convert, Count Leopold von Stolberg.", "His \"Geschichte der Religion Jesu Christi\" was issued in fifteen volumes, the first four of which contain the history of the Old Testament and reach to 430.", "Similarly, the less important \"Geschichte der christlichen Kirche\" (9 vols., Ravensburg, 1824–34) by Locherer, rather uncritical and exhibiting the influence of Schröckh, remained unfinished, and reaches only to 1073.", "The excellent \"Geschichte der christlichen Kirche\" by J. Othmar von Rauschen is also incomplete.", "A useful compendium, serious and scientific in character, was begun by Hortig, professor at Landshut, the \"Handbuch der christlichen Kirchengeschichte\".", "He completed two volumes (Landshut, 1821-), and reached the Reformation; a third volume, that brought the work down to the French revolution, was added by his successor Döllinger.", "This scholar, who later on abandoned the Catholic attitude and principles of his earlier days, excelled previous writers.", "Johann Adam Möhler wrote several special historical works and dissertations of exceptional merit.", "His lectures on general church history were published after his death by his pupil, the Benedictine Pius Gams (\"Kirchengeschichte\", 3 vols., Ratisbon, 1867).", "To these larger and epoch-making works must be added several compendia, some of which like Klein (\"Historia ecclesiastica\", Gratz, 1827), Ruttenstock (\"Institutiones hist.", "eccl.", "\", 3 vols., Vienna, 1832–4), Cherrier (\"Instit.", "hist.", "eccl.", "\", 4 vols., Pestini, 1840-), were bare summaries of facts; others, like Ritter (\"Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte\", 3 vols., Bonn, 1830; 6th ed.", "by Ennen, 1861), and Alzog (\"Universalgeschichte der christlichen Kirche\", Mains, 1840; 10th ed.", "by F. X. Kraus, 1882), are lengthy narratives, critical and thorough.", "Particular periods or epochs of ecclesiastical history soon found careful cultivation, e. g. by Riffel, \"Kirchengeschichte der neuen und neuesten Zeit, vom Anfang der Glaubensspaltung im 16.", "Jahrhundert\" (3 vols., Mainz, 1841–6); Damberger, \"Synchronistische Geschichte der Kirche und der Welt im Mittelalter\" (in 15 volumes, Ratisbon, 1850–63; the last volume edited by Rattinger), which reaches to 1378.", "With Döllinger and Möhler we must rank Karl Joseph Hefele, the third of the great German Catholic historians, whose valuable \"Konziliengeschichte\" is really a comprehensive work on general church history;.", "the first seven volumes of the work (Freiburg, 1855–74) reach to 1448.", "A new edition was begun by the author (Freiburg, 1873-); it was carried on by Knöpfler (vole.", "V-VII), while Hergenröther (later cardinal) undertook to continue the work and published two more volumes (VIII-IX, 1887–90); which carry the history of the Councils to the opening of the Council of Trent.", "Hergenröther is the fourth great church historian of Catholic Germany.", "His \"Handbuch der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte\" (3 vols., Freiburg im B., 1876–80; 3rd ed., 1884–6; 4th ed., revised by J. P. Kirsch, 1902 sqq.) exhibits vast erudition and won recognition, even from Protestants as the most independent and instructive Catholic Church history.", "In recent years smaller, but scholarly compendia have been written by Brück, Krause Funk, Knöpfler, Marx, and Weiss.", "Numerous periodicals of a scientific nature bear evidence to the vigorous activity at present displayed in the field of ecclesiastical history, e. g. the \"Kirchengeschichtliche Studien\" (Münster), the \"Quellen und Forschungen aus dem Gebiet der Geschichte\" (Paderborn), the \"Forschungen zur christlichen Literatur- und Dogmengeschichte\" (Mainz and Paderborn), the \"Veröffentlichungen aus dem kirchenhistorischen Seminar München\".", "In France the study of church history was long in attaining the high standard it reached in the 17th century.", "Two extensive narratives of general church history appeared.", "That of Rohrbacher is the better, \"Histoire universelle de l'Église catholique\" (Nancy, 1842–9).", "It exhibits little independent research, but is a diligently executed work, and the author made a generous and skilful use of the best and most recent literature (new ed.", "with continuation by Guillaume, Paris, 1877).", "The second work is by Darras (q. v.).", "In recent years the science of ecclesiastical history has made great progress in France, both as to genuine criticism and thorough scholarly narrative.", "The critical tendency, aroused and sustained principally by Louis Duchesne, continues to flourish and inspires very important works, particularly in special ecclesiastical history.", "Among the writings of Duchesne the \"Histoire ancienne de l'Église\" (2 vols., already issued, Paris, 1906-) deserves particular mention.", "Another important publication is the \"Bibliothèque de l'enseignement de l'histoire ecclésiastique,\" a series of monographs by different authors, of which fourteen volumes have so far appeared (Paris, 1896-), and some have gone through several editions.", "A very useful manual is Marion's \"Histoire de l'Église\" (Paris, 1906).", "The Bollandist de Smedt wrote an \"Introductio generalis in Historiam ecclesiasticam critice tractandam\" (Louvain, 1876).", "A manual of church history was published by Wouters (\"Compendium hist.", "eccl.", "\", 3 vols., Louvain, 1874), who also wrote \"Dissertationes in selecta capita hist.", "eccl.\"", "(6 vols.", "Louvain, 1868–72).", "Josef Andreas Jungmann dealt with general church history to the end of the 18th century in his \"Dissertationes selectæ in historiam ecclesiasticam\".", "The character of ecclesiastico-historical studies at Louvain is seen in the \"Revue d'Histoire Ecclésiastique\" edited by Cauchie and Ladeuze.", "Some manuals appeared in Italy in church history, e. g. Delsignore, \"Institutiones histor.", "eccles.", "\", edited by Tissani (4 vols., Rome, 1837–46); Palma, \"Prælectiones hist.", "eccl.\"", "(4 vols., Rome, 1838–46); Prezziner, Storia della Chiesa (9 vols., Florence, 1822-); Ign.", "Mozzoni, \"Prolegomena alla storia universale della chiesa\" (Florence, 1861), and \"Tavole chronologiche critiche della storia universale della chiesa\" (Venice 1856-).", "Balan published as a continuation of Rohrbacher's universal ecclesiastical history the \"Storia della chiesa dall' anno 1846 sino ai giorni nostri\" (3 vols., Turin, 1886).", "Special works of great value were produced in various departments, above all by Giovanni Battista de Rossi in Christian archæology.", "However, certain recent works on general church history—e. g. Amelli, \"Storia della chiesa\" (2 vols., Milan, 1877); Taglialatelá, \"Lezioni di storia eccles.", "e di archeologia cristiana\" (4 vols., Naples, 1897); Pighi, \"Inst. hist.", "eccl.", "\", I (Verona, 1901)—do not come up to the present standard, at any rate, from the standpoint of methodical and critical treatment.", "The ecclesiastical history of Spain inspired two major works, one by Villanueva (\"Viage literario a las iglesias de España\", Madrid, 1803–21; 1850–2), the other by de la Fuente (\"Historia ecclesiastica de España\", 2nd ed., 2 vols., Madrid, 1873–5).", "In the field of general history, only Amat's \"Historia ecclesiastica o tratado de la Iglesia de Jesu Christo\" (12 vols., Madrid, 1793–1803, 2nd ed. 1807) appeared—not a very thorough work.", "Juan Manuel de Berriozobal wrote \"Historia de la Iglesia en sus primos siglos\" (4 vols., Madrid, 1867).", "The Dominican Francisco Rivaz y Madrazo published a manual (\"Curso de historia ecclesiastica\", 3 vols., 3rd ed., Madrid, 1905).", "The first scientific Catholic manual of church history in Dutch was written by Albers (\"Handboek der algemeene Kerkgeschiedenis\", 2 vols., Nijmegen, 1905–7; 2nd ed., 1908).", "Special ecclesiastical history can point to a multitude of English works.", "A brief Catholic general account of the history of the Church in Scotland is that of T. Walsh, \"History of the Catholic Church in Scotland\" (1876).", "That of Alphons Bellesheim has a full bibliography, translated into English by Dom Hunter-Blair, \"History of the Catholic Church in Scotland\" (4 vols., London, 1887, sqq.).", "A non-Catholic work is Calderwood's \"History of the Kirk\" (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842).", "The first major Catholic work on the general ecclesiastical history of Ireland was that of Lanigan, \"Ecclesiastical History of Ireland\" (4 vols., 2nd ed., Dublin, 1829), reaching only to the beginning of the 13th century.", "A single volume work is that of the Franciscan Michael John Brenan, \"Ecclesiastical History of Ireland\" (2nd edition, Dublin, 1864).", "A learned documentary work is that of John Gilmary Shea, \"History of the Catholic Church in the United States\" (4 vols., New York, 1886).", "O'Gorman's, \"A History of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States\" (New York, 1895), contains a useful bibliography.", "For Australia see Cardinal Moran's \"History of the Catholic Church in Australasia\" (Sydney, 1896).", "Among Protestants, Church history was cultivated chiefly by German Lutherans; their works came to be authoritative among non-Catholics.\nAnother Protestant school is more in sympathy with Semler's views.", "Its first leaders were the so-called \"Neo-Tübingen School\" under Johann Christian Baur, whose ecclesiastico-historical writings are directly anti-Christian: \"Das Christentum und die Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte\" (Tübingen, 1853); \"Die christliche Kirche vom 4.", "bis zum 6. Jahrhundert\" (Tübingen, 1859); \"Die christliche Kirche des Mittelalters\" (Tübingen, 1860); \"Die neuere Zeit\" (Tübingen, 1861–3); \"Das neunzehnte Jahrhundert\" (Tübingen, 1863–73).", "Baur himself and his rationalistic adherents, Schwegler, Ritsçhl, Rothe, wrote also special works on the origins of the Church.", "The \"Allgemeine Kirchengeschichte\" of Gfrörer (7 parts, Stuttgart, 1841), written prior to his conversion, is a product of this spirit.", "Though constantly attacked, this school, whose chief representative was Adolf Harnack, predominated in German Protestantism.", "Möller, in his \"Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte\" writes with moderation; similarly in his \"Kirchengeschichte\" (Tübingen, 1892, sqq.).", "In the 19th century also the Reformed (see above) produced less in the province of general church history than the Lutherans.\nAn important general ecclesiastical history produced by Anglican scholars was edited by W. Stephens and W. Hunt—\"A History of the English Church\" by various writers (Hunt, Stephens, Capes, Gairdner, Hutton, Overton).", "Greek Orthodox writers produced two works of general Church history: the \"Historia Ekklesiastike\" by Diomedes Kyriakus (2 vols., Athens, 1882), and the \"Ekklesiastike historia apo Iesou Christou mechri ton kath hemas chronon\" by Philaretes Bapheides (Constantinople, 1884–)." ]

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[ "The generally identified starting point is Eusebius of Caesarea, and his work \"Church History\"." ]

[ "According to the \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" of 1913, \nEcclesiastical history is the scientific investigation and the methodical description of the temporal development of the Church considered as an institution founded by Jesus Christ and guided by the Holy Ghost for the salvation of mankind.", "...", "[It covers] the life of the Church in all its manifestations from the beginning of its existence to our own day among the various divisions of mankind hitherto reached by Christianity.", "While the Church remains essentially the same despite the changes which she undergoes in time, these changes help to exhibit more fully her internal and external life.", "Its branches therefore include:", "Critical treatment of the sources requires palaeography, diplomatics, and criticism.", "Apart from that, the approach is not that of a skeptic:\nThe ecclesiastical historian … can by no means exclude the possibility of supernatural factors.", "That God cannot intervene in the course of nature, and that miracles are therefore impossible is an assumption which has not been and cannot be proved, and which makes a correct appreciation of facts in their objective reality impossible.", "Herein appears the difference between the standpoint of the believing Christian historian, who bears in mind not only the existence of God but also the relations of creatures to Him, and that of the rationalistic and infidel historian, who rejects even the possibility of Divine intervention in the course of natural law.", "It is based in teleology:\nThe Christian historian keeps in view the fact that the founder of the Church is the Son of God, and that the Church was instituted by Him in order to communicate to the whole human race, with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, its salvation through Christ.", "It is from this standpoint that the Christian historian estimates all particular events in their relation to the end or purpose of the Church.", "The unbelieving historian on the other hand recognizing only natural forces both at the origin and throughout the development of Christianity, and rejecting the possibility of any supernatural intervention is incapable of appreciating the work of the Church in as far as it is the agent of Divine design.", "As well as taking the Church as its subject matter, it is Church-centered, and takes the Church's teachings at their own estimation:\nThe Catholic historian insists on the supernatural character of the Church, its doctrines, institutions, and standards of life, in so far as they rest on Divine revelation, and acknowledge the continual guidance of the Church by the Holy Ghost.", "All this is for him objective reality, certain truth, and the only foundation for the true, scientific pragmatism of ecclesiastical history.", "The fact that schisms have occurred in Christian history is subordinated to the claim to universality of the Catholic Church, which is not treated as one church among many:\nThe Catholic historian does not admit that the various forms of the Christian religion may be taken, roughly speaking, as a connected whole, nor does he consider them one and all as so many imperfect attempts to adapt the teachings and institutions of Christ to the changing needs of the times, nor as progressive steps towards a future higher unity wherein alone we must seek the perfect ideal of Christianity.", "There is but one Divine revelation given us by Christ, but one ecclesiastical tradition based on it; hence one only Church can be the true one, i. e. the Church in which the aforesaid revelation is found in its entirety, and whose institutions have developed on the basis of this revelation and under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.", "On the other hand, the effect of churches outside the Catholic Church is factored into the discussion.", "The foundation of the Church and the development of fixed standards of ecclesiastical life within the limits of Græco-Roman civilization.", "The Church as a major force in the new Romanic, German, and Slavic states of Europe, the secession of Oriental Christendom from ecclesiastical unity and the final overthrow of the Byzantine empire.", "The collapse of religious unity among the Western European nations, and the reformation from within of Catholic Church faced with Protestantism.", "Immense geographical expansion of the Church, with missionaries in South America, part of North America and numerous in Asia and Africa.", "Some considered the pontificate of Gregory the Great in 590, or, more generally, the end of the 6th and the middle of the 7th century as the close of the first period; others took the Sixth General Council in 680, or the Trullan synod of 692, or the end of the 7th century; others again close the first period with St. Boniface, or with the Iconoclasts, or with Charlemagne.", "For the West, Kraus regards the beginning of the 7th century as the close of the first period; for the East, the end of the same century.", "Similarly, along the line of division between the second and the third periods are crowded events of great importance to ecclesiastical life: the Renaissance with its influence upon all intellectual life, the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, the discovery of the Americas and the new problems which the Church had to solve in consequence, the appearance of Luther and the heresy of Protestantism, the Council of Trent with its decisive influence on the evolution of the interior life of the Church.", "Protestant historians have regarded the appearance of Luther as the beginning of the third period.", "A few Catholic authors (e.g. Kraus) closed the second period with the middle of the 15th century.", "Nor do authors perfectly agree on the turning-points which are to be inserted within the chief periods.", "It is true that the conversion of Constantine the Great affected the life of the Church so profoundly that the reign of this first Christian emperor is generally accepted as marking a sub-division in the first period.", "In the second period, especially prominent personalities usually mark the limits of the several sub-divisions, e.g. Charlemagne, Gregory VII, Boniface VIII, though this leads to the undervaluation of other important factors, e. g. the Greek Schism, the Crusades.", "Recent writers, therefore, assume other boundary lines which emphasize the forces active in the life of the Church rather than prominent personalities.", "In subdividing the third period the same difficulty presents itself.", "Many historians consider the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century as an event of sufficient importance to demand a new epoch; others see a distinct epochal line in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), with which the formation of great Protestant territories came to an end.", "Sources fall naturally into two classes:\n# Remains (\"reliquiae, Ueberreste\") or immediate sources, i. e. such as prove a fact directly, being themselves part or remnant of the fact.", "To this class belong e. g. liturgical customs, ecclesiastical institutions, acts of the popes and councils, art-products, etc.; also monuments set up to commemorate events, e. g. inscriptions.", "# Tradition or mediate sources, i. e. such as rest upon the statements of witnesses who communicate an event to others.", "Tradition may be oral (narrative and legends), written (writings of particular authors), or pictorial (pictures, statues).", "The remains of the Church's past, which give direct evidence of historical facts, are the following:\n# Inscriptions, i.e. texts written on durable material, which were either meant to perpetuate the knowledge of certain acts or which describe the character and purpose of a particular object.", "The Christian inscriptions of different epochs and countries are now accessible in numerous collections.", "# Monuments erected for Christian purposes, especially tombs, sacred edifices, monasteries, hospitals for the sick and pilgrims; objects used in the liturgy or private devotions.", "# Liturgies, rituals, particularly liturgical books of various kinds, which were once used in Divine service.", "# Necrologies and confraternity-books used at the prayers and public services for the living and the dead.\n# Papal acts, Bulls and Briefs to a great extent edited in the papal \"\"Bullaria\", \"Regesta\"\", and special ecclesiastico-national collections.", "# Acts and decrees of general councils and of particular synods.\n# Collections of official decrees of Roman congregations, bishops, and other ecclesiastical authorities.", "# Rules of faith (\"symbola fldei\") drawn up for the public use of the Church, various collections of which have been made.", "# Official collections of ecclesiastical laws juridically obligatory for the whole Church.", "# Rules and constitutions of orders and congregations.", "# Concordats between the ecclesiastical and the secular power.", "# Civil laws, since they often contain matters bearing on religion or of ecclesiastical interest.", "These comprise those sources which rest on tradition alone, and which, unlike the remains, are themselves no part of the fact.", "They are:\n# Collections of acts of the martyrs, of legends and lives of the saints.", "# Collections of lives of the popes (\"Liber Pontificalis\") and of bishops of particular Churches.\n# Works of ecclesiastical writers, which contain information about historical events; to some extent all ecclesiastical literature belongs to this category.", "# Ecclesiastico-historical works, which take on more or less the character of sources, especially for the time in which their authors lived.", "# Pictorial representations (paintings, sculptures, etc.).", "Special auxiliary sciences (e. g. epigraphy, palaeography, numismatics) deal with certain particular kinds of the above-mentioned sources.", "# The study of the languages of the sources, which necessitates the use of lexicons, either general or special (i. e. for the language of particular authors).", "# Palaeography, a methodical introduction to the reading and dating of all kinds of manuscript sources.", "It was first scientifically investigated and formulated by Mabillon, \"De re diplomaticâ\" (Paris, 1681).", "#Diplomatics, which teaches how to examine critically the form and content of historical documents (e. g. charters, privileges), to pronounce on their genuineness, to understand them correctly, and to use them methodically.", "It is usually combined with paleography.", "# Historical Methodology, which enables the student to treat in a correct and critical way all the sources known to him and to combine the results of his researches in a methodical narrative.", "# Bibliography, the practical science of finding quickly the literature bearing on a given ecclesiastico-historical subject.", "# Chronology: how to recognize and fix with accuracy the dates found in the sources.", "The first important chronological investigations were undertaken by Scaliger (\"De emendatione temporum\", Jena, 1629-), Petavius (\"Rationarium temporum\", Leyden, 1624; \"De doctrinâ temporum\", Antwerp, 1703), and the authors of \"Art de vérifier les dates des faits historiques\" (Paris, 1750-).", "# Ecclesiastical Geography and Statistics: the first teaches us to recognize the places in which historical events took place, the other represents the development of the Church and the actual condition of her institutions exhibited synoptically, in tables with corresponding figures, etc.\n# Epigraphy, a guide for the reading and methodical use of the Christian inscriptions on monuments.", "# Christian Archaeology and History of the Fine Arts, from which the student learns how to study scientifically and to use the monuments which owe their origin to Christian influences.", "# Numismatics, the science of the coins of various countries and ages.", "Since not only the popes but also the numerous bishops, who once possessed secular power, exercised the right of coinage, numismatics belongs, at least for certain epochs, to the auxiliary sciences of church history.", "# Sphragistics, or the science of seals (Gk. \"spragis\", a seal).", "Its object is the study of the various seals and stamps used in sealing letters and documents as a guarantee of their authenticity.", "# Heraldry, which teaches the student how to read accurately the coats of arms etc., used by ecclesiastical and secular lords.", "It frequently throws light on the family of historical personages, the time or character of particular events, the history of religious monuments.", "The peoples among which Christianity first spread, possessed a highly developed civilization and a literature rich in works of history.", "Chronicles were compiled in the 3rd century by Julius Africanus and by Hippolytus of Rome, some fragments of which survive.", "It is only during the 4th century that ecclesiastical history, properly so called, makes its appearance.", "Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea in Palestine (died 340) is styled the \"Father of Church History\", and wrote a \"Chronicle\" as well as a \"Church History\".", "The \"Church History\" was an outgrowth of the \"Chronicle\", and first appeared in nine books; it covered the time from the death of Christ to the victories of Constantine and Licinius (312 and 313).", "Eusebius afterwards added a tenth book, which carried the narrative to the victory of Constantine over Licinius (323).", "He sought to set forth in the most favourable light the Christian sentiments of the imperial convert Constantine and his services to the Christian Church, and has been criticised for his partiality towards Constantine and his palliation of the latter's faults.", "A brief historical treatise of Eusebius, \"On the Martyrs of Palestine\", has also been preserved.", "This major Christian historian found several imitators in the first half of the 5th century, but their works survive partially if at all.", "The originals of the first two general narratives of ecclesiastical history after Eusebius have been lost, i.e. the \"Christian History\" of the presbyter Philip of Side, and the \"Church History\" of the Arian Philostorgius.", "Three other early ecclesiastical histories written about this period are also lost, from the presbyter Hesychius of Jerusalem (died 433), the Apollinarian Timotheus of Berytus, and Sabinus of Heraclea.", "About the middle of the 5th century the \"Church History\" of Eusebius was continued simultaneously by three writers.", "All three continuations have reached us.", "The first was written by Socrates Scholasticus, an advocate (\"scholasticus\") of Constantinople, who, in his \"Church History\", which he expressly (I, 1) calls a continuation of the work of Eusebius, describes in seven books the period from 305 (Abdication of Diocletian) to 439.", "The author is honest, exhibits critical acumen in the use of his sources, and has a clear and simple style.", "After him, and frequently making use of his history, comes Hermias Sozomenus (or Sozomen), also an advocate in Constantinople, whose \"Church History\" in nine books comprises the period from 324 to 425.", "Both these writers are surpassed by Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus (died about 458), who, in his \"Church History\", a continuation of the work of Eusebius, describes in five books the period from the beginning of Arianism (320) to the beginning of the Nestorian troubles (428).", "In addition to the writings of his predecessors, Socrates and Sozomen, he also used those of the Latin scholar Rufinus, and wove many documents into his narrative.", "Theodoret wrote also a \"History of the Monks\", in which he sets forth the lives of thirty famous ascetics of the Orient.", "Like the \"History of the Holy Fathers\" or \"Historia Lausiaca\"\", so called from one Lausus to whom the book was dedicated by Palladius, written about 420, this work of Theodoret is one of the principal sources for the history of Oriental monasticism.", "Theodoret also published a \"Compendium of Heretical Falsehoods\", i. e. a short history of heresies with a refutation of each.", "Together with the similar \"Panarion\" of \"Epiphanius\", it offers material on the earliest heresies.", "During the 6th century these historians found other continuators.", "Theodorus Lector compiled a brief compendium from the works of the above-mentioned three continuators of Eusebius: Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret.", "He then wrote in two books an independent continuation of this summary as far as the reign of Emperor Justin I (518-27); only fragments of this work have reached us.", "Zacharias Rhetor, at first an advocate at Berytus in Phoenicia and then (at least from 536) Bishop of Mitylene in the Island of Lesbos, composed, while yet a layman, an ecclesiastical history, which describes the period from 450 to 491, but is mostly taken up with personal experiences of the author in Egypt and Palestine.", "A Syriac version of this work is extant as books III-VI of a Syriac universal history, while there are also extant some chapters in a Latin version.", "Apart from this history, his inclination towards Monophysitism is also apparent from his biography of the Monophysite patriarch, Severus of Antioch, and from his biography of the monk Isaias, two works extant in a Syriac version.", "More important still is the \"Church History\" of Evagrius Scholasticus, who died about the end of the 6th century.", "His work is a continuation of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, and treats in six books the period from 431 to 594.", "It is based on good sources, and borrows from profane historians but occasionally Evagrius is too credulous.", "For Nestorianism and Monophysitism, however, his work deserves careful attention.", "Among the chronicles that belong to the close of Græco-Roman antiquity, special mention is due to the \"Chronicon Paschale\", so called because the Paschal or Easter canon forms the basis of its Christian chronology.", "About the year 700 the Monophysite bishop, John of Nikiu (Egypt) compiled a universal chronicle; its \"notitiae\" are of great value for the 7th century.", "This chronicle has been preserved in an Ethiopic version (\"Chronique de Jean, évêque de Nikiou\", publ.", "par.", "H. Zotenberg, Paris, 1883).", "Zotenberg believes that the work was originally written in Greek and then translated; Nöldeke (\"Gottinger gelehrte Anzeigen\", 1881, 587 sqq.) thinks it more probable that the original was Coptic.", "To the Alexandrian Cosmas, known as the \"Indian Voyager\" we owe a Christian \"topography\" of great value for ecclesiastical geography (ed.", "Montfaucon, \"Collectio nova Patrum et Scriptor.", "græc\", II, Paris, 1706; translated into English by McCrindle, London, 1897).", "Of great value also for ecclesiastical geography are the \"Notitiae episcopatuum\" (\"Taktika\"), or lists of the patriarchal, metropolitan, and episcopal sees of the Greek Church (\"Hieroclis Synecdemus et Notitiae graecae episcopatuum\", ed.", "Parthey, Berlin, 1866; \"Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis Romani\", ed.", "Geizer, Leipzig, 1890).", "A major collection of the early Greek historians of the Church is that of Henri de Valois in three folio volumes (Paris, 1659–73; improved by William Reading, Cambridge, 1720); it contains Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, Evagrius, and the fragments of Philostorgius and Theodorus Lector.", "The ancient Syrian writings of ecclesiastico-historical interest are chiefly Acts of martyrs and hymns to the saints (\"Acta martyrum et sanctorum\", ed.", "Bedjan, Paris, 1890-).", "The \"Chronicle of Edessa\", based on ancient sources, was written in the 6th century (ed.", "Assemani, \"Bibliotheca orientalis\", I, 394).", "In the same century the Monophysite bishop, John of Ephesus, wrote a history of the Church, but only its third part (571 to 586) is preserved (ed.", "William Cureton, Oxford, 1853; tr., Oxford, 1860).", "Lengthy extracts from the second part are found in the annals of Dionysius of Telmera.", "His work covers the years 583-843 (fragments in Assemani, \"Bibliotheca orientalis\", II, 72 sqq.).", "Among the Armenians we meet with versions of Greek and Syriac works.", "The most important native Armenian chronicle of an ecclesiastico-historical character is ascribed to Moses of Chorene, a historical personage of the 5th century.", "The author of the \"History of Greater Armenia\" calls himself Moses of Chorene, and claims to have lived in the 5th century and to have been a disciple of the famous St. Mesrop (q. v.).", "The self-testimony of the compiler must be rejected, since the work makes use of sources of the 6th and 7th centuries, and there is no trace of it to be found in Armenian literature before the 9th century.", "Probably, therefore, it originated about the 8th century.", "In the known manuscripts the work contains three parts: the \"Genealogy of Greater Armenia\" extends to the dynasty of the Arsacides, the \"Middle Period of our Ancestry\" to the death of St. Gregory the Illuminator, and the \"End of the History of our Country\" to the downfall of the Armenian Arsacides (ed.", "Amsterdam, 1695; Venice, 1881; French translation in Langlois, \"Collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'Arménie\", 2 vols., Paris, 1867–9).", "In the Middle Ages there was still extant a fourth part.", "The work seems to be on the whole reliable.", "The ancient history, down to the 2nd or 3rd century after Christ, is based on popular legends.", "Another Armenian historian is Eliseus Vartaped (q. v.).", "Comprehensive ecclesiastico-historical works appear in the Latin West later than in the Greek East.", "The first beginnings of historical science are confined to translations with additions.", "Thus St. Jerome translated the \"Chronicle\" of Eusebius and continued it down to 378.", "At the same time he opened up a special field, the history of Christian literature, in his \"De viris illustribus\"; (\"Chronicon\", ed.", "Schoene, 2 vols., Berlin, 1866–75; \"De vir.", "ill.\", ed.", "Richardson, Leipzig, 1896).", "About 400 the \"Church History\" of Eusebius was translated by Rufinus who added the history of the Church from 318 to 395 in two new books (X and XI).", "Rufinus's continuation was itself soon translated into Greek.", "The latest edition is in the Berlin collection of Greek Christian writings mentioned above in connexion with Eusebius.", "St. Jerome's Latin recension of the \"Chronicle\" of Eusebius was followed later by many other chronicles, among which may be mentioned the works of Prosper, Idacius, Marcellinus, Victor of Tununum, Marius of Avenches, Isidore of Seville, and Venerable Bede.", "In the West, the first independent history of revelation and of the Church was written by Sulpicius Severus, who published in 403 his \"Historia (Chronica) Sacra\" in two books; it reaches from the beginning of the world to about 400 (P. L., XX; ed.", "Hahn, Vienna, 1866).", "It is a short treatise and contains little historical information.", "A little later, Orosius wrote his \"Historia adversus paganos\" in seven books—a universal history from the standpoint of the Christian apologist.", "It begins with the deluge and comes down to 416.", "The purpose of Orosius was to refute the pagan charge that the great misfortunes of the Roman Empire were due to the victory of Christianity (P. L., XXXI; ed.", "Zangemeister, Vienna, 1882).", "With the same end in view, but with a far grander and loftier conception, St. Augustine wrote his famous \"De civitate Dei\", composed between 413 and 428, and issued in sections.", "It is an apologetic philosophy of history from the standpoint of Divine revelation.", "The work is important for church history on account of its numerous historical and archaeological digressions (ed.", "Dombart, 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1877).", "About the middle of the 6th century, Cassiodorus caused the works of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret to be translated into Latin, and then amalgamated this version into one complete narrative under the title \"Historia tripartita\" (P. L., LXIX-LXX).", "Together with the works of Rufinus and Orosius, it was one of the principal sources from which through the Middle Ages the Western peoples drew their knowledge of early church history.", "Rich material for ecclesiastical history is also contained in the national histories of some Western peoples.", "Of the \"History of the Goths\", written by Cassiodorus, we possess only an extract in Jordanis, \"De origine actibusque Getarum\" (ed.", "Mommsen in \"Mon. Germ.", "Hist: Auct.", "antiquissimi\", V., Berlin, 1882).", "Especially important is the \"History of the Franks\" in ten books by Gregory of Tours, which reaches to 591 (ed.", "Arndt, \"Mon. Germ.", "Hist: Scriptores rerum Meroving\", I, Hanover, 1884–5).", "Gregory wrote also a \"Liber de vitâ Patrum\", a work entitled \"In gloriâ martyrum\", and the book \"De virtutibus (i.e. miracles) S. Juliani\" and \"De virtutibus S. Martini\" (ed", ". cit., pt. II, ad. Krusch).", "In the beginning of the 7th century St. Isidore of Seville composed a \"Chronicle of the West Goths\" (\"Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum\", ed.", "Mommsen, \"Chronica Minora\", II, 241–303).", "Several other similar chronicles, from the 4th to the 7th century, were edited by Mommsen in the \"Monumenta Germaniae Historica:", "Auctores Antiquissimi\" under the title of \"Chronica Minora\".", "The second period of church history produced a copious specialized historical literature.", "Its works deal more often with particular nations, dioceses, and abbeys; general histories are rare.", "Moreover, owing to the dominant position of the Church among the Western peoples, ecclesiastical and secular history are in this epoch closely interwoven.", "In the East church history is almost completely identified with the history of the imperial court owing to the close relations of State and Church.", "For the same reason the Byzantine chronicles from Justinian the Great to the destruction of the empire in the middle of the 15th century contain information about the history of the Greek Church.", "The major church historian of the Byzantine period is Nicephorus Callistus, who flourished in the beginning of the 14th century.", "In Syriac we possess the aforesaid chronicle of Dionysius of Telmera.", "Towards the end of the 12th century Michael Kandis, Patriarch of the Jacobites (died 1199), wrote a chronicle from the creation to 1196.", "It is an important source for the history of the Syriac Church after the 6th century, particularly for the history of the Crusades.", "Another patriarch of the Jacobites, Gregory Abulpharagius or Bar-Hebraeus, Maphrian (i. e. primate) of the Syro-Jacobite Church (1266–86), also wrote a universal chronicle in three parts.", "We must also mention the \"Bibliotheca\" (\"Myriobiblon\") of Photios I of Constantinople (died 891), in which about 280 authors are described and passages quoted from them, and the work \"On Heresies\" of St. John Damascene.", "Throughout this period the West was furnishing abundant material for ecclesiastical history, but few genuinely historical works.", "In the 9th century, Haymo, Bishop of Halberstadt (died 853), undertook to write an ecclesiastical history of the first four centuries, taking Rufinus as his principal authority.", "Subsequently, with the aid of Latin versions of Georgius Syncellus, Nicephorus, and especially of Theophanes, to which he added his own material, the Roman Abbot Anastasius Bibliothecarius (the Librarian) wrote a \"Church History\" to the time of Leo the Armenian, who died in 829.", "About the middle of the 12th century, Ordericus Vitalis, Abbot of St. Evroul in Normandy, wrote an \"Historia ecclesiastica\" in thirteen books; it reaches to 1142, and is of especial value for the history of Normandy, England, and the Crusades.", "The Dominican Bartholomew of Lucca, called also Ptolemæus de Fiadonibus (died 1327), covered a longer period.", "His work in twenty-four books reaches to 1313, and was continued to 1361 by Henry of Diessenhofen.", "The \"Flores chronicorum seu Catalogus Pontificum Romanorum\" of Bernard Guidonis, Bishop of Lodève (died 1331), may be counted among the works on the general history of the Church.", "The most extensive, and relatively the best, historical work during this period is the \"Summa Historialis\" of St. Antoninus.", "It deals with secular and ecclesiastical history from the creation to 1457.", "The national histories which appeared towards the end of the last period (of Cassiodorus, Jordanis, Gregory of Tours) were followed by similar works giving the history of other peoples.", "Venerable Bede wrote his admirable \"Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum\", which describes in five books the history of England from the Roman conquest to 731, though treating principally of events after Augustine of Canterbury's mission in 596.", "Paulus Warnefrid (Diaconus) wrote the history of his fellow-Lombards (\"Historia Langobardorum\") from 568 to 733; it still remains the principal source for the history of his people.", "An unknown writer continued it to 774, and in the 9th century the monk Erchembert added the history of the Lombards of Beneventum to 889.", "Paulus wrote also a history of the bishops of Metz (\"Gesta episcoporum Mettensium\", ad.", "in \"Mon. Germ.", "Hist: Script.\", II) and other historical works.", "The Scandinavian North found its ecclesiastical historian in Adam of Bremen; he covers the period between 788 and 1072, and his work is of special importance for the history of the Diocese of Hamburg-Bremen.", "Flodoard (died 966) wrote the history of the Archdiocese of Reims (\"Historia ecclesiæ Remensis\") to 948, a very important source for the history of the Church of France to that time.", "The ecclesiastical history of Northern Germany was described by Albert Crantz, a canon of Hamburg (died 1517), in his \"Metropolis\" or \"Historia de ecclesiis sub Carolo Magno in Saxoniâ instauratis\" (i. e. from 780 to 1504; Frankfort, 1576 and often reprinted).", "Among the special historical works of this period of the Western Church we must mention the \"Liber Pontificalis\", an important collection of papal biographies that take on larger proportions after the 4th century, are occasionally very lengthy in the 8th and 9th centuries, and through various continuations reach to the death of Pope Martin V in 1431.", "The German, Italian, French, and English chronicles, annals, and biographies of this epoch are very numerous.", "With the 16th century a new epoch dawned for ecclesiastical history: historical criticism went hand in hand with the growth of humanist education.", "The sources of historical events were examined as to their authenticity.", "The religious controversies that followed the rise of Protestantism were also an incentive to historical study.", "Printing made possible a rapid distribution of all kinds of writings, so that the sources of church history soon became known and studied in the widest circles, and new works on church history could be circulated in all directions.", "The first large work on church history which appeared in this period was composed in the interests of Lutheranism.", "Mathias Flacius, called \"Illyricus\" (a native of Illyria), united with five other Lutherans (John Wigand, Mathias Judex, Basilius Faber, Andreas Corvinus, and Thomas Holzschuher), to produce an extensive work, that should exhibit the history of the Church as a convincing apology for strict Lutheranism.", "(See \"Centuriators of Magdeburg\".)", "In the \"Centuriæ\", a partisan work, the institutions of the Roman Church appear as works of Satan and darkness.", "It called forth Catholic refutations, particularly that of Cæsar Baronius.", "Urged by Philip Neri, he undertook in 1568 the task of producing an ecclesiastical history, which he brought down to the end of the 12th century and published under the title, \"Annales ecclesiastici\" (12 vols., Rome, 1588–1607).", "Numerous editions and continuations of it then appeared.", "Catholic Church historians", "From the middle of the 17th century French writers were active in ecclesiastico-historical research.", "The writings of the Fathers of the Church and other ancient sources were published in better editions, and the auxiliary sciences of history were well cultivated.", "Antoine Godeau, Bishop of Vence, wrote a \"Histoire de l'église\" reaching to the 9th century (5 vols., Paris, 1655–78; several other editions appeared and the work was translated into Italian and German), and to the Oratorian Cabassut for \"Historia ecclesiastica\" (Lyons, 1685).", "Although the Jesuit Louis Maimbourg did not write a continuous ecclesiastical history, he published numerous treatises (Paris, 1673–83): on Arianism, Iconoclasm, the Greek Schism, struggle between the popes and the emperors, Western Schism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism.", "Among the major ecclesiastical historians of this period are: Noël Alexandre (Natalis Alexander) a Dominican; Claude Fleury, who wrote a \"Histoire ecclésiastique\" in 20 volumes, reaching to 1414 (Paris, 1691–1720) as a moderate Gallican; and Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont.", "To these must be added Bossuet, who, in his \"Discours sur l'histoire universelle\" (Paris, 1681), treated the history of the Church as far as Charlemagne.", "His \"Histoire des variations des églises protestantes\" (2 vols., Paris, 1688) describes the changes which the Waldenses, Albigenses, Wyclifites, and Hussites, as well as Luther and Calvin, made to the fundamental doctrines of the Catholic Church.", "Their successors in the 18th century compare unfavourably with their predecessors, in criticism of their sources and in scientific accuracy.", "The following are noteworthy: François Timoléon de Choisy, \"Histoire de l'Église\" (11 vols.", ", Paris, 1706–23); Bonaventure Racine (Jansenist), \"Abrégé de l'histoire ecclesiastique\" (13 vols., Cologne, properly Paris, 1762–7); Gabriel Ducreu, \"Les siècles chrétiens\" (9 vols., Paris, 1775; 2nd ad.", "in 10 vols., Paris, 1783).", "The widest circulation was attained by the \"Histoire de l'Église\" of Bérault-Bercastel.", "Italy during this period was productive mainly, however, in Christian archæology and special departments of history.", "The names of Cardinals Noris, Bona, and Pallavicini, Archbishop Mansi of Lucca, the Vatican librarian Zacagni, Ferdinando Ughelli, Roncaglia, Bianchini, Muratori, the brothers Pietro and Girolamo Ballerini, Gallandi, and Zaccaria, indicate the extent of historical research carried on in Italy during the 18th century.", "Among the general histories of the Church is the \"Storia Ecclesiastica\" of the Dominican Giuseppe Agostino Orsi.", "A church history of similarly vast proportions was undertaken by the Oratorian Sacarelli.", "A third work, of an even more comprehensive nature and reaching to the beginning of the 18th century, was written by the French Dominican, Hyacinthe Graveson, resident in Italy, \"Historia ecclesiastica variis colloquiia digesta\" (12 vols., Rome, 1717-).", "Mansi continued it in two volumes to 1760.", "Compendia of general church history, widely read, were written by the Augustinian Lorenzo Berti (\"Breviarium historiæ ecclesiasticæ\", Pisa and Turin, 1761–8), who also wrote three volumes of \"Dissertationes historicæ\" (Florence, 1753–6); Carlo Sigonio treated the first three centuries (2 vols., Milan, 1758), and Giuseppe Zola, treats the same period in his \"Commentarium de rebus ecclesiasticis\" (3 vols., Pavia, 1780-), and also wrote \"Prolegomena comment.", "de rebus eccl.\"", "(3 vols., Pavia, 1779).", "In Spain, the Augustinian Enrique Flórez began at this period a monumental work on the ecclesiastical history of Spain, \"España sagrada\", which at the death of the author in 1773 had reached its twenty-ninth volume.", "Manuel Risco continued it to the forty-second volume, and, since his death, it has been carried still nearer to completion, the fifty-first volume appearing in 1886.", "Some special works appeared in Germany, monographs of particular dioceses and monasteries, but general church history was not cultivated until Joseph II had executed his reform of theological studies.", "Among them are Lumper's \"Institutiones historiæ ecclesiasticæ\" (Vienna, 1790); the \"Institutiones historiæ eccl.\"", "of Dannenmeyer (2 vols., Vienna, 1788), relatively the best; the \"Synopsis histor.", "relig.", "et eccles.", "christ.\" of Royko (Prague, 1785); the \"Epitome hist.", "eccl.\" of Gmeiner (2 vols., Gratz, 1787–1803), and similar works by Wolf, Schmalzfuss, Stöger, Becker.", "The Netherlands produced compendia, e. g. those of Mutsaerts (2 vols., Antwerp, 1822), Rosweyde (2 vols., Antwerp, 1622), M. Chefneux (\"Eccl.", "Cathol.", "speculum chronographicum\", 3 vols., Liège, 1666–70).", "Protestant Church historians\nIt was some time after the publication of the \"Magdeburg Centuries\" (see above) before Protestant scholars again undertook extensive independent work in the province of church history.", "Their division into Reformed and Lutherans on the one hand, and the domestic feuds among the Lutherans on the other, were distractions.", "When Protestant scholarship again arose, the Reformed Churches took the lead and retained it into the 18th century.", "This was true not only in the domain of special history, in which they issued important publications (e. g. Bingham's \"Antiquitates ecclesiasticæ\", 1722; the works of Grabe, Beveridge, Blondel, Daillé, Saumaise, Usher, Pearson, Dodwell, etc.), but also in that of general church history.", "Among these writers are: Johann Heinrich Hottinger, whose \"Historia ecclesiastica Novi Test.\"", "(9 vols., Hanover, 1655–67) is hostile to the Catholic Church; Jacques Basnage, the opponent of Bossuet (\"Histoire de l'Église depuis Jésus-Christ jusqu'à présent\", Rotterdam, 1699); Antoine Basnage, the opponent of Baronius (\"Annales politico-eccles.\"", "3 vols., Rotterdam, 1706), and Spanheim (\"Introductio ad hist.", "et antiquit.", "sacr.", "\", Leyden, 1687; \"Historia ecclesiastica\", Leyden, 1701).", "The Reformed Churches produced moreover a number of manuals of church history, e. g. Turettini, \"Hist. eccles.", "compendium\" (Halle, 1750); Venema, \"Institut.", "histor.", "eccl.\"", "(5 vols., Leyden, 1777); Jablonski, \"Institut.", "hist.", "eccl.\"", "(2 vols., Frankfort, 1753).", "Similar Protestant manuals appeared in England, e. g. Milner, \"History of the Church of Christ\" (4 vols., London, 1794); Murray \"History of Religion\" (4 vols., London, 1794), and Priestley, \"History of the Christian Church\".", "Dring the 17th century, the Lutherans produced a \"Compendium histor.", "eccl.\"", "by Seckendorf and Bockler (Gotha, 1670–6).", "But a new era in Lutheran ecclesiastical historiography dates from Arnold's \"Unparteiische Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie\" (2 vols.", ", Frankfort am M., 1699).", "This pietist author is friendly to all the sects, but hostile to the Catholic Church and orthodox Lutheranism.", "Calmer is Eberhard Weissmann's \"Introductio in memorabilia ecclesiastica historiæ sacræ Novi Test.\"", "(2 vols., Tübingen, 1718).", "The Latin historical writings of Joh.", "Lor.", "Mosheim, particularly his \"De rebus christ.", "ante Constantinum Magnum\" (Helmstadt, 1753), and \"Institutiones histor.", "eccles.", "antiquioris et recentioris\" (Helmstadt, 1755), treat the Church as an institution of secular origin.", "His \"Institutiones\" were translated into German and continued by two of his pupils, J. von Einem and Rud.", "Schlegel (Leipzig, 1769-; Heilbronn, 1770-).", "Further progress was made in the works of Pfaff, chancellor of Tübingen (\"Institutiones histor.", "eccl.", "\", Tübingen, 1721), of Baumgarten (\"Auszug der Kirchengeschichte\", 3 vols., Halle, 1743-), Pertsch (\"Versuch einer Kirchengeschichte\", 5 vols, Leipzig, 1736-), Cotta (\"Versuch einer ausführlichen Kirchenhistorie des neuen Testamentes\", 3 vols., Tübingen, 1768–73).", "Specialised works were written by the two Walchs-Joh.", "Georg Walch issuing \"Eine Geschichte der Reigionsstreitigkeiten innerhalb und ausserhalb der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche\" in two parts, each comprising five volumes (Jena, 1733–9) while his son Christian Wilhelm published a lengthy \"ketzergeschichte\", whose eleventh volume reaches to the Iconoclasts (Leipzig, 1762–85).", "The latter also wrote a \"Religionsgeschichte der neuesten Zeit\", beginning with Clement XIV (to which Planck added three volumes), a \"Historie der Kirchenversammlungen\" (Leipzig, 1759), and a \"Historic der röm.", "Päpste\" (Göttingen, 1758).", "The major Lutheran work on general church history is that of J. Mathias Schröckh, a pupil of Mosheim and a professor at Wittenberg: \"Christliche Kirchengeschichte bis zur Reformation\" in thirty-five volumes (Leipzig, 1768–1803), continued as \"Kirchengeschichte seit der Reformation\" in eight volumes (Leipzig, 1803–8), to which Tzschirmer added two others (1810–12).", "The whole work includes forty-five volumes and closes with the beginning of the 19th century.", "The works of Johannes Salomon Semler were his \"Historiæ eccles.", "selecta capita\" (3 vols., Halle 1767-), \"Versuch eines fruchtbaren Auszuges der kirchengeschichte\" (3 parts, Halle, 1778), and \"Versuch christlicher Jahrbücber\" (2 parts, Halle, 1782).", "Most of his contemporaries wrote church history as a chronicle of scandals (\"Scandalchronik\"): superstition, fanaticism, and human passion.", "This spirit is particularly characteristic of Spittler, \"Grundriss der Gesch.", "der christl.", "Kirche\"\" and Henke, \"Allgem.", "Geschichte der chr.", "K.\"", "Romanticism led to an appreciation of the Catholic medieval world, while in all departments of learning there appeared a desire to be objective in judgment.", "The sources of ecclesiastical history were studied via historical criticism.", "It was in Catholic Germany that these changes were first noticeable, particularly in the work of the convert, Count Leopold von Stolberg.", "His \"Geschichte der Religion Jesu Christi\" was issued in fifteen volumes, the first four of which contain the history of the Old Testament and reach to 430.", "Similarly, the less important \"Geschichte der christlichen Kirche\" (9 vols., Ravensburg, 1824–34) by Locherer, rather uncritical and exhibiting the influence of Schröckh, remained unfinished, and reaches only to 1073.", "The excellent \"Geschichte der christlichen Kirche\" by J. Othmar von Rauschen is also incomplete.", "A useful compendium, serious and scientific in character, was begun by Hortig, professor at Landshut, the \"Handbuch der christlichen Kirchengeschichte\".", "He completed two volumes (Landshut, 1821-), and reached the Reformation; a third volume, that brought the work down to the French revolution, was added by his successor Döllinger.", "This scholar, who later on abandoned the Catholic attitude and principles of his earlier days, excelled previous writers.", "Johann Adam Möhler wrote several special historical works and dissertations of exceptional merit.", "His lectures on general church history were published after his death by his pupil, the Benedictine Pius Gams (\"Kirchengeschichte\", 3 vols., Ratisbon, 1867).", "To these larger and epoch-making works must be added several compendia, some of which like Klein (\"Historia ecclesiastica\", Gratz, 1827), Ruttenstock (\"Institutiones hist.", "eccl.", "\", 3 vols., Vienna, 1832–4), Cherrier (\"Instit.", "hist.", "eccl.", "\", 4 vols., Pestini, 1840-), were bare summaries of facts; others, like Ritter (\"Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte\", 3 vols., Bonn, 1830; 6th ed.", "by Ennen, 1861), and Alzog (\"Universalgeschichte der christlichen Kirche\", Mains, 1840; 10th ed.", "by F. X. Kraus, 1882), are lengthy narratives, critical and thorough.", "Particular periods or epochs of ecclesiastical history soon found careful cultivation, e. g. by Riffel, \"Kirchengeschichte der neuen und neuesten Zeit, vom Anfang der Glaubensspaltung im 16.", "Jahrhundert\" (3 vols., Mainz, 1841–6); Damberger, \"Synchronistische Geschichte der Kirche und der Welt im Mittelalter\" (in 15 volumes, Ratisbon, 1850–63; the last volume edited by Rattinger), which reaches to 1378.", "With Döllinger and Möhler we must rank Karl Joseph Hefele, the third of the great German Catholic historians, whose valuable \"Konziliengeschichte\" is really a comprehensive work on general church history;.", "the first seven volumes of the work (Freiburg, 1855–74) reach to 1448.", "A new edition was begun by the author (Freiburg, 1873-); it was carried on by Knöpfler (vole.", "V-VII), while Hergenröther (later cardinal) undertook to continue the work and published two more volumes (VIII-IX, 1887–90); which carry the history of the Councils to the opening of the Council of Trent.", "Hergenröther is the fourth great church historian of Catholic Germany.", "His \"Handbuch der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte\" (3 vols., Freiburg im B., 1876–80; 3rd ed., 1884–6; 4th ed., revised by J. P. Kirsch, 1902 sqq.) exhibits vast erudition and won recognition, even from Protestants as the most independent and instructive Catholic Church history.", "In recent years smaller, but scholarly compendia have been written by Brück, Krause Funk, Knöpfler, Marx, and Weiss.", "Numerous periodicals of a scientific nature bear evidence to the vigorous activity at present displayed in the field of ecclesiastical history, e. g. the \"Kirchengeschichtliche Studien\" (Münster), the \"Quellen und Forschungen aus dem Gebiet der Geschichte\" (Paderborn), the \"Forschungen zur christlichen Literatur- und Dogmengeschichte\" (Mainz and Paderborn), the \"Veröffentlichungen aus dem kirchenhistorischen Seminar München\".", "In France the study of church history was long in attaining the high standard it reached in the 17th century.", "Two extensive narratives of general church history appeared.", "That of Rohrbacher is the better, \"Histoire universelle de l'Église catholique\" (Nancy, 1842–9).", "It exhibits little independent research, but is a diligently executed work, and the author made a generous and skilful use of the best and most recent literature (new ed.", "with continuation by Guillaume, Paris, 1877).", "The second work is by Darras (q. v.).", "In recent years the science of ecclesiastical history has made great progress in France, both as to genuine criticism and thorough scholarly narrative.", "The critical tendency, aroused and sustained principally by Louis Duchesne, continues to flourish and inspires very important works, particularly in special ecclesiastical history.", "Among the writings of Duchesne the \"Histoire ancienne de l'Église\" (2 vols., already issued, Paris, 1906-) deserves particular mention.", "Another important publication is the \"Bibliothèque de l'enseignement de l'histoire ecclésiastique,\" a series of monographs by different authors, of which fourteen volumes have so far appeared (Paris, 1896-), and some have gone through several editions.", "A very useful manual is Marion's \"Histoire de l'Église\" (Paris, 1906).", "The Bollandist de Smedt wrote an \"Introductio generalis in Historiam ecclesiasticam critice tractandam\" (Louvain, 1876).", "A manual of church history was published by Wouters (\"Compendium hist.", "eccl.", "\", 3 vols., Louvain, 1874), who also wrote \"Dissertationes in selecta capita hist.", "eccl.\"", "(6 vols.", "Louvain, 1868–72).", "Josef Andreas Jungmann dealt with general church history to the end of the 18th century in his \"Dissertationes selectæ in historiam ecclesiasticam\".", "The character of ecclesiastico-historical studies at Louvain is seen in the \"Revue d'Histoire Ecclésiastique\" edited by Cauchie and Ladeuze.", "Some manuals appeared in Italy in church history, e. g. Delsignore, \"Institutiones histor.", "eccles.", "\", edited by Tissani (4 vols., Rome, 1837–46); Palma, \"Prælectiones hist.", "eccl.\"", "(4 vols., Rome, 1838–46); Prezziner, Storia della Chiesa (9 vols., Florence, 1822-); Ign.", "Mozzoni, \"Prolegomena alla storia universale della chiesa\" (Florence, 1861), and \"Tavole chronologiche critiche della storia universale della chiesa\" (Venice 1856-).", "Balan published as a continuation of Rohrbacher's universal ecclesiastical history the \"Storia della chiesa dall' anno 1846 sino ai giorni nostri\" (3 vols., Turin, 1886).", "Special works of great value were produced in various departments, above all by Giovanni Battista de Rossi in Christian archæology.", "However, certain recent works on general church history—e. g. Amelli, \"Storia della chiesa\" (2 vols., Milan, 1877); Taglialatelá, \"Lezioni di storia eccles.", "e di archeologia cristiana\" (4 vols., Naples, 1897); Pighi, \"Inst. hist.", "eccl.", "\", I (Verona, 1901)—do not come up to the present standard, at any rate, from the standpoint of methodical and critical treatment.", "The ecclesiastical history of Spain inspired two major works, one by Villanueva (\"Viage literario a las iglesias de España\", Madrid, 1803–21; 1850–2), the other by de la Fuente (\"Historia ecclesiastica de España\", 2nd ed., 2 vols., Madrid, 1873–5).", "In the field of general history, only Amat's \"Historia ecclesiastica o tratado de la Iglesia de Jesu Christo\" (12 vols., Madrid, 1793–1803, 2nd ed. 1807) appeared—not a very thorough work.", "Juan Manuel de Berriozobal wrote \"Historia de la Iglesia en sus primos siglos\" (4 vols., Madrid, 1867).", "The Dominican Francisco Rivaz y Madrazo published a manual (\"Curso de historia ecclesiastica\", 3 vols., 3rd ed., Madrid, 1905).", "The first scientific Catholic manual of church history in Dutch was written by Albers (\"Handboek der algemeene Kerkgeschiedenis\", 2 vols., Nijmegen, 1905–7; 2nd ed., 1908).", "Special ecclesiastical history can point to a multitude of English works.", "A brief Catholic general account of the history of the Church in Scotland is that of T. Walsh, \"History of the Catholic Church in Scotland\" (1876).", "That of Alphons Bellesheim has a full bibliography, translated into English by Dom Hunter-Blair, \"History of the Catholic Church in Scotland\" (4 vols., London, 1887, sqq.).", "A non-Catholic work is Calderwood's \"History of the Kirk\" (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842).", "The first major Catholic work on the general ecclesiastical history of Ireland was that of Lanigan, \"Ecclesiastical History of Ireland\" (4 vols., 2nd ed., Dublin, 1829), reaching only to the beginning of the 13th century.", "A single volume work is that of the Franciscan Michael John Brenan, \"Ecclesiastical History of Ireland\" (2nd edition, Dublin, 1864).", "A learned documentary work is that of John Gilmary Shea, \"History of the Catholic Church in the United States\" (4 vols., New York, 1886).", "O'Gorman's, \"A History of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States\" (New York, 1895), contains a useful bibliography.", "For Australia see Cardinal Moran's \"History of the Catholic Church in Australasia\" (Sydney, 1896).", "Among Protestants, Church history was cultivated chiefly by German Lutherans; their works came to be authoritative among non-Catholics.\nAnother Protestant school is more in sympathy with Semler's views.", "Its first leaders were the so-called \"Neo-Tübingen School\" under Johann Christian Baur, whose ecclesiastico-historical writings are directly anti-Christian: \"Das Christentum und die Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte\" (Tübingen, 1853); \"Die christliche Kirche vom 4.", "bis zum 6. Jahrhundert\" (Tübingen, 1859); \"Die christliche Kirche des Mittelalters\" (Tübingen, 1860); \"Die neuere Zeit\" (Tübingen, 1861–3); \"Das neunzehnte Jahrhundert\" (Tübingen, 1863–73).", "Baur himself and his rationalistic adherents, Schwegler, Ritsçhl, Rothe, wrote also special works on the origins of the Church.", "The \"Allgemeine Kirchengeschichte\" of Gfrörer (7 parts, Stuttgart, 1841), written prior to his conversion, is a product of this spirit.", "Though constantly attacked, this school, whose chief representative was Adolf Harnack, predominated in German Protestantism.", "Möller, in his \"Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte\" writes with moderation; similarly in his \"Kirchengeschichte\" (Tübingen, 1892, sqq.).", "In the 19th century also the Reformed (see above) produced less in the province of general church history than the Lutherans.\nAn important general ecclesiastical history produced by Anglican scholars was edited by W. Stephens and W. Hunt—\"A History of the English Church\" by various writers (Hunt, Stephens, Capes, Gairdner, Hutton, Overton).", "Greek Orthodox writers produced two works of general Church history: the \"Historia Ekklesiastike\" by Diomedes Kyriakus (2 vols., Athens, 1882), and the \"Ekklesiastike historia apo Iesou Christou mechri ton kath hemas chronon\" by Philaretes Bapheides (Constantinople, 1884–)." ]

[ 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203 ]

[ "The generally identified starting point is Eusebius of Caesarea, and his work \"Church History\"." ]

[ "Calvin Barnes found the community in the 1880's, originally naming it \"Barnesville.\"", "Barnes' home was the first structure built, followed by a grain elevator.", "Barnes had a post office open in 1884 that stayed in operation until 1919.", "Walter and Alta Weber opened a general store in 1921.", "The small community was layed out along the Illinois Central, northeast of Bloomington-Normal.", "Hopeful planning resulted in four streets and over 20 commercial lots.", "However, the population never even grew to double digits.", "Only a few of the elevator structures remain." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ]

[ "Barnes is an unincorporated community in McLean County, Illinois." ]

[ "Started by Cassell & Company in 1892 as a weekly newspaper for boys, it was apparently modeled on — and in competition for readers with — \"The Boy's Own Paper\", having articles and stories covering various topics.", "\"Chums\" launched with a serial \"For Glory and Renown\" by D. H. Parry and articles on football training, Harrow School, and Julius Caesar in Britain.", "Initially \"Chums\" had problems gaining readers but two serials, \"The Iron Pirate\", by first editor Max Pemberton in 1892, and \"Treasure Island\" by Robert Louis Stevenson in 1894, pushed the paper into some success.", "It is interesting to note that when \"Treasure Island\" was first published as a serial in \"Young Folks\" in 1881, it was not a success.", "Robert Leighton, a sub-editor, said that as a serial, it was a failure, as it took too long to get to the action.", "Amalgamated Press bought \"Chums\" in January 1927 and continued it as a weekly.", "With the 2 July 1932 issue, its publishing schedule was reduced to a monthly issue.", "The last monthly issue was in July 1934 and became an annual publication issued in September.", "The serial ceased publication with its 9 September 1941 issue due to wartime paper shortages.", "\"Chums\" was issued in three different formats, weekly, monthly, and annually.", "While initially published as a weekly paper, a monthly edition was issued including all the weekly issues with a color cover.", "Some material was only included in the weekly or monthly formats.", "In the weekly, this showed up as an eight-page article insert pages numbered i-viii.", "The monthly had a color print included.", "\"Chums\"' \"On the Watch Tower\" news column reported on 11 September 1907 that Robert Baden-Powell's Brownsea Island Scout camp was proposed and his recommendation that Boy Scout groups should be formed.", "In the 12 February 1908 issue, the editor indicated there was a reader proposing to start a scout company under the \"Chum Scout\" name and suggested that they wear the 'Chums' League badge.", "In the next issue, the editor indicated more readers had written in about starting a League of Chums Scouts with a reply that they were in discussions with Baden-Powell.", "The following issue had an article on the Brownsea Island Camp by Baden-Powell and indicated future news on the proposed 'Chums' League of Scouts.", "However, the publication then fell silent on the 'Chum' Scouts.", "In October 1908, a recurring character, Waggles, made fun of boy scouts.", "The silence, then the turnabout to being negative may have stemmed from C. Arthur Pearson Limited launching \"The Scout\" paper which was denoted as \"founded by\" Baden-Powell and the \"Official Journal\" of Baden-Powell's own Boy Scout organization.", "In June 1909, \"Chums\" started including boy scout stories.", "In the 30 June issue, the editor's column indicated that the Chum scouts patrols were still going \"strong\" and that a union of the various patrols was being considered.", "\"Chums\" announced the launch of the British Boy Scouts as a national organisation in the 21 July 1909 issue.", "A British Boy Scout column was included in future issues, later becoming a full page.", "Chums indicated in late December that the BBS had gained members in Australia, Africa, and Canada.", "\"Chums\" also includes some of the earliest references to \"Sea Scouts\".", "In mid-1911, the BBS column ended when the original BBS leaders, H. Moore and W.G. Whitby, left the BBS.", "In March 1909, \"Chums\" sponsored The British Boys Naval Brigade, a uniformed youth organization for boys ages 10 to 17.", "With the Brigade's launch in May as a national organization, it changed its name to The National Naval Cadets.", "The organization's columns in \"Chums\" were of an instructional nature rather than a news journal.", "\"Chums\" was also used as an enrolment tool.", "By June articles on the National Naval Cadets subtitled it, first as \"Scouts of the Sea\" then later \"Sea Scouts of the Empire\".", "The British Boy Scouts and National Naval Cadets were both headquartered in Battersea, London.", "\"Chums\" referred to them together as Chums United Service.", "The following list of authors is by no means complete:", "The following artist represent only some of those who illustrated stories in \"Chums\"" ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ]

[ "Chums was a boys' weekly newspaper started in 1892 by Cassell & Company and later, from 1927, published by Amalgamated Press.", "The serial ceased publication in 1941." ]

[ "Started by Cassell & Company in 1892 as a weekly newspaper for boys, it was apparently modeled on — and in competition for readers with — \"The Boy's Own Paper\", having articles and stories covering various topics.", "\"Chums\" launched with a serial \"For Glory and Renown\" by D. H. Parry and articles on football training, Harrow School, and Julius Caesar in Britain.", "Initially \"Chums\" had problems gaining readers but two serials, \"The Iron Pirate\", by first editor Max Pemberton in 1892, and \"Treasure Island\" by Robert Louis Stevenson in 1894, pushed the paper into some success.", "It is interesting to note that when \"Treasure Island\" was first published as a serial in \"Young Folks\" in 1881, it was not a success.", "Robert Leighton, a sub-editor, said that as a serial, it was a failure, as it took too long to get to the action.", "Amalgamated Press bought \"Chums\" in January 1927 and continued it as a weekly.", "With the 2 July 1932 issue, its publishing schedule was reduced to a monthly issue.", "The last monthly issue was in July 1934 and became an annual publication issued in September.", "The serial ceased publication with its 9 September 1941 issue due to wartime paper shortages.", "\"Chums\" was issued in three different formats, weekly, monthly, and annually.", "While initially published as a weekly paper, a monthly edition was issued including all the weekly issues with a color cover.", "Some material was only included in the weekly or monthly formats.", "In the weekly, this showed up as an eight-page article insert pages numbered i-viii.", "The monthly had a color print included.", "\"Chums\"' \"On the Watch Tower\" news column reported on 11 September 1907 that Robert Baden-Powell's Brownsea Island Scout camp was proposed and his recommendation that Boy Scout groups should be formed.", "In the 12 February 1908 issue, the editor indicated there was a reader proposing to start a scout company under the \"Chum Scout\" name and suggested that they wear the 'Chums' League badge.", "In the next issue, the editor indicated more readers had written in about starting a League of Chums Scouts with a reply that they were in discussions with Baden-Powell.", "The following issue had an article on the Brownsea Island Camp by Baden-Powell and indicated future news on the proposed 'Chums' League of Scouts.", "However, the publication then fell silent on the 'Chum' Scouts.", "In October 1908, a recurring character, Waggles, made fun of boy scouts.", "The silence, then the turnabout to being negative may have stemmed from C. Arthur Pearson Limited launching \"The Scout\" paper which was denoted as \"founded by\" Baden-Powell and the \"Official Journal\" of Baden-Powell's own Boy Scout organization.", "In June 1909, \"Chums\" started including boy scout stories.", "In the 30 June issue, the editor's column indicated that the Chum scouts patrols were still going \"strong\" and that a union of the various patrols was being considered.", "\"Chums\" announced the launch of the British Boy Scouts as a national organisation in the 21 July 1909 issue.", "A British Boy Scout column was included in future issues, later becoming a full page.", "Chums indicated in late December that the BBS had gained members in Australia, Africa, and Canada.", "\"Chums\" also includes some of the earliest references to \"Sea Scouts\".", "In mid-1911, the BBS column ended when the original BBS leaders, H. Moore and W.G. Whitby, left the BBS.", "In March 1909, \"Chums\" sponsored The British Boys Naval Brigade, a uniformed youth organization for boys ages 10 to 17.", "With the Brigade's launch in May as a national organization, it changed its name to The National Naval Cadets.", "The organization's columns in \"Chums\" were of an instructional nature rather than a news journal.", "\"Chums\" was also used as an enrolment tool.", "By June articles on the National Naval Cadets subtitled it, first as \"Scouts of the Sea\" then later \"Sea Scouts of the Empire\".", "The British Boy Scouts and National Naval Cadets were both headquartered in Battersea, London.", "\"Chums\" referred to them together as Chums United Service.", "The following list of authors is by no means complete:", "The following artist represent only some of those who illustrated stories in \"Chums\"" ]

[ 5, 6, 7, 8 ]

[ "The serial ceased publication in 1941." ]

[ "Started by Cassell & Company in 1892 as a weekly newspaper for boys, it was apparently modeled on — and in competition for readers with — \"The Boy's Own Paper\", having articles and stories covering various topics.", "\"Chums\" launched with a serial \"For Glory and Renown\" by D. H. Parry and articles on football training, Harrow School, and Julius Caesar in Britain.", "Initially \"Chums\" had problems gaining readers but two serials, \"The Iron Pirate\", by first editor Max Pemberton in 1892, and \"Treasure Island\" by Robert Louis Stevenson in 1894, pushed the paper into some success.", "It is interesting to note that when \"Treasure Island\" was first published as a serial in \"Young Folks\" in 1881, it was not a success.", "Robert Leighton, a sub-editor, said that as a serial, it was a failure, as it took too long to get to the action.", "Amalgamated Press bought \"Chums\" in January 1927 and continued it as a weekly.", "With the 2 July 1932 issue, its publishing schedule was reduced to a monthly issue.", "The last monthly issue was in July 1934 and became an annual publication issued in September.", "The serial ceased publication with its 9 September 1941 issue due to wartime paper shortages.", "\"Chums\" was issued in three different formats, weekly, monthly, and annually.", "While initially published as a weekly paper, a monthly edition was issued including all the weekly issues with a color cover.", "Some material was only included in the weekly or monthly formats.", "In the weekly, this showed up as an eight-page article insert pages numbered i-viii.", "The monthly had a color print included.", "\"Chums\"' \"On the Watch Tower\" news column reported on 11 September 1907 that Robert Baden-Powell's Brownsea Island Scout camp was proposed and his recommendation that Boy Scout groups should be formed.", "In the 12 February 1908 issue, the editor indicated there was a reader proposing to start a scout company under the \"Chum Scout\" name and suggested that they wear the 'Chums' League badge.", "In the next issue, the editor indicated more readers had written in about starting a League of Chums Scouts with a reply that they were in discussions with Baden-Powell.", "The following issue had an article on the Brownsea Island Camp by Baden-Powell and indicated future news on the proposed 'Chums' League of Scouts.", "However, the publication then fell silent on the 'Chum' Scouts.", "In October 1908, a recurring character, Waggles, made fun of boy scouts.", "The silence, then the turnabout to being negative may have stemmed from C. Arthur Pearson Limited launching \"The Scout\" paper which was denoted as \"founded by\" Baden-Powell and the \"Official Journal\" of Baden-Powell's own Boy Scout organization.", "In June 1909, \"Chums\" started including boy scout stories.", "In the 30 June issue, the editor's column indicated that the Chum scouts patrols were still going \"strong\" and that a union of the various patrols was being considered.", "\"Chums\" announced the launch of the British Boy Scouts as a national organisation in the 21 July 1909 issue.", "A British Boy Scout column was included in future issues, later becoming a full page.", "Chums indicated in late December that the BBS had gained members in Australia, Africa, and Canada.", "\"Chums\" also includes some of the earliest references to \"Sea Scouts\".", "In mid-1911, the BBS column ended when the original BBS leaders, H. Moore and W.G. Whitby, left the BBS.", "In March 1909, \"Chums\" sponsored The British Boys Naval Brigade, a uniformed youth organization for boys ages 10 to 17.", "With the Brigade's launch in May as a national organization, it changed its name to The National Naval Cadets.", "The organization's columns in \"Chums\" were of an instructional nature rather than a news journal.", "\"Chums\" was also used as an enrolment tool.", "By June articles on the National Naval Cadets subtitled it, first as \"Scouts of the Sea\" then later \"Sea Scouts of the Empire\".", "The British Boy Scouts and National Naval Cadets were both headquartered in Battersea, London.", "\"Chums\" referred to them together as Chums United Service.", "The following list of authors is by no means complete:", "The following artist represent only some of those who illustrated stories in \"Chums\"" ]

[ 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 ]

[ "The publisher gathered the weekly paper into monthly and annual editions.", "From then on, the monthly editions had all the story content of the weeklies, but left out the covers." ]

[ "Started by Cassell & Company in 1892 as a weekly newspaper for boys, it was apparently modeled on — and in competition for readers with — \"The Boy's Own Paper\", having articles and stories covering various topics.", "\"Chums\" launched with a serial \"For Glory and Renown\" by D. H. Parry and articles on football training, Harrow School, and Julius Caesar in Britain.", "Initially \"Chums\" had problems gaining readers but two serials, \"The Iron Pirate\", by first editor Max Pemberton in 1892, and \"Treasure Island\" by Robert Louis Stevenson in 1894, pushed the paper into some success.", "It is interesting to note that when \"Treasure Island\" was first published as a serial in \"Young Folks\" in 1881, it was not a success.", "Robert Leighton, a sub-editor, said that as a serial, it was a failure, as it took too long to get to the action.", "Amalgamated Press bought \"Chums\" in January 1927 and continued it as a weekly.", "With the 2 July 1932 issue, its publishing schedule was reduced to a monthly issue.", "The last monthly issue was in July 1934 and became an annual publication issued in September.", "The serial ceased publication with its 9 September 1941 issue due to wartime paper shortages.", "\"Chums\" was issued in three different formats, weekly, monthly, and annually.", "While initially published as a weekly paper, a monthly edition was issued including all the weekly issues with a color cover.", "Some material was only included in the weekly or monthly formats.", "In the weekly, this showed up as an eight-page article insert pages numbered i-viii.", "The monthly had a color print included.", "\"Chums\"' \"On the Watch Tower\" news column reported on 11 September 1907 that Robert Baden-Powell's Brownsea Island Scout camp was proposed and his recommendation that Boy Scout groups should be formed.", "In the 12 February 1908 issue, the editor indicated there was a reader proposing to start a scout company under the \"Chum Scout\" name and suggested that they wear the 'Chums' League badge.", "In the next issue, the editor indicated more readers had written in about starting a League of Chums Scouts with a reply that they were in discussions with Baden-Powell.", "The following issue had an article on the Brownsea Island Camp by Baden-Powell and indicated future news on the proposed 'Chums' League of Scouts.", "However, the publication then fell silent on the 'Chum' Scouts.", "In October 1908, a recurring character, Waggles, made fun of boy scouts.", "The silence, then the turnabout to being negative may have stemmed from C. Arthur Pearson Limited launching \"The Scout\" paper which was denoted as \"founded by\" Baden-Powell and the \"Official Journal\" of Baden-Powell's own Boy Scout organization.", "In June 1909, \"Chums\" started including boy scout stories.", "In the 30 June issue, the editor's column indicated that the Chum scouts patrols were still going \"strong\" and that a union of the various patrols was being considered.", "\"Chums\" announced the launch of the British Boy Scouts as a national organisation in the 21 July 1909 issue.", "A British Boy Scout column was included in future issues, later becoming a full page.", "Chums indicated in late December that the BBS had gained members in Australia, Africa, and Canada.", "\"Chums\" also includes some of the earliest references to \"Sea Scouts\".", "In mid-1911, the BBS column ended when the original BBS leaders, H. Moore and W.G. Whitby, left the BBS.", "In March 1909, \"Chums\" sponsored The British Boys Naval Brigade, a uniformed youth organization for boys ages 10 to 17.", "With the Brigade's launch in May as a national organization, it changed its name to The National Naval Cadets.", "The organization's columns in \"Chums\" were of an instructional nature rather than a news journal.", "\"Chums\" was also used as an enrolment tool.", "By June articles on the National Naval Cadets subtitled it, first as \"Scouts of the Sea\" then later \"Sea Scouts of the Empire\".", "The British Boy Scouts and National Naval Cadets were both headquartered in Battersea, London.", "\"Chums\" referred to them together as Chums United Service.", "The following list of authors is by no means complete:", "The following artist represent only some of those who illustrated stories in \"Chums\"" ]

[ 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 ]

[ "\"Chums\" was notably the sponsor of the Chums League, Chums Society of Stamp Collectors, Chums Scouts, the British Boy Scouts and the British Boys Naval Brigade/National Naval Cadets." ]

[ "Started by Cassell & Company in 1892 as a weekly newspaper for boys, it was apparently modeled on — and in competition for readers with — \"The Boy's Own Paper\", having articles and stories covering various topics.", "\"Chums\" launched with a serial \"For Glory and Renown\" by D. H. Parry and articles on football training, Harrow School, and Julius Caesar in Britain.", "Initially \"Chums\" had problems gaining readers but two serials, \"The Iron Pirate\", by first editor Max Pemberton in 1892, and \"Treasure Island\" by Robert Louis Stevenson in 1894, pushed the paper into some success.", "It is interesting to note that when \"Treasure Island\" was first published as a serial in \"Young Folks\" in 1881, it was not a success.", "Robert Leighton, a sub-editor, said that as a serial, it was a failure, as it took too long to get to the action.", "Amalgamated Press bought \"Chums\" in January 1927 and continued it as a weekly.", "With the 2 July 1932 issue, its publishing schedule was reduced to a monthly issue.", "The last monthly issue was in July 1934 and became an annual publication issued in September.", "The serial ceased publication with its 9 September 1941 issue due to wartime paper shortages.", "\"Chums\" was issued in three different formats, weekly, monthly, and annually.", "While initially published as a weekly paper, a monthly edition was issued including all the weekly issues with a color cover.", "Some material was only included in the weekly or monthly formats.", "In the weekly, this showed up as an eight-page article insert pages numbered i-viii.", "The monthly had a color print included.", "\"Chums\"' \"On the Watch Tower\" news column reported on 11 September 1907 that Robert Baden-Powell's Brownsea Island Scout camp was proposed and his recommendation that Boy Scout groups should be formed.", "In the 12 February 1908 issue, the editor indicated there was a reader proposing to start a scout company under the \"Chum Scout\" name and suggested that they wear the 'Chums' League badge.", "In the next issue, the editor indicated more readers had written in about starting a League of Chums Scouts with a reply that they were in discussions with Baden-Powell.", "The following issue had an article on the Brownsea Island Camp by Baden-Powell and indicated future news on the proposed 'Chums' League of Scouts.", "However, the publication then fell silent on the 'Chum' Scouts.", "In October 1908, a recurring character, Waggles, made fun of boy scouts.", "The silence, then the turnabout to being negative may have stemmed from C. Arthur Pearson Limited launching \"The Scout\" paper which was denoted as \"founded by\" Baden-Powell and the \"Official Journal\" of Baden-Powell's own Boy Scout organization.", "In June 1909, \"Chums\" started including boy scout stories.", "In the 30 June issue, the editor's column indicated that the Chum scouts patrols were still going \"strong\" and that a union of the various patrols was being considered.", "\"Chums\" announced the launch of the British Boy Scouts as a national organisation in the 21 July 1909 issue.", "A British Boy Scout column was included in future issues, later becoming a full page.", "Chums indicated in late December that the BBS had gained members in Australia, Africa, and Canada.", "\"Chums\" also includes some of the earliest references to \"Sea Scouts\".", "In mid-1911, the BBS column ended when the original BBS leaders, H. Moore and W.G. Whitby, left the BBS.", "In March 1909, \"Chums\" sponsored The British Boys Naval Brigade, a uniformed youth organization for boys ages 10 to 17.", "With the Brigade's launch in May as a national organization, it changed its name to The National Naval Cadets.", "The organization's columns in \"Chums\" were of an instructional nature rather than a news journal.", "\"Chums\" was also used as an enrolment tool.", "By June articles on the National Naval Cadets subtitled it, first as \"Scouts of the Sea\" then later \"Sea Scouts of the Empire\".", "The British Boy Scouts and National Naval Cadets were both headquartered in Battersea, London.", "\"Chums\" referred to them together as Chums United Service.", "The following list of authors is by no means complete:", "The following artist represent only some of those who illustrated stories in \"Chums\"" ]

[ 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 ]

[ "\"Chums\" was notably the sponsor of the Chums League, Chums Society of Stamp Collectors, Chums Scouts, the British Boy Scouts and the British Boys Naval Brigade/National Naval Cadets." ]

[ "As the beginning of the story, all is well in the Kingdom of Calabiyau.", "King Toeyad, ruler of the Fée, a race of fairies, is benevolent and just, and the twelve clans of fairies live in relative peace.", "When the king dies, his teenage daughter, Kandide, is expected to ascend to the throne.", "While preparing for her coronation, one of Kandide's wings is crushed.", "The Fée value beauty above all else and so, to prevent the disgrace of having an “Imperfect” take the throne, Kandide's mother banishes her to the Veil of the Mists, a land to the East populated by treacherous creatures and imperfect Fée.\nWithout a clear heir to the throne, Calabiyau is thrown into turmoil.", "Kandide's mother is put in mortal danger and cruel Lady Aron threatens to take the throne.", "Kandide's younger sister, Tara, and brother, Teren, are sent to find Kandide and bring her home in hopes that she can set everything right.", "Kandide, the title character of the novel, is a Fée—a race of fairies who live in the Kingdom of Calabiyau.", "Kandide is also a princess, the eldest daughter of King Toeyad, ruler of Calabiyau Proper.", "First in line to inherit the throne, Kandide grows up spoiled and vain, having had her every whim attended to.", "Her vanity is encouraged by the other Fée, who consider her to be the personification of perfection until an accident leaves one of her wings crushed beyond repair.", "Now “imperfect,” Kandide is forced to come to terms with her disfigurement and find value beyond physical beauty.", "Zimmerman was initially unable to find a publisher for the novel, and thus resorted to self-publishing; sales were high enough that in 2010, the novel was republished by Scholastic Books, which made it a featured selection for their book club in September of that year.", "Zimmerman was inspired to write Kandide and the Secret of the Mists in part by a painting by artist Maxine Gadd who, in turn, was asked to illustrate the novel.", "Zimmerman felt that Gadd's illustrations were so important to the enjoyment of the novel, she insisted that they be published in full color in the hardcover edition." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ]

[ "The fantasy novel, set in the fairy kingdom of Calabiyau, relates the story of Princess Kandide's banishment to the Veil of the Mists, her struggle to survive, and her family's efforts to bring her home." ]

[ "James Gaven Field was born in Walnut, Culpeper County, Virginia to Judge Lewis Yancy Field and Maria Duncan.", "After attending a private classical school, he became a merchant in the former lands of Lord Fairfax and taught school.", "On June 20, 1854, he married Frances E. Cowherd, two years his junior", "and they remained married until her death in April 1877.", "They had at least four children: William Field, Mard Field, James G. Field Jr and Maxy Field On February 2, 1882, married Elizabeth R. Logwood.", "In 1848 Field accompanied Major Hill, a paymaster for the U.S. Army, to California as clerk.", "In addition to his federal government job, he became the secretary of the convention that framed the first constitution of the state of California in 1850.", "In October 1850 Field returned to Virginia, where he studied law with his uncle, Judge Richard H. Field, and was admitted to the bar in 1852.", "In 1859 he was elected commonwealth attorney (prosecutor) for Culpeper County.", "In the 1860 federal census, Field owned six enslaved people—a 70 year old black man, 18 year old Black girl, 2 twelve-year-old girls aged and boys aged 9 and 14 years old.", "On April 17, 1861, Field resigned as commonwealth attorney and volunteered with Culpeper county's minute men.", "He enlisted as a private and became an officer of Virginia's 13th Infantry.", "He fought at the Battle of Harpers Ferry.", "Promoted to the rank of major on March 23, 1861, Field served on the staff of General A. P. Hill.", "At the Battle of Cold Harbor he was wounded and later lost a leg at the Battle of Cedar Creek on August 9, 1862.", "After recovering from that wound in May 1863, Field continued his Confederate service as paymaster until April 9, 1865.", "Following the Civil War he joined the Conservative Party.", "He became Attorney General of Virginia in 1877.", "In 1879 Field argued Ex Parte Virginia before the U.S. Supreme Court, however he failed to convince the justices that Congress lacked authority to require blacks on trial juries.", "Field retired to a farm in Albemarle County, Virginia, but remained active in politics.", "During the 1892 presidential election he was nominated as the People's Party vice presidential candidate on the first ballot on July 5 alongside James B. Weaver as the presidential nominee.", "Field campaigned in the southern and border states and in support of the party's radical reform platform.", "At a mid-July speech in Gordonsville, in Orange County, he compared the revolutionary impulse of Populism with the American Revolution of 1776 and advised his audience to \"Read your Bibles Sunday and the Omaha platform every day in the week.\"", "The ticket won five states and received over one million votes.", "In 1893 he advocated for the impeachment of President Grover Cleveland and later supported William Jennings Bryan in 1896 and 1900.", "Field died in Gordonsville, Virginia, either on May 18, 1902 or October 12, 1901.", "He is buried in the Culpeper city cemetery." ]

[ 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 ]

[ "He became the Attorney General of Virginia and the vice presidential nominee of the Populist Party during the 1892 presidential election." ]

[ "Parnall began work on a single-seat anti-airship fighter aircraft in 1916 based on the designs of A. Camden-Pratt, initially intended to meet an aircraft specification from the Admiralty.", "A large, wooden two-bay staggered biplane, it was finished and initially tested in late 1916.", "The Scout reportedly flew twice in late 1916 under Admiralty testing, however it was found to be heavy, slow and unsafe.", "As such it was returned to Parnall in the same year and no further development progressed." ]

[ 0, 1 ]

[ "It was the first fighter design from Parnall." ]

[ "During \"Crystal Harmony\"s maiden voyage in the South American and Caribbean waters, the ship caught on fire due to a fuel leak in an auxiliary engine room some from Cristóbal.", "\"Crystal Harmony\" drifted without power for sixteen hours but after repairs made it to port under her own steam and disembarked her passengers in Panama.", "She sailed to the island of Curaçao, escorted by a tugboat, for repairs.", "After fifteen years of service, \"Crystal Harmony\" was retired from the Crystal fleet in 2005.", "She was transferred to the parent company Nippon Yusen Kaisha to replace the \"Asuka\".", "She then underwent renovation and re-entered service as \"Asuka II\".", "She caught fire again on June 16 2020 while at dock in Yokohama.", "On 30 April 2021, the ship was en route from the Port of Yokohama and was scheduled to stop at Aomori and Hokkaido prefectures when one case of COVID-19 was detected on board.", "The passenger was reportedly stable and in isolation in a cabin.", "The ship returned to Yokohama were the rest of passengers and crew were disembarked." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ]

[ "MS is a cruise ship owned and operated by Nippon Yusen Kaisha.", "In 2006, \"Crystal Harmony\" was transferred from the fleet of Crystal Cruises to that of Crystal's parent company, Nippon Yusen Kaisha, and entered service under her current name." ]

[ "During \"Crystal Harmony\"s maiden voyage in the South American and Caribbean waters, the ship caught on fire due to a fuel leak in an auxiliary engine room some from Cristóbal.", "\"Crystal Harmony\" drifted without power for sixteen hours but after repairs made it to port under her own steam and disembarked her passengers in Panama.", "She sailed to the island of Curaçao, escorted by a tugboat, for repairs.", "After fifteen years of service, \"Crystal Harmony\" was retired from the Crystal fleet in 2005.", "She was transferred to the parent company Nippon Yusen Kaisha to replace the \"Asuka\".", "She then underwent renovation and re-entered service as \"Asuka II\".", "She caught fire again on June 16 2020 while at dock in Yokohama.", "On 30 April 2021, the ship was en route from the Port of Yokohama and was scheduled to stop at Aomori and Hokkaido prefectures when one case of COVID-19 was detected on board.", "The passenger was reportedly stable and in isolation in a cabin.", "The ship returned to Yokohama were the rest of passengers and crew were disembarked." ]

[ 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ]

[ "In 2006, \"Crystal Harmony\" was transferred from the fleet of Crystal Cruises to that of Crystal's parent company, Nippon Yusen Kaisha, and entered service under her current name." ]

[ "The Catoctin Valley encompasses the northern part of the Loudoun Valley east of the Short Hill Mountain and west of Catoctin Mountain.", "Its northern border is the Potomac River, while its southern border is an intangible line running from the southern terminus of the Short Hill to the base of Catoctin Mountain, located approximately two miles north of Virginia State Route 7.", "Across the Potomac in Maryland, the valley continues on as the Middletown Valley, which historically has also been known as the Catoctin Valley.", "The valley contains the communities of Waterford, Lovettsville, Wheatland, Morrisonville and Taylorstown.", "The valley is approximately wide east to west and long north to south.", "The valley is drained by the Catoctin Creek and its tributaries.", "Virginia State Route 287, the Berlin Turnpike, is the major road through the valley, running north–south from the Potomac River to Virginia State Route 7.", "Virginia State Route 9 runs east–west across the very southern portion of the valley.", "The valley was settled in the 1730s by German and Quaker immigrants who migrated south from southern Pennsylvania.", "They established small self-sufficient farms centered on small mill villages.", "They brought with them and employed few if any slaves.", "This region of Loudoun stood in stark contrast to the southern Loudoun Valley and areas east of the Catoctin Mountain, where plantation-style farming was established by English settlers moving north out of Tidewater Virginia.", "During the American Civil War, due to the people's reluctance to use slaves and their strong economic ties to Maryland, this area of Loudoun was strongly Unionist in sentiment.", "As a result, early in the war, fierce partisan fighting broke out between the area's Unionist soldiers, the Loudoun Rangers and the county's pro-Confederate soldiers, at The Fight at Waterford." ]

[ 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 ]

[ "The Catoctin Valley is a small valley, geographically and culturally associated with the larger Loudoun Valley in Loudoun County, Virginia." ]

[ "The Atlantic National Bank was one of three in New York City to be exempted from taxes which pertained to capital invested in United States stocks after February 25, 1862.", "On that date a clause in an act was passed specifying this exclusion.", "The amount which the Atlantic National Bank declined to pay was $5,203.20.", "In April 1864 an amendment was passed in the New York Legislature to amend the bank's charter.", "In December 1865 the bank's directors declared a semi-annual 6% dividend which was exempt from government tax.", "The funds to be issued came from the profits of the previous six months.", "They were distributed after January 2, 1866.", "J. E. Southworth was the bank's president at the time.", "At the conclusion of March 1871 the Atlantic National Bank possessed capital of $350,000, with undivided profits amounting to $63,700.", "At the time of its failure the Atlantic National Bank had fixed capital of $300,000.", "Following its opening on April 26, 1873, it incurred heavy losses after the depreciation of securities which it held as collateral for losses.", "These funds were not replenished.", "F. L. Taintor, the cashier, declared the bank insolvent and attested to its defaulting in the amount of $400,000.", "The money which was lost came primarily out of bank funds, but it was acknowledged that Pacific Mail was among the securities which came up short in the losses sustained.", "A subsequent investigation conducted by W. J. A. Fuller, Chairman of the Depositor's Committee, found that the Atlantic National Bank was in an insolvent state for at least a year prior to its failure.", "The United States Treasury was left to consider the mysterious circumstances of how the bank remained afloat for so many months.", "Of particular interest was how a cashier could drain $300,000 from the funds of depositors without the knowledge of the institution's president or its officers.", "This bank should not be confused with the unrelated Atlantic National Bank of the City of New York (1914-1922), Atlantic Bank of New York (1952-2006), Atlantic National Bank of Jacksonville, Florida (1903-1985), or other banks with similar names." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ]

[ "The bank became insolvent in April 1873." ]

[ "The Atlantic National Bank was one of three in New York City to be exempted from taxes which pertained to capital invested in United States stocks after February 25, 1862.", "On that date a clause in an act was passed specifying this exclusion.", "The amount which the Atlantic National Bank declined to pay was $5,203.20.", "In April 1864 an amendment was passed in the New York Legislature to amend the bank's charter.", "In December 1865 the bank's directors declared a semi-annual 6% dividend which was exempt from government tax.", "The funds to be issued came from the profits of the previous six months.", "They were distributed after January 2, 1866.", "J. E. Southworth was the bank's president at the time.", "At the conclusion of March 1871 the Atlantic National Bank possessed capital of $350,000, with undivided profits amounting to $63,700.", "At the time of its failure the Atlantic National Bank had fixed capital of $300,000.", "Following its opening on April 26, 1873, it incurred heavy losses after the depreciation of securities which it held as collateral for losses.", "These funds were not replenished.", "F. L. Taintor, the cashier, declared the bank insolvent and attested to its defaulting in the amount of $400,000.", "The money which was lost came primarily out of bank funds, but it was acknowledged that Pacific Mail was among the securities which came up short in the losses sustained.", "A subsequent investigation conducted by W. J. A. Fuller, Chairman of the Depositor's Committee, found that the Atlantic National Bank was in an insolvent state for at least a year prior to its failure.", "The United States Treasury was left to consider the mysterious circumstances of how the bank remained afloat for so many months.", "Of particular interest was how a cashier could drain $300,000 from the funds of depositors without the knowledge of the institution's president or its officers.", "This bank should not be confused with the unrelated Atlantic National Bank of the City of New York (1914-1922), Atlantic Bank of New York (1952-2006), Atlantic National Bank of Jacksonville, Florida (1903-1985), or other banks with similar names." ]

[ 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 ]

[ "The bank became insolvent in April 1873." ]

[ "The Atlantic National Bank was one of three in New York City to be exempted from taxes which pertained to capital invested in United States stocks after February 25, 1862.", "On that date a clause in an act was passed specifying this exclusion.", "The amount which the Atlantic National Bank declined to pay was $5,203.20.", "In April 1864 an amendment was passed in the New York Legislature to amend the bank's charter.", "In December 1865 the bank's directors declared a semi-annual 6% dividend which was exempt from government tax.", "The funds to be issued came from the profits of the previous six months.", "They were distributed after January 2, 1866.", "J. E. Southworth was the bank's president at the time.", "At the conclusion of March 1871 the Atlantic National Bank possessed capital of $350,000, with undivided profits amounting to $63,700.", "At the time of its failure the Atlantic National Bank had fixed capital of $300,000.", "Following its opening on April 26, 1873, it incurred heavy losses after the depreciation of securities which it held as collateral for losses.", "These funds were not replenished.", "F. L. Taintor, the cashier, declared the bank insolvent and attested to its defaulting in the amount of $400,000.", "The money which was lost came primarily out of bank funds, but it was acknowledged that Pacific Mail was among the securities which came up short in the losses sustained.", "A subsequent investigation conducted by W. J. A. Fuller, Chairman of the Depositor's Committee, found that the Atlantic National Bank was in an insolvent state for at least a year prior to its failure.", "The United States Treasury was left to consider the mysterious circumstances of how the bank remained afloat for so many months.", "Of particular interest was how a cashier could drain $300,000 from the funds of depositors without the knowledge of the institution's president or its officers.", "This bank should not be confused with the unrelated Atlantic National Bank of the City of New York (1914-1922), Atlantic Bank of New York (1952-2006), Atlantic National Bank of Jacksonville, Florida (1903-1985), or other banks with similar names." ]

[ 17 ]

[ "Atlantic National Bank was a bank located at 17 Nassau Street in lower Manhattan in New York." ]

[ "Highland Park was a farming community until near the turn of the twentieth century.", "Soon after 1900, major area manufacturers began building large plants in the area, including Ford, Brush-Maxwell (later Chrysler), and Burroughs Corporation.", "As a result, the population of Highland Park exploded, increasing by a factor of ten between 1900 and 1910 (from 427 to 4120), and by another factor of ten by 1920 (to 46,499).", "The residential areas of Highland Park followed suit, including the Medbury's and Grove Lawn subdivisions, which were platted at some time between 1904 and 1914.", "Most of the houses within the subdivisions were constructed between 1914 and 1924, with construction continuing, albeit more slowly, through about 1934.", "The Medbury's–Grove Lawn Subdivisions Historic District is a residential neighborhood of single-family, detached homes.", "There are 272 homes located within the district, with 251 of them classified as contributing to the district's historic character.", "The neighborhood was built up primarily in the 1910s and 1920s, and features a variety of architectural styles that were popular at the time.", "Bungalows and bungalow-style houses with Craftsman or colonial details predominate, and, in fact, the neighborhood is significant for containing Michigan's most outstanding collection of single-family bungalows and bungalow-style homes.", "However, foursquare, colonial revival, and English cottage homes are also present within the neighborhood.", "The homes in the district are notable for their variety and the level of craftsmanship and detailing, and are excellent examples of the variety found in American suburban domestic architecture of the period 1900–1930.", "The district also contains 272 garages and sheds, located along alleys behind the homes.", "Of these, 250 appear to date from the neighborhood's original development, and reflect the upwardly-mobile, middle-class character of the neighborhood." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ]

[ "The Medbury's–Grove Lawn Subdivisions Historic District is a residential historic district located in Highland Park, Michigan." ]

[ "Born in Southgate, London, to a Jewish family, she had a Jewish upbringing and attended Osidge JMI School and Ashmole School in London.", "She has two brothers, Jason and Leigh.", "In 1993, she first caught attention by winning a modelling contest sponsored by UK teen magazine \"Just 17\", beating 5,000 other competitors.", "Following her first modelling jobs, she decided to study at the London College of Fashion, where she achieved a diploma in business.", "During that time she also worked in a film company and later in public relations, but began to lose interest and decided to pursue a career in singing instead.", "The group rose to fame by starring in their own BBC television series, \"Miami 7\", in 1999.", "Over the five years they were together, S Club 7 had four UK No.1 singles, one UK No.1 album, a string of hits throughout Europe, including a top-ten single in the United States, Asia, Latin America and Africa.", "They recorded a total of four studio albums, released eleven singles and went on to sell over fourteen million albums worldwide.", "Their first album, \"S Club\", had a strong 1990s pop sound, similar to many artists of their time.", "However, through the course of their career, their musical approach changed to a more dance and R&B sound which is heard mostly in their final album, \"Seeing Double\".", "The concept and brand of the group was created by Simon Fuller, also their manager through 19 Entertainment; they were signed to Polydor Records.", "Their television series went on to last four series, seeing the group travel across the United States and eventually ending up in Barcelona, Spain.", "It became popular in 100 different countries where the show was watched by over 90 million viewers.", "The show, which was a children's sitcom, often mirrored real life events which had occurred in S Club, including the relationship of Hannah Spearritt and Paul Cattermole, as well as the eventual departure from the group of the latter.", "As well as the popularity of their television series, S Club 7 won two Brit Awards—in 2000 for British breakthrough act and in 2002, for best British single.", "In 2001, the group earned the Record of year.", "S Club's second to last single reached number-five in the UK charts and their final studio album failed to make the top ten.", "However, on 21 April 2003, during a live onstage performance, S Club announced that they were to disband.", "In 2003, after S Club disbanded, Stevens signed a £1.5 million solo four-album deal with Polydor Records and re-signed with Fuller.", "She said that breaking out on her own after success with S Club was difficult: \"I think we [S Club] ended up conforming to what people's perceptions were.", "This one was the ditzy one, this one was the singer, this one was the dancer.", "And to come out of that and be a whole person has been a real challenge for me.", "I didn't have my say, really, in the group.", "None of us did\".", "Her first solo single, written by Cathy Dennis and produced by Bloodshy & Avant, \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\", was released in September 2003.", "Taking inspiration from R&B and adult-style pop music, Stevens's debut solo album, \"Funky Dory\", was released later that month.", "The album was a hit, reaching number 9 on the UK albums chart and was certified gold.", "The album also gained praise from pop critics; Jamie Gill, in a review for \"Yahoo!", "Launch\", said that Stevens \"eschews the cheap and cheerful approach of her old band for a slinky adult confidence and musical eclecticism.\"", "That December the album's title track \"Funky Dory\", featuring a sample of the David Bowie song \"Andy Warhol\" from his album \"Hunky Dory\", was released as its second single and failed to match the success of \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\", peaking at number twenty-four.", "MusicOMH called it \"musically better than \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\" with a hybrid of pop, Latin and even a hint of jazz infusion\" but not a good single choice as a single as it lacked anything special and different.", "In July 2004, Stevens released the BBC Sport Relief charity single, \"Some Girls\", which was produced by Richard X. It became a hit across Europe, and reached number two in the UK.", "\"HMV.co.uk\" called the song Stevens's \"finest song to date\", and \"Yahoo! Launch\" commented that \"she came to save her career.", "She ended up saving pop.\"", "Stevens then signed a deal with Matalan reportedly worth £1 million and had her hit song \"More More More\" as the title song for Matalan's advertising campaign.", "Following the success of \"Some Girls\", \"Funky Dory\" was re-released to include \"Some Girls\" and another new track, a cover of Andrea True Connection's \"More More More\".", "\"More More More\" was issued as a single and peaked at number 3 in the UK, giving Stevens her third top ten solo single in the UK.", "At this point, Stevens and her management stepped up promotion, earning her a Guinness World Record for \"Most Public Appearances by a Pop Star in 24 Hours in Different Cities\" (seven on 8–9 September 2004).", "In 2004, Stevens appeared in comedy film \"Suzie Gold\".", "In March 2005, Stevens released her new single, \"Negotiate with Love\", that was a top ten hit in the UK.", "\"So Good\" was released in July 2005 and also peaked at number 10, being hailed as \"tastily produced and sassily delivered.\"", "In mid-2005, Channel 4 broadcast a documentary which followed Stevens through the summer as she promoted \"So Good\".", "Her second album, \"Come and Get It\", produced by Richard X and Xenomania, was released in October 2005 and peaked at number 28 in the UK.", "The album was included on \"The Guardian\" list \"1,000 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die\".", "The third and final single was \"I Said Never Again", "(But Here We Are)\", which peaked at number 12 in the UK and was commended by HMV.co.uk for its \"astonishingly flawless vocal performance\" and as Stevens's \"most commercially accessible and quirky single since \"Some Girls\".\"", "In 2005 Stevens also starred the comedy films \"Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo\" and \"Spider-Plant Man\".", "In December 2005, she toured in UK with the Come and Get It Tour.", "In the following years Stevens planned to release a third album, but gave up to focus on philanthropic projects, working in the Make Poverty History for two years.", "In 2008 Stevens voiced Patrica Ravelston in the animated short Glendogie Bogey.", "In August she was announced as contestant of \"Strictly Come Dancing\" as partner with professional dancer Vincent Simone.", "She finished in second place.", "Stevens and Simone also took part in the \"Strictly Come Dancing Christmas Specials\" to 2008 from 2014.", "In July 2011 a demo track entitled \"Nothing in Common\", which was recorded for \"Come and Get It\", was uploaded online.", "In 2011 she released a charity children's compilation \"Tasty Tunes\" in a project with toddlers food company Ella's Kitchen.", "In 2013 Stevens was mentor assistant on the New Zealand version of \"The X-Factor\" helping Melanie Blatt with the groups category.", "On 6 October 2014, Irish state broadcaster RTÉ confirmed that Stevens would be taking on one of the red chairs on \"The Voice of Ireland\" as the fourth coach.", "In December 2014, Stevens attended the \"Strictly Come Dancing\" Christmas special and Strictly Tour, a dance show in UK.", "In May 2015 all seven of the original members of S Club 7 reunited in an arena tour, entitled Bring It All Back 2015.", "On 12 March 2015, Stevens appeared on BBC Radio 1's Innuendo Bingo.", "In 2017 she appeared on the cast of Celebrity Masterchef.", "In December 2017, Stevens appeared on an episode of \"Celebrity Mastermind\".", "In 2019 Stevens joined the \"Rip It Up The 70s\" theatre show with Louis Smith, Melody Thornton and Lee Ryan.", "In 2022, she is competed in the fourteenth series of \"Dancing on Ice\" and was third to be eliminated.", "In 2005 Stevens fronted the \"Everyman Testicular Cancer Awareness \" campaign.", "Stevens's role was notable as she was the first woman to represent this campaign.", "Her television commercial raised eyebrows with its suggestive content that included her telling men to \"put one hand down their trousers and give their testicles a good feel\".", "On the commercial, Stevens commented, \"Sometimes men need a little encouragement to think about their health.", "This is a funny way of raising awareness about a serious subject.\"", "In 2005 Stevens also took part in the Make Poverty History campaign, which aims to eliminate poverty in developing countries by cancelling old debts, improving the way aid is given and removing barriers, so these countries can trade more effectively with the rest of the world.", "Stevens donated an undisclosed amount of money to the campaign, and also starred in television and magazine advertisements supporting the cause.", "Her official website also displayed the campaign's official online banner.", "On 15 November 2011 it was reported that Stevens had recorded a collection of songs about fruit and vegetables as a way of helping to encourage children to eat five portions of fruit and veg per day.", "The songs were for an album titled \"Tasty Tunes\" and were made available as free downloads from the website of children's food firm Ella's Kitchen.", "Stevens launched the songs with a one-off performance at a nursery in Streatham, south London.", "The songs include food-themed versions of \"Twinkle Twinkle Little Star\" and \"The Hokey-Cokey\", and Stevens said of the project; \"As a new mum, I'm always looking for exciting ways to encourage my daughter to try new foods, especially greens.", "I hope tasty tunes help lots of parents sing about fruit and vegetables as part of their little one's everyday playtime.", "\"\nStevens is also an ambassador to WaterAid, an organisation that promotes clean water in developing countries all over the world.", "During a 2012 trip to Ethiopia, Stevens remarked, \"It was such a great feeling to see the women laughing and chatting while they were washing their clothes and drinking clean water.", "Everyone looked healthier and a lot happier and the village felt full of life.", "\"", "Whilst in S Club 7 Stevens fronted the World Wide Fund for Nature.", "More recently, she has been the front woman for Pretty Polly, Sky Sports, Marks & Spencer, and Focus Dailies.", "In 2009, Stevens became the new ambassador for Schwarzkopf Herod Gliss hair products.", "In October 2011 Stevens fronted the launch of Seven Seas Health Oils.", "In her earlier years in S Club, Stevens dated property developer Daniel Cohen for about two years.", "Following the split, Cohen stated he met Stevens socially a few times after their relationship ended, adding \"she's an absolute darling, someone I haven't a bad word to say about\".", "On Valentine's Day in 2002 Stevens became engaged to actor Jeremy Edwards.", "The couple broke up in early 2004.", "After the break-up she dated Gavin Dein, son of former Arsenal vice-chairman David Dein.", "The relationship did not last long, with the couple splitting up in August 2005.", "In September and October 2006 Stevens was linked to American-based British singer Oliver Trevena, known professionally as Oli T.\nIn June 2008, Stevens became engaged to her boyfriend of 18 months, Alex Bourne.", "The couple had planned to marry in the autumn of 2008, but decided to postpone their wedding until August 2009 due to Stevens' busy autumn schedule training and performing on \"Strictly Come Dancing\".", "Stevens married Bourne on 2 August 2009.", "The wedding was a Jewish one.", "On 19 May 2010 the couple were expecting their first child.", "Her first daughter was born in 2010 and her second in 2014.", "Occasional reference is made by the virtual band Gorillaz to a period in which animated lead singer Stuart \"2D\" Pot allegedly dated Stevens as part of their fictional backstory.", "Stevens has stated that she \"observe[s] some of the (Jewish) holidays and I'll go to the synagogue on special occasions\".", "# Jamie Gill.", "Rachel Stevens 3.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"Yahoo!", "Launch\".", "7 October 2003.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Azeem Ahmad.", "Rachel Stevens 5.", "\"MusicOMH\".", "8 December 2003.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 6.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from HMV.co.uk.", "June 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 7.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"Yahoo!", "Launch\".", "July 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 8.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"London News Review\".", "23 September 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 9. Virgin.net. 2005.", "Retrieved 6 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 10.", "HMV.co.uk.", "Aug. 2005.", "Retrieved 6 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 12.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\". 2006.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 16.", "\"The Daily Record\". 2006.", "Retrieved 1 May 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 17.", "\"Everyman\". 2005.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 18.", "\"RSO: Make Poverty History\". 2005.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Stephen 4 Stevens\", \"The Daily Mirror\". 2006.", "Retrieved 11 November 2006.", "# \"Rach's Oli Nice Bloke\", \"The Daily Mirror\". 2006.", "Retrieved 11 November 2006." ]

[ 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63 ]

[ "She was a member of the pop group S Club 7 between 1999 and 2003.", "She released her solo debut studio album \"Funky Dory\" in September 2003.", "The album reached number nine on the UK album chart and the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) awarded it with a gold certification in October 2003.", "Two singles, \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\" and \"Funky Dory\", were initially released from the album: \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\" peaked at number two in the UK and received a silver certification from the BPI.", "In July 2004, Stevens released the single \"Some Girls\" as a charity record for Sport Relief, and the single's success prompted Polydor to re-issue \"Funky Dory\" with three new songs.", "\"Come and Get It\", her second studio album, was released in October 2005.", "It peaked at No. 28 in the UK, and two of its three singles reached the Top 10.", "In 2008, she came second in the sixth series of the BBC One series \"Strictly Come Dancing\" with her dance partner Vincent Simone.", "In 2013, she was a mentor assistant on \"The X Factor New Zealand\".", "In September 2013, Stevens announced she was pregnant with her second child and gave birth to Minnie on 1 April.", "Also in 2014, she was awarded \"FHM\"'s sexiest woman of all time.", "Stevens became one of the coaches in the 4th season of RTE's \"The Voice of Ireland\".", "Stevens' version of the song \"More, More, More\" has been used in adverts for sofa retailer ScS. In November 2014, S Club 7 announced plans for an arena reunion tour, titled Bring It All Back 2015, touring the UK in May 2015." ]

[ "Born in Southgate, London, to a Jewish family, she had a Jewish upbringing and attended Osidge JMI School and Ashmole School in London.", "She has two brothers, Jason and Leigh.", "In 1993, she first caught attention by winning a modelling contest sponsored by UK teen magazine \"Just 17\", beating 5,000 other competitors.", "Following her first modelling jobs, she decided to study at the London College of Fashion, where she achieved a diploma in business.", "During that time she also worked in a film company and later in public relations, but began to lose interest and decided to pursue a career in singing instead.", "The group rose to fame by starring in their own BBC television series, \"Miami 7\", in 1999.", "Over the five years they were together, S Club 7 had four UK No.1 singles, one UK No.1 album, a string of hits throughout Europe, including a top-ten single in the United States, Asia, Latin America and Africa.", "They recorded a total of four studio albums, released eleven singles and went on to sell over fourteen million albums worldwide.", "Their first album, \"S Club\", had a strong 1990s pop sound, similar to many artists of their time.", "However, through the course of their career, their musical approach changed to a more dance and R&B sound which is heard mostly in their final album, \"Seeing Double\".", "The concept and brand of the group was created by Simon Fuller, also their manager through 19 Entertainment; they were signed to Polydor Records.", "Their television series went on to last four series, seeing the group travel across the United States and eventually ending up in Barcelona, Spain.", "It became popular in 100 different countries where the show was watched by over 90 million viewers.", "The show, which was a children's sitcom, often mirrored real life events which had occurred in S Club, including the relationship of Hannah Spearritt and Paul Cattermole, as well as the eventual departure from the group of the latter.", "As well as the popularity of their television series, S Club 7 won two Brit Awards—in 2000 for British breakthrough act and in 2002, for best British single.", "In 2001, the group earned the Record of year.", "S Club's second to last single reached number-five in the UK charts and their final studio album failed to make the top ten.", "However, on 21 April 2003, during a live onstage performance, S Club announced that they were to disband.", "In 2003, after S Club disbanded, Stevens signed a £1.5 million solo four-album deal with Polydor Records and re-signed with Fuller.", "She said that breaking out on her own after success with S Club was difficult: \"I think we [S Club] ended up conforming to what people's perceptions were.", "This one was the ditzy one, this one was the singer, this one was the dancer.", "And to come out of that and be a whole person has been a real challenge for me.", "I didn't have my say, really, in the group.", "None of us did\".", "Her first solo single, written by Cathy Dennis and produced by Bloodshy & Avant, \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\", was released in September 2003.", "Taking inspiration from R&B and adult-style pop music, Stevens's debut solo album, \"Funky Dory\", was released later that month.", "The album was a hit, reaching number 9 on the UK albums chart and was certified gold.", "The album also gained praise from pop critics; Jamie Gill, in a review for \"Yahoo!", "Launch\", said that Stevens \"eschews the cheap and cheerful approach of her old band for a slinky adult confidence and musical eclecticism.\"", "That December the album's title track \"Funky Dory\", featuring a sample of the David Bowie song \"Andy Warhol\" from his album \"Hunky Dory\", was released as its second single and failed to match the success of \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\", peaking at number twenty-four.", "MusicOMH called it \"musically better than \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\" with a hybrid of pop, Latin and even a hint of jazz infusion\" but not a good single choice as a single as it lacked anything special and different.", "In July 2004, Stevens released the BBC Sport Relief charity single, \"Some Girls\", which was produced by Richard X. It became a hit across Europe, and reached number two in the UK.", "\"HMV.co.uk\" called the song Stevens's \"finest song to date\", and \"Yahoo! Launch\" commented that \"she came to save her career.", "She ended up saving pop.\"", "Stevens then signed a deal with Matalan reportedly worth £1 million and had her hit song \"More More More\" as the title song for Matalan's advertising campaign.", "Following the success of \"Some Girls\", \"Funky Dory\" was re-released to include \"Some Girls\" and another new track, a cover of Andrea True Connection's \"More More More\".", "\"More More More\" was issued as a single and peaked at number 3 in the UK, giving Stevens her third top ten solo single in the UK.", "At this point, Stevens and her management stepped up promotion, earning her a Guinness World Record for \"Most Public Appearances by a Pop Star in 24 Hours in Different Cities\" (seven on 8–9 September 2004).", "In 2004, Stevens appeared in comedy film \"Suzie Gold\".", "In March 2005, Stevens released her new single, \"Negotiate with Love\", that was a top ten hit in the UK.", "\"So Good\" was released in July 2005 and also peaked at number 10, being hailed as \"tastily produced and sassily delivered.\"", "In mid-2005, Channel 4 broadcast a documentary which followed Stevens through the summer as she promoted \"So Good\".", "Her second album, \"Come and Get It\", produced by Richard X and Xenomania, was released in October 2005 and peaked at number 28 in the UK.", "The album was included on \"The Guardian\" list \"1,000 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die\".", "The third and final single was \"I Said Never Again", "(But Here We Are)\", which peaked at number 12 in the UK and was commended by HMV.co.uk for its \"astonishingly flawless vocal performance\" and as Stevens's \"most commercially accessible and quirky single since \"Some Girls\".\"", "In 2005 Stevens also starred the comedy films \"Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo\" and \"Spider-Plant Man\".", "In December 2005, she toured in UK with the Come and Get It Tour.", "In the following years Stevens planned to release a third album, but gave up to focus on philanthropic projects, working in the Make Poverty History for two years.", "In 2008 Stevens voiced Patrica Ravelston in the animated short Glendogie Bogey.", "In August she was announced as contestant of \"Strictly Come Dancing\" as partner with professional dancer Vincent Simone.", "She finished in second place.", "Stevens and Simone also took part in the \"Strictly Come Dancing Christmas Specials\" to 2008 from 2014.", "In July 2011 a demo track entitled \"Nothing in Common\", which was recorded for \"Come and Get It\", was uploaded online.", "In 2011 she released a charity children's compilation \"Tasty Tunes\" in a project with toddlers food company Ella's Kitchen.", "In 2013 Stevens was mentor assistant on the New Zealand version of \"The X-Factor\" helping Melanie Blatt with the groups category.", "On 6 October 2014, Irish state broadcaster RTÉ confirmed that Stevens would be taking on one of the red chairs on \"The Voice of Ireland\" as the fourth coach.", "In December 2014, Stevens attended the \"Strictly Come Dancing\" Christmas special and Strictly Tour, a dance show in UK.", "In May 2015 all seven of the original members of S Club 7 reunited in an arena tour, entitled Bring It All Back 2015.", "On 12 March 2015, Stevens appeared on BBC Radio 1's Innuendo Bingo.", "In 2017 she appeared on the cast of Celebrity Masterchef.", "In December 2017, Stevens appeared on an episode of \"Celebrity Mastermind\".", "In 2019 Stevens joined the \"Rip It Up The 70s\" theatre show with Louis Smith, Melody Thornton and Lee Ryan.", "In 2022, she is competed in the fourteenth series of \"Dancing on Ice\" and was third to be eliminated.", "In 2005 Stevens fronted the \"Everyman Testicular Cancer Awareness \" campaign.", "Stevens's role was notable as she was the first woman to represent this campaign.", "Her television commercial raised eyebrows with its suggestive content that included her telling men to \"put one hand down their trousers and give their testicles a good feel\".", "On the commercial, Stevens commented, \"Sometimes men need a little encouragement to think about their health.", "This is a funny way of raising awareness about a serious subject.\"", "In 2005 Stevens also took part in the Make Poverty History campaign, which aims to eliminate poverty in developing countries by cancelling old debts, improving the way aid is given and removing barriers, so these countries can trade more effectively with the rest of the world.", "Stevens donated an undisclosed amount of money to the campaign, and also starred in television and magazine advertisements supporting the cause.", "Her official website also displayed the campaign's official online banner.", "On 15 November 2011 it was reported that Stevens had recorded a collection of songs about fruit and vegetables as a way of helping to encourage children to eat five portions of fruit and veg per day.", "The songs were for an album titled \"Tasty Tunes\" and were made available as free downloads from the website of children's food firm Ella's Kitchen.", "Stevens launched the songs with a one-off performance at a nursery in Streatham, south London.", "The songs include food-themed versions of \"Twinkle Twinkle Little Star\" and \"The Hokey-Cokey\", and Stevens said of the project; \"As a new mum, I'm always looking for exciting ways to encourage my daughter to try new foods, especially greens.", "I hope tasty tunes help lots of parents sing about fruit and vegetables as part of their little one's everyday playtime.", "\"\nStevens is also an ambassador to WaterAid, an organisation that promotes clean water in developing countries all over the world.", "During a 2012 trip to Ethiopia, Stevens remarked, \"It was such a great feeling to see the women laughing and chatting while they were washing their clothes and drinking clean water.", "Everyone looked healthier and a lot happier and the village felt full of life.", "\"", "Whilst in S Club 7 Stevens fronted the World Wide Fund for Nature.", "More recently, she has been the front woman for Pretty Polly, Sky Sports, Marks & Spencer, and Focus Dailies.", "In 2009, Stevens became the new ambassador for Schwarzkopf Herod Gliss hair products.", "In October 2011 Stevens fronted the launch of Seven Seas Health Oils.", "In her earlier years in S Club, Stevens dated property developer Daniel Cohen for about two years.", "Following the split, Cohen stated he met Stevens socially a few times after their relationship ended, adding \"she's an absolute darling, someone I haven't a bad word to say about\".", "On Valentine's Day in 2002 Stevens became engaged to actor Jeremy Edwards.", "The couple broke up in early 2004.", "After the break-up she dated Gavin Dein, son of former Arsenal vice-chairman David Dein.", "The relationship did not last long, with the couple splitting up in August 2005.", "In September and October 2006 Stevens was linked to American-based British singer Oliver Trevena, known professionally as Oli T.\nIn June 2008, Stevens became engaged to her boyfriend of 18 months, Alex Bourne.", "The couple had planned to marry in the autumn of 2008, but decided to postpone their wedding until August 2009 due to Stevens' busy autumn schedule training and performing on \"Strictly Come Dancing\".", "Stevens married Bourne on 2 August 2009.", "The wedding was a Jewish one.", "On 19 May 2010 the couple were expecting their first child.", "Her first daughter was born in 2010 and her second in 2014.", "Occasional reference is made by the virtual band Gorillaz to a period in which animated lead singer Stuart \"2D\" Pot allegedly dated Stevens as part of their fictional backstory.", "Stevens has stated that she \"observe[s] some of the (Jewish) holidays and I'll go to the synagogue on special occasions\".", "# Jamie Gill.", "Rachel Stevens 3.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"Yahoo!", "Launch\".", "7 October 2003.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Azeem Ahmad.", "Rachel Stevens 5.", "\"MusicOMH\".", "8 December 2003.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 6.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from HMV.co.uk.", "June 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 7.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"Yahoo!", "Launch\".", "July 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 8.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"London News Review\".", "23 September 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 9. Virgin.net. 2005.", "Retrieved 6 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 10.", "HMV.co.uk.", "Aug. 2005.", "Retrieved 6 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 12.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\". 2006.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 16.", "\"The Daily Record\". 2006.", "Retrieved 1 May 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 17.", "\"Everyman\". 2005.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 18.", "\"RSO: Make Poverty History\". 2005.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Stephen 4 Stevens\", \"The Daily Mirror\". 2006.", "Retrieved 11 November 2006.", "# \"Rach's Oli Nice Bloke\", \"The Daily Mirror\". 2006.", "Retrieved 11 November 2006." ]

[ 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 ]

[ "She was a member of the pop group S Club 7 between 1999 and 2003.", "It peaked at No. 28 in the UK, and two of its three singles reached the Top 10." ]

[ "Born in Southgate, London, to a Jewish family, she had a Jewish upbringing and attended Osidge JMI School and Ashmole School in London.", "She has two brothers, Jason and Leigh.", "In 1993, she first caught attention by winning a modelling contest sponsored by UK teen magazine \"Just 17\", beating 5,000 other competitors.", "Following her first modelling jobs, she decided to study at the London College of Fashion, where she achieved a diploma in business.", "During that time she also worked in a film company and later in public relations, but began to lose interest and decided to pursue a career in singing instead.", "The group rose to fame by starring in their own BBC television series, \"Miami 7\", in 1999.", "Over the five years they were together, S Club 7 had four UK No.1 singles, one UK No.1 album, a string of hits throughout Europe, including a top-ten single in the United States, Asia, Latin America and Africa.", "They recorded a total of four studio albums, released eleven singles and went on to sell over fourteen million albums worldwide.", "Their first album, \"S Club\", had a strong 1990s pop sound, similar to many artists of their time.", "However, through the course of their career, their musical approach changed to a more dance and R&B sound which is heard mostly in their final album, \"Seeing Double\".", "The concept and brand of the group was created by Simon Fuller, also their manager through 19 Entertainment; they were signed to Polydor Records.", "Their television series went on to last four series, seeing the group travel across the United States and eventually ending up in Barcelona, Spain.", "It became popular in 100 different countries where the show was watched by over 90 million viewers.", "The show, which was a children's sitcom, often mirrored real life events which had occurred in S Club, including the relationship of Hannah Spearritt and Paul Cattermole, as well as the eventual departure from the group of the latter.", "As well as the popularity of their television series, S Club 7 won two Brit Awards—in 2000 for British breakthrough act and in 2002, for best British single.", "In 2001, the group earned the Record of year.", "S Club's second to last single reached number-five in the UK charts and their final studio album failed to make the top ten.", "However, on 21 April 2003, during a live onstage performance, S Club announced that they were to disband.", "In 2003, after S Club disbanded, Stevens signed a £1.5 million solo four-album deal with Polydor Records and re-signed with Fuller.", "She said that breaking out on her own after success with S Club was difficult: \"I think we [S Club] ended up conforming to what people's perceptions were.", "This one was the ditzy one, this one was the singer, this one was the dancer.", "And to come out of that and be a whole person has been a real challenge for me.", "I didn't have my say, really, in the group.", "None of us did\".", "Her first solo single, written by Cathy Dennis and produced by Bloodshy & Avant, \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\", was released in September 2003.", "Taking inspiration from R&B and adult-style pop music, Stevens's debut solo album, \"Funky Dory\", was released later that month.", "The album was a hit, reaching number 9 on the UK albums chart and was certified gold.", "The album also gained praise from pop critics; Jamie Gill, in a review for \"Yahoo!", "Launch\", said that Stevens \"eschews the cheap and cheerful approach of her old band for a slinky adult confidence and musical eclecticism.\"", "That December the album's title track \"Funky Dory\", featuring a sample of the David Bowie song \"Andy Warhol\" from his album \"Hunky Dory\", was released as its second single and failed to match the success of \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\", peaking at number twenty-four.", "MusicOMH called it \"musically better than \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\" with a hybrid of pop, Latin and even a hint of jazz infusion\" but not a good single choice as a single as it lacked anything special and different.", "In July 2004, Stevens released the BBC Sport Relief charity single, \"Some Girls\", which was produced by Richard X. It became a hit across Europe, and reached number two in the UK.", "\"HMV.co.uk\" called the song Stevens's \"finest song to date\", and \"Yahoo! Launch\" commented that \"she came to save her career.", "She ended up saving pop.\"", "Stevens then signed a deal with Matalan reportedly worth £1 million and had her hit song \"More More More\" as the title song for Matalan's advertising campaign.", "Following the success of \"Some Girls\", \"Funky Dory\" was re-released to include \"Some Girls\" and another new track, a cover of Andrea True Connection's \"More More More\".", "\"More More More\" was issued as a single and peaked at number 3 in the UK, giving Stevens her third top ten solo single in the UK.", "At this point, Stevens and her management stepped up promotion, earning her a Guinness World Record for \"Most Public Appearances by a Pop Star in 24 Hours in Different Cities\" (seven on 8–9 September 2004).", "In 2004, Stevens appeared in comedy film \"Suzie Gold\".", "In March 2005, Stevens released her new single, \"Negotiate with Love\", that was a top ten hit in the UK.", "\"So Good\" was released in July 2005 and also peaked at number 10, being hailed as \"tastily produced and sassily delivered.\"", "In mid-2005, Channel 4 broadcast a documentary which followed Stevens through the summer as she promoted \"So Good\".", "Her second album, \"Come and Get It\", produced by Richard X and Xenomania, was released in October 2005 and peaked at number 28 in the UK.", "The album was included on \"The Guardian\" list \"1,000 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die\".", "The third and final single was \"I Said Never Again", "(But Here We Are)\", which peaked at number 12 in the UK and was commended by HMV.co.uk for its \"astonishingly flawless vocal performance\" and as Stevens's \"most commercially accessible and quirky single since \"Some Girls\".\"", "In 2005 Stevens also starred the comedy films \"Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo\" and \"Spider-Plant Man\".", "In December 2005, she toured in UK with the Come and Get It Tour.", "In the following years Stevens planned to release a third album, but gave up to focus on philanthropic projects, working in the Make Poverty History for two years.", "In 2008 Stevens voiced Patrica Ravelston in the animated short Glendogie Bogey.", "In August she was announced as contestant of \"Strictly Come Dancing\" as partner with professional dancer Vincent Simone.", "She finished in second place.", "Stevens and Simone also took part in the \"Strictly Come Dancing Christmas Specials\" to 2008 from 2014.", "In July 2011 a demo track entitled \"Nothing in Common\", which was recorded for \"Come and Get It\", was uploaded online.", "In 2011 she released a charity children's compilation \"Tasty Tunes\" in a project with toddlers food company Ella's Kitchen.", "In 2013 Stevens was mentor assistant on the New Zealand version of \"The X-Factor\" helping Melanie Blatt with the groups category.", "On 6 October 2014, Irish state broadcaster RTÉ confirmed that Stevens would be taking on one of the red chairs on \"The Voice of Ireland\" as the fourth coach.", "In December 2014, Stevens attended the \"Strictly Come Dancing\" Christmas special and Strictly Tour, a dance show in UK.", "In May 2015 all seven of the original members of S Club 7 reunited in an arena tour, entitled Bring It All Back 2015.", "On 12 March 2015, Stevens appeared on BBC Radio 1's Innuendo Bingo.", "In 2017 she appeared on the cast of Celebrity Masterchef.", "In December 2017, Stevens appeared on an episode of \"Celebrity Mastermind\".", "In 2019 Stevens joined the \"Rip It Up The 70s\" theatre show with Louis Smith, Melody Thornton and Lee Ryan.", "In 2022, she is competed in the fourteenth series of \"Dancing on Ice\" and was third to be eliminated.", "In 2005 Stevens fronted the \"Everyman Testicular Cancer Awareness \" campaign.", "Stevens's role was notable as she was the first woman to represent this campaign.", "Her television commercial raised eyebrows with its suggestive content that included her telling men to \"put one hand down their trousers and give their testicles a good feel\".", "On the commercial, Stevens commented, \"Sometimes men need a little encouragement to think about their health.", "This is a funny way of raising awareness about a serious subject.\"", "In 2005 Stevens also took part in the Make Poverty History campaign, which aims to eliminate poverty in developing countries by cancelling old debts, improving the way aid is given and removing barriers, so these countries can trade more effectively with the rest of the world.", "Stevens donated an undisclosed amount of money to the campaign, and also starred in television and magazine advertisements supporting the cause.", "Her official website also displayed the campaign's official online banner.", "On 15 November 2011 it was reported that Stevens had recorded a collection of songs about fruit and vegetables as a way of helping to encourage children to eat five portions of fruit and veg per day.", "The songs were for an album titled \"Tasty Tunes\" and were made available as free downloads from the website of children's food firm Ella's Kitchen.", "Stevens launched the songs with a one-off performance at a nursery in Streatham, south London.", "The songs include food-themed versions of \"Twinkle Twinkle Little Star\" and \"The Hokey-Cokey\", and Stevens said of the project; \"As a new mum, I'm always looking for exciting ways to encourage my daughter to try new foods, especially greens.", "I hope tasty tunes help lots of parents sing about fruit and vegetables as part of their little one's everyday playtime.", "\"\nStevens is also an ambassador to WaterAid, an organisation that promotes clean water in developing countries all over the world.", "During a 2012 trip to Ethiopia, Stevens remarked, \"It was such a great feeling to see the women laughing and chatting while they were washing their clothes and drinking clean water.", "Everyone looked healthier and a lot happier and the village felt full of life.", "\"", "Whilst in S Club 7 Stevens fronted the World Wide Fund for Nature.", "More recently, she has been the front woman for Pretty Polly, Sky Sports, Marks & Spencer, and Focus Dailies.", "In 2009, Stevens became the new ambassador for Schwarzkopf Herod Gliss hair products.", "In October 2011 Stevens fronted the launch of Seven Seas Health Oils.", "In her earlier years in S Club, Stevens dated property developer Daniel Cohen for about two years.", "Following the split, Cohen stated he met Stevens socially a few times after their relationship ended, adding \"she's an absolute darling, someone I haven't a bad word to say about\".", "On Valentine's Day in 2002 Stevens became engaged to actor Jeremy Edwards.", "The couple broke up in early 2004.", "After the break-up she dated Gavin Dein, son of former Arsenal vice-chairman David Dein.", "The relationship did not last long, with the couple splitting up in August 2005.", "In September and October 2006 Stevens was linked to American-based British singer Oliver Trevena, known professionally as Oli T.\nIn June 2008, Stevens became engaged to her boyfriend of 18 months, Alex Bourne.", "The couple had planned to marry in the autumn of 2008, but decided to postpone their wedding until August 2009 due to Stevens' busy autumn schedule training and performing on \"Strictly Come Dancing\".", "Stevens married Bourne on 2 August 2009.", "The wedding was a Jewish one.", "On 19 May 2010 the couple were expecting their first child.", "Her first daughter was born in 2010 and her second in 2014.", "Occasional reference is made by the virtual band Gorillaz to a period in which animated lead singer Stuart \"2D\" Pot allegedly dated Stevens as part of their fictional backstory.", "Stevens has stated that she \"observe[s] some of the (Jewish) holidays and I'll go to the synagogue on special occasions\".", "# Jamie Gill.", "Rachel Stevens 3.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"Yahoo!", "Launch\".", "7 October 2003.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Azeem Ahmad.", "Rachel Stevens 5.", "\"MusicOMH\".", "8 December 2003.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 6.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from HMV.co.uk.", "June 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 7.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"Yahoo!", "Launch\".", "July 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 8.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"London News Review\".", "23 September 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 9. Virgin.net. 2005.", "Retrieved 6 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 10.", "HMV.co.uk.", "Aug. 2005.", "Retrieved 6 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 12.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\". 2006.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 16.", "\"The Daily Record\". 2006.", "Retrieved 1 May 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 17.", "\"Everyman\". 2005.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 18.", "\"RSO: Make Poverty History\". 2005.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Stephen 4 Stevens\", \"The Daily Mirror\". 2006.", "Retrieved 11 November 2006.", "# \"Rach's Oli Nice Bloke\", \"The Daily Mirror\". 2006.", "Retrieved 11 November 2006." ]

[ 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38 ]

[ "She released her solo debut studio album \"Funky Dory\" in September 2003.", "Two singles, \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\" and \"Funky Dory\", were initially released from the album: \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\" peaked at number two in the UK and received a silver certification from the BPI.", "In July 2004, Stevens released the single \"Some Girls\" as a charity record for Sport Relief, and the single's success prompted Polydor to re-issue \"Funky Dory\" with three new songs." ]

[ "Born in Southgate, London, to a Jewish family, she had a Jewish upbringing and attended Osidge JMI School and Ashmole School in London.", "She has two brothers, Jason and Leigh.", "In 1993, she first caught attention by winning a modelling contest sponsored by UK teen magazine \"Just 17\", beating 5,000 other competitors.", "Following her first modelling jobs, she decided to study at the London College of Fashion, where she achieved a diploma in business.", "During that time she also worked in a film company and later in public relations, but began to lose interest and decided to pursue a career in singing instead.", "The group rose to fame by starring in their own BBC television series, \"Miami 7\", in 1999.", "Over the five years they were together, S Club 7 had four UK No.1 singles, one UK No.1 album, a string of hits throughout Europe, including a top-ten single in the United States, Asia, Latin America and Africa.", "They recorded a total of four studio albums, released eleven singles and went on to sell over fourteen million albums worldwide.", "Their first album, \"S Club\", had a strong 1990s pop sound, similar to many artists of their time.", "However, through the course of their career, their musical approach changed to a more dance and R&B sound which is heard mostly in their final album, \"Seeing Double\".", "The concept and brand of the group was created by Simon Fuller, also their manager through 19 Entertainment; they were signed to Polydor Records.", "Their television series went on to last four series, seeing the group travel across the United States and eventually ending up in Barcelona, Spain.", "It became popular in 100 different countries where the show was watched by over 90 million viewers.", "The show, which was a children's sitcom, often mirrored real life events which had occurred in S Club, including the relationship of Hannah Spearritt and Paul Cattermole, as well as the eventual departure from the group of the latter.", "As well as the popularity of their television series, S Club 7 won two Brit Awards—in 2000 for British breakthrough act and in 2002, for best British single.", "In 2001, the group earned the Record of year.", "S Club's second to last single reached number-five in the UK charts and their final studio album failed to make the top ten.", "However, on 21 April 2003, during a live onstage performance, S Club announced that they were to disband.", "In 2003, after S Club disbanded, Stevens signed a £1.5 million solo four-album deal with Polydor Records and re-signed with Fuller.", "She said that breaking out on her own after success with S Club was difficult: \"I think we [S Club] ended up conforming to what people's perceptions were.", "This one was the ditzy one, this one was the singer, this one was the dancer.", "And to come out of that and be a whole person has been a real challenge for me.", "I didn't have my say, really, in the group.", "None of us did\".", "Her first solo single, written by Cathy Dennis and produced by Bloodshy & Avant, \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\", was released in September 2003.", "Taking inspiration from R&B and adult-style pop music, Stevens's debut solo album, \"Funky Dory\", was released later that month.", "The album was a hit, reaching number 9 on the UK albums chart and was certified gold.", "The album also gained praise from pop critics; Jamie Gill, in a review for \"Yahoo!", "Launch\", said that Stevens \"eschews the cheap and cheerful approach of her old band for a slinky adult confidence and musical eclecticism.\"", "That December the album's title track \"Funky Dory\", featuring a sample of the David Bowie song \"Andy Warhol\" from his album \"Hunky Dory\", was released as its second single and failed to match the success of \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\", peaking at number twenty-four.", "MusicOMH called it \"musically better than \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\" with a hybrid of pop, Latin and even a hint of jazz infusion\" but not a good single choice as a single as it lacked anything special and different.", "In July 2004, Stevens released the BBC Sport Relief charity single, \"Some Girls\", which was produced by Richard X. It became a hit across Europe, and reached number two in the UK.", "\"HMV.co.uk\" called the song Stevens's \"finest song to date\", and \"Yahoo! Launch\" commented that \"she came to save her career.", "She ended up saving pop.\"", "Stevens then signed a deal with Matalan reportedly worth £1 million and had her hit song \"More More More\" as the title song for Matalan's advertising campaign.", "Following the success of \"Some Girls\", \"Funky Dory\" was re-released to include \"Some Girls\" and another new track, a cover of Andrea True Connection's \"More More More\".", "\"More More More\" was issued as a single and peaked at number 3 in the UK, giving Stevens her third top ten solo single in the UK.", "At this point, Stevens and her management stepped up promotion, earning her a Guinness World Record for \"Most Public Appearances by a Pop Star in 24 Hours in Different Cities\" (seven on 8–9 September 2004).", "In 2004, Stevens appeared in comedy film \"Suzie Gold\".", "In March 2005, Stevens released her new single, \"Negotiate with Love\", that was a top ten hit in the UK.", "\"So Good\" was released in July 2005 and also peaked at number 10, being hailed as \"tastily produced and sassily delivered.\"", "In mid-2005, Channel 4 broadcast a documentary which followed Stevens through the summer as she promoted \"So Good\".", "Her second album, \"Come and Get It\", produced by Richard X and Xenomania, was released in October 2005 and peaked at number 28 in the UK.", "The album was included on \"The Guardian\" list \"1,000 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die\".", "The third and final single was \"I Said Never Again", "(But Here We Are)\", which peaked at number 12 in the UK and was commended by HMV.co.uk for its \"astonishingly flawless vocal performance\" and as Stevens's \"most commercially accessible and quirky single since \"Some Girls\".\"", "In 2005 Stevens also starred the comedy films \"Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo\" and \"Spider-Plant Man\".", "In December 2005, she toured in UK with the Come and Get It Tour.", "In the following years Stevens planned to release a third album, but gave up to focus on philanthropic projects, working in the Make Poverty History for two years.", "In 2008 Stevens voiced Patrica Ravelston in the animated short Glendogie Bogey.", "In August she was announced as contestant of \"Strictly Come Dancing\" as partner with professional dancer Vincent Simone.", "She finished in second place.", "Stevens and Simone also took part in the \"Strictly Come Dancing Christmas Specials\" to 2008 from 2014.", "In July 2011 a demo track entitled \"Nothing in Common\", which was recorded for \"Come and Get It\", was uploaded online.", "In 2011 she released a charity children's compilation \"Tasty Tunes\" in a project with toddlers food company Ella's Kitchen.", "In 2013 Stevens was mentor assistant on the New Zealand version of \"The X-Factor\" helping Melanie Blatt with the groups category.", "On 6 October 2014, Irish state broadcaster RTÉ confirmed that Stevens would be taking on one of the red chairs on \"The Voice of Ireland\" as the fourth coach.", "In December 2014, Stevens attended the \"Strictly Come Dancing\" Christmas special and Strictly Tour, a dance show in UK.", "In May 2015 all seven of the original members of S Club 7 reunited in an arena tour, entitled Bring It All Back 2015.", "On 12 March 2015, Stevens appeared on BBC Radio 1's Innuendo Bingo.", "In 2017 she appeared on the cast of Celebrity Masterchef.", "In December 2017, Stevens appeared on an episode of \"Celebrity Mastermind\".", "In 2019 Stevens joined the \"Rip It Up The 70s\" theatre show with Louis Smith, Melody Thornton and Lee Ryan.", "In 2022, she is competed in the fourteenth series of \"Dancing on Ice\" and was third to be eliminated.", "In 2005 Stevens fronted the \"Everyman Testicular Cancer Awareness \" campaign.", "Stevens's role was notable as she was the first woman to represent this campaign.", "Her television commercial raised eyebrows with its suggestive content that included her telling men to \"put one hand down their trousers and give their testicles a good feel\".", "On the commercial, Stevens commented, \"Sometimes men need a little encouragement to think about their health.", "This is a funny way of raising awareness about a serious subject.\"", "In 2005 Stevens also took part in the Make Poverty History campaign, which aims to eliminate poverty in developing countries by cancelling old debts, improving the way aid is given and removing barriers, so these countries can trade more effectively with the rest of the world.", "Stevens donated an undisclosed amount of money to the campaign, and also starred in television and magazine advertisements supporting the cause.", "Her official website also displayed the campaign's official online banner.", "On 15 November 2011 it was reported that Stevens had recorded a collection of songs about fruit and vegetables as a way of helping to encourage children to eat five portions of fruit and veg per day.", "The songs were for an album titled \"Tasty Tunes\" and were made available as free downloads from the website of children's food firm Ella's Kitchen.", "Stevens launched the songs with a one-off performance at a nursery in Streatham, south London.", "The songs include food-themed versions of \"Twinkle Twinkle Little Star\" and \"The Hokey-Cokey\", and Stevens said of the project; \"As a new mum, I'm always looking for exciting ways to encourage my daughter to try new foods, especially greens.", "I hope tasty tunes help lots of parents sing about fruit and vegetables as part of their little one's everyday playtime.", "\"\nStevens is also an ambassador to WaterAid, an organisation that promotes clean water in developing countries all over the world.", "During a 2012 trip to Ethiopia, Stevens remarked, \"It was such a great feeling to see the women laughing and chatting while they were washing their clothes and drinking clean water.", "Everyone looked healthier and a lot happier and the village felt full of life.", "\"", "Whilst in S Club 7 Stevens fronted the World Wide Fund for Nature.", "More recently, she has been the front woman for Pretty Polly, Sky Sports, Marks & Spencer, and Focus Dailies.", "In 2009, Stevens became the new ambassador for Schwarzkopf Herod Gliss hair products.", "In October 2011 Stevens fronted the launch of Seven Seas Health Oils.", "In her earlier years in S Club, Stevens dated property developer Daniel Cohen for about two years.", "Following the split, Cohen stated he met Stevens socially a few times after their relationship ended, adding \"she's an absolute darling, someone I haven't a bad word to say about\".", "On Valentine's Day in 2002 Stevens became engaged to actor Jeremy Edwards.", "The couple broke up in early 2004.", "After the break-up she dated Gavin Dein, son of former Arsenal vice-chairman David Dein.", "The relationship did not last long, with the couple splitting up in August 2005.", "In September and October 2006 Stevens was linked to American-based British singer Oliver Trevena, known professionally as Oli T.\nIn June 2008, Stevens became engaged to her boyfriend of 18 months, Alex Bourne.", "The couple had planned to marry in the autumn of 2008, but decided to postpone their wedding until August 2009 due to Stevens' busy autumn schedule training and performing on \"Strictly Come Dancing\".", "Stevens married Bourne on 2 August 2009.", "The wedding was a Jewish one.", "On 19 May 2010 the couple were expecting their first child.", "Her first daughter was born in 2010 and her second in 2014.", "Occasional reference is made by the virtual band Gorillaz to a period in which animated lead singer Stuart \"2D\" Pot allegedly dated Stevens as part of their fictional backstory.", "Stevens has stated that she \"observe[s] some of the (Jewish) holidays and I'll go to the synagogue on special occasions\".", "# Jamie Gill.", "Rachel Stevens 3.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"Yahoo!", "Launch\".", "7 October 2003.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Azeem Ahmad.", "Rachel Stevens 5.", "\"MusicOMH\".", "8 December 2003.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 6.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from HMV.co.uk.", "June 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 7.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"Yahoo!", "Launch\".", "July 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 8.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"London News Review\".", "23 September 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 9. Virgin.net. 2005.", "Retrieved 6 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 10.", "HMV.co.uk.", "Aug. 2005.", "Retrieved 6 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 12.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\". 2006.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 16.", "\"The Daily Record\". 2006.", "Retrieved 1 May 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 17.", "\"Everyman\". 2005.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 18.", "\"RSO: Make Poverty History\". 2005.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Stephen 4 Stevens\", \"The Daily Mirror\". 2006.", "Retrieved 11 November 2006.", "# \"Rach's Oli Nice Bloke\", \"The Daily Mirror\". 2006.", "Retrieved 11 November 2006." ]

[ 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54 ]

[ "\"Come and Get It\", her second studio album, was released in October 2005.", "It peaked at No. 28 in the UK, and two of its three singles reached the Top 10.", "In 2008, she came second in the sixth series of the BBC One series \"Strictly Come Dancing\" with her dance partner Vincent Simone." ]

[ "Born in Southgate, London, to a Jewish family, she had a Jewish upbringing and attended Osidge JMI School and Ashmole School in London.", "She has two brothers, Jason and Leigh.", "In 1993, she first caught attention by winning a modelling contest sponsored by UK teen magazine \"Just 17\", beating 5,000 other competitors.", "Following her first modelling jobs, she decided to study at the London College of Fashion, where she achieved a diploma in business.", "During that time she also worked in a film company and later in public relations, but began to lose interest and decided to pursue a career in singing instead.", "The group rose to fame by starring in their own BBC television series, \"Miami 7\", in 1999.", "Over the five years they were together, S Club 7 had four UK No.1 singles, one UK No.1 album, a string of hits throughout Europe, including a top-ten single in the United States, Asia, Latin America and Africa.", "They recorded a total of four studio albums, released eleven singles and went on to sell over fourteen million albums worldwide.", "Their first album, \"S Club\", had a strong 1990s pop sound, similar to many artists of their time.", "However, through the course of their career, their musical approach changed to a more dance and R&B sound which is heard mostly in their final album, \"Seeing Double\".", "The concept and brand of the group was created by Simon Fuller, also their manager through 19 Entertainment; they were signed to Polydor Records.", "Their television series went on to last four series, seeing the group travel across the United States and eventually ending up in Barcelona, Spain.", "It became popular in 100 different countries where the show was watched by over 90 million viewers.", "The show, which was a children's sitcom, often mirrored real life events which had occurred in S Club, including the relationship of Hannah Spearritt and Paul Cattermole, as well as the eventual departure from the group of the latter.", "As well as the popularity of their television series, S Club 7 won two Brit Awards—in 2000 for British breakthrough act and in 2002, for best British single.", "In 2001, the group earned the Record of year.", "S Club's second to last single reached number-five in the UK charts and their final studio album failed to make the top ten.", "However, on 21 April 2003, during a live onstage performance, S Club announced that they were to disband.", "In 2003, after S Club disbanded, Stevens signed a £1.5 million solo four-album deal with Polydor Records and re-signed with Fuller.", "She said that breaking out on her own after success with S Club was difficult: \"I think we [S Club] ended up conforming to what people's perceptions were.", "This one was the ditzy one, this one was the singer, this one was the dancer.", "And to come out of that and be a whole person has been a real challenge for me.", "I didn't have my say, really, in the group.", "None of us did\".", "Her first solo single, written by Cathy Dennis and produced by Bloodshy & Avant, \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\", was released in September 2003.", "Taking inspiration from R&B and adult-style pop music, Stevens's debut solo album, \"Funky Dory\", was released later that month.", "The album was a hit, reaching number 9 on the UK albums chart and was certified gold.", "The album also gained praise from pop critics; Jamie Gill, in a review for \"Yahoo!", "Launch\", said that Stevens \"eschews the cheap and cheerful approach of her old band for a slinky adult confidence and musical eclecticism.\"", "That December the album's title track \"Funky Dory\", featuring a sample of the David Bowie song \"Andy Warhol\" from his album \"Hunky Dory\", was released as its second single and failed to match the success of \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\", peaking at number twenty-four.", "MusicOMH called it \"musically better than \"Sweet Dreams My LA Ex\" with a hybrid of pop, Latin and even a hint of jazz infusion\" but not a good single choice as a single as it lacked anything special and different.", "In July 2004, Stevens released the BBC Sport Relief charity single, \"Some Girls\", which was produced by Richard X. It became a hit across Europe, and reached number two in the UK.", "\"HMV.co.uk\" called the song Stevens's \"finest song to date\", and \"Yahoo! Launch\" commented that \"she came to save her career.", "She ended up saving pop.\"", "Stevens then signed a deal with Matalan reportedly worth £1 million and had her hit song \"More More More\" as the title song for Matalan's advertising campaign.", "Following the success of \"Some Girls\", \"Funky Dory\" was re-released to include \"Some Girls\" and another new track, a cover of Andrea True Connection's \"More More More\".", "\"More More More\" was issued as a single and peaked at number 3 in the UK, giving Stevens her third top ten solo single in the UK.", "At this point, Stevens and her management stepped up promotion, earning her a Guinness World Record for \"Most Public Appearances by a Pop Star in 24 Hours in Different Cities\" (seven on 8–9 September 2004).", "In 2004, Stevens appeared in comedy film \"Suzie Gold\".", "In March 2005, Stevens released her new single, \"Negotiate with Love\", that was a top ten hit in the UK.", "\"So Good\" was released in July 2005 and also peaked at number 10, being hailed as \"tastily produced and sassily delivered.\"", "In mid-2005, Channel 4 broadcast a documentary which followed Stevens through the summer as she promoted \"So Good\".", "Her second album, \"Come and Get It\", produced by Richard X and Xenomania, was released in October 2005 and peaked at number 28 in the UK.", "The album was included on \"The Guardian\" list \"1,000 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die\".", "The third and final single was \"I Said Never Again", "(But Here We Are)\", which peaked at number 12 in the UK and was commended by HMV.co.uk for its \"astonishingly flawless vocal performance\" and as Stevens's \"most commercially accessible and quirky single since \"Some Girls\".\"", "In 2005 Stevens also starred the comedy films \"Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo\" and \"Spider-Plant Man\".", "In December 2005, she toured in UK with the Come and Get It Tour.", "In the following years Stevens planned to release a third album, but gave up to focus on philanthropic projects, working in the Make Poverty History for two years.", "In 2008 Stevens voiced Patrica Ravelston in the animated short Glendogie Bogey.", "In August she was announced as contestant of \"Strictly Come Dancing\" as partner with professional dancer Vincent Simone.", "She finished in second place.", "Stevens and Simone also took part in the \"Strictly Come Dancing Christmas Specials\" to 2008 from 2014.", "In July 2011 a demo track entitled \"Nothing in Common\", which was recorded for \"Come and Get It\", was uploaded online.", "In 2011 she released a charity children's compilation \"Tasty Tunes\" in a project with toddlers food company Ella's Kitchen.", "In 2013 Stevens was mentor assistant on the New Zealand version of \"The X-Factor\" helping Melanie Blatt with the groups category.", "On 6 October 2014, Irish state broadcaster RTÉ confirmed that Stevens would be taking on one of the red chairs on \"The Voice of Ireland\" as the fourth coach.", "In December 2014, Stevens attended the \"Strictly Come Dancing\" Christmas special and Strictly Tour, a dance show in UK.", "In May 2015 all seven of the original members of S Club 7 reunited in an arena tour, entitled Bring It All Back 2015.", "On 12 March 2015, Stevens appeared on BBC Radio 1's Innuendo Bingo.", "In 2017 she appeared on the cast of Celebrity Masterchef.", "In December 2017, Stevens appeared on an episode of \"Celebrity Mastermind\".", "In 2019 Stevens joined the \"Rip It Up The 70s\" theatre show with Louis Smith, Melody Thornton and Lee Ryan.", "In 2022, she is competed in the fourteenth series of \"Dancing on Ice\" and was third to be eliminated.", "In 2005 Stevens fronted the \"Everyman Testicular Cancer Awareness \" campaign.", "Stevens's role was notable as she was the first woman to represent this campaign.", "Her television commercial raised eyebrows with its suggestive content that included her telling men to \"put one hand down their trousers and give their testicles a good feel\".", "On the commercial, Stevens commented, \"Sometimes men need a little encouragement to think about their health.", "This is a funny way of raising awareness about a serious subject.\"", "In 2005 Stevens also took part in the Make Poverty History campaign, which aims to eliminate poverty in developing countries by cancelling old debts, improving the way aid is given and removing barriers, so these countries can trade more effectively with the rest of the world.", "Stevens donated an undisclosed amount of money to the campaign, and also starred in television and magazine advertisements supporting the cause.", "Her official website also displayed the campaign's official online banner.", "On 15 November 2011 it was reported that Stevens had recorded a collection of songs about fruit and vegetables as a way of helping to encourage children to eat five portions of fruit and veg per day.", "The songs were for an album titled \"Tasty Tunes\" and were made available as free downloads from the website of children's food firm Ella's Kitchen.", "Stevens launched the songs with a one-off performance at a nursery in Streatham, south London.", "The songs include food-themed versions of \"Twinkle Twinkle Little Star\" and \"The Hokey-Cokey\", and Stevens said of the project; \"As a new mum, I'm always looking for exciting ways to encourage my daughter to try new foods, especially greens.", "I hope tasty tunes help lots of parents sing about fruit and vegetables as part of their little one's everyday playtime.", "\"\nStevens is also an ambassador to WaterAid, an organisation that promotes clean water in developing countries all over the world.", "During a 2012 trip to Ethiopia, Stevens remarked, \"It was such a great feeling to see the women laughing and chatting while they were washing their clothes and drinking clean water.", "Everyone looked healthier and a lot happier and the village felt full of life.", "\"", "Whilst in S Club 7 Stevens fronted the World Wide Fund for Nature.", "More recently, she has been the front woman for Pretty Polly, Sky Sports, Marks & Spencer, and Focus Dailies.", "In 2009, Stevens became the new ambassador for Schwarzkopf Herod Gliss hair products.", "In October 2011 Stevens fronted the launch of Seven Seas Health Oils.", "In her earlier years in S Club, Stevens dated property developer Daniel Cohen for about two years.", "Following the split, Cohen stated he met Stevens socially a few times after their relationship ended, adding \"she's an absolute darling, someone I haven't a bad word to say about\".", "On Valentine's Day in 2002 Stevens became engaged to actor Jeremy Edwards.", "The couple broke up in early 2004.", "After the break-up she dated Gavin Dein, son of former Arsenal vice-chairman David Dein.", "The relationship did not last long, with the couple splitting up in August 2005.", "In September and October 2006 Stevens was linked to American-based British singer Oliver Trevena, known professionally as Oli T.\nIn June 2008, Stevens became engaged to her boyfriend of 18 months, Alex Bourne.", "The couple had planned to marry in the autumn of 2008, but decided to postpone their wedding until August 2009 due to Stevens' busy autumn schedule training and performing on \"Strictly Come Dancing\".", "Stevens married Bourne on 2 August 2009.", "The wedding was a Jewish one.", "On 19 May 2010 the couple were expecting their first child.", "Her first daughter was born in 2010 and her second in 2014.", "Occasional reference is made by the virtual band Gorillaz to a period in which animated lead singer Stuart \"2D\" Pot allegedly dated Stevens as part of their fictional backstory.", "Stevens has stated that she \"observe[s] some of the (Jewish) holidays and I'll go to the synagogue on special occasions\".", "# Jamie Gill.", "Rachel Stevens 3.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"Yahoo!", "Launch\".", "7 October 2003.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Azeem Ahmad.", "Rachel Stevens 5.", "\"MusicOMH\".", "8 December 2003.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 6.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from HMV.co.uk.", "June 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 7.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"Yahoo!", "Launch\".", "July 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 8.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\" – originally from \"London News Review\".", "23 September 2004.", "Retrieved 5 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 9. Virgin.net. 2005.", "Retrieved 6 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 10.", "HMV.co.uk.", "Aug. 2005.", "Retrieved 6 February 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 12.", "\"Rachel Stevens Online\". 2006.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 16.", "\"The Daily Record\". 2006.", "Retrieved 1 May 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 17.", "\"Everyman\". 2005.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Rachel Stevens 18.", "\"RSO: Make Poverty History\". 2005.", "Retrieved 29 January 2006.", "# Stephen 4 Stevens\", \"The Daily Mirror\". 2006.", "Retrieved 11 November 2006.", "# \"Rach's Oli Nice Bloke\", \"The Daily Mirror\". 2006.", "Retrieved 11 November 2006." ]

[ 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63 ]

[ "She was a member of the pop group S Club 7 between 1999 and 2003.", "In 2013, she was a mentor assistant on \"The X Factor New Zealand\".", "Stevens became one of the coaches in the 4th season of RTE's \"The Voice of Ireland\"." ]

[ "\"Tulipa\" (tulips) is a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes, dying back after flowering to an underground storage bulb.", "Depending on the species, tulip plants can be between high.", "Flowers: The tulip's flowers are usually large and are actinomorphic (radially symmetric) and hermaphrodite (contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarely pendulous, and are arranged more usually as a single terminal flower, or when pluriflor as two to three (e.g. \"Tulipa turkestanica\"), but up to four, flowers on the end of a floriferous stem (scape), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette.", "In structure, the flower is generally cup or star shaped.", "As with other members of Liliaceae the perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six free (i.e. apotepalous) caducous tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each.", "The two whorls represent three petals and three sepals, but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical.", "The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on the interior surface.", "The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals.", "Androecium:", "The flowers have six distinct, basifixed introrse stamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy.", "The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base.", "Gynoecium:", "The style is short or absent and each stigma has three distinct lobes, and the ovaries are superior, with three chambers.", "Fruit:", "The tulip's fruit is a globose or ellipsoid capsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape.", "Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shaped seeds in two rows per chamber.", "These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats and endosperm that does not normally fill the entire seed.", "Leaves: Tulip stems have few leaves.", "Larger species tend to have multiple leaves.", "Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12.", "The tulip's leaf is cauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up the stem.", "These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour.", "The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex.", "They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can be glabrous or hairy inside.", "The \"Semper Augustus\" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-century tulip mania.", "“The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top” – wrote Nicolas van Wassenaer in 1624 after seeing the tulip in the garden of one Dr Adriaen Pauw, a director of the new East India Company.", "With limited specimens in existence at the time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania.", "Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours, except pure blue (several tulips with \"blue\" in the name have a faint violet hue), and have absent nectaries.", "Tulip flowers are generally bereft of scent and are the coolest of floral characters.", "The Dutch regarded this lack of scent as a virtue, as it demonstrates the flower's chasteness.\nWhile tulips can be bred to display a wide variety of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve.", "The Queen of the Night tulip is as close to black as a flower gets, though it is, in fact, a dark and glossy maroonish purple - nonetheless, an effect prized by the Dutch.", "The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands.", "The specimen was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips.", "Tulipanin is an anthocyanin found in tulips.", "It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin.", "The chemical compounds named tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies.", "Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone, is a common allergen, generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A.", "It induces a dermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters and florists who cut the stems and leaves.", "Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs.", "The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second laid-on anthocyanin colour.", "The mix of these two hues determines the visible unitary colour.", "The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin and the base colour is exposed as a streak.", "The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, and Anna Pavord describes \"T. Hungarica\" as \"strongly scented\", and among cultivars, some such as \"Monte Carlo\" and \"Brown Sugar\" are \"scented\", and \"Creme Upstar\" \"fragrant\".", "\"Tulipa\" is a genus of the lily family, Liliaceae, once one of the largest families of monocots, but which molecular phylogenetics has reduced to a monophyletic grouping with only 15 genera.", "Within Liliaceae, \"Tulipa\" is placed within Lilioideae, one of three subfamilies, with two tribes.", "Tribe Lilieae includes seven other genera in addition to \"Tulipa\".", "The genus, which includes about 75 species, is divided into four subgenera.", "The word \"tulip\", first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the \"Turkish Letters\" of diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, first appeared in English as \"tulipa\" or \"tulipant\", entering the language by way of and its obsolete form \"tulipan\" or by way of Modern Latin \"tulipa\", from Ottoman Turkish \"tülbend\" (\"muslin\" or \"gauze\"), and may be ultimately derived from the \"delband\" (\"Turban\"), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban.", "This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans.", "The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban.", "Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the \"Turks\" used the word \"tulipan\" to describe the flower.", "Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip is \"lale\".", "It is from this speculation that \"tulipan\" being a translation error referring to turbans is derived.", "This Etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors.", "At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used in Turkey, he simply states it was used by the \"Turks\".", "On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled through Hungary and used Hungarian guides.", "Until recent times \"Turk\" was a common term when referring to Hungarians.", "The word \"tulipan\" is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip.", "As long as one recognizes \"Turk\" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form.", "Busbecq was simply repeating the word used by his \"Turk/Hungarian\" guides.", "The Hungarian word \"tulipan\" may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection, \"tala\" meaning bottom or underworld and \"pAna\" meaning defence.", "Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including the tulip.", "Tulips are mainly distributed along a band corresponding to latitude 40° north, from southeast of Europe (Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Southern Serbia, Bulgaria, most part of Romania, Ukraine, Russia) and Turkey in the west, through the Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestinian Territories, Lebanon and Jordan) and the Sinai Peninsula.", "From there it extends eastwards through Jerevan, (Armenia) and Baku (Azerbaijan) and on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea through Turkmenistan, Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent (Uzbekistan), to the eastern end of the range in the Pamir-Alai and Tien-Shan mountains in Central Asia, which form the centre of diversity.", "Further to the east, \"Tulipa\" is found in the western Himalayas, southern Siberia, Inner Mongolia, and as far as the northwest of China.", "While authorities have stated that no tulips west of the Balkans are native, subsequent identification of \"Tulipa sylvestris\" subsp.", "\"australis\" as a native of the Iberian peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification.", "In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and the Balkans.", "In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine.", "Although tulips are also throughout most of the Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution.", "Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants from Anatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised (\"see map\").", "For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native.", "These have been referred to as neo-tulipae.", "Tulips are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates, where they are a common element of steppe and winter-rain Mediterranean vegetation.", "They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers.", "Tulips are most commonly found in meadows, steppes and chaparral, but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens.", "\"Botrytis tulipae\" is a major fungal disease affecting tulips, causing cell death and eventually the rotting of the plant.", "Other pathogens include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, blight caused by \"Sclerotium rolfsii\", bulb nematodes, other rots including blue molds, black molds and mushy rot.", "The fungus \"Trichoderma viride\" can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth, although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing in glasshouses.", "Variegated tulips admired during the Dutch tulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with the tulip breaking virus, a mosaic virus that was carried by the green peach aphid, \"Myzus persicae\".", "While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced.", "Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists’ techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of the desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots.", "Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called \"broken\"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed.", "Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields.", "The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between the colours.", "Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions.", "Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known as vernalisation.", "Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< ).", "Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals.", "The colour of tulip flowers also varies with growing conditions.", "Cultivation of the tulip began in Iran (Persia), probably in the 10th century.", "Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour.", "The tulip is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity, therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks.", "In the Ottoman Empire, numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred, and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey.", "Tulips are mentioned by Omar Kayam and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi.", "Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow.", "The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour.", "A paper by Arthur Baker reports that in 1574, Sultan Selim II ordered the Kadi of A‘azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs.", "However, John Harvey points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips and hyacinth (\"sümbüll\"), originally Indian spikenard (\"Nardostachys jatamansi\") have been confused.", "Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs of \"Kefe Lale\" (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probably \"Tulipa schrenkii\") from Kefe in Crimea, for his gardens in the Topkapı Sarayı in Istanbul.", "It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west.", "The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency.", "Sultan Ahmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in the summer highland pastures (\"Yayla\") at Spil Dağı above the town of Manisa.", "They seem to have consisted of wild tulips.", "However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin, so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods.", "Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from the Netherlands.", "The gardening book \"Revnak'ı Bostan\" (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reis ülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths and lilies.", "However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate.", "In 1515, the scholar Qasim from Herat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) as anemones (\"shaqayq al-nu'man\"), but described the crown imperial as \"laleh kakli\".", "In a Turkic text written before 1495, the Chagatay Husayn Bayqarah mentions tulips (\"lale\").", "Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, also names tulips in the Baburnama.", "He may actually have introduced them from Afghanistan to the plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes.", "In Moorish Andalus, a \"Makedonian bulb\" (\"basal al-maqdunis\") or \"bucket-Narcissus\" (\"naryis qadusi\") was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens.", "It was supposed to have come from Alexandria and may have been Tulipa sylvestris, but the identification is not wholly secure.", "Although it is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it was Oghier Ghislain de Busbecq, an ambassador for Emperor Ferdinand", "I to Suleyman the Magnificent.", "According to a letter, he saw \"an abundance of flowers everywhere; Narcissus, hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers.\"", "However, in 1559, an account by Conrad Gessner describes tulips flowering in Augsburg, Swabia in the garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart.", "In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter.", "It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year.", "Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as a narcissus.", "Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573.", "He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the variations in colour.", "After he was appointed the director of the Leiden University's newly established Hortus Botanicus, he planted both a teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593.", "Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens in Antwerp and Amsterdam two or three decades earlier.", "These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both the tulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands.", "Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden.", "Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by the early 17th century.", "These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished and especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy.", "\"Nouveaux riches\" seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable.", "A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in the early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb.", "The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower.", "An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers.", "The trade drifted slowly from the French to the Dutch.", "Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered a speculative frenzy now known as the tulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later.", "Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs.", "Around this time, the ceramic tulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem.", "Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared in Dutch still-life painting.", "To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called \"Dutch tulips\".", "The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at the Keukenhof.", "The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in the taxon \"Tulipa ×gesneriana\".", "They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived from \"Tulipa suaveolens\" (today often regarded as a synonym with \"Tulipa schrenkii\").", "\"Tulipa ×gesneriana\" is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century.", "The UK's National Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from the early 17th century to c.1960, is held by Polly Nicholson at Blackland House, near Calne in Wiltshire.", "It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown near Spring Pond at the Fay Estate in Lynn and Salem, Massachusetts.", "From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem.", "Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of the world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate.", "The Netherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export.", "\"Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination.", "Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs.", "Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need the pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms.", "\"\nTulips can be propagated through bulb offsets, seeds or micropropagation.", "Offsets and tissue culture methods are means of asexual propagation for producing genetic clones of the parent plant, which maintains cultivar genetic integrity.", "Seeds are most often used to propagate species and subspecies or to create new hybrids.", "Many tulip species can cross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations.", "Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and often sterile.", "Offsets require a year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower.", "Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size.", "To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usually topped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads.", "The same goals can be achieved by a private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen.", "Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future.", "Because tulip bulbs don't reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct.", "Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation, the Tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations.", "In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size.", "They may also be classified by their flowering season:", "A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae.", "These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in the wild for many centuries.", "The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked to saffron cultivation.", "Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips.", "These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and the 'Didieri Group' with unicolourous tepals.", "Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils.", "Tulips should be planted apart from each other.", "The recommended hole depth is deep, and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface.", "Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes.", "Species tulips are normally planted deeper.", "The celebration of Persian New Year, or Nowruz, dating back over 3,000 years, marks the advent of spring, and tulips are used as a decorative feature during the festivities.", "A sixth-century legend, similar to the tale of \"Romeo and Juliet\", tells of tulips sprouting where the blood of the young prince Farhad spilt after he killed himself upon hearing the (deliberately false) story that his true love had died.", "The tulip was a topic for Persian poets from the thirteenth century.", "The poem \"Gulistan\" by Musharrifu'd-din Saadi, described a visionary garden paradise with \"The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicoloured tulips and fragrant roses...\".", "In recent times, tulips have featured in the poems of Simin Behbahani.", "The tulip is the national symbol for martyrdom in Iran (and Shi'ite Islam generally), and has been used on postage stamps and coins.", "It was common as a symbol used in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, and a red tulip adorns the flag redesigned in 1980.", "The sword in the centre, with four crescent-shaped petals around it, create the word \"Allah\" as well as symbolising the five pillars of Islam.", "The tomb of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini is decorated with 72 stained glass tulips, representing 72 martyrs who died at the Battle of Karbala in 680CE.", "It was also used as a symbol on billboards celebrating casualties of the 1980–1988 war with Iraq.", "The tulip also became a symbol of protest against the Iranian government after the presidential election in June 2009, when millions turned out on the streets to protest the re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.", "After the protests were harshly suppressed, the Iranian Green Movement adopted the tulip as a symbol of their struggle.", "The word for tulip in Persian is \"laleh\" (لاله), and this has become popular as a girl's name.", "The name has been used for commercial enterprises, such as the Laleh International Hotel, as well as public facilities, such as Laleh Park and Laleh Hospital, and the tulip motif remains common in Iranian culture.", "Tulips are called \"lale\" in Turkish (from Persian: \"laleh\" لاله).", "When written in Arabic letters, \"lale\" has the same letters as \"Allah\", which is why the flower became a holy symbol.", "It was also associated with the House of Osman, resulting in tulips being widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, mosques, fabrics, crockery, etc. in the Ottoman Empire.", "The tulip was seen as a symbol of abundance and indulgence.", "The era during which the Ottoman Empire was wealthiest is often called the Tulip era or \"Lale Devri\" in Turkish.", "Tulips became popular garden plants in the east and west, but, whereas the tulip in Turkish culture was a symbol of paradise on earth and had almost a divine status, in the Netherlands it represented the briefness of life.", "In Christianity, tulips symbolise passion, belief and love.", "White tulips represent forgiveness while purple tulips represent royalty, both important aspects of Easter.", "In Calvinism, the five points of the doctrines of grace have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP.", "By contrast to other flowers such as the coneflower or lotus flower, tulips have historically been capable of genetically reinventing themselves to suit changes in aesthetic values.", "In his 1597 herbal, John Gerard says of the tulip that “nature seems to play more with this flower than with any other that I do know”.", "When in the Netherlands, beauty was defined by marbled swirls of vivid contrasting colours, the petals of tulips were able to become \"feathered\" and \"flamed\".", "However, in the 19th century, when the English desired tulips for carpet bedding and massing, the tulips were able to once again accommodate this by evolving into “paint-filled boxes with the brightest, fattest dabs of pure pigment”.", "This inherent mutability of the tulip even led the Ottoman Turks to believe that nature cherished this flower above all others.", "Seventeenth-century tulip mania has been described above.", "\"The Black Tulip\" (1850) is an historical romance by Alexandre Dumas, père.", "The story takes place in the Dutch city of Haarlem, where a reward is offered to the first grower who can produce a truly black tulip.", "The tulip occurs on a number of the Major Arcana cards of occultist Oswald Wirth's deck of Tarot cards, specifically the Magician, Emperor, Temperance and the Fool, described in his 1927 work \"Le Tarot, des Imagiers du Moyen Âge\".", "Tulip festivals are held around the world, for example in the Netherlands and Spalding, England.", "There is also a popular festival in Morges, Switzerland.", "Every spring, there are tulip festivals in North America, including the Tulip Time Festival in Holland, Michigan, the Skagit Valley Tulip Festival in Skagit Valley, Washington, the Tulip Time Festival in Orange City and Pella, Iowa, and the Canadian Tulip Festival in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.", "Tulips are also popular in Australia and several festivals are held in September and October, during the Southern Hemisphere's spring.", "Tulip petals are edible flowers.", "The taste varies by variety and season, and is roughly similar to lettuce or other salad greens.", "Some people are allergic to tulips.", "Tulip bulbs look similar to onions, but should not generally be considered food.", "The toxicity of bulbs is not well-understood, nor is there an agreed-upon method of safely preparing them for human consumption.", "There have been reports of illness when eaten, depending on quantity.", "During the Dutch famine of 1944–45, tulip bulbs were eaten out of desperation, and Dutch doctors provided recipes." ]

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[ "Tulips (\"Tulipa\") are a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes (having bulbs as storage organs).", "The flowers are usually large, showy and brightly coloured, generally red, pink, yellow, or white (usually in warm colours).", "They often have a different coloured blotch at the base of the tepals (petals and sepals, collectively), internally.", "By the 15th century, tulips were among the most prized flowers; becoming the symbol of the Ottomans." ]

[ "\"Tulipa\" (tulips) is a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes, dying back after flowering to an underground storage bulb.", "Depending on the species, tulip plants can be between high.", "Flowers: The tulip's flowers are usually large and are actinomorphic (radially symmetric) and hermaphrodite (contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarely pendulous, and are arranged more usually as a single terminal flower, or when pluriflor as two to three (e.g. \"Tulipa turkestanica\"), but up to four, flowers on the end of a floriferous stem (scape), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette.", "In structure, the flower is generally cup or star shaped.", "As with other members of Liliaceae the perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six free (i.e. apotepalous) caducous tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each.", "The two whorls represent three petals and three sepals, but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical.", "The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on the interior surface.", "The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals.", "Androecium:", "The flowers have six distinct, basifixed introrse stamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy.", "The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base.", "Gynoecium:", "The style is short or absent and each stigma has three distinct lobes, and the ovaries are superior, with three chambers.", "Fruit:", "The tulip's fruit is a globose or ellipsoid capsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape.", "Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shaped seeds in two rows per chamber.", "These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats and endosperm that does not normally fill the entire seed.", "Leaves: Tulip stems have few leaves.", "Larger species tend to have multiple leaves.", "Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12.", "The tulip's leaf is cauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up the stem.", "These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour.", "The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex.", "They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can be glabrous or hairy inside.", "The \"Semper Augustus\" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-century tulip mania.", "“The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top” – wrote Nicolas van Wassenaer in 1624 after seeing the tulip in the garden of one Dr Adriaen Pauw, a director of the new East India Company.", "With limited specimens in existence at the time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania.", "Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours, except pure blue (several tulips with \"blue\" in the name have a faint violet hue), and have absent nectaries.", "Tulip flowers are generally bereft of scent and are the coolest of floral characters.", "The Dutch regarded this lack of scent as a virtue, as it demonstrates the flower's chasteness.\nWhile tulips can be bred to display a wide variety of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve.", "The Queen of the Night tulip is as close to black as a flower gets, though it is, in fact, a dark and glossy maroonish purple - nonetheless, an effect prized by the Dutch.", "The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands.", "The specimen was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips.", "Tulipanin is an anthocyanin found in tulips.", "It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin.", "The chemical compounds named tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies.", "Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone, is a common allergen, generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A.", "It induces a dermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters and florists who cut the stems and leaves.", "Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs.", "The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second laid-on anthocyanin colour.", "The mix of these two hues determines the visible unitary colour.", "The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin and the base colour is exposed as a streak.", "The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, and Anna Pavord describes \"T. Hungarica\" as \"strongly scented\", and among cultivars, some such as \"Monte Carlo\" and \"Brown Sugar\" are \"scented\", and \"Creme Upstar\" \"fragrant\".", "\"Tulipa\" is a genus of the lily family, Liliaceae, once one of the largest families of monocots, but which molecular phylogenetics has reduced to a monophyletic grouping with only 15 genera.", "Within Liliaceae, \"Tulipa\" is placed within Lilioideae, one of three subfamilies, with two tribes.", "Tribe Lilieae includes seven other genera in addition to \"Tulipa\".", "The genus, which includes about 75 species, is divided into four subgenera.", "The word \"tulip\", first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the \"Turkish Letters\" of diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, first appeared in English as \"tulipa\" or \"tulipant\", entering the language by way of and its obsolete form \"tulipan\" or by way of Modern Latin \"tulipa\", from Ottoman Turkish \"tülbend\" (\"muslin\" or \"gauze\"), and may be ultimately derived from the \"delband\" (\"Turban\"), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban.", "This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans.", "The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban.", "Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the \"Turks\" used the word \"tulipan\" to describe the flower.", "Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip is \"lale\".", "It is from this speculation that \"tulipan\" being a translation error referring to turbans is derived.", "This Etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors.", "At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used in Turkey, he simply states it was used by the \"Turks\".", "On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled through Hungary and used Hungarian guides.", "Until recent times \"Turk\" was a common term when referring to Hungarians.", "The word \"tulipan\" is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip.", "As long as one recognizes \"Turk\" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form.", "Busbecq was simply repeating the word used by his \"Turk/Hungarian\" guides.", "The Hungarian word \"tulipan\" may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection, \"tala\" meaning bottom or underworld and \"pAna\" meaning defence.", "Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including the tulip.", "Tulips are mainly distributed along a band corresponding to latitude 40° north, from southeast of Europe (Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Southern Serbia, Bulgaria, most part of Romania, Ukraine, Russia) and Turkey in the west, through the Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestinian Territories, Lebanon and Jordan) and the Sinai Peninsula.", "From there it extends eastwards through Jerevan, (Armenia) and Baku (Azerbaijan) and on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea through Turkmenistan, Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent (Uzbekistan), to the eastern end of the range in the Pamir-Alai and Tien-Shan mountains in Central Asia, which form the centre of diversity.", "Further to the east, \"Tulipa\" is found in the western Himalayas, southern Siberia, Inner Mongolia, and as far as the northwest of China.", "While authorities have stated that no tulips west of the Balkans are native, subsequent identification of \"Tulipa sylvestris\" subsp.", "\"australis\" as a native of the Iberian peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification.", "In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and the Balkans.", "In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine.", "Although tulips are also throughout most of the Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution.", "Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants from Anatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised (\"see map\").", "For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native.", "These have been referred to as neo-tulipae.", "Tulips are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates, where they are a common element of steppe and winter-rain Mediterranean vegetation.", "They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers.", "Tulips are most commonly found in meadows, steppes and chaparral, but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens.", "\"Botrytis tulipae\" is a major fungal disease affecting tulips, causing cell death and eventually the rotting of the plant.", "Other pathogens include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, blight caused by \"Sclerotium rolfsii\", bulb nematodes, other rots including blue molds, black molds and mushy rot.", "The fungus \"Trichoderma viride\" can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth, although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing in glasshouses.", "Variegated tulips admired during the Dutch tulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with the tulip breaking virus, a mosaic virus that was carried by the green peach aphid, \"Myzus persicae\".", "While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced.", "Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists’ techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of the desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots.", "Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called \"broken\"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed.", "Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields.", "The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between the colours.", "Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions.", "Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known as vernalisation.", "Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< ).", "Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals.", "The colour of tulip flowers also varies with growing conditions.", "Cultivation of the tulip began in Iran (Persia), probably in the 10th century.", "Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour.", "The tulip is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity, therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks.", "In the Ottoman Empire, numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred, and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey.", "Tulips are mentioned by Omar Kayam and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi.", "Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow.", "The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour.", "A paper by Arthur Baker reports that in 1574, Sultan Selim II ordered the Kadi of A‘azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs.", "However, John Harvey points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips and hyacinth (\"sümbüll\"), originally Indian spikenard (\"Nardostachys jatamansi\") have been confused.", "Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs of \"Kefe Lale\" (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probably \"Tulipa schrenkii\") from Kefe in Crimea, for his gardens in the Topkapı Sarayı in Istanbul.", "It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west.", "The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency.", "Sultan Ahmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in the summer highland pastures (\"Yayla\") at Spil Dağı above the town of Manisa.", "They seem to have consisted of wild tulips.", "However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin, so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods.", "Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from the Netherlands.", "The gardening book \"Revnak'ı Bostan\" (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reis ülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths and lilies.", "However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate.", "In 1515, the scholar Qasim from Herat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) as anemones (\"shaqayq al-nu'man\"), but described the crown imperial as \"laleh kakli\".", "In a Turkic text written before 1495, the Chagatay Husayn Bayqarah mentions tulips (\"lale\").", "Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, also names tulips in the Baburnama.", "He may actually have introduced them from Afghanistan to the plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes.", "In Moorish Andalus, a \"Makedonian bulb\" (\"basal al-maqdunis\") or \"bucket-Narcissus\" (\"naryis qadusi\") was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens.", "It was supposed to have come from Alexandria and may have been Tulipa sylvestris, but the identification is not wholly secure.", "Although it is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it was Oghier Ghislain de Busbecq, an ambassador for Emperor Ferdinand", "I to Suleyman the Magnificent.", "According to a letter, he saw \"an abundance of flowers everywhere; Narcissus, hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers.\"", "However, in 1559, an account by Conrad Gessner describes tulips flowering in Augsburg, Swabia in the garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart.", "In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter.", "It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year.", "Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as a narcissus.", "Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573.", "He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the variations in colour.", "After he was appointed the director of the Leiden University's newly established Hortus Botanicus, he planted both a teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593.", "Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens in Antwerp and Amsterdam two or three decades earlier.", "These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both the tulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands.", "Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden.", "Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by the early 17th century.", "These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished and especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy.", "\"Nouveaux riches\" seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable.", "A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in the early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb.", "The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower.", "An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers.", "The trade drifted slowly from the French to the Dutch.", "Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered a speculative frenzy now known as the tulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later.", "Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs.", "Around this time, the ceramic tulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem.", "Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared in Dutch still-life painting.", "To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called \"Dutch tulips\".", "The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at the Keukenhof.", "The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in the taxon \"Tulipa ×gesneriana\".", "They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived from \"Tulipa suaveolens\" (today often regarded as a synonym with \"Tulipa schrenkii\").", "\"Tulipa ×gesneriana\" is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century.", "The UK's National Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from the early 17th century to c.1960, is held by Polly Nicholson at Blackland House, near Calne in Wiltshire.", "It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown near Spring Pond at the Fay Estate in Lynn and Salem, Massachusetts.", "From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem.", "Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of the world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate.", "The Netherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export.", "\"Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination.", "Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs.", "Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need the pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms.", "\"\nTulips can be propagated through bulb offsets, seeds or micropropagation.", "Offsets and tissue culture methods are means of asexual propagation for producing genetic clones of the parent plant, which maintains cultivar genetic integrity.", "Seeds are most often used to propagate species and subspecies or to create new hybrids.", "Many tulip species can cross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations.", "Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and often sterile.", "Offsets require a year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower.", "Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size.", "To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usually topped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads.", "The same goals can be achieved by a private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen.", "Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future.", "Because tulip bulbs don't reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct.", "Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation, the Tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations.", "In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size.", "They may also be classified by their flowering season:", "A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae.", "These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in the wild for many centuries.", "The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked to saffron cultivation.", "Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips.", "These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and the 'Didieri Group' with unicolourous tepals.", "Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils.", "Tulips should be planted apart from each other.", "The recommended hole depth is deep, and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface.", "Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes.", "Species tulips are normally planted deeper.", "The celebration of Persian New Year, or Nowruz, dating back over 3,000 years, marks the advent of spring, and tulips are used as a decorative feature during the festivities.", "A sixth-century legend, similar to the tale of \"Romeo and Juliet\", tells of tulips sprouting where the blood of the young prince Farhad spilt after he killed himself upon hearing the (deliberately false) story that his true love had died.", "The tulip was a topic for Persian poets from the thirteenth century.", "The poem \"Gulistan\" by Musharrifu'd-din Saadi, described a visionary garden paradise with \"The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicoloured tulips and fragrant roses...\".", "In recent times, tulips have featured in the poems of Simin Behbahani.", "The tulip is the national symbol for martyrdom in Iran (and Shi'ite Islam generally), and has been used on postage stamps and coins.", "It was common as a symbol used in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, and a red tulip adorns the flag redesigned in 1980.", "The sword in the centre, with four crescent-shaped petals around it, create the word \"Allah\" as well as symbolising the five pillars of Islam.", "The tomb of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini is decorated with 72 stained glass tulips, representing 72 martyrs who died at the Battle of Karbala in 680CE.", "It was also used as a symbol on billboards celebrating casualties of the 1980–1988 war with Iraq.", "The tulip also became a symbol of protest against the Iranian government after the presidential election in June 2009, when millions turned out on the streets to protest the re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.", "After the protests were harshly suppressed, the Iranian Green Movement adopted the tulip as a symbol of their struggle.", "The word for tulip in Persian is \"laleh\" (لاله), and this has become popular as a girl's name.", "The name has been used for commercial enterprises, such as the Laleh International Hotel, as well as public facilities, such as Laleh Park and Laleh Hospital, and the tulip motif remains common in Iranian culture.", "Tulips are called \"lale\" in Turkish (from Persian: \"laleh\" لاله).", "When written in Arabic letters, \"lale\" has the same letters as \"Allah\", which is why the flower became a holy symbol.", "It was also associated with the House of Osman, resulting in tulips being widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, mosques, fabrics, crockery, etc. in the Ottoman Empire.", "The tulip was seen as a symbol of abundance and indulgence.", "The era during which the Ottoman Empire was wealthiest is often called the Tulip era or \"Lale Devri\" in Turkish.", "Tulips became popular garden plants in the east and west, but, whereas the tulip in Turkish culture was a symbol of paradise on earth and had almost a divine status, in the Netherlands it represented the briefness of life.", "In Christianity, tulips symbolise passion, belief and love.", "White tulips represent forgiveness while purple tulips represent royalty, both important aspects of Easter.", "In Calvinism, the five points of the doctrines of grace have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP.", "By contrast to other flowers such as the coneflower or lotus flower, tulips have historically been capable of genetically reinventing themselves to suit changes in aesthetic values.", "In his 1597 herbal, John Gerard says of the tulip that “nature seems to play more with this flower than with any other that I do know”.", "When in the Netherlands, beauty was defined by marbled swirls of vivid contrasting colours, the petals of tulips were able to become \"feathered\" and \"flamed\".", "However, in the 19th century, when the English desired tulips for carpet bedding and massing, the tulips were able to once again accommodate this by evolving into “paint-filled boxes with the brightest, fattest dabs of pure pigment”.", "This inherent mutability of the tulip even led the Ottoman Turks to believe that nature cherished this flower above all others.", "Seventeenth-century tulip mania has been described above.", "\"The Black Tulip\" (1850) is an historical romance by Alexandre Dumas, père.", "The story takes place in the Dutch city of Haarlem, where a reward is offered to the first grower who can produce a truly black tulip.", "The tulip occurs on a number of the Major Arcana cards of occultist Oswald Wirth's deck of Tarot cards, specifically the Magician, Emperor, Temperance and the Fool, described in his 1927 work \"Le Tarot, des Imagiers du Moyen Âge\".", "Tulip festivals are held around the world, for example in the Netherlands and Spalding, England.", "There is also a popular festival in Morges, Switzerland.", "Every spring, there are tulip festivals in North America, including the Tulip Time Festival in Holland, Michigan, the Skagit Valley Tulip Festival in Skagit Valley, Washington, the Tulip Time Festival in Orange City and Pella, Iowa, and the Canadian Tulip Festival in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.", "Tulips are also popular in Australia and several festivals are held in September and October, during the Southern Hemisphere's spring.", "Tulip petals are edible flowers.", "The taste varies by variety and season, and is roughly similar to lettuce or other salad greens.", "Some people are allergic to tulips.", "Tulip bulbs look similar to onions, but should not generally be considered food.", "The toxicity of bulbs is not well-understood, nor is there an agreed-upon method of safely preparing them for human consumption.", "There have been reports of illness when eaten, depending on quantity.", "During the Dutch famine of 1944–45, tulip bulbs were eaten out of desperation, and Dutch doctors provided recipes." ]

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[ "By the 15th century, tulips were among the most prized flowers; becoming the symbol of the Ottomans." ]

[ "\"Tulipa\" (tulips) is a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes, dying back after flowering to an underground storage bulb.", "Depending on the species, tulip plants can be between high.", "Flowers: The tulip's flowers are usually large and are actinomorphic (radially symmetric) and hermaphrodite (contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarely pendulous, and are arranged more usually as a single terminal flower, or when pluriflor as two to three (e.g. \"Tulipa turkestanica\"), but up to four, flowers on the end of a floriferous stem (scape), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette.", "In structure, the flower is generally cup or star shaped.", "As with other members of Liliaceae the perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six free (i.e. apotepalous) caducous tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each.", "The two whorls represent three petals and three sepals, but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical.", "The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on the interior surface.", "The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals.", "Androecium:", "The flowers have six distinct, basifixed introrse stamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy.", "The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base.", "Gynoecium:", "The style is short or absent and each stigma has three distinct lobes, and the ovaries are superior, with three chambers.", "Fruit:", "The tulip's fruit is a globose or ellipsoid capsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape.", "Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shaped seeds in two rows per chamber.", "These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats and endosperm that does not normally fill the entire seed.", "Leaves: Tulip stems have few leaves.", "Larger species tend to have multiple leaves.", "Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12.", "The tulip's leaf is cauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up the stem.", "These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour.", "The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex.", "They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can be glabrous or hairy inside.", "The \"Semper Augustus\" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-century tulip mania.", "“The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top” – wrote Nicolas van Wassenaer in 1624 after seeing the tulip in the garden of one Dr Adriaen Pauw, a director of the new East India Company.", "With limited specimens in existence at the time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania.", "Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours, except pure blue (several tulips with \"blue\" in the name have a faint violet hue), and have absent nectaries.", "Tulip flowers are generally bereft of scent and are the coolest of floral characters.", "The Dutch regarded this lack of scent as a virtue, as it demonstrates the flower's chasteness.\nWhile tulips can be bred to display a wide variety of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve.", "The Queen of the Night tulip is as close to black as a flower gets, though it is, in fact, a dark and glossy maroonish purple - nonetheless, an effect prized by the Dutch.", "The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands.", "The specimen was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips.", "Tulipanin is an anthocyanin found in tulips.", "It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin.", "The chemical compounds named tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies.", "Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone, is a common allergen, generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A.", "It induces a dermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters and florists who cut the stems and leaves.", "Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs.", "The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second laid-on anthocyanin colour.", "The mix of these two hues determines the visible unitary colour.", "The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin and the base colour is exposed as a streak.", "The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, and Anna Pavord describes \"T. Hungarica\" as \"strongly scented\", and among cultivars, some such as \"Monte Carlo\" and \"Brown Sugar\" are \"scented\", and \"Creme Upstar\" \"fragrant\".", "\"Tulipa\" is a genus of the lily family, Liliaceae, once one of the largest families of monocots, but which molecular phylogenetics has reduced to a monophyletic grouping with only 15 genera.", "Within Liliaceae, \"Tulipa\" is placed within Lilioideae, one of three subfamilies, with two tribes.", "Tribe Lilieae includes seven other genera in addition to \"Tulipa\".", "The genus, which includes about 75 species, is divided into four subgenera.", "The word \"tulip\", first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the \"Turkish Letters\" of diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, first appeared in English as \"tulipa\" or \"tulipant\", entering the language by way of and its obsolete form \"tulipan\" or by way of Modern Latin \"tulipa\", from Ottoman Turkish \"tülbend\" (\"muslin\" or \"gauze\"), and may be ultimately derived from the \"delband\" (\"Turban\"), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban.", "This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans.", "The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban.", "Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the \"Turks\" used the word \"tulipan\" to describe the flower.", "Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip is \"lale\".", "It is from this speculation that \"tulipan\" being a translation error referring to turbans is derived.", "This Etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors.", "At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used in Turkey, he simply states it was used by the \"Turks\".", "On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled through Hungary and used Hungarian guides.", "Until recent times \"Turk\" was a common term when referring to Hungarians.", "The word \"tulipan\" is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip.", "As long as one recognizes \"Turk\" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form.", "Busbecq was simply repeating the word used by his \"Turk/Hungarian\" guides.", "The Hungarian word \"tulipan\" may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection, \"tala\" meaning bottom or underworld and \"pAna\" meaning defence.", "Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including the tulip.", "Tulips are mainly distributed along a band corresponding to latitude 40° north, from southeast of Europe (Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Southern Serbia, Bulgaria, most part of Romania, Ukraine, Russia) and Turkey in the west, through the Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestinian Territories, Lebanon and Jordan) and the Sinai Peninsula.", "From there it extends eastwards through Jerevan, (Armenia) and Baku (Azerbaijan) and on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea through Turkmenistan, Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent (Uzbekistan), to the eastern end of the range in the Pamir-Alai and Tien-Shan mountains in Central Asia, which form the centre of diversity.", "Further to the east, \"Tulipa\" is found in the western Himalayas, southern Siberia, Inner Mongolia, and as far as the northwest of China.", "While authorities have stated that no tulips west of the Balkans are native, subsequent identification of \"Tulipa sylvestris\" subsp.", "\"australis\" as a native of the Iberian peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification.", "In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and the Balkans.", "In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine.", "Although tulips are also throughout most of the Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution.", "Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants from Anatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised (\"see map\").", "For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native.", "These have been referred to as neo-tulipae.", "Tulips are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates, where they are a common element of steppe and winter-rain Mediterranean vegetation.", "They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers.", "Tulips are most commonly found in meadows, steppes and chaparral, but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens.", "\"Botrytis tulipae\" is a major fungal disease affecting tulips, causing cell death and eventually the rotting of the plant.", "Other pathogens include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, blight caused by \"Sclerotium rolfsii\", bulb nematodes, other rots including blue molds, black molds and mushy rot.", "The fungus \"Trichoderma viride\" can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth, although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing in glasshouses.", "Variegated tulips admired during the Dutch tulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with the tulip breaking virus, a mosaic virus that was carried by the green peach aphid, \"Myzus persicae\".", "While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced.", "Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists’ techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of the desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots.", "Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called \"broken\"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed.", "Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields.", "The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between the colours.", "Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions.", "Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known as vernalisation.", "Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< ).", "Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals.", "The colour of tulip flowers also varies with growing conditions.", "Cultivation of the tulip began in Iran (Persia), probably in the 10th century.", "Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour.", "The tulip is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity, therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks.", "In the Ottoman Empire, numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred, and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey.", "Tulips are mentioned by Omar Kayam and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi.", "Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow.", "The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour.", "A paper by Arthur Baker reports that in 1574, Sultan Selim II ordered the Kadi of A‘azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs.", "However, John Harvey points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips and hyacinth (\"sümbüll\"), originally Indian spikenard (\"Nardostachys jatamansi\") have been confused.", "Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs of \"Kefe Lale\" (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probably \"Tulipa schrenkii\") from Kefe in Crimea, for his gardens in the Topkapı Sarayı in Istanbul.", "It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west.", "The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency.", "Sultan Ahmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in the summer highland pastures (\"Yayla\") at Spil Dağı above the town of Manisa.", "They seem to have consisted of wild tulips.", "However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin, so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods.", "Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from the Netherlands.", "The gardening book \"Revnak'ı Bostan\" (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reis ülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths and lilies.", "However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate.", "In 1515, the scholar Qasim from Herat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) as anemones (\"shaqayq al-nu'man\"), but described the crown imperial as \"laleh kakli\".", "In a Turkic text written before 1495, the Chagatay Husayn Bayqarah mentions tulips (\"lale\").", "Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, also names tulips in the Baburnama.", "He may actually have introduced them from Afghanistan to the plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes.", "In Moorish Andalus, a \"Makedonian bulb\" (\"basal al-maqdunis\") or \"bucket-Narcissus\" (\"naryis qadusi\") was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens.", "It was supposed to have come from Alexandria and may have been Tulipa sylvestris, but the identification is not wholly secure.", "Although it is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it was Oghier Ghislain de Busbecq, an ambassador for Emperor Ferdinand", "I to Suleyman the Magnificent.", "According to a letter, he saw \"an abundance of flowers everywhere; Narcissus, hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers.\"", "However, in 1559, an account by Conrad Gessner describes tulips flowering in Augsburg, Swabia in the garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart.", "In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter.", "It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year.", "Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as a narcissus.", "Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573.", "He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the variations in colour.", "After he was appointed the director of the Leiden University's newly established Hortus Botanicus, he planted both a teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593.", "Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens in Antwerp and Amsterdam two or three decades earlier.", "These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both the tulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands.", "Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden.", "Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by the early 17th century.", "These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished and especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy.", "\"Nouveaux riches\" seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable.", "A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in the early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb.", "The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower.", "An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers.", "The trade drifted slowly from the French to the Dutch.", "Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered a speculative frenzy now known as the tulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later.", "Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs.", "Around this time, the ceramic tulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem.", "Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared in Dutch still-life painting.", "To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called \"Dutch tulips\".", "The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at the Keukenhof.", "The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in the taxon \"Tulipa ×gesneriana\".", "They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived from \"Tulipa suaveolens\" (today often regarded as a synonym with \"Tulipa schrenkii\").", "\"Tulipa ×gesneriana\" is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century.", "The UK's National Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from the early 17th century to c.1960, is held by Polly Nicholson at Blackland House, near Calne in Wiltshire.", "It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown near Spring Pond at the Fay Estate in Lynn and Salem, Massachusetts.", "From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem.", "Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of the world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate.", "The Netherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export.", "\"Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination.", "Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs.", "Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need the pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms.", "\"\nTulips can be propagated through bulb offsets, seeds or micropropagation.", "Offsets and tissue culture methods are means of asexual propagation for producing genetic clones of the parent plant, which maintains cultivar genetic integrity.", "Seeds are most often used to propagate species and subspecies or to create new hybrids.", "Many tulip species can cross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations.", "Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and often sterile.", "Offsets require a year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower.", "Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size.", "To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usually topped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads.", "The same goals can be achieved by a private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen.", "Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future.", "Because tulip bulbs don't reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct.", "Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation, the Tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations.", "In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size.", "They may also be classified by their flowering season:", "A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae.", "These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in the wild for many centuries.", "The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked to saffron cultivation.", "Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips.", "These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and the 'Didieri Group' with unicolourous tepals.", "Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils.", "Tulips should be planted apart from each other.", "The recommended hole depth is deep, and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface.", "Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes.", "Species tulips are normally planted deeper.", "The celebration of Persian New Year, or Nowruz, dating back over 3,000 years, marks the advent of spring, and tulips are used as a decorative feature during the festivities.", "A sixth-century legend, similar to the tale of \"Romeo and Juliet\", tells of tulips sprouting where the blood of the young prince Farhad spilt after he killed himself upon hearing the (deliberately false) story that his true love had died.", "The tulip was a topic for Persian poets from the thirteenth century.", "The poem \"Gulistan\" by Musharrifu'd-din Saadi, described a visionary garden paradise with \"The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicoloured tulips and fragrant roses...\".", "In recent times, tulips have featured in the poems of Simin Behbahani.", "The tulip is the national symbol for martyrdom in Iran (and Shi'ite Islam generally), and has been used on postage stamps and coins.", "It was common as a symbol used in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, and a red tulip adorns the flag redesigned in 1980.", "The sword in the centre, with four crescent-shaped petals around it, create the word \"Allah\" as well as symbolising the five pillars of Islam.", "The tomb of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini is decorated with 72 stained glass tulips, representing 72 martyrs who died at the Battle of Karbala in 680CE.", "It was also used as a symbol on billboards celebrating casualties of the 1980–1988 war with Iraq.", "The tulip also became a symbol of protest against the Iranian government after the presidential election in June 2009, when millions turned out on the streets to protest the re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.", "After the protests were harshly suppressed, the Iranian Green Movement adopted the tulip as a symbol of their struggle.", "The word for tulip in Persian is \"laleh\" (لاله), and this has become popular as a girl's name.", "The name has been used for commercial enterprises, such as the Laleh International Hotel, as well as public facilities, such as Laleh Park and Laleh Hospital, and the tulip motif remains common in Iranian culture.", "Tulips are called \"lale\" in Turkish (from Persian: \"laleh\" لاله).", "When written in Arabic letters, \"lale\" has the same letters as \"Allah\", which is why the flower became a holy symbol.", "It was also associated with the House of Osman, resulting in tulips being widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, mosques, fabrics, crockery, etc. in the Ottoman Empire.", "The tulip was seen as a symbol of abundance and indulgence.", "The era during which the Ottoman Empire was wealthiest is often called the Tulip era or \"Lale Devri\" in Turkish.", "Tulips became popular garden plants in the east and west, but, whereas the tulip in Turkish culture was a symbol of paradise on earth and had almost a divine status, in the Netherlands it represented the briefness of life.", "In Christianity, tulips symbolise passion, belief and love.", "White tulips represent forgiveness while purple tulips represent royalty, both important aspects of Easter.", "In Calvinism, the five points of the doctrines of grace have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP.", "By contrast to other flowers such as the coneflower or lotus flower, tulips have historically been capable of genetically reinventing themselves to suit changes in aesthetic values.", "In his 1597 herbal, John Gerard says of the tulip that “nature seems to play more with this flower than with any other that I do know”.", "When in the Netherlands, beauty was defined by marbled swirls of vivid contrasting colours, the petals of tulips were able to become \"feathered\" and \"flamed\".", "However, in the 19th century, when the English desired tulips for carpet bedding and massing, the tulips were able to once again accommodate this by evolving into “paint-filled boxes with the brightest, fattest dabs of pure pigment”.", "This inherent mutability of the tulip even led the Ottoman Turks to believe that nature cherished this flower above all others.", "Seventeenth-century tulip mania has been described above.", "\"The Black Tulip\" (1850) is an historical romance by Alexandre Dumas, père.", "The story takes place in the Dutch city of Haarlem, where a reward is offered to the first grower who can produce a truly black tulip.", "The tulip occurs on a number of the Major Arcana cards of occultist Oswald Wirth's deck of Tarot cards, specifically the Magician, Emperor, Temperance and the Fool, described in his 1927 work \"Le Tarot, des Imagiers du Moyen Âge\".", "Tulip festivals are held around the world, for example in the Netherlands and Spalding, England.", "There is also a popular festival in Morges, Switzerland.", "Every spring, there are tulip festivals in North America, including the Tulip Time Festival in Holland, Michigan, the Skagit Valley Tulip Festival in Skagit Valley, Washington, the Tulip Time Festival in Orange City and Pella, Iowa, and the Canadian Tulip Festival in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.", "Tulips are also popular in Australia and several festivals are held in September and October, during the Southern Hemisphere's spring.", "Tulip petals are edible flowers.", "The taste varies by variety and season, and is roughly similar to lettuce or other salad greens.", "Some people are allergic to tulips.", "Tulip bulbs look similar to onions, but should not generally be considered food.", "The toxicity of bulbs is not well-understood, nor is there an agreed-upon method of safely preparing them for human consumption.", "There have been reports of illness when eaten, depending on quantity.", "During the Dutch famine of 1944–45, tulip bulbs were eaten out of desperation, and Dutch doctors provided recipes." ]

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[ "There are about 75 species, and these are divided among four subgenera.", "The name \"tulip\" is thought to be derived from a Persian word for turban, which it may have been thought to resemble by those who discovered it.", "By the 15th century, tulips were among the most prized flowers; becoming the symbol of the Ottomans." ]

[ "\"Tulipa\" (tulips) is a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes, dying back after flowering to an underground storage bulb.", "Depending on the species, tulip plants can be between high.", "Flowers: The tulip's flowers are usually large and are actinomorphic (radially symmetric) and hermaphrodite (contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarely pendulous, and are arranged more usually as a single terminal flower, or when pluriflor as two to three (e.g. \"Tulipa turkestanica\"), but up to four, flowers on the end of a floriferous stem (scape), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette.", "In structure, the flower is generally cup or star shaped.", "As with other members of Liliaceae the perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six free (i.e. apotepalous) caducous tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each.", "The two whorls represent three petals and three sepals, but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical.", "The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on the interior surface.", "The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals.", "Androecium:", "The flowers have six distinct, basifixed introrse stamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy.", "The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base.", "Gynoecium:", "The style is short or absent and each stigma has three distinct lobes, and the ovaries are superior, with three chambers.", "Fruit:", "The tulip's fruit is a globose or ellipsoid capsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape.", "Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shaped seeds in two rows per chamber.", "These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats and endosperm that does not normally fill the entire seed.", "Leaves: Tulip stems have few leaves.", "Larger species tend to have multiple leaves.", "Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12.", "The tulip's leaf is cauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up the stem.", "These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour.", "The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex.", "They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can be glabrous or hairy inside.", "The \"Semper Augustus\" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-century tulip mania.", "“The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top” – wrote Nicolas van Wassenaer in 1624 after seeing the tulip in the garden of one Dr Adriaen Pauw, a director of the new East India Company.", "With limited specimens in existence at the time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania.", "Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours, except pure blue (several tulips with \"blue\" in the name have a faint violet hue), and have absent nectaries.", "Tulip flowers are generally bereft of scent and are the coolest of floral characters.", "The Dutch regarded this lack of scent as a virtue, as it demonstrates the flower's chasteness.\nWhile tulips can be bred to display a wide variety of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve.", "The Queen of the Night tulip is as close to black as a flower gets, though it is, in fact, a dark and glossy maroonish purple - nonetheless, an effect prized by the Dutch.", "The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands.", "The specimen was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips.", "Tulipanin is an anthocyanin found in tulips.", "It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin.", "The chemical compounds named tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies.", "Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone, is a common allergen, generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A.", "It induces a dermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters and florists who cut the stems and leaves.", "Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs.", "The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second laid-on anthocyanin colour.", "The mix of these two hues determines the visible unitary colour.", "The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin and the base colour is exposed as a streak.", "The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, and Anna Pavord describes \"T. Hungarica\" as \"strongly scented\", and among cultivars, some such as \"Monte Carlo\" and \"Brown Sugar\" are \"scented\", and \"Creme Upstar\" \"fragrant\".", "\"Tulipa\" is a genus of the lily family, Liliaceae, once one of the largest families of monocots, but which molecular phylogenetics has reduced to a monophyletic grouping with only 15 genera.", "Within Liliaceae, \"Tulipa\" is placed within Lilioideae, one of three subfamilies, with two tribes.", "Tribe Lilieae includes seven other genera in addition to \"Tulipa\".", "The genus, which includes about 75 species, is divided into four subgenera.", "The word \"tulip\", first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the \"Turkish Letters\" of diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, first appeared in English as \"tulipa\" or \"tulipant\", entering the language by way of and its obsolete form \"tulipan\" or by way of Modern Latin \"tulipa\", from Ottoman Turkish \"tülbend\" (\"muslin\" or \"gauze\"), and may be ultimately derived from the \"delband\" (\"Turban\"), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban.", "This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans.", "The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban.", "Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the \"Turks\" used the word \"tulipan\" to describe the flower.", "Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip is \"lale\".", "It is from this speculation that \"tulipan\" being a translation error referring to turbans is derived.", "This Etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors.", "At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used in Turkey, he simply states it was used by the \"Turks\".", "On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled through Hungary and used Hungarian guides.", "Until recent times \"Turk\" was a common term when referring to Hungarians.", "The word \"tulipan\" is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip.", "As long as one recognizes \"Turk\" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form.", "Busbecq was simply repeating the word used by his \"Turk/Hungarian\" guides.", "The Hungarian word \"tulipan\" may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection, \"tala\" meaning bottom or underworld and \"pAna\" meaning defence.", "Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including the tulip.", "Tulips are mainly distributed along a band corresponding to latitude 40° north, from southeast of Europe (Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Southern Serbia, Bulgaria, most part of Romania, Ukraine, Russia) and Turkey in the west, through the Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestinian Territories, Lebanon and Jordan) and the Sinai Peninsula.", "From there it extends eastwards through Jerevan, (Armenia) and Baku (Azerbaijan) and on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea through Turkmenistan, Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent (Uzbekistan), to the eastern end of the range in the Pamir-Alai and Tien-Shan mountains in Central Asia, which form the centre of diversity.", "Further to the east, \"Tulipa\" is found in the western Himalayas, southern Siberia, Inner Mongolia, and as far as the northwest of China.", "While authorities have stated that no tulips west of the Balkans are native, subsequent identification of \"Tulipa sylvestris\" subsp.", "\"australis\" as a native of the Iberian peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification.", "In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and the Balkans.", "In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine.", "Although tulips are also throughout most of the Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution.", "Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants from Anatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised (\"see map\").", "For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native.", "These have been referred to as neo-tulipae.", "Tulips are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates, where they are a common element of steppe and winter-rain Mediterranean vegetation.", "They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers.", "Tulips are most commonly found in meadows, steppes and chaparral, but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens.", "\"Botrytis tulipae\" is a major fungal disease affecting tulips, causing cell death and eventually the rotting of the plant.", "Other pathogens include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, blight caused by \"Sclerotium rolfsii\", bulb nematodes, other rots including blue molds, black molds and mushy rot.", "The fungus \"Trichoderma viride\" can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth, although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing in glasshouses.", "Variegated tulips admired during the Dutch tulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with the tulip breaking virus, a mosaic virus that was carried by the green peach aphid, \"Myzus persicae\".", "While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced.", "Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists’ techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of the desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots.", "Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called \"broken\"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed.", "Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields.", "The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between the colours.", "Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions.", "Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known as vernalisation.", "Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< ).", "Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals.", "The colour of tulip flowers also varies with growing conditions.", "Cultivation of the tulip began in Iran (Persia), probably in the 10th century.", "Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour.", "The tulip is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity, therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks.", "In the Ottoman Empire, numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred, and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey.", "Tulips are mentioned by Omar Kayam and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi.", "Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow.", "The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour.", "A paper by Arthur Baker reports that in 1574, Sultan Selim II ordered the Kadi of A‘azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs.", "However, John Harvey points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips and hyacinth (\"sümbüll\"), originally Indian spikenard (\"Nardostachys jatamansi\") have been confused.", "Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs of \"Kefe Lale\" (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probably \"Tulipa schrenkii\") from Kefe in Crimea, for his gardens in the Topkapı Sarayı in Istanbul.", "It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west.", "The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency.", "Sultan Ahmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in the summer highland pastures (\"Yayla\") at Spil Dağı above the town of Manisa.", "They seem to have consisted of wild tulips.", "However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin, so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods.", "Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from the Netherlands.", "The gardening book \"Revnak'ı Bostan\" (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reis ülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths and lilies.", "However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate.", "In 1515, the scholar Qasim from Herat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) as anemones (\"shaqayq al-nu'man\"), but described the crown imperial as \"laleh kakli\".", "In a Turkic text written before 1495, the Chagatay Husayn Bayqarah mentions tulips (\"lale\").", "Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, also names tulips in the Baburnama.", "He may actually have introduced them from Afghanistan to the plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes.", "In Moorish Andalus, a \"Makedonian bulb\" (\"basal al-maqdunis\") or \"bucket-Narcissus\" (\"naryis qadusi\") was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens.", "It was supposed to have come from Alexandria and may have been Tulipa sylvestris, but the identification is not wholly secure.", "Although it is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it was Oghier Ghislain de Busbecq, an ambassador for Emperor Ferdinand", "I to Suleyman the Magnificent.", "According to a letter, he saw \"an abundance of flowers everywhere; Narcissus, hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers.\"", "However, in 1559, an account by Conrad Gessner describes tulips flowering in Augsburg, Swabia in the garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart.", "In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter.", "It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year.", "Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as a narcissus.", "Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573.", "He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the variations in colour.", "After he was appointed the director of the Leiden University's newly established Hortus Botanicus, he planted both a teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593.", "Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens in Antwerp and Amsterdam two or three decades earlier.", "These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both the tulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands.", "Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden.", "Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by the early 17th century.", "These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished and especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy.", "\"Nouveaux riches\" seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable.", "A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in the early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb.", "The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower.", "An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers.", "The trade drifted slowly from the French to the Dutch.", "Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered a speculative frenzy now known as the tulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later.", "Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs.", "Around this time, the ceramic tulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem.", "Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared in Dutch still-life painting.", "To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called \"Dutch tulips\".", "The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at the Keukenhof.", "The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in the taxon \"Tulipa ×gesneriana\".", "They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived from \"Tulipa suaveolens\" (today often regarded as a synonym with \"Tulipa schrenkii\").", "\"Tulipa ×gesneriana\" is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century.", "The UK's National Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from the early 17th century to c.1960, is held by Polly Nicholson at Blackland House, near Calne in Wiltshire.", "It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown near Spring Pond at the Fay Estate in Lynn and Salem, Massachusetts.", "From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem.", "Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of the world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate.", "The Netherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export.", "\"Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination.", "Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs.", "Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need the pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms.", "\"\nTulips can be propagated through bulb offsets, seeds or micropropagation.", "Offsets and tissue culture methods are means of asexual propagation for producing genetic clones of the parent plant, which maintains cultivar genetic integrity.", "Seeds are most often used to propagate species and subspecies or to create new hybrids.", "Many tulip species can cross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations.", "Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and often sterile.", "Offsets require a year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower.", "Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size.", "To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usually topped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads.", "The same goals can be achieved by a private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen.", "Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future.", "Because tulip bulbs don't reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct.", "Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation, the Tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations.", "In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size.", "They may also be classified by their flowering season:", "A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae.", "These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in the wild for many centuries.", "The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked to saffron cultivation.", "Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips.", "These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and the 'Didieri Group' with unicolourous tepals.", "Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils.", "Tulips should be planted apart from each other.", "The recommended hole depth is deep, and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface.", "Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes.", "Species tulips are normally planted deeper.", "The celebration of Persian New Year, or Nowruz, dating back over 3,000 years, marks the advent of spring, and tulips are used as a decorative feature during the festivities.", "A sixth-century legend, similar to the tale of \"Romeo and Juliet\", tells of tulips sprouting where the blood of the young prince Farhad spilt after he killed himself upon hearing the (deliberately false) story that his true love had died.", "The tulip was a topic for Persian poets from the thirteenth century.", "The poem \"Gulistan\" by Musharrifu'd-din Saadi, described a visionary garden paradise with \"The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicoloured tulips and fragrant roses...\".", "In recent times, tulips have featured in the poems of Simin Behbahani.", "The tulip is the national symbol for martyrdom in Iran (and Shi'ite Islam generally), and has been used on postage stamps and coins.", "It was common as a symbol used in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, and a red tulip adorns the flag redesigned in 1980.", "The sword in the centre, with four crescent-shaped petals around it, create the word \"Allah\" as well as symbolising the five pillars of Islam.", "The tomb of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini is decorated with 72 stained glass tulips, representing 72 martyrs who died at the Battle of Karbala in 680CE.", "It was also used as a symbol on billboards celebrating casualties of the 1980–1988 war with Iraq.", "The tulip also became a symbol of protest against the Iranian government after the presidential election in June 2009, when millions turned out on the streets to protest the re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.", "After the protests were harshly suppressed, the Iranian Green Movement adopted the tulip as a symbol of their struggle.", "The word for tulip in Persian is \"laleh\" (لاله), and this has become popular as a girl's name.", "The name has been used for commercial enterprises, such as the Laleh International Hotel, as well as public facilities, such as Laleh Park and Laleh Hospital, and the tulip motif remains common in Iranian culture.", "Tulips are called \"lale\" in Turkish (from Persian: \"laleh\" لاله).", "When written in Arabic letters, \"lale\" has the same letters as \"Allah\", which is why the flower became a holy symbol.", "It was also associated with the House of Osman, resulting in tulips being widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, mosques, fabrics, crockery, etc. in the Ottoman Empire.", "The tulip was seen as a symbol of abundance and indulgence.", "The era during which the Ottoman Empire was wealthiest is often called the Tulip era or \"Lale Devri\" in Turkish.", "Tulips became popular garden plants in the east and west, but, whereas the tulip in Turkish culture was a symbol of paradise on earth and had almost a divine status, in the Netherlands it represented the briefness of life.", "In Christianity, tulips symbolise passion, belief and love.", "White tulips represent forgiveness while purple tulips represent royalty, both important aspects of Easter.", "In Calvinism, the five points of the doctrines of grace have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP.", "By contrast to other flowers such as the coneflower or lotus flower, tulips have historically been capable of genetically reinventing themselves to suit changes in aesthetic values.", "In his 1597 herbal, John Gerard says of the tulip that “nature seems to play more with this flower than with any other that I do know”.", "When in the Netherlands, beauty was defined by marbled swirls of vivid contrasting colours, the petals of tulips were able to become \"feathered\" and \"flamed\".", "However, in the 19th century, when the English desired tulips for carpet bedding and massing, the tulips were able to once again accommodate this by evolving into “paint-filled boxes with the brightest, fattest dabs of pure pigment”.", "This inherent mutability of the tulip even led the Ottoman Turks to believe that nature cherished this flower above all others.", "Seventeenth-century tulip mania has been described above.", "\"The Black Tulip\" (1850) is an historical romance by Alexandre Dumas, père.", "The story takes place in the Dutch city of Haarlem, where a reward is offered to the first grower who can produce a truly black tulip.", "The tulip occurs on a number of the Major Arcana cards of occultist Oswald Wirth's deck of Tarot cards, specifically the Magician, Emperor, Temperance and the Fool, described in his 1927 work \"Le Tarot, des Imagiers du Moyen Âge\".", "Tulip festivals are held around the world, for example in the Netherlands and Spalding, England.", "There is also a popular festival in Morges, Switzerland.", "Every spring, there are tulip festivals in North America, including the Tulip Time Festival in Holland, Michigan, the Skagit Valley Tulip Festival in Skagit Valley, Washington, the Tulip Time Festival in Orange City and Pella, Iowa, and the Canadian Tulip Festival in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.", "Tulips are also popular in Australia and several festivals are held in September and October, during the Southern Hemisphere's spring.", "Tulip petals are edible flowers.", "The taste varies by variety and season, and is roughly similar to lettuce or other salad greens.", "Some people are allergic to tulips.", "Tulip bulbs look similar to onions, but should not generally be considered food.", "The toxicity of bulbs is not well-understood, nor is there an agreed-upon method of safely preparing them for human consumption.", "There have been reports of illness when eaten, depending on quantity.", "During the Dutch famine of 1944–45, tulip bulbs were eaten out of desperation, and Dutch doctors provided recipes." ]

[ 46 ]

[ "There are about 75 species, and these are divided among four subgenera." ]

[ "\"Tulipa\" (tulips) is a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes, dying back after flowering to an underground storage bulb.", "Depending on the species, tulip plants can be between high.", "Flowers: The tulip's flowers are usually large and are actinomorphic (radially symmetric) and hermaphrodite (contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarely pendulous, and are arranged more usually as a single terminal flower, or when pluriflor as two to three (e.g. \"Tulipa turkestanica\"), but up to four, flowers on the end of a floriferous stem (scape), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette.", "In structure, the flower is generally cup or star shaped.", "As with other members of Liliaceae the perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six free (i.e. apotepalous) caducous tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each.", "The two whorls represent three petals and three sepals, but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical.", "The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on the interior surface.", "The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals.", "Androecium:", "The flowers have six distinct, basifixed introrse stamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy.", "The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base.", "Gynoecium:", "The style is short or absent and each stigma has three distinct lobes, and the ovaries are superior, with three chambers.", "Fruit:", "The tulip's fruit is a globose or ellipsoid capsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape.", "Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shaped seeds in two rows per chamber.", "These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats and endosperm that does not normally fill the entire seed.", "Leaves: Tulip stems have few leaves.", "Larger species tend to have multiple leaves.", "Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12.", "The tulip's leaf is cauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up the stem.", "These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour.", "The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex.", "They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can be glabrous or hairy inside.", "The \"Semper Augustus\" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-century tulip mania.", "“The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top” – wrote Nicolas van Wassenaer in 1624 after seeing the tulip in the garden of one Dr Adriaen Pauw, a director of the new East India Company.", "With limited specimens in existence at the time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania.", "Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours, except pure blue (several tulips with \"blue\" in the name have a faint violet hue), and have absent nectaries.", "Tulip flowers are generally bereft of scent and are the coolest of floral characters.", "The Dutch regarded this lack of scent as a virtue, as it demonstrates the flower's chasteness.\nWhile tulips can be bred to display a wide variety of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve.", "The Queen of the Night tulip is as close to black as a flower gets, though it is, in fact, a dark and glossy maroonish purple - nonetheless, an effect prized by the Dutch.", "The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands.", "The specimen was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips.", "Tulipanin is an anthocyanin found in tulips.", "It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin.", "The chemical compounds named tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies.", "Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone, is a common allergen, generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A.", "It induces a dermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters and florists who cut the stems and leaves.", "Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs.", "The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second laid-on anthocyanin colour.", "The mix of these two hues determines the visible unitary colour.", "The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin and the base colour is exposed as a streak.", "The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, and Anna Pavord describes \"T. Hungarica\" as \"strongly scented\", and among cultivars, some such as \"Monte Carlo\" and \"Brown Sugar\" are \"scented\", and \"Creme Upstar\" \"fragrant\".", "\"Tulipa\" is a genus of the lily family, Liliaceae, once one of the largest families of monocots, but which molecular phylogenetics has reduced to a monophyletic grouping with only 15 genera.", "Within Liliaceae, \"Tulipa\" is placed within Lilioideae, one of three subfamilies, with two tribes.", "Tribe Lilieae includes seven other genera in addition to \"Tulipa\".", "The genus, which includes about 75 species, is divided into four subgenera.", "The word \"tulip\", first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the \"Turkish Letters\" of diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, first appeared in English as \"tulipa\" or \"tulipant\", entering the language by way of and its obsolete form \"tulipan\" or by way of Modern Latin \"tulipa\", from Ottoman Turkish \"tülbend\" (\"muslin\" or \"gauze\"), and may be ultimately derived from the \"delband\" (\"Turban\"), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban.", "This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans.", "The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban.", "Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the \"Turks\" used the word \"tulipan\" to describe the flower.", "Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip is \"lale\".", "It is from this speculation that \"tulipan\" being a translation error referring to turbans is derived.", "This Etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors.", "At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used in Turkey, he simply states it was used by the \"Turks\".", "On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled through Hungary and used Hungarian guides.", "Until recent times \"Turk\" was a common term when referring to Hungarians.", "The word \"tulipan\" is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip.", "As long as one recognizes \"Turk\" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form.", "Busbecq was simply repeating the word used by his \"Turk/Hungarian\" guides.", "The Hungarian word \"tulipan\" may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection, \"tala\" meaning bottom or underworld and \"pAna\" meaning defence.", "Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including the tulip.", "Tulips are mainly distributed along a band corresponding to latitude 40° north, from southeast of Europe (Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Southern Serbia, Bulgaria, most part of Romania, Ukraine, Russia) and Turkey in the west, through the Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestinian Territories, Lebanon and Jordan) and the Sinai Peninsula.", "From there it extends eastwards through Jerevan, (Armenia) and Baku (Azerbaijan) and on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea through Turkmenistan, Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent (Uzbekistan), to the eastern end of the range in the Pamir-Alai and Tien-Shan mountains in Central Asia, which form the centre of diversity.", "Further to the east, \"Tulipa\" is found in the western Himalayas, southern Siberia, Inner Mongolia, and as far as the northwest of China.", "While authorities have stated that no tulips west of the Balkans are native, subsequent identification of \"Tulipa sylvestris\" subsp.", "\"australis\" as a native of the Iberian peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification.", "In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and the Balkans.", "In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine.", "Although tulips are also throughout most of the Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution.", "Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants from Anatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised (\"see map\").", "For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native.", "These have been referred to as neo-tulipae.", "Tulips are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates, where they are a common element of steppe and winter-rain Mediterranean vegetation.", "They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers.", "Tulips are most commonly found in meadows, steppes and chaparral, but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens.", "\"Botrytis tulipae\" is a major fungal disease affecting tulips, causing cell death and eventually the rotting of the plant.", "Other pathogens include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, blight caused by \"Sclerotium rolfsii\", bulb nematodes, other rots including blue molds, black molds and mushy rot.", "The fungus \"Trichoderma viride\" can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth, although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing in glasshouses.", "Variegated tulips admired during the Dutch tulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with the tulip breaking virus, a mosaic virus that was carried by the green peach aphid, \"Myzus persicae\".", "While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced.", "Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists’ techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of the desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots.", "Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called \"broken\"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed.", "Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields.", "The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between the colours.", "Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions.", "Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known as vernalisation.", "Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< ).", "Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals.", "The colour of tulip flowers also varies with growing conditions.", "Cultivation of the tulip began in Iran (Persia), probably in the 10th century.", "Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour.", "The tulip is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity, therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks.", "In the Ottoman Empire, numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred, and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey.", "Tulips are mentioned by Omar Kayam and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi.", "Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow.", "The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour.", "A paper by Arthur Baker reports that in 1574, Sultan Selim II ordered the Kadi of A‘azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs.", "However, John Harvey points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips and hyacinth (\"sümbüll\"), originally Indian spikenard (\"Nardostachys jatamansi\") have been confused.", "Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs of \"Kefe Lale\" (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probably \"Tulipa schrenkii\") from Kefe in Crimea, for his gardens in the Topkapı Sarayı in Istanbul.", "It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west.", "The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency.", "Sultan Ahmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in the summer highland pastures (\"Yayla\") at Spil Dağı above the town of Manisa.", "They seem to have consisted of wild tulips.", "However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin, so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods.", "Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from the Netherlands.", "The gardening book \"Revnak'ı Bostan\" (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reis ülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths and lilies.", "However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate.", "In 1515, the scholar Qasim from Herat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) as anemones (\"shaqayq al-nu'man\"), but described the crown imperial as \"laleh kakli\".", "In a Turkic text written before 1495, the Chagatay Husayn Bayqarah mentions tulips (\"lale\").", "Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, also names tulips in the Baburnama.", "He may actually have introduced them from Afghanistan to the plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes.", "In Moorish Andalus, a \"Makedonian bulb\" (\"basal al-maqdunis\") or \"bucket-Narcissus\" (\"naryis qadusi\") was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens.", "It was supposed to have come from Alexandria and may have been Tulipa sylvestris, but the identification is not wholly secure.", "Although it is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it was Oghier Ghislain de Busbecq, an ambassador for Emperor Ferdinand", "I to Suleyman the Magnificent.", "According to a letter, he saw \"an abundance of flowers everywhere; Narcissus, hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers.\"", "However, in 1559, an account by Conrad Gessner describes tulips flowering in Augsburg, Swabia in the garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart.", "In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter.", "It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year.", "Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as a narcissus.", "Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573.", "He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the variations in colour.", "After he was appointed the director of the Leiden University's newly established Hortus Botanicus, he planted both a teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593.", "Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens in Antwerp and Amsterdam two or three decades earlier.", "These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both the tulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands.", "Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden.", "Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by the early 17th century.", "These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished and especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy.", "\"Nouveaux riches\" seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable.", "A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in the early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb.", "The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower.", "An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers.", "The trade drifted slowly from the French to the Dutch.", "Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered a speculative frenzy now known as the tulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later.", "Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs.", "Around this time, the ceramic tulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem.", "Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared in Dutch still-life painting.", "To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called \"Dutch tulips\".", "The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at the Keukenhof.", "The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in the taxon \"Tulipa ×gesneriana\".", "They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived from \"Tulipa suaveolens\" (today often regarded as a synonym with \"Tulipa schrenkii\").", "\"Tulipa ×gesneriana\" is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century.", "The UK's National Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from the early 17th century to c.1960, is held by Polly Nicholson at Blackland House, near Calne in Wiltshire.", "It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown near Spring Pond at the Fay Estate in Lynn and Salem, Massachusetts.", "From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem.", "Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of the world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate.", "The Netherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export.", "\"Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination.", "Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs.", "Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need the pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms.", "\"\nTulips can be propagated through bulb offsets, seeds or micropropagation.", "Offsets and tissue culture methods are means of asexual propagation for producing genetic clones of the parent plant, which maintains cultivar genetic integrity.", "Seeds are most often used to propagate species and subspecies or to create new hybrids.", "Many tulip species can cross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations.", "Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and often sterile.", "Offsets require a year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower.", "Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size.", "To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usually topped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads.", "The same goals can be achieved by a private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen.", "Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future.", "Because tulip bulbs don't reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct.", "Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation, the Tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations.", "In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size.", "They may also be classified by their flowering season:", "A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae.", "These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in the wild for many centuries.", "The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked to saffron cultivation.", "Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips.", "These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and the 'Didieri Group' with unicolourous tepals.", "Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils.", "Tulips should be planted apart from each other.", "The recommended hole depth is deep, and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface.", "Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes.", "Species tulips are normally planted deeper.", "The celebration of Persian New Year, or Nowruz, dating back over 3,000 years, marks the advent of spring, and tulips are used as a decorative feature during the festivities.", "A sixth-century legend, similar to the tale of \"Romeo and Juliet\", tells of tulips sprouting where the blood of the young prince Farhad spilt after he killed himself upon hearing the (deliberately false) story that his true love had died.", "The tulip was a topic for Persian poets from the thirteenth century.", "The poem \"Gulistan\" by Musharrifu'd-din Saadi, described a visionary garden paradise with \"The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicoloured tulips and fragrant roses...\".", "In recent times, tulips have featured in the poems of Simin Behbahani.", "The tulip is the national symbol for martyrdom in Iran (and Shi'ite Islam generally), and has been used on postage stamps and coins.", "It was common as a symbol used in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, and a red tulip adorns the flag redesigned in 1980.", "The sword in the centre, with four crescent-shaped petals around it, create the word \"Allah\" as well as symbolising the five pillars of Islam.", "The tomb of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini is decorated with 72 stained glass tulips, representing 72 martyrs who died at the Battle of Karbala in 680CE.", "It was also used as a symbol on billboards celebrating casualties of the 1980–1988 war with Iraq.", "The tulip also became a symbol of protest against the Iranian government after the presidential election in June 2009, when millions turned out on the streets to protest the re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.", "After the protests were harshly suppressed, the Iranian Green Movement adopted the tulip as a symbol of their struggle.", "The word for tulip in Persian is \"laleh\" (لاله), and this has become popular as a girl's name.", "The name has been used for commercial enterprises, such as the Laleh International Hotel, as well as public facilities, such as Laleh Park and Laleh Hospital, and the tulip motif remains common in Iranian culture.", "Tulips are called \"lale\" in Turkish (from Persian: \"laleh\" لاله).", "When written in Arabic letters, \"lale\" has the same letters as \"Allah\", which is why the flower became a holy symbol.", "It was also associated with the House of Osman, resulting in tulips being widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, mosques, fabrics, crockery, etc. in the Ottoman Empire.", "The tulip was seen as a symbol of abundance and indulgence.", "The era during which the Ottoman Empire was wealthiest is often called the Tulip era or \"Lale Devri\" in Turkish.", "Tulips became popular garden plants in the east and west, but, whereas the tulip in Turkish culture was a symbol of paradise on earth and had almost a divine status, in the Netherlands it represented the briefness of life.", "In Christianity, tulips symbolise passion, belief and love.", "White tulips represent forgiveness while purple tulips represent royalty, both important aspects of Easter.", "In Calvinism, the five points of the doctrines of grace have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP.", "By contrast to other flowers such as the coneflower or lotus flower, tulips have historically been capable of genetically reinventing themselves to suit changes in aesthetic values.", "In his 1597 herbal, John Gerard says of the tulip that “nature seems to play more with this flower than with any other that I do know”.", "When in the Netherlands, beauty was defined by marbled swirls of vivid contrasting colours, the petals of tulips were able to become \"feathered\" and \"flamed\".", "However, in the 19th century, when the English desired tulips for carpet bedding and massing, the tulips were able to once again accommodate this by evolving into “paint-filled boxes with the brightest, fattest dabs of pure pigment”.", "This inherent mutability of the tulip even led the Ottoman Turks to believe that nature cherished this flower above all others.", "Seventeenth-century tulip mania has been described above.", "\"The Black Tulip\" (1850) is an historical romance by Alexandre Dumas, père.", "The story takes place in the Dutch city of Haarlem, where a reward is offered to the first grower who can produce a truly black tulip.", "The tulip occurs on a number of the Major Arcana cards of occultist Oswald Wirth's deck of Tarot cards, specifically the Magician, Emperor, Temperance and the Fool, described in his 1927 work \"Le Tarot, des Imagiers du Moyen Âge\".", "Tulip festivals are held around the world, for example in the Netherlands and Spalding, England.", "There is also a popular festival in Morges, Switzerland.", "Every spring, there are tulip festivals in North America, including the Tulip Time Festival in Holland, Michigan, the Skagit Valley Tulip Festival in Skagit Valley, Washington, the Tulip Time Festival in Orange City and Pella, Iowa, and the Canadian Tulip Festival in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.", "Tulips are also popular in Australia and several festivals are held in September and October, during the Southern Hemisphere's spring.", "Tulip petals are edible flowers.", "The taste varies by variety and season, and is roughly similar to lettuce or other salad greens.", "Some people are allergic to tulips.", "Tulip bulbs look similar to onions, but should not generally be considered food.", "The toxicity of bulbs is not well-understood, nor is there an agreed-upon method of safely preparing them for human consumption.", "There have been reports of illness when eaten, depending on quantity.", "During the Dutch famine of 1944–45, tulip bulbs were eaten out of desperation, and Dutch doctors provided recipes." ]

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[ "The name \"tulip\" is thought to be derived from a Persian word for turban, which it may have been thought to resemble by those who discovered it.", "By the 15th century, tulips were among the most prized flowers; becoming the symbol of the Ottomans." ]

[ "\"Tulipa\" (tulips) is a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes, dying back after flowering to an underground storage bulb.", "Depending on the species, tulip plants can be between high.", "Flowers: The tulip's flowers are usually large and are actinomorphic (radially symmetric) and hermaphrodite (contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarely pendulous, and are arranged more usually as a single terminal flower, or when pluriflor as two to three (e.g. \"Tulipa turkestanica\"), but up to four, flowers on the end of a floriferous stem (scape), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette.", "In structure, the flower is generally cup or star shaped.", "As with other members of Liliaceae the perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six free (i.e. apotepalous) caducous tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each.", "The two whorls represent three petals and three sepals, but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical.", "The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on the interior surface.", "The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals.", "Androecium:", "The flowers have six distinct, basifixed introrse stamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy.", "The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base.", "Gynoecium:", "The style is short or absent and each stigma has three distinct lobes, and the ovaries are superior, with three chambers.", "Fruit:", "The tulip's fruit is a globose or ellipsoid capsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape.", "Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shaped seeds in two rows per chamber.", "These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats and endosperm that does not normally fill the entire seed.", "Leaves: Tulip stems have few leaves.", "Larger species tend to have multiple leaves.", "Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12.", "The tulip's leaf is cauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up the stem.", "These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour.", "The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex.", "They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can be glabrous or hairy inside.", "The \"Semper Augustus\" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-century tulip mania.", "“The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top” – wrote Nicolas van Wassenaer in 1624 after seeing the tulip in the garden of one Dr Adriaen Pauw, a director of the new East India Company.", "With limited specimens in existence at the time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania.", "Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours, except pure blue (several tulips with \"blue\" in the name have a faint violet hue), and have absent nectaries.", "Tulip flowers are generally bereft of scent and are the coolest of floral characters.", "The Dutch regarded this lack of scent as a virtue, as it demonstrates the flower's chasteness.\nWhile tulips can be bred to display a wide variety of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve.", "The Queen of the Night tulip is as close to black as a flower gets, though it is, in fact, a dark and glossy maroonish purple - nonetheless, an effect prized by the Dutch.", "The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands.", "The specimen was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips.", "Tulipanin is an anthocyanin found in tulips.", "It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin.", "The chemical compounds named tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies.", "Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone, is a common allergen, generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A.", "It induces a dermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters and florists who cut the stems and leaves.", "Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs.", "The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second laid-on anthocyanin colour.", "The mix of these two hues determines the visible unitary colour.", "The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin and the base colour is exposed as a streak.", "The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, and Anna Pavord describes \"T. Hungarica\" as \"strongly scented\", and among cultivars, some such as \"Monte Carlo\" and \"Brown Sugar\" are \"scented\", and \"Creme Upstar\" \"fragrant\".", "\"Tulipa\" is a genus of the lily family, Liliaceae, once one of the largest families of monocots, but which molecular phylogenetics has reduced to a monophyletic grouping with only 15 genera.", "Within Liliaceae, \"Tulipa\" is placed within Lilioideae, one of three subfamilies, with two tribes.", "Tribe Lilieae includes seven other genera in addition to \"Tulipa\".", "The genus, which includes about 75 species, is divided into four subgenera.", "The word \"tulip\", first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the \"Turkish Letters\" of diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, first appeared in English as \"tulipa\" or \"tulipant\", entering the language by way of and its obsolete form \"tulipan\" or by way of Modern Latin \"tulipa\", from Ottoman Turkish \"tülbend\" (\"muslin\" or \"gauze\"), and may be ultimately derived from the \"delband\" (\"Turban\"), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban.", "This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans.", "The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban.", "Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the \"Turks\" used the word \"tulipan\" to describe the flower.", "Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip is \"lale\".", "It is from this speculation that \"tulipan\" being a translation error referring to turbans is derived.", "This Etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors.", "At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used in Turkey, he simply states it was used by the \"Turks\".", "On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled through Hungary and used Hungarian guides.", "Until recent times \"Turk\" was a common term when referring to Hungarians.", "The word \"tulipan\" is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip.", "As long as one recognizes \"Turk\" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form.", "Busbecq was simply repeating the word used by his \"Turk/Hungarian\" guides.", "The Hungarian word \"tulipan\" may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection, \"tala\" meaning bottom or underworld and \"pAna\" meaning defence.", "Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including the tulip.", "Tulips are mainly distributed along a band corresponding to latitude 40° north, from southeast of Europe (Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Southern Serbia, Bulgaria, most part of Romania, Ukraine, Russia) and Turkey in the west, through the Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestinian Territories, Lebanon and Jordan) and the Sinai Peninsula.", "From there it extends eastwards through Jerevan, (Armenia) and Baku (Azerbaijan) and on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea through Turkmenistan, Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent (Uzbekistan), to the eastern end of the range in the Pamir-Alai and Tien-Shan mountains in Central Asia, which form the centre of diversity.", "Further to the east, \"Tulipa\" is found in the western Himalayas, southern Siberia, Inner Mongolia, and as far as the northwest of China.", "While authorities have stated that no tulips west of the Balkans are native, subsequent identification of \"Tulipa sylvestris\" subsp.", "\"australis\" as a native of the Iberian peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification.", "In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and the Balkans.", "In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine.", "Although tulips are also throughout most of the Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution.", "Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants from Anatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised (\"see map\").", "For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native.", "These have been referred to as neo-tulipae.", "Tulips are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates, where they are a common element of steppe and winter-rain Mediterranean vegetation.", "They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers.", "Tulips are most commonly found in meadows, steppes and chaparral, but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens.", "\"Botrytis tulipae\" is a major fungal disease affecting tulips, causing cell death and eventually the rotting of the plant.", "Other pathogens include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, blight caused by \"Sclerotium rolfsii\", bulb nematodes, other rots including blue molds, black molds and mushy rot.", "The fungus \"Trichoderma viride\" can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth, although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing in glasshouses.", "Variegated tulips admired during the Dutch tulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with the tulip breaking virus, a mosaic virus that was carried by the green peach aphid, \"Myzus persicae\".", "While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced.", "Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists’ techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of the desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots.", "Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called \"broken\"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed.", "Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields.", "The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between the colours.", "Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions.", "Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known as vernalisation.", "Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< ).", "Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals.", "The colour of tulip flowers also varies with growing conditions.", "Cultivation of the tulip began in Iran (Persia), probably in the 10th century.", "Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour.", "The tulip is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity, therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks.", "In the Ottoman Empire, numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred, and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey.", "Tulips are mentioned by Omar Kayam and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi.", "Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow.", "The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour.", "A paper by Arthur Baker reports that in 1574, Sultan Selim II ordered the Kadi of A‘azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs.", "However, John Harvey points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips and hyacinth (\"sümbüll\"), originally Indian spikenard (\"Nardostachys jatamansi\") have been confused.", "Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs of \"Kefe Lale\" (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probably \"Tulipa schrenkii\") from Kefe in Crimea, for his gardens in the Topkapı Sarayı in Istanbul.", "It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west.", "The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency.", "Sultan Ahmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in the summer highland pastures (\"Yayla\") at Spil Dağı above the town of Manisa.", "They seem to have consisted of wild tulips.", "However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin, so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods.", "Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from the Netherlands.", "The gardening book \"Revnak'ı Bostan\" (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reis ülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths and lilies.", "However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate.", "In 1515, the scholar Qasim from Herat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) as anemones (\"shaqayq al-nu'man\"), but described the crown imperial as \"laleh kakli\".", "In a Turkic text written before 1495, the Chagatay Husayn Bayqarah mentions tulips (\"lale\").", "Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, also names tulips in the Baburnama.", "He may actually have introduced them from Afghanistan to the plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes.", "In Moorish Andalus, a \"Makedonian bulb\" (\"basal al-maqdunis\") or \"bucket-Narcissus\" (\"naryis qadusi\") was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens.", "It was supposed to have come from Alexandria and may have been Tulipa sylvestris, but the identification is not wholly secure.", "Although it is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it was Oghier Ghislain de Busbecq, an ambassador for Emperor Ferdinand", "I to Suleyman the Magnificent.", "According to a letter, he saw \"an abundance of flowers everywhere; Narcissus, hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers.\"", "However, in 1559, an account by Conrad Gessner describes tulips flowering in Augsburg, Swabia in the garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart.", "In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter.", "It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year.", "Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as a narcissus.", "Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573.", "He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the variations in colour.", "After he was appointed the director of the Leiden University's newly established Hortus Botanicus, he planted both a teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593.", "Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens in Antwerp and Amsterdam two or three decades earlier.", "These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both the tulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands.", "Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden.", "Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by the early 17th century.", "These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished and especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy.", "\"Nouveaux riches\" seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable.", "A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in the early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb.", "The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower.", "An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers.", "The trade drifted slowly from the French to the Dutch.", "Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered a speculative frenzy now known as the tulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later.", "Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs.", "Around this time, the ceramic tulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem.", "Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared in Dutch still-life painting.", "To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called \"Dutch tulips\".", "The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at the Keukenhof.", "The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in the taxon \"Tulipa ×gesneriana\".", "They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived from \"Tulipa suaveolens\" (today often regarded as a synonym with \"Tulipa schrenkii\").", "\"Tulipa ×gesneriana\" is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century.", "The UK's National Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from the early 17th century to c.1960, is held by Polly Nicholson at Blackland House, near Calne in Wiltshire.", "It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown near Spring Pond at the Fay Estate in Lynn and Salem, Massachusetts.", "From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem.", "Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of the world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate.", "The Netherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export.", "\"Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination.", "Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs.", "Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need the pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms.", "\"\nTulips can be propagated through bulb offsets, seeds or micropropagation.", "Offsets and tissue culture methods are means of asexual propagation for producing genetic clones of the parent plant, which maintains cultivar genetic integrity.", "Seeds are most often used to propagate species and subspecies or to create new hybrids.", "Many tulip species can cross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations.", "Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and often sterile.", "Offsets require a year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower.", "Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size.", "To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usually topped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads.", "The same goals can be achieved by a private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen.", "Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future.", "Because tulip bulbs don't reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct.", "Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation, the Tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations.", "In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size.", "They may also be classified by their flowering season:", "A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae.", "These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in the wild for many centuries.", "The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked to saffron cultivation.", "Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips.", "These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and the 'Didieri Group' with unicolourous tepals.", "Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils.", "Tulips should be planted apart from each other.", "The recommended hole depth is deep, and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface.", "Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes.", "Species tulips are normally planted deeper.", "The celebration of Persian New Year, or Nowruz, dating back over 3,000 years, marks the advent of spring, and tulips are used as a decorative feature during the festivities.", "A sixth-century legend, similar to the tale of \"Romeo and Juliet\", tells of tulips sprouting where the blood of the young prince Farhad spilt after he killed himself upon hearing the (deliberately false) story that his true love had died.", "The tulip was a topic for Persian poets from the thirteenth century.", "The poem \"Gulistan\" by Musharrifu'd-din Saadi, described a visionary garden paradise with \"The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicoloured tulips and fragrant roses...\".", "In recent times, tulips have featured in the poems of Simin Behbahani.", "The tulip is the national symbol for martyrdom in Iran (and Shi'ite Islam generally), and has been used on postage stamps and coins.", "It was common as a symbol used in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, and a red tulip adorns the flag redesigned in 1980.", "The sword in the centre, with four crescent-shaped petals around it, create the word \"Allah\" as well as symbolising the five pillars of Islam.", "The tomb of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini is decorated with 72 stained glass tulips, representing 72 martyrs who died at the Battle of Karbala in 680CE.", "It was also used as a symbol on billboards celebrating casualties of the 1980–1988 war with Iraq.", "The tulip also became a symbol of protest against the Iranian government after the presidential election in June 2009, when millions turned out on the streets to protest the re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.", "After the protests were harshly suppressed, the Iranian Green Movement adopted the tulip as a symbol of their struggle.", "The word for tulip in Persian is \"laleh\" (لاله), and this has become popular as a girl's name.", "The name has been used for commercial enterprises, such as the Laleh International Hotel, as well as public facilities, such as Laleh Park and Laleh Hospital, and the tulip motif remains common in Iranian culture.", "Tulips are called \"lale\" in Turkish (from Persian: \"laleh\" لاله).", "When written in Arabic letters, \"lale\" has the same letters as \"Allah\", which is why the flower became a holy symbol.", "It was also associated with the House of Osman, resulting in tulips being widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, mosques, fabrics, crockery, etc. in the Ottoman Empire.", "The tulip was seen as a symbol of abundance and indulgence.", "The era during which the Ottoman Empire was wealthiest is often called the Tulip era or \"Lale Devri\" in Turkish.", "Tulips became popular garden plants in the east and west, but, whereas the tulip in Turkish culture was a symbol of paradise on earth and had almost a divine status, in the Netherlands it represented the briefness of life.", "In Christianity, tulips symbolise passion, belief and love.", "White tulips represent forgiveness while purple tulips represent royalty, both important aspects of Easter.", "In Calvinism, the five points of the doctrines of grace have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP.", "By contrast to other flowers such as the coneflower or lotus flower, tulips have historically been capable of genetically reinventing themselves to suit changes in aesthetic values.", "In his 1597 herbal, John Gerard says of the tulip that “nature seems to play more with this flower than with any other that I do know”.", "When in the Netherlands, beauty was defined by marbled swirls of vivid contrasting colours, the petals of tulips were able to become \"feathered\" and \"flamed\".", "However, in the 19th century, when the English desired tulips for carpet bedding and massing, the tulips were able to once again accommodate this by evolving into “paint-filled boxes with the brightest, fattest dabs of pure pigment”.", "This inherent mutability of the tulip even led the Ottoman Turks to believe that nature cherished this flower above all others.", "Seventeenth-century tulip mania has been described above.", "\"The Black Tulip\" (1850) is an historical romance by Alexandre Dumas, père.", "The story takes place in the Dutch city of Haarlem, where a reward is offered to the first grower who can produce a truly black tulip.", "The tulip occurs on a number of the Major Arcana cards of occultist Oswald Wirth's deck of Tarot cards, specifically the Magician, Emperor, Temperance and the Fool, described in his 1927 work \"Le Tarot, des Imagiers du Moyen Âge\".", "Tulip festivals are held around the world, for example in the Netherlands and Spalding, England.", "There is also a popular festival in Morges, Switzerland.", "Every spring, there are tulip festivals in North America, including the Tulip Time Festival in Holland, Michigan, the Skagit Valley Tulip Festival in Skagit Valley, Washington, the Tulip Time Festival in Orange City and Pella, Iowa, and the Canadian Tulip Festival in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.", "Tulips are also popular in Australia and several festivals are held in September and October, during the Southern Hemisphere's spring.", "Tulip petals are edible flowers.", "The taste varies by variety and season, and is roughly similar to lettuce or other salad greens.", "Some people are allergic to tulips.", "Tulip bulbs look similar to onions, but should not generally be considered food.", "The toxicity of bulbs is not well-understood, nor is there an agreed-upon method of safely preparing them for human consumption.", "There have been reports of illness when eaten, depending on quantity.", "During the Dutch famine of 1944–45, tulip bulbs were eaten out of desperation, and Dutch doctors provided recipes." ]

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[ "Tulips originally were found in a band stretching from Southern Europe to Central Asia, but since the seventeenth century have become widely naturalised and cultivated (\"see map\").", "In their natural state they are adapted to steppes and mountainous areas with temperate climates." ]

[ "\"Tulipa\" (tulips) is a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes, dying back after flowering to an underground storage bulb.", "Depending on the species, tulip plants can be between high.", "Flowers: The tulip's flowers are usually large and are actinomorphic (radially symmetric) and hermaphrodite (contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarely pendulous, and are arranged more usually as a single terminal flower, or when pluriflor as two to three (e.g. \"Tulipa turkestanica\"), but up to four, flowers on the end of a floriferous stem (scape), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette.", "In structure, the flower is generally cup or star shaped.", "As with other members of Liliaceae the perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six free (i.e. apotepalous) caducous tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each.", "The two whorls represent three petals and three sepals, but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical.", "The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on the interior surface.", "The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals.", "Androecium:", "The flowers have six distinct, basifixed introrse stamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy.", "The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base.", "Gynoecium:", "The style is short or absent and each stigma has three distinct lobes, and the ovaries are superior, with three chambers.", "Fruit:", "The tulip's fruit is a globose or ellipsoid capsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape.", "Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shaped seeds in two rows per chamber.", "These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats and endosperm that does not normally fill the entire seed.", "Leaves: Tulip stems have few leaves.", "Larger species tend to have multiple leaves.", "Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12.", "The tulip's leaf is cauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up the stem.", "These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour.", "The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex.", "They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can be glabrous or hairy inside.", "The \"Semper Augustus\" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-century tulip mania.", "“The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top” – wrote Nicolas van Wassenaer in 1624 after seeing the tulip in the garden of one Dr Adriaen Pauw, a director of the new East India Company.", "With limited specimens in existence at the time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania.", "Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours, except pure blue (several tulips with \"blue\" in the name have a faint violet hue), and have absent nectaries.", "Tulip flowers are generally bereft of scent and are the coolest of floral characters.", "The Dutch regarded this lack of scent as a virtue, as it demonstrates the flower's chasteness.\nWhile tulips can be bred to display a wide variety of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve.", "The Queen of the Night tulip is as close to black as a flower gets, though it is, in fact, a dark and glossy maroonish purple - nonetheless, an effect prized by the Dutch.", "The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands.", "The specimen was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips.", "Tulipanin is an anthocyanin found in tulips.", "It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin.", "The chemical compounds named tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies.", "Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone, is a common allergen, generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A.", "It induces a dermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters and florists who cut the stems and leaves.", "Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs.", "The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second laid-on anthocyanin colour.", "The mix of these two hues determines the visible unitary colour.", "The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin and the base colour is exposed as a streak.", "The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, and Anna Pavord describes \"T. Hungarica\" as \"strongly scented\", and among cultivars, some such as \"Monte Carlo\" and \"Brown Sugar\" are \"scented\", and \"Creme Upstar\" \"fragrant\".", "\"Tulipa\" is a genus of the lily family, Liliaceae, once one of the largest families of monocots, but which molecular phylogenetics has reduced to a monophyletic grouping with only 15 genera.", "Within Liliaceae, \"Tulipa\" is placed within Lilioideae, one of three subfamilies, with two tribes.", "Tribe Lilieae includes seven other genera in addition to \"Tulipa\".", "The genus, which includes about 75 species, is divided into four subgenera.", "The word \"tulip\", first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the \"Turkish Letters\" of diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, first appeared in English as \"tulipa\" or \"tulipant\", entering the language by way of and its obsolete form \"tulipan\" or by way of Modern Latin \"tulipa\", from Ottoman Turkish \"tülbend\" (\"muslin\" or \"gauze\"), and may be ultimately derived from the \"delband\" (\"Turban\"), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban.", "This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans.", "The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban.", "Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the \"Turks\" used the word \"tulipan\" to describe the flower.", "Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip is \"lale\".", "It is from this speculation that \"tulipan\" being a translation error referring to turbans is derived.", "This Etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors.", "At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used in Turkey, he simply states it was used by the \"Turks\".", "On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled through Hungary and used Hungarian guides.", "Until recent times \"Turk\" was a common term when referring to Hungarians.", "The word \"tulipan\" is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip.", "As long as one recognizes \"Turk\" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form.", "Busbecq was simply repeating the word used by his \"Turk/Hungarian\" guides.", "The Hungarian word \"tulipan\" may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection, \"tala\" meaning bottom or underworld and \"pAna\" meaning defence.", "Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including the tulip.", "Tulips are mainly distributed along a band corresponding to latitude 40° north, from southeast of Europe (Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Southern Serbia, Bulgaria, most part of Romania, Ukraine, Russia) and Turkey in the west, through the Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestinian Territories, Lebanon and Jordan) and the Sinai Peninsula.", "From there it extends eastwards through Jerevan, (Armenia) and Baku (Azerbaijan) and on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea through Turkmenistan, Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent (Uzbekistan), to the eastern end of the range in the Pamir-Alai and Tien-Shan mountains in Central Asia, which form the centre of diversity.", "Further to the east, \"Tulipa\" is found in the western Himalayas, southern Siberia, Inner Mongolia, and as far as the northwest of China.", "While authorities have stated that no tulips west of the Balkans are native, subsequent identification of \"Tulipa sylvestris\" subsp.", "\"australis\" as a native of the Iberian peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification.", "In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and the Balkans.", "In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine.", "Although tulips are also throughout most of the Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution.", "Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants from Anatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised (\"see map\").", "For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native.", "These have been referred to as neo-tulipae.", "Tulips are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates, where they are a common element of steppe and winter-rain Mediterranean vegetation.", "They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers.", "Tulips are most commonly found in meadows, steppes and chaparral, but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens.", "\"Botrytis tulipae\" is a major fungal disease affecting tulips, causing cell death and eventually the rotting of the plant.", "Other pathogens include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, blight caused by \"Sclerotium rolfsii\", bulb nematodes, other rots including blue molds, black molds and mushy rot.", "The fungus \"Trichoderma viride\" can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth, although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing in glasshouses.", "Variegated tulips admired during the Dutch tulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with the tulip breaking virus, a mosaic virus that was carried by the green peach aphid, \"Myzus persicae\".", "While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced.", "Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists’ techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of the desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots.", "Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called \"broken\"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed.", "Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields.", "The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between the colours.", "Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions.", "Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known as vernalisation.", "Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< ).", "Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals.", "The colour of tulip flowers also varies with growing conditions.", "Cultivation of the tulip began in Iran (Persia), probably in the 10th century.", "Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour.", "The tulip is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity, therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks.", "In the Ottoman Empire, numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred, and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey.", "Tulips are mentioned by Omar Kayam and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi.", "Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow.", "The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour.", "A paper by Arthur Baker reports that in 1574, Sultan Selim II ordered the Kadi of A‘azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs.", "However, John Harvey points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips and hyacinth (\"sümbüll\"), originally Indian spikenard (\"Nardostachys jatamansi\") have been confused.", "Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs of \"Kefe Lale\" (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probably \"Tulipa schrenkii\") from Kefe in Crimea, for his gardens in the Topkapı Sarayı in Istanbul.", "It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west.", "The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency.", "Sultan Ahmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in the summer highland pastures (\"Yayla\") at Spil Dağı above the town of Manisa.", "They seem to have consisted of wild tulips.", "However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin, so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods.", "Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from the Netherlands.", "The gardening book \"Revnak'ı Bostan\" (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reis ülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths and lilies.", "However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate.", "In 1515, the scholar Qasim from Herat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) as anemones (\"shaqayq al-nu'man\"), but described the crown imperial as \"laleh kakli\".", "In a Turkic text written before 1495, the Chagatay Husayn Bayqarah mentions tulips (\"lale\").", "Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, also names tulips in the Baburnama.", "He may actually have introduced them from Afghanistan to the plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes.", "In Moorish Andalus, a \"Makedonian bulb\" (\"basal al-maqdunis\") or \"bucket-Narcissus\" (\"naryis qadusi\") was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens.", "It was supposed to have come from Alexandria and may have been Tulipa sylvestris, but the identification is not wholly secure.", "Although it is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it was Oghier Ghislain de Busbecq, an ambassador for Emperor Ferdinand", "I to Suleyman the Magnificent.", "According to a letter, he saw \"an abundance of flowers everywhere; Narcissus, hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers.\"", "However, in 1559, an account by Conrad Gessner describes tulips flowering in Augsburg, Swabia in the garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart.", "In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter.", "It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year.", "Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as a narcissus.", "Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573.", "He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the variations in colour.", "After he was appointed the director of the Leiden University's newly established Hortus Botanicus, he planted both a teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593.", "Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens in Antwerp and Amsterdam two or three decades earlier.", "These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both the tulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands.", "Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden.", "Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by the early 17th century.", "These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished and especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy.", "\"Nouveaux riches\" seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable.", "A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in the early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb.", "The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower.", "An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers.", "The trade drifted slowly from the French to the Dutch.", "Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered a speculative frenzy now known as the tulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later.", "Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs.", "Around this time, the ceramic tulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem.", "Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared in Dutch still-life painting.", "To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called \"Dutch tulips\".", "The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at the Keukenhof.", "The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in the taxon \"Tulipa ×gesneriana\".", "They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived from \"Tulipa suaveolens\" (today often regarded as a synonym with \"Tulipa schrenkii\").", "\"Tulipa ×gesneriana\" is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century.", "The UK's National Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from the early 17th century to c.1960, is held by Polly Nicholson at Blackland House, near Calne in Wiltshire.", "It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown near Spring Pond at the Fay Estate in Lynn and Salem, Massachusetts.", "From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem.", "Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of the world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate.", "The Netherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export.", "\"Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination.", "Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs.", "Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need the pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms.", "\"\nTulips can be propagated through bulb offsets, seeds or micropropagation.", "Offsets and tissue culture methods are means of asexual propagation for producing genetic clones of the parent plant, which maintains cultivar genetic integrity.", "Seeds are most often used to propagate species and subspecies or to create new hybrids.", "Many tulip species can cross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations.", "Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and often sterile.", "Offsets require a year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower.", "Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size.", "To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usually topped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads.", "The same goals can be achieved by a private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen.", "Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future.", "Because tulip bulbs don't reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct.", "Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation, the Tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations.", "In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size.", "They may also be classified by their flowering season:", "A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae.", "These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in the wild for many centuries.", "The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked to saffron cultivation.", "Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips.", "These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and the 'Didieri Group' with unicolourous tepals.", "Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils.", "Tulips should be planted apart from each other.", "The recommended hole depth is deep, and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface.", "Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes.", "Species tulips are normally planted deeper.", "The celebration of Persian New Year, or Nowruz, dating back over 3,000 years, marks the advent of spring, and tulips are used as a decorative feature during the festivities.", "A sixth-century legend, similar to the tale of \"Romeo and Juliet\", tells of tulips sprouting where the blood of the young prince Farhad spilt after he killed himself upon hearing the (deliberately false) story that his true love had died.", "The tulip was a topic for Persian poets from the thirteenth century.", "The poem \"Gulistan\" by Musharrifu'd-din Saadi, described a visionary garden paradise with \"The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicoloured tulips and fragrant roses...\".", "In recent times, tulips have featured in the poems of Simin Behbahani.", "The tulip is the national symbol for martyrdom in Iran (and Shi'ite Islam generally), and has been used on postage stamps and coins.", "It was common as a symbol used in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, and a red tulip adorns the flag redesigned in 1980.", "The sword in the centre, with four crescent-shaped petals around it, create the word \"Allah\" as well as symbolising the five pillars of Islam.", "The tomb of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini is decorated with 72 stained glass tulips, representing 72 martyrs who died at the Battle of Karbala in 680CE.", "It was also used as a symbol on billboards celebrating casualties of the 1980–1988 war with Iraq.", "The tulip also became a symbol of protest against the Iranian government after the presidential election in June 2009, when millions turned out on the streets to protest the re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.", "After the protests were harshly suppressed, the Iranian Green Movement adopted the tulip as a symbol of their struggle.", "The word for tulip in Persian is \"laleh\" (لاله), and this has become popular as a girl's name.", "The name has been used for commercial enterprises, such as the Laleh International Hotel, as well as public facilities, such as Laleh Park and Laleh Hospital, and the tulip motif remains common in Iranian culture.", "Tulips are called \"lale\" in Turkish (from Persian: \"laleh\" لاله).", "When written in Arabic letters, \"lale\" has the same letters as \"Allah\", which is why the flower became a holy symbol.", "It was also associated with the House of Osman, resulting in tulips being widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, mosques, fabrics, crockery, etc. in the Ottoman Empire.", "The tulip was seen as a symbol of abundance and indulgence.", "The era during which the Ottoman Empire was wealthiest is often called the Tulip era or \"Lale Devri\" in Turkish.", "Tulips became popular garden plants in the east and west, but, whereas the tulip in Turkish culture was a symbol of paradise on earth and had almost a divine status, in the Netherlands it represented the briefness of life.", "In Christianity, tulips symbolise passion, belief and love.", "White tulips represent forgiveness while purple tulips represent royalty, both important aspects of Easter.", "In Calvinism, the five points of the doctrines of grace have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP.", "By contrast to other flowers such as the coneflower or lotus flower, tulips have historically been capable of genetically reinventing themselves to suit changes in aesthetic values.", "In his 1597 herbal, John Gerard says of the tulip that “nature seems to play more with this flower than with any other that I do know”.", "When in the Netherlands, beauty was defined by marbled swirls of vivid contrasting colours, the petals of tulips were able to become \"feathered\" and \"flamed\".", "However, in the 19th century, when the English desired tulips for carpet bedding and massing, the tulips were able to once again accommodate this by evolving into “paint-filled boxes with the brightest, fattest dabs of pure pigment”.", "This inherent mutability of the tulip even led the Ottoman Turks to believe that nature cherished this flower above all others.", "Seventeenth-century tulip mania has been described above.", "\"The Black Tulip\" (1850) is an historical romance by Alexandre Dumas, père.", "The story takes place in the Dutch city of Haarlem, where a reward is offered to the first grower who can produce a truly black tulip.", "The tulip occurs on a number of the Major Arcana cards of occultist Oswald Wirth's deck of Tarot cards, specifically the Magician, Emperor, Temperance and the Fool, described in his 1927 work \"Le Tarot, des Imagiers du Moyen Âge\".", "Tulip festivals are held around the world, for example in the Netherlands and Spalding, England.", "There is also a popular festival in Morges, Switzerland.", "Every spring, there are tulip festivals in North America, including the Tulip Time Festival in Holland, Michigan, the Skagit Valley Tulip Festival in Skagit Valley, Washington, the Tulip Time Festival in Orange City and Pella, Iowa, and the Canadian Tulip Festival in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.", "Tulips are also popular in Australia and several festivals are held in September and October, during the Southern Hemisphere's spring.", "Tulip petals are edible flowers.", "The taste varies by variety and season, and is roughly similar to lettuce or other salad greens.", "Some people are allergic to tulips.", "Tulip bulbs look similar to onions, but should not generally be considered food.", "The toxicity of bulbs is not well-understood, nor is there an agreed-upon method of safely preparing them for human consumption.", "There have been reports of illness when eaten, depending on quantity.", "During the Dutch famine of 1944–45, tulip bulbs were eaten out of desperation, and Dutch doctors provided recipes." ]

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[ "They were rapidly introduced into Europe and became a frenzied commodity during tulip mania.", "Tulips were frequently depicted in Dutch Golden Age paintings, and have become associated with the Netherlands, the major producer for world markets, ever since.", "Breeding programmes have produced thousands of hybrid and cultivars in addition to the original species (known in horticulture as botanical tulips).", "They are popular throughout the world, both as ornamental garden plants and as cut flowers." ]

[ "\"Tulipa\" (tulips) is a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes, dying back after flowering to an underground storage bulb.", "Depending on the species, tulip plants can be between high.", "Flowers: The tulip's flowers are usually large and are actinomorphic (radially symmetric) and hermaphrodite (contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarely pendulous, and are arranged more usually as a single terminal flower, or when pluriflor as two to three (e.g. \"Tulipa turkestanica\"), but up to four, flowers on the end of a floriferous stem (scape), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette.", "In structure, the flower is generally cup or star shaped.", "As with other members of Liliaceae the perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six free (i.e. apotepalous) caducous tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each.", "The two whorls represent three petals and three sepals, but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical.", "The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on the interior surface.", "The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals.", "Androecium:", "The flowers have six distinct, basifixed introrse stamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy.", "The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base.", "Gynoecium:", "The style is short or absent and each stigma has three distinct lobes, and the ovaries are superior, with three chambers.", "Fruit:", "The tulip's fruit is a globose or ellipsoid capsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape.", "Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shaped seeds in two rows per chamber.", "These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats and endosperm that does not normally fill the entire seed.", "Leaves: Tulip stems have few leaves.", "Larger species tend to have multiple leaves.", "Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12.", "The tulip's leaf is cauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up the stem.", "These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour.", "The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex.", "They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can be glabrous or hairy inside.", "The \"Semper Augustus\" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-century tulip mania.", "“The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top” – wrote Nicolas van Wassenaer in 1624 after seeing the tulip in the garden of one Dr Adriaen Pauw, a director of the new East India Company.", "With limited specimens in existence at the time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania.", "Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours, except pure blue (several tulips with \"blue\" in the name have a faint violet hue), and have absent nectaries.", "Tulip flowers are generally bereft of scent and are the coolest of floral characters.", "The Dutch regarded this lack of scent as a virtue, as it demonstrates the flower's chasteness.\nWhile tulips can be bred to display a wide variety of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve.", "The Queen of the Night tulip is as close to black as a flower gets, though it is, in fact, a dark and glossy maroonish purple - nonetheless, an effect prized by the Dutch.", "The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands.", "The specimen was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips.", "Tulipanin is an anthocyanin found in tulips.", "It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin.", "The chemical compounds named tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies.", "Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone, is a common allergen, generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A.", "It induces a dermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters and florists who cut the stems and leaves.", "Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs.", "The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second laid-on anthocyanin colour.", "The mix of these two hues determines the visible unitary colour.", "The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin and the base colour is exposed as a streak.", "The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, and Anna Pavord describes \"T. Hungarica\" as \"strongly scented\", and among cultivars, some such as \"Monte Carlo\" and \"Brown Sugar\" are \"scented\", and \"Creme Upstar\" \"fragrant\".", "\"Tulipa\" is a genus of the lily family, Liliaceae, once one of the largest families of monocots, but which molecular phylogenetics has reduced to a monophyletic grouping with only 15 genera.", "Within Liliaceae, \"Tulipa\" is placed within Lilioideae, one of three subfamilies, with two tribes.", "Tribe Lilieae includes seven other genera in addition to \"Tulipa\".", "The genus, which includes about 75 species, is divided into four subgenera.", "The word \"tulip\", first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the \"Turkish Letters\" of diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, first appeared in English as \"tulipa\" or \"tulipant\", entering the language by way of and its obsolete form \"tulipan\" or by way of Modern Latin \"tulipa\", from Ottoman Turkish \"tülbend\" (\"muslin\" or \"gauze\"), and may be ultimately derived from the \"delband\" (\"Turban\"), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban.", "This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans.", "The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban.", "Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the \"Turks\" used the word \"tulipan\" to describe the flower.", "Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip is \"lale\".", "It is from this speculation that \"tulipan\" being a translation error referring to turbans is derived.", "This Etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors.", "At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used in Turkey, he simply states it was used by the \"Turks\".", "On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled through Hungary and used Hungarian guides.", "Until recent times \"Turk\" was a common term when referring to Hungarians.", "The word \"tulipan\" is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip.", "As long as one recognizes \"Turk\" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form.", "Busbecq was simply repeating the word used by his \"Turk/Hungarian\" guides.", "The Hungarian word \"tulipan\" may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection, \"tala\" meaning bottom or underworld and \"pAna\" meaning defence.", "Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including the tulip.", "Tulips are mainly distributed along a band corresponding to latitude 40° north, from southeast of Europe (Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Southern Serbia, Bulgaria, most part of Romania, Ukraine, Russia) and Turkey in the west, through the Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestinian Territories, Lebanon and Jordan) and the Sinai Peninsula.", "From there it extends eastwards through Jerevan, (Armenia) and Baku (Azerbaijan) and on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea through Turkmenistan, Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent (Uzbekistan), to the eastern end of the range in the Pamir-Alai and Tien-Shan mountains in Central Asia, which form the centre of diversity.", "Further to the east, \"Tulipa\" is found in the western Himalayas, southern Siberia, Inner Mongolia, and as far as the northwest of China.", "While authorities have stated that no tulips west of the Balkans are native, subsequent identification of \"Tulipa sylvestris\" subsp.", "\"australis\" as a native of the Iberian peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification.", "In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and the Balkans.", "In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine.", "Although tulips are also throughout most of the Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution.", "Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants from Anatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised (\"see map\").", "For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native.", "These have been referred to as neo-tulipae.", "Tulips are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates, where they are a common element of steppe and winter-rain Mediterranean vegetation.", "They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers.", "Tulips are most commonly found in meadows, steppes and chaparral, but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens.", "\"Botrytis tulipae\" is a major fungal disease affecting tulips, causing cell death and eventually the rotting of the plant.", "Other pathogens include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, blight caused by \"Sclerotium rolfsii\", bulb nematodes, other rots including blue molds, black molds and mushy rot.", "The fungus \"Trichoderma viride\" can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth, although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing in glasshouses.", "Variegated tulips admired during the Dutch tulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with the tulip breaking virus, a mosaic virus that was carried by the green peach aphid, \"Myzus persicae\".", "While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced.", "Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists’ techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of the desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots.", "Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called \"broken\"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed.", "Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields.", "The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between the colours.", "Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions.", "Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known as vernalisation.", "Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< ).", "Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals.", "The colour of tulip flowers also varies with growing conditions.", "Cultivation of the tulip began in Iran (Persia), probably in the 10th century.", "Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour.", "The tulip is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity, therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks.", "In the Ottoman Empire, numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred, and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey.", "Tulips are mentioned by Omar Kayam and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi.", "Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow.", "The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour.", "A paper by Arthur Baker reports that in 1574, Sultan Selim II ordered the Kadi of A‘azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs.", "However, John Harvey points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips and hyacinth (\"sümbüll\"), originally Indian spikenard (\"Nardostachys jatamansi\") have been confused.", "Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs of \"Kefe Lale\" (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probably \"Tulipa schrenkii\") from Kefe in Crimea, for his gardens in the Topkapı Sarayı in Istanbul.", "It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west.", "The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency.", "Sultan Ahmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in the summer highland pastures (\"Yayla\") at Spil Dağı above the town of Manisa.", "They seem to have consisted of wild tulips.", "However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin, so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods.", "Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from the Netherlands.", "The gardening book \"Revnak'ı Bostan\" (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reis ülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths and lilies.", "However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate.", "In 1515, the scholar Qasim from Herat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) as anemones (\"shaqayq al-nu'man\"), but described the crown imperial as \"laleh kakli\".", "In a Turkic text written before 1495, the Chagatay Husayn Bayqarah mentions tulips (\"lale\").", "Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, also names tulips in the Baburnama.", "He may actually have introduced them from Afghanistan to the plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes.", "In Moorish Andalus, a \"Makedonian bulb\" (\"basal al-maqdunis\") or \"bucket-Narcissus\" (\"naryis qadusi\") was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens.", "It was supposed to have come from Alexandria and may have been Tulipa sylvestris, but the identification is not wholly secure.", "Although it is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it was Oghier Ghislain de Busbecq, an ambassador for Emperor Ferdinand", "I to Suleyman the Magnificent.", "According to a letter, he saw \"an abundance of flowers everywhere; Narcissus, hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers.\"", "However, in 1559, an account by Conrad Gessner describes tulips flowering in Augsburg, Swabia in the garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart.", "In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter.", "It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year.", "Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as a narcissus.", "Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573.", "He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the variations in colour.", "After he was appointed the director of the Leiden University's newly established Hortus Botanicus, he planted both a teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593.", "Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens in Antwerp and Amsterdam two or three decades earlier.", "These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both the tulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands.", "Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden.", "Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by the early 17th century.", "These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished and especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy.", "\"Nouveaux riches\" seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable.", "A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in the early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb.", "The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower.", "An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers.", "The trade drifted slowly from the French to the Dutch.", "Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered a speculative frenzy now known as the tulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later.", "Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs.", "Around this time, the ceramic tulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem.", "Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared in Dutch still-life painting.", "To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called \"Dutch tulips\".", "The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at the Keukenhof.", "The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in the taxon \"Tulipa ×gesneriana\".", "They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived from \"Tulipa suaveolens\" (today often regarded as a synonym with \"Tulipa schrenkii\").", "\"Tulipa ×gesneriana\" is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century.", "The UK's National Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from the early 17th century to c.1960, is held by Polly Nicholson at Blackland House, near Calne in Wiltshire.", "It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown near Spring Pond at the Fay Estate in Lynn and Salem, Massachusetts.", "From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem.", "Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of the world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate.", "The Netherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export.", "\"Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination.", "Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs.", "Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need the pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms.", "\"\nTulips can be propagated through bulb offsets, seeds or micropropagation.", "Offsets and tissue culture methods are means of asexual propagation for producing genetic clones of the parent plant, which maintains cultivar genetic integrity.", "Seeds are most often used to propagate species and subspecies or to create new hybrids.", "Many tulip species can cross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations.", "Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and often sterile.", "Offsets require a year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower.", "Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size.", "To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usually topped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads.", "The same goals can be achieved by a private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen.", "Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future.", "Because tulip bulbs don't reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct.", "Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation, the Tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations.", "In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size.", "They may also be classified by their flowering season:", "A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae.", "These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in the wild for many centuries.", "The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked to saffron cultivation.", "Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips.", "These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and the 'Didieri Group' with unicolourous tepals.", "Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils.", "Tulips should be planted apart from each other.", "The recommended hole depth is deep, and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface.", "Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes.", "Species tulips are normally planted deeper.", "The celebration of Persian New Year, or Nowruz, dating back over 3,000 years, marks the advent of spring, and tulips are used as a decorative feature during the festivities.", "A sixth-century legend, similar to the tale of \"Romeo and Juliet\", tells of tulips sprouting where the blood of the young prince Farhad spilt after he killed himself upon hearing the (deliberately false) story that his true love had died.", "The tulip was a topic for Persian poets from the thirteenth century.", "The poem \"Gulistan\" by Musharrifu'd-din Saadi, described a visionary garden paradise with \"The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicoloured tulips and fragrant roses...\".", "In recent times, tulips have featured in the poems of Simin Behbahani.", "The tulip is the national symbol for martyrdom in Iran (and Shi'ite Islam generally), and has been used on postage stamps and coins.", "It was common as a symbol used in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, and a red tulip adorns the flag redesigned in 1980.", "The sword in the centre, with four crescent-shaped petals around it, create the word \"Allah\" as well as symbolising the five pillars of Islam.", "The tomb of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini is decorated with 72 stained glass tulips, representing 72 martyrs who died at the Battle of Karbala in 680CE.", "It was also used as a symbol on billboards celebrating casualties of the 1980–1988 war with Iraq.", "The tulip also became a symbol of protest against the Iranian government after the presidential election in June 2009, when millions turned out on the streets to protest the re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.", "After the protests were harshly suppressed, the Iranian Green Movement adopted the tulip as a symbol of their struggle.", "The word for tulip in Persian is \"laleh\" (لاله), and this has become popular as a girl's name.", "The name has been used for commercial enterprises, such as the Laleh International Hotel, as well as public facilities, such as Laleh Park and Laleh Hospital, and the tulip motif remains common in Iranian culture.", "Tulips are called \"lale\" in Turkish (from Persian: \"laleh\" لاله).", "When written in Arabic letters, \"lale\" has the same letters as \"Allah\", which is why the flower became a holy symbol.", "It was also associated with the House of Osman, resulting in tulips being widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, mosques, fabrics, crockery, etc. in the Ottoman Empire.", "The tulip was seen as a symbol of abundance and indulgence.", "The era during which the Ottoman Empire was wealthiest is often called the Tulip era or \"Lale Devri\" in Turkish.", "Tulips became popular garden plants in the east and west, but, whereas the tulip in Turkish culture was a symbol of paradise on earth and had almost a divine status, in the Netherlands it represented the briefness of life.", "In Christianity, tulips symbolise passion, belief and love.", "White tulips represent forgiveness while purple tulips represent royalty, both important aspects of Easter.", "In Calvinism, the five points of the doctrines of grace have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP.", "By contrast to other flowers such as the coneflower or lotus flower, tulips have historically been capable of genetically reinventing themselves to suit changes in aesthetic values.", "In his 1597 herbal, John Gerard says of the tulip that “nature seems to play more with this flower than with any other that I do know”.", "When in the Netherlands, beauty was defined by marbled swirls of vivid contrasting colours, the petals of tulips were able to become \"feathered\" and \"flamed\".", "However, in the 19th century, when the English desired tulips for carpet bedding and massing, the tulips were able to once again accommodate this by evolving into “paint-filled boxes with the brightest, fattest dabs of pure pigment”.", "This inherent mutability of the tulip even led the Ottoman Turks to believe that nature cherished this flower above all others.", "Seventeenth-century tulip mania has been described above.", "\"The Black Tulip\" (1850) is an historical romance by Alexandre Dumas, père.", "The story takes place in the Dutch city of Haarlem, where a reward is offered to the first grower who can produce a truly black tulip.", "The tulip occurs on a number of the Major Arcana cards of occultist Oswald Wirth's deck of Tarot cards, specifically the Magician, Emperor, Temperance and the Fool, described in his 1927 work \"Le Tarot, des Imagiers du Moyen Âge\".", "Tulip festivals are held around the world, for example in the Netherlands and Spalding, England.", "There is also a popular festival in Morges, Switzerland.", "Every spring, there are tulip festivals in North America, including the Tulip Time Festival in Holland, Michigan, the Skagit Valley Tulip Festival in Skagit Valley, Washington, the Tulip Time Festival in Orange City and Pella, Iowa, and the Canadian Tulip Festival in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.", "Tulips are also popular in Australia and several festivals are held in September and October, during the Southern Hemisphere's spring.", "Tulip petals are edible flowers.", "The taste varies by variety and season, and is roughly similar to lettuce or other salad greens.", "Some people are allergic to tulips.", "Tulip bulbs look similar to onions, but should not generally be considered food.", "The toxicity of bulbs is not well-understood, nor is there an agreed-upon method of safely preparing them for human consumption.", "There have been reports of illness when eaten, depending on quantity.", "During the Dutch famine of 1944–45, tulip bulbs were eaten out of desperation, and Dutch doctors provided recipes." ]

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[ "They were rapidly introduced into Europe and became a frenzied commodity during tulip mania.", "Breeding programmes have produced thousands of hybrid and cultivars in addition to the original species (known in horticulture as botanical tulips).", "They are popular throughout the world, both as ornamental garden plants and as cut flowers." ]

[ "\"Tulipa\" (tulips) is a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes, dying back after flowering to an underground storage bulb.", "Depending on the species, tulip plants can be between high.", "Flowers: The tulip's flowers are usually large and are actinomorphic (radially symmetric) and hermaphrodite (contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarely pendulous, and are arranged more usually as a single terminal flower, or when pluriflor as two to three (e.g. \"Tulipa turkestanica\"), but up to four, flowers on the end of a floriferous stem (scape), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette.", "In structure, the flower is generally cup or star shaped.", "As with other members of Liliaceae the perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six free (i.e. apotepalous) caducous tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each.", "The two whorls represent three petals and three sepals, but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical.", "The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on the interior surface.", "The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals.", "Androecium:", "The flowers have six distinct, basifixed introrse stamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy.", "The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base.", "Gynoecium:", "The style is short or absent and each stigma has three distinct lobes, and the ovaries are superior, with three chambers.", "Fruit:", "The tulip's fruit is a globose or ellipsoid capsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape.", "Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shaped seeds in two rows per chamber.", "These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats and endosperm that does not normally fill the entire seed.", "Leaves: Tulip stems have few leaves.", "Larger species tend to have multiple leaves.", "Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12.", "The tulip's leaf is cauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up the stem.", "These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour.", "The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex.", "They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can be glabrous or hairy inside.", "The \"Semper Augustus\" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-century tulip mania.", "“The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top” – wrote Nicolas van Wassenaer in 1624 after seeing the tulip in the garden of one Dr Adriaen Pauw, a director of the new East India Company.", "With limited specimens in existence at the time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania.", "Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours, except pure blue (several tulips with \"blue\" in the name have a faint violet hue), and have absent nectaries.", "Tulip flowers are generally bereft of scent and are the coolest of floral characters.", "The Dutch regarded this lack of scent as a virtue, as it demonstrates the flower's chasteness.\nWhile tulips can be bred to display a wide variety of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve.", "The Queen of the Night tulip is as close to black as a flower gets, though it is, in fact, a dark and glossy maroonish purple - nonetheless, an effect prized by the Dutch.", "The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands.", "The specimen was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips.", "Tulipanin is an anthocyanin found in tulips.", "It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin.", "The chemical compounds named tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies.", "Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone, is a common allergen, generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A.", "It induces a dermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters and florists who cut the stems and leaves.", "Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs.", "The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second laid-on anthocyanin colour.", "The mix of these two hues determines the visible unitary colour.", "The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin and the base colour is exposed as a streak.", "The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, and Anna Pavord describes \"T. Hungarica\" as \"strongly scented\", and among cultivars, some such as \"Monte Carlo\" and \"Brown Sugar\" are \"scented\", and \"Creme Upstar\" \"fragrant\".", "\"Tulipa\" is a genus of the lily family, Liliaceae, once one of the largest families of monocots, but which molecular phylogenetics has reduced to a monophyletic grouping with only 15 genera.", "Within Liliaceae, \"Tulipa\" is placed within Lilioideae, one of three subfamilies, with two tribes.", "Tribe Lilieae includes seven other genera in addition to \"Tulipa\".", "The genus, which includes about 75 species, is divided into four subgenera.", "The word \"tulip\", first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the \"Turkish Letters\" of diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, first appeared in English as \"tulipa\" or \"tulipant\", entering the language by way of and its obsolete form \"tulipan\" or by way of Modern Latin \"tulipa\", from Ottoman Turkish \"tülbend\" (\"muslin\" or \"gauze\"), and may be ultimately derived from the \"delband\" (\"Turban\"), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban.", "This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans.", "The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban.", "Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the \"Turks\" used the word \"tulipan\" to describe the flower.", "Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip is \"lale\".", "It is from this speculation that \"tulipan\" being a translation error referring to turbans is derived.", "This Etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors.", "At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used in Turkey, he simply states it was used by the \"Turks\".", "On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled through Hungary and used Hungarian guides.", "Until recent times \"Turk\" was a common term when referring to Hungarians.", "The word \"tulipan\" is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip.", "As long as one recognizes \"Turk\" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form.", "Busbecq was simply repeating the word used by his \"Turk/Hungarian\" guides.", "The Hungarian word \"tulipan\" may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection, \"tala\" meaning bottom or underworld and \"pAna\" meaning defence.", "Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including the tulip.", "Tulips are mainly distributed along a band corresponding to latitude 40° north, from southeast of Europe (Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Southern Serbia, Bulgaria, most part of Romania, Ukraine, Russia) and Turkey in the west, through the Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestinian Territories, Lebanon and Jordan) and the Sinai Peninsula.", "From there it extends eastwards through Jerevan, (Armenia) and Baku (Azerbaijan) and on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea through Turkmenistan, Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent (Uzbekistan), to the eastern end of the range in the Pamir-Alai and Tien-Shan mountains in Central Asia, which form the centre of diversity.", "Further to the east, \"Tulipa\" is found in the western Himalayas, southern Siberia, Inner Mongolia, and as far as the northwest of China.", "While authorities have stated that no tulips west of the Balkans are native, subsequent identification of \"Tulipa sylvestris\" subsp.", "\"australis\" as a native of the Iberian peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification.", "In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and the Balkans.", "In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine.", "Although tulips are also throughout most of the Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution.", "Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants from Anatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised (\"see map\").", "For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native.", "These have been referred to as neo-tulipae.", "Tulips are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates, where they are a common element of steppe and winter-rain Mediterranean vegetation.", "They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers.", "Tulips are most commonly found in meadows, steppes and chaparral, but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens.", "\"Botrytis tulipae\" is a major fungal disease affecting tulips, causing cell death and eventually the rotting of the plant.", "Other pathogens include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, blight caused by \"Sclerotium rolfsii\", bulb nematodes, other rots including blue molds, black molds and mushy rot.", "The fungus \"Trichoderma viride\" can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth, although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing in glasshouses.", "Variegated tulips admired during the Dutch tulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with the tulip breaking virus, a mosaic virus that was carried by the green peach aphid, \"Myzus persicae\".", "While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced.", "Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists’ techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of the desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots.", "Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called \"broken\"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed.", "Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields.", "The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between the colours.", "Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions.", "Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known as vernalisation.", "Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< ).", "Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals.", "The colour of tulip flowers also varies with growing conditions.", "Cultivation of the tulip began in Iran (Persia), probably in the 10th century.", "Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour.", "The tulip is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity, therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks.", "In the Ottoman Empire, numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred, and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey.", "Tulips are mentioned by Omar Kayam and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi.", "Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow.", "The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour.", "A paper by Arthur Baker reports that in 1574, Sultan Selim II ordered the Kadi of A‘azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs.", "However, John Harvey points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips and hyacinth (\"sümbüll\"), originally Indian spikenard (\"Nardostachys jatamansi\") have been confused.", "Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs of \"Kefe Lale\" (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probably \"Tulipa schrenkii\") from Kefe in Crimea, for his gardens in the Topkapı Sarayı in Istanbul.", "It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west.", "The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency.", "Sultan Ahmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in the summer highland pastures (\"Yayla\") at Spil Dağı above the town of Manisa.", "They seem to have consisted of wild tulips.", "However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin, so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods.", "Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from the Netherlands.", "The gardening book \"Revnak'ı Bostan\" (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reis ülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths and lilies.", "However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate.", "In 1515, the scholar Qasim from Herat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) as anemones (\"shaqayq al-nu'man\"), but described the crown imperial as \"laleh kakli\".", "In a Turkic text written before 1495, the Chagatay Husayn Bayqarah mentions tulips (\"lale\").", "Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, also names tulips in the Baburnama.", "He may actually have introduced them from Afghanistan to the plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes.", "In Moorish Andalus, a \"Makedonian bulb\" (\"basal al-maqdunis\") or \"bucket-Narcissus\" (\"naryis qadusi\") was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens.", "It was supposed to have come from Alexandria and may have been Tulipa sylvestris, but the identification is not wholly secure.", "Although it is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it was Oghier Ghislain de Busbecq, an ambassador for Emperor Ferdinand", "I to Suleyman the Magnificent.", "According to a letter, he saw \"an abundance of flowers everywhere; Narcissus, hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers.\"", "However, in 1559, an account by Conrad Gessner describes tulips flowering in Augsburg, Swabia in the garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart.", "In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter.", "It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year.", "Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as a narcissus.", "Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573.", "He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the variations in colour.", "After he was appointed the director of the Leiden University's newly established Hortus Botanicus, he planted both a teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593.", "Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens in Antwerp and Amsterdam two or three decades earlier.", "These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both the tulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands.", "Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden.", "Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by the early 17th century.", "These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished and especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy.", "\"Nouveaux riches\" seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable.", "A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in the early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb.", "The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower.", "An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers.", "The trade drifted slowly from the French to the Dutch.", "Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered a speculative frenzy now known as the tulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later.", "Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs.", "Around this time, the ceramic tulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem.", "Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared in Dutch still-life painting.", "To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called \"Dutch tulips\".", "The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at the Keukenhof.", "The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in the taxon \"Tulipa ×gesneriana\".", "They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived from \"Tulipa suaveolens\" (today often regarded as a synonym with \"Tulipa schrenkii\").", "\"Tulipa ×gesneriana\" is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century.", "The UK's National Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from the early 17th century to c.1960, is held by Polly Nicholson at Blackland House, near Calne in Wiltshire.", "It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown near Spring Pond at the Fay Estate in Lynn and Salem, Massachusetts.", "From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem.", "Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of the world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate.", "The Netherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export.", "\"Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination.", "Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs.", "Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need the pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms.", "\"\nTulips can be propagated through bulb offsets, seeds or micropropagation.", "Offsets and tissue culture methods are means of asexual propagation for producing genetic clones of the parent plant, which maintains cultivar genetic integrity.", "Seeds are most often used to propagate species and subspecies or to create new hybrids.", "Many tulip species can cross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations.", "Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and often sterile.", "Offsets require a year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower.", "Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size.", "To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usually topped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads.", "The same goals can be achieved by a private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen.", "Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future.", "Because tulip bulbs don't reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct.", "Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation, the Tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations.", "In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size.", "They may also be classified by their flowering season:", "A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae.", "These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in the wild for many centuries.", "The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked to saffron cultivation.", "Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips.", "These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and the 'Didieri Group' with unicolourous tepals.", "Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils.", "Tulips should be planted apart from each other.", "The recommended hole depth is deep, and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface.", "Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes.", "Species tulips are normally planted deeper.", "The celebration of Persian New Year, or Nowruz, dating back over 3,000 years, marks the advent of spring, and tulips are used as a decorative feature during the festivities.", "A sixth-century legend, similar to the tale of \"Romeo and Juliet\", tells of tulips sprouting where the blood of the young prince Farhad spilt after he killed himself upon hearing the (deliberately false) story that his true love had died.", "The tulip was a topic for Persian poets from the thirteenth century.", "The poem \"Gulistan\" by Musharrifu'd-din Saadi, described a visionary garden paradise with \"The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicoloured tulips and fragrant roses...\".", "In recent times, tulips have featured in the poems of Simin Behbahani.", "The tulip is the national symbol for martyrdom in Iran (and Shi'ite Islam generally), and has been used on postage stamps and coins.", "It was common as a symbol used in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, and a red tulip adorns the flag redesigned in 1980.", "The sword in the centre, with four crescent-shaped petals around it, create the word \"Allah\" as well as symbolising the five pillars of Islam.", "The tomb of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini is decorated with 72 stained glass tulips, representing 72 martyrs who died at the Battle of Karbala in 680CE.", "It was also used as a symbol on billboards celebrating casualties of the 1980–1988 war with Iraq.", "The tulip also became a symbol of protest against the Iranian government after the presidential election in June 2009, when millions turned out on the streets to protest the re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.", "After the protests were harshly suppressed, the Iranian Green Movement adopted the tulip as a symbol of their struggle.", "The word for tulip in Persian is \"laleh\" (لاله), and this has become popular as a girl's name.", "The name has been used for commercial enterprises, such as the Laleh International Hotel, as well as public facilities, such as Laleh Park and Laleh Hospital, and the tulip motif remains common in Iranian culture.", "Tulips are called \"lale\" in Turkish (from Persian: \"laleh\" لاله).", "When written in Arabic letters, \"lale\" has the same letters as \"Allah\", which is why the flower became a holy symbol.", "It was also associated with the House of Osman, resulting in tulips being widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, mosques, fabrics, crockery, etc. in the Ottoman Empire.", "The tulip was seen as a symbol of abundance and indulgence.", "The era during which the Ottoman Empire was wealthiest is often called the Tulip era or \"Lale Devri\" in Turkish.", "Tulips became popular garden plants in the east and west, but, whereas the tulip in Turkish culture was a symbol of paradise on earth and had almost a divine status, in the Netherlands it represented the briefness of life.", "In Christianity, tulips symbolise passion, belief and love.", "White tulips represent forgiveness while purple tulips represent royalty, both important aspects of Easter.", "In Calvinism, the five points of the doctrines of grace have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP.", "By contrast to other flowers such as the coneflower or lotus flower, tulips have historically been capable of genetically reinventing themselves to suit changes in aesthetic values.", "In his 1597 herbal, John Gerard says of the tulip that “nature seems to play more with this flower than with any other that I do know”.", "When in the Netherlands, beauty was defined by marbled swirls of vivid contrasting colours, the petals of tulips were able to become \"feathered\" and \"flamed\".", "However, in the 19th century, when the English desired tulips for carpet bedding and massing, the tulips were able to once again accommodate this by evolving into “paint-filled boxes with the brightest, fattest dabs of pure pigment”.", "This inherent mutability of the tulip even led the Ottoman Turks to believe that nature cherished this flower above all others.", "Seventeenth-century tulip mania has been described above.", "\"The Black Tulip\" (1850) is an historical romance by Alexandre Dumas, père.", "The story takes place in the Dutch city of Haarlem, where a reward is offered to the first grower who can produce a truly black tulip.", "The tulip occurs on a number of the Major Arcana cards of occultist Oswald Wirth's deck of Tarot cards, specifically the Magician, Emperor, Temperance and the Fool, described in his 1927 work \"Le Tarot, des Imagiers du Moyen Âge\".", "Tulip festivals are held around the world, for example in the Netherlands and Spalding, England.", "There is also a popular festival in Morges, Switzerland.", "Every spring, there are tulip festivals in North America, including the Tulip Time Festival in Holland, Michigan, the Skagit Valley Tulip Festival in Skagit Valley, Washington, the Tulip Time Festival in Orange City and Pella, Iowa, and the Canadian Tulip Festival in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.", "Tulips are also popular in Australia and several festivals are held in September and October, during the Southern Hemisphere's spring.", "Tulip petals are edible flowers.", "The taste varies by variety and season, and is roughly similar to lettuce or other salad greens.", "Some people are allergic to tulips.", "Tulip bulbs look similar to onions, but should not generally be considered food.", "The toxicity of bulbs is not well-understood, nor is there an agreed-upon method of safely preparing them for human consumption.", "There have been reports of illness when eaten, depending on quantity.", "During the Dutch famine of 1944–45, tulip bulbs were eaten out of desperation, and Dutch doctors provided recipes." ]

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[ "They are popular throughout the world, both as ornamental garden plants and as cut flowers." ]

[ "\"Tulipa\" (tulips) is a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes, dying back after flowering to an underground storage bulb.", "Depending on the species, tulip plants can be between high.", "Flowers: The tulip's flowers are usually large and are actinomorphic (radially symmetric) and hermaphrodite (contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarely pendulous, and are arranged more usually as a single terminal flower, or when pluriflor as two to three (e.g. \"Tulipa turkestanica\"), but up to four, flowers on the end of a floriferous stem (scape), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette.", "In structure, the flower is generally cup or star shaped.", "As with other members of Liliaceae the perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six free (i.e. apotepalous) caducous tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each.", "The two whorls represent three petals and three sepals, but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical.", "The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on the interior surface.", "The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals.", "Androecium:", "The flowers have six distinct, basifixed introrse stamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy.", "The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base.", "Gynoecium:", "The style is short or absent and each stigma has three distinct lobes, and the ovaries are superior, with three chambers.", "Fruit:", "The tulip's fruit is a globose or ellipsoid capsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape.", "Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shaped seeds in two rows per chamber.", "These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats and endosperm that does not normally fill the entire seed.", "Leaves: Tulip stems have few leaves.", "Larger species tend to have multiple leaves.", "Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12.", "The tulip's leaf is cauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up the stem.", "These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour.", "The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex.", "They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can be glabrous or hairy inside.", "The \"Semper Augustus\" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-century tulip mania.", "“The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top” – wrote Nicolas van Wassenaer in 1624 after seeing the tulip in the garden of one Dr Adriaen Pauw, a director of the new East India Company.", "With limited specimens in existence at the time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania.", "Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours, except pure blue (several tulips with \"blue\" in the name have a faint violet hue), and have absent nectaries.", "Tulip flowers are generally bereft of scent and are the coolest of floral characters.", "The Dutch regarded this lack of scent as a virtue, as it demonstrates the flower's chasteness.\nWhile tulips can be bred to display a wide variety of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve.", "The Queen of the Night tulip is as close to black as a flower gets, though it is, in fact, a dark and glossy maroonish purple - nonetheless, an effect prized by the Dutch.", "The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands.", "The specimen was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips.", "Tulipanin is an anthocyanin found in tulips.", "It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin.", "The chemical compounds named tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies.", "Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone, is a common allergen, generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A.", "It induces a dermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters and florists who cut the stems and leaves.", "Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs.", "The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second laid-on anthocyanin colour.", "The mix of these two hues determines the visible unitary colour.", "The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin and the base colour is exposed as a streak.", "The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, and Anna Pavord describes \"T. Hungarica\" as \"strongly scented\", and among cultivars, some such as \"Monte Carlo\" and \"Brown Sugar\" are \"scented\", and \"Creme Upstar\" \"fragrant\".", "\"Tulipa\" is a genus of the lily family, Liliaceae, once one of the largest families of monocots, but which molecular phylogenetics has reduced to a monophyletic grouping with only 15 genera.", "Within Liliaceae, \"Tulipa\" is placed within Lilioideae, one of three subfamilies, with two tribes.", "Tribe Lilieae includes seven other genera in addition to \"Tulipa\".", "The genus, which includes about 75 species, is divided into four subgenera.", "The word \"tulip\", first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the \"Turkish Letters\" of diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, first appeared in English as \"tulipa\" or \"tulipant\", entering the language by way of and its obsolete form \"tulipan\" or by way of Modern Latin \"tulipa\", from Ottoman Turkish \"tülbend\" (\"muslin\" or \"gauze\"), and may be ultimately derived from the \"delband\" (\"Turban\"), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban.", "This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans.", "The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban.", "Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the \"Turks\" used the word \"tulipan\" to describe the flower.", "Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip is \"lale\".", "It is from this speculation that \"tulipan\" being a translation error referring to turbans is derived.", "This Etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors.", "At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used in Turkey, he simply states it was used by the \"Turks\".", "On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled through Hungary and used Hungarian guides.", "Until recent times \"Turk\" was a common term when referring to Hungarians.", "The word \"tulipan\" is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip.", "As long as one recognizes \"Turk\" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form.", "Busbecq was simply repeating the word used by his \"Turk/Hungarian\" guides.", "The Hungarian word \"tulipan\" may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection, \"tala\" meaning bottom or underworld and \"pAna\" meaning defence.", "Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including the tulip.", "Tulips are mainly distributed along a band corresponding to latitude 40° north, from southeast of Europe (Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Southern Serbia, Bulgaria, most part of Romania, Ukraine, Russia) and Turkey in the west, through the Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestinian Territories, Lebanon and Jordan) and the Sinai Peninsula.", "From there it extends eastwards through Jerevan, (Armenia) and Baku (Azerbaijan) and on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea through Turkmenistan, Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent (Uzbekistan), to the eastern end of the range in the Pamir-Alai and Tien-Shan mountains in Central Asia, which form the centre of diversity.", "Further to the east, \"Tulipa\" is found in the western Himalayas, southern Siberia, Inner Mongolia, and as far as the northwest of China.", "While authorities have stated that no tulips west of the Balkans are native, subsequent identification of \"Tulipa sylvestris\" subsp.", "\"australis\" as a native of the Iberian peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification.", "In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and the Balkans.", "In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine.", "Although tulips are also throughout most of the Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution.", "Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants from Anatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised (\"see map\").", "For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native.", "These have been referred to as neo-tulipae.", "Tulips are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates, where they are a common element of steppe and winter-rain Mediterranean vegetation.", "They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers.", "Tulips are most commonly found in meadows, steppes and chaparral, but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens.", "\"Botrytis tulipae\" is a major fungal disease affecting tulips, causing cell death and eventually the rotting of the plant.", "Other pathogens include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, blight caused by \"Sclerotium rolfsii\", bulb nematodes, other rots including blue molds, black molds and mushy rot.", "The fungus \"Trichoderma viride\" can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth, although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing in glasshouses.", "Variegated tulips admired during the Dutch tulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with the tulip breaking virus, a mosaic virus that was carried by the green peach aphid, \"Myzus persicae\".", "While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced.", "Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists’ techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of the desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots.", "Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called \"broken\"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed.", "Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields.", "The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between the colours.", "Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions.", "Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known as vernalisation.", "Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< ).", "Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals.", "The colour of tulip flowers also varies with growing conditions.", "Cultivation of the tulip began in Iran (Persia), probably in the 10th century.", "Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour.", "The tulip is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity, therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks.", "In the Ottoman Empire, numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred, and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey.", "Tulips are mentioned by Omar Kayam and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi.", "Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow.", "The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour.", "A paper by Arthur Baker reports that in 1574, Sultan Selim II ordered the Kadi of A‘azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs.", "However, John Harvey points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips and hyacinth (\"sümbüll\"), originally Indian spikenard (\"Nardostachys jatamansi\") have been confused.", "Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs of \"Kefe Lale\" (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probably \"Tulipa schrenkii\") from Kefe in Crimea, for his gardens in the Topkapı Sarayı in Istanbul.", "It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west.", "The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency.", "Sultan Ahmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in the summer highland pastures (\"Yayla\") at Spil Dağı above the town of Manisa.", "They seem to have consisted of wild tulips.", "However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin, so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods.", "Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from the Netherlands.", "The gardening book \"Revnak'ı Bostan\" (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reis ülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths and lilies.", "However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate.", "In 1515, the scholar Qasim from Herat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) as anemones (\"shaqayq al-nu'man\"), but described the crown imperial as \"laleh kakli\".", "In a Turkic text written before 1495, the Chagatay Husayn Bayqarah mentions tulips (\"lale\").", "Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, also names tulips in the Baburnama.", "He may actually have introduced them from Afghanistan to the plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes.", "In Moorish Andalus, a \"Makedonian bulb\" (\"basal al-maqdunis\") or \"bucket-Narcissus\" (\"naryis qadusi\") was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens.", "It was supposed to have come from Alexandria and may have been Tulipa sylvestris, but the identification is not wholly secure.", "Although it is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it was Oghier Ghislain de Busbecq, an ambassador for Emperor Ferdinand", "I to Suleyman the Magnificent.", "According to a letter, he saw \"an abundance of flowers everywhere; Narcissus, hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers.\"", "However, in 1559, an account by Conrad Gessner describes tulips flowering in Augsburg, Swabia in the garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart.", "In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter.", "It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year.", "Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as a narcissus.", "Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573.", "He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the variations in colour.", "After he was appointed the director of the Leiden University's newly established Hortus Botanicus, he planted both a teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593.", "Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens in Antwerp and Amsterdam two or three decades earlier.", "These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both the tulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands.", "Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden.", "Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by the early 17th century.", "These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished and especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy.", "\"Nouveaux riches\" seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable.", "A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in the early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb.", "The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower.", "An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers.", "The trade drifted slowly from the French to the Dutch.", "Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered a speculative frenzy now known as the tulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later.", "Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs.", "Around this time, the ceramic tulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem.", "Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared in Dutch still-life painting.", "To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called \"Dutch tulips\".", "The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at the Keukenhof.", "The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in the taxon \"Tulipa ×gesneriana\".", "They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived from \"Tulipa suaveolens\" (today often regarded as a synonym with \"Tulipa schrenkii\").", "\"Tulipa ×gesneriana\" is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century.", "The UK's National Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from the early 17th century to c.1960, is held by Polly Nicholson at Blackland House, near Calne in Wiltshire.", "It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown near Spring Pond at the Fay Estate in Lynn and Salem, Massachusetts.", "From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem.", "Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of the world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate.", "The Netherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export.", "\"Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination.", "Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs.", "Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need the pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms.", "\"\nTulips can be propagated through bulb offsets, seeds or micropropagation.", "Offsets and tissue culture methods are means of asexual propagation for producing genetic clones of the parent plant, which maintains cultivar genetic integrity.", "Seeds are most often used to propagate species and subspecies or to create new hybrids.", "Many tulip species can cross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations.", "Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and often sterile.", "Offsets require a year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower.", "Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size.", "To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usually topped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads.", "The same goals can be achieved by a private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen.", "Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future.", "Because tulip bulbs don't reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct.", "Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation, the Tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations.", "In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size.", "They may also be classified by their flowering season:", "A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae.", "These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in the wild for many centuries.", "The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked to saffron cultivation.", "Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips.", "These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and the 'Didieri Group' with unicolourous tepals.", "Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils.", "Tulips should be planted apart from each other.", "The recommended hole depth is deep, and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface.", "Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes.", "Species tulips are normally planted deeper.", "The celebration of Persian New Year, or Nowruz, dating back over 3,000 years, marks the advent of spring, and tulips are used as a decorative feature during the festivities.", "A sixth-century legend, similar to the tale of \"Romeo and Juliet\", tells of tulips sprouting where the blood of the young prince Farhad spilt after he killed himself upon hearing the (deliberately false) story that his true love had died.", "The tulip was a topic for Persian poets from the thirteenth century.", "The poem \"Gulistan\" by Musharrifu'd-din Saadi, described a visionary garden paradise with \"The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicoloured tulips and fragrant roses...\".", "In recent times, tulips have featured in the poems of Simin Behbahani.", "The tulip is the national symbol for martyrdom in Iran (and Shi'ite Islam generally), and has been used on postage stamps and coins.", "It was common as a symbol used in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, and a red tulip adorns the flag redesigned in 1980.", "The sword in the centre, with four crescent-shaped petals around it, create the word \"Allah\" as well as symbolising the five pillars of Islam.", "The tomb of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini is decorated with 72 stained glass tulips, representing 72 martyrs who died at the Battle of Karbala in 680CE.", "It was also used as a symbol on billboards celebrating casualties of the 1980–1988 war with Iraq.", "The tulip also became a symbol of protest against the Iranian government after the presidential election in June 2009, when millions turned out on the streets to protest the re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.", "After the protests were harshly suppressed, the Iranian Green Movement adopted the tulip as a symbol of their struggle.", "The word for tulip in Persian is \"laleh\" (لاله), and this has become popular as a girl's name.", "The name has been used for commercial enterprises, such as the Laleh International Hotel, as well as public facilities, such as Laleh Park and Laleh Hospital, and the tulip motif remains common in Iranian culture.", "Tulips are called \"lale\" in Turkish (from Persian: \"laleh\" لاله).", "When written in Arabic letters, \"lale\" has the same letters as \"Allah\", which is why the flower became a holy symbol.", "It was also associated with the House of Osman, resulting in tulips being widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, mosques, fabrics, crockery, etc. in the Ottoman Empire.", "The tulip was seen as a symbol of abundance and indulgence.", "The era during which the Ottoman Empire was wealthiest is often called the Tulip era or \"Lale Devri\" in Turkish.", "Tulips became popular garden plants in the east and west, but, whereas the tulip in Turkish culture was a symbol of paradise on earth and had almost a divine status, in the Netherlands it represented the briefness of life.", "In Christianity, tulips symbolise passion, belief and love.", "White tulips represent forgiveness while purple tulips represent royalty, both important aspects of Easter.", "In Calvinism, the five points of the doctrines of grace have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP.", "By contrast to other flowers such as the coneflower or lotus flower, tulips have historically been capable of genetically reinventing themselves to suit changes in aesthetic values.", "In his 1597 herbal, John Gerard says of the tulip that “nature seems to play more with this flower than with any other that I do know”.", "When in the Netherlands, beauty was defined by marbled swirls of vivid contrasting colours, the petals of tulips were able to become \"feathered\" and \"flamed\".", "However, in the 19th century, when the English desired tulips for carpet bedding and massing, the tulips were able to once again accommodate this by evolving into “paint-filled boxes with the brightest, fattest dabs of pure pigment”.", "This inherent mutability of the tulip even led the Ottoman Turks to believe that nature cherished this flower above all others.", "Seventeenth-century tulip mania has been described above.", "\"The Black Tulip\" (1850) is an historical romance by Alexandre Dumas, père.", "The story takes place in the Dutch city of Haarlem, where a reward is offered to the first grower who can produce a truly black tulip.", "The tulip occurs on a number of the Major Arcana cards of occultist Oswald Wirth's deck of Tarot cards, specifically the Magician, Emperor, Temperance and the Fool, described in his 1927 work \"Le Tarot, des Imagiers du Moyen Âge\".", "Tulip festivals are held around the world, for example in the Netherlands and Spalding, England.", "There is also a popular festival in Morges, Switzerland.", "Every spring, there are tulip festivals in North America, including the Tulip Time Festival in Holland, Michigan, the Skagit Valley Tulip Festival in Skagit Valley, Washington, the Tulip Time Festival in Orange City and Pella, Iowa, and the Canadian Tulip Festival in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.", "Tulips are also popular in Australia and several festivals are held in September and October, during the Southern Hemisphere's spring.", "Tulip petals are edible flowers.", "The taste varies by variety and season, and is roughly similar to lettuce or other salad greens.", "Some people are allergic to tulips.", "Tulip bulbs look similar to onions, but should not generally be considered food.", "The toxicity of bulbs is not well-understood, nor is there an agreed-upon method of safely preparing them for human consumption.", "There have been reports of illness when eaten, depending on quantity.", "During the Dutch famine of 1944–45, tulip bulbs were eaten out of desperation, and Dutch doctors provided recipes." ]

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[ "They were rapidly introduced into Europe and became a frenzied commodity during tulip mania." ]

[ "Alfred Clive Hulme was born on 24 January 1911 in the city of Dunedin, New Zealand, was the eldest of four sons to Harold Clive Hulme, a clerk, and his wife Florence .", "Preferring to be known as Clive, he was educated at Eastern Hutt School.", "Powerfully built, he was interested in wrestling in his youth.", "After finishing his schooling, he worked as a farm labourer.", "In 1934 he married Rona Marjorie née Murcott; the couple later had a son and a daughter.", "On the outbreak of the Second World War, Hulme was working in Nelson.", "A few months later, on 22 January 1940, he enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF) and was posted to the 23rd Battalion.", "His unit trained at Burnham Military Camp, near Christchurch, and he soon attained the rank of corporal.", "On 1 May 1940, he departed New Zealand with the battalion as part of a convoy transporting the 5th Infantry Brigade, 2nd New Zealand Division, to the Middle East.", "Later in the month, the invasion of the Low Countries prompted the diversion of the convoy to England.", "While at sea, Hulme was promoted to sergeant and he was appointed the battalion's provost sergeant.", "Arriving in England in June, the 23rd Battalion, along with the rest of the brigade, formed a mobile reserve tasked with defending England from a possible invasion.", "It remained there until early 1941, at which time the brigade embarked for Egypt.", "Hulme's battalion was only in Egypt for a brief time before it was moved to Greece, along with the rest of the 2nd New Zealand Division, in anticipation of an invasion by German forces.", "Following the commencement of the Battle of Greece, the 23rd Battalion did not encounter enemy action until 16 April, when German infantry began to probe its defences at the Olympus Pass.", "It withdrew the next day, with its rearguard covering the retreat of the entire brigade.", "Within days, all of the 5th Brigade had been evacuated to Crete, with the 23rd Battalion arriving on the island on 25 April 1941.", "While on Crete, Hulme was attached to the divisional field punishment centre at Platanias, supervising soldiers who were being punished for criminal activity or breaches of discipline.", "On 20 May 1941, when German \"Fallschirmjäger\" (paratroopers) began landing on the island to begin the Battle of Crete, Hulme armed the soldiers in his charge and led them in efforts to deal with the Germans.", "Over the next two days, operating largely on his own, he stalked and eliminated several snipers.", "During this time, he came across a German at the punishment centre, killed him and then took his camouflage smock and sniper rifle.", "This enabled him to deceive German soldiers on his subsequent stalking missions.", "Hulme reattached himself to the 23rd Battalion on 22 May and soon found himself leading attacks on German positions and acting as a messenger.", "While making his way to the headquarters of the 5th Infantry Brigade, he came across a party of New Zealanders who had been made prisoners of war and were under guard.", "Unable to use his rifle for fear of hitting one of the prisoners, he instead crept up and bayoneted the sentry.", "When the town of Galatas fell to the Germans, Hulme was one of those involved in its recapture on 25 May.", "A machine gun post in a schoolhouse was holding up his platoon, and Hulme went forward to destroy it with grenades.", "Afterwards, while clearing the town, he threw a grenade into a cellar that he believed was occupied by German soldiers; it transpired that it sheltered several Cretan villagers.", "The next day, he was advised of the death of his brother, Harold Charles Hulme (18 May 1914 – 26 May 1941), killed while also fighting in Crete with the 19th Battalion.", "Incensed by this news, he sought retribution against the Germans.", "As the 23rd Battalion began retreating from Galatas, Hulme stayed behind in a position to snipe at an advancing patrol, killing three soldiers.", "Later on, as the Allies began withdrawing from their positions in preparation for an evacuation from Crete, the 23rd Battalion formed part of the rearguard.", "When they reached Stylos after an overnight march, it was discovered that a group of Germans were advancing to a nearby ridge overlooking the battalion.", "Hulme was ordered to get his own party of men to the ridge ahead of the enemy.", "One of the first to the ridge, he used his sniper rifle and threw grenades to keep the Germans at bay.", "His conduct provided a much needed morale boost for his fellow soldiers, already exhausted by their march to Stylos.", "During this action, he was wounded in the arm.", "On 28 May, German snipers infiltrated the New Zealanders' position and opened fire on a conference of senior officers at the headquarters of the 5th Infantry Brigade.", "Hulme volunteered to deal with them and, with his company commander observing through field glasses, successfully eliminated a party of five snipers while wearing the camouflage smock that he had acquired earlier in the battle.", "At one stage during this mission, the smock fooled the Germans into thinking he was part of their group.", "The next day he continued his sniping exploits, killing three more Germans and destroying a mortar and its four-man crew.", "However, he was wounded in the process, receiving a bullet through his shoulder.", "Despite his wounds, he stayed with the battalion despite orders to the contrary.", "He helped organise the retreating Allied forces, directing traffic and collecting stragglers.", "By 30 May, the 23rd Battalion was at Sphakia from where it, along with Hulme, was evacuated to Egypt.", "For Hulme's actions on Crete, his battalion commander, Lieutenant Colonel Leckie, recommended him for the Victoria Cross (VC).", "Instituted in 1856, the VC was the highest gallantry award that could be bestowed on military personnel of the British Empire.", "The nomination was supported by several officers, including Hulme's company commander as well as the commander of the 5th Infantry Brigade, Brigadier James Hargest, and it was duly awarded.", "The citation for his VC, published in the \"London Gazette\" dated 10 October 1941, read:", "The wounds Hulme received on Crete saw him evacuated to New Zealand for treatment and rehabilitation.", "On his return to Nelson on 23 October 1941, he was honoured with a civic reception.", "On 2 February 1942, he was presented with his VC by the Governor-General of New Zealand, Cyril Newall, in a ceremony at Nelson.", "Hulme's VC was one of two to be awarded to New Zealanders for their actions during the Battle of Crete.", "Hulme was declared medically unfit in February 1942 and discharged from the 2NZEF, much to his displeasure as he was keen to resume his war service.", "However, three months later he was recalled to active duty for service with the New Zealand Military Forces.", "He served on the home front until September 1943 at which time he was discharged again from the military, having been promoted to warrant officer.", "After the war he lived at Pongakawa, near Te Puke, running a cartage company and becoming involved with water divining and oil prospecting.", "Over the years, the effect of his war wounds became more pronounced with his ability to use his wrists declining and his forearm becoming withered.", "By 1960, he was on a full disability pension.", "He was also emotionally affected by the Cretan deaths he had accidentally caused at Galatas.", "He died at Te Puke on 2 September 1982, and was buried in the civilian section of the Dudley-Vercoe Cemetery in the town.", "He was survived by his wife and children.", "His son, Denny Hulme, was active in motorsports, winning several Grand Prix and becoming the Formula One World Champion in 1967.", "In addition to the VC, Hulme was entitled to the 1939–1945 Star, the Africa Star, the Defence Medal, the War Medal 1939–1945, the New Zealand War Service Medal, the 1953 Coronation Medal, the 1977 Jubilee Medal and the Greek Commemorative War Medal 1940–1941.", "Hulme's VC remains in the ownership of his family, but in 1999 it was loaned to the National Army Museum in Waiouru, for display for ten years.", "On 2 December 2007, his VC was one of nine that were among nearly a hundred medals stolen from the museum.", "On 16 February 2008, New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ$300,000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom Sturgess.", "In recent times, Hulme's use of an acquired German parachutists' smock during some of his stalking exploits on Crete has been criticised.", "Military historians Glyn Harper and Colin Richardson, in their 2007 book covering New Zealand recipients of the VC, noted that this was against the rules of war.", "This prompted calls for an apology to the families of those killed by Hulme and caused upset to his daughter, who pointed out when \"war is on, war is on – and you do what you have to do\"." ]

[ 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55 ]

[ "Alfred Clive Hulme VC (24 January 1911 – 2 September 1982) was a soldier in the New Zealand Military Forces and a recipient of the Victoria Cross (VC), the highest award of the British Commonwealth, for gallantry \"in the face of the enemy\".", "He received the VC for his actions in the Battle of Crete during the Second World War.", "Born in Dunedin, New Zealand, Hulme enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF) shortly after the outbreak of the Second World War and was posted to the 23rd Battalion.", "By the end of 1940, he was the battalion's provost sergeant.", "He was with the battalion during the invasion of Greece and the subsequent Battle of Crete.", "From 20 to 30 May, he was heavily involved in the fighting on Crete, performing a number of actions that saw him recognised with an award of the VC.", "Wounded during the final days of the battle, he was repatriated to New Zealand.", "He served on the Home Front for several months before being discharged from the military." ]

[ "Alfred Clive Hulme was born on 24 January 1911 in the city of Dunedin, New Zealand, was the eldest of four sons to Harold Clive Hulme, a clerk, and his wife Florence .", "Preferring to be known as Clive, he was educated at Eastern Hutt School.", "Powerfully built, he was interested in wrestling in his youth.", "After finishing his schooling, he worked as a farm labourer.", "In 1934 he married Rona Marjorie née Murcott; the couple later had a son and a daughter.", "On the outbreak of the Second World War, Hulme was working in Nelson.", "A few months later, on 22 January 1940, he enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF) and was posted to the 23rd Battalion.", "His unit trained at Burnham Military Camp, near Christchurch, and he soon attained the rank of corporal.", "On 1 May 1940, he departed New Zealand with the battalion as part of a convoy transporting the 5th Infantry Brigade, 2nd New Zealand Division, to the Middle East.", "Later in the month, the invasion of the Low Countries prompted the diversion of the convoy to England.", "While at sea, Hulme was promoted to sergeant and he was appointed the battalion's provost sergeant.", "Arriving in England in June, the 23rd Battalion, along with the rest of the brigade, formed a mobile reserve tasked with defending England from a possible invasion.", "It remained there until early 1941, at which time the brigade embarked for Egypt.", "Hulme's battalion was only in Egypt for a brief time before it was moved to Greece, along with the rest of the 2nd New Zealand Division, in anticipation of an invasion by German forces.", "Following the commencement of the Battle of Greece, the 23rd Battalion did not encounter enemy action until 16 April, when German infantry began to probe its defences at the Olympus Pass.", "It withdrew the next day, with its rearguard covering the retreat of the entire brigade.", "Within days, all of the 5th Brigade had been evacuated to Crete, with the 23rd Battalion arriving on the island on 25 April 1941.", "While on Crete, Hulme was attached to the divisional field punishment centre at Platanias, supervising soldiers who were being punished for criminal activity or breaches of discipline.", "On 20 May 1941, when German \"Fallschirmjäger\" (paratroopers) began landing on the island to begin the Battle of Crete, Hulme armed the soldiers in his charge and led them in efforts to deal with the Germans.", "Over the next two days, operating largely on his own, he stalked and eliminated several snipers.", "During this time, he came across a German at the punishment centre, killed him and then took his camouflage smock and sniper rifle.", "This enabled him to deceive German soldiers on his subsequent stalking missions.", "Hulme reattached himself to the 23rd Battalion on 22 May and soon found himself leading attacks on German positions and acting as a messenger.", "While making his way to the headquarters of the 5th Infantry Brigade, he came across a party of New Zealanders who had been made prisoners of war and were under guard.", "Unable to use his rifle for fear of hitting one of the prisoners, he instead crept up and bayoneted the sentry.", "When the town of Galatas fell to the Germans, Hulme was one of those involved in its recapture on 25 May.", "A machine gun post in a schoolhouse was holding up his platoon, and Hulme went forward to destroy it with grenades.", "Afterwards, while clearing the town, he threw a grenade into a cellar that he believed was occupied by German soldiers; it transpired that it sheltered several Cretan villagers.", "The next day, he was advised of the death of his brother, Harold Charles Hulme (18 May 1914 – 26 May 1941), killed while also fighting in Crete with the 19th Battalion.", "Incensed by this news, he sought retribution against the Germans.", "As the 23rd Battalion began retreating from Galatas, Hulme stayed behind in a position to snipe at an advancing patrol, killing three soldiers.", "Later on, as the Allies began withdrawing from their positions in preparation for an evacuation from Crete, the 23rd Battalion formed part of the rearguard.", "When they reached Stylos after an overnight march, it was discovered that a group of Germans were advancing to a nearby ridge overlooking the battalion.", "Hulme was ordered to get his own party of men to the ridge ahead of the enemy.", "One of the first to the ridge, he used his sniper rifle and threw grenades to keep the Germans at bay.", "His conduct provided a much needed morale boost for his fellow soldiers, already exhausted by their march to Stylos.", "During this action, he was wounded in the arm.", "On 28 May, German snipers infiltrated the New Zealanders' position and opened fire on a conference of senior officers at the headquarters of the 5th Infantry Brigade.", "Hulme volunteered to deal with them and, with his company commander observing through field glasses, successfully eliminated a party of five snipers while wearing the camouflage smock that he had acquired earlier in the battle.", "At one stage during this mission, the smock fooled the Germans into thinking he was part of their group.", "The next day he continued his sniping exploits, killing three more Germans and destroying a mortar and its four-man crew.", "However, he was wounded in the process, receiving a bullet through his shoulder.", "Despite his wounds, he stayed with the battalion despite orders to the contrary.", "He helped organise the retreating Allied forces, directing traffic and collecting stragglers.", "By 30 May, the 23rd Battalion was at Sphakia from where it, along with Hulme, was evacuated to Egypt.", "For Hulme's actions on Crete, his battalion commander, Lieutenant Colonel Leckie, recommended him for the Victoria Cross (VC).", "Instituted in 1856, the VC was the highest gallantry award that could be bestowed on military personnel of the British Empire.", "The nomination was supported by several officers, including Hulme's company commander as well as the commander of the 5th Infantry Brigade, Brigadier James Hargest, and it was duly awarded.", "The citation for his VC, published in the \"London Gazette\" dated 10 October 1941, read:", "The wounds Hulme received on Crete saw him evacuated to New Zealand for treatment and rehabilitation.", "On his return to Nelson on 23 October 1941, he was honoured with a civic reception.", "On 2 February 1942, he was presented with his VC by the Governor-General of New Zealand, Cyril Newall, in a ceremony at Nelson.", "Hulme's VC was one of two to be awarded to New Zealanders for their actions during the Battle of Crete.", "Hulme was declared medically unfit in February 1942 and discharged from the 2NZEF, much to his displeasure as he was keen to resume his war service.", "However, three months later he was recalled to active duty for service with the New Zealand Military Forces.", "He served on the home front until September 1943 at which time he was discharged again from the military, having been promoted to warrant officer.", "After the war he lived at Pongakawa, near Te Puke, running a cartage company and becoming involved with water divining and oil prospecting.", "Over the years, the effect of his war wounds became more pronounced with his ability to use his wrists declining and his forearm becoming withered.", "By 1960, he was on a full disability pension.", "He was also emotionally affected by the Cretan deaths he had accidentally caused at Galatas.", "He died at Te Puke on 2 September 1982, and was buried in the civilian section of the Dudley-Vercoe Cemetery in the town.", "He was survived by his wife and children.", "His son, Denny Hulme, was active in motorsports, winning several Grand Prix and becoming the Formula One World Champion in 1967.", "In addition to the VC, Hulme was entitled to the 1939–1945 Star, the Africa Star, the Defence Medal, the War Medal 1939–1945, the New Zealand War Service Medal, the 1953 Coronation Medal, the 1977 Jubilee Medal and the Greek Commemorative War Medal 1940–1941.", "Hulme's VC remains in the ownership of his family, but in 1999 it was loaned to the National Army Museum in Waiouru, for display for ten years.", "On 2 December 2007, his VC was one of nine that were among nearly a hundred medals stolen from the museum.", "On 16 February 2008, New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ$300,000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom Sturgess.", "In recent times, Hulme's use of an acquired German parachutists' smock during some of his stalking exploits on Crete has been criticised.", "Military historians Glyn Harper and Colin Richardson, in their 2007 book covering New Zealand recipients of the VC, noted that this was against the rules of war.", "This prompted calls for an apology to the families of those killed by Hulme and caused upset to his daughter, who pointed out when \"war is on, war is on – and you do what you have to do\"." ]

[ 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48 ]

[ "He was with the battalion during the invasion of Greece and the subsequent Battle of Crete." ]

[ "Alfred Clive Hulme was born on 24 January 1911 in the city of Dunedin, New Zealand, was the eldest of four sons to Harold Clive Hulme, a clerk, and his wife Florence .", "Preferring to be known as Clive, he was educated at Eastern Hutt School.", "Powerfully built, he was interested in wrestling in his youth.", "After finishing his schooling, he worked as a farm labourer.", "In 1934 he married Rona Marjorie née Murcott; the couple later had a son and a daughter.", "On the outbreak of the Second World War, Hulme was working in Nelson.", "A few months later, on 22 January 1940, he enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF) and was posted to the 23rd Battalion.", "His unit trained at Burnham Military Camp, near Christchurch, and he soon attained the rank of corporal.", "On 1 May 1940, he departed New Zealand with the battalion as part of a convoy transporting the 5th Infantry Brigade, 2nd New Zealand Division, to the Middle East.", "Later in the month, the invasion of the Low Countries prompted the diversion of the convoy to England.", "While at sea, Hulme was promoted to sergeant and he was appointed the battalion's provost sergeant.", "Arriving in England in June, the 23rd Battalion, along with the rest of the brigade, formed a mobile reserve tasked with defending England from a possible invasion.", "It remained there until early 1941, at which time the brigade embarked for Egypt.", "Hulme's battalion was only in Egypt for a brief time before it was moved to Greece, along with the rest of the 2nd New Zealand Division, in anticipation of an invasion by German forces.", "Following the commencement of the Battle of Greece, the 23rd Battalion did not encounter enemy action until 16 April, when German infantry began to probe its defences at the Olympus Pass.", "It withdrew the next day, with its rearguard covering the retreat of the entire brigade.", "Within days, all of the 5th Brigade had been evacuated to Crete, with the 23rd Battalion arriving on the island on 25 April 1941.", "While on Crete, Hulme was attached to the divisional field punishment centre at Platanias, supervising soldiers who were being punished for criminal activity or breaches of discipline.", "On 20 May 1941, when German \"Fallschirmjäger\" (paratroopers) began landing on the island to begin the Battle of Crete, Hulme armed the soldiers in his charge and led them in efforts to deal with the Germans.", "Over the next two days, operating largely on his own, he stalked and eliminated several snipers.", "During this time, he came across a German at the punishment centre, killed him and then took his camouflage smock and sniper rifle.", "This enabled him to deceive German soldiers on his subsequent stalking missions.", "Hulme reattached himself to the 23rd Battalion on 22 May and soon found himself leading attacks on German positions and acting as a messenger.", "While making his way to the headquarters of the 5th Infantry Brigade, he came across a party of New Zealanders who had been made prisoners of war and were under guard.", "Unable to use his rifle for fear of hitting one of the prisoners, he instead crept up and bayoneted the sentry.", "When the town of Galatas fell to the Germans, Hulme was one of those involved in its recapture on 25 May.", "A machine gun post in a schoolhouse was holding up his platoon, and Hulme went forward to destroy it with grenades.", "Afterwards, while clearing the town, he threw a grenade into a cellar that he believed was occupied by German soldiers; it transpired that it sheltered several Cretan villagers.", "The next day, he was advised of the death of his brother, Harold Charles Hulme (18 May 1914 – 26 May 1941), killed while also fighting in Crete with the 19th Battalion.", "Incensed by this news, he sought retribution against the Germans.", "As the 23rd Battalion began retreating from Galatas, Hulme stayed behind in a position to snipe at an advancing patrol, killing three soldiers.", "Later on, as the Allies began withdrawing from their positions in preparation for an evacuation from Crete, the 23rd Battalion formed part of the rearguard.", "When they reached Stylos after an overnight march, it was discovered that a group of Germans were advancing to a nearby ridge overlooking the battalion.", "Hulme was ordered to get his own party of men to the ridge ahead of the enemy.", "One of the first to the ridge, he used his sniper rifle and threw grenades to keep the Germans at bay.", "His conduct provided a much needed morale boost for his fellow soldiers, already exhausted by their march to Stylos.", "During this action, he was wounded in the arm.", "On 28 May, German snipers infiltrated the New Zealanders' position and opened fire on a conference of senior officers at the headquarters of the 5th Infantry Brigade.", "Hulme volunteered to deal with them and, with his company commander observing through field glasses, successfully eliminated a party of five snipers while wearing the camouflage smock that he had acquired earlier in the battle.", "At one stage during this mission, the smock fooled the Germans into thinking he was part of their group.", "The next day he continued his sniping exploits, killing three more Germans and destroying a mortar and its four-man crew.", "However, he was wounded in the process, receiving a bullet through his shoulder.", "Despite his wounds, he stayed with the battalion despite orders to the contrary.", "He helped organise the retreating Allied forces, directing traffic and collecting stragglers.", "By 30 May, the 23rd Battalion was at Sphakia from where it, along with Hulme, was evacuated to Egypt.", "For Hulme's actions on Crete, his battalion commander, Lieutenant Colonel Leckie, recommended him for the Victoria Cross (VC).", "Instituted in 1856, the VC was the highest gallantry award that could be bestowed on military personnel of the British Empire.", "The nomination was supported by several officers, including Hulme's company commander as well as the commander of the 5th Infantry Brigade, Brigadier James Hargest, and it was duly awarded.", "The citation for his VC, published in the \"London Gazette\" dated 10 October 1941, read:", "The wounds Hulme received on Crete saw him evacuated to New Zealand for treatment and rehabilitation.", "On his return to Nelson on 23 October 1941, he was honoured with a civic reception.", "On 2 February 1942, he was presented with his VC by the Governor-General of New Zealand, Cyril Newall, in a ceremony at Nelson.", "Hulme's VC was one of two to be awarded to New Zealanders for their actions during the Battle of Crete.", "Hulme was declared medically unfit in February 1942 and discharged from the 2NZEF, much to his displeasure as he was keen to resume his war service.", "However, three months later he was recalled to active duty for service with the New Zealand Military Forces.", "He served on the home front until September 1943 at which time he was discharged again from the military, having been promoted to warrant officer.", "After the war he lived at Pongakawa, near Te Puke, running a cartage company and becoming involved with water divining and oil prospecting.", "Over the years, the effect of his war wounds became more pronounced with his ability to use his wrists declining and his forearm becoming withered.", "By 1960, he was on a full disability pension.", "He was also emotionally affected by the Cretan deaths he had accidentally caused at Galatas.", "He died at Te Puke on 2 September 1982, and was buried in the civilian section of the Dudley-Vercoe Cemetery in the town.", "He was survived by his wife and children.", "His son, Denny Hulme, was active in motorsports, winning several Grand Prix and becoming the Formula One World Champion in 1967.", "In addition to the VC, Hulme was entitled to the 1939–1945 Star, the Africa Star, the Defence Medal, the War Medal 1939–1945, the New Zealand War Service Medal, the 1953 Coronation Medal, the 1977 Jubilee Medal and the Greek Commemorative War Medal 1940–1941.", "Hulme's VC remains in the ownership of his family, but in 1999 it was loaned to the National Army Museum in Waiouru, for display for ten years.", "On 2 December 2007, his VC was one of nine that were among nearly a hundred medals stolen from the museum.", "On 16 February 2008, New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ$300,000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom Sturgess.", "In recent times, Hulme's use of an acquired German parachutists' smock during some of his stalking exploits on Crete has been criticised.", "Military historians Glyn Harper and Colin Richardson, in their 2007 book covering New Zealand recipients of the VC, noted that this was against the rules of war.", "This prompted calls for an apology to the families of those killed by Hulme and caused upset to his daughter, who pointed out when \"war is on, war is on – and you do what you have to do\"." ]

[ 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55 ]

[ "He received the VC for his actions in the Battle of Crete during the Second World War.", "He served on the Home Front for several months before being discharged from the military." ]

[ "Alfred Clive Hulme was born on 24 January 1911 in the city of Dunedin, New Zealand, was the eldest of four sons to Harold Clive Hulme, a clerk, and his wife Florence .", "Preferring to be known as Clive, he was educated at Eastern Hutt School.", "Powerfully built, he was interested in wrestling in his youth.", "After finishing his schooling, he worked as a farm labourer.", "In 1934 he married Rona Marjorie née Murcott; the couple later had a son and a daughter.", "On the outbreak of the Second World War, Hulme was working in Nelson.", "A few months later, on 22 January 1940, he enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF) and was posted to the 23rd Battalion.", "His unit trained at Burnham Military Camp, near Christchurch, and he soon attained the rank of corporal.", "On 1 May 1940, he departed New Zealand with the battalion as part of a convoy transporting the 5th Infantry Brigade, 2nd New Zealand Division, to the Middle East.", "Later in the month, the invasion of the Low Countries prompted the diversion of the convoy to England.", "While at sea, Hulme was promoted to sergeant and he was appointed the battalion's provost sergeant.", "Arriving in England in June, the 23rd Battalion, along with the rest of the brigade, formed a mobile reserve tasked with defending England from a possible invasion.", "It remained there until early 1941, at which time the brigade embarked for Egypt.", "Hulme's battalion was only in Egypt for a brief time before it was moved to Greece, along with the rest of the 2nd New Zealand Division, in anticipation of an invasion by German forces.", "Following the commencement of the Battle of Greece, the 23rd Battalion did not encounter enemy action until 16 April, when German infantry began to probe its defences at the Olympus Pass.", "It withdrew the next day, with its rearguard covering the retreat of the entire brigade.", "Within days, all of the 5th Brigade had been evacuated to Crete, with the 23rd Battalion arriving on the island on 25 April 1941.", "While on Crete, Hulme was attached to the divisional field punishment centre at Platanias, supervising soldiers who were being punished for criminal activity or breaches of discipline.", "On 20 May 1941, when German \"Fallschirmjäger\" (paratroopers) began landing on the island to begin the Battle of Crete, Hulme armed the soldiers in his charge and led them in efforts to deal with the Germans.", "Over the next two days, operating largely on his own, he stalked and eliminated several snipers.", "During this time, he came across a German at the punishment centre, killed him and then took his camouflage smock and sniper rifle.", "This enabled him to deceive German soldiers on his subsequent stalking missions.", "Hulme reattached himself to the 23rd Battalion on 22 May and soon found himself leading attacks on German positions and acting as a messenger.", "While making his way to the headquarters of the 5th Infantry Brigade, he came across a party of New Zealanders who had been made prisoners of war and were under guard.", "Unable to use his rifle for fear of hitting one of the prisoners, he instead crept up and bayoneted the sentry.", "When the town of Galatas fell to the Germans, Hulme was one of those involved in its recapture on 25 May.", "A machine gun post in a schoolhouse was holding up his platoon, and Hulme went forward to destroy it with grenades.", "Afterwards, while clearing the town, he threw a grenade into a cellar that he believed was occupied by German soldiers; it transpired that it sheltered several Cretan villagers.", "The next day, he was advised of the death of his brother, Harold Charles Hulme (18 May 1914 – 26 May 1941), killed while also fighting in Crete with the 19th Battalion.", "Incensed by this news, he sought retribution against the Germans.", "As the 23rd Battalion began retreating from Galatas, Hulme stayed behind in a position to snipe at an advancing patrol, killing three soldiers.", "Later on, as the Allies began withdrawing from their positions in preparation for an evacuation from Crete, the 23rd Battalion formed part of the rearguard.", "When they reached Stylos after an overnight march, it was discovered that a group of Germans were advancing to a nearby ridge overlooking the battalion.", "Hulme was ordered to get his own party of men to the ridge ahead of the enemy.", "One of the first to the ridge, he used his sniper rifle and threw grenades to keep the Germans at bay.", "His conduct provided a much needed morale boost for his fellow soldiers, already exhausted by their march to Stylos.", "During this action, he was wounded in the arm.", "On 28 May, German snipers infiltrated the New Zealanders' position and opened fire on a conference of senior officers at the headquarters of the 5th Infantry Brigade.", "Hulme volunteered to deal with them and, with his company commander observing through field glasses, successfully eliminated a party of five snipers while wearing the camouflage smock that he had acquired earlier in the battle.", "At one stage during this mission, the smock fooled the Germans into thinking he was part of their group.", "The next day he continued his sniping exploits, killing three more Germans and destroying a mortar and its four-man crew.", "However, he was wounded in the process, receiving a bullet through his shoulder.", "Despite his wounds, he stayed with the battalion despite orders to the contrary.", "He helped organise the retreating Allied forces, directing traffic and collecting stragglers.", "By 30 May, the 23rd Battalion was at Sphakia from where it, along with Hulme, was evacuated to Egypt.", "For Hulme's actions on Crete, his battalion commander, Lieutenant Colonel Leckie, recommended him for the Victoria Cross (VC).", "Instituted in 1856, the VC was the highest gallantry award that could be bestowed on military personnel of the British Empire.", "The nomination was supported by several officers, including Hulme's company commander as well as the commander of the 5th Infantry Brigade, Brigadier James Hargest, and it was duly awarded.", "The citation for his VC, published in the \"London Gazette\" dated 10 October 1941, read:", "The wounds Hulme received on Crete saw him evacuated to New Zealand for treatment and rehabilitation.", "On his return to Nelson on 23 October 1941, he was honoured with a civic reception.", "On 2 February 1942, he was presented with his VC by the Governor-General of New Zealand, Cyril Newall, in a ceremony at Nelson.", "Hulme's VC was one of two to be awarded to New Zealanders for their actions during the Battle of Crete.", "Hulme was declared medically unfit in February 1942 and discharged from the 2NZEF, much to his displeasure as he was keen to resume his war service.", "However, three months later he was recalled to active duty for service with the New Zealand Military Forces.", "He served on the home front until September 1943 at which time he was discharged again from the military, having been promoted to warrant officer.", "After the war he lived at Pongakawa, near Te Puke, running a cartage company and becoming involved with water divining and oil prospecting.", "Over the years, the effect of his war wounds became more pronounced with his ability to use his wrists declining and his forearm becoming withered.", "By 1960, he was on a full disability pension.", "He was also emotionally affected by the Cretan deaths he had accidentally caused at Galatas.", "He died at Te Puke on 2 September 1982, and was buried in the civilian section of the Dudley-Vercoe Cemetery in the town.", "He was survived by his wife and children.", "His son, Denny Hulme, was active in motorsports, winning several Grand Prix and becoming the Formula One World Champion in 1967.", "In addition to the VC, Hulme was entitled to the 1939–1945 Star, the Africa Star, the Defence Medal, the War Medal 1939–1945, the New Zealand War Service Medal, the 1953 Coronation Medal, the 1977 Jubilee Medal and the Greek Commemorative War Medal 1940–1941.", "Hulme's VC remains in the ownership of his family, but in 1999 it was loaned to the National Army Museum in Waiouru, for display for ten years.", "On 2 December 2007, his VC was one of nine that were among nearly a hundred medals stolen from the museum.", "On 16 February 2008, New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ$300,000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom Sturgess.", "In recent times, Hulme's use of an acquired German parachutists' smock during some of his stalking exploits on Crete has been criticised.", "Military historians Glyn Harper and Colin Richardson, in their 2007 book covering New Zealand recipients of the VC, noted that this was against the rules of war.", "This prompted calls for an apology to the families of those killed by Hulme and caused upset to his daughter, who pointed out when \"war is on, war is on – and you do what you have to do\"." ]

[ 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62 ]

[ "He died in 1982." ]

[ "Adobe also owns the assets of numerous companies, through less direct means, through the mergers or acquisitions of companies later acquired by Adobe." ]

[ 0 ]

[ "Adobe has not released the financial details for most of these mergers and acquisitions." ]

[ "Adobe also owns the assets of numerous companies, through less direct means, through the mergers or acquisitions of companies later acquired by Adobe." ]

[ 0 ]

[ "Adobe has not released the financial details for most of these mergers and acquisitions." ]

[ "Dowell first played for Newport in 1905 and was part of the team that faced two touring sides; the 1905 Original All Blacks, and the 1906 South Africans.", "Dowell was first capped for Wales on 12 January 1907 when he played against England at St. Helens under the captaincy of Dicky Owen.", "It was a good victory for Wales, winning 22-0 and Dowell was back the very next two matches of the 1907 Home Nations Championship.", "Dowell was also part of the Wales Triple Crown winning team when he played in all three games of the 1908 Championship, including a winning match against France in the same year.", "His final four union international games were with Pontypool after he left Newport in 1908.", "Dowell may have been selected the next season but 'Went North', joining rugby league team Warrington and therefore making himself ineligible to play further union games.", "He later played one league international for Wales making him a dual code international.", "Dowell played left-, i.e. number 8, in Warrington's 10-3 victory over Australia in the 1908–09 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain tour match during the 1908–09 season at Wilderspool Stadium, Warrington, Saturday 14 November 1908, in front of a crowd of 5,000, due to the strikes in the cotton mills, the attendance was badly affected, the loss of earnings meant that some fans could not afford to watch the first tour by the Australian rugby league team.", "Wales (union)\n\n\nWales (league)" ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ]

[ "William \"Billy\" Dowell (21 May 1885 – 9 November 1949) was a Welsh dual-code international rugby union and rugby league footballer who played rugby union for Newport and Pontypool and rugby league with Warrington RLFC (Heritage № 151).", "He won seven caps for the Wales rugby union team and after switching to league, played one match for the Wales league squad." ]

[ "Horsehead Crossing was the primary crossing on the Pecos for the Comanche Trail from the Llano Estacado south to Mexico.", "It was probably a prehistoric crossing by earlier Native Americans.", "The ford was mapped in 1849 by Randolph B. Marcy, commander of an army escort for parties on their way to California on the San Antonio-El Paso Road.", "In 1858, the crossing became an important stop on the Butterfield Overland Mail route from St. Louis to San Francisco.", "In 1866, Charles Goodnight and Oliver Loving blazed their famous cattle trail, which came to this point and turned upriver.", "Decline of cattle drives and completion of two railroads across West Texas in the early 1880s led to the abandonment of the crossing.", "The source of the name \"Horsehead\" has been attributed to horse skulls said to have marked the banks.", "This may have been due to Comanches, who marked the crossing for easier identification, or the abundance of animals that died at the crossing from drowning, quicksand, or over-drinking while being driven along the Comanche Trail returning from Mexico." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ]

[ "Horsehead Crossing is a ford on the Pecos River in Crane County, south of Odessa, Texas." ]

[ "TARP allowed the United States Department of the Treasury to purchase or insure up to $700 billion of \"troubled assets\", defined as \"(A) residential or commercial obligations will be bought, or other instruments that are based on or related to such mortgages, that in each case was originated or issued on or before March 14, 2008, the purchase of which the Secretary determines promotes financial market stability; and (B) any other financial instrument that the Secretary, after consultation with the Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, determines the purchase of which is necessary to promote financial market stability, but only upon transmittal of such determination, in writing, to the appropriate committees of Congress\".", "In short, this allows the Treasury to purchase illiquid, difficult-to-value assets from banks and other financial institutions.", "The targeted assets can be collateralized debt obligations, which were sold in a booming market until 2007, when they were hit by widespread foreclosures on the underlying loans.", "TARP was intended to improve the liquidity of these assets by purchasing them using secondary market mechanisms, thus allowing participating institutions to stabilize their balance sheets and avoid further losses.", "TARP does not allow banks to recoup losses already incurred on troubled assets, but officials expect that once trading of these assets resumes, their prices will stabilize and ultimately increase in value, resulting in gains to both participating banks and the Treasury itself.", "The concept of future gains from troubled assets comes from the hypothesis in the financial industry that these assets are oversold, as only a small percentage of all mortgages are in default, while the relative fall in prices represents losses from a much higher default rate.", "The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 (EESA) requires financial institutions selling assets to TARP to issue equity warrants (a type of security that entitles its holder to purchase shares in the company issuing the security for a specific price), or equity or senior debt securities (for non-publicly listed companies) to the Treasury.", "In the case of warrants, the Treasury will only receive warrants for non-voting shares, or will agree not to vote the stock.", "This measure was designed to protect the government by giving the Treasury the possibility of profiting through its new ownership stakes in these institutions.", "Ideally, if the financial institutions benefit from government assistance and recover their former strength, the government will also be able to profit from their recovery.", "Another important goal of TARP was to encourage banks to resume lending again at levels seen before the crisis, both to each other and to consumers and businesses.", "If TARP can stabilize bank capital ratios, it should theoretically allow them to increase lending instead of hoarding cash to cushion against future unforeseen losses from troubled assets.", "Increased lending equates to \"loosening\" of credit, which the government hopes will restore order to the financial markets and improve investor confidence in financial institutions and the markets.", "As banks gain increased lending confidence, the interbank lending interest rates (the rates at which the banks lend to each other on a short-term basis) should decrease, further facilitating lending.", "TARP will operate as a \"revolving purchase facility\".", "The Treasury will have a set spending limit, $250 billion at the start of the program, with which it will purchase the assets and then either sell them or hold the assets and collect the coupons.", "The money received from sales and coupons will go back into the pool, facilitating the purchase of more assets.", "The initial $250 billion could be increased to $350 billion upon the president's certification to Congress that such an increase was necessary.", "The remaining $350 billion may be released to the Treasury upon a written report to Congress from the Treasury with details of its plan for the money.", "Congress then had 15 days to vote to disapprove the increase before the money will be automatically released.", "Privately held mortgages would be eligible for other incentives, including a favorable loan modification for five years.", "The authority of the United States Department of the Treasury to establish and manage TARP under a newly created Office of Financial Stability became law October 3, 2008, the result of an initial proposal that ultimately was passed by Congress as H.R. 1424, enacting the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 and several other acts.", "On October 8, the British announced their bank rescue package consisting of funding, debt guarantees and infusing capital into banks via preferred stock.", "This model was closely followed by the rest of Europe, as well as the U.S Government, who on the October 14 announced a $250bn (£143bn) Capital Purchase Program to buy stakes in a wide variety of banks in an effort to restore confidence in the sector.", "The money came from the $700bn Troubled Asset Relief Program.", "To qualify for this program, the Treasury required participating institutions to meet certain criteria, including: \"(1) ensuring that incentive compensation for senior executives does not encourage unnecessary and excessive risks that threaten the value of the financial institution; (2) required clawback of any bonus or incentive compensation paid to a senior executive based on statements of earnings, gains or other criteria that are later proven to be materially inaccurate; (3) prohibition on the financial institution from making any golden parachute payment to a senior executive based on the Internal Revenue Code provision; and (4) agreement not to deduct for tax purposes executive compensation in excess of $500,000 for each senior executive\".", "The Treasury also bought preferred stock and warrants from hundreds of smaller banks, using the first $250 billion allotted to the program.", "The first allocation of the TARP money was primarily used to buy preferred stock, which was similar to debt in that it gets paid before common equity shareholders.", "This had led some economists to argue that the plan may be ineffective in inducing banks to lend efficiently.", "In the original plan, the government would buy troubled (also known as 'toxic') assets in insolvent banks and then sell them at auction to private investor and/or companies.", "This plan was scratched when United Kingdom's Prime Minister Gordon Brown came to the White House for an international summit on the global credit crisis.", "Prime Minister Brown, in an attempt to mitigate the credit squeeze in England, planned a package of three measures consisting of funding, debt guarantees and infusing capital into banks via preferred stock.", "The objective was to directly support banks' solvency and funding; in some economists' view, effectively nationalizing many banks.", "This plan seemed attractive to the Treasury Secretary in that it was relatively easier and seemingly boosted lending more quickly.", "The first half of the asset purchases may not be effective in getting banks to lend again because they were reluctant to risk lending as before with low lending standards.", "To make matters worse, overnight lending to other banks came to a relative halt because banks did not trust each other to be prudent with their money.", "On November 12, 2008, Paulson indicated that reviving the securitization market for consumer credit would be a new priority in the second allotment.", "On December 19, 2008, President Bush used his executive authority to declare that TARP funds could be spent on any program that Paulson, deemed necessary to alleviate the financial crisis.", "On December 31, 2008, the Treasury issued a report reviewing Section 102, the Troubled Assets Insurance Financing Fund, also known as the \"Asset Guarantee Program\".", "The report indicated that the program would likely not be made \"widely available\".", "On January 15, 2009, the Treasury issued interim final rules for reporting and record keeping requirements under the executive compensation standards of the Capital Purchase Program (CPP).", "Six days later, the Treasury announced new regulations regarding disclosure and mitigation of conflicts of interest in its TARP contracting.", "On February 5, 2009, the Senate approved changes to the TARP that prohibited firms receiving TARP funds from paying bonuses to their 25 highest-paid employees.", "The measure was proposed by Christopher Dodd of Connecticut as an amendment to the $900 billion economic stimulus act then waiting to be passed.", "On February 10, the newly confirmed Secretary of the Treasury Timothy Geithner outlined his plan to use the remaining $300 billion or so in TARP funds.", "He intended to direct $50 billion towards foreclosure mitigation and use the rest to help fund private investors to buy toxic assets from banks.", "Nevertheless, this highly anticipated speech coincided with a nearly 5 percent drop in the S&P 500 and was criticized for lacking details.", "Geithner announced on March 23, 2009 a Public-Private Investment Program (P-PIP) to buy toxic assets from banks' balance sheets.", "The major stock market indexes in the United States rallied on the day of the announcement rising by over six percent with the shares of bank stocks leading the way.", "P-PIP has two primary programs.", "The Legacy Loans Program will attempt to buy residential loans from bank's balance sheets.", "The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) will provide non-recourse loan guarantees for up to 85 percent of the purchase price of legacy loans.", "Private sector asset managers and the U.S. Treasury will provide the remaining assets.", "The second program was called the legacy securities program, which would buy residential mortgage backed securities (RMBS) that were originally rated AAA and commercial mortgage-backed securities (CMBS) and asset-backed securities (ABS) which were rated AAA.", "The funds would come in many instances in equal parts from the U.S. Treasury's TARP monies, private investors, and from loans from the Federal Reserve's Term Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility (TALF).", "The initial size of the Public Private Investment Partnership was projected to be $500 billion.", "Economist and Nobel Prize winner Paul Krugman had been very critical of this program arguing the non-recourse loans lead to a hidden subsidy that will be split by asset managers, banks' shareholders and creditors.", "Banking analyst Meredith Whitney argued that banks will not sell bad assets at fair market values because they are reluctant to take asset write downs.", "Economist Linus Wilson, a frequent commenter on TARP related issues, also pointed to excessive misinformation and erroneous analysis surrounding the U.S. toxic asset auction plan.", "Removing toxic assets would also reduce the volatility of banks' stock prices.", "This lost volatility would hurt the stock price of distressed banks.", "Therefore, such banks would only sell toxic assets at above market prices.", "On April 19, 2009, the Obama administration outlined the conversion of the TARP loans to common stock.", "The program was run by the Treasury's new Office of Financial Stability.", "According to a speech made by Neel Kashkari, the fund would be split into the following administrative units:\n#Mortgage-backed securities purchase program: This team is identifying which troubled assets to purchase, from whom to buy them and which purchase mechanism will best meet our policy objectives.", "Here, we are designing the detailed auction protocols and will work with vendors to implement the program.", "#Whole loan purchase program: Regional banks are particularly clogged with whole residential mortgage loans.", "This team is working with bank regulators to identify which types of loans to purchase first, how to value them, and which purchase mechanism will best meet our policy objectives.", "#Insurance program: We are establishing a program to insure troubled assets.", "We have several innovative ideas on how to structure this program, including how to insure mortgage-backed securities as well as whole loans.", "At the same time, we recognize that there are likely other good ideas out there that we could benefit from.", "Accordingly, on Friday we submitted to the Federal Register a public Request for Comment to solicit the best ideas on structuring options.", "We are requiring responses within fourteen days so we can consider them quickly, and begin designing the program.", "#Equity purchase program: We are designing a standardized program to purchase equity in a broad array of financial institutions.", "As with the other programs, the equity purchase program will be voluntary and designed with attractive terms to encourage participation from healthy institutions.", "It will also encourage firms to raise new private capital to complement public capital.", "#Homeownership preservation: When we purchase mortgages and mortgage-backed securities, we will look for every opportunity possible to help homeowners.", "This goal is consistent with other programs – such as HOPE NOW – aimed at working with borrowers, counselors and servicers to keep people in their homes.", "In this case, we are working with the Department of Housing and Urban Development to maximize these opportunities to help as many homeowners as possible, while also protecting the government.", "#Executive compensation: The law sets out important requirements regarding executive compensation for firms that participate in the TARP.", "This team is working hard to define the requirements for financial institutions to participate in three possible scenarios: One, an auction purchase of troubled assets; two, a broad equity or direct purchase program; and three, a case of an intervention to prevent the impending failure of a systemically significant institution.", "#Compliance:", "The law establishes important oversight and compliance structures, including establishing an Oversight Board, on-site participation of the General Accounting Office and the creation of a Special Inspector General, with thorough reporting requirements.", "Eric Thorson was the Inspector General of the US Department of the Treasury and was responsible for the oversight of the TARP but expressed concerns about the difficulty of properly overseeing the complex program in addition to his regular responsibilities.", "Thorson called oversight of TARP a \"mess\" and later clarified this to say \"The word 'mess' was a description of the difficulty my office would have in providing the proper level of oversight of the TARP while handling its growing workload, including conducting audits of certain failed banks and thrifts at the same time that efforts are underway to nominate a special inspector general.", "\"\nThe Treasury retained the law firms of Squire, Sanders & Dempsey and Hughes, Hubbard & Reed to assist in the administration of the program.", "Accounting and internal controls support services have been contracted from PricewaterhouseCoopers and Ernst and Young under the Federal Supply Schedule.", "The Act's criterion for participation stated that \"financial institutions\" will be included in TARP if they are \"established and regulated\" under the laws of the United States and if they have \"significant operations\" in the United States.", "The Treasury would need to define what institutions will be included under the term \"financial institution\" and what will constitute \"significant operations\".", "Companies that sell their bad assets to the government must have provided warrants so that the government would benefit from future growth of the companies.", "Certain institutions seemed to be guaranteed participation.", "These included: U.S. banks, U.S. branches of a foreign bank, U.S. savings banks or credit unions, U.S. broker-dealers, U.S. insurance companies, U.S. mutual funds or other U.S. registered investment companies, tax-qualified U.S. employee retirement plans, and bank holding companies.", "The President was to submit a law to cover government losses on the fund, using \"a small, broad-based fee on all financial institutions\".", "To participate in the bailout program, \"...companies will lose certain tax benefits and, in some cases, must limit executive pay.", "In addition, the bill limits 'golden parachutes' and requires that unearned bonuses be returned.\"", "The fund had an Oversight Board so that the U.S. Treasury cannot act in an arbitrary manner.", "There was also an inspector general to protect against waste, fraud and abuse.", "CAMELS ratings (US supervisory ratings used to classify the nation's 8,500 banks) were being used by the United States government in response to the global financial crisis of 2008 to help it decide which banks to provide special help for and which to not as part of its capitalization program authorized by the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008.", "It was being used to classify the nation's 8,500 banks into five categories, where a ranking of 1 means they are most likely to be helped and a 5 most likely to not be helped.", "Regulators were applying a short list of criteria based on a secret ratings system they use to gauge this.", "\"The New York Times\" stated: \"The criteria being used to choose who gets money appears to be setting the stage for consolidation in the industry by favoring those most likely to survive\" because the criteria appears to favor the financially best off banks and banks too big to let fail.", "Some lawmakers are upset that the capitalization program will end up culling banks in their districts.", "However, \"The Wall Street Journal\" suggested that some lawmakers are actively using TARP to funnel money to weak regional banks in their districts.", "Academic studies have found that banks and credit unions located in the districts of key Congress members had been more likely to win TARP money.", "Known aspects of the capitalization program \"suggest that the government may be loosely defining what constitutes healthy institutions.", "[... Banks] that have been profitable over the last year are the most likely to receive capital.", "Banks that have lost money over the last year, however, must pass additional tests.", "[...] They are also asking if a bank has enough capital and reserves to withstand severe losses to its construction loan portfolio, nonperforming loans and other troubled assets.\"", "Some banks received capital with the understanding the banks would try to find a merger partner.", "To receive capital under the program banks are also \"required to provide a specific business plan for the next two or three years and explain how they plan to deploy the capital\".", "TARP allowed the Treasury to purchase both \"troubled assets\" and any other asset the purchase of which the Treasury determined was \"necessary\" to further economic stability.", "Troubled assets included real estate and mortgage-related assets and securities based on those assets.", "This included both the mortgages themselves and the various financial instruments created by pooling groups of mortgages into one security to be bought on the market.", "This category probably included foreclosed properties as well.\nReal estate and mortgage-related assets (and securities based on those kinds of assets) were eligible if they originated (that is, were created) or were issued on or before March 14, 2008, the date of the Bear Stearns bailout.", "One of the more difficult issues that the Treasury faced in managing TARP was the pricing of the troubled assets.", "The Treasury had to find a way to price extremely complex and sometimes unwieldy instruments for which a market did not exist.", "In addition, the pricing had to strike a balance between efficiently using public funds provided by the government and providing adequate assistance to the financial institutions that need it.", "The Act encouraged the Treasury to design a program using market mechanisms to the extent possible.", "This had led to the expectation that the Treasury would use a reverse auction to price assets.", "Theoretically, the system would create a market price from bidders that would want to sell at the highest possible price, but also be able to make a sale, therefore the price must set a low enough price to be competitive.", "The Treasury was required to publish its methods for pricing, purchasing, and valuing troubled assets no later than two days after the purchase of their first asset.", "The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) used procedures similar to those specified in the Federal Credit Reform Act (FCRA) to value assets purchased under the TARP.", "In a report dated February 6, 2009, the Congressional Oversight Panel concluded that the Treasury paid substantially more for the assets it purchased under the TARP than their then-current market value.", "The COP found the Treasury paid $254 billion, for which it received assets worth approximately $176 billion, for a shortfall of $78 billion.", "The COP's valuation analysis assumed that \"securities similar to those issued under the TARP were trading in the capital markets at fair values\" and employed multiple approaches to cross-check and validate the results.", "The value was estimated for each security as of the time immediately following the announcement by Treasury of its purchase.", "For example, the COP found that the Treasury bought $25 billion of assets from Citigroup on October 14, 2008, however, the actual value was estimated to be $15.5, creating a 38 percent (or $9.5 billion) subsidy.", "#Equity stakes\n##The Act requires financial institutions selling assets to TARP to issue equity warrants (a type of security that entitles its holder to purchase shares in the company issuing the security for a specific price), or equity or senior debt securities (for non-publicly listed companies) to the Treasury.", "In the case of warrants, the Treasury will only receive warrants for non-voting shares, or will agree not to vote the stock.", "This measure is designed to protect the government by giving the Treasury the possibility of profiting through its new ownership stakes in these institutions.", "Ideally, if the financial institutions benefit from government assistance and recover their former strength, the government will also be able to profit from their recovery.", "#Limits on executive compensation\n##The Act sets some limits on the compensation of the five highest-paid executives at companies that elect to participate significantly in TARP.", "The Act treats companies that participate through the auction process differently from those that participate through direct sale (that is, without a bidding process).", "###Companies who sell more than $300 million in assets through an auction process are prohibited from signing new \"golden parachute\" contracts (employment contracts that provide for large payments upon termination) with any future executives.", "It will also place a $500,000 limit on annual tax deductions for payment of each executive, as well as a deduction limit on severance benefits for any golden parachutes already in place.", "###Companies in which the Treasury acquires equity because of direct purchases must meet tougher standards to be established by the Treasury.", "These standards will require the companies to eliminate compensation structures that encourage \"unnecessary and excessive\" risk-taking by executives, provide for claw-back (forced repayment of bonuses in the event of a post-payment determination that the bonuses were paid on the basis of false data) of bonuses already paid to senior executives based on financial statements later proven to be inaccurate, and prohibit payment of previously established golden parachutes.", "#Recoupment\n##This provision was a big factor in the eventual passage of the EESA.", "It gives the government the opportunity to \"be repaid\".", "The recoupment provision requires the Director of the Office of Management and Budget to submit a report on TARP's financial status to Congress five years after its enactment.", "If TARP has not been able to recoup its outlays through the sale of the assets, the Act requires the President to submit a plan to Congress to recoup the losses from the financial industry.", "Theoretically, this prevents TARP from adding to the national debt.", "The use of the term \"financial industry\" in the provision leaves open the possibility that such a plan would involve the entire financial sector rather than only those institutions that availed themselves of TARP.", "#Disclosure and Transparency\n##Though the Treasury will ultimately determine the type and extent of disclosure required for participation in the TARP, it is clear that these requirements will be extensive, particularly with respect to any asset acquired by TARP.", "It seems certain that institutions who participate in TARP will have to publicly disclose information pertaining to their participation, including the number of assets they sold to TARP, what type of assets were sold, and at what price.", "More extensive disclosure may be required at the discretion of the Treasury.\n##The Act also seems to give a broad mandate to the Treasury to determine, for each \"type\" of institution that sells assets to TARP, whether the current disclosure and transparency requirements on the sources of the institution's exposure (such as off-balance sheet transactions, derivative instruments, and contingent liabilities) are adequate.", "If the Treasury finds that a particular institution has not provided sufficient disclosures, it has the power to make recommendations for new disclosure requirements to the institution's regulators, which will probably include foreign-government regulators for those foreign financial institutions that have \"significant operations\" in the United States.", "#Judicial Review of Treasury Actions\n##The Act provides for judicial review of the actions taken by the Treasury under the EESA.", "In other words, the Treasury may be taken to court for actions it takes pursuant to the Act.", "Specifically, Treasury actions may be held unlawful if they involve an abuse of discretion, or are found to be \"arbitrary, capricious . . .", "or not in accordance with law\".", "However, a financial institution that sells assets to TARP is cannot challenge the Treasury's actions with respect to that institution's specific participation in TARP.", ", $467 billion had been allotted, and $416 billion spent, according to a literature review on the TARP.", "Among the money committed, includes:\n\n\n\n\nThe Congressional Budget Office released a report in January 2009, reviewing the transactions enacted through the TARP.", "The CBO found that through December 31, 2008, transactions under the TARP totaled $247 billion.", "According to the CBO's report, the Treasury had purchased $178 billion in shares of preferred stock and warrants from 214 U.S. financial institutions through its Capital Purchase Program (CPP).", "This included the purchase of $40 billion of preferred stock in AIG, $25 billion of preferred stock in Citigroup, and $15 billion of preferred stock in Bank of America.", "The Treasury also agreed to lend $18.4 billion to General Motors and Chrysler.", "The Treasury, the FDIC and the Federal Reserve have also agreed to guarantee a $306 billion portfolio of assets owned by Citigroup.", "The CBO also estimated the subsidy cost for transactions under TARP.", "The subsidy cost is defined as, broadly speaking, the difference between what the Treasury paid for the investments or lent to the firms and the market value of those transactions, where the assets in question were valued using procedures similar to those specified in the Federal Credit Reform Act (FCRA), but adjusting for market risk as specified in the EESA.", "The CBO estimated that the subsidy cost of the $247 billion in transactions before December 31, 2008 amounts to $64 billion.", "As of August 31, 2015, TARP is projected to cost approximately $37.3 billion total—significantly less than the $700 billion originally authorized by Congress.", "The May 2015 report of the TARP to Congress stated that $427.1 billion had been disbursed, total proceeds by April 30, 2015 were $441.8 billion, exceeding disbursements by $14.1 billion, though this included $17.7 billion in non-TARP AIG shares.", "The report predicted a total net cash outflow of $37.7 billion (excluding non-TARP AIG shares), based on the assumption the TARP housing programs' (Hardest Hit Fund, Making Home Affordable and FHA refinancing) funds are fully taken up.", "Debt is still outstanding, some of which has been converted to common stock, from just under $125 million down to $7,000.", "Sums loaned to entities that have gone into, and in some cases emerged from bankruptcy or receivership are provided.", "Additional sums have been written off, for example Treasury's original investment of $854 million in Old GM.", "The May 2015 report also detailed other costs of the program, including $1.157 billion \"for financial agents and legal firms\" $142 million for personnel services, and $303 million for \"other services\".", "The banks agreeing to receive preferred stock investments from the Treasury include Goldman Sachs Group Inc., Morgan Stanley, J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Bank of America Corp. (which had just agreed to purchase Merrill Lynch), Citigroup Inc., Wells Fargo & Co., Bank of New York Mellon and State Street Corp.\nThe Bank of New York Mellon is to serve as master custodian overseeing the fund.", "The U.S. Treasury maintains an official list of TARP recipients and proceeds to the government on a TARP website.", "Note that foreign-owned U.S. banks were not eligible.", "Beneficiaries of TARP include the following:\nOf these banks, JPMorgan Chase & Co., Morgan Stanley, American Express Co., Goldman Sachs Group Inc., U.S. Bancorp, Capital One Financial Corp., Bank of New York Mellon Corp., State Street Corp., BB&T Corp, Wells Fargo & Co. and Bank of America repaid TARP money.", "Most banks repaid TARP funds using capital raised from the issuance of equity securities and debt not guaranteed by the federal government.", "PNC Financial Services, one of the few profitable banks without TARP money, planned on paying their share back by January 2011, by building up its cash reserves instead of issuing equity securities.", "However, PNC reversed course on February 2, 2010, by issuing $3 billion in shares and $1.5-2 billion in senior notes in order to pay its TARP funds back.", "PNC also raised funds by selling its Global Investment Services division to crosstown rival The Bank of New York Mellon.", "In a January 2012, review, it was reported that AIG still owed around $50 billion, GM about $25 billion and Ally about $12 billion.", "Break even on the first two companies would be at $28.73 a share versus then-current share price of $25.31 and $53.98 versus then-current share price of $24.92, respectively.", "Ally was not publicly traded.", "The 371 banks that still owed money include Regions ($3.5 billion), Zions Bancorporation ($1.4 billion), Synovus Financial Corp. ($967.9 million), Popular, Inc. ($935 million), First BanCorp of San Juan, Puerto Rico ($400 million) and M&T Bank Corp. ($381.5 million).", "Some in the financial industry have been accused of not using the loaned dollars for its intended reason.", "Others further abused investors after the TARP legislation was passed by telling investors their money was invested in the federal TARP financial bailout program and other securities that did not exist.", "Neil Barofsky, Special Inspector General for the Troubled Asset Relief Program (SIGTARP), told lawmakers, \"Inadequate oversight and insufficient information about what companies are doing with the money leaves the program open to fraud, including conflicts of interest facing fund managers, collusion between participants and vulnerabilities to money laundering.", "In its October 2011 quarterly report to Congress, SIGTARP reported \"more than 150 ongoing criminal and civil investigations\".", "SIGTARP had already achieved criminal convictions of 28 defendants (19 had already been sentenced to prison), and civil cases naming 37 individuals and 18 corporate/legal entities as defendants.", "It had recovered $151 million, and prevented $553 million going to Colonial Bank, which failed.", "The first TARP fraud case was brought by the SEC on January 19, 2009, against Nashville-based Gordon Grigg and his firm ProTrust Management.", "The latest occurred in March 2010, with the FBI claiming Charles Antonucci, the former president and chief executive of the Park Avenue Bank, made false statements to regulators in an effort to obtain about $11 million from the fund.", "The nearest parallel action the federal government has taken was in investments made by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) in the 1930s.", "The RFC, an agency chartered during the Herbert Hoover administration in 1932, made loans to distressed banks and bought stock in 6,000 banks, totalling $1.3 billion.", "\"The New York Times,\" citing finance experts on October 13, 2008, noted that, \"A similar effort these days, in proportion to today's economy, would be about $200 billion.\"", "When the economy had stabilized, the government sold its bank stock to private investors or the banks, and is estimated to have received approximately the same amount previously invested.", "In 1984, the government took an 80 percent stake in the nation's then seventh-largest bank Continental Illinois Bank and Trust.", "Continental Illinois made loans to oil drillers and service companies in Oklahoma and Texas.", "The government was estimated to have lost $1 billion because of Continental Illinois, which ultimately became part of Bank of America.", "The $24 billion for the estimated subsidy cost of TARP was less than the government's cost for the savings and loan crisis of the late 1980s, although the subsidy cost does not include the cost of other \"bailout\" programs (such as the Federal Reserve's Maiden Lane Transactions and the Federal takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac).", "The cost of the S&L crisis amounted to 3.2 percent of GDP during the Reagan/Bush era, while the GDP percentage of the TARP cost was estimated at less than 1 percent.", "The primary purpose of TARP, according to the Federal Reserve, was to stabilize the financial sector by purchasing illiquid assets from banks and other financial institutions.", "However, the effects of the TARP have been widely debated in large part because the purpose of the fund is not widely understood.", "A review of investor presentations and conference calls by executives of some two dozen US-based banks by The New York Times found that \"few [banks] cited lending as a priority.", "Further, an overwhelming majority saw the program as a no-strings-attached windfall that could be used to pay down debt, acquire other businesses or invest for the future.\"", "The article cited several bank chairmen as stating that they viewed the money as available for strategic acquisitions in the future rather than to increase lending to the private sector, whose ability to pay back the loans was suspect.", "PlainsCapital chairman Alan B. White saw the Bush administration's cash infusion as \"opportunity capital\", noting, \"They didn't tell me I had to do anything particular with it.", "\"\nMoreover, while TARP funds have been provided to bank holding companies, those holding companies have only used a fraction of such funds to recapitalize their bank subsidiaries.", "Many analysts speculated TARP funds could be used by stronger banks to buy weaker ones.", "On October 24, 2008, PNC Financial Services received $7.7 billion in TARP funds, then only hours later agreed to buy National City Corp. for $5.58 billion, an amount that was considered a bargain.", "Despite ongoing speculation that more TARP funds could be used by large-but-weak banks to gobble up small banks, as of October 2009, no further such takeover had occurred.", "The Senate Congressional Oversight Panel created to oversee the TARP concluded on January 9, 2009: \"In particular, the Panel sees no evidence that the U.S. Treasury has used TARP funds to support the housing market by avoiding preventable foreclosures.\"", "The panel also concluded that \"Although half the money has not yet been received by the banks, hundreds of billions of dollars have been injected into the marketplace with no demonstrable effects on lending.", "\"\nGovernment officials that oversaw the bailout acknowledged the difficulties in tracking the money and in measuring the bailout's effectiveness.", "During 2008, companies that received $295 billion in bailout money had spent $114 million on lobbying and campaign contributions.", "Banks that received bailout money had compensated their top executives nearly $1.6 billion in 2007, including salaries, cash bonuses, stock options, and benefits including personal use of company jets and chauffeurs, home security, country club memberships, and professional money management.", "The Obama administration has promised to set a $500,000 cap on executive pay at companies that receive bailout money, directing banks to tie risk taken to workers' reward by paying anything further in deferred stock.", "Graef Crystal, a former compensation consultant and author of \"The Crystal Report on Executive Compensation\", claimed that the limits on executive pay were \"a joke\" and that \"they're just allowing companies to defer compensation.\"\nIn November 2011, a report showed that the sum of the government's guarantees increased to $7.77 trillion; however, loans to banks were only a small fraction of that amount.", "One study found that the typical white-owned bank was about ten times more likely to receive TARP money in the CDCI program than a black-owned bank after controlling for other factors.", "By March 31, 2009, four banks out of over five hundred had returned their preferred stock obligations.", "None of the publicly traded banks had yet bought back their warrants owned by the U.S. Treasury by March 31, 2009.", "According to the terms of the U.S. Treasury's investment, the banks returning funds can either negotiate to buy back the warrants at fair market value, or the U.S. Treasury can sell the warrants to third party investors as soon as feasible.", "Warrants are call options that add to the number of shares of stock outstanding if they are exercised for a profit.", "The American Bankers Association (ABA) has lobbied Congress to cancel the warrants owned by the government, calling them an \"onerous exit fee\".", "Yet, if the Capital Purchase Program warrants of Goldman Sachs are representative, then the Capital Purchase Program warrants were worth between $5-to-$24 billion as of May 1, 2009.", "Canceling the CPP warrants thus amounts to a $5-to-$24 billion subsidy to the banking industry at government expense.", "While the ABA wants the CPP warrants to be written off by the government, Goldman Sachs does not hold that view.", "A representative of Goldman Sachs was quoted as saying \"We think that taxpayers should expect a decent return on their investment and look forward to being able to provide just that when we are permitted to return the TARP money.", "\"", "In total, U.S. government economic bailouts related to the global financial crisis had federal outflows (expenditures, loans, and investments) of $633.6 billion and inflows (funds returned to the Treasury as interest, dividends, fees, or stock warrant repurchases) of $754.8 billion, for a net profit of $121 billion.", "Of financial system bailout outflows, 38.7% went to banks and other financial institutions, 30.2% to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, 12.6% to auto companies, and 10.7% to AIG, with the remaining 7.8% in other programs.", "A 2019 study by economist Deborah Lucas published in the \"Annual Review of Financial Economics\" estimated \"that the total direct cost of the 2008 crisis-related bailouts in the United States\" (including TARP and other programs) was about $500 billion, or 3.5% of the United States's GDP in 2009, and that \"the largest direct beneficiaries of the bailouts were the unsecured creditors of financial institutions.\"", "Lucas noted that this cost estimate \"stands in sharp contrast to popular accounts that claim there was no cost because the money was repaid, and with claims of costs in the trillions of dollars.", "\"\nIn a 2012 survey of leading economists conducted by the University of Chicago Booth School of Business' Initiative on Global Markets, economists generally agreed that unemployment at the end of 2010 would have been higher without the program." ]

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[ "The Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) is a program of the United States government to purchase toxic assets and equity from financial institutions to strengthen its financial sector that was passed by Congress and signed into law by President George Bush.", "The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 created the TARP." ]

[ "TARP allowed the United States Department of the Treasury to purchase or insure up to $700 billion of \"troubled assets\", defined as \"(A) residential or commercial obligations will be bought, or other instruments that are based on or related to such mortgages, that in each case was originated or issued on or before March 14, 2008, the purchase of which the Secretary determines promotes financial market stability; and (B) any other financial instrument that the Secretary, after consultation with the Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, determines the purchase of which is necessary to promote financial market stability, but only upon transmittal of such determination, in writing, to the appropriate committees of Congress\".", "In short, this allows the Treasury to purchase illiquid, difficult-to-value assets from banks and other financial institutions.", "The targeted assets can be collateralized debt obligations, which were sold in a booming market until 2007, when they were hit by widespread foreclosures on the underlying loans.", "TARP was intended to improve the liquidity of these assets by purchasing them using secondary market mechanisms, thus allowing participating institutions to stabilize their balance sheets and avoid further losses.", "TARP does not allow banks to recoup losses already incurred on troubled assets, but officials expect that once trading of these assets resumes, their prices will stabilize and ultimately increase in value, resulting in gains to both participating banks and the Treasury itself.", "The concept of future gains from troubled assets comes from the hypothesis in the financial industry that these assets are oversold, as only a small percentage of all mortgages are in default, while the relative fall in prices represents losses from a much higher default rate.", "The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 (EESA) requires financial institutions selling assets to TARP to issue equity warrants (a type of security that entitles its holder to purchase shares in the company issuing the security for a specific price), or equity or senior debt securities (for non-publicly listed companies) to the Treasury.", "In the case of warrants, the Treasury will only receive warrants for non-voting shares, or will agree not to vote the stock.", "This measure was designed to protect the government by giving the Treasury the possibility of profiting through its new ownership stakes in these institutions.", "Ideally, if the financial institutions benefit from government assistance and recover their former strength, the government will also be able to profit from their recovery.", "Another important goal of TARP was to encourage banks to resume lending again at levels seen before the crisis, both to each other and to consumers and businesses.", "If TARP can stabilize bank capital ratios, it should theoretically allow them to increase lending instead of hoarding cash to cushion against future unforeseen losses from troubled assets.", "Increased lending equates to \"loosening\" of credit, which the government hopes will restore order to the financial markets and improve investor confidence in financial institutions and the markets.", "As banks gain increased lending confidence, the interbank lending interest rates (the rates at which the banks lend to each other on a short-term basis) should decrease, further facilitating lending.", "TARP will operate as a \"revolving purchase facility\".", "The Treasury will have a set spending limit, $250 billion at the start of the program, with which it will purchase the assets and then either sell them or hold the assets and collect the coupons.", "The money received from sales and coupons will go back into the pool, facilitating the purchase of more assets.", "The initial $250 billion could be increased to $350 billion upon the president's certification to Congress that such an increase was necessary.", "The remaining $350 billion may be released to the Treasury upon a written report to Congress from the Treasury with details of its plan for the money.", "Congress then had 15 days to vote to disapprove the increase before the money will be automatically released.", "Privately held mortgages would be eligible for other incentives, including a favorable loan modification for five years.", "The authority of the United States Department of the Treasury to establish and manage TARP under a newly created Office of Financial Stability became law October 3, 2008, the result of an initial proposal that ultimately was passed by Congress as H.R. 1424, enacting the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 and several other acts.", "On October 8, the British announced their bank rescue package consisting of funding, debt guarantees and infusing capital into banks via preferred stock.", "This model was closely followed by the rest of Europe, as well as the U.S Government, who on the October 14 announced a $250bn (£143bn) Capital Purchase Program to buy stakes in a wide variety of banks in an effort to restore confidence in the sector.", "The money came from the $700bn Troubled Asset Relief Program.", "To qualify for this program, the Treasury required participating institutions to meet certain criteria, including: \"(1) ensuring that incentive compensation for senior executives does not encourage unnecessary and excessive risks that threaten the value of the financial institution; (2) required clawback of any bonus or incentive compensation paid to a senior executive based on statements of earnings, gains or other criteria that are later proven to be materially inaccurate; (3) prohibition on the financial institution from making any golden parachute payment to a senior executive based on the Internal Revenue Code provision; and (4) agreement not to deduct for tax purposes executive compensation in excess of $500,000 for each senior executive\".", "The Treasury also bought preferred stock and warrants from hundreds of smaller banks, using the first $250 billion allotted to the program.", "The first allocation of the TARP money was primarily used to buy preferred stock, which was similar to debt in that it gets paid before common equity shareholders.", "This had led some economists to argue that the plan may be ineffective in inducing banks to lend efficiently.", "In the original plan, the government would buy troubled (also known as 'toxic') assets in insolvent banks and then sell them at auction to private investor and/or companies.", "This plan was scratched when United Kingdom's Prime Minister Gordon Brown came to the White House for an international summit on the global credit crisis.", "Prime Minister Brown, in an attempt to mitigate the credit squeeze in England, planned a package of three measures consisting of funding, debt guarantees and infusing capital into banks via preferred stock.", "The objective was to directly support banks' solvency and funding; in some economists' view, effectively nationalizing many banks.", "This plan seemed attractive to the Treasury Secretary in that it was relatively easier and seemingly boosted lending more quickly.", "The first half of the asset purchases may not be effective in getting banks to lend again because they were reluctant to risk lending as before with low lending standards.", "To make matters worse, overnight lending to other banks came to a relative halt because banks did not trust each other to be prudent with their money.", "On November 12, 2008, Paulson indicated that reviving the securitization market for consumer credit would be a new priority in the second allotment.", "On December 19, 2008, President Bush used his executive authority to declare that TARP funds could be spent on any program that Paulson, deemed necessary to alleviate the financial crisis.", "On December 31, 2008, the Treasury issued a report reviewing Section 102, the Troubled Assets Insurance Financing Fund, also known as the \"Asset Guarantee Program\".", "The report indicated that the program would likely not be made \"widely available\".", "On January 15, 2009, the Treasury issued interim final rules for reporting and record keeping requirements under the executive compensation standards of the Capital Purchase Program (CPP).", "Six days later, the Treasury announced new regulations regarding disclosure and mitigation of conflicts of interest in its TARP contracting.", "On February 5, 2009, the Senate approved changes to the TARP that prohibited firms receiving TARP funds from paying bonuses to their 25 highest-paid employees.", "The measure was proposed by Christopher Dodd of Connecticut as an amendment to the $900 billion economic stimulus act then waiting to be passed.", "On February 10, the newly confirmed Secretary of the Treasury Timothy Geithner outlined his plan to use the remaining $300 billion or so in TARP funds.", "He intended to direct $50 billion towards foreclosure mitigation and use the rest to help fund private investors to buy toxic assets from banks.", "Nevertheless, this highly anticipated speech coincided with a nearly 5 percent drop in the S&P 500 and was criticized for lacking details.", "Geithner announced on March 23, 2009 a Public-Private Investment Program (P-PIP) to buy toxic assets from banks' balance sheets.", "The major stock market indexes in the United States rallied on the day of the announcement rising by over six percent with the shares of bank stocks leading the way.", "P-PIP has two primary programs.", "The Legacy Loans Program will attempt to buy residential loans from bank's balance sheets.", "The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) will provide non-recourse loan guarantees for up to 85 percent of the purchase price of legacy loans.", "Private sector asset managers and the U.S. Treasury will provide the remaining assets.", "The second program was called the legacy securities program, which would buy residential mortgage backed securities (RMBS) that were originally rated AAA and commercial mortgage-backed securities (CMBS) and asset-backed securities (ABS) which were rated AAA.", "The funds would come in many instances in equal parts from the U.S. Treasury's TARP monies, private investors, and from loans from the Federal Reserve's Term Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility (TALF).", "The initial size of the Public Private Investment Partnership was projected to be $500 billion.", "Economist and Nobel Prize winner Paul Krugman had been very critical of this program arguing the non-recourse loans lead to a hidden subsidy that will be split by asset managers, banks' shareholders and creditors.", "Banking analyst Meredith Whitney argued that banks will not sell bad assets at fair market values because they are reluctant to take asset write downs.", "Economist Linus Wilson, a frequent commenter on TARP related issues, also pointed to excessive misinformation and erroneous analysis surrounding the U.S. toxic asset auction plan.", "Removing toxic assets would also reduce the volatility of banks' stock prices.", "This lost volatility would hurt the stock price of distressed banks.", "Therefore, such banks would only sell toxic assets at above market prices.", "On April 19, 2009, the Obama administration outlined the conversion of the TARP loans to common stock.", "The program was run by the Treasury's new Office of Financial Stability.", "According to a speech made by Neel Kashkari, the fund would be split into the following administrative units:\n#Mortgage-backed securities purchase program: This team is identifying which troubled assets to purchase, from whom to buy them and which purchase mechanism will best meet our policy objectives.", "Here, we are designing the detailed auction protocols and will work with vendors to implement the program.", "#Whole loan purchase program: Regional banks are particularly clogged with whole residential mortgage loans.", "This team is working with bank regulators to identify which types of loans to purchase first, how to value them, and which purchase mechanism will best meet our policy objectives.", "#Insurance program: We are establishing a program to insure troubled assets.", "We have several innovative ideas on how to structure this program, including how to insure mortgage-backed securities as well as whole loans.", "At the same time, we recognize that there are likely other good ideas out there that we could benefit from.", "Accordingly, on Friday we submitted to the Federal Register a public Request for Comment to solicit the best ideas on structuring options.", "We are requiring responses within fourteen days so we can consider them quickly, and begin designing the program.", "#Equity purchase program: We are designing a standardized program to purchase equity in a broad array of financial institutions.", "As with the other programs, the equity purchase program will be voluntary and designed with attractive terms to encourage participation from healthy institutions.", "It will also encourage firms to raise new private capital to complement public capital.", "#Homeownership preservation: When we purchase mortgages and mortgage-backed securities, we will look for every opportunity possible to help homeowners.", "This goal is consistent with other programs – such as HOPE NOW – aimed at working with borrowers, counselors and servicers to keep people in their homes.", "In this case, we are working with the Department of Housing and Urban Development to maximize these opportunities to help as many homeowners as possible, while also protecting the government.", "#Executive compensation: The law sets out important requirements regarding executive compensation for firms that participate in the TARP.", "This team is working hard to define the requirements for financial institutions to participate in three possible scenarios: One, an auction purchase of troubled assets; two, a broad equity or direct purchase program; and three, a case of an intervention to prevent the impending failure of a systemically significant institution.", "#Compliance:", "The law establishes important oversight and compliance structures, including establishing an Oversight Board, on-site participation of the General Accounting Office and the creation of a Special Inspector General, with thorough reporting requirements.", "Eric Thorson was the Inspector General of the US Department of the Treasury and was responsible for the oversight of the TARP but expressed concerns about the difficulty of properly overseeing the complex program in addition to his regular responsibilities.", "Thorson called oversight of TARP a \"mess\" and later clarified this to say \"The word 'mess' was a description of the difficulty my office would have in providing the proper level of oversight of the TARP while handling its growing workload, including conducting audits of certain failed banks and thrifts at the same time that efforts are underway to nominate a special inspector general.", "\"\nThe Treasury retained the law firms of Squire, Sanders & Dempsey and Hughes, Hubbard & Reed to assist in the administration of the program.", "Accounting and internal controls support services have been contracted from PricewaterhouseCoopers and Ernst and Young under the Federal Supply Schedule.", "The Act's criterion for participation stated that \"financial institutions\" will be included in TARP if they are \"established and regulated\" under the laws of the United States and if they have \"significant operations\" in the United States.", "The Treasury would need to define what institutions will be included under the term \"financial institution\" and what will constitute \"significant operations\".", "Companies that sell their bad assets to the government must have provided warrants so that the government would benefit from future growth of the companies.", "Certain institutions seemed to be guaranteed participation.", "These included: U.S. banks, U.S. branches of a foreign bank, U.S. savings banks or credit unions, U.S. broker-dealers, U.S. insurance companies, U.S. mutual funds or other U.S. registered investment companies, tax-qualified U.S. employee retirement plans, and bank holding companies.", "The President was to submit a law to cover government losses on the fund, using \"a small, broad-based fee on all financial institutions\".", "To participate in the bailout program, \"...companies will lose certain tax benefits and, in some cases, must limit executive pay.", "In addition, the bill limits 'golden parachutes' and requires that unearned bonuses be returned.\"", "The fund had an Oversight Board so that the U.S. Treasury cannot act in an arbitrary manner.", "There was also an inspector general to protect against waste, fraud and abuse.", "CAMELS ratings (US supervisory ratings used to classify the nation's 8,500 banks) were being used by the United States government in response to the global financial crisis of 2008 to help it decide which banks to provide special help for and which to not as part of its capitalization program authorized by the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008.", "It was being used to classify the nation's 8,500 banks into five categories, where a ranking of 1 means they are most likely to be helped and a 5 most likely to not be helped.", "Regulators were applying a short list of criteria based on a secret ratings system they use to gauge this.", "\"The New York Times\" stated: \"The criteria being used to choose who gets money appears to be setting the stage for consolidation in the industry by favoring those most likely to survive\" because the criteria appears to favor the financially best off banks and banks too big to let fail.", "Some lawmakers are upset that the capitalization program will end up culling banks in their districts.", "However, \"The Wall Street Journal\" suggested that some lawmakers are actively using TARP to funnel money to weak regional banks in their districts.", "Academic studies have found that banks and credit unions located in the districts of key Congress members had been more likely to win TARP money.", "Known aspects of the capitalization program \"suggest that the government may be loosely defining what constitutes healthy institutions.", "[... Banks] that have been profitable over the last year are the most likely to receive capital.", "Banks that have lost money over the last year, however, must pass additional tests.", "[...] They are also asking if a bank has enough capital and reserves to withstand severe losses to its construction loan portfolio, nonperforming loans and other troubled assets.\"", "Some banks received capital with the understanding the banks would try to find a merger partner.", "To receive capital under the program banks are also \"required to provide a specific business plan for the next two or three years and explain how they plan to deploy the capital\".", "TARP allowed the Treasury to purchase both \"troubled assets\" and any other asset the purchase of which the Treasury determined was \"necessary\" to further economic stability.", "Troubled assets included real estate and mortgage-related assets and securities based on those assets.", "This included both the mortgages themselves and the various financial instruments created by pooling groups of mortgages into one security to be bought on the market.", "This category probably included foreclosed properties as well.\nReal estate and mortgage-related assets (and securities based on those kinds of assets) were eligible if they originated (that is, were created) or were issued on or before March 14, 2008, the date of the Bear Stearns bailout.", "One of the more difficult issues that the Treasury faced in managing TARP was the pricing of the troubled assets.", "The Treasury had to find a way to price extremely complex and sometimes unwieldy instruments for which a market did not exist.", "In addition, the pricing had to strike a balance between efficiently using public funds provided by the government and providing adequate assistance to the financial institutions that need it.", "The Act encouraged the Treasury to design a program using market mechanisms to the extent possible.", "This had led to the expectation that the Treasury would use a reverse auction to price assets.", "Theoretically, the system would create a market price from bidders that would want to sell at the highest possible price, but also be able to make a sale, therefore the price must set a low enough price to be competitive.", "The Treasury was required to publish its methods for pricing, purchasing, and valuing troubled assets no later than two days after the purchase of their first asset.", "The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) used procedures similar to those specified in the Federal Credit Reform Act (FCRA) to value assets purchased under the TARP.", "In a report dated February 6, 2009, the Congressional Oversight Panel concluded that the Treasury paid substantially more for the assets it purchased under the TARP than their then-current market value.", "The COP found the Treasury paid $254 billion, for which it received assets worth approximately $176 billion, for a shortfall of $78 billion.", "The COP's valuation analysis assumed that \"securities similar to those issued under the TARP were trading in the capital markets at fair values\" and employed multiple approaches to cross-check and validate the results.", "The value was estimated for each security as of the time immediately following the announcement by Treasury of its purchase.", "For example, the COP found that the Treasury bought $25 billion of assets from Citigroup on October 14, 2008, however, the actual value was estimated to be $15.5, creating a 38 percent (or $9.5 billion) subsidy.", "#Equity stakes\n##The Act requires financial institutions selling assets to TARP to issue equity warrants (a type of security that entitles its holder to purchase shares in the company issuing the security for a specific price), or equity or senior debt securities (for non-publicly listed companies) to the Treasury.", "In the case of warrants, the Treasury will only receive warrants for non-voting shares, or will agree not to vote the stock.", "This measure is designed to protect the government by giving the Treasury the possibility of profiting through its new ownership stakes in these institutions.", "Ideally, if the financial institutions benefit from government assistance and recover their former strength, the government will also be able to profit from their recovery.", "#Limits on executive compensation\n##The Act sets some limits on the compensation of the five highest-paid executives at companies that elect to participate significantly in TARP.", "The Act treats companies that participate through the auction process differently from those that participate through direct sale (that is, without a bidding process).", "###Companies who sell more than $300 million in assets through an auction process are prohibited from signing new \"golden parachute\" contracts (employment contracts that provide for large payments upon termination) with any future executives.", "It will also place a $500,000 limit on annual tax deductions for payment of each executive, as well as a deduction limit on severance benefits for any golden parachutes already in place.", "###Companies in which the Treasury acquires equity because of direct purchases must meet tougher standards to be established by the Treasury.", "These standards will require the companies to eliminate compensation structures that encourage \"unnecessary and excessive\" risk-taking by executives, provide for claw-back (forced repayment of bonuses in the event of a post-payment determination that the bonuses were paid on the basis of false data) of bonuses already paid to senior executives based on financial statements later proven to be inaccurate, and prohibit payment of previously established golden parachutes.", "#Recoupment\n##This provision was a big factor in the eventual passage of the EESA.", "It gives the government the opportunity to \"be repaid\".", "The recoupment provision requires the Director of the Office of Management and Budget to submit a report on TARP's financial status to Congress five years after its enactment.", "If TARP has not been able to recoup its outlays through the sale of the assets, the Act requires the President to submit a plan to Congress to recoup the losses from the financial industry.", "Theoretically, this prevents TARP from adding to the national debt.", "The use of the term \"financial industry\" in the provision leaves open the possibility that such a plan would involve the entire financial sector rather than only those institutions that availed themselves of TARP.", "#Disclosure and Transparency\n##Though the Treasury will ultimately determine the type and extent of disclosure required for participation in the TARP, it is clear that these requirements will be extensive, particularly with respect to any asset acquired by TARP.", "It seems certain that institutions who participate in TARP will have to publicly disclose information pertaining to their participation, including the number of assets they sold to TARP, what type of assets were sold, and at what price.", "More extensive disclosure may be required at the discretion of the Treasury.\n##The Act also seems to give a broad mandate to the Treasury to determine, for each \"type\" of institution that sells assets to TARP, whether the current disclosure and transparency requirements on the sources of the institution's exposure (such as off-balance sheet transactions, derivative instruments, and contingent liabilities) are adequate.", "If the Treasury finds that a particular institution has not provided sufficient disclosures, it has the power to make recommendations for new disclosure requirements to the institution's regulators, which will probably include foreign-government regulators for those foreign financial institutions that have \"significant operations\" in the United States.", "#Judicial Review of Treasury Actions\n##The Act provides for judicial review of the actions taken by the Treasury under the EESA.", "In other words, the Treasury may be taken to court for actions it takes pursuant to the Act.", "Specifically, Treasury actions may be held unlawful if they involve an abuse of discretion, or are found to be \"arbitrary, capricious . . .", "or not in accordance with law\".", "However, a financial institution that sells assets to TARP is cannot challenge the Treasury's actions with respect to that institution's specific participation in TARP.", ", $467 billion had been allotted, and $416 billion spent, according to a literature review on the TARP.", "Among the money committed, includes:\n\n\n\n\nThe Congressional Budget Office released a report in January 2009, reviewing the transactions enacted through the TARP.", "The CBO found that through December 31, 2008, transactions under the TARP totaled $247 billion.", "According to the CBO's report, the Treasury had purchased $178 billion in shares of preferred stock and warrants from 214 U.S. financial institutions through its Capital Purchase Program (CPP).", "This included the purchase of $40 billion of preferred stock in AIG, $25 billion of preferred stock in Citigroup, and $15 billion of preferred stock in Bank of America.", "The Treasury also agreed to lend $18.4 billion to General Motors and Chrysler.", "The Treasury, the FDIC and the Federal Reserve have also agreed to guarantee a $306 billion portfolio of assets owned by Citigroup.", "The CBO also estimated the subsidy cost for transactions under TARP.", "The subsidy cost is defined as, broadly speaking, the difference between what the Treasury paid for the investments or lent to the firms and the market value of those transactions, where the assets in question were valued using procedures similar to those specified in the Federal Credit Reform Act (FCRA), but adjusting for market risk as specified in the EESA.", "The CBO estimated that the subsidy cost of the $247 billion in transactions before December 31, 2008 amounts to $64 billion.", "As of August 31, 2015, TARP is projected to cost approximately $37.3 billion total—significantly less than the $700 billion originally authorized by Congress.", "The May 2015 report of the TARP to Congress stated that $427.1 billion had been disbursed, total proceeds by April 30, 2015 were $441.8 billion, exceeding disbursements by $14.1 billion, though this included $17.7 billion in non-TARP AIG shares.", "The report predicted a total net cash outflow of $37.7 billion (excluding non-TARP AIG shares), based on the assumption the TARP housing programs' (Hardest Hit Fund, Making Home Affordable and FHA refinancing) funds are fully taken up.", "Debt is still outstanding, some of which has been converted to common stock, from just under $125 million down to $7,000.", "Sums loaned to entities that have gone into, and in some cases emerged from bankruptcy or receivership are provided.", "Additional sums have been written off, for example Treasury's original investment of $854 million in Old GM.", "The May 2015 report also detailed other costs of the program, including $1.157 billion \"for financial agents and legal firms\" $142 million for personnel services, and $303 million for \"other services\".", "The banks agreeing to receive preferred stock investments from the Treasury include Goldman Sachs Group Inc., Morgan Stanley, J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., Bank of America Corp. (which had just agreed to purchase Merrill Lynch), Citigroup Inc., Wells Fargo & Co., Bank of New York Mellon and State Street Corp.\nThe Bank of New York Mellon is to serve as master custodian overseeing the fund.", "The U.S. Treasury maintains an official list of TARP recipients and proceeds to the government on a TARP website.", "Note that foreign-owned U.S. banks were not eligible.", "Beneficiaries of TARP include the following:\nOf these banks, JPMorgan Chase & Co., Morgan Stanley, American Express Co., Goldman Sachs Group Inc., U.S. Bancorp, Capital One Financial Corp., Bank of New York Mellon Corp., State Street Corp., BB&T Corp, Wells Fargo & Co. and Bank of America repaid TARP money.", "Most banks repaid TARP funds using capital raised from the issuance of equity securities and debt not guaranteed by the federal government.", "PNC Financial Services, one of the few profitable banks without TARP money, planned on paying their share back by January 2011, by building up its cash reserves instead of issuing equity securities.", "However, PNC reversed course on February 2, 2010, by issuing $3 billion in shares and $1.5-2 billion in senior notes in order to pay its TARP funds back.", "PNC also raised funds by selling its Global Investment Services division to crosstown rival The Bank of New York Mellon.", "In a January 2012, review, it was reported that AIG still owed around $50 billion, GM about $25 billion and Ally about $12 billion.", "Break even on the first two companies would be at $28.73 a share versus then-current share price of $25.31 and $53.98 versus then-current share price of $24.92, respectively.", "Ally was not publicly traded.", "The 371 banks that still owed money include Regions ($3.5 billion), Zions Bancorporation ($1.4 billion), Synovus Financial Corp. ($967.9 million), Popular, Inc. ($935 million), First BanCorp of San Juan, Puerto Rico ($400 million) and M&T Bank Corp. ($381.5 million).", "Some in the financial industry have been accused of not using the loaned dollars for its intended reason.", "Others further abused investors after the TARP legislation was passed by telling investors their money was invested in the federal TARP financial bailout program and other securities that did not exist.", "Neil Barofsky, Special Inspector General for the Troubled Asset Relief Program (SIGTARP), told lawmakers, \"Inadequate oversight and insufficient information about what companies are doing with the money leaves the program open to fraud, including conflicts of interest facing fund managers, collusion between participants and vulnerabilities to money laundering.", "In its October 2011 quarterly report to Congress, SIGTARP reported \"more than 150 ongoing criminal and civil investigations\".", "SIGTARP had already achieved criminal convictions of 28 defendants (19 had already been sentenced to prison), and civil cases naming 37 individuals and 18 corporate/legal entities as defendants.", "It had recovered $151 million, and prevented $553 million going to Colonial Bank, which failed.", "The first TARP fraud case was brought by the SEC on January 19, 2009, against Nashville-based Gordon Grigg and his firm ProTrust Management.", "The latest occurred in March 2010, with the FBI claiming Charles Antonucci, the former president and chief executive of the Park Avenue Bank, made false statements to regulators in an effort to obtain about $11 million from the fund.", "The nearest parallel action the federal government has taken was in investments made by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) in the 1930s.", "The RFC, an agency chartered during the Herbert Hoover administration in 1932, made loans to distressed banks and bought stock in 6,000 banks, totalling $1.3 billion.", "\"The New York Times,\" citing finance experts on October 13, 2008, noted that, \"A similar effort these days, in proportion to today's economy, would be about $200 billion.\"", "When the economy had stabilized, the government sold its bank stock to private investors or the banks, and is estimated to have received approximately the same amount previously invested.", "In 1984, the government took an 80 percent stake in the nation's then seventh-largest bank Continental Illinois Bank and Trust.", "Continental Illinois made loans to oil drillers and service companies in Oklahoma and Texas.", "The government was estimated to have lost $1 billion because of Continental Illinois, which ultimately became part of Bank of America.", "The $24 billion for the estimated subsidy cost of TARP was less than the government's cost for the savings and loan crisis of the late 1980s, although the subsidy cost does not include the cost of other \"bailout\" programs (such as the Federal Reserve's Maiden Lane Transactions and the Federal takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac).", "The cost of the S&L crisis amounted to 3.2 percent of GDP during the Reagan/Bush era, while the GDP percentage of the TARP cost was estimated at less than 1 percent.", "The primary purpose of TARP, according to the Federal Reserve, was to stabilize the financial sector by purchasing illiquid assets from banks and other financial institutions.", "However, the effects of the TARP have been widely debated in large part because the purpose of the fund is not widely understood.", "A review of investor presentations and conference calls by executives of some two dozen US-based banks by The New York Times found that \"few [banks] cited lending as a priority.", "Further, an overwhelming majority saw the program as a no-strings-attached windfall that could be used to pay down debt, acquire other businesses or invest for the future.\"", "The article cited several bank chairmen as stating that they viewed the money as available for strategic acquisitions in the future rather than to increase lending to the private sector, whose ability to pay back the loans was suspect.", "PlainsCapital chairman Alan B. White saw the Bush administration's cash infusion as \"opportunity capital\", noting, \"They didn't tell me I had to do anything particular with it.", "\"\nMoreover, while TARP funds have been provided to bank holding companies, those holding companies have only used a fraction of such funds to recapitalize their bank subsidiaries.", "Many analysts speculated TARP funds could be used by stronger banks to buy weaker ones.", "On October 24, 2008, PNC Financial Services received $7.7 billion in TARP funds, then only hours later agreed to buy National City Corp. for $5.58 billion, an amount that was considered a bargain.", "Despite ongoing speculation that more TARP funds could be used by large-but-weak banks to gobble up small banks, as of October 2009, no further such takeover had occurred.", "The Senate Congressional Oversight Panel created to oversee the TARP concluded on January 9, 2009: \"In particular, the Panel sees no evidence that the U.S. Treasury has used TARP funds to support the housing market by avoiding preventable foreclosures.\"", "The panel also concluded that \"Although half the money has not yet been received by the banks, hundreds of billions of dollars have been injected into the marketplace with no demonstrable effects on lending.", "\"\nGovernment officials that oversaw the bailout acknowledged the difficulties in tracking the money and in measuring the bailout's effectiveness.", "During 2008, companies that received $295 billion in bailout money had spent $114 million on lobbying and campaign contributions.", "Banks that received bailout money had compensated their top executives nearly $1.6 billion in 2007, including salaries, cash bonuses, stock options, and benefits including personal use of company jets and chauffeurs, home security, country club memberships, and professional money management.", "The Obama administration has promised to set a $500,000 cap on executive pay at companies that receive bailout money, directing banks to tie risk taken to workers' reward by paying anything further in deferred stock.", "Graef Crystal, a former compensation consultant and author of \"The Crystal Report on Executive Compensation\", claimed that the limits on executive pay were \"a joke\" and that \"they're just allowing companies to defer compensation.\"\nIn November 2011, a report showed that the sum of the government's guarantees increased to $7.77 trillion; however, loans to banks were only a small fraction of that amount.", "One study found that the typical white-owned bank was about ten times more likely to receive TARP money in the CDCI program than a black-owned bank after controlling for other factors.", "By March 31, 2009, four banks out of over five hundred had returned their preferred stock obligations.", "None of the publicly traded banks had yet bought back their warrants owned by the U.S. Treasury by March 31, 2009.", "According to the terms of the U.S. Treasury's investment, the banks returning funds can either negotiate to buy back the warrants at fair market value, or the U.S. Treasury can sell the warrants to third party investors as soon as feasible.", "Warrants are call options that add to the number of shares of stock outstanding if they are exercised for a profit.", "The American Bankers Association (ABA) has lobbied Congress to cancel the warrants owned by the government, calling them an \"onerous exit fee\".", "Yet, if the Capital Purchase Program warrants of Goldman Sachs are representative, then the Capital Purchase Program warrants were worth between $5-to-$24 billion as of May 1, 2009.", "Canceling the CPP warrants thus amounts to a $5-to-$24 billion subsidy to the banking industry at government expense.", "While the ABA wants the CPP warrants to be written off by the government, Goldman Sachs does not hold that view.", "A representative of Goldman Sachs was quoted as saying \"We think that taxpayers should expect a decent return on their investment and look forward to being able to provide just that when we are permitted to return the TARP money.", "\"", "In total, U.S. government economic bailouts related to the global financial crisis had federal outflows (expenditures, loans, and investments) of $633.6 billion and inflows (funds returned to the Treasury as interest, dividends, fees, or stock warrant repurchases) of $754.8 billion, for a net profit of $121 billion.", "Of financial system bailout outflows, 38.7% went to banks and other financial institutions, 30.2% to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, 12.6% to auto companies, and 10.7% to AIG, with the remaining 7.8% in other programs.", "A 2019 study by economist Deborah Lucas published in the \"Annual Review of Financial Economics\" estimated \"that the total direct cost of the 2008 crisis-related bailouts in the United States\" (including TARP and other programs) was about $500 billion, or 3.5% of the United States's GDP in 2009, and that \"the largest direct beneficiaries of the bailouts were the unsecured creditors of financial institutions.\"", "Lucas noted that this cost estimate \"stands in sharp contrast to popular accounts that claim there was no cost because the money was repaid, and with claims of costs in the trillions of dollars.", "\"\nIn a 2012 survey of leading economists conducted by the University of Chicago Booth School of Business' Initiative on Global Markets, economists generally agreed that unemployment at the end of 2010 would have been higher without the program." ]

[ 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168 ]

[ "The TARP originally authorized expenditures of $700 billion." ]

[ "Speaking to \"International Musician and Recording World\" in 1988, Ware said of \"Teddy Bear, Duke & Psycho\": \"This is the album that should have been made between \"Penthouse and Pavement\" and \"The Luxury Gap\".", "A lot of the lyrical content is similar to side two of \"Penthouse\".\"", "Comparing the album's greater use of synthesisers and sampling than the more organic \"Pleasure One\", Ware commented: \"We decided that our strength lay in synthetic manipulation.", "We've actually absorbed the potential of sampling technology more than most bands.", "We're using it as a replacement and enhancement for real instruments, rather than as a little gimmick that's thrown in.\"", "The album's cover art is reminiscent of promotional material for the 1969 New York-based film \"Midnight Cowboy\".", "Upon release, \"Music & Media\" commented: \"After the lacklustre performance of their previous LP, Heaven 17 seem to have recovered some of the joie de vie that made them so popular.", "The material now is more organic, lots of funky guitars and more than the occasional flash of 60s Motown in the sound and arrangements.\"", "Julian Baggini of the \"Reading Evening Post\" wrote: \"Heaven 17's new album doesn't exactly break new ground, but tracks like \"Big Square People\" and \"Responsibility\" have the potential to attract big sales, simply by being fine examples of their type.", "For fans of Heaven 17, it will suffice that the band are continuing to do what they do well.\"", "Robin Denselow of \"The Guardian\" commented: \"For those who want well-crafted British pop that's quirky and throw-away, there's Heaven 17.", "[The album is] a professional, sturdy collection of songs that mix funk and white soul with slick production work and the deep relaxed and very English vocals of Glenn Gregory.", "\"\n\"The Journal\" stated: \"I tried to like this.", "A chorus in one of the songs goes, \"You got to sound like you mean it\", and frankly the Sheffield lads don't, and sound like they want to take the money and run.\"", "Victoria Thieberger of Australian newspaper \"The Age\" wrote: \"This album confirms a long, slow slide for Heaven 17.", "Since their pioneering synthpop on \"Penthouse and Pavement\", the band has descended into the banal.", "Most of this album is irritatingly repetitive: doubtful lyrics chanted to an overbearing disco beat.\"", "Thieberger highlighted \"The Ballad of Go-Go Brown\" and \"Don't Stop for No One\" as the two standout tracks.", "Dale Winnitowy of the Canadian \"Surrey Leader\" commented: \"Full bodied production ties together glamorous soul and plenty of funky rumble-tumble rhythms.", "A strong album from Heaven 17, who I had thought were out for the count.\"", "In a retrospective review, Aaron Badgley of AllMusic considered the album to be \"somewhat disappointing\" compared to the band's previous two albums, adding: \"This release saw Heaven 17 attempting to mix pop with R&B.", "But with all of the highlights, the CD just does not hold together well.", "The songs are overlong and the production is so slick that the melodies get lost in the mix.", "\"", "Heaven 17\n\nAdditional musicians\n\n\n\n\nOther personnel" ]

[ 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 ]

[ "Teddy Bear, Duke & Psycho is the fifth studio album by the English synthpop band Heaven 17.", "It was released in 1988 by Virgin and was the band's last album for the label.", "Two singles were released from the album." ]

[ "Brought up in the intense cricket culture of Langa – Bavuma, Thami Tsolekile and Malusi Siboto are all from the same street – Bavuma was educated at South African College Junior School in Newlands, and St David's Marist Inanda a boys high School in Sandton.", "Bavuma made his debut in 2008 in Gauteng against Eastern Province.", "Batting in the middle order, he made four runs in the first innings in which he batted, briefly partnering teammate Dane Vilas to his first-class best score.", "Bavuma made his franchise debut for the Lions in the 2010/11 season.", "In the Supersport Series, he made 242 runs in 4 matches at an average of 60.50 in this first season, including a 124\nThese performances have earned him five matches so far for the South Africa A cricket team.", "The first was in July 2012 against Sri Lanka A in Durban.", "He also played a match against Ireland in the A side's tour of the country in August of that year.", "He did not make a significant contribution in either of those two matches.", "His next appearances for the A side were in the series of matches played in South Africa between South Africa A and the Indian and Australian A sides.", "He faced Australia once, and India twice.", "His best performance was a 65 in the second match of an innings defeat against the Indians.", "He was included in the Gauteng squad for the 2015 Africa T20 Cup.", "In May 2017, Bavuma announced that he was switching franchises to join Cape Cobras ahead of the 2017–18 season.", "In September 2018, he was named in Gauteng's squad for the 2018 Africa T20 Cup.", "In October 2018, he was named in Durban Heat's squad for the first edition of the Mzansi Super League T20 tournament.", "In September 2019, he was named in the squad for the Jozi Stars team for the 2019 Mzansi Super League tournament.", "In April 2021, he was named in Gauteng's squad, ahead of the 2021–22 cricket season in South Africa.", "Bavuma made his Test debut for South Africa against the West Indies on 26 December 2014.", "On 5 January 2016, Bavuma became the first black cricketer to score a Test century for South Africa.", "He scored an unbeaten 102 at the Cape Town in the 2nd Test of the 2015/16 series against England.", "Bavuma made his One Day International debut for South Africa against Ireland on 25 September 2016 and scored his maiden ODI century.", "Bavuma took his first Test wicket against Australia on 7 November 2016.", "In May 2017, Bavuma won the Award of Excellence at Cricket South Africa's annual awards.", "In August 2019, Bavuma was named in South Africa's Twenty20 International (T20I) squad for their series against India.", "He made his T20I debut for South Africa, against India, on 18 September 2019.", "In March 2021, Bavuma was named as the captain of South Africa’s limited over side, taking over the captaincy from Quinton de Kock.", "With the appointment of him as South Africa’s permanent captain, he became the first ever black African player to be appointed as the permanent captain of South Africa’s side.", "On 24 July 2021, against Ireland in the third T20I, Bavuma scored his maiden T20I half-century, scoring 72 off 51 deliveries before being dismissed by Barry McCarthy.", "In September 2021, Bavuma was named as the captain of South Africa's squad for the 2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup." ]

[ 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 ]

[ "He was the first black African cricketer to make a Test century for South Africa and the first to captain the side.", "Bavuma is only the second South African cricketer to score a century on ODI debut, scoring 113 runs against Ireland in September 2016.", "He is also South Africa's first permanently appointed black captain." ]

[ "Brought up in the intense cricket culture of Langa – Bavuma, Thami Tsolekile and Malusi Siboto are all from the same street – Bavuma was educated at South African College Junior School in Newlands, and St David's Marist Inanda a boys high School in Sandton.", "Bavuma made his debut in 2008 in Gauteng against Eastern Province.", "Batting in the middle order, he made four runs in the first innings in which he batted, briefly partnering teammate Dane Vilas to his first-class best score.", "Bavuma made his franchise debut for the Lions in the 2010/11 season.", "In the Supersport Series, he made 242 runs in 4 matches at an average of 60.50 in this first season, including a 124\nThese performances have earned him five matches so far for the South Africa A cricket team.", "The first was in July 2012 against Sri Lanka A in Durban.", "He also played a match against Ireland in the A side's tour of the country in August of that year.", "He did not make a significant contribution in either of those two matches.", "His next appearances for the A side were in the series of matches played in South Africa between South Africa A and the Indian and Australian A sides.", "He faced Australia once, and India twice.", "His best performance was a 65 in the second match of an innings defeat against the Indians.", "He was included in the Gauteng squad for the 2015 Africa T20 Cup.", "In May 2017, Bavuma announced that he was switching franchises to join Cape Cobras ahead of the 2017–18 season.", "In September 2018, he was named in Gauteng's squad for the 2018 Africa T20 Cup.", "In October 2018, he was named in Durban Heat's squad for the first edition of the Mzansi Super League T20 tournament.", "In September 2019, he was named in the squad for the Jozi Stars team for the 2019 Mzansi Super League tournament.", "In April 2021, he was named in Gauteng's squad, ahead of the 2021–22 cricket season in South Africa.", "Bavuma made his Test debut for South Africa against the West Indies on 26 December 2014.", "On 5 January 2016, Bavuma became the first black cricketer to score a Test century for South Africa.", "He scored an unbeaten 102 at the Cape Town in the 2nd Test of the 2015/16 series against England.", "Bavuma made his One Day International debut for South Africa against Ireland on 25 September 2016 and scored his maiden ODI century.", "Bavuma took his first Test wicket against Australia on 7 November 2016.", "In May 2017, Bavuma won the Award of Excellence at Cricket South Africa's annual awards.", "In August 2019, Bavuma was named in South Africa's Twenty20 International (T20I) squad for their series against India.", "He made his T20I debut for South Africa, against India, on 18 September 2019.", "In March 2021, Bavuma was named as the captain of South Africa’s limited over side, taking over the captaincy from Quinton de Kock.", "With the appointment of him as South Africa’s permanent captain, he became the first ever black African player to be appointed as the permanent captain of South Africa’s side.", "On 24 July 2021, against Ireland in the third T20I, Bavuma scored his maiden T20I half-century, scoring 72 off 51 deliveries before being dismissed by Barry McCarthy.", "In September 2021, Bavuma was named as the captain of South Africa's squad for the 2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup." ]

[ 25, 26, 27, 28 ]

[ "He was the first black African cricketer to make a Test century for South Africa and the first to captain the side.", "He is also South Africa's first permanently appointed black captain." ]

[ "Source: Welsh Football Data Archive", "Source: Welsh Football Data Archive", "Source: Welsh Football Data Archive\nRhosllanerchrugog receive a bye to the next round", "Source: Welsh Football Data Archive", "Source: Welsh Football Data Archive", "Source: Welsh Football Data Archive", "Source: Welsh Football Data Archive", "Source: Welsh Football Data Archive\nBangor receive bye to next round", "Source: Welsh Football Data Archive", "Source: Welsh Football Data Archive\nWrexham receive bye to next round", "The final of the inaugural Welsh Cup tournament was played at Acton Park, Wrexham on 30 March 1878 between Wrexham and Druids of Ruabon.", "The match was a cliffhanger, with no score until the Wrexham forwards charged the Druids' defenders to take the ball over the line to win the game in the final minute, with James Davies being credited with the goal." ]

[ 10, 11 ]

[ "The cup was won by Wrexham who defeated Druids 1–0 in the final." ]

[ "Immediately following the collapse of the Taliban regime, Soldiers from the 10th Mountain Division began the initial development of the Afghan National Army (ANA) as Task Force Phoenix.", "One of the early mission statements for the formation appears to have been: \"Coalition Joint Task Force PHOENIX executes a broad-based training, mentoring, and assistance program in order to enable the Afghanistan National Army (ANA) to field a mission-ready Central Corps NLT [No Later Than] June 2004.", "\"", "The first units involved with TF Phoenix were from the 10th Mountain Division out of Fort Drum, New York.", "Once the 10th Mountain Division rotated home the mission was assumed by units of the Army National Guard and other members of the coalition.", "Phoenix II built up the first Afghan Corps – the Central Corps, now 201st Corps (Afghanistan) - in Kabul, Afghanistan.", "Phoenix II was provided by the 45th Infantry Brigade-Oklahoma Army National Guard.", "Task Force Phoenix II's base support battalion served as the logistics command for the Afghan National Army, providing all logistics support for an army conducting country-wide combat operations.", "During this rotation, the brigade grew the size of the Afghan National Army to over 14,000 as well as fielding a corps-sized force ahead of schedule.", "In August 2004, the brigade was replaced in this mission by the 76th Infantry Brigade-Indiana Army National Guard, and subsequently returned home to the United States.", "Phoenix III took on the daunting task of splitting that Corps into five separate Corps and locating them throughout the country at five strategic centers.", "Phoenix IV (53rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (United States)", "Florida Army National Guard) worked to build up those Corps to full strength.", "TF Phoenix IV's Training Assistance Group (209th Regiment-Nebraska Army National Guard and 211th Regiment-Florida Army National Guard) stationed at Camp Alamo (inside the Kabul Military Training Center) implemented major improvements to both Basic and Advanced Individual Training programs.", "Task Force Phoenix V ( 41st Infantry Brigade-Oregon Army National Guard) was the fifth ANA training rotation.", "The mission continued to expand with TF Phoenix V taking on additional responsibilities associated with training and supporting the Afghan National Police (ANP), as well as continuing to train and mentor the growing ANA.", "TF Phoenix V was composed primarily of soldiers from the U.S. Army National Guard, with members representing 49 of the 50 states.", "In addition, they had elements from the regular and reserve components personnel from the Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps attached.", "Later, the responsibility for the Phoenix missions were assigned to the 27th Brigade Combat Team of the New York Army National Guard took command of Task Force Phoenix on 19 April 2008 from the 218th BCT, South Carolina Army National Guard.", "They were relieved on 19 December 2008 by the 33rd Brigade Combat Team Illinois Army National Guard.", "In 2009, the 48th Infantry Brigade Combat Team Georgia National Guard assumed command of Task Force Phoenix IX.", "The Task Force Phoenix mission consisted of training, coaching and mentoring ANSF.", "In addition to the ANA and ANP, the ANSF consists of the Afghan National Army Air Corps, the Afghan National Border Patrol (ANBP), and the Afghan National Civil Order Police (ANCOP).", "Task Force Phoenix consisted of five regional commands which matched the five ANA Corps regions.", "Initially, these sub-commands were named Regional Corps Advisory Commands (RCAC) and Regional Police Advisory Commands (RPAC): RCAC/RPAC-S, RCAC/RPAC-W, RCAC/RPAC-E, RCAC/RPAC-C, and RCAC/RPAC-N).", "In 2007, these sub-commands were placed under newly created Afghanistan Regional Security Integration Commands (ARSIC).", "The ARSIC included expanded staffs for logistics and administration to better support the RCAC and RPAC.", "In addition to the five existing regions, a sixth was added for the capital area of Kabul: ARSIC-West (ARSIC-W), ARSIC-Southwest (ARSIC-SW), ARSIC-South (ARSIC-S), ARSIC-Capital (ARSIC-C), ARSIC-North (ARSIC-N), and ARSIC-East (ARSIC-E).", "ARSIC-S, for example, was stationed at Kandahar Air Field.", "One example – The ARSIC fell under the command of Combined Joint Task Force Phoenix based out of Camp Phoenix, Kabul, and Combined Strategic Transition Command- Afghanistan (CSTC-A) based out of Camp Eggers, Kabul.", "With the addition of coalition forces personnel from nations such as Canada, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Australia, and France, ARSIC were considered multinational coalition commands.", "RCAC and RPAC however, tended to be maintain national integrity and most were composed of members of the Army National Guard.", "ARSIC were not under ISAF.", "TF Phoenix was eventually disbanded.", "With the establishment of NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan (NTM-A) and Combined Security Transition Command – Afghanistan (CSTC-A) the need for TF Phoenix lessened.", "The task forces' mission changed from one of training to support of the many coalition bases in the Kabul area.", "Its name was changed to the Kabul Base Cluster Installation Command or KBC." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36 ]

[ "Task Force Phoenix, or more properly known as Combined Joint Task Force Phoenix (CJTF Phoenix), was an international military formation.", "It was organized by the United States Central Command (CENTCOM) in 2003-2004 to train and mentor the newly created Afghan National Army/Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) to establish and maintain law and order throughout Afghanistan using Embedded Training Teams or ETTs." ]

[ "Immediately following the collapse of the Taliban regime, Soldiers from the 10th Mountain Division began the initial development of the Afghan National Army (ANA) as Task Force Phoenix.", "One of the early mission statements for the formation appears to have been: \"Coalition Joint Task Force PHOENIX executes a broad-based training, mentoring, and assistance program in order to enable the Afghanistan National Army (ANA) to field a mission-ready Central Corps NLT [No Later Than] June 2004.", "\"", "The first units involved with TF Phoenix were from the 10th Mountain Division out of Fort Drum, New York.", "Once the 10th Mountain Division rotated home the mission was assumed by units of the Army National Guard and other members of the coalition.", "Phoenix II built up the first Afghan Corps – the Central Corps, now 201st Corps (Afghanistan) - in Kabul, Afghanistan.", "Phoenix II was provided by the 45th Infantry Brigade-Oklahoma Army National Guard.", "Task Force Phoenix II's base support battalion served as the logistics command for the Afghan National Army, providing all logistics support for an army conducting country-wide combat operations.", "During this rotation, the brigade grew the size of the Afghan National Army to over 14,000 as well as fielding a corps-sized force ahead of schedule.", "In August 2004, the brigade was replaced in this mission by the 76th Infantry Brigade-Indiana Army National Guard, and subsequently returned home to the United States.", "Phoenix III took on the daunting task of splitting that Corps into five separate Corps and locating them throughout the country at five strategic centers.", "Phoenix IV (53rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (United States)", "Florida Army National Guard) worked to build up those Corps to full strength.", "TF Phoenix IV's Training Assistance Group (209th Regiment-Nebraska Army National Guard and 211th Regiment-Florida Army National Guard) stationed at Camp Alamo (inside the Kabul Military Training Center) implemented major improvements to both Basic and Advanced Individual Training programs.", "Task Force Phoenix V ( 41st Infantry Brigade-Oregon Army National Guard) was the fifth ANA training rotation.", "The mission continued to expand with TF Phoenix V taking on additional responsibilities associated with training and supporting the Afghan National Police (ANP), as well as continuing to train and mentor the growing ANA.", "TF Phoenix V was composed primarily of soldiers from the U.S. Army National Guard, with members representing 49 of the 50 states.", "In addition, they had elements from the regular and reserve components personnel from the Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps attached.", "Later, the responsibility for the Phoenix missions were assigned to the 27th Brigade Combat Team of the New York Army National Guard took command of Task Force Phoenix on 19 April 2008 from the 218th BCT, South Carolina Army National Guard.", "They were relieved on 19 December 2008 by the 33rd Brigade Combat Team Illinois Army National Guard.", "In 2009, the 48th Infantry Brigade Combat Team Georgia National Guard assumed command of Task Force Phoenix IX.", "The Task Force Phoenix mission consisted of training, coaching and mentoring ANSF.", "In addition to the ANA and ANP, the ANSF consists of the Afghan National Army Air Corps, the Afghan National Border Patrol (ANBP), and the Afghan National Civil Order Police (ANCOP).", "Task Force Phoenix consisted of five regional commands which matched the five ANA Corps regions.", "Initially, these sub-commands were named Regional Corps Advisory Commands (RCAC) and Regional Police Advisory Commands (RPAC): RCAC/RPAC-S, RCAC/RPAC-W, RCAC/RPAC-E, RCAC/RPAC-C, and RCAC/RPAC-N).", "In 2007, these sub-commands were placed under newly created Afghanistan Regional Security Integration Commands (ARSIC).", "The ARSIC included expanded staffs for logistics and administration to better support the RCAC and RPAC.", "In addition to the five existing regions, a sixth was added for the capital area of Kabul: ARSIC-West (ARSIC-W), ARSIC-Southwest (ARSIC-SW), ARSIC-South (ARSIC-S), ARSIC-Capital (ARSIC-C), ARSIC-North (ARSIC-N), and ARSIC-East (ARSIC-E).", "ARSIC-S, for example, was stationed at Kandahar Air Field.", "One example – The ARSIC fell under the command of Combined Joint Task Force Phoenix based out of Camp Phoenix, Kabul, and Combined Strategic Transition Command- Afghanistan (CSTC-A) based out of Camp Eggers, Kabul.", "With the addition of coalition forces personnel from nations such as Canada, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Australia, and France, ARSIC were considered multinational coalition commands.", "RCAC and RPAC however, tended to be maintain national integrity and most were composed of members of the Army National Guard.", "ARSIC were not under ISAF.", "TF Phoenix was eventually disbanded.", "With the establishment of NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan (NTM-A) and Combined Security Transition Command – Afghanistan (CSTC-A) the need for TF Phoenix lessened.", "The task forces' mission changed from one of training to support of the many coalition bases in the Kabul area.", "Its name was changed to the Kabul Base Cluster Installation Command or KBC." ]

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[ "Task Force Phoenix, or more properly known as Combined Joint Task Force Phoenix (CJTF Phoenix), was an international military formation.", "It was organized by the United States Central Command (CENTCOM) in 2003-2004 to train and mentor the newly created Afghan National Army/Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) to establish and maintain law and order throughout Afghanistan using Embedded Training Teams or ETTs." ]

[ "The elbow joint has three different portions surrounded by a common joint capsule.", "These are joints between the three bones of the elbow, the humerus of the upper arm, and the radius and the ulna of the forearm.", "When in anatomical position there are four main bony landmarks of the elbow.", "At the lower part of the humerus are the medial and lateral epicondyles, on the side closest to the body (medial) and on the side away from the body (lateral) surfaces.", "The third landmark is the olecranon found at the head of the ulna.", "These lie on a horizontal line called the \"Hueter line\".", "When the elbow is flexed, they form a triangle called the \"Hueter triangle\", which resembles an equilateral triangle.", "At the surface of the humerus where it faces the joint is the trochlea.", "In most people, the groove running across the trochlea is vertical on the anterior side but it spirals off on the posterior side.", "This results in the forearm being aligned to the upper arm during flexion, but forming an angle to the upper arm during extension — an angle known as the carrying angle.", "The superior radioulnar joint shares the joint capsule with the elbow joint but plays no functional role at the elbow.", "The elbow joint and the superior radioulnar joint are enclosed by a single fibrous capsule.", "The capsule is strengthened by ligaments at the sides but is relatively weak in front and behind.", "On the anterior side, the capsule consists mainly of longitudinal fibres.", "However, some bundles among these fibers run obliquely or transversely, thickening and strengthening the capsule.", "These bundles are referred to as the capsular ligament.", "Deep fibres of the brachialis muscle insert anteriorly into the capsule and act to pull it and the underlying membrane during flexion in order to prevent them from being pinched.", "On the posterior side, the capsule is thin and mainly composed of transverse fibres.", "A few of these fibres stretch across the olecranon fossa without attaching to it and form a transverse band with a free upper border.", "On the ulnar side, the capsule reaches down to the posterior part of the annular ligament.", "The posterior capsule is attached to the triceps tendon which prevents the capsule from being pinched during extension.", "The synovial membrane of the elbow joint is very extensive.", "On the humerus, it extends up from the articular margins and covers the coronoid and radial fossae anteriorly and the olecranon fossa posteriorly.", "Distally, it is prolonged down to the neck of the radius and the superior radioulnar joint.", "It is supported by the quadrate ligament below the annular ligament where it also forms a fold which gives the head of the radius freedom of movement.", "Several synovial folds project into the recesses of the joint.", "These folds or plicae are remnants of normal embryonic development and can be categorized as either anterior (anterior humeral recess) or posterior (olecranon recess).", "A crescent-shaped fold is commonly present between the head of the radius and the capitulum of the humerus.", "On the humerus there are extrasynovial fat pads adjacent to the three articular fossae.", "These pads fill the radial and coronoid fossa anteriorly during extension, and the olecranon fossa posteriorly during flexion.", "They are displaced when the fossae are occupied by the bony projections of the ulna and radius.", "The elbow, like other joints, has ligaments on either side.", "These are triangular bands which blend with the joint capsule.", "They are positioned so that they always lie across the transverse joint axis and are, therefore, always relatively tense and impose strict limitations on abduction, adduction, and axial rotation at the elbow.", "The ulnar collateral ligament has its apex on the medial epicondyle.", "Its anterior band stretches from the anterior side of the medial epicondyle to the medial edge of the coronoid process, while the posterior band stretches from posterior side of the medial epicondyle to the medial side of the olecranon.", "These two bands are separated by a thinner intermediate part and their distal attachments are united by a transverse band below which the synovial membrane protrudes during joint movements.", "The anterior band is closely associated with the tendon of the superficial flexor muscles of the forearm, even being the origin of flexor digitorum superficialis.", "The ulnar nerve crosses the intermediate part as it enters the forearm.", "The radial collateral ligament is attached to the lateral epicondyle below the common extensor tendon.", "Less distinct than the ulnar collateral ligament, this ligament blends with the annular ligament of the radius and its margins are attached near the radial notch of the ulna.", "There are three main flexor muscles at the elbow:\n\nBrachialis is the main muscle used when the elbow is flexed slowly.", "During rapid and forceful flexion all three muscles are brought into action assisted by the superficial forearm flexors originating at the medial side of the elbow.", "The efficiency of the flexor muscles increases dramatically as the elbow is brought into midflexion (flexed 90°) — biceps reaches its angle of maximum efficiency at 80–90° and brachialis at 100–110°.", "Active flexion is limited to 145° by the contact between the anterior muscles of the upper arm and forearm, more so because they are hardened by contraction during flexion.", "Passive flexion (forearm is pushed against the upper arm with flexors relaxed) is limited to 160° by the bony projections on the radius and ulna as they reach to shallow depressions on the humerus; i.e. the head of radius being pressed against the radial fossa and the coronoid process being pressed against the coronoid fossa.", "Passive flexion is further limited by tension in the posterior capsular ligament and in triceps brachii.", "A small accessory muscle, so called epitrochleoanconeus muscle, may be found on the medial aspect of the elbow running from the medial epicondyle to the olecranon.", "Elbow extension is simply bringing the forearm back to anatomical position.", "This action is performed by triceps brachii with a negligible assistance from anconeus.", "Triceps originates with two heads posteriorly on the humerus and with its long head on the scapula just below the shoulder joint.", "It is inserted posteriorly on the olecranon.", "Triceps is maximally efficient with the elbow flexed 20–30°.", "As the angle of flexion increases, the position of the olecranon approaches the main axis of the humerus which decreases muscle efficiency.", "In full flexion, however, the triceps tendon is \"rolled up\" on the olecranon as on a pulley which compensates for the loss of efficiency.", "Because triceps' long head is biarticular (acts on two joints), its efficiency is also dependent on the position of the shoulder.", "Extension is limited by the olecranon reaching the olecranon fossa, tension in the anterior ligament, and resistance in flexor muscles.", "Forced extension results in a rupture in one of the limiting structures: olecranon fracture, torn capsule and ligaments, and, though the muscles are normally left unaffected, a bruised brachial artery.", "The arteries supplying the joint are derived from an extensive circulatory anastomosis between the brachial artery and its terminal branches.", "The superior and inferior ulnar collateral branches of the brachial artery and the radial and middle collateral branches of the profunda brachii artery descend from above to reconnect on the joint capsule, where they also connect with the anterior and posterior ulnar recurrent branches of the ulnar artery; the radial recurrent branch of the radial artery; and the interosseous recurrent branch of the common interosseous artery.", "The blood is brought back by vessels from the radial, ulnar, and brachial veins.", "There are two sets of lymphatic nodes at the elbow, normally located above the medial epicondyle — the deep and superficial cubital nodes (also called epitrochlear nodes).", "The lymphatic drainage at the elbow is through the deep nodes at the bifurcation of the brachial artery, the superficial nodes drain the forearm and the ulnar side of the hand.", "The efferent lymph vessels from the elbow proceed to the lateral group of axillary lymph nodes.", "The elbow is innervated anteriorly by branches from the musculocutaneous, median, and radial nerve, and posteriorly from the ulnar nerve and the branch of the radial nerve to anconeus.", "The elbow undergoes dynamic development of ossification centers through infancy and adolescence, with the order of both the appearance and fusion of the apophyseal growth centers being crucial in assessment of the pediatric elbow on radiograph, in order to distinguish a traumatic fracture or apophyseal separation from normal development.", "The order of appearance can be understood by the mnemonic CRITOE, referring to the capitellum, radial head, internal epicondyle, trochlea, olecranon, and external epicondyle at ages 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 years.", "These apophyseal centers then fuse during adolescence, with the internal epicondyle and olecranon fusing last.", "The ages of fusion are more variable than ossification, but normally occur at 13, 15, 17, 13, 16 and 13 years, respectively.", "In addition, the presence of a joint effusion can be inferenced by the presence of the fat pad sign, a structure that is normally physiologically present, but pathologic when elevated by fluid, and always pathologic when posterior.", "The function of the elbow joint is to extend and flex the arm grasp and reach for objects.", "The range of movement in the elbow is from 0 degrees of elbow extension to 150 degrees of elbow flexion.", "Muscles contributing to function are all flexion (biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis) and extension muscles (triceps and anconeus).", "In humans, the main task of the elbow is to properly place the hand in space by shortening and lengthening the upper limb.", "While the superior radioulnar joint shares joint capsule with the elbow joint, it plays no functional role at the elbow.", "With the elbow extended, the long axis of the humerus and that of the ulna coincide.", "At the same time, the articular surfaces on both bones are located in front of those axes and deviate from them at an angle of 45°.", "Additionally, the forearm muscles that originate at the elbow are grouped at the sides of the joint in order not to interfere with its movement.", "The wide angle of flexion at the elbow made possible by this arrangement — almost 180° — allows the bones to be brought almost in parallel to each other.", "When the arm is extended, with the palm facing forward or up, the bones of the upper arm (humerus) and forearm (radius and ulna) are not perfectly aligned.", "The deviation from a straight line occurs in the direction of the thumb, and is referred to as the \"carrying angle\" (visible in the right half of the picture, right).", "The carrying angle permits the arm to be swung without contacting the hips.", "Women on average have smaller shoulders and wider hips than men, which tends to produce a larger carrying angle (i.e., larger deviation from a straight line than that in men).", "There is, however, extensive overlap in the carrying angle between individual men and women, and a sex-bias has not been consistently observed in scientific studies.", "This could however be attributed to the very small sample sizes in those cited earlier studies.", "The angle is greater in the dominant limb than the non-dominant limb of both sexes, suggesting that natural forces acting on the elbow modify the carrying angle.", "Developmental, aging and possibly racial influences add further to the variability of this parameter.", "The types of disease most commonly seen at the elbow are due to injury.", "Two of the most common injuries at the elbow are overuse injuries: tennis elbow and golfer's elbow.", "Golfer's elbow involves the tendon of the common flexor origin which originates at the medial epicondyle of the humerus (the \"inside\" of the elbow).", "Tennis elbow is the equivalent injury, but at the common extensor origin (the lateral epicondyle of the humerus).", "There are three bones at the elbow joint, and any combination of these bones may be involved in a fracture of the elbow.", "Patients who are able to fully extend their arm at the elbow are unlikely to have a fracture (98% certainty) and an X-ray is not required as long as an olecranon fracture is ruled out.", "Acute fractures may not be easily visible on X-ray.", "Elbow dislocations constitute 10% to 25% of all injuries to the elbow.", "The elbow is one of the most commonly dislocated joints in the body, with an average annual incidence of acute dislocation of 6 per 100,000 persons.", "Among injuries to the upper extremity, dislocation of the elbow is second only to a dislocated shoulder.", "A full dislocation of the elbow will require expert medical attention to re-align, and recovery can take approximately 8–14 weeks.", "Infection of the elbow joint (septic arthritis) is uncommon.", "It may occur spontaneously, but may also occur in relation to surgery or infection elsewhere in the body (for example, endocarditis).", "Elbow arthritis is usually seen in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis or after fractures that involve the joint itself.", "When the damage to the joint is severe, fascial arthroplasty or elbow joint replacement may be considered.", "Olecranon bursitis, tenderness, warmth, swelling, pain in both flexion and extension-in chronic case great flexion-is extremely painful.", "Elbow pain occurs when the tenderness of the tissues in the elbow become inflamed.", "Frequent exercise of the inflamed elbow will assist with healing.", "Elbow pain can occur for a multitude of reasons, including injury, disease, and other conditions.", "Common conditions include tennis elbow, golfer's elbow, distal radioulnar joint rheumatoid arthritis, and cubital tunnel syndrome.", "Tennis elbow is a very common type of overuse injury.", "It can occur both from chronic repetitive motions of the hand and forearm, and from trauma to the same areas.", "These repetitions can injure the tendons that connect the extensor supinator muscles (which rotate and extend the forearm) to the olecranon process (also known as “the elbow”).", "Pain occurs, often radiating from the lateral forearm.", "Weakness, numbness, and stiffness are also very common, along with tenderness upon touch.", "A non-invasive treatment for pain management is rest.", "If achieving rest is an issue, a wrist brace can also be worn.", "This keeps the wrist in flexion, thereby relieving the extensor muscles and allowing rest.", "Ice, heat, ultrasound, steroid injections, and compression can also help alleviate pain.", "After the pain has been reduced, exercise therapy is important to prevent injury in the future.", "Exercises should be low velocity, and weight should increase progressively.", "Stretching the flexors and extensors is helpful, as are strengthening exercises.", "Massage can also be useful, focusing on the extensor trigger points.", "Golfer's elbow is very similar to tennis elbow, but less common.", "It is caused by overuse and repetitive motions like a golf swing.", "It can also be caused by trauma.", "Wrist flexion and pronation (rotating of the forearm) causes irritation to the tendons near the medial epicondyle of the elbow.", "It can cause pain, stiffness, loss of sensation, and weakness radiating from the inside of the elbow to the fingers.", "Rest is the primary intervention for this injury.", "Ice, pain medication, steroid injections, strengthening exercises, and avoiding any aggravating activities can also help.", "Surgery is a last resort, and rarely used.", "Exercises should focus on strengthening and stretching the forearm, and utilizing proper form when performing movements.", "Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic disease that affects joints.", "It is very common in the wrist, and is most common at the radioulnar joint.", "It results in pain, stiffness, and deformities.", "There are many different treatments for rheumatoid arthritis, and there is no one consensus for which methods are best.", "Most common treatments include wrist splints, surgery, physical and occupational therapy, and antirheumatic medication.", "Cubital tunnel syndrome, more commonly known as ulnar neuropathy, occurs when the ulnar nerve is irritated and becomes inflamed.", "This can often happen where the ulnar nerve is most superficial, at the elbow.", "The ulnar nerve passes over the elbow, at the area known as the “funny bone”.", "Irritation can occur due to constant, repeated stress and pressure at this area, or from a trauma.", "It can also occur due to bone deformities, and oftentimes from sports.", "Symptoms include tingling, numbness, and weakness, along with pain.", "First line pain management techniques include the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory oral medicines.", "These help to reduce inflammation, pressure, and irritation of the nerve and around the nerve.", "Other simple fixes include learning more ergonomically friendly habits that can help prevent nerve impingement and irritation in the future.", "Protective equipment can also be very helpful.", "Examples of this include a protective elbow pad, and an arm splint.", "More serious cases often involve surgery, in which the nerve or the surrounding tissue is moved to relieve the pressure.", "Recovery from surgery can take awhile, but the prognosis is often a good one.", "Recovery often includes movement restrictions, and range of motion activities, and can last a few months (cubital and radial tunnel syndrome, 2).", "The now obsolete length unit ell relates closely to the elbow.", "This becomes especially visible when considering the Germanic origins of both words, \"Elle\" (ell, defined as the length of a male forearm from elbow to fingertips) and \"Ellbogen\" (elbow).", "It is unknown when or why the second \"l\" was dropped from English usage of the word.", "The \"ell\" as in the English measure could also be taken to come from the letter L, being bent at right angles, as an elbow.", "The ell as a measure was taken as six handbreadths; three to the elbow and three from the elbow to the shoulder.", "Another measure was the \"cubit\" (from \"cubital\").", "This was taken to be the length of a man's arm from the elbow to the end of the middle finger.", "Though the elbow is similarly adapted for stability through a wide range of pronation-supination and flexion-extension in all apes, there are some minor difference.", "In arboreal apes such as orangutans, the large forearm muscles originating on the epicondyles of the humerus generate significant transverse forces on the elbow joint.", "The structure to resist these forces is a pronounced keel on the trochlear notch on the ulna, which is more flattened in, for example, humans and gorillas.", "In knuckle-walkers, on the other hand, the elbow has to deal with large vertical loads passing through extended forearms and the joint is therefore more expanded to provide larger articular surfaces perpendicular to those forces.", "Derived traits in catarrhini (apes and Old World monkeys) elbows include the loss of the entepicondylar foramen (a hole in the distal humerus), a non-translatory (rotation-only) humeroulnar joint, and a more robust ulna with a shortened trochlear notch.", "The proximal radioulnar joint is similarly derived in higher primates in the location and shape of the radial notch on the ulna; the primitive form being represented by New World monkeys, such as the howler monkey, and by fossil catarrhines, such as \"Aegyptopithecus\".", "In these taxa, the oval head of the radius lies in front of the ulnar shaft so that the former overlaps the latter by half its width.", "With this forearm configuration, the ulna supports the radius and maximum stability is achieved when the forearm is fully pronated." ]

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[ "The elbow is the region between the arm and the forearm that surrounds the elbow joint.", "The elbow includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the cubital fossa (also called the chelidon, or the elbow pit), and the lateral and the medial epicondyles of the humerus.", "The elbow joint is a hinge joint between the arm and the forearm; more specifically between the humerus in the upper arm and the radius and ulna in the forearm which allows the forearm and hand to be moved towards and away from the body." ]

[ "The elbow joint has three different portions surrounded by a common joint capsule.", "These are joints between the three bones of the elbow, the humerus of the upper arm, and the radius and the ulna of the forearm.", "When in anatomical position there are four main bony landmarks of the elbow.", "At the lower part of the humerus are the medial and lateral epicondyles, on the side closest to the body (medial) and on the side away from the body (lateral) surfaces.", "The third landmark is the olecranon found at the head of the ulna.", "These lie on a horizontal line called the \"Hueter line\".", "When the elbow is flexed, they form a triangle called the \"Hueter triangle\", which resembles an equilateral triangle.", "At the surface of the humerus where it faces the joint is the trochlea.", "In most people, the groove running across the trochlea is vertical on the anterior side but it spirals off on the posterior side.", "This results in the forearm being aligned to the upper arm during flexion, but forming an angle to the upper arm during extension — an angle known as the carrying angle.", "The superior radioulnar joint shares the joint capsule with the elbow joint but plays no functional role at the elbow.", "The elbow joint and the superior radioulnar joint are enclosed by a single fibrous capsule.", "The capsule is strengthened by ligaments at the sides but is relatively weak in front and behind.", "On the anterior side, the capsule consists mainly of longitudinal fibres.", "However, some bundles among these fibers run obliquely or transversely, thickening and strengthening the capsule.", "These bundles are referred to as the capsular ligament.", "Deep fibres of the brachialis muscle insert anteriorly into the capsule and act to pull it and the underlying membrane during flexion in order to prevent them from being pinched.", "On the posterior side, the capsule is thin and mainly composed of transverse fibres.", "A few of these fibres stretch across the olecranon fossa without attaching to it and form a transverse band with a free upper border.", "On the ulnar side, the capsule reaches down to the posterior part of the annular ligament.", "The posterior capsule is attached to the triceps tendon which prevents the capsule from being pinched during extension.", "The synovial membrane of the elbow joint is very extensive.", "On the humerus, it extends up from the articular margins and covers the coronoid and radial fossae anteriorly and the olecranon fossa posteriorly.", "Distally, it is prolonged down to the neck of the radius and the superior radioulnar joint.", "It is supported by the quadrate ligament below the annular ligament where it also forms a fold which gives the head of the radius freedom of movement.", "Several synovial folds project into the recesses of the joint.", "These folds or plicae are remnants of normal embryonic development and can be categorized as either anterior (anterior humeral recess) or posterior (olecranon recess).", "A crescent-shaped fold is commonly present between the head of the radius and the capitulum of the humerus.", "On the humerus there are extrasynovial fat pads adjacent to the three articular fossae.", "These pads fill the radial and coronoid fossa anteriorly during extension, and the olecranon fossa posteriorly during flexion.", "They are displaced when the fossae are occupied by the bony projections of the ulna and radius.", "The elbow, like other joints, has ligaments on either side.", "These are triangular bands which blend with the joint capsule.", "They are positioned so that they always lie across the transverse joint axis and are, therefore, always relatively tense and impose strict limitations on abduction, adduction, and axial rotation at the elbow.", "The ulnar collateral ligament has its apex on the medial epicondyle.", "Its anterior band stretches from the anterior side of the medial epicondyle to the medial edge of the coronoid process, while the posterior band stretches from posterior side of the medial epicondyle to the medial side of the olecranon.", "These two bands are separated by a thinner intermediate part and their distal attachments are united by a transverse band below which the synovial membrane protrudes during joint movements.", "The anterior band is closely associated with the tendon of the superficial flexor muscles of the forearm, even being the origin of flexor digitorum superficialis.", "The ulnar nerve crosses the intermediate part as it enters the forearm.", "The radial collateral ligament is attached to the lateral epicondyle below the common extensor tendon.", "Less distinct than the ulnar collateral ligament, this ligament blends with the annular ligament of the radius and its margins are attached near the radial notch of the ulna.", "There are three main flexor muscles at the elbow:\n\nBrachialis is the main muscle used when the elbow is flexed slowly.", "During rapid and forceful flexion all three muscles are brought into action assisted by the superficial forearm flexors originating at the medial side of the elbow.", "The efficiency of the flexor muscles increases dramatically as the elbow is brought into midflexion (flexed 90°) — biceps reaches its angle of maximum efficiency at 80–90° and brachialis at 100–110°.", "Active flexion is limited to 145° by the contact between the anterior muscles of the upper arm and forearm, more so because they are hardened by contraction during flexion.", "Passive flexion (forearm is pushed against the upper arm with flexors relaxed) is limited to 160° by the bony projections on the radius and ulna as they reach to shallow depressions on the humerus; i.e. the head of radius being pressed against the radial fossa and the coronoid process being pressed against the coronoid fossa.", "Passive flexion is further limited by tension in the posterior capsular ligament and in triceps brachii.", "A small accessory muscle, so called epitrochleoanconeus muscle, may be found on the medial aspect of the elbow running from the medial epicondyle to the olecranon.", "Elbow extension is simply bringing the forearm back to anatomical position.", "This action is performed by triceps brachii with a negligible assistance from anconeus.", "Triceps originates with two heads posteriorly on the humerus and with its long head on the scapula just below the shoulder joint.", "It is inserted posteriorly on the olecranon.", "Triceps is maximally efficient with the elbow flexed 20–30°.", "As the angle of flexion increases, the position of the olecranon approaches the main axis of the humerus which decreases muscle efficiency.", "In full flexion, however, the triceps tendon is \"rolled up\" on the olecranon as on a pulley which compensates for the loss of efficiency.", "Because triceps' long head is biarticular (acts on two joints), its efficiency is also dependent on the position of the shoulder.", "Extension is limited by the olecranon reaching the olecranon fossa, tension in the anterior ligament, and resistance in flexor muscles.", "Forced extension results in a rupture in one of the limiting structures: olecranon fracture, torn capsule and ligaments, and, though the muscles are normally left unaffected, a bruised brachial artery.", "The arteries supplying the joint are derived from an extensive circulatory anastomosis between the brachial artery and its terminal branches.", "The superior and inferior ulnar collateral branches of the brachial artery and the radial and middle collateral branches of the profunda brachii artery descend from above to reconnect on the joint capsule, where they also connect with the anterior and posterior ulnar recurrent branches of the ulnar artery; the radial recurrent branch of the radial artery; and the interosseous recurrent branch of the common interosseous artery.", "The blood is brought back by vessels from the radial, ulnar, and brachial veins.", "There are two sets of lymphatic nodes at the elbow, normally located above the medial epicondyle — the deep and superficial cubital nodes (also called epitrochlear nodes).", "The lymphatic drainage at the elbow is through the deep nodes at the bifurcation of the brachial artery, the superficial nodes drain the forearm and the ulnar side of the hand.", "The efferent lymph vessels from the elbow proceed to the lateral group of axillary lymph nodes.", "The elbow is innervated anteriorly by branches from the musculocutaneous, median, and radial nerve, and posteriorly from the ulnar nerve and the branch of the radial nerve to anconeus.", "The elbow undergoes dynamic development of ossification centers through infancy and adolescence, with the order of both the appearance and fusion of the apophyseal growth centers being crucial in assessment of the pediatric elbow on radiograph, in order to distinguish a traumatic fracture or apophyseal separation from normal development.", "The order of appearance can be understood by the mnemonic CRITOE, referring to the capitellum, radial head, internal epicondyle, trochlea, olecranon, and external epicondyle at ages 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 years.", "These apophyseal centers then fuse during adolescence, with the internal epicondyle and olecranon fusing last.", "The ages of fusion are more variable than ossification, but normally occur at 13, 15, 17, 13, 16 and 13 years, respectively.", "In addition, the presence of a joint effusion can be inferenced by the presence of the fat pad sign, a structure that is normally physiologically present, but pathologic when elevated by fluid, and always pathologic when posterior.", "The function of the elbow joint is to extend and flex the arm grasp and reach for objects.", "The range of movement in the elbow is from 0 degrees of elbow extension to 150 degrees of elbow flexion.", "Muscles contributing to function are all flexion (biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis) and extension muscles (triceps and anconeus).", "In humans, the main task of the elbow is to properly place the hand in space by shortening and lengthening the upper limb.", "While the superior radioulnar joint shares joint capsule with the elbow joint, it plays no functional role at the elbow.", "With the elbow extended, the long axis of the humerus and that of the ulna coincide.", "At the same time, the articular surfaces on both bones are located in front of those axes and deviate from them at an angle of 45°.", "Additionally, the forearm muscles that originate at the elbow are grouped at the sides of the joint in order not to interfere with its movement.", "The wide angle of flexion at the elbow made possible by this arrangement — almost 180° — allows the bones to be brought almost in parallel to each other.", "When the arm is extended, with the palm facing forward or up, the bones of the upper arm (humerus) and forearm (radius and ulna) are not perfectly aligned.", "The deviation from a straight line occurs in the direction of the thumb, and is referred to as the \"carrying angle\" (visible in the right half of the picture, right).", "The carrying angle permits the arm to be swung without contacting the hips.", "Women on average have smaller shoulders and wider hips than men, which tends to produce a larger carrying angle (i.e., larger deviation from a straight line than that in men).", "There is, however, extensive overlap in the carrying angle between individual men and women, and a sex-bias has not been consistently observed in scientific studies.", "This could however be attributed to the very small sample sizes in those cited earlier studies.", "The angle is greater in the dominant limb than the non-dominant limb of both sexes, suggesting that natural forces acting on the elbow modify the carrying angle.", "Developmental, aging and possibly racial influences add further to the variability of this parameter.", "The types of disease most commonly seen at the elbow are due to injury.", "Two of the most common injuries at the elbow are overuse injuries: tennis elbow and golfer's elbow.", "Golfer's elbow involves the tendon of the common flexor origin which originates at the medial epicondyle of the humerus (the \"inside\" of the elbow).", "Tennis elbow is the equivalent injury, but at the common extensor origin (the lateral epicondyle of the humerus).", "There are three bones at the elbow joint, and any combination of these bones may be involved in a fracture of the elbow.", "Patients who are able to fully extend their arm at the elbow are unlikely to have a fracture (98% certainty) and an X-ray is not required as long as an olecranon fracture is ruled out.", "Acute fractures may not be easily visible on X-ray.", "Elbow dislocations constitute 10% to 25% of all injuries to the elbow.", "The elbow is one of the most commonly dislocated joints in the body, with an average annual incidence of acute dislocation of 6 per 100,000 persons.", "Among injuries to the upper extremity, dislocation of the elbow is second only to a dislocated shoulder.", "A full dislocation of the elbow will require expert medical attention to re-align, and recovery can take approximately 8–14 weeks.", "Infection of the elbow joint (septic arthritis) is uncommon.", "It may occur spontaneously, but may also occur in relation to surgery or infection elsewhere in the body (for example, endocarditis).", "Elbow arthritis is usually seen in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis or after fractures that involve the joint itself.", "When the damage to the joint is severe, fascial arthroplasty or elbow joint replacement may be considered.", "Olecranon bursitis, tenderness, warmth, swelling, pain in both flexion and extension-in chronic case great flexion-is extremely painful.", "Elbow pain occurs when the tenderness of the tissues in the elbow become inflamed.", "Frequent exercise of the inflamed elbow will assist with healing.", "Elbow pain can occur for a multitude of reasons, including injury, disease, and other conditions.", "Common conditions include tennis elbow, golfer's elbow, distal radioulnar joint rheumatoid arthritis, and cubital tunnel syndrome.", "Tennis elbow is a very common type of overuse injury.", "It can occur both from chronic repetitive motions of the hand and forearm, and from trauma to the same areas.", "These repetitions can injure the tendons that connect the extensor supinator muscles (which rotate and extend the forearm) to the olecranon process (also known as “the elbow”).", "Pain occurs, often radiating from the lateral forearm.", "Weakness, numbness, and stiffness are also very common, along with tenderness upon touch.", "A non-invasive treatment for pain management is rest.", "If achieving rest is an issue, a wrist brace can also be worn.", "This keeps the wrist in flexion, thereby relieving the extensor muscles and allowing rest.", "Ice, heat, ultrasound, steroid injections, and compression can also help alleviate pain.", "After the pain has been reduced, exercise therapy is important to prevent injury in the future.", "Exercises should be low velocity, and weight should increase progressively.", "Stretching the flexors and extensors is helpful, as are strengthening exercises.", "Massage can also be useful, focusing on the extensor trigger points.", "Golfer's elbow is very similar to tennis elbow, but less common.", "It is caused by overuse and repetitive motions like a golf swing.", "It can also be caused by trauma.", "Wrist flexion and pronation (rotating of the forearm) causes irritation to the tendons near the medial epicondyle of the elbow.", "It can cause pain, stiffness, loss of sensation, and weakness radiating from the inside of the elbow to the fingers.", "Rest is the primary intervention for this injury.", "Ice, pain medication, steroid injections, strengthening exercises, and avoiding any aggravating activities can also help.", "Surgery is a last resort, and rarely used.", "Exercises should focus on strengthening and stretching the forearm, and utilizing proper form when performing movements.", "Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic disease that affects joints.", "It is very common in the wrist, and is most common at the radioulnar joint.", "It results in pain, stiffness, and deformities.", "There are many different treatments for rheumatoid arthritis, and there is no one consensus for which methods are best.", "Most common treatments include wrist splints, surgery, physical and occupational therapy, and antirheumatic medication.", "Cubital tunnel syndrome, more commonly known as ulnar neuropathy, occurs when the ulnar nerve is irritated and becomes inflamed.", "This can often happen where the ulnar nerve is most superficial, at the elbow.", "The ulnar nerve passes over the elbow, at the area known as the “funny bone”.", "Irritation can occur due to constant, repeated stress and pressure at this area, or from a trauma.", "It can also occur due to bone deformities, and oftentimes from sports.", "Symptoms include tingling, numbness, and weakness, along with pain.", "First line pain management techniques include the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory oral medicines.", "These help to reduce inflammation, pressure, and irritation of the nerve and around the nerve.", "Other simple fixes include learning more ergonomically friendly habits that can help prevent nerve impingement and irritation in the future.", "Protective equipment can also be very helpful.", "Examples of this include a protective elbow pad, and an arm splint.", "More serious cases often involve surgery, in which the nerve or the surrounding tissue is moved to relieve the pressure.", "Recovery from surgery can take awhile, but the prognosis is often a good one.", "Recovery often includes movement restrictions, and range of motion activities, and can last a few months (cubital and radial tunnel syndrome, 2).", "The now obsolete length unit ell relates closely to the elbow.", "This becomes especially visible when considering the Germanic origins of both words, \"Elle\" (ell, defined as the length of a male forearm from elbow to fingertips) and \"Ellbogen\" (elbow).", "It is unknown when or why the second \"l\" was dropped from English usage of the word.", "The \"ell\" as in the English measure could also be taken to come from the letter L, being bent at right angles, as an elbow.", "The ell as a measure was taken as six handbreadths; three to the elbow and three from the elbow to the shoulder.", "Another measure was the \"cubit\" (from \"cubital\").", "This was taken to be the length of a man's arm from the elbow to the end of the middle finger.", "Though the elbow is similarly adapted for stability through a wide range of pronation-supination and flexion-extension in all apes, there are some minor difference.", "In arboreal apes such as orangutans, the large forearm muscles originating on the epicondyles of the humerus generate significant transverse forces on the elbow joint.", "The structure to resist these forces is a pronounced keel on the trochlear notch on the ulna, which is more flattened in, for example, humans and gorillas.", "In knuckle-walkers, on the other hand, the elbow has to deal with large vertical loads passing through extended forearms and the joint is therefore more expanded to provide larger articular surfaces perpendicular to those forces.", "Derived traits in catarrhini (apes and Old World monkeys) elbows include the loss of the entepicondylar foramen (a hole in the distal humerus), a non-translatory (rotation-only) humeroulnar joint, and a more robust ulna with a shortened trochlear notch.", "The proximal radioulnar joint is similarly derived in higher primates in the location and shape of the radial notch on the ulna; the primitive form being represented by New World monkeys, such as the howler monkey, and by fossil catarrhines, such as \"Aegyptopithecus\".", "In these taxa, the oval head of the radius lies in front of the ulnar shaft so that the former overlaps the latter by half its width.", "With this forearm configuration, the ulna supports the radius and maximum stability is achieved when the forearm is fully pronated." ]

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[ "The elbow is the region between the arm and the forearm that surrounds the elbow joint.", "The elbow includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the cubital fossa (also called the chelidon, or the elbow pit), and the lateral and the medial epicondyles of the humerus.", "The elbow joint is a hinge joint between the arm and the forearm; more specifically between the humerus in the upper arm and the radius and ulna in the forearm which allows the forearm and hand to be moved towards and away from the body." ]

[ "Recently nationalised, and enjoying booming sales with their Renault 4CV, Renault management at the end of the 1940s sought to move their business upmarket.", "Company strategy called for a robust functional vehicle, equally at home in the cities or the countryside, and appealing also to overseas markets in remaining parts of the French empire.", "With colonial and rural customers in its sights, the car was named \"Colorale\", a portmanteau of the (French) words ‘COLOniale’ and ‘ruRALE’.", "The design of the car resembled other modern streamlined vehicles from various countries such as the Chevrolet Advance Design, the GAZ-M20 Pobeda, the 1941 Ford, the Standard Vanguard, and the Ford Vedette.", "Body panels were stamped and assembled by the Chausson company at Gennevilliers before final assembly at the Renault Billancourt plant.", "The front of the car closely resembled that of the smaller Renault 4CV, indicating a conscious intention to give different Renault models a 'family look'.", "With its robust spacious body and the option of four wheel drive the Colorale was in some ways an even more radical design than the innovative and commercially more successful Renault hatchbacks that would appear in the 1960s: the Colorale in several important respects recalled the SUVs which would proliferate towards the end of the twentieth century.", "In the 1950s, however, the French marketplace was less welcoming to the Colorale which was slower and less elegant than other cars in this price bracket.", "In French overseas territories customers appear to have been less resistant to the radical new Renault, but it was nonetheless the more conventional Peugeot designs that gained a more enduring foothold in the French colonies and in the new independent states which succeeded some of them.", "Approximately 43,000 Colorales had been manufactured by the time production ended in 1957.", "The Fourgonette and Pickup versions were replaced by the Renault Estafette, but no successor was ever developed for the passenger versions.", "The Colorale featured the four cylinder ’85 series’ sidevalve engine first seen in 1936 in the Primaquatre.", "The engine was robust, but with the compression ratios achievable using the low octane fuels available in Europe in the 1940s, the 2,383 cc engine, although it attracted a high (14CV) level of car tax, only managed a claimed power output of .", "With a weight of , which was heavier than a contemporary Chevrolet Bel Air, the Colorale consumed petrol at an alarming rate and achieved its claimed top speed of 100 km/h (62 mph) only with difficulty.", "The 1953 Colorale, introduced at the 1953 Paris Motor Show, featured the four cylinder engine recently developed for the Frégate.", "This 1,996 cc unit offered and an increased maximum speed which now exceeded 105 km/h (65 mph) could now be claimed.", "The new engine also conferred tax advantages resulting from its smaller size which placed the car in the 11CV tax band.", "However, the improved power output came with reduced torque, and overall \"on-road\" performance continued to be viewed as leisurely.", "Several different versions were offered, including a light van and a small truck.", "The most popular versions were the five door Prairie and the three door Savane.", "The Colorale Prairie was by far the best-selling Colorale.", "Featuring a six-light (three side windows on each side) body, it was a 4-door family car able to accommodate 6 people and offering a generous cargo area: with the rear seat folded down, the Prairie provided nearly three cubic meters of load space.", "Externally similar to the Prairie was a taxi version which featured a central row of rear-facing foldaway seats after the manner of a standard London taxi in the later twentieth century, but this had disappeared from the model listings by 1952.", "The Colorale Savane was similar to the Prairie but had only one door each side.", "Blinds were included for the rear side windows in order to make the car cooler in hot climates: the opening windscreen was promoted as a device for improving the ventilation.", "The Savane was also favoured as an alternative to a light commercial van, particularly suited to rough roads on account of its upgraded suspension.", "The rather unloved Renauld Colorale was quite cheap on the second-hand market when \"sexier\" new vehicles were offered to the public in the early and mid sixties and it had a sturdy chassis , 4WD transmission, a bullet-proof and \"torquey\" albeit low powered engine.", "Such characteristics prompted Renault dealers and independent repair shops to convert second hand Colorales into \"dépanneuses\" (Towing trucks).", "Typical conversion would entail a complete chopping af the rear body , leaving only a forward cab closed with a flat panel and a small , flat, rear window from a Renault 4CV .", "The towing arrangement generally was some homemade craning device made out of steel H beams (sometimes enven railway tracks)and a Verlinde chain hoist.", "Such artisanal conversions, under the then tolerant road regulations served well into the 1980's and even 90's.", "Some other conversions with a similar layout were made for forestry work and trade as new , specially designed 4WD vehicles were rather scarce in France.", "These \"Dépanneuse\" conversions explain why there are very few Colorales in original condition and make them highly collectible vehicles." ]

[ 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 ]

[ "The Colorale was not a commercial success." ]

[ "Lemuel Alston migrated to Grove Hill and began the practice of medicine around 1852.", "The house was completed in 1854, shortly before his marriage to Sarah French Jackson on November 1, 1854.", "The house was subsequently owned by the Bettis, Cobb, Bumpers, and Postma families until it was purchased by the Clarke County Historical Society in 1980.", "The historical society restored the house and opened it as the Clarke County Museum in 1986.", "The museum features exhibits that cover a broad range of topics from Zeuglodon fossils to the American Civil War and an antebellum kitchen.", "Several historic structures have been moved to the museum grounds and restored.", "The Creagh Law Office, built in 1834 by Judge John Gates Creagh, was moved to the site in 1990 and restored.", "The Turner Corn Crib is a corn crib which is thought to have been partially built from timbers salvaged from Fort Turner, a log fortification that served the area during the Creek War in 1813.", "It was moved to the grounds in 2001 and restored.", "The Mathews Cabin was acquired in 2005 and restoration was completed in 2008.", "It is a log cabin with two large rooms separated by a breezeway, a form often known as a dogtrot house, and dates to the mid-19th century." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ]

[ "The Alston–Cobb House, now formally known as the Clarke County Historical Museum, is a historic house and local history museum in Grove Hill, Alabama.", "It is one of only four examples of an I-house to survive intact in Clarke County." ]

[ "Before there were clocks, time was measured by those physical processes which were understandable to each epoch of civilization:\n\n\n\nEventually, it became possible to characterize the passage of time with instrumentation, using operational definitions.", "Simultaneously, our conception of time has evolved, as shown below.", "In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of time is the second (symbol: formula_2).", "It is a SI base unit, and has been defined since 1967 as \"the duration of [cycles] of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom\".", "This definition is based on the operation of a caesium atomic clock.", "These clocks became practical for use as primary reference standards after about 1955, and have been in use ever since.", "The UTC timestamp in use worldwide is an atomic time standard.", "The relative accuracy of such a time standard is currently on the order of 10−15 (corresponding to 1 second in approximately 30 million years).", "The smallest time step considered theoretically observable is called the Planck time, which is approximately 5.391×10−44 seconds - many orders of magnitude below the resolution of current time standards.", "The caesium atomic clock became practical after 1950, when advances in electronics enabled reliable measurement of the microwave frequencies it generates.", "As further advances occurred, atomic clock research has progressed to ever-higher frequencies, which can provide higher accuracy and higher precision.", "Clocks based on these techniques have been developed, but are not yet in use as primary reference standards.", "Galileo, Newton, and most people up until the 20th century thought that time was the same for everyone everywhere.", "This is the basis for timelines, where time is a parameter.", "The modern understanding of time is based on Einstein's theory of relativity, in which rates of time run differently depending on relative motion, and space and time are merged into spacetime, where we live on a world line rather than a timeline.", "In this view time is a coordinate.", "According to the prevailing cosmological model of the Big Bang theory, time itself began as part of the entire Universe about 13.8 billion years ago.", "In order to measure time, one can record the number of occurrences (events) of some periodic phenomenon.", "The regular recurrences of the seasons, the motions of the sun, moon and stars were noted and tabulated for millennia, before the laws of physics were formulated.", "The sun was the arbiter of the flow of time, but time was known only to the hour for millennia, hence, the use of the gnomon was known across most of the world, especially Eurasia, and at least as far southward as the jungles of Southeast Asia.", "In particular, the astronomical observatories maintained for religious purposes became accurate enough to ascertain the regular motions of the stars, and even some of the planets.", "At first, timekeeping was done by hand by priests, and then for commerce, with watchmen to note time as part of their duties.", "The tabulation of the equinoxes, the sandglass, and the water clock became more and more accurate, and finally reliable.", "For ships at sea, boys were used to turn the sandglasses and to call the hours.", "Richard of Wallingford (1292–1336), abbot of St. Alban's abbey, famously built a mechanical clock as an astronomical orrery about 1330.", "By the time of Richard of Wallingford, the use of ratchets and gears allowed the towns of Europe to create mechanisms to display the time on their respective town clocks; by the time of the scientific revolution, the clocks became miniaturized enough for families to share a personal clock, or perhaps a pocket watch.", "At first, only kings could afford them.", "Pendulum clocks were widely used in the 18th and 19th century.", "They have largely been replaced in general use by quartz and digital clocks.", "Atomic clocks can theoretically keep accurate time for millions of years.", "They are appropriate for standards and scientific use.", "In 1583, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) discovered that a pendulum's harmonic motion has a constant period, which he learned by timing the motion of a swaying lamp in harmonic motion at mass at the cathedral of Pisa, with his pulse.", "In his \"Two New Sciences\" (1638), Galileo used a water clock to measure the time taken for a bronze ball to roll a known distance down an inclined plane; this clock was \n\"a large vessel of water placed in an elevated position; to the bottom of this vessel was soldered a pipe of small diameter giving a thin jet of water, which we collected in a small glass during the time of each descent, whether for the whole length of the channel or for a part of its length; the water thus collected was weighed, after each descent, on a very accurate balance; the differences and ratios of these weights gave us the differences and ratios of the times, and this with such accuracy that although the operation was repeated many, many times, there was no appreciable discrepancy in the results.", "\"\nGalileo's experimental setup to measure the literal \"flow of time\", in order to describe the motion of a ball, preceded Isaac Newton's statement in his Principia:\n\"I do not define time, space, place and motion, as being well known to all.\"\nThe Galilean transformations assume that time is the same for all reference frames.", "In or around 1665, when Isaac Newton (1643–1727) derived the motion of objects falling under gravity, the first clear formulation for mathematical physics of a treatment of time began: linear time, conceived as a \"universal clock\".\n\"Absolute, true, and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature flows equably without regard to anything external, and by another name is called duration: relative, apparent, and common time, is some sensible and external (whether accurate or unequable) measure of duration by the means of motion, which is commonly used instead of true time; such as an hour, a day, a month, a year.", "\"\nThe water clock mechanism described by Galileo was engineered to provide laminar flow of the water during the experiments, thus providing a constant flow of water for the durations of the experiments, and embodying what Newton called \"duration\".", "In this section, the relationships listed below treat time as a parameter which serves as an index to the behavior of the physical system under consideration.", "Because Newton's fluents treat a \"linear flow of time\" (what he called \"mathematical time\"), time could be considered to be a linearly varying parameter, an abstraction of the march of the hours on the face of a clock.", "Calendars and ship's logs could then be mapped to the march of the hours, days, months, years and centuries.", "By 1798, Benjamin Thompson (1753–1814) had discovered that work could be transformed to heat without limit - a precursor of the conservation of energy or\nIn 1824 Sadi Carnot (1796–1832) scientifically analyzed the steam engine with his Carnot cycle, an abstract engine.", "Rudolf Clausius (1822–1888) noted a measure of disorder, or entropy, which affects the continually decreasing amount of free energy which is available to a Carnot engine in the:", "Thus", "the continual march of a thermodynamic system, from lesser to greater entropy, at any given temperature, defines an arrow of time.", "In particular, Stephen Hawking identifies three arrows of time:\n\nWith time, entropy increases in an isolated thermodynamic system.", "In contrast, Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) pointed out that life depends on a \"negative entropy flow\".", "Ilya Prigogine (1917–2003) stated that other thermodynamic systems which, like life, are also far from equilibrium, can also exhibit stable spatio-temporal structures that reminisce life.", "Soon afterward, the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reactions were reported, which demonstrate oscillating colors in a chemical solution.", "These nonequilibrium thermodynamic branches reach a \"bifurcation point\", which is unstable, and another thermodynamic branch becomes stable in its stead.", "In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) presented a combined theory of electricity and magnetism.", "He combined all the laws then known relating to those two phenomenon into four equations.", "These equations are known as Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism; they allow for solutions in the form of electromagnetic waves and propagate at a fixed speed, \"c\", regardless of the velocity of the electric charge that generated them.", "The fact that light is predicted to always travel at speed \"c\" would be incompatible with Galilean relativity if Maxwell's equations were assumed to hold in any inertial frame (reference frame with constant velocity), because the Galilean transformations predict the speed to decrease (or increase) in the reference frame of an observer traveling parallel (or antiparallel) to the light.", "It was expected that there was one absolute reference frame, that of the luminiferous aether, in which Maxwell's equations held unmodified in the known form.", "The Michelson–Morley experiment failed to detect any difference in the relative speed of light due to the motion of the Earth relative to the luminiferous aether, suggesting that Maxwell's equations did, in fact, hold in all frames.", "In 1875, Hendrik Lorentz (1853–1928) discovered Lorentz transformations, which left Maxwell's equations unchanged, allowing Michelson and Morley's negative result to be explained.", "Henri Poincaré (1854–1912) noted the importance of Lorentz's transformation and popularized it.", "In particular, the railroad car description can be found in \"Science and Hypothesis\", which was published before Einstein's articles of 1905.", "The Lorentz transformation predicted space contraction and time dilation; until 1905, the former was interpreted as a physical contraction of objects moving with respect to the aether, due to the modification of the intermolecular forces (of electric nature), while the latter was thought to be just a mathematical stipulation.", "Albert Einstein's 1905 special relativity challenged the notion of absolute time, and could only formulate a definition of synchronization for clocks that mark a linear flow of time:\n Einstein showed that if the speed of light is not changing between reference frames, space and time must be so that the moving observer will measure the same speed of light as the stationary one because velocity is \"defined\" by space and time:\nformula_3 where r is position and \"t\" is time.", "Indeed, the Lorentz transformation (for two reference frames in relative motion, whose \"x\" axis is directed in the direction of the relative velocity)\nformula_4\ncan be said to \"mix\" space and time in a way similar to the way a Euclidean rotation around the \"z\" axis mixes \"x\" and \"y\" coordinates.", "Consequences of this include relativity of simultaneity.", "More specifically, the Lorentz transformation is a hyperbolic rotation formula_5 which is a change of coordinates in the four-dimensional Minkowski space, a dimension of which is \"ct\".", "(In Euclidean space an ordinary rotation formula_6 is the corresponding change of coordinates.)", "The speed of light \"c\" can be seen as just a conversion factor needed because we measure the dimensions of spacetime in different units; since the metre is currently defined in terms of the second, it has the \"exact\" value of .", "We would need a similar factor in Euclidean space if, for example, we measured width in nautical miles and depth in feet.", "In physics, sometimes units of measurement in which \"c\" = 1 are used to simplify equations.", "Time in a \"moving\" reference frame is shown to run more slowly than in a \"stationary\" one by the following relation (which can be derived by the Lorentz transformation by putting ∆\"x\"′ = 0, ∆\"τ\" = ∆\"t\"′):\nformula_7\nwhere:\n\n\nMoving objects therefore are said to \"show a slower passage of time\".", "This is known as time dilation.", "These transformations are only valid for two frames at \"constant\" relative velocity.", "Naively applying them to other situations gives rise to such paradoxes as the twin paradox.", "That paradox can be resolved using for instance Einstein's General theory of relativity, which uses Riemannian geometry, geometry in accelerated, noninertial reference frames.", "Employing the metric tensor which describes Minkowski space:\nformula_8\nEinstein developed a geometric solution to Lorentz's transformation that preserves Maxwell's equations.", "His field equations give an exact relationship between the measurements of space and time in a given region of spacetime and the energy density of that region.", "Einstein's equations predict that time should be altered by the presence of gravitational fields (see the Schwarzschild metric):\nformula_9\nWhere:\nformula_10 is the gravitational time dilation of an object at a distance of formula_11.\nformula_12 is the change in coordinate time, or the interval of coordinate time.", "formula_13 is the gravitational constant\nformula_14 is the mass generating the field\nformula_15 is the change in proper time formula_16, or the interval of proper time.", "Or one could use the following simpler approximation:\nformula_17\nThat is, the stronger the gravitational field (and, thus, the larger the acceleration), the more slowly time runs.", "The predictions of time dilation are confirmed by particle acceleration experiments and cosmic ray evidence, where moving particles decay more slowly than their less energetic counterparts.", "Gravitational time dilation gives rise to the phenomenon of gravitational redshift and Shapiro signal travel time delays near massive objects such as the sun.", "The Global Positioning System must also adjust signals to account for this effect.", "According to Einstein's general theory of relativity, a freely moving particle traces a history in spacetime that maximises its proper time.", "This phenomenon is also referred to as the principle of maximal aging, and was described by Taylor and Wheeler as:\n\"Principle of Extremal Aging:", "The path a free object takes between two events in spacetime is the path for which the time lapse between these events, recorded on the object's wristwatch, is an extremum.", "\"\nEinstein's theory was motivated by the assumption that every point in the universe can be treated as a 'center', and that correspondingly, physics must act the same in all reference frames.", "His simple and elegant theory shows that time is relative to an inertial frame.", "In an inertial frame, Newton's first law holds; it has its own local geometry, and therefore its \"own\" measurements of space and time; \"there is no 'universal clock\"'.", "An act of synchronization must be performed between two systems, at the least.", "There is a time parameter in the equations of quantum mechanics.", "The Schrödinger equation is\nformula_18\nOne solution can be\nformula_19.\nwhere formula_20\nis called the time evolution operator, and \"H\" is the Hamiltonian.", "But the Schrödinger picture shown above is equivalent to the Heisenberg picture, which enjoys a similarity to the Poisson brackets of classical mechanics.", "The Poisson brackets are superseded by a nonzero commutator, say [H,A] for observable A, and Hamiltonian H:\nformula_21\nThis equation denotes an uncertainty relation in quantum physics.", "For example, with \"time\" (the observable A), the \"energy\" E (from the Hamiltonian H) gives:\nformula_22\nwhere\nformula_23 is the uncertainty in energy\nformula_24 is the uncertainty in time\nformula_25 is Planck's constant\nThe more precisely one measures the duration of a sequence of events, the less precisely one can measure the energy associated with that sequence, and vice versa.", "This equation is different from the standard uncertainty principle, because time is not an operator in quantum mechanics.", "Corresponding commutator relations also hold for momentum \"p\" and position \"q\", which are conjugate variables of each other, along with a corresponding uncertainty principle in momentum and position, similar to the energy and time relation above.", "Quantum mechanics explains the properties of the periodic table of the elements.", "Starting with Otto Stern's and Walter Gerlach's experiment with molecular beams in a magnetic field, Isidor Rabi (1898–1988), was able to modulate the magnetic resonance of the beam.", "In 1945 Rabi then suggested that this technique be the basis of a clock using the resonant frequency of an atomic beam.", "In 2021 Jun Ye of JILA in Boulder Colorado observed time dilatation in the difference in the rate of optical lattice clock ticks at the top of a cloud of strontium atoms, than at the bottom of that cloud, a column one millimeter tall, under the influence of gravity.", "See dynamical systems and chaos theory, dissipative structures\nOne could say that time is a parameterization of a dynamical system that allows the geometry of the system to be manifested and operated on.", "It has been asserted that \"time is an implicit consequence of chaos\" (i.e. nonlinearity/irreversibility): the characteristic time, or rate of information entropy production, of a system.", "Mandelbrot introduces intrinsic time in his book \"Multifractals and 1/f noise\".", "Khemani, Moessner, and Sondhi define a time crystal as a \"stable, conservative, macroscopic clock\".", "Signalling is one application of the electromagnetic waves described above.", "In general, a signal is part of communication between parties and places.", "One example might be a yellow ribbon tied to a tree, or the ringing of a church bell.", "A signal can be part of a conversation, which involves a protocol.", "Another signal might be the position of the hour hand on a town clock or a railway station.", "An interested party might wish to view that clock, to learn the time.", "See: Time ball, an early form of Time signal.", "We as observers can still signal different parties and places as long as we live within their \"past\" light cone.", "But we cannot receive signals from those parties and places outside our \"past\" light cone.", "Along with the formulation of the equations for the electromagnetic wave, the field of telecommunication could be founded.", "In 19th century telegraphy, electrical circuits, some spanning continents and oceans, could transmit codes - simple dots, dashes and spaces.", "From this, a series of technical issues have emerged; see :Category:Synchronization.", "But it is safe to say that our signalling systems can be only approximately synchronized, a plesiochronous condition, from which jitter need be eliminated.", "That said, systems \"can\" be synchronized (at an engineering approximation), using technologies like GPS.", "The GPS satellites must account for the effects of gravitation and other relativistic factors in their circuitry.", "See: Self-clocking signal.", "The primary time standard in the U.S. is currently NIST-F1, a laser-cooled Cs fountain, the latest in a series of time and frequency standards, from the ammonia-based atomic clock (1949) to the caesium-based NBS-1 (1952) to NIST-7 (1993).", "The respective clock uncertainty declined from 10,000 nanoseconds per day to 0.5 nanoseconds per day in 5 decades.", "In 2001 the clock uncertainty for NIST-F1 was 0.1 nanoseconds/day.", "Development of increasingly accurate frequency standards is underway.", "In this time and frequency standard, a population of caesium atoms is laser-cooled to temperatures of one microkelvin.", "The atoms collect in a ball shaped by six lasers, two for each spatial dimension, vertical (up/down), horizontal (left/right), and back/forth.", "The vertical lasers push the caesium ball through a microwave cavity.", "As the ball is cooled, the caesium population cools to its ground state and emits light at its natural frequency, stated in the definition of \"second\" above.", "Eleven physical effects are accounted for in the emissions from the caesium population, which are then controlled for in the NIST-F1 clock.", "These results are reported to BIPM.", "Additionally, a reference hydrogen maser is also reported to BIPM as a frequency standard for TAI (international atomic time).", "The measurement of time is overseen by BIPM (\"Bureau International des Poids et Mesures\"), located in Sèvres, France, which ensures uniformity of measurements and their traceability to the International System of Units (SI) worldwide.", "BIPM operates under authority of the Metre Convention, a diplomatic treaty between fifty-one nations, the Member States of the Convention, through a series of Consultative Committees, whose members are the respective national metrology laboratories.", "The equations of general relativity predict a non-static universe.", "However, Einstein accepted only a static universe, and modified the Einstein field equation to reflect this by adding the cosmological constant, which he later described as the biggest mistake of his life.", "But in 1927, Georges Lemaître (1894–1966) argued, on the basis of general relativity, that the universe originated in a primordial explosion.", "At the fifth Solvay conference, that year, Einstein brushed him off with \"\" (“Your math is correct, but your physics is abominable”).", "In 1929, Edwin Hubble (1889–1953) announced his discovery of the expanding universe.", "The current generally accepted cosmological model, the Lambda-CDM model, has a positive cosmological constant and thus not only an expanding universe but an accelerating expanding universe.", "If the universe were expanding, then it must have been much smaller and therefore hotter and denser in the past.", "George Gamow (1904–1968) hypothesized that the abundance of the elements in the Periodic Table of the Elements, might be accounted for by nuclear reactions in a hot dense universe.", "He was disputed by Fred Hoyle (1915–2001), who invented the term 'Big Bang' to disparage it.", "Fermi and others noted that this process would have stopped after only the light elements were created, and thus did not account for the abundance of heavier elements.", "Gamow's prediction was a 5–10-kelvin black-body radiation temperature for the universe, after it cooled during the expansion.", "This was corroborated by Penzias and Wilson in 1965.", "Subsequent experiments arrived at a 2.7 kelvins temperature, corresponding to an age of the universe of 13.8 billion years after the Big Bang.", "This dramatic result has raised issues: what happened between the singularity of the Big Bang and the Planck time, which, after all, is the smallest observable time.", "When might have time separated out from the spacetime foam; there are only hints based on broken symmetries (see Spontaneous symmetry breaking, Timeline of the Big Bang, and the articles in :Category:Physical cosmology).", "General relativity gave us our modern notion of the expanding universe that started in the Big Bang.", "Using relativity and quantum theory we have been able to roughly reconstruct the history of the universe.", "In our epoch, during which electromagnetic waves can propagate without being disturbed by conductors or charges, we can see the stars, at great distances from us, in the night sky.", "(Before this epoch, there was a time, before the universe cooled enough for electrons and nuclei to combine into atoms about 377,000 years after the Big Bang, during which starlight would not have been visible over large distances.)", "Ilya Prigogine's reprise is \"\"Time precedes existence\"\".", "In contrast to the views of Newton, of Einstein, and of quantum physics, which offer a symmetric view of time (as discussed above), Prigogine points out that statistical and thermodynamic physics can explain irreversible phenomena, as well as the arrow of time and the Big Bang." ]

[ 0, 1 ]

[ "Time in physics is defined by its measurement: time is what a clock reads." ]

[ "Before there were clocks, time was measured by those physical processes which were understandable to each epoch of civilization:\n\n\n\nEventually, it became possible to characterize the passage of time with instrumentation, using operational definitions.", "Simultaneously, our conception of time has evolved, as shown below.", "In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of time is the second (symbol: formula_2).", "It is a SI base unit, and has been defined since 1967 as \"the duration of [cycles] of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom\".", "This definition is based on the operation of a caesium atomic clock.", "These clocks became practical for use as primary reference standards after about 1955, and have been in use ever since.", "The UTC timestamp in use worldwide is an atomic time standard.", "The relative accuracy of such a time standard is currently on the order of 10−15 (corresponding to 1 second in approximately 30 million years).", "The smallest time step considered theoretically observable is called the Planck time, which is approximately 5.391×10−44 seconds - many orders of magnitude below the resolution of current time standards.", "The caesium atomic clock became practical after 1950, when advances in electronics enabled reliable measurement of the microwave frequencies it generates.", "As further advances occurred, atomic clock research has progressed to ever-higher frequencies, which can provide higher accuracy and higher precision.", "Clocks based on these techniques have been developed, but are not yet in use as primary reference standards.", "Galileo, Newton, and most people up until the 20th century thought that time was the same for everyone everywhere.", "This is the basis for timelines, where time is a parameter.", "The modern understanding of time is based on Einstein's theory of relativity, in which rates of time run differently depending on relative motion, and space and time are merged into spacetime, where we live on a world line rather than a timeline.", "In this view time is a coordinate.", "According to the prevailing cosmological model of the Big Bang theory, time itself began as part of the entire Universe about 13.8 billion years ago.", "In order to measure time, one can record the number of occurrences (events) of some periodic phenomenon.", "The regular recurrences of the seasons, the motions of the sun, moon and stars were noted and tabulated for millennia, before the laws of physics were formulated.", "The sun was the arbiter of the flow of time, but time was known only to the hour for millennia, hence, the use of the gnomon was known across most of the world, especially Eurasia, and at least as far southward as the jungles of Southeast Asia.", "In particular, the astronomical observatories maintained for religious purposes became accurate enough to ascertain the regular motions of the stars, and even some of the planets.", "At first, timekeeping was done by hand by priests, and then for commerce, with watchmen to note time as part of their duties.", "The tabulation of the equinoxes, the sandglass, and the water clock became more and more accurate, and finally reliable.", "For ships at sea, boys were used to turn the sandglasses and to call the hours.", "Richard of Wallingford (1292–1336), abbot of St. Alban's abbey, famously built a mechanical clock as an astronomical orrery about 1330.", "By the time of Richard of Wallingford, the use of ratchets and gears allowed the towns of Europe to create mechanisms to display the time on their respective town clocks; by the time of the scientific revolution, the clocks became miniaturized enough for families to share a personal clock, or perhaps a pocket watch.", "At first, only kings could afford them.", "Pendulum clocks were widely used in the 18th and 19th century.", "They have largely been replaced in general use by quartz and digital clocks.", "Atomic clocks can theoretically keep accurate time for millions of years.", "They are appropriate for standards and scientific use.", "In 1583, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) discovered that a pendulum's harmonic motion has a constant period, which he learned by timing the motion of a swaying lamp in harmonic motion at mass at the cathedral of Pisa, with his pulse.", "In his \"Two New Sciences\" (1638), Galileo used a water clock to measure the time taken for a bronze ball to roll a known distance down an inclined plane; this clock was \n\"a large vessel of water placed in an elevated position; to the bottom of this vessel was soldered a pipe of small diameter giving a thin jet of water, which we collected in a small glass during the time of each descent, whether for the whole length of the channel or for a part of its length; the water thus collected was weighed, after each descent, on a very accurate balance; the differences and ratios of these weights gave us the differences and ratios of the times, and this with such accuracy that although the operation was repeated many, many times, there was no appreciable discrepancy in the results.", "\"\nGalileo's experimental setup to measure the literal \"flow of time\", in order to describe the motion of a ball, preceded Isaac Newton's statement in his Principia:\n\"I do not define time, space, place and motion, as being well known to all.\"\nThe Galilean transformations assume that time is the same for all reference frames.", "In or around 1665, when Isaac Newton (1643–1727) derived the motion of objects falling under gravity, the first clear formulation for mathematical physics of a treatment of time began: linear time, conceived as a \"universal clock\".\n\"Absolute, true, and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature flows equably without regard to anything external, and by another name is called duration: relative, apparent, and common time, is some sensible and external (whether accurate or unequable) measure of duration by the means of motion, which is commonly used instead of true time; such as an hour, a day, a month, a year.", "\"\nThe water clock mechanism described by Galileo was engineered to provide laminar flow of the water during the experiments, thus providing a constant flow of water for the durations of the experiments, and embodying what Newton called \"duration\".", "In this section, the relationships listed below treat time as a parameter which serves as an index to the behavior of the physical system under consideration.", "Because Newton's fluents treat a \"linear flow of time\" (what he called \"mathematical time\"), time could be considered to be a linearly varying parameter, an abstraction of the march of the hours on the face of a clock.", "Calendars and ship's logs could then be mapped to the march of the hours, days, months, years and centuries.", "By 1798, Benjamin Thompson (1753–1814) had discovered that work could be transformed to heat without limit - a precursor of the conservation of energy or\nIn 1824 Sadi Carnot (1796–1832) scientifically analyzed the steam engine with his Carnot cycle, an abstract engine.", "Rudolf Clausius (1822–1888) noted a measure of disorder, or entropy, which affects the continually decreasing amount of free energy which is available to a Carnot engine in the:", "Thus", "the continual march of a thermodynamic system, from lesser to greater entropy, at any given temperature, defines an arrow of time.", "In particular, Stephen Hawking identifies three arrows of time:\n\nWith time, entropy increases in an isolated thermodynamic system.", "In contrast, Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) pointed out that life depends on a \"negative entropy flow\".", "Ilya Prigogine (1917–2003) stated that other thermodynamic systems which, like life, are also far from equilibrium, can also exhibit stable spatio-temporal structures that reminisce life.", "Soon afterward, the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reactions were reported, which demonstrate oscillating colors in a chemical solution.", "These nonequilibrium thermodynamic branches reach a \"bifurcation point\", which is unstable, and another thermodynamic branch becomes stable in its stead.", "In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) presented a combined theory of electricity and magnetism.", "He combined all the laws then known relating to those two phenomenon into four equations.", "These equations are known as Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism; they allow for solutions in the form of electromagnetic waves and propagate at a fixed speed, \"c\", regardless of the velocity of the electric charge that generated them.", "The fact that light is predicted to always travel at speed \"c\" would be incompatible with Galilean relativity if Maxwell's equations were assumed to hold in any inertial frame (reference frame with constant velocity), because the Galilean transformations predict the speed to decrease (or increase) in the reference frame of an observer traveling parallel (or antiparallel) to the light.", "It was expected that there was one absolute reference frame, that of the luminiferous aether, in which Maxwell's equations held unmodified in the known form.", "The Michelson–Morley experiment failed to detect any difference in the relative speed of light due to the motion of the Earth relative to the luminiferous aether, suggesting that Maxwell's equations did, in fact, hold in all frames.", "In 1875, Hendrik Lorentz (1853–1928) discovered Lorentz transformations, which left Maxwell's equations unchanged, allowing Michelson and Morley's negative result to be explained.", "Henri Poincaré (1854–1912) noted the importance of Lorentz's transformation and popularized it.", "In particular, the railroad car description can be found in \"Science and Hypothesis\", which was published before Einstein's articles of 1905.", "The Lorentz transformation predicted space contraction and time dilation; until 1905, the former was interpreted as a physical contraction of objects moving with respect to the aether, due to the modification of the intermolecular forces (of electric nature), while the latter was thought to be just a mathematical stipulation.", "Albert Einstein's 1905 special relativity challenged the notion of absolute time, and could only formulate a definition of synchronization for clocks that mark a linear flow of time:\n Einstein showed that if the speed of light is not changing between reference frames, space and time must be so that the moving observer will measure the same speed of light as the stationary one because velocity is \"defined\" by space and time:\nformula_3 where r is position and \"t\" is time.", "Indeed, the Lorentz transformation (for two reference frames in relative motion, whose \"x\" axis is directed in the direction of the relative velocity)\nformula_4\ncan be said to \"mix\" space and time in a way similar to the way a Euclidean rotation around the \"z\" axis mixes \"x\" and \"y\" coordinates.", "Consequences of this include relativity of simultaneity.", "More specifically, the Lorentz transformation is a hyperbolic rotation formula_5 which is a change of coordinates in the four-dimensional Minkowski space, a dimension of which is \"ct\".", "(In Euclidean space an ordinary rotation formula_6 is the corresponding change of coordinates.)", "The speed of light \"c\" can be seen as just a conversion factor needed because we measure the dimensions of spacetime in different units; since the metre is currently defined in terms of the second, it has the \"exact\" value of .", "We would need a similar factor in Euclidean space if, for example, we measured width in nautical miles and depth in feet.", "In physics, sometimes units of measurement in which \"c\" = 1 are used to simplify equations.", "Time in a \"moving\" reference frame is shown to run more slowly than in a \"stationary\" one by the following relation (which can be derived by the Lorentz transformation by putting ∆\"x\"′ = 0, ∆\"τ\" = ∆\"t\"′):\nformula_7\nwhere:\n\n\nMoving objects therefore are said to \"show a slower passage of time\".", "This is known as time dilation.", "These transformations are only valid for two frames at \"constant\" relative velocity.", "Naively applying them to other situations gives rise to such paradoxes as the twin paradox.", "That paradox can be resolved using for instance Einstein's General theory of relativity, which uses Riemannian geometry, geometry in accelerated, noninertial reference frames.", "Employing the metric tensor which describes Minkowski space:\nformula_8\nEinstein developed a geometric solution to Lorentz's transformation that preserves Maxwell's equations.", "His field equations give an exact relationship between the measurements of space and time in a given region of spacetime and the energy density of that region.", "Einstein's equations predict that time should be altered by the presence of gravitational fields (see the Schwarzschild metric):\nformula_9\nWhere:\nformula_10 is the gravitational time dilation of an object at a distance of formula_11.\nformula_12 is the change in coordinate time, or the interval of coordinate time.", "formula_13 is the gravitational constant\nformula_14 is the mass generating the field\nformula_15 is the change in proper time formula_16, or the interval of proper time.", "Or one could use the following simpler approximation:\nformula_17\nThat is, the stronger the gravitational field (and, thus, the larger the acceleration), the more slowly time runs.", "The predictions of time dilation are confirmed by particle acceleration experiments and cosmic ray evidence, where moving particles decay more slowly than their less energetic counterparts.", "Gravitational time dilation gives rise to the phenomenon of gravitational redshift and Shapiro signal travel time delays near massive objects such as the sun.", "The Global Positioning System must also adjust signals to account for this effect.", "According to Einstein's general theory of relativity, a freely moving particle traces a history in spacetime that maximises its proper time.", "This phenomenon is also referred to as the principle of maximal aging, and was described by Taylor and Wheeler as:\n\"Principle of Extremal Aging:", "The path a free object takes between two events in spacetime is the path for which the time lapse between these events, recorded on the object's wristwatch, is an extremum.", "\"\nEinstein's theory was motivated by the assumption that every point in the universe can be treated as a 'center', and that correspondingly, physics must act the same in all reference frames.", "His simple and elegant theory shows that time is relative to an inertial frame.", "In an inertial frame, Newton's first law holds; it has its own local geometry, and therefore its \"own\" measurements of space and time; \"there is no 'universal clock\"'.", "An act of synchronization must be performed between two systems, at the least.", "There is a time parameter in the equations of quantum mechanics.", "The Schrödinger equation is\nformula_18\nOne solution can be\nformula_19.\nwhere formula_20\nis called the time evolution operator, and \"H\" is the Hamiltonian.", "But the Schrödinger picture shown above is equivalent to the Heisenberg picture, which enjoys a similarity to the Poisson brackets of classical mechanics.", "The Poisson brackets are superseded by a nonzero commutator, say [H,A] for observable A, and Hamiltonian H:\nformula_21\nThis equation denotes an uncertainty relation in quantum physics.", "For example, with \"time\" (the observable A), the \"energy\" E (from the Hamiltonian H) gives:\nformula_22\nwhere\nformula_23 is the uncertainty in energy\nformula_24 is the uncertainty in time\nformula_25 is Planck's constant\nThe more precisely one measures the duration of a sequence of events, the less precisely one can measure the energy associated with that sequence, and vice versa.", "This equation is different from the standard uncertainty principle, because time is not an operator in quantum mechanics.", "Corresponding commutator relations also hold for momentum \"p\" and position \"q\", which are conjugate variables of each other, along with a corresponding uncertainty principle in momentum and position, similar to the energy and time relation above.", "Quantum mechanics explains the properties of the periodic table of the elements.", "Starting with Otto Stern's and Walter Gerlach's experiment with molecular beams in a magnetic field, Isidor Rabi (1898–1988), was able to modulate the magnetic resonance of the beam.", "In 1945 Rabi then suggested that this technique be the basis of a clock using the resonant frequency of an atomic beam.", "In 2021 Jun Ye of JILA in Boulder Colorado observed time dilatation in the difference in the rate of optical lattice clock ticks at the top of a cloud of strontium atoms, than at the bottom of that cloud, a column one millimeter tall, under the influence of gravity.", "See dynamical systems and chaos theory, dissipative structures\nOne could say that time is a parameterization of a dynamical system that allows the geometry of the system to be manifested and operated on.", "It has been asserted that \"time is an implicit consequence of chaos\" (i.e. nonlinearity/irreversibility): the characteristic time, or rate of information entropy production, of a system.", "Mandelbrot introduces intrinsic time in his book \"Multifractals and 1/f noise\".", "Khemani, Moessner, and Sondhi define a time crystal as a \"stable, conservative, macroscopic clock\".", "Signalling is one application of the electromagnetic waves described above.", "In general, a signal is part of communication between parties and places.", "One example might be a yellow ribbon tied to a tree, or the ringing of a church bell.", "A signal can be part of a conversation, which involves a protocol.", "Another signal might be the position of the hour hand on a town clock or a railway station.", "An interested party might wish to view that clock, to learn the time.", "See: Time ball, an early form of Time signal.", "We as observers can still signal different parties and places as long as we live within their \"past\" light cone.", "But we cannot receive signals from those parties and places outside our \"past\" light cone.", "Along with the formulation of the equations for the electromagnetic wave, the field of telecommunication could be founded.", "In 19th century telegraphy, electrical circuits, some spanning continents and oceans, could transmit codes - simple dots, dashes and spaces.", "From this, a series of technical issues have emerged; see :Category:Synchronization.", "But it is safe to say that our signalling systems can be only approximately synchronized, a plesiochronous condition, from which jitter need be eliminated.", "That said, systems \"can\" be synchronized (at an engineering approximation), using technologies like GPS.", "The GPS satellites must account for the effects of gravitation and other relativistic factors in their circuitry.", "See: Self-clocking signal.", "The primary time standard in the U.S. is currently NIST-F1, a laser-cooled Cs fountain, the latest in a series of time and frequency standards, from the ammonia-based atomic clock (1949) to the caesium-based NBS-1 (1952) to NIST-7 (1993).", "The respective clock uncertainty declined from 10,000 nanoseconds per day to 0.5 nanoseconds per day in 5 decades.", "In 2001 the clock uncertainty for NIST-F1 was 0.1 nanoseconds/day.", "Development of increasingly accurate frequency standards is underway.", "In this time and frequency standard, a population of caesium atoms is laser-cooled to temperatures of one microkelvin.", "The atoms collect in a ball shaped by six lasers, two for each spatial dimension, vertical (up/down), horizontal (left/right), and back/forth.", "The vertical lasers push the caesium ball through a microwave cavity.", "As the ball is cooled, the caesium population cools to its ground state and emits light at its natural frequency, stated in the definition of \"second\" above.", "Eleven physical effects are accounted for in the emissions from the caesium population, which are then controlled for in the NIST-F1 clock.", "These results are reported to BIPM.", "Additionally, a reference hydrogen maser is also reported to BIPM as a frequency standard for TAI (international atomic time).", "The measurement of time is overseen by BIPM (\"Bureau International des Poids et Mesures\"), located in Sèvres, France, which ensures uniformity of measurements and their traceability to the International System of Units (SI) worldwide.", "BIPM operates under authority of the Metre Convention, a diplomatic treaty between fifty-one nations, the Member States of the Convention, through a series of Consultative Committees, whose members are the respective national metrology laboratories.", "The equations of general relativity predict a non-static universe.", "However, Einstein accepted only a static universe, and modified the Einstein field equation to reflect this by adding the cosmological constant, which he later described as the biggest mistake of his life.", "But in 1927, Georges Lemaître (1894–1966) argued, on the basis of general relativity, that the universe originated in a primordial explosion.", "At the fifth Solvay conference, that year, Einstein brushed him off with \"\" (“Your math is correct, but your physics is abominable”).", "In 1929, Edwin Hubble (1889–1953) announced his discovery of the expanding universe.", "The current generally accepted cosmological model, the Lambda-CDM model, has a positive cosmological constant and thus not only an expanding universe but an accelerating expanding universe.", "If the universe were expanding, then it must have been much smaller and therefore hotter and denser in the past.", "George Gamow (1904–1968) hypothesized that the abundance of the elements in the Periodic Table of the Elements, might be accounted for by nuclear reactions in a hot dense universe.", "He was disputed by Fred Hoyle (1915–2001), who invented the term 'Big Bang' to disparage it.", "Fermi and others noted that this process would have stopped after only the light elements were created, and thus did not account for the abundance of heavier elements.", "Gamow's prediction was a 5–10-kelvin black-body radiation temperature for the universe, after it cooled during the expansion.", "This was corroborated by Penzias and Wilson in 1965.", "Subsequent experiments arrived at a 2.7 kelvins temperature, corresponding to an age of the universe of 13.8 billion years after the Big Bang.", "This dramatic result has raised issues: what happened between the singularity of the Big Bang and the Planck time, which, after all, is the smallest observable time.", "When might have time separated out from the spacetime foam; there are only hints based on broken symmetries (see Spontaneous symmetry breaking, Timeline of the Big Bang, and the articles in :Category:Physical cosmology).", "General relativity gave us our modern notion of the expanding universe that started in the Big Bang.", "Using relativity and quantum theory we have been able to roughly reconstruct the history of the universe.", "In our epoch, during which electromagnetic waves can propagate without being disturbed by conductors or charges, we can see the stars, at great distances from us, in the night sky.", "(Before this epoch, there was a time, before the universe cooled enough for electrons and nuclei to combine into atoms about 377,000 years after the Big Bang, during which starlight would not have been visible over large distances.)", "Ilya Prigogine's reprise is \"\"Time precedes existence\"\".", "In contrast to the views of Newton, of Einstein, and of quantum physics, which offer a symmetric view of time (as discussed above), Prigogine points out that statistical and thermodynamic physics can explain irreversible phenomena, as well as the arrow of time and the Big Bang." ]

[ 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96 ]

[ "In classical, non-relativistic physics, it is a scalar quantity (often denoted by the symbol formula_1) and, like length, mass, and charge, is usually described as a fundamental quantity.", "Time can be combined mathematically with other physical quantities to derive other concepts such as motion, kinetic energy and time-dependent fields." ]

[ "The deepest problem in theoretical physics is harmonizing the theory of general relativity, which describes gravitation and applies to large-scale structures (stars, galaxies, super clusters), with quantum mechanics, which describes the other three fundamental forces acting on the atomic scale.", "The development of a quantum field theory of a force invariably results in infinite possibilities.", "Physicists developed the technique of renormalization to eliminate these infinities; this technique works for three of the four fundamental forces—electromagnetic, strong nuclear and weak nuclear forces—but not for gravity.", "Development of quantum theory of gravity therefore requires different means than those used for the other forces.", "According to the theory, the fundamental constituents of reality are strings of the Planck length (about 10−33 cm) that vibrate at resonant frequencies.", "Every string, in theory, has a unique resonance, or harmonic.", "Different harmonics determine different fundamental particles.", "The tension in a string is on the order of the Planck force (1044 newtons).", "The graviton (the proposed messenger particle of the gravitational force), for example, is predicted by the theory to be a string with wave amplitude zero.", "Investigating how a string theory may include fermions in its spectrum led to the invention of supersymmetry (in the West) in 1971, a mathematical transformation between bosons and fermions.", "String theories that include fermionic vibrations are now known as \"superstring theories\".\nSince its beginnings in the seventies and through the combined efforts of many different researchers, superstring theory has developed into a broad and varied subject with connections to quantum gravity, particle and condensed matter physics, cosmology, and pure mathematics.", "Superstring theory is based on supersymmetry.", "No supersymmetric particles have been discovered and recent research at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and Tevatron has excluded some of the ranges.", "For instance, the mass constraint of the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model squarks has been up to 1.1 TeV, and gluinos up to 500 GeV.", "No report on suggesting large extra dimensions has been delivered from LHC.", "There have been no principles so far to limit the number of vacua in the concept of a landscape of vacua.", "Some particle physicists became disappointed by the lack of experimental verification of supersymmetry, and some have already discarded it; Jon Butterworth at University College London said that we had no sign of supersymmetry, even in higher energy region, excluding the superpartners of the top quark up to a few TeV. Ben Allanach at the University of Cambridge states that if we do not discover any new particles in the next trial at the LHC, then we can say it is unlikely to discover supersymmetry at CERN in the foreseeable future.", "Our physical space is observed to have three large spatial dimensions and, along with time, is a boundless 4-dimensional continuum known as spacetime.", "However, nothing prevents a theory from including more than 4 dimensions.", "In the case of string theory, consistency requires spacetime to have 10 dimensions (3D regular space + 1 time + 6D hyperspace).", "The fact that we see only 3 dimensions of space can be explained by one of two mechanisms: either the extra dimensions are compactified on a very small scale, or else our world may live on a 3-dimensional submanifold corresponding to a brane, on which all known particles besides gravity would be restricted.", "If the extra dimensions are compactified, then the extra 6 dimensions must be in the form of a Calabi–Yau manifold.", "Within the more complete framework of M-theory, they would have to take form of a G2 manifold.", "A particular exact symmetry of string/M-theory called T-duality (which exchanges momentum modes for winding number and sends compact dimensions of radius R to radius 1/R), has led to the discovery of equivalences between different Calabi–Yau manifolds called mirror symmetry.", "Superstring theory is not the first theory to propose extra spatial dimensions.", "It can be seen as building upon the Kaluza–Klein theory, which proposed a 4+1 dimensional (5D) theory of gravity.", "When compactified on a circle, the gravity in the extra dimension precisely describes electromagnetism from the perspective of the 3 remaining large space dimensions.", "Thus the original Kaluza–Klein theory is a prototype for the unification of gauge and gravity interactions, at least at the classical level, however it is known to be insufficient to describe nature for a variety of reasons (missing weak and strong forces, lack of parity violation, etc.)", "A more complex compact geometry is needed to reproduce the known gauge forces.", "Also, to obtain a consistent, fundamental, quantum theory requires the upgrade to string theory, not just the extra dimensions.", "Theoretical physicists were troubled by the existence of five separate superstring theories.", "A possible solution for this dilemma was suggested at the beginning of what is called the second superstring revolution in the 1990s, which suggests that the five string theories might be different limits of a single underlying theory, called M-theory.", "This remains a conjecture.", "The five consistent superstring theories are:\n\nChiral gauge theories can be inconsistent due to anomalies.", "This happens when certain one-loop Feynman diagrams cause a quantum mechanical breakdown of the gauge symmetry.", "The anomalies were canceled out via the Green–Schwarz mechanism.\nEven though there are only five superstring theories, making detailed predictions for real experiments requires information about exactly what physical configuration the theory is in.", "This considerably complicates efforts to test string theory because there is an astronomically high number—10500 or more—of configurations that meet some of the basic requirements to be consistent with our world.", "Along with the extreme remoteness of the Planck scale, this is the other major reason it is hard to test superstring theory.", "Another approach to the number of superstring theories refers to the mathematical structure called composition algebra.", "In the findings of abstract algebra there are just seven composition algebras over the field of real numbers.", "In 1990 physicists R. Foot and G.C. Joshi in Australia stated that \"the seven classical superstring theories are in one-to-one correspondence to the seven composition algebras\".", "General relativity typically deals with situations involving large mass objects in fairly large regions of spacetime whereas quantum mechanics is generally reserved for scenarios at the atomic scale (small spacetime regions).", "The two are very rarely used together, and the most common case that combines them is in the study of black holes.", "Having \"peak density\", or the maximum amount of matter possible in a space, and very small area, the two must be used in synchrony to predict conditions in such places.", "Yet, when used together, the equations fall apart, spitting out impossible answers, such as imaginary distances and less than one dimension.", "The major problem with their congruence is that, at Planck scale (a fundamental small unit of length) lengths, general relativity predicts a smooth, flowing surface, while quantum mechanics predicts a random, warped surface, which are nowhere near compatible.", "Superstring theory resolves this issue, replacing the classical idea of point particles with strings.", "These strings have an average diameter of the Planck length, with extremely small variances, which completely ignores the quantum mechanical predictions of Planck-scale length dimensional warping.", "Also, these surfaces can be mapped as branes.", "These branes can be viewed as objects with a morphism between them.", "In this case, the morphism will be the state of a string that stretches between brane A and brane B.\nSingularities are avoided because the observed consequences of \"Big Crunches\" never reach zero size.", "In fact, should the universe begin a \"big crunch\" sort of process, string theory dictates that the universe could never be smaller than the size of one string, at which point it would actually begin expanding.", "D-branes are membrane-like objects in 10D string theory.", "They can be thought of as occurring as a result of a Kaluza–Klein compactification of 11D M-theory that contains membranes.", "Because compactification of a geometric theory produces extra vector fields the D-branes can be included in the action by adding an extra U(1) vector field to the string action.", "formula_1\nIn type I open string theory, the ends of open strings are always attached to D-brane surfaces.", "A string theory with more gauge fields such as SU(2) gauge fields would then correspond to the compactification of some higher-dimensional theory above 11 dimensions, which is not thought to be possible to date.", "Furthermore, the tachyons attached to the D-branes show the instability of those D-branes with respect to the annihilation.", "The tachyon total energy is (or reflects) the total energy of the D-branes.", "For a 10 dimensional supersymmetric theory we are allowed a 32-component Majorana spinor.", "This can be decomposed into a pair of 16-component Majorana-Weyl (chiral) spinors.", "There are then various ways to construct an invariant depending on whether these two spinors have the same or opposite chiralities:\nThe heterotic superstrings come in two types SO(32) and E8×E8 as indicated above and the type I superstrings include open strings.", "It is conceivable that the five superstring theories are approximated to a theory in higher dimensions possibly involving membranes.", "Because the action for this involves quartic terms and higher so is not Gaussian, the functional integrals are very difficult to solve and so this has confounded the top theoretical physicists.", "Edward Witten has popularised the concept of a theory in 11 dimensions, called M-theory, involving membranes interpolating from the known symmetries of superstring theory.", "It may turn out that there exist membrane models or other non-membrane models in higher dimensions—which may become acceptable when we find new unknown symmetries of nature, such as noncommutative geometry.", "It is thought, however, that 16 is probably the maximum since SO(16) is a maximal subgroup of E8, the largest exceptional Lie group, and also is more than large enough to contain the Standard Model.", "Quartic integrals of the non-functional kind are easier to solve so there is hope for the future.", "This is the series solution, which is always convergent when a is non-zero and negative:\n formula_2\nIn the case of membranes the series would correspond to sums of various membrane interactions that are not seen in string theory.", "Investigating theories of higher dimensions often involves looking at the 10 dimensional superstring theory and interpreting some of the more obscure results in terms of compactified dimensions.", "For example, D-branes are seen as compactified membranes from 11D M-theory.", "Theories of higher dimensions such as 12D F-theory and beyond produce other effects, such as gauge terms higher than U(1).", "The components of the extra vector fields (A) in the D-brane actions can be thought of as extra coordinates (X) in disguise.", "However, the \"known\" symmetries including supersymmetry currently restrict the spinors to 32-components—which limits the number of dimensions to 11 (or 12 if you include two time dimensions.)", "Some physicists (e.g., John Baez et al.) have speculated that the exceptional Lie groups E6, E7 and E8 having maximum orthogonal subgroups SO(10), SO(12) and SO(16) may be related to theories in 10, 12 and 16 dimensions; 10 dimensions corresponding to string theory and the 12 and 16 dimensional theories being yet undiscovered but would be theories based on 3-branes and 7-branes respectively.", "However, this is a minority view within the string community.", "Since E7 is in some sense F4 quaternified and E8 is F4 octonified, the 12 and 16 dimensional theories, if they did exist, may involve the noncommutative geometry based on the quaternions and octonions respectively.", "From the above discussion, it can be seen that physicists have many ideas for extending superstring theory beyond the current 10 dimensional theory, but so far all have been unsuccessful.", "Since strings can have an infinite number of modes, the symmetry used to describe string theory is based on infinite dimensional Lie algebras.", "Some Kac–Moody algebras that have been considered as symmetries for M-theory have been E10 and E11 and their supersymmetric extensions." ]

[ 9, 10 ]

[ "'Superstring theory' is a shorthand for supersymmetric string theory because unlike bosonic string theory, it is the version of string theory that accounts for both fermions and bosons and incorporates supersymmetry to model gravity." ]

[ "The deepest problem in theoretical physics is harmonizing the theory of general relativity, which describes gravitation and applies to large-scale structures (stars, galaxies, super clusters), with quantum mechanics, which describes the other three fundamental forces acting on the atomic scale.", "The development of a quantum field theory of a force invariably results in infinite possibilities.", "Physicists developed the technique of renormalization to eliminate these infinities; this technique works for three of the four fundamental forces—electromagnetic, strong nuclear and weak nuclear forces—but not for gravity.", "Development of quantum theory of gravity therefore requires different means than those used for the other forces.", "According to the theory, the fundamental constituents of reality are strings of the Planck length (about 10−33 cm) that vibrate at resonant frequencies.", "Every string, in theory, has a unique resonance, or harmonic.", "Different harmonics determine different fundamental particles.", "The tension in a string is on the order of the Planck force (1044 newtons).", "The graviton (the proposed messenger particle of the gravitational force), for example, is predicted by the theory to be a string with wave amplitude zero.", "Investigating how a string theory may include fermions in its spectrum led to the invention of supersymmetry (in the West) in 1971, a mathematical transformation between bosons and fermions.", "String theories that include fermionic vibrations are now known as \"superstring theories\".\nSince its beginnings in the seventies and through the combined efforts of many different researchers, superstring theory has developed into a broad and varied subject with connections to quantum gravity, particle and condensed matter physics, cosmology, and pure mathematics.", "Superstring theory is based on supersymmetry.", "No supersymmetric particles have been discovered and recent research at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and Tevatron has excluded some of the ranges.", "For instance, the mass constraint of the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model squarks has been up to 1.1 TeV, and gluinos up to 500 GeV.", "No report on suggesting large extra dimensions has been delivered from LHC.", "There have been no principles so far to limit the number of vacua in the concept of a landscape of vacua.", "Some particle physicists became disappointed by the lack of experimental verification of supersymmetry, and some have already discarded it; Jon Butterworth at University College London said that we had no sign of supersymmetry, even in higher energy region, excluding the superpartners of the top quark up to a few TeV. Ben Allanach at the University of Cambridge states that if we do not discover any new particles in the next trial at the LHC, then we can say it is unlikely to discover supersymmetry at CERN in the foreseeable future.", "Our physical space is observed to have three large spatial dimensions and, along with time, is a boundless 4-dimensional continuum known as spacetime.", "However, nothing prevents a theory from including more than 4 dimensions.", "In the case of string theory, consistency requires spacetime to have 10 dimensions (3D regular space + 1 time + 6D hyperspace).", "The fact that we see only 3 dimensions of space can be explained by one of two mechanisms: either the extra dimensions are compactified on a very small scale, or else our world may live on a 3-dimensional submanifold corresponding to a brane, on which all known particles besides gravity would be restricted.", "If the extra dimensions are compactified, then the extra 6 dimensions must be in the form of a Calabi–Yau manifold.", "Within the more complete framework of M-theory, they would have to take form of a G2 manifold.", "A particular exact symmetry of string/M-theory called T-duality (which exchanges momentum modes for winding number and sends compact dimensions of radius R to radius 1/R), has led to the discovery of equivalences between different Calabi–Yau manifolds called mirror symmetry.", "Superstring theory is not the first theory to propose extra spatial dimensions.", "It can be seen as building upon the Kaluza–Klein theory, which proposed a 4+1 dimensional (5D) theory of gravity.", "When compactified on a circle, the gravity in the extra dimension precisely describes electromagnetism from the perspective of the 3 remaining large space dimensions.", "Thus the original Kaluza–Klein theory is a prototype for the unification of gauge and gravity interactions, at least at the classical level, however it is known to be insufficient to describe nature for a variety of reasons (missing weak and strong forces, lack of parity violation, etc.)", "A more complex compact geometry is needed to reproduce the known gauge forces.", "Also, to obtain a consistent, fundamental, quantum theory requires the upgrade to string theory, not just the extra dimensions.", "Theoretical physicists were troubled by the existence of five separate superstring theories.", "A possible solution for this dilemma was suggested at the beginning of what is called the second superstring revolution in the 1990s, which suggests that the five string theories might be different limits of a single underlying theory, called M-theory.", "This remains a conjecture.", "The five consistent superstring theories are:\n\nChiral gauge theories can be inconsistent due to anomalies.", "This happens when certain one-loop Feynman diagrams cause a quantum mechanical breakdown of the gauge symmetry.", "The anomalies were canceled out via the Green–Schwarz mechanism.\nEven though there are only five superstring theories, making detailed predictions for real experiments requires information about exactly what physical configuration the theory is in.", "This considerably complicates efforts to test string theory because there is an astronomically high number—10500 or more—of configurations that meet some of the basic requirements to be consistent with our world.", "Along with the extreme remoteness of the Planck scale, this is the other major reason it is hard to test superstring theory.", "Another approach to the number of superstring theories refers to the mathematical structure called composition algebra.", "In the findings of abstract algebra there are just seven composition algebras over the field of real numbers.", "In 1990 physicists R. Foot and G.C. Joshi in Australia stated that \"the seven classical superstring theories are in one-to-one correspondence to the seven composition algebras\".", "General relativity typically deals with situations involving large mass objects in fairly large regions of spacetime whereas quantum mechanics is generally reserved for scenarios at the atomic scale (small spacetime regions).", "The two are very rarely used together, and the most common case that combines them is in the study of black holes.", "Having \"peak density\", or the maximum amount of matter possible in a space, and very small area, the two must be used in synchrony to predict conditions in such places.", "Yet, when used together, the equations fall apart, spitting out impossible answers, such as imaginary distances and less than one dimension.", "The major problem with their congruence is that, at Planck scale (a fundamental small unit of length) lengths, general relativity predicts a smooth, flowing surface, while quantum mechanics predicts a random, warped surface, which are nowhere near compatible.", "Superstring theory resolves this issue, replacing the classical idea of point particles with strings.", "These strings have an average diameter of the Planck length, with extremely small variances, which completely ignores the quantum mechanical predictions of Planck-scale length dimensional warping.", "Also, these surfaces can be mapped as branes.", "These branes can be viewed as objects with a morphism between them.", "In this case, the morphism will be the state of a string that stretches between brane A and brane B.\nSingularities are avoided because the observed consequences of \"Big Crunches\" never reach zero size.", "In fact, should the universe begin a \"big crunch\" sort of process, string theory dictates that the universe could never be smaller than the size of one string, at which point it would actually begin expanding.", "D-branes are membrane-like objects in 10D string theory.", "They can be thought of as occurring as a result of a Kaluza–Klein compactification of 11D M-theory that contains membranes.", "Because compactification of a geometric theory produces extra vector fields the D-branes can be included in the action by adding an extra U(1) vector field to the string action.", "formula_1\nIn type I open string theory, the ends of open strings are always attached to D-brane surfaces.", "A string theory with more gauge fields such as SU(2) gauge fields would then correspond to the compactification of some higher-dimensional theory above 11 dimensions, which is not thought to be possible to date.", "Furthermore, the tachyons attached to the D-branes show the instability of those D-branes with respect to the annihilation.", "The tachyon total energy is (or reflects) the total energy of the D-branes.", "For a 10 dimensional supersymmetric theory we are allowed a 32-component Majorana spinor.", "This can be decomposed into a pair of 16-component Majorana-Weyl (chiral) spinors.", "There are then various ways to construct an invariant depending on whether these two spinors have the same or opposite chiralities:\nThe heterotic superstrings come in two types SO(32) and E8×E8 as indicated above and the type I superstrings include open strings.", "It is conceivable that the five superstring theories are approximated to a theory in higher dimensions possibly involving membranes.", "Because the action for this involves quartic terms and higher so is not Gaussian, the functional integrals are very difficult to solve and so this has confounded the top theoretical physicists.", "Edward Witten has popularised the concept of a theory in 11 dimensions, called M-theory, involving membranes interpolating from the known symmetries of superstring theory.", "It may turn out that there exist membrane models or other non-membrane models in higher dimensions—which may become acceptable when we find new unknown symmetries of nature, such as noncommutative geometry.", "It is thought, however, that 16 is probably the maximum since SO(16) is a maximal subgroup of E8, the largest exceptional Lie group, and also is more than large enough to contain the Standard Model.", "Quartic integrals of the non-functional kind are easier to solve so there is hope for the future.", "This is the series solution, which is always convergent when a is non-zero and negative:\n formula_2\nIn the case of membranes the series would correspond to sums of various membrane interactions that are not seen in string theory.", "Investigating theories of higher dimensions often involves looking at the 10 dimensional superstring theory and interpreting some of the more obscure results in terms of compactified dimensions.", "For example, D-branes are seen as compactified membranes from 11D M-theory.", "Theories of higher dimensions such as 12D F-theory and beyond produce other effects, such as gauge terms higher than U(1).", "The components of the extra vector fields (A) in the D-brane actions can be thought of as extra coordinates (X) in disguise.", "However, the \"known\" symmetries including supersymmetry currently restrict the spinors to 32-components—which limits the number of dimensions to 11 (or 12 if you include two time dimensions.)", "Some physicists (e.g., John Baez et al.) have speculated that the exceptional Lie groups E6, E7 and E8 having maximum orthogonal subgroups SO(10), SO(12) and SO(16) may be related to theories in 10, 12 and 16 dimensions; 10 dimensions corresponding to string theory and the 12 and 16 dimensional theories being yet undiscovered but would be theories based on 3-branes and 7-branes respectively.", "However, this is a minority view within the string community.", "Since E7 is in some sense F4 quaternified and E8 is F4 octonified, the 12 and 16 dimensional theories, if they did exist, may involve the noncommutative geometry based on the quaternions and octonions respectively.", "From the above discussion, it can be seen that physicists have many ideas for extending superstring theory beyond the current 10 dimensional theory, but so far all have been unsuccessful.", "Since strings can have an infinite number of modes, the symmetry used to describe string theory is based on infinite dimensional Lie algebras.", "Some Kac–Moody algebras that have been considered as symmetries for M-theory have been E10 and E11 and their supersymmetric extensions." ]

[ 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 ]

[ "Since the second superstring revolution, the five superstring theories are regarded as different limits of a single theory tentatively called M-theory." ]

[ "The lyrics of the song are about Barbie and Ken, the dolls made by Mattel.", "Both the song and its music video feature Lene Nystrøm as Barbie and René Dif as Ken.", "As such, the lyrics drew the ire of Barbie's corporate owners, and a lawsuit was filed by Mattel.", "A footnote on the back of the \"Aquarium\" CD case precisely stated that \"The song 'Barbie Girl' is a social comment and was not created or approved by the makers of the doll.\"", "\"Barbie Girl\" is written in the key of C-sharp minor.", "\"Barbie Girl\" received critical acclaim.", "Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic called the song \"one of those inexplicable pop culture phenomena\" and \"insanely catchy\", describing it as a \"bouncy, slightly warped Euro-dance song that simultaneously sends up femininity and Barbie dolls.\"", "Larry Flick from \"Billboard\" wrote that \"with her squeaky, high-pitched delivery, Lene Grawford Nystrøm fronts this giddy pop/dance ditty as if she were Barbie, gleefully verbalizing many of the twisted things people secretly do with the doll.\"", "He noted that \"at the same time, she effectively rants about the inherent misogyny of Barbie with a subversive hand\", adding that René Dif is an \"equally playful and biting presence, as he embodies male counterpart Ken with an amusing leer.\"", "Scottish newspaper \"Daily Record\" stated, \"Love them or hate them, you have to admit Aqua's silly doll song is pure pop and the video is great, too\".", "David Browne from \"Entertainment Weekly\" described it as a \"dance-floor novelty that alludes to the secret, less-than-wholesome life of every little girl's fave doll.\"", "Another editor, Jeremy Helligar commented, \"There must be something in that Northern European water.", "Like recent tunes by their Swedish-pop counterparts Ace of Base and the Cardigans, these Danish newcomers' frothy debut is fun, fun, fun — but oh so disposable.\"", "Insider stated that \"Barbie Girl\" is \"sugary sweet\" and \"totally catchy\".", "A reviewer from \"People Magazine\" called it \"the year's best novelty record, a cartoonish anthem you'll need surgery to remove from your head.\"", "Also Pop Rescue wrote that \"this song is fun, undoubtedly catchy, and bouncy, with the personas of Barbie and Ken fitting perfectly with the vocal contrast.", "\"\nThe song ranked number 88 in a VH1 countdown, \"VH1's 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders\".", "In 2017, \"BuzzFeed\" listed the song at number 76 in their list of \"The 101 Greatest Dance Songs Of the '90s\".", "\"Barbie Girl\" has sold more than eight million copies worldwide.", "It went on becoming a huge hit on several continents, remaining the most successful song\nby the band.", "It reached number one in more than 10 countries.", "In Europe, the single peaked at the top position in Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Scotland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, as well as on the Eurochart Hot 100.", "In the band's native Denmark, the song debuted and peaked at number two.", "In the United Kingdom, it debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number two and reached number one the next week, on 26 October 1997.", "It stayed at that position for four weeks and has sold 1.84 million copies in the United Kingdom as of April 2017, making it the thirteenth best-selling single in the UK.", "Outside Europe, \"Barbie Girl\" peaked at number-one in Australia and New Zealand, number four in Canada and number seven on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100.", "On the latter, it debuted at that position.", "It sold 82,000 copies in its first week and debuted at number five on the \"Billboard\" Hot Singles Sales chart.", "The music video for \"Barbie Girl\" was directed by Danish directors Peder Pedersen and Peter Stenbæk.", "It depicts the band members in different scenes that a Barbie doll would be in.", "Uploaded to YouTube in August 2010, as of February 2022 the video has more than 1 billion views.", "In September 1997, 6 months after the release of the song by Aqua, Mattel, the manufacturer of the Barbie doll, sued MCA Records, Aqua's North American record label.", "Mattel claimed that \"Barbie Girl\" violated their trademark and turned her into a sex object, referring to her as a \"Blonde Bimbo\".", "It alleged that the song infringed its copyrights and trademarks on the Barbie doll, and that the song's lyrics had ruined the longtime popularity and reputation of their trademark and impinged on their marketing plan.", "Aqua and MCA Records claimed that Mattel injected their own meanings into the song's lyrics.", "They contested Mattel's claims and countersued for defamation after Mattel had likened MCA to a bank robber.", "The lawsuit filed by Mattel was dismissed by the lower courts, and this dismissal was upheld, though Mattel took their case up to the Supreme Court of the United States, but that appeal was later rejected.", "In 2002, a Court of Appeals ruled the song was protected as a parody under the trademark doctrine of nominative use and the First Amendment to the United States Constitution; the judge Alex Kozinski also threw out the defamation lawsuit that Aqua's record company filed against Mattel, concluding his ruling: \"The parties are advised to chill.\"", "The case was dismissed.", "In 2009, Mattel released a series of advertisements and a promotional music video of the song, with modified lyrics, as part of a new marketing strategy brought in to revive sales.", "As the interval act during the Eurovision Song Contest 2001, Aqua performed a medley of their singles along with percussion ensemble Safri Duo.", "There were several complaints due to the profanity used during the performance, both at the beginning and end of \"Barbie Girl\".", "# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Perky Park club mix) – 6:13\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spikes Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (CD-ROM video)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Dirty Rotten Scoundrels 12-inch G-String mix)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Dirty Rotten Peroxide radio mix)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Plastic mix) – 8:44\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\nA1.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Plastic mix) – 8:44\nA2.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\nB1.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\nB2.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14", "Credits are adapted from liner notes of the \"Barbie Girl\" CD single and \"Aquarium\".", "The song has been covered by several artists throughout years.", "Alternative metal band Faith No More covered the song live in 1997 during their \"Album of the Year\" tour.", "Identical twin sisters Amanda and Samantha Marchant, better known as Samanda, released their cover of the song on 8 October 2007, and it entered the UK Singles Chart at number 26.", "Girls' Generation's Jessica Jung covered this song as her solo performance during the first Asian concert tour", "\"Girls' Generation 1st Asia Tour: Into the New World\".", "The Swedish artist Loke Nyberg did a new version of this song for the Swedish radio show \"Morgonpasset\".", "He interprets the song as criticism of today's beauty ideals.", "In 2013, Ludacris sampled the song in his single \"Party Girls\" featuring Wiz Khalifa, Jeremih and Cashmere Cat.", "In 2016, Caramella Girls released a version called \"Candy Girl\" on iTunes, as well as a YouTube music video.", "There are also many parodies of the song, including a parody called \"Ugly Girl\", with an unverified author (often wrongly credited to \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, Adam Henderson, or Jack Off Jill).", "German duo Lynne & Tessa made a lip-synched Internet video of the song in 2006, and on British Indian sketch comedy show \"Goodness Gracious Me\", where a version titled \"Punjabi Girl\" was featured in the radio series and later on television.", "In 2012, the song was parodied in an Australian lamb advertising campaign, relying on the Australian use of the term \"barbie\" to refer to the outdoor barbecue popularly held in Australia.", "The advertisement starred Melissa Tkautz and Sam Kekovich.", "In 2014, the song was used in the \"South Park\" episode \"Cock Magic\".", "Ava Max recorded a version with new lyrics, titled \"Not Your Barbie Girl\", in 2018.", "In 1999, released an Indonesian version of this song with the title \"Boneka Barbie\".", "In 2005, Brazilian recording artist Kelly Key recorded a version in Portuguese for her third studio album \"Kelly Key\".", "The version was released as second single on 15 August 2005.", "Key said she loved the song and wanted to do a version for honor: \"I really like this song since I heard.", "I wanted to record without thinking about whether my fans will like it or not\".", "The song received generally negative reviews from music critics.", "Vinícius Versiani Durães of IMHO said that that version was funny and a future success.", "Marcos Paulo Bin of Universo Musical commented that the song was really different from previous releases – known for explicit lyrics – but was positive and said the version was good.", "Rodrigo Ortega of Pilula Pop said \"Barbie Girl\" was sensational, funny and chose as the best of the album.", "He also said that Key was wrong to have released \"Escuta Aqui Rapaz\" as her first single, because \"the song was boring\", but \"Barbie Girl\" saved the era.", "Carlos Eduardo Lima of Scream & Yell was negative and said the song was \"childish, silly, boring\" and killed Kelly Key as a sex-symbol.", "The music video for \"Barbie Girl\" was recorded on 17 and 18 August 2005.", "It was directed by Ricardo Vereza, Bidu Madio, Rentz and Mauricio Eça.", "In the video, released on 30 August, Kelly plays a determined and feminist woman.", "This song is internationally notable to be wrongly attributed to Czech model Dominika Myslivcová as she uploaded a video in YouTube lip-synching to this song and, later, it became a viral video.", "# \"Barbie Girl\" – 3:20\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Cuca Mix) – 5:12\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Music video) – 3:23", "Environmental movements, like \"Fridays for Future\", when trying to bring attention to the heavy amounts of plastic thrown by humans into the seas, have referred the song lyrics in their slogans with the words \"Life in plastic is not fantastic\"." ]

[ 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 ]

[ "\"Barbie Girl\" is a song by Danish dance-pop group Aqua.", "The song topped the charts worldwide, particularly in European countries such as the United Kingdom, where it was a number-one hit for four weeks and remains one of the best-selling singles of all time.", "It also reached number two in the group's homeland and peaked at number seven on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100, where it remains Aqua's biggest hit single and their only one to reach the top 10 of the Hot 100.", "It is Aqua's most popular work." ]

[ "The lyrics of the song are about Barbie and Ken, the dolls made by Mattel.", "Both the song and its music video feature Lene Nystrøm as Barbie and René Dif as Ken.", "As such, the lyrics drew the ire of Barbie's corporate owners, and a lawsuit was filed by Mattel.", "A footnote on the back of the \"Aquarium\" CD case precisely stated that \"The song 'Barbie Girl' is a social comment and was not created or approved by the makers of the doll.\"", "\"Barbie Girl\" is written in the key of C-sharp minor.", "\"Barbie Girl\" received critical acclaim.", "Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic called the song \"one of those inexplicable pop culture phenomena\" and \"insanely catchy\", describing it as a \"bouncy, slightly warped Euro-dance song that simultaneously sends up femininity and Barbie dolls.\"", "Larry Flick from \"Billboard\" wrote that \"with her squeaky, high-pitched delivery, Lene Grawford Nystrøm fronts this giddy pop/dance ditty as if she were Barbie, gleefully verbalizing many of the twisted things people secretly do with the doll.\"", "He noted that \"at the same time, she effectively rants about the inherent misogyny of Barbie with a subversive hand\", adding that René Dif is an \"equally playful and biting presence, as he embodies male counterpart Ken with an amusing leer.\"", "Scottish newspaper \"Daily Record\" stated, \"Love them or hate them, you have to admit Aqua's silly doll song is pure pop and the video is great, too\".", "David Browne from \"Entertainment Weekly\" described it as a \"dance-floor novelty that alludes to the secret, less-than-wholesome life of every little girl's fave doll.\"", "Another editor, Jeremy Helligar commented, \"There must be something in that Northern European water.", "Like recent tunes by their Swedish-pop counterparts Ace of Base and the Cardigans, these Danish newcomers' frothy debut is fun, fun, fun — but oh so disposable.\"", "Insider stated that \"Barbie Girl\" is \"sugary sweet\" and \"totally catchy\".", "A reviewer from \"People Magazine\" called it \"the year's best novelty record, a cartoonish anthem you'll need surgery to remove from your head.\"", "Also Pop Rescue wrote that \"this song is fun, undoubtedly catchy, and bouncy, with the personas of Barbie and Ken fitting perfectly with the vocal contrast.", "\"\nThe song ranked number 88 in a VH1 countdown, \"VH1's 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders\".", "In 2017, \"BuzzFeed\" listed the song at number 76 in their list of \"The 101 Greatest Dance Songs Of the '90s\".", "\"Barbie Girl\" has sold more than eight million copies worldwide.", "It went on becoming a huge hit on several continents, remaining the most successful song\nby the band.", "It reached number one in more than 10 countries.", "In Europe, the single peaked at the top position in Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Scotland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, as well as on the Eurochart Hot 100.", "In the band's native Denmark, the song debuted and peaked at number two.", "In the United Kingdom, it debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number two and reached number one the next week, on 26 October 1997.", "It stayed at that position for four weeks and has sold 1.84 million copies in the United Kingdom as of April 2017, making it the thirteenth best-selling single in the UK.", "Outside Europe, \"Barbie Girl\" peaked at number-one in Australia and New Zealand, number four in Canada and number seven on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100.", "On the latter, it debuted at that position.", "It sold 82,000 copies in its first week and debuted at number five on the \"Billboard\" Hot Singles Sales chart.", "The music video for \"Barbie Girl\" was directed by Danish directors Peder Pedersen and Peter Stenbæk.", "It depicts the band members in different scenes that a Barbie doll would be in.", "Uploaded to YouTube in August 2010, as of February 2022 the video has more than 1 billion views.", "In September 1997, 6 months after the release of the song by Aqua, Mattel, the manufacturer of the Barbie doll, sued MCA Records, Aqua's North American record label.", "Mattel claimed that \"Barbie Girl\" violated their trademark and turned her into a sex object, referring to her as a \"Blonde Bimbo\".", "It alleged that the song infringed its copyrights and trademarks on the Barbie doll, and that the song's lyrics had ruined the longtime popularity and reputation of their trademark and impinged on their marketing plan.", "Aqua and MCA Records claimed that Mattel injected their own meanings into the song's lyrics.", "They contested Mattel's claims and countersued for defamation after Mattel had likened MCA to a bank robber.", "The lawsuit filed by Mattel was dismissed by the lower courts, and this dismissal was upheld, though Mattel took their case up to the Supreme Court of the United States, but that appeal was later rejected.", "In 2002, a Court of Appeals ruled the song was protected as a parody under the trademark doctrine of nominative use and the First Amendment to the United States Constitution; the judge Alex Kozinski also threw out the defamation lawsuit that Aqua's record company filed against Mattel, concluding his ruling: \"The parties are advised to chill.\"", "The case was dismissed.", "In 2009, Mattel released a series of advertisements and a promotional music video of the song, with modified lyrics, as part of a new marketing strategy brought in to revive sales.", "As the interval act during the Eurovision Song Contest 2001, Aqua performed a medley of their singles along with percussion ensemble Safri Duo.", "There were several complaints due to the profanity used during the performance, both at the beginning and end of \"Barbie Girl\".", "# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Perky Park club mix) – 6:13\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spikes Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (CD-ROM video)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Dirty Rotten Scoundrels 12-inch G-String mix)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Dirty Rotten Peroxide radio mix)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Plastic mix) – 8:44\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\nA1.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Plastic mix) – 8:44\nA2.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\nB1.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\nB2.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14", "Credits are adapted from liner notes of the \"Barbie Girl\" CD single and \"Aquarium\".", "The song has been covered by several artists throughout years.", "Alternative metal band Faith No More covered the song live in 1997 during their \"Album of the Year\" tour.", "Identical twin sisters Amanda and Samantha Marchant, better known as Samanda, released their cover of the song on 8 October 2007, and it entered the UK Singles Chart at number 26.", "Girls' Generation's Jessica Jung covered this song as her solo performance during the first Asian concert tour", "\"Girls' Generation 1st Asia Tour: Into the New World\".", "The Swedish artist Loke Nyberg did a new version of this song for the Swedish radio show \"Morgonpasset\".", "He interprets the song as criticism of today's beauty ideals.", "In 2013, Ludacris sampled the song in his single \"Party Girls\" featuring Wiz Khalifa, Jeremih and Cashmere Cat.", "In 2016, Caramella Girls released a version called \"Candy Girl\" on iTunes, as well as a YouTube music video.", "There are also many parodies of the song, including a parody called \"Ugly Girl\", with an unverified author (often wrongly credited to \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, Adam Henderson, or Jack Off Jill).", "German duo Lynne & Tessa made a lip-synched Internet video of the song in 2006, and on British Indian sketch comedy show \"Goodness Gracious Me\", where a version titled \"Punjabi Girl\" was featured in the radio series and later on television.", "In 2012, the song was parodied in an Australian lamb advertising campaign, relying on the Australian use of the term \"barbie\" to refer to the outdoor barbecue popularly held in Australia.", "The advertisement starred Melissa Tkautz and Sam Kekovich.", "In 2014, the song was used in the \"South Park\" episode \"Cock Magic\".", "Ava Max recorded a version with new lyrics, titled \"Not Your Barbie Girl\", in 2018.", "In 1999, released an Indonesian version of this song with the title \"Boneka Barbie\".", "In 2005, Brazilian recording artist Kelly Key recorded a version in Portuguese for her third studio album \"Kelly Key\".", "The version was released as second single on 15 August 2005.", "Key said she loved the song and wanted to do a version for honor: \"I really like this song since I heard.", "I wanted to record without thinking about whether my fans will like it or not\".", "The song received generally negative reviews from music critics.", "Vinícius Versiani Durães of IMHO said that that version was funny and a future success.", "Marcos Paulo Bin of Universo Musical commented that the song was really different from previous releases – known for explicit lyrics – but was positive and said the version was good.", "Rodrigo Ortega of Pilula Pop said \"Barbie Girl\" was sensational, funny and chose as the best of the album.", "He also said that Key was wrong to have released \"Escuta Aqui Rapaz\" as her first single, because \"the song was boring\", but \"Barbie Girl\" saved the era.", "Carlos Eduardo Lima of Scream & Yell was negative and said the song was \"childish, silly, boring\" and killed Kelly Key as a sex-symbol.", "The music video for \"Barbie Girl\" was recorded on 17 and 18 August 2005.", "It was directed by Ricardo Vereza, Bidu Madio, Rentz and Mauricio Eça.", "In the video, released on 30 August, Kelly plays a determined and feminist woman.", "This song is internationally notable to be wrongly attributed to Czech model Dominika Myslivcová as she uploaded a video in YouTube lip-synching to this song and, later, it became a viral video.", "# \"Barbie Girl\" – 3:20\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Cuca Mix) – 5:12\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Music video) – 3:23", "Environmental movements, like \"Fridays for Future\", when trying to bring attention to the heavy amounts of plastic thrown by humans into the seas, have referred the song lyrics in their slogans with the words \"Life in plastic is not fantastic\"." ]

[ 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 ]

[ "\"Barbie Girl\" is a song by Danish dance-pop group Aqua.", "It is Aqua's most popular work." ]

[ "The lyrics of the song are about Barbie and Ken, the dolls made by Mattel.", "Both the song and its music video feature Lene Nystrøm as Barbie and René Dif as Ken.", "As such, the lyrics drew the ire of Barbie's corporate owners, and a lawsuit was filed by Mattel.", "A footnote on the back of the \"Aquarium\" CD case precisely stated that \"The song 'Barbie Girl' is a social comment and was not created or approved by the makers of the doll.\"", "\"Barbie Girl\" is written in the key of C-sharp minor.", "\"Barbie Girl\" received critical acclaim.", "Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic called the song \"one of those inexplicable pop culture phenomena\" and \"insanely catchy\", describing it as a \"bouncy, slightly warped Euro-dance song that simultaneously sends up femininity and Barbie dolls.\"", "Larry Flick from \"Billboard\" wrote that \"with her squeaky, high-pitched delivery, Lene Grawford Nystrøm fronts this giddy pop/dance ditty as if she were Barbie, gleefully verbalizing many of the twisted things people secretly do with the doll.\"", "He noted that \"at the same time, she effectively rants about the inherent misogyny of Barbie with a subversive hand\", adding that René Dif is an \"equally playful and biting presence, as he embodies male counterpart Ken with an amusing leer.\"", "Scottish newspaper \"Daily Record\" stated, \"Love them or hate them, you have to admit Aqua's silly doll song is pure pop and the video is great, too\".", "David Browne from \"Entertainment Weekly\" described it as a \"dance-floor novelty that alludes to the secret, less-than-wholesome life of every little girl's fave doll.\"", "Another editor, Jeremy Helligar commented, \"There must be something in that Northern European water.", "Like recent tunes by their Swedish-pop counterparts Ace of Base and the Cardigans, these Danish newcomers' frothy debut is fun, fun, fun — but oh so disposable.\"", "Insider stated that \"Barbie Girl\" is \"sugary sweet\" and \"totally catchy\".", "A reviewer from \"People Magazine\" called it \"the year's best novelty record, a cartoonish anthem you'll need surgery to remove from your head.\"", "Also Pop Rescue wrote that \"this song is fun, undoubtedly catchy, and bouncy, with the personas of Barbie and Ken fitting perfectly with the vocal contrast.", "\"\nThe song ranked number 88 in a VH1 countdown, \"VH1's 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders\".", "In 2017, \"BuzzFeed\" listed the song at number 76 in their list of \"The 101 Greatest Dance Songs Of the '90s\".", "\"Barbie Girl\" has sold more than eight million copies worldwide.", "It went on becoming a huge hit on several continents, remaining the most successful song\nby the band.", "It reached number one in more than 10 countries.", "In Europe, the single peaked at the top position in Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Scotland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, as well as on the Eurochart Hot 100.", "In the band's native Denmark, the song debuted and peaked at number two.", "In the United Kingdom, it debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number two and reached number one the next week, on 26 October 1997.", "It stayed at that position for four weeks and has sold 1.84 million copies in the United Kingdom as of April 2017, making it the thirteenth best-selling single in the UK.", "Outside Europe, \"Barbie Girl\" peaked at number-one in Australia and New Zealand, number four in Canada and number seven on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100.", "On the latter, it debuted at that position.", "It sold 82,000 copies in its first week and debuted at number five on the \"Billboard\" Hot Singles Sales chart.", "The music video for \"Barbie Girl\" was directed by Danish directors Peder Pedersen and Peter Stenbæk.", "It depicts the band members in different scenes that a Barbie doll would be in.", "Uploaded to YouTube in August 2010, as of February 2022 the video has more than 1 billion views.", "In September 1997, 6 months after the release of the song by Aqua, Mattel, the manufacturer of the Barbie doll, sued MCA Records, Aqua's North American record label.", "Mattel claimed that \"Barbie Girl\" violated their trademark and turned her into a sex object, referring to her as a \"Blonde Bimbo\".", "It alleged that the song infringed its copyrights and trademarks on the Barbie doll, and that the song's lyrics had ruined the longtime popularity and reputation of their trademark and impinged on their marketing plan.", "Aqua and MCA Records claimed that Mattel injected their own meanings into the song's lyrics.", "They contested Mattel's claims and countersued for defamation after Mattel had likened MCA to a bank robber.", "The lawsuit filed by Mattel was dismissed by the lower courts, and this dismissal was upheld, though Mattel took their case up to the Supreme Court of the United States, but that appeal was later rejected.", "In 2002, a Court of Appeals ruled the song was protected as a parody under the trademark doctrine of nominative use and the First Amendment to the United States Constitution; the judge Alex Kozinski also threw out the defamation lawsuit that Aqua's record company filed against Mattel, concluding his ruling: \"The parties are advised to chill.\"", "The case was dismissed.", "In 2009, Mattel released a series of advertisements and a promotional music video of the song, with modified lyrics, as part of a new marketing strategy brought in to revive sales.", "As the interval act during the Eurovision Song Contest 2001, Aqua performed a medley of their singles along with percussion ensemble Safri Duo.", "There were several complaints due to the profanity used during the performance, both at the beginning and end of \"Barbie Girl\".", "# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Perky Park club mix) – 6:13\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spikes Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (CD-ROM video)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Dirty Rotten Scoundrels 12-inch G-String mix)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Dirty Rotten Peroxide radio mix)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Plastic mix) – 8:44\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\nA1.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Plastic mix) – 8:44\nA2.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\nB1.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\nB2.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14", "Credits are adapted from liner notes of the \"Barbie Girl\" CD single and \"Aquarium\".", "The song has been covered by several artists throughout years.", "Alternative metal band Faith No More covered the song live in 1997 during their \"Album of the Year\" tour.", "Identical twin sisters Amanda and Samantha Marchant, better known as Samanda, released their cover of the song on 8 October 2007, and it entered the UK Singles Chart at number 26.", "Girls' Generation's Jessica Jung covered this song as her solo performance during the first Asian concert tour", "\"Girls' Generation 1st Asia Tour: Into the New World\".", "The Swedish artist Loke Nyberg did a new version of this song for the Swedish radio show \"Morgonpasset\".", "He interprets the song as criticism of today's beauty ideals.", "In 2013, Ludacris sampled the song in his single \"Party Girls\" featuring Wiz Khalifa, Jeremih and Cashmere Cat.", "In 2016, Caramella Girls released a version called \"Candy Girl\" on iTunes, as well as a YouTube music video.", "There are also many parodies of the song, including a parody called \"Ugly Girl\", with an unverified author (often wrongly credited to \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, Adam Henderson, or Jack Off Jill).", "German duo Lynne & Tessa made a lip-synched Internet video of the song in 2006, and on British Indian sketch comedy show \"Goodness Gracious Me\", where a version titled \"Punjabi Girl\" was featured in the radio series and later on television.", "In 2012, the song was parodied in an Australian lamb advertising campaign, relying on the Australian use of the term \"barbie\" to refer to the outdoor barbecue popularly held in Australia.", "The advertisement starred Melissa Tkautz and Sam Kekovich.", "In 2014, the song was used in the \"South Park\" episode \"Cock Magic\".", "Ava Max recorded a version with new lyrics, titled \"Not Your Barbie Girl\", in 2018.", "In 1999, released an Indonesian version of this song with the title \"Boneka Barbie\".", "In 2005, Brazilian recording artist Kelly Key recorded a version in Portuguese for her third studio album \"Kelly Key\".", "The version was released as second single on 15 August 2005.", "Key said she loved the song and wanted to do a version for honor: \"I really like this song since I heard.", "I wanted to record without thinking about whether my fans will like it or not\".", "The song received generally negative reviews from music critics.", "Vinícius Versiani Durães of IMHO said that that version was funny and a future success.", "Marcos Paulo Bin of Universo Musical commented that the song was really different from previous releases – known for explicit lyrics – but was positive and said the version was good.", "Rodrigo Ortega of Pilula Pop said \"Barbie Girl\" was sensational, funny and chose as the best of the album.", "He also said that Key was wrong to have released \"Escuta Aqui Rapaz\" as her first single, because \"the song was boring\", but \"Barbie Girl\" saved the era.", "Carlos Eduardo Lima of Scream & Yell was negative and said the song was \"childish, silly, boring\" and killed Kelly Key as a sex-symbol.", "The music video for \"Barbie Girl\" was recorded on 17 and 18 August 2005.", "It was directed by Ricardo Vereza, Bidu Madio, Rentz and Mauricio Eça.", "In the video, released on 30 August, Kelly plays a determined and feminist woman.", "This song is internationally notable to be wrongly attributed to Czech model Dominika Myslivcová as she uploaded a video in YouTube lip-synching to this song and, later, it became a viral video.", "# \"Barbie Girl\" – 3:20\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Cuca Mix) – 5:12\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Music video) – 3:23", "Environmental movements, like \"Fridays for Future\", when trying to bring attention to the heavy amounts of plastic thrown by humans into the seas, have referred the song lyrics in their slogans with the words \"Life in plastic is not fantastic\"." ]

[ 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 ]

[ "The song topped the charts worldwide, particularly in European countries such as the United Kingdom, where it was a number-one hit for four weeks and remains one of the best-selling singles of all time.", "It also reached number two in the group's homeland and peaked at number seven on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100, where it remains Aqua's biggest hit single and their only one to reach the top 10 of the Hot 100." ]

[ "The lyrics of the song are about Barbie and Ken, the dolls made by Mattel.", "Both the song and its music video feature Lene Nystrøm as Barbie and René Dif as Ken.", "As such, the lyrics drew the ire of Barbie's corporate owners, and a lawsuit was filed by Mattel.", "A footnote on the back of the \"Aquarium\" CD case precisely stated that \"The song 'Barbie Girl' is a social comment and was not created or approved by the makers of the doll.\"", "\"Barbie Girl\" is written in the key of C-sharp minor.", "\"Barbie Girl\" received critical acclaim.", "Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic called the song \"one of those inexplicable pop culture phenomena\" and \"insanely catchy\", describing it as a \"bouncy, slightly warped Euro-dance song that simultaneously sends up femininity and Barbie dolls.\"", "Larry Flick from \"Billboard\" wrote that \"with her squeaky, high-pitched delivery, Lene Grawford Nystrøm fronts this giddy pop/dance ditty as if she were Barbie, gleefully verbalizing many of the twisted things people secretly do with the doll.\"", "He noted that \"at the same time, she effectively rants about the inherent misogyny of Barbie with a subversive hand\", adding that René Dif is an \"equally playful and biting presence, as he embodies male counterpart Ken with an amusing leer.\"", "Scottish newspaper \"Daily Record\" stated, \"Love them or hate them, you have to admit Aqua's silly doll song is pure pop and the video is great, too\".", "David Browne from \"Entertainment Weekly\" described it as a \"dance-floor novelty that alludes to the secret, less-than-wholesome life of every little girl's fave doll.\"", "Another editor, Jeremy Helligar commented, \"There must be something in that Northern European water.", "Like recent tunes by their Swedish-pop counterparts Ace of Base and the Cardigans, these Danish newcomers' frothy debut is fun, fun, fun — but oh so disposable.\"", "Insider stated that \"Barbie Girl\" is \"sugary sweet\" and \"totally catchy\".", "A reviewer from \"People Magazine\" called it \"the year's best novelty record, a cartoonish anthem you'll need surgery to remove from your head.\"", "Also Pop Rescue wrote that \"this song is fun, undoubtedly catchy, and bouncy, with the personas of Barbie and Ken fitting perfectly with the vocal contrast.", "\"\nThe song ranked number 88 in a VH1 countdown, \"VH1's 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders\".", "In 2017, \"BuzzFeed\" listed the song at number 76 in their list of \"The 101 Greatest Dance Songs Of the '90s\".", "\"Barbie Girl\" has sold more than eight million copies worldwide.", "It went on becoming a huge hit on several continents, remaining the most successful song\nby the band.", "It reached number one in more than 10 countries.", "In Europe, the single peaked at the top position in Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Scotland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, as well as on the Eurochart Hot 100.", "In the band's native Denmark, the song debuted and peaked at number two.", "In the United Kingdom, it debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number two and reached number one the next week, on 26 October 1997.", "It stayed at that position for four weeks and has sold 1.84 million copies in the United Kingdom as of April 2017, making it the thirteenth best-selling single in the UK.", "Outside Europe, \"Barbie Girl\" peaked at number-one in Australia and New Zealand, number four in Canada and number seven on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100.", "On the latter, it debuted at that position.", "It sold 82,000 copies in its first week and debuted at number five on the \"Billboard\" Hot Singles Sales chart.", "The music video for \"Barbie Girl\" was directed by Danish directors Peder Pedersen and Peter Stenbæk.", "It depicts the band members in different scenes that a Barbie doll would be in.", "Uploaded to YouTube in August 2010, as of February 2022 the video has more than 1 billion views.", "In September 1997, 6 months after the release of the song by Aqua, Mattel, the manufacturer of the Barbie doll, sued MCA Records, Aqua's North American record label.", "Mattel claimed that \"Barbie Girl\" violated their trademark and turned her into a sex object, referring to her as a \"Blonde Bimbo\".", "It alleged that the song infringed its copyrights and trademarks on the Barbie doll, and that the song's lyrics had ruined the longtime popularity and reputation of their trademark and impinged on their marketing plan.", "Aqua and MCA Records claimed that Mattel injected their own meanings into the song's lyrics.", "They contested Mattel's claims and countersued for defamation after Mattel had likened MCA to a bank robber.", "The lawsuit filed by Mattel was dismissed by the lower courts, and this dismissal was upheld, though Mattel took their case up to the Supreme Court of the United States, but that appeal was later rejected.", "In 2002, a Court of Appeals ruled the song was protected as a parody under the trademark doctrine of nominative use and the First Amendment to the United States Constitution; the judge Alex Kozinski also threw out the defamation lawsuit that Aqua's record company filed against Mattel, concluding his ruling: \"The parties are advised to chill.\"", "The case was dismissed.", "In 2009, Mattel released a series of advertisements and a promotional music video of the song, with modified lyrics, as part of a new marketing strategy brought in to revive sales.", "As the interval act during the Eurovision Song Contest 2001, Aqua performed a medley of their singles along with percussion ensemble Safri Duo.", "There were several complaints due to the profanity used during the performance, both at the beginning and end of \"Barbie Girl\".", "# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Perky Park club mix) – 6:13\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spikes Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (CD-ROM video)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Dirty Rotten Scoundrels 12-inch G-String mix)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Dirty Rotten Peroxide radio mix)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Plastic mix) – 8:44\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\nA1.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Plastic mix) – 8:44\nA2.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\nB1.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\nB2.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14", "Credits are adapted from liner notes of the \"Barbie Girl\" CD single and \"Aquarium\".", "The song has been covered by several artists throughout years.", "Alternative metal band Faith No More covered the song live in 1997 during their \"Album of the Year\" tour.", "Identical twin sisters Amanda and Samantha Marchant, better known as Samanda, released their cover of the song on 8 October 2007, and it entered the UK Singles Chart at number 26.", "Girls' Generation's Jessica Jung covered this song as her solo performance during the first Asian concert tour", "\"Girls' Generation 1st Asia Tour: Into the New World\".", "The Swedish artist Loke Nyberg did a new version of this song for the Swedish radio show \"Morgonpasset\".", "He interprets the song as criticism of today's beauty ideals.", "In 2013, Ludacris sampled the song in his single \"Party Girls\" featuring Wiz Khalifa, Jeremih and Cashmere Cat.", "In 2016, Caramella Girls released a version called \"Candy Girl\" on iTunes, as well as a YouTube music video.", "There are also many parodies of the song, including a parody called \"Ugly Girl\", with an unverified author (often wrongly credited to \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, Adam Henderson, or Jack Off Jill).", "German duo Lynne & Tessa made a lip-synched Internet video of the song in 2006, and on British Indian sketch comedy show \"Goodness Gracious Me\", where a version titled \"Punjabi Girl\" was featured in the radio series and later on television.", "In 2012, the song was parodied in an Australian lamb advertising campaign, relying on the Australian use of the term \"barbie\" to refer to the outdoor barbecue popularly held in Australia.", "The advertisement starred Melissa Tkautz and Sam Kekovich.", "In 2014, the song was used in the \"South Park\" episode \"Cock Magic\".", "Ava Max recorded a version with new lyrics, titled \"Not Your Barbie Girl\", in 2018.", "In 1999, released an Indonesian version of this song with the title \"Boneka Barbie\".", "In 2005, Brazilian recording artist Kelly Key recorded a version in Portuguese for her third studio album \"Kelly Key\".", "The version was released as second single on 15 August 2005.", "Key said she loved the song and wanted to do a version for honor: \"I really like this song since I heard.", "I wanted to record without thinking about whether my fans will like it or not\".", "The song received generally negative reviews from music critics.", "Vinícius Versiani Durães of IMHO said that that version was funny and a future success.", "Marcos Paulo Bin of Universo Musical commented that the song was really different from previous releases – known for explicit lyrics – but was positive and said the version was good.", "Rodrigo Ortega of Pilula Pop said \"Barbie Girl\" was sensational, funny and chose as the best of the album.", "He also said that Key was wrong to have released \"Escuta Aqui Rapaz\" as her first single, because \"the song was boring\", but \"Barbie Girl\" saved the era.", "Carlos Eduardo Lima of Scream & Yell was negative and said the song was \"childish, silly, boring\" and killed Kelly Key as a sex-symbol.", "The music video for \"Barbie Girl\" was recorded on 17 and 18 August 2005.", "It was directed by Ricardo Vereza, Bidu Madio, Rentz and Mauricio Eça.", "In the video, released on 30 August, Kelly plays a determined and feminist woman.", "This song is internationally notable to be wrongly attributed to Czech model Dominika Myslivcová as she uploaded a video in YouTube lip-synching to this song and, later, it became a viral video.", "# \"Barbie Girl\" – 3:20\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Cuca Mix) – 5:12\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Music video) – 3:23", "Environmental movements, like \"Fridays for Future\", when trying to bring attention to the heavy amounts of plastic thrown by humans into the seas, have referred the song lyrics in their slogans with the words \"Life in plastic is not fantastic\"." ]

[ 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41 ]

[ "It is Aqua's most popular work.", "The song was performed as the interval act in the Eurovision Song Contest 2001." ]

[ "The lyrics of the song are about Barbie and Ken, the dolls made by Mattel.", "Both the song and its music video feature Lene Nystrøm as Barbie and René Dif as Ken.", "As such, the lyrics drew the ire of Barbie's corporate owners, and a lawsuit was filed by Mattel.", "A footnote on the back of the \"Aquarium\" CD case precisely stated that \"The song 'Barbie Girl' is a social comment and was not created or approved by the makers of the doll.\"", "\"Barbie Girl\" is written in the key of C-sharp minor.", "\"Barbie Girl\" received critical acclaim.", "Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic called the song \"one of those inexplicable pop culture phenomena\" and \"insanely catchy\", describing it as a \"bouncy, slightly warped Euro-dance song that simultaneously sends up femininity and Barbie dolls.\"", "Larry Flick from \"Billboard\" wrote that \"with her squeaky, high-pitched delivery, Lene Grawford Nystrøm fronts this giddy pop/dance ditty as if she were Barbie, gleefully verbalizing many of the twisted things people secretly do with the doll.\"", "He noted that \"at the same time, she effectively rants about the inherent misogyny of Barbie with a subversive hand\", adding that René Dif is an \"equally playful and biting presence, as he embodies male counterpart Ken with an amusing leer.\"", "Scottish newspaper \"Daily Record\" stated, \"Love them or hate them, you have to admit Aqua's silly doll song is pure pop and the video is great, too\".", "David Browne from \"Entertainment Weekly\" described it as a \"dance-floor novelty that alludes to the secret, less-than-wholesome life of every little girl's fave doll.\"", "Another editor, Jeremy Helligar commented, \"There must be something in that Northern European water.", "Like recent tunes by their Swedish-pop counterparts Ace of Base and the Cardigans, these Danish newcomers' frothy debut is fun, fun, fun — but oh so disposable.\"", "Insider stated that \"Barbie Girl\" is \"sugary sweet\" and \"totally catchy\".", "A reviewer from \"People Magazine\" called it \"the year's best novelty record, a cartoonish anthem you'll need surgery to remove from your head.\"", "Also Pop Rescue wrote that \"this song is fun, undoubtedly catchy, and bouncy, with the personas of Barbie and Ken fitting perfectly with the vocal contrast.", "\"\nThe song ranked number 88 in a VH1 countdown, \"VH1's 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders\".", "In 2017, \"BuzzFeed\" listed the song at number 76 in their list of \"The 101 Greatest Dance Songs Of the '90s\".", "\"Barbie Girl\" has sold more than eight million copies worldwide.", "It went on becoming a huge hit on several continents, remaining the most successful song\nby the band.", "It reached number one in more than 10 countries.", "In Europe, the single peaked at the top position in Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Scotland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, as well as on the Eurochart Hot 100.", "In the band's native Denmark, the song debuted and peaked at number two.", "In the United Kingdom, it debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number two and reached number one the next week, on 26 October 1997.", "It stayed at that position for four weeks and has sold 1.84 million copies in the United Kingdom as of April 2017, making it the thirteenth best-selling single in the UK.", "Outside Europe, \"Barbie Girl\" peaked at number-one in Australia and New Zealand, number four in Canada and number seven on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100.", "On the latter, it debuted at that position.", "It sold 82,000 copies in its first week and debuted at number five on the \"Billboard\" Hot Singles Sales chart.", "The music video for \"Barbie Girl\" was directed by Danish directors Peder Pedersen and Peter Stenbæk.", "It depicts the band members in different scenes that a Barbie doll would be in.", "Uploaded to YouTube in August 2010, as of February 2022 the video has more than 1 billion views.", "In September 1997, 6 months after the release of the song by Aqua, Mattel, the manufacturer of the Barbie doll, sued MCA Records, Aqua's North American record label.", "Mattel claimed that \"Barbie Girl\" violated their trademark and turned her into a sex object, referring to her as a \"Blonde Bimbo\".", "It alleged that the song infringed its copyrights and trademarks on the Barbie doll, and that the song's lyrics had ruined the longtime popularity and reputation of their trademark and impinged on their marketing plan.", "Aqua and MCA Records claimed that Mattel injected their own meanings into the song's lyrics.", "They contested Mattel's claims and countersued for defamation after Mattel had likened MCA to a bank robber.", "The lawsuit filed by Mattel was dismissed by the lower courts, and this dismissal was upheld, though Mattel took their case up to the Supreme Court of the United States, but that appeal was later rejected.", "In 2002, a Court of Appeals ruled the song was protected as a parody under the trademark doctrine of nominative use and the First Amendment to the United States Constitution; the judge Alex Kozinski also threw out the defamation lawsuit that Aqua's record company filed against Mattel, concluding his ruling: \"The parties are advised to chill.\"", "The case was dismissed.", "In 2009, Mattel released a series of advertisements and a promotional music video of the song, with modified lyrics, as part of a new marketing strategy brought in to revive sales.", "As the interval act during the Eurovision Song Contest 2001, Aqua performed a medley of their singles along with percussion ensemble Safri Duo.", "There were several complaints due to the profanity used during the performance, both at the beginning and end of \"Barbie Girl\".", "# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Perky Park club mix) – 6:13\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spikes Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (CD-ROM video)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Dirty Rotten Scoundrels 12-inch G-String mix)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Dirty Rotten Peroxide radio mix)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Plastic mix) – 8:44\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\nA1.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Plastic mix) – 8:44\nA2.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\nB1.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\nB2.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14", "Credits are adapted from liner notes of the \"Barbie Girl\" CD single and \"Aquarium\".", "The song has been covered by several artists throughout years.", "Alternative metal band Faith No More covered the song live in 1997 during their \"Album of the Year\" tour.", "Identical twin sisters Amanda and Samantha Marchant, better known as Samanda, released their cover of the song on 8 October 2007, and it entered the UK Singles Chart at number 26.", "Girls' Generation's Jessica Jung covered this song as her solo performance during the first Asian concert tour", "\"Girls' Generation 1st Asia Tour: Into the New World\".", "The Swedish artist Loke Nyberg did a new version of this song for the Swedish radio show \"Morgonpasset\".", "He interprets the song as criticism of today's beauty ideals.", "In 2013, Ludacris sampled the song in his single \"Party Girls\" featuring Wiz Khalifa, Jeremih and Cashmere Cat.", "In 2016, Caramella Girls released a version called \"Candy Girl\" on iTunes, as well as a YouTube music video.", "There are also many parodies of the song, including a parody called \"Ugly Girl\", with an unverified author (often wrongly credited to \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, Adam Henderson, or Jack Off Jill).", "German duo Lynne & Tessa made a lip-synched Internet video of the song in 2006, and on British Indian sketch comedy show \"Goodness Gracious Me\", where a version titled \"Punjabi Girl\" was featured in the radio series and later on television.", "In 2012, the song was parodied in an Australian lamb advertising campaign, relying on the Australian use of the term \"barbie\" to refer to the outdoor barbecue popularly held in Australia.", "The advertisement starred Melissa Tkautz and Sam Kekovich.", "In 2014, the song was used in the \"South Park\" episode \"Cock Magic\".", "Ava Max recorded a version with new lyrics, titled \"Not Your Barbie Girl\", in 2018.", "In 1999, released an Indonesian version of this song with the title \"Boneka Barbie\".", "In 2005, Brazilian recording artist Kelly Key recorded a version in Portuguese for her third studio album \"Kelly Key\".", "The version was released as second single on 15 August 2005.", "Key said she loved the song and wanted to do a version for honor: \"I really like this song since I heard.", "I wanted to record without thinking about whether my fans will like it or not\".", "The song received generally negative reviews from music critics.", "Vinícius Versiani Durães of IMHO said that that version was funny and a future success.", "Marcos Paulo Bin of Universo Musical commented that the song was really different from previous releases – known for explicit lyrics – but was positive and said the version was good.", "Rodrigo Ortega of Pilula Pop said \"Barbie Girl\" was sensational, funny and chose as the best of the album.", "He also said that Key was wrong to have released \"Escuta Aqui Rapaz\" as her first single, because \"the song was boring\", but \"Barbie Girl\" saved the era.", "Carlos Eduardo Lima of Scream & Yell was negative and said the song was \"childish, silly, boring\" and killed Kelly Key as a sex-symbol.", "The music video for \"Barbie Girl\" was recorded on 17 and 18 August 2005.", "It was directed by Ricardo Vereza, Bidu Madio, Rentz and Mauricio Eça.", "In the video, released on 30 August, Kelly plays a determined and feminist woman.", "This song is internationally notable to be wrongly attributed to Czech model Dominika Myslivcová as she uploaded a video in YouTube lip-synching to this song and, later, it became a viral video.", "# \"Barbie Girl\" – 3:20\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Cuca Mix) – 5:12\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Music video) – 3:23", "Environmental movements, like \"Fridays for Future\", when trying to bring attention to the heavy amounts of plastic thrown by humans into the seas, have referred the song lyrics in their slogans with the words \"Life in plastic is not fantastic\"." ]

[ 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 ]

[ "It is Aqua's most popular work." ]

[ "The lyrics of the song are about Barbie and Ken, the dolls made by Mattel.", "Both the song and its music video feature Lene Nystrøm as Barbie and René Dif as Ken.", "As such, the lyrics drew the ire of Barbie's corporate owners, and a lawsuit was filed by Mattel.", "A footnote on the back of the \"Aquarium\" CD case precisely stated that \"The song 'Barbie Girl' is a social comment and was not created or approved by the makers of the doll.\"", "\"Barbie Girl\" is written in the key of C-sharp minor.", "\"Barbie Girl\" received critical acclaim.", "Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic called the song \"one of those inexplicable pop culture phenomena\" and \"insanely catchy\", describing it as a \"bouncy, slightly warped Euro-dance song that simultaneously sends up femininity and Barbie dolls.\"", "Larry Flick from \"Billboard\" wrote that \"with her squeaky, high-pitched delivery, Lene Grawford Nystrøm fronts this giddy pop/dance ditty as if she were Barbie, gleefully verbalizing many of the twisted things people secretly do with the doll.\"", "He noted that \"at the same time, she effectively rants about the inherent misogyny of Barbie with a subversive hand\", adding that René Dif is an \"equally playful and biting presence, as he embodies male counterpart Ken with an amusing leer.\"", "Scottish newspaper \"Daily Record\" stated, \"Love them or hate them, you have to admit Aqua's silly doll song is pure pop and the video is great, too\".", "David Browne from \"Entertainment Weekly\" described it as a \"dance-floor novelty that alludes to the secret, less-than-wholesome life of every little girl's fave doll.\"", "Another editor, Jeremy Helligar commented, \"There must be something in that Northern European water.", "Like recent tunes by their Swedish-pop counterparts Ace of Base and the Cardigans, these Danish newcomers' frothy debut is fun, fun, fun — but oh so disposable.\"", "Insider stated that \"Barbie Girl\" is \"sugary sweet\" and \"totally catchy\".", "A reviewer from \"People Magazine\" called it \"the year's best novelty record, a cartoonish anthem you'll need surgery to remove from your head.\"", "Also Pop Rescue wrote that \"this song is fun, undoubtedly catchy, and bouncy, with the personas of Barbie and Ken fitting perfectly with the vocal contrast.", "\"\nThe song ranked number 88 in a VH1 countdown, \"VH1's 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders\".", "In 2017, \"BuzzFeed\" listed the song at number 76 in their list of \"The 101 Greatest Dance Songs Of the '90s\".", "\"Barbie Girl\" has sold more than eight million copies worldwide.", "It went on becoming a huge hit on several continents, remaining the most successful song\nby the band.", "It reached number one in more than 10 countries.", "In Europe, the single peaked at the top position in Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Scotland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, as well as on the Eurochart Hot 100.", "In the band's native Denmark, the song debuted and peaked at number two.", "In the United Kingdom, it debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number two and reached number one the next week, on 26 October 1997.", "It stayed at that position for four weeks and has sold 1.84 million copies in the United Kingdom as of April 2017, making it the thirteenth best-selling single in the UK.", "Outside Europe, \"Barbie Girl\" peaked at number-one in Australia and New Zealand, number four in Canada and number seven on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100.", "On the latter, it debuted at that position.", "It sold 82,000 copies in its first week and debuted at number five on the \"Billboard\" Hot Singles Sales chart.", "The music video for \"Barbie Girl\" was directed by Danish directors Peder Pedersen and Peter Stenbæk.", "It depicts the band members in different scenes that a Barbie doll would be in.", "Uploaded to YouTube in August 2010, as of February 2022 the video has more than 1 billion views.", "In September 1997, 6 months after the release of the song by Aqua, Mattel, the manufacturer of the Barbie doll, sued MCA Records, Aqua's North American record label.", "Mattel claimed that \"Barbie Girl\" violated their trademark and turned her into a sex object, referring to her as a \"Blonde Bimbo\".", "It alleged that the song infringed its copyrights and trademarks on the Barbie doll, and that the song's lyrics had ruined the longtime popularity and reputation of their trademark and impinged on their marketing plan.", "Aqua and MCA Records claimed that Mattel injected their own meanings into the song's lyrics.", "They contested Mattel's claims and countersued for defamation after Mattel had likened MCA to a bank robber.", "The lawsuit filed by Mattel was dismissed by the lower courts, and this dismissal was upheld, though Mattel took their case up to the Supreme Court of the United States, but that appeal was later rejected.", "In 2002, a Court of Appeals ruled the song was protected as a parody under the trademark doctrine of nominative use and the First Amendment to the United States Constitution; the judge Alex Kozinski also threw out the defamation lawsuit that Aqua's record company filed against Mattel, concluding his ruling: \"The parties are advised to chill.\"", "The case was dismissed.", "In 2009, Mattel released a series of advertisements and a promotional music video of the song, with modified lyrics, as part of a new marketing strategy brought in to revive sales.", "As the interval act during the Eurovision Song Contest 2001, Aqua performed a medley of their singles along with percussion ensemble Safri Duo.", "There were several complaints due to the profanity used during the performance, both at the beginning and end of \"Barbie Girl\".", "# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Perky Park club mix) – 6:13\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spikes Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (CD-ROM video)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Dirty Rotten Scoundrels 12-inch G-String mix)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Dirty Rotten Peroxide radio mix)\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Plastic mix) – 8:44\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14\nA1.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Plastic mix) – 8:44\nA2.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (radio edit) – 3:16\nB1.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (Spike's Anatomically Correct dub) – 7:55\nB2.", "\"Barbie Girl\" (extended version) – 5:14", "Credits are adapted from liner notes of the \"Barbie Girl\" CD single and \"Aquarium\".", "The song has been covered by several artists throughout years.", "Alternative metal band Faith No More covered the song live in 1997 during their \"Album of the Year\" tour.", "Identical twin sisters Amanda and Samantha Marchant, better known as Samanda, released their cover of the song on 8 October 2007, and it entered the UK Singles Chart at number 26.", "Girls' Generation's Jessica Jung covered this song as her solo performance during the first Asian concert tour", "\"Girls' Generation 1st Asia Tour: Into the New World\".", "The Swedish artist Loke Nyberg did a new version of this song for the Swedish radio show \"Morgonpasset\".", "He interprets the song as criticism of today's beauty ideals.", "In 2013, Ludacris sampled the song in his single \"Party Girls\" featuring Wiz Khalifa, Jeremih and Cashmere Cat.", "In 2016, Caramella Girls released a version called \"Candy Girl\" on iTunes, as well as a YouTube music video.", "There are also many parodies of the song, including a parody called \"Ugly Girl\", with an unverified author (often wrongly credited to \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, Adam Henderson, or Jack Off Jill).", "German duo Lynne & Tessa made a lip-synched Internet video of the song in 2006, and on British Indian sketch comedy show \"Goodness Gracious Me\", where a version titled \"Punjabi Girl\" was featured in the radio series and later on television.", "In 2012, the song was parodied in an Australian lamb advertising campaign, relying on the Australian use of the term \"barbie\" to refer to the outdoor barbecue popularly held in Australia.", "The advertisement starred Melissa Tkautz and Sam Kekovich.", "In 2014, the song was used in the \"South Park\" episode \"Cock Magic\".", "Ava Max recorded a version with new lyrics, titled \"Not Your Barbie Girl\", in 2018.", "In 1999, released an Indonesian version of this song with the title \"Boneka Barbie\".", "In 2005, Brazilian recording artist Kelly Key recorded a version in Portuguese for her third studio album \"Kelly Key\".", "The version was released as second single on 15 August 2005.", "Key said she loved the song and wanted to do a version for honor: \"I really like this song since I heard.", "I wanted to record without thinking about whether my fans will like it or not\".", "The song received generally negative reviews from music critics.", "Vinícius Versiani Durães of IMHO said that that version was funny and a future success.", "Marcos Paulo Bin of Universo Musical commented that the song was really different from previous releases – known for explicit lyrics – but was positive and said the version was good.", "Rodrigo Ortega of Pilula Pop said \"Barbie Girl\" was sensational, funny and chose as the best of the album.", "He also said that Key was wrong to have released \"Escuta Aqui Rapaz\" as her first single, because \"the song was boring\", but \"Barbie Girl\" saved the era.", "Carlos Eduardo Lima of Scream & Yell was negative and said the song was \"childish, silly, boring\" and killed Kelly Key as a sex-symbol.", "The music video for \"Barbie Girl\" was recorded on 17 and 18 August 2005.", "It was directed by Ricardo Vereza, Bidu Madio, Rentz and Mauricio Eça.", "In the video, released on 30 August, Kelly plays a determined and feminist woman.", "This song is internationally notable to be wrongly attributed to Czech model Dominika Myslivcová as she uploaded a video in YouTube lip-synching to this song and, later, it became a viral video.", "# \"Barbie Girl\" – 3:20\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Cuca Mix) – 5:12\n# \"Barbie Girl\" (Music video) – 3:23", "Environmental movements, like \"Fridays for Future\", when trying to bring attention to the heavy amounts of plastic thrown by humans into the seas, have referred the song lyrics in their slogans with the words \"Life in plastic is not fantastic\"." ]

[ 40, 41 ]

[ "The song was performed as the interval act in the Eurovision Song Contest 2001." ]

[ "Ballyhea GAA Club has been in existence for over 126 years.", "The history of the club published in 1984 say the first GAA meeting took place in Jim Powers's Forge in the townland of Pruntas in late 1885 or early 1886.", "During its history the club has won County Championships in Senior, Intermediate, Junior and Juvenile Hurling.", "Over the years, Ballyhea players have helped Avondhu to County success.", "1952 saw Lack Morrissey play in goal, Mick Quinn was corner-back, Jim Walshe was full-forward.", "1966 saw Billy Fitzgibbon, Jack Russell, and Pat Behan win Senior County medals.", "All-Ireland medals have come to the parish from most grades, Vocational Schools Colleges, Minor, Under-21 and the two Senior, Johnny O'Callaghan in 1986 and Neil Ronan in 1999 and 2005.", "The club's website, ballyheagaa.com, was named best website at the McNamee Awards in 2010.", "These awards are presented annually for contributions in the area of media and communications.", "The award was presented by GAA President Criostóir Ó Cuana, at a function in Croke Park on 24 July 2010." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ]

[ "Ballyhea GAA is a hurling club in the village of Ballyhea in Cork, Ireland.", "The club is affiliated to the Avondhu, division of Cork GAA.", "As of 2015, the club was competing in the Cork Senior Hurling Championship." ]

[ "The Capital city of Budapest was established on 17 November 1873 with the unification of three separate towns, named Buda, Óbuda and Pest.", "In 1720 Buda and Óbuda had 9,600 residents, while Pest was a small town with only 2,600 inhabitants.", "In the 18th and 19th century Pest became the natural commercial, transportation, industrial and cultural center of Hungary, Buda and Óbuda remained small towns.", "The population of Pest reached 50,000 in the 1820s, 100,000 in the 1840s and 200,000 in the 1860s.", "At the time of the unification Buda and Óbuda had 69,543 inhabitants, Pest was home to 227,294 people.", "The first modern Hungarian census was held in 1869–70, when the Hungarian Central Statistical Office enumerated 302,085 people at the present-territory of Budapest.", "Between the unification and the World War I Greater Budapest quadrupled its population, got a new global city upon the Danube.", "At that time Budapest was one of the fastest-growing cities in Europe, triggered by industrialisation and high natural growth rate and fertility of rural ethnic Hungarians.", "Internal migration peaked in the 1960s with near 250,000 people in correlate to post World War II baby boom and forced collectivization.", "The city became extremely overcrowded, the central government also perceived the problem and limited getting apartment in 1965, preventing overcrowding, housing shortage and the collapse of public works.", "This restriction raised a strong wave of suburbanization, which peaked after fall of the Communism, the number of inhabitants dropped to 1.7 million, while garden housing development is still decisive in the suburbs.", "Reurbanisation and gentrification getting on since the mid-2000s.", "After the conquest of the Carpathian Basin one of the main Hungarian (Magyar) tribes, named Megyer, settled in the present-territory of Budapest, more exactly on both banks of the river Danube in Békásmegyer („Frog’s Megyer”) and Káposztásmegyer („Cabbage’s Megyer”), now high-rise housing estates of the city.", "Endonym „Magyar” (for Hungarians) is originated from the tribe name „Megyer”.", "According to the 1494-95 medieval census, was implemented by the Hungarian Royal Treasury, the present-territory of Budapest had Hungarian majority.", "The native population fled from the area during the Ottoman wartimes, in the 17th century Buda was home to mainly Turkish and South Slavic population.", "Many of them died in the Battle of Buda in 1686, survivors were expelled.", "In the late-17th and the early-18th century Buda, Óbuda and Pest was settled by Germans from Southern Germany and the Rhineland.", "The proportion of Hungarians rose gradually since the late 18th century, overtook Germans around the unification in 1873.", "Between 1787 and 1910 number of ethnic Hungarians rose from 2.3 million to 10.2 million due to population explosion, generated by the resettlement of the Great Hungarian Plain and Lower Hungary by Hungarian settlers from the relatively overpopulated northern and western counties of the Kingdom of Hungary.", "Hungarian villages and market towns become overcrowded, Budapest has become the main destination of the rural surplus population due to industrialisation.", "Hungarians increased their number from 200,000 to 2,000,000 in Budapest between 1880 and 1980.", "By the end of the World War II, Budapest can be described as an ethnically homogeneous city.", "According to the 2011 census the total population of Budapest was 1,729,040, of whom there were 1,397,851 (80.8%)", "Hungarians, 19,530 (1.1%) Romani, 18,278 (1.0%) Germans, 6,189 (0.4%)", "Romanians, 4,692 (0.3%) Chinese and 2,581 (0.1%)", "Slovaks.", "301,943 people (17.5%) did not declare their ethnicity.", "Excluding these people Hungarians made up 98.0% of the total population.", "In Hungary people can declare more than one ethnicity, so the sum of ethnicities is higher than the total population.", "According to the 2011 census, 1,712,153 people (99.0%) speak Hungarian, of whom 1,692,815 people (97.9%) speak it as a first language, while 19,338 people (1.1%) speak it as a second language.", "Other spoken (foreign) languages were: English (536,855 speaker, 31.0%), German (266,249 speaker, 15.4%), French (56,208 speaker, 3.3%) and Russian (54,613 speaker, 3.2%).", "Budapest is the home to one of the most populous Christian community in Central Europe, numbered 698,521 people (40.4%) in 2011.", "The Hungarian capital is also the home of the largest Calvinist community on Earth.", "Hungarian Calvinists increased their number from 13,008 (4.8%) to 224,169 (12.6%) between 1870 and 2001 due to internal migration, triggered by higher fertility than other denominations.", "However the 2011 census showed decline in all religious groups - the number of Calvinists fell to 146,756 people (8.5%).", "Hungarian Roman Catholics remained the most populous separate group with 501,117 people (28.9%).", "Moreover, the most recent census was the first one in the city's history when the share of people attached to religious groups was below 50%.", "Judaism also was a significant religion in Budapest, numbered 215,512 people (23.2%) in 1920, but they dropped to a smaller group (80,000 people, 4.2% in 2018) due to the Holocaust, secularization, and atheism, the huge ratio to convert to Christianity, and assimilation and intermarriages with non-Jews after 1945, and the immigration to Israel.", "Religious Hungarian Jews has had the lowest fertility in Hungary, natural decline began in the 1920s.", "The community is still very aged with 52.6 years median age, about ten years higher than Catholics (41.7 years) and Calvinists (42.5 years).", "According to the 2001 census, majority of the population of Budapest is originated from the Hungarian countryside.", "230,307 people (13%) are from the Great Plain, 170,406 (9.6%) from Transdanubia, 93,665 (5.3%) from Pest county and 90,228 people (5.1%) are from Northern Hungary.", "Budapest is the hometown to 822,663 people (46.3%), while 87,746 people (4.9%) was born outside the present-day borders of Hungary.", "(See: \"Treaty of Trianon\" and \"Treaty of Paris\")\nIn 2001, 1,736,521 (97.7%)", "Hungarian citizens, 6,507 (~0.4%) Hungarian and others and 34,824 (~2%) foreigners lived in Budapest.", "Ethnic Hungarians made up the majority of non-Hungarian citizens also, primary from Romania, former Yugoslavia and Ukraine.", "They have come to Hungary due to better possibility of employment.", "According to the 2011 census, 1,600,585 people (92.6%) were born in Hungary, 126,036 people (7.3%) outside Hungary while the birthplace of 2,419 people (0.1%) was unknown.", "According to the 2010 and 2014 local and national elections, the largest party of Budapest is the ruling national conservative alliance of Hungary, Fidesz-KDNP, headed by prime minister Viktor Orbán.", "Fidesz is followed by the centre-left Unity, the far right Jobbik and the green liberal LMP.", "The spatial distribution of political parties is very various.", "Fidesz is outstanding in the conservative middle and upper middle class (high income) characteristic Buda (parts of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 11th and 12th districts) and in the garden estates (former suburbs, annexed by the city) of Pest (parts of the 14th, 15th, 16th and 17th districts).", "Unity and Jobbik are relatively strong in the working class and lower middle class characteristic neighbourhoods (parts of the 4th, 10th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 18th, 19th, 20th and 21st districts) while LMP is remarkable in the partly run-down, inner (more liberal) blocks (parts of 6th, 7th, 8th and 9th districts).", "In the Parliamentary elections of 2014, national conservative Fidesz-KDNP won 10 and the centre-left Unity won 8 from the 18 electoral districts of Budapest." ]

[ 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 ]

[ "The population of Budapest was 1,735,041 on 1 January 2013.", "Budapest is also the primate city of Hungary and some neighbouring territories." ]

[ "The majority of classrooms at GHS are located underground.", "The school was completed in 1965 at the height of the Cold war.", "Walker Air Force Base, located on the south side of Roswell, was considered a major target for Soviet ballistic missiles.", "The classrooms were built underground so that the school could serve as a bomb shelter in the event of nuclear war.", "The gymnasiums, cafeteria, auditorium, and other larger rooms were built above ground, on top of the classrooms.", "GHS competes in the New Mexico Activities Association, as a AAAA school in District 4.", "Their district includes Artesia High School and Roswell High School.", "GHS has won 50 state championships since 1967." ]

[ 5, 6, 7 ]

[ "Robert H. Goddard High School (Goddard High School, GHS) is a public senior high school in Roswell, New Mexico, United States.", "It is a part of the Roswell Independent School District." ]

[ "Nijssen finished his study at the Eindhoven University of Technology in 1965, and started working at Philips at the department of Commercial Efficiency Research.", "From 1968 to 1970 he has been director of the educational institute \"The Dutch Centre for Business and IT\".", "In 1970 he moved to the Control Data Corporation, a pioneer in the field of computer science with the European headquarters in Brussels in Belgium.", "In those years he started fact-based modeling and developed NIAM.", "During this time, he was also associated with several academic institutions and international standards organizations.", "In 1974 he was co-founder of the IFIP WG 2.6 Database Experts group, where he served as its first chairman until 1983.", "He was also a member of IFIP WG 8.1 on Information Systems and a member of ISO TC97/SC5/WG3 working group on Conceptual Schemas.", "During the period of 1982 to 1989 Nijssen was a full-time professor of Computer science at the University of Queensland in Brisbane, Australia, where he worked together with Terry Halpin amongst others in further developing NIAM.", "When returning to the Netherlands in 1989, he founded PNA Group, which stands for Professor Nijssen Associates, and accepted a position at the University of Maastricht, Netherlands.", "In 2002 Nijssen retired as CEO at PNA Group.", "He remained active as member of the OMG SBVR 1.1 Revision Task Force (RTF), the OMG BPMN Revision Task Force (RTF), the OMG Architecture Ecosystem Special Interest Group (AE SIG) and the Fact Based Modeling Task Force.", "Nijssen's research interests in the field of computer science have developed over the years.", "In the 1970s he was focussed on information systems and database technology.", "At Control Data early 1970s Nijssen started with fact-based modeling and developed NIAM, a fact based business practice and notation.", "The acronym NIAM originally stood for \"Nijssen's Information Analysis Methodology\", and later generalised to \"Natural language Information Analysis Methodology\" and \"Binary Relationship Modeling\" since G. M. Nijssen was only one of many people involved in the development of the method.", "In 1989 Nijssen and Terry Halpin published 'the book \"Conceptual schema and relational database design: a fact oriented approach.\"", "The introduction it declared the background of this work:\n\"Prof. G. M. Nijssen, the originator of NIAM design method, had for a long time given a higher priority to working on new aspects of the method and advancing it, than to writing a textbook about it; but at last, here it is.", "The NIAM method was initiated in the early 1970s, at a time when most researchers in the data base and information system field still were discussing data modeling on the level of record structures.", "Only a few acknowledged the need for semantic data modeling.", "Among these few was Prof. Nijssen, who realized its enormous potential for the practice of data base and information system development...\"\nThe introduction further explained, that NIAM was further developed in cooperation with several other scientists, such as with E.D. Falkenberg.", "Nijssen and Halpin stipulated: \n\"... the numerous fruitful discussions which ... with Prof. E.D. Falkenberg, while he was at the University of Stuttgart, Siemens Research center and at the University of Queensland.", "Some of these discussions were enjoyed in \"high places\", such as the Rigi and Saas Fee, in Switzerland.", "Various ideas contained in the NIAM design method were originated by Prof. Falkenberg, for example, the basic set of concepts and some aspects of the design procedure, including an algorithm for designing subtypes.", "\"\nNijssen and Halpin further explain:\n\"While the \"great debate\" in 1974 between proponents of the CODASYL Network Model (C. W. Bachman) and of the Relational Model (Dr E. F. Codd) was the focus of attention in database research world, it was Prof. Falkenberg who said that: \"The debate is irrelevant for semantic data modeling.\"", "Now, years later, the debate on semantic data modeling is indeed concerned with issues quite different from those emphasised in the conventional data models.", "\"", "Back in the Netherlands in the 1990s Nijssen developed Cognition enhanced Natural language Information Analysis Method (CogNIAM).", "Hereby he focused entirely on the most productive protocol for the development of business requirements and integrated business modeling.", "Nijssen published more than 50 articles and 7 books.", "Articles, a selection" ]

[ 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 ]

[ "Nijssen is considered the founder of verbalization in computer science, and one of the founders of business modeling and information analysis based on natural language." ]

[ "Nijssen finished his study at the Eindhoven University of Technology in 1965, and started working at Philips at the department of Commercial Efficiency Research.", "From 1968 to 1970 he has been director of the educational institute \"The Dutch Centre for Business and IT\".", "In 1970 he moved to the Control Data Corporation, a pioneer in the field of computer science with the European headquarters in Brussels in Belgium.", "In those years he started fact-based modeling and developed NIAM.", "During this time, he was also associated with several academic institutions and international standards organizations.", "In 1974 he was co-founder of the IFIP WG 2.6 Database Experts group, where he served as its first chairman until 1983.", "He was also a member of IFIP WG 8.1 on Information Systems and a member of ISO TC97/SC5/WG3 working group on Conceptual Schemas.", "During the period of 1982 to 1989 Nijssen was a full-time professor of Computer science at the University of Queensland in Brisbane, Australia, where he worked together with Terry Halpin amongst others in further developing NIAM.", "When returning to the Netherlands in 1989, he founded PNA Group, which stands for Professor Nijssen Associates, and accepted a position at the University of Maastricht, Netherlands.", "In 2002 Nijssen retired as CEO at PNA Group.", "He remained active as member of the OMG SBVR 1.1 Revision Task Force (RTF), the OMG BPMN Revision Task Force (RTF), the OMG Architecture Ecosystem Special Interest Group (AE SIG) and the Fact Based Modeling Task Force.", "Nijssen's research interests in the field of computer science have developed over the years.", "In the 1970s he was focussed on information systems and database technology.", "At Control Data early 1970s Nijssen started with fact-based modeling and developed NIAM, a fact based business practice and notation.", "The acronym NIAM originally stood for \"Nijssen's Information Analysis Methodology\", and later generalised to \"Natural language Information Analysis Methodology\" and \"Binary Relationship Modeling\" since G. M. Nijssen was only one of many people involved in the development of the method.", "In 1989 Nijssen and Terry Halpin published 'the book \"Conceptual schema and relational database design: a fact oriented approach.\"", "The introduction it declared the background of this work:\n\"Prof. G. M. Nijssen, the originator of NIAM design method, had for a long time given a higher priority to working on new aspects of the method and advancing it, than to writing a textbook about it; but at last, here it is.", "The NIAM method was initiated in the early 1970s, at a time when most researchers in the data base and information system field still were discussing data modeling on the level of record structures.", "Only a few acknowledged the need for semantic data modeling.", "Among these few was Prof. Nijssen, who realized its enormous potential for the practice of data base and information system development...\"\nThe introduction further explained, that NIAM was further developed in cooperation with several other scientists, such as with E.D. Falkenberg.", "Nijssen and Halpin stipulated: \n\"... the numerous fruitful discussions which ... with Prof. E.D. Falkenberg, while he was at the University of Stuttgart, Siemens Research center and at the University of Queensland.", "Some of these discussions were enjoyed in \"high places\", such as the Rigi and Saas Fee, in Switzerland.", "Various ideas contained in the NIAM design method were originated by Prof. Falkenberg, for example, the basic set of concepts and some aspects of the design procedure, including an algorithm for designing subtypes.", "\"\nNijssen and Halpin further explain:\n\"While the \"great debate\" in 1974 between proponents of the CODASYL Network Model (C. W. Bachman) and of the Relational Model (Dr E. F. Codd) was the focus of attention in database research world, it was Prof. Falkenberg who said that: \"The debate is irrelevant for semantic data modeling.\"", "Now, years later, the debate on semantic data modeling is indeed concerned with issues quite different from those emphasised in the conventional data models.", "\"", "Back in the Netherlands in the 1990s Nijssen developed Cognition enhanced Natural language Information Analysis Method (CogNIAM).", "Hereby he focused entirely on the most productive protocol for the development of business requirements and integrated business modeling.", "Nijssen published more than 50 articles and 7 books.", "Articles, a selection" ]

[ 13, 14 ]

[ "Nijssen is considered the founder of verbalization in computer science, and one of the founders of business modeling and information analysis based on natural language." ]

[ "The correction is zero (HJD = JD) for objects at the poles of the ecliptic.", "Elsewhere, it is approximately an annual sine curve, and the highest amplitude occurs on the ecliptic.", "The maximum correction corresponds to the time in which light travels the distance from the Sun to the Earth, i.e. ±8.3 min (500 s, 0.0058 days).", "JD and HJD are defined independent of the time standard.", "Rather, JD can be expressed as e.g. UTC, UT1, TT or TAI.", "The differences between these time standards are of the order of a minute, so that for minute accuracy of timings the standard used has to be stated.", "The HJD correction involves the heliocentric position of the Earth, which is expressed in TT.", "While the practical choice may be UTC, the natural choice is TT.", "Since the Sun itself orbits around the barycentre of the Solar System, the HJD correction is not actually to a fixed reference.", "The difference between correction to the heliocentre and to the barycentre is up to ±4 s. For second accuracy, the Barycentric Julian Date (BJD) should be calculated instead of the HJD.", "The common formulation of the HJD correction assumes that the object is at infinite distance, certainly beyond the Solar System.", "The resulting error for Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt objects would be 5 s, and for objects in the main asteroid belt it would be 100 s.", "In this calculation, the Moon – which is closer than the Sun – can be wrongly placed on the far side of the Sun, resulting in an error of about 15 min.", "In terms of the vector formula_1 from the heliocentre to the observer, the unit vector formula_2 from the observer toward the object or event, and the speed of light formula_3:\nformula_4\nWhen the scalar product is expressed in terms of the right ascension formula_5 and declination formula_6 of the Sun (index formula_7) and of the extrasolar object this becomes:\nformula_8\nwhere formula_9 is the distance between Sun and observer.", "The same equation can be used with any astronomical coordinate system.", "In ecliptic coordinates the Sun is at latitude zero, so that\nformula_10" ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 ]

[ "The Heliocentric Julian Date (HJD) is the Julian Date (JD) corrected for differences in the Earth's position with respect to the Sun.", "This correction also depends on the direction to the object or event being timed." ]

[ "There are 20 flavors in total.", "A new line of Stride, named the “2.0” series, was released in February 2011.", "This series was released to upgrade some of the original flavors.", "Shift is a flavor changing gum in two flavors (Berry to Mint and Citrus to Mint).", "Because of the two flavors, the packaging for each flavor has two main colors.", "For Berry to Mint, the package's colors are magenta and light blue; for Citrus to Mint, the colors that are on the package are orange and light green.", "It is not sold in Canada.", "Spark is a variant that comes in three flavors, Kinetic Mint, Kinetic Berry and Kinetic Fruit.", "One piece contains 25% of the Recommended Daily Allowance of Vitamin B6 and Vitamin B12, according to the label.", "Due to the release of Stride 2.0, the original Stride ‘1.0’ flavors that were upgraded have ceased production.", "They are as follows:\n\n\n\n\nMystery Flavor '1.0'", "Stride was available only in the United States until January 2008, when the Spearmint, Sweet Peppermint and Forever Fruit flavors were made available in Canada.", "Most flavors are now available in Canada.", "In Europe, some Stride flavors are being sold under the Trident Senses brand, namely the Winterblue 2.0 (sold as Mint Breeze), the Forever Fruit 2.0 (sold as Tropical Mix) and the Sweet Peppermint 2.0 (sold as Rainforest Mint and recolored to green), as well as the Mega Mystery, sold as itself.", "The packaging is a little more elaborate than the traditional Stride box, with the exception of the Mega Mystery which remains the same.", "Some other flavors have been released, but they do not relate to any Stride flavors apart from some Shift flavors.", "The Stride Mnemonic 'S' and package was created by a design and branding firm All packages of Stride include the Stride Mnemonic ’S’ except for Mega Mystery, which replaces the ’S' with a question mark (‘?’) on the front of the packaging.", "In 2014, the S was redesigned and is only on Spearmint, Peppermint, Winterblue, Nonstop Mint, Stride Spark Kinectic Mint and Fruit, and Sour Patch.", "Sour Patch is sold in three flavors: Lime, Red Berry, and Orange.", "Stride chewing gum was unveiled at the All Candy Expo in 2006, when, after three years of product development, Cadbury claimed that through the use of proprietary sweetener mannitol it had produced a gum with longer-lasting flavor.", "Cadbury marketed the gum as \"The Ridiculously Long Lasting Gum\".", "Following competitive campaigning, New York based advertisers JWT were selected to handle the $50 million launch advertising, creating a series of work-place related ads that proved popular with consumers, according to polls by \"USA Today\".", "These ads include the CEO of Stride gum begging customers to buy more gum as was popular at first but lasted too long and nobody came back for more.", "(October 29, 2006)", "In addition, Cadbury received an industry OMMA Award for online advertising creativity on September 25, 2007 for \"Best Use of Gaming\" in connection with its \"The Ridiculously Long-Lasting Gaming Event\", when on June 21, 2006.", "Stride teamed with Xfire to host a live \"shoutcast\" national videogame all-star challenge.", "Stride chewing gum sponsored a worldwide trip by Matt Harding in order for him to produce a popular viral video on YouTube in 2006.", "Starting November 5, 2009, Cadbury in connection with Kongregate sponsored \"The Longest Lasting Game\" contest, challenging game developers to design a game based around endurance in one month.", "The growing gum market for Stride and other Cadbury-Adams brand Trident in the United States contributed to unexpectedly strong sales for the company in 2007.", "Stride was heavily product placed on the television series, Smallville, particularly during season 7 - episode 13, \"Hero\", which features Kryptonite - laced Stride bestowing Elastic Man powers on the character Pete Ross.", "The use of a decommissioned Stride factory for concerts is also central to that particular episode." ]

[ 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 ]

[ "It was introduced in May 2006." ]

[ "The American Granite Company started quarrying operations in what is now Lohrville in 1906.", "The village was named for the company's first president, Charles Lohr.", "Lohrville's population grew as workers moved to the area seeking employment in the quarries, and the Chicago and North Western Railway Company built a spur line to the quarries.", "The village incorporated in 1910.", "By 1920, Lohrville had a population of 245, though by 1940 the population had declined to 191.", "The railways has since been abandoned and converted to a rail trail called the Bannerman Trail.", "Lohrville is located at (44.038700, -89.121266).", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which, of it is land and is water.", "As of the census of 2010, there were 402 people, 171 households, and 114 families living in the village.", "The population density was .", "There were 198 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the village was 95.5% White, 0.5% African American, 1.7% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 1.0% from other races, and 0.7% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.0% of the population.", "There were 171 households, of which 22.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.3% were married couples living together, 9.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33.3% were non-families.", "26.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.72.", "The median age in the village was 45.4 years.", "19.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.4% were from 25 to 44; 32.9% were from 45 to 64; and 17.9% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the village was 47.5% male and 52.5% female.", "As of the census of 2000, there were 408 people, 168 households, and 122 families living in the village.", "The population density was 333.5 people per square mile (129.1/km2).", "There were 192 housing units at an average density of 156.9 per square mile (60.8/km2).", "The racial makeup of the village was 96.81% White, 0.25% Native American, 1.23% from other races, and 1.72% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.21% of the population.", "There were 168 households, out of which 26.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.5% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.8% were non-families.", "22.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.80.", "In the village, the population was spread out, with 23.5% under the age of 18, 5.6% from 18 to 24, 24.5% from 25 to 44, 26.2% from 45 to 64, and 20.1% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 42 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 102.0 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.3 males.", "The median income for a household in the village was $34,479, and the median income for a family was $36,500.", "Males had a median income of $27,813 versus $22,000 for females.", "The per capita income for the village was $14,386.", "About 1.6% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over." ]

[ 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 ]

[ "The population was 402 at the 2010 census." ]

[ "The American Granite Company started quarrying operations in what is now Lohrville in 1906.", "The village was named for the company's first president, Charles Lohr.", "Lohrville's population grew as workers moved to the area seeking employment in the quarries, and the Chicago and North Western Railway Company built a spur line to the quarries.", "The village incorporated in 1910.", "By 1920, Lohrville had a population of 245, though by 1940 the population had declined to 191.", "The railways has since been abandoned and converted to a rail trail called the Bannerman Trail.", "Lohrville is located at (44.038700, -89.121266).", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which, of it is land and is water.", "As of the census of 2010, there were 402 people, 171 households, and 114 families living in the village.", "The population density was .", "There were 198 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the village was 95.5% White, 0.5% African American, 1.7% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 1.0% from other races, and 0.7% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.0% of the population.", "There were 171 households, of which 22.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.3% were married couples living together, 9.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33.3% were non-families.", "26.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.72.", "The median age in the village was 45.4 years.", "19.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.4% were from 25 to 44; 32.9% were from 45 to 64; and 17.9% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the village was 47.5% male and 52.5% female.", "As of the census of 2000, there were 408 people, 168 households, and 122 families living in the village.", "The population density was 333.5 people per square mile (129.1/km2).", "There were 192 housing units at an average density of 156.9 per square mile (60.8/km2).", "The racial makeup of the village was 96.81% White, 0.25% Native American, 1.23% from other races, and 1.72% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.21% of the population.", "There were 168 households, out of which 26.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.5% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.8% were non-families.", "22.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.80.", "In the village, the population was spread out, with 23.5% under the age of 18, 5.6% from 18 to 24, 24.5% from 25 to 44, 26.2% from 45 to 64, and 20.1% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 42 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 102.0 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.3 males.", "The median income for a household in the village was $34,479, and the median income for a family was $36,500.", "Males had a median income of $27,813 versus $22,000 for females.", "The per capita income for the village was $14,386.", "About 1.6% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over." ]

[ 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 ]

[ "The population was 402 at the 2010 census." ]

[ "The architecture is not identical to the PlayStation 3.", "One difference is that the BCU-100 has 1 GB XDR RAM instead of the PlayStation 3's 256 MB.", "Video RAM is missing in Sony's system diagrams, but it is listed as 256 MB (like the PlayStation 3) further down in the tech specs.", "The XDR memory is shared by both the Cell and RSX.", "Sony uses the SCC (Super Companion Chip) to handle I/O tasks (HDD, USB 2.0, Gigabit Ethernet and other unspecified I/O); the SCC has its own dedicated memory of 1GB DDR2 as well as a Memory Extension Adapter connected via PCI Express that can hold up to 8 GB.", "Another option for the single PCI express slot is a Video Display Board with a DVI-I output.", "Further, the Cell in the BCU-100 offers the full 8 SPUs that Cell is manufactured with, as opposed to the 6 SPUs available in the PlayStation 3, which has one SPU disabled to improve manufacturing yields and one reserved for the system.", "This gives the BCU-100 an extra 33% potential CPU-power (or 51.2 GFLOPS more).", "Sony presented its first ZEGO product, the BCU-100, to the public at SIGGRAPH 2008 in mid-August.", "Sony plans to ship the BCU-100 by the end of 2008 and deliver it with the Mental Ray raytracer by Mental Images to speed up 3D rendering tasks and Houdini Batch by Side Effects Software.", "The company claims to be in talk with other software makers in the DCC field to port and optimize their software for the ZEGO platform.", "ZEGO is similar to a workstation based on the PlayStation 2 architecture called the GScube, which was also shown at Siggraph in the year 2000, and which, although used for visualization in a few movie projects, ultimately failed in the market.", "However, while the GScube only targeted realtime visualization in 1080p HD, ZEGOs target markets are much broader, encompassing for example physics simulation, final 3D rendering and video processing as well as visualization.", "It remains to be seen if ZEGO actually manages what the GScube was unable to do.", "It is worth noting that the massively parallel design of the GScube, being not much more than 16 Graphics Synthesizer chips with dedicated RAM, inspired the design of the Cell processor itself with its 8 SPUs with dedicated RAM.", "As of August 2009 the device appears to have been discontinued.", "Searches on Sony.com and pro.sony.com for either Zego or BCU-100 return nothing but the year-old press release claiming the product would ship within a few months." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ]

[ "The platform is based on Sony's PlayStation 3 as it features both the Cell Processor as well as the RSX 'Reality Synthesizer'." ]

[ "The architecture is not identical to the PlayStation 3.", "One difference is that the BCU-100 has 1 GB XDR RAM instead of the PlayStation 3's 256 MB.", "Video RAM is missing in Sony's system diagrams, but it is listed as 256 MB (like the PlayStation 3) further down in the tech specs.", "The XDR memory is shared by both the Cell and RSX.", "Sony uses the SCC (Super Companion Chip) to handle I/O tasks (HDD, USB 2.0, Gigabit Ethernet and other unspecified I/O); the SCC has its own dedicated memory of 1GB DDR2 as well as a Memory Extension Adapter connected via PCI Express that can hold up to 8 GB.", "Another option for the single PCI express slot is a Video Display Board with a DVI-I output.", "Further, the Cell in the BCU-100 offers the full 8 SPUs that Cell is manufactured with, as opposed to the 6 SPUs available in the PlayStation 3, which has one SPU disabled to improve manufacturing yields and one reserved for the system.", "This gives the BCU-100 an extra 33% potential CPU-power (or 51.2 GFLOPS more).", "Sony presented its first ZEGO product, the BCU-100, to the public at SIGGRAPH 2008 in mid-August.", "Sony plans to ship the BCU-100 by the end of 2008 and deliver it with the Mental Ray raytracer by Mental Images to speed up 3D rendering tasks and Houdini Batch by Side Effects Software.", "The company claims to be in talk with other software makers in the DCC field to port and optimize their software for the ZEGO platform.", "ZEGO is similar to a workstation based on the PlayStation 2 architecture called the GScube, which was also shown at Siggraph in the year 2000, and which, although used for visualization in a few movie projects, ultimately failed in the market.", "However, while the GScube only targeted realtime visualization in 1080p HD, ZEGOs target markets are much broader, encompassing for example physics simulation, final 3D rendering and video processing as well as visualization.", "It remains to be seen if ZEGO actually manages what the GScube was unable to do.", "It is worth noting that the massively parallel design of the GScube, being not much more than 16 Graphics Synthesizer chips with dedicated RAM, inspired the design of the Cell processor itself with its 8 SPUs with dedicated RAM.", "As of August 2009 the device appears to have been discontinued.", "Searches on Sony.com and pro.sony.com for either Zego or BCU-100 return nothing but the year-old press release claiming the product would ship within a few months." ]

[ 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 ]

[ "The ZEGO (\"Zest to go\") is a rackmount server platform built by Sony, targeted for the video post-production and broadcast markets.", "The platform is based on Sony's PlayStation 3 as it features both the Cell Processor as well as the RSX 'Reality Synthesizer'." ]

[ "Lynes begun his pro career in June 1998 with a 1st-round knockout of Lee Frost at the Broadway Theatre in Barking, London.", "He continued with 3 more quick victories over Ram Singh, Brian Coleman and Trevor Smith before finally completing the distance against Marc Smith.", "However hand problems in his next fight against Dennis Griffin forced him to develop an effective counter punching style.", "After compiling an unbeaten ledger of 20–0 he found himself in December 2002 competing for the IBO inter-continental light welterweight title, winning by 9th round tko against American Richard Kiley.", "He lost the title however in his next fight, when at the York Hall he was stopped in the 8th round by South African Samuel Malinga.", "Following the defeat Lynes regrouped by winning his next three fights setting himself up for a shot at the full IBO light welterweight champion Argentinian Daniel Sarmiento.", "The fight at the Goresbrook Leisure Center in Dagenham in May 2005 ended with a split decision victory for the Englishman.", "This time he made his first defence a successful one when in Brentwood, Essex he met American Juaquin Gallardo winning by majority decision.", "In October 2005 Lynes met fellow Brit Junior Witter for the British, Commonwealth and European titles losing a 12-round decision.", "He followed this defeat by losing again, this time to Lenny Daws still a 12–0 prospect for the English Southern Area title.", "The fight which ended with Lynes being stopped in the 9th round also doubled as an eliminator for the full British title with Daws going on to win the full crown.", "Lynes regrouped from his back to back defeats with two wins before in June 2007 he met Scotsman Barry Morrison for the full British title.", "The fight which took place at the Civic Center in Motherwell ended with Lynes claiming victory after 12 rounds.", "He defended the title in his next fight which also saw Lynes compete for the vacant European title.", "The opponent was Wolverhampton's Young Mutley, the former British Welterweight champion, the fight ended with an 8th round win for Lynes who was now a double champion.", "The Finnish fighter Juho Tolppola was next in line for Lynes for his first defence of his European crown with the fight ending in another 12 round win for the Englishman.", "An Italian job was next for Lynes as he met mandatory challenger Gianluca Branco in Italy for his next defence.", "To defend against the Italian he had to give up his British belt which was subsequently won by Manchester's David Barnes.", "The fight itself ended in disappointment for Lynes as he lost a close split decision to the former World title challenger despite putting his opponent down in the 2nd round.", "Following the loss to Branco, Lynes was next in line to fight for his old British title against David Barnes.", "With one week to go Barnes pulled out of the fight and was stripped of the title leaving Lynes to fight for the now vacant title against Northern Irishman Paul McCloskey.", "McCloskey ended up winning the fight when Lynes retired in the 9th round.", "The victory for McCloskey over Lynes meant that he became the mandatory challenger for Lynes' old European belt which was now vacant, only for a hand injury to rule the Irishman out only two weeks before the fight.", "McCloskeys lost opportunity was Lynes gain as he was drafted in to fight for the title against Frenchman Souleymane M'baye, a former WBA world champion in Paris on 3 July 2009.", "The fight was another close one for the former champion as he lost via split decision.", "On 4 December 2009 Lynes competed in Sky's Prizefighter knock out style tournament.", "The competition included a number of successful British light welterweight boxers from recent years with Lynes winning two contests to reach the final.", "The draw for the competition which had been made by Floyd Mayweather pitted Lynes against David Barnes, the man who had succeeded Lynes as British champion in the quarter finals.", "A split decision win over Barnes moved Lynes into the semi's to meet former victim Young Mutley and emerge victorious for the second time against the man from Wolverhampton via another split decision.", "The final saw Lynes compete with Newbridge's Gavin Rees, a man who had briefly held the World WBA light welterweight championship in 2007 and who was supported at ringside by former stablemate Joe Calzaghe.", "Rees, who had knocked out former European champions Ted Bami and Jason Cook on the way the final, won with a unanimous decision over Lynes, himself a former European champion.", "Lynes return to the ring following the Prizefighter tournament saw him compete on the undercard of David Hayes world heavyweight title defence against John Ruiz at the MEN Arena in Manchester.", "His opponent, Ajose Olusegun, a Nigerian with British nationality was undefeated in 27 fights and was ranked at number 2 by the WBC.", "The fight, on 3 April 2010, resulted in Olusegun retaining his title after a stomach problem caused by a series of bodyshots had Lynes gasping for breath and him been counted out in the 8th round.", "Following the fight Lynes blamed the problems recovering from the shots on problems he had making the weight for the fight and said he would consider moving up a weight.", "Lynes moved up a weight division in his next fight on 12 February 2012 against Bradley Pryce, defeating the Welshman in an close 8 round contest in Liverpool with the referee handing victory to Lynes 78–77.", "On 7 June 2011 Lynes once again took part in the Prizefighter tournament although this time it was the welterweight version at the York Hall in Bethnal Green.", "He reached the semi-finals beating his stablemate Bobby Gladman in the quarter finals but losing to eventual winner Yassine El Maachi with a controversial split decision in the semi's.", "On 9 November 2011 Lynes challenged Lee Purdy for the British welterweight championship, winning after 12 rounds via majority decision." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38 ]

[ "Colin Lynes (born 26 November 1977) is a British former professional boxer who competed from 1998 to 2017.", "He held the IBO super lightweight title from 2004 to 2005." ]

[ "GPPAC focuses on the following thematic priorities:\n\n\nGPPAC has also launched the Peace Portal January 2012.", "The Peace Portal is a unique online platform for learning, sharing and collaborating in the conflict prevention and peacebuilding field.", "It aims to bring people together and transform their online work into active, more effective peacebuilding.", "The Portal encourages information sharing and participation from civil society and grassroots organisations, whose voices often can not find the online visibility they need.", "Open to everybody, the Peace Portal is an important tool for GPPAC, to support its peacebuilding activities.", "The Global Partnership for the Prevention of Armed Conflict consists of fifteen regions.", "They are:" ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ]

[ "* Setting up of the Peace Portal, an online platform that is being custom-built to support the interaction, information-sharing and joint action of actors and initiatives in the conflict prevention and peacebuilding field." ]

[ "Both the 1959 novel, and its 1960 film adaptation explain that after the death of her husband, Norma (whose maiden name is never revealed in the novels) raises her son Norman with cruelty: she forbids him to have a life away from her, and teaches him that sexual intercourse is sinful and that all women (except herself) are whores.", "The novel also suggests that their relationship may have been incestuous.", "For many years, Norma and Norman live together in the (fictional) small town of Fairvale, California \"as if there is no one else in the world\".", "When Norman is a teenager, his mother meets Joe Considine (Chet Rudolph in \"Psycho IV: The Beginning\") and plans to marry.", "Considine convinces Norma to open a motel.", "Norman grows insanely jealous, believing that Norma has abandoned him for her fiancé, and murders them both with strychnine.", "He then stages it like murder-suicide, making it look as if Norma had killed Considine and then herself.", "Unable to bear the loss of his mother, Norman steals Norma's corpse and mummifies it in the fruit cellar, and speaks to it as if his mother were still alive.", "He also speaks to himself in her voice and frequently dresses in her clothes; in his own mind, he \"becomes\" his mother in order to escape the awareness of her death and the guilt of having murdered her.", "The \"Mother\" personality is as possessive and cruel as Norma had been in life; \"Mother\" dominates and belittles him, forbids him to have friends, and kills any woman whom he feels attracted to.", "When Norman regains consciousness, he discovers the crime he is convinced his mother has committed, and destroys the evidence.", "One of \"Mother\"'s victims is Marion Crane (Janet Leigh), who flees to the Bates Motel after stealing money from her employer.", "When she checks into the motel, Norman (Anthony Perkins) is smitten, and invites her to have dinner with him.", "This arouses \"Mother\"'s ire, and she threatens to kill Marion if Norman lets her into the house.", "He defies her and has dinner in the motel office with Marion, who takes pity on him and gently suggests that he put his mother in a mental institution.", "He angrily rejects the suggestion, however, and insists that his mother is perfectly sane.", "After Marion retires to her room, Norman becomes \"Mother\" and kills Marion in the shower.", "When Norman regains consciousness, he disposes of Marion's corpse in a nearby swamp, covering up what he believes to be his mother's crime.", "Marion's employer hires private investigator Arbogast (Martin Balsam) to find her, and he goes to the motel and questions Norman.", "Norman mentions that Marion had spoken with his mother, but he refuses to let Arbogast see her.", "Suspicious, Arbogast goes to the house, where \"Mother\" kills him as well.", "Marion's sister Lila (Vera Miles), and boyfriend, Sam Loomis (John Gavin), soon arrive, suspecting Norman of killing Marion for the money.", "Lila discovers Mrs. Bates' corpse while searching the house; moments later, Norman attacks her as \"Mother\", only to be subdued by Sam.", "Norman is then arrested and institutionalized, and the \"Mother\" persona takes complete, permanent control of his mind.", "In the film \"Psycho II\" (unrelated to Bloch's novel of the same name), 22 years later, Norman Bates, now supposedly cured, is released from the institution and returns home.", "He soon receives notes and phone calls supposedly from Mrs. Bates.", "Norman takes a job at a local diner and befriends Emma Spool (Claudia Bryar), the cook, and a waitress named Mary Samuels (Meg Tilly).", "Norman offers Mary a room in his house, and she reluctantly accepts.", "At about this time, a series of mysterious murders are committed by a woman with a knife to people who come to the motel and the house.", "Norman's sanity begins to unravel as he starts to believe that his mother is committing the murders.", "His psychiatrist, Dr. Bill Raymond (Robert Loggia), shows him Mrs. Bates' corpse and reveals to him that Mary Samuels is actually Mary Loomis, Sam Loomis' daughter, and is plotting with her mother, Lila, to drive him crazy again in order to get him recommitted; they both dress up as Norman's mother and appear through the window of her bedroom.", "Mary believes that the murderer is hiding in Norman's house, and when Norman explains to Mary that the murderer might be his \"real\" mother, she speculates that he might have been adopted.", "The murderer eventually kills Lila.", "When Mary and Norman return to the house, Norman receives a phone call from Dr. Raymond; in his mind, however, the phone call is from his mother.", "Mary, disturbed, tries to convince Norman to stop answering the phone by dressing up as his mother, complete with a butcher knife.", "Mary accidentally kills Dr. Raymond, who has come to the house to catch Mary, and Norman tries to hide her from the police.", "Mary discovers Lila's corpse hidden in a pile of coal, and, convinced Norman is the murderer, tries to kill him.", "The police intervene just in time however, and shoot her dead.\nThat night, Mrs. Spool visits Norman and tells him that she is his real mother, and that Norma Bates was actually his aunt; Spool had been put in a mental institution shortly after giving birth to Norman, and her sister, Norma, had adopted him and told him that he was her son.", "Spool then reveals that \"she\" had committed the murders in order to protect Norman.", "He bludgeons her to death with a shovel, and carries her corpse up to Mrs. Bates' room, where the \"Mother\" personality takes control of his mind once again.", "One month later, a reporter named Tracy Venable (Roberta Maxwell) latches on to the history of the Bates/Spool families; her research leads her to the story of a love triangle between Norman's father, John, and the Spool sisters, Norma and Emma.", "Emma killed John in a jealous rage after Norma stole him away from her, and abducted the young Norman, convincing herself he was the child she had with John.", "Emma was arrested and institutionalized, and Norman was returned to his mother.", "By this point in the series, Norman has begun murdering young women again under the control of the “Mother” personality.", "He finds some hope for redemption when he meets and falls in love with a young woman named Maureen Coyle (Diana Scarwid), but \"Mother\" eventually wins out and kills her.", "Tracy finds Norman and tells him the truth about his parentage, and Norman destroys Mrs. Spool's corpse, attempting to break free of \"Mother\"'s control.", "He is arrested and sent back to the institution, but proclaims that he is finally free.", "\"Psycho IV: The Beginning\", the fourth and final film in the series, retcons the revelations of the second and third film, supplying that Norman's father was stung to death by bees, removing all references to Emma Spool and retelling much of Norman's and his mother's past from the original film.", "It is implied in the film that Mrs. Bates suffered from schizophrenia, which Norman inherits.", "Norman has been released from the institution and is now married.", "When Norman finds out that his wife, Connie (Donna Mitchell), is pregnant, he decides to kill her to prevent another of his \"cursed\" line from entering the world.", "He relents after his wife professes her love for him, however, and decides to rid himself of the past once and for all by burning down his mother's house.", "During this act, he sees visions of his mother mocking and tormenting him, but perseveres and destroys the house.", "At the end of the film, he is finally free of his mother's voice, which demands to be let out.", "The television spin-off movie and series pilot changes the backstory between Norman Bates' parents (here named Jake and Gloria Bates) prior to the events of \"Psycho\".", "In this continuity, Mrs. Bates killed her husband because she thought he was cheating on her.", "She then lost her mind and spent all her time staring out her bedroom window, wearing black funeral clothes while waiting for him to return.", "Twenty-seven years after the events of the original film, Norman (Kurt Paul) dies of old age in the asylum, leaving his motel and house to his friend and fellow inmate, Alex West (Bud Cort).", "Alex comes to believe that the motel is haunted by Mrs. Bates' ghost.", "He eventually discovers that the \"haunting\" is a ruse perpetrated by bank manager Tom Fuller (Gregg Henry), who is trying to scare Alex into selling him the motel so he can renovate it.", "Norma Bates is a main character in the A&E psychological horror drama television series \"Bates Motel\", a contemporary prequel to the 1960 film \"Psycho\", set in the present day.", "Norma is portrayed in the series by Vera Farmiga.", "She is extremely possessive and protective of her son Norman and does everything she can to keep him to herself.", "This, along with several other traumas Norman suffered as a child, results in his developing an alternate personality, \"Mother\", who kills anyone whom she believes poses a threat to him or gets in the way of their relationship.", "On the show, Norma's middle name is Louise.", "Her parents' names are revealed to be Ray and Francine \"Frannie\" Calhoun, and she describes her life with them as having been unhappy; her father was an abusive alcoholic while her mother was \"sedated all the time.\"", "She was born and raised in Akron, Ohio.", "As an adult, Norma owns and drives around in a light-green Mercedes-Benz W116 as her personal means of transportation throughout the series.", "The vehicle is later inherited by Norman who takes over ownership of the car in the final season after her death.", "In the pilot episode, Norma buys a motel in the coastal town of White Pine Bay, Oregon, and moves there with Norman (Freddie Highmore) following the death of her husband Sam Bates (David Cubitt) in Arizona.", "The motel's former owner, Keith Summers (W. Earl Brown) breaks into the Bates' house and rapes Norma.", "Norman intervenes and subdues Summers, but Norma kills him in a fit of rage.", "She and Norman then dispose of the body.", "She later reveals that Sam was an abusive alcoholic and that Norman had killed him while in a dissociative state; she bought the motel and moved them away to protect him.", "A later episode reveals that Sam had raped Norma in a drunken rage after she tried to leave him, and that six-year-old Norman had witnessed the assault; it is implied that this trauma fractured Norman's psyche.", "In this continuity, Norma has another son, Dylan Massett (Max Thieriot), who was conceived when she was raped as a teenager by her older brother, Caleb Calhoun (Kenny Johnson).", "Norma used her pregnancy to escape from her troubled home life; she married her then-boyfriend, John Massett, and passed off her unborn child as his own.", "She would later divorce John to marry Sam, becoming estranged from Dylan and favoring Norman, her son with Sam, instead.", "When Norman's sanity begins to deteriorate, Norma marries the town sheriff, Alex Romero (Nestor Carbonell), so she can use his insurance coverage to pay for Norman to be treated in a mental institution.", "While the marriage is at first merely a financial arrangement, they eventually fall in love.", "After Norman is released from the institution and finds out that Norma is married, he grows insanely jealous and tries to kill himself and Norma by flooding the house with carbon monoxide while his mother sleeps.", "Romero arrives at the house in time to revive Norman, but finds that Norma is already dead.", "Romero finds out what happened and swears revenge, but is arrested for perjury before he can do anything.", "Meanwhile, Norman cannot bear losing his mother, so he digs up her corpse and assumes her personality to preserve the illusion of her being alive.", "Two years later, Norman is running the motel and living alone in the house with Norma's corpse, which he keeps frozen and preserved in the cellar.", "Romero, who is in prison for perjury, sends a hitman to kill Norman, but \"Mother\" takes control and kills the assassin.", "Caleb learns of Norma's death and comes after Norman, so \"Mother\" helps Norman take him hostage, but cannot bring herself to kill him.", "The Bates' neighbor Chick Hogan (Ryan Hurst) accidentally runs Caleb over, and \"Mother\" helps him and Norman dispose of the body.", "When Norman falls for Madeline Loomis (Isabelle McNally), a lonely housewife who bears an uncanny resemblance to Norma, and whose husband Sam (Austin Nichols) is cheating on her, \"Mother\" becomes jealous and acts out by taking over Norman's mind and making him have sex with a man at a gay bar while dressed in Norma's clothes.", "Norman finally begins to suspect that \"Mother\" is not real, and she confirms that he created her in his mind to deal with things that he could not, such as his abusive father.", "When Sam's mistress Marion Crane (Rihanna) checks into the motel, Norman fears that \"Mother\" will kill her, and tells her to leave and never come back.", "Sam soon arrives at the motel looking for Marion, and \"Mother\" convinces Norman to stab him to death in the shower.", "Dylan comes to see Norman after learning of Norma's death, and they get into a fight that ends with Norman assaulting his half-brother at \"Mother\"'s instigation.", "Terrified of what he might do, Norman calls 911 and confesses to murdering Sam.", "After Sheriff Jane Greene (Brooke Smith) finds the bodies of Norman's other victims, \"Mother\" takes control of Norman's mind and tries to make sure that he escapes punishment.", "When Romero—who had earlier escaped from prison—takes Norman captive, \"Mother\" urges Norman to kill him, but not before he confronts Norman with the reality that he killed his mother.", "After Norman finally admits to himself that he killed Norma, \"Mother\" appears to him and tells him she is leaving, as there is no longer anything she can protect him from.", "Norman later invites Dylan to a \"family dinner\" with Norma's corpse at the head of the table.", "When Dylan tells Norman that Norma is dead, Norman attacks him, forcing Dylan to shoot him in self-defense.", "As he dies, Norman sees a vision of his mother embracing him.", "Norma Bates is the fictional counterpart to Augusta Gein, murderer Ed Gein's mother; a domineering, fanatical woman who preached to her sons about the innate immorality of the world and her belief that all women (apart from herself) were evil and instruments of the devil.", "Norma is not strictly a character in the novel by Bloch, and her presence is indicated only as a voice and a corpse in the first three \"Psycho\" films.", "For \"Psycho\" (1960), Alfred Hitchcock hired six uncredited people to play the mother.", "Norma Bates was played by Mitzi Koestner, Anna Dore, and Margo Epper as body doubles; and voiced by Virginia Gregg, Jeanette Nolan, and Paul Jasmin (a friend of Anthony Perkins).", "The voices were thoroughly mixed, except for the last speech, which is all Gregg's.", "Norma Bates was introduced as a living character in \"Psycho IV: The Beginning\".", "Olivia Hussey was directly offered the role.", "Virginia Gregg, Jeanette Nolan, and Paul Jasmin voiced the corpse of Norma Bates in Hitchcock's 1960 film adaptation of Bloch's novel.", "Only Gregg did Norma's voice in \"Psycho II\" and \"Psycho III\".", "Alice Hirson provided the voice of Norma's corpse in \"Psycho IV: The Beginning\".", "John Kassir voiced Norma's silhouette in a 1990 Oatmeal Crisp cereal commercial featuring Anthony Perkins reprising his role as Norman Bates.", "Rose Marie voiced Norma's corpse in Gus Van Sant's 1998 version of \"Psycho\".", "Olivia Hussey portrayed Norma as a living character in \"Psycho IV\".", "Vera Farmiga portrayed Norma as a living character in the TV series \"Bates Motel\".", "For her performance, Farmiga was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in 2013, and won a Saturn Award in 2014 and a People's Choice Award in 2017." ]

[ 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 ]

[ "Although an important character to the \"Psycho\" story, Norma is deceased from the beginning of the films." ]

[ "Both the 1959 novel, and its 1960 film adaptation explain that after the death of her husband, Norma (whose maiden name is never revealed in the novels) raises her son Norman with cruelty: she forbids him to have a life away from her, and teaches him that sexual intercourse is sinful and that all women (except herself) are whores.", "The novel also suggests that their relationship may have been incestuous.", "For many years, Norma and Norman live together in the (fictional) small town of Fairvale, California \"as if there is no one else in the world\".", "When Norman is a teenager, his mother meets Joe Considine (Chet Rudolph in \"Psycho IV: The Beginning\") and plans to marry.", "Considine convinces Norma to open a motel.", "Norman grows insanely jealous, believing that Norma has abandoned him for her fiancé, and murders them both with strychnine.", "He then stages it like murder-suicide, making it look as if Norma had killed Considine and then herself.", "Unable to bear the loss of his mother, Norman steals Norma's corpse and mummifies it in the fruit cellar, and speaks to it as if his mother were still alive.", "He also speaks to himself in her voice and frequently dresses in her clothes; in his own mind, he \"becomes\" his mother in order to escape the awareness of her death and the guilt of having murdered her.", "The \"Mother\" personality is as possessive and cruel as Norma had been in life; \"Mother\" dominates and belittles him, forbids him to have friends, and kills any woman whom he feels attracted to.", "When Norman regains consciousness, he discovers the crime he is convinced his mother has committed, and destroys the evidence.", "One of \"Mother\"'s victims is Marion Crane (Janet Leigh), who flees to the Bates Motel after stealing money from her employer.", "When she checks into the motel, Norman (Anthony Perkins) is smitten, and invites her to have dinner with him.", "This arouses \"Mother\"'s ire, and she threatens to kill Marion if Norman lets her into the house.", "He defies her and has dinner in the motel office with Marion, who takes pity on him and gently suggests that he put his mother in a mental institution.", "He angrily rejects the suggestion, however, and insists that his mother is perfectly sane.", "After Marion retires to her room, Norman becomes \"Mother\" and kills Marion in the shower.", "When Norman regains consciousness, he disposes of Marion's corpse in a nearby swamp, covering up what he believes to be his mother's crime.", "Marion's employer hires private investigator Arbogast (Martin Balsam) to find her, and he goes to the motel and questions Norman.", "Norman mentions that Marion had spoken with his mother, but he refuses to let Arbogast see her.", "Suspicious, Arbogast goes to the house, where \"Mother\" kills him as well.", "Marion's sister Lila (Vera Miles), and boyfriend, Sam Loomis (John Gavin), soon arrive, suspecting Norman of killing Marion for the money.", "Lila discovers Mrs. Bates' corpse while searching the house; moments later, Norman attacks her as \"Mother\", only to be subdued by Sam.", "Norman is then arrested and institutionalized, and the \"Mother\" persona takes complete, permanent control of his mind.", "In the film \"Psycho II\" (unrelated to Bloch's novel of the same name), 22 years later, Norman Bates, now supposedly cured, is released from the institution and returns home.", "He soon receives notes and phone calls supposedly from Mrs. Bates.", "Norman takes a job at a local diner and befriends Emma Spool (Claudia Bryar), the cook, and a waitress named Mary Samuels (Meg Tilly).", "Norman offers Mary a room in his house, and she reluctantly accepts.", "At about this time, a series of mysterious murders are committed by a woman with a knife to people who come to the motel and the house.", "Norman's sanity begins to unravel as he starts to believe that his mother is committing the murders.", "His psychiatrist, Dr. Bill Raymond (Robert Loggia), shows him Mrs. Bates' corpse and reveals to him that Mary Samuels is actually Mary Loomis, Sam Loomis' daughter, and is plotting with her mother, Lila, to drive him crazy again in order to get him recommitted; they both dress up as Norman's mother and appear through the window of her bedroom.", "Mary believes that the murderer is hiding in Norman's house, and when Norman explains to Mary that the murderer might be his \"real\" mother, she speculates that he might have been adopted.", "The murderer eventually kills Lila.", "When Mary and Norman return to the house, Norman receives a phone call from Dr. Raymond; in his mind, however, the phone call is from his mother.", "Mary, disturbed, tries to convince Norman to stop answering the phone by dressing up as his mother, complete with a butcher knife.", "Mary accidentally kills Dr. Raymond, who has come to the house to catch Mary, and Norman tries to hide her from the police.", "Mary discovers Lila's corpse hidden in a pile of coal, and, convinced Norman is the murderer, tries to kill him.", "The police intervene just in time however, and shoot her dead.\nThat night, Mrs. Spool visits Norman and tells him that she is his real mother, and that Norma Bates was actually his aunt; Spool had been put in a mental institution shortly after giving birth to Norman, and her sister, Norma, had adopted him and told him that he was her son.", "Spool then reveals that \"she\" had committed the murders in order to protect Norman.", "He bludgeons her to death with a shovel, and carries her corpse up to Mrs. Bates' room, where the \"Mother\" personality takes control of his mind once again.", "One month later, a reporter named Tracy Venable (Roberta Maxwell) latches on to the history of the Bates/Spool families; her research leads her to the story of a love triangle between Norman's father, John, and the Spool sisters, Norma and Emma.", "Emma killed John in a jealous rage after Norma stole him away from her, and abducted the young Norman, convincing herself he was the child she had with John.", "Emma was arrested and institutionalized, and Norman was returned to his mother.", "By this point in the series, Norman has begun murdering young women again under the control of the “Mother” personality.", "He finds some hope for redemption when he meets and falls in love with a young woman named Maureen Coyle (Diana Scarwid), but \"Mother\" eventually wins out and kills her.", "Tracy finds Norman and tells him the truth about his parentage, and Norman destroys Mrs. Spool's corpse, attempting to break free of \"Mother\"'s control.", "He is arrested and sent back to the institution, but proclaims that he is finally free.", "\"Psycho IV: The Beginning\", the fourth and final film in the series, retcons the revelations of the second and third film, supplying that Norman's father was stung to death by bees, removing all references to Emma Spool and retelling much of Norman's and his mother's past from the original film.", "It is implied in the film that Mrs. Bates suffered from schizophrenia, which Norman inherits.", "Norman has been released from the institution and is now married.", "When Norman finds out that his wife, Connie (Donna Mitchell), is pregnant, he decides to kill her to prevent another of his \"cursed\" line from entering the world.", "He relents after his wife professes her love for him, however, and decides to rid himself of the past once and for all by burning down his mother's house.", "During this act, he sees visions of his mother mocking and tormenting him, but perseveres and destroys the house.", "At the end of the film, he is finally free of his mother's voice, which demands to be let out.", "The television spin-off movie and series pilot changes the backstory between Norman Bates' parents (here named Jake and Gloria Bates) prior to the events of \"Psycho\".", "In this continuity, Mrs. Bates killed her husband because she thought he was cheating on her.", "She then lost her mind and spent all her time staring out her bedroom window, wearing black funeral clothes while waiting for him to return.", "Twenty-seven years after the events of the original film, Norman (Kurt Paul) dies of old age in the asylum, leaving his motel and house to his friend and fellow inmate, Alex West (Bud Cort).", "Alex comes to believe that the motel is haunted by Mrs. Bates' ghost.", "He eventually discovers that the \"haunting\" is a ruse perpetrated by bank manager Tom Fuller (Gregg Henry), who is trying to scare Alex into selling him the motel so he can renovate it.", "Norma Bates is a main character in the A&E psychological horror drama television series \"Bates Motel\", a contemporary prequel to the 1960 film \"Psycho\", set in the present day.", "Norma is portrayed in the series by Vera Farmiga.", "She is extremely possessive and protective of her son Norman and does everything she can to keep him to herself.", "This, along with several other traumas Norman suffered as a child, results in his developing an alternate personality, \"Mother\", who kills anyone whom she believes poses a threat to him or gets in the way of their relationship.", "On the show, Norma's middle name is Louise.", "Her parents' names are revealed to be Ray and Francine \"Frannie\" Calhoun, and she describes her life with them as having been unhappy; her father was an abusive alcoholic while her mother was \"sedated all the time.\"", "She was born and raised in Akron, Ohio.", "As an adult, Norma owns and drives around in a light-green Mercedes-Benz W116 as her personal means of transportation throughout the series.", "The vehicle is later inherited by Norman who takes over ownership of the car in the final season after her death.", "In the pilot episode, Norma buys a motel in the coastal town of White Pine Bay, Oregon, and moves there with Norman (Freddie Highmore) following the death of her husband Sam Bates (David Cubitt) in Arizona.", "The motel's former owner, Keith Summers (W. Earl Brown) breaks into the Bates' house and rapes Norma.", "Norman intervenes and subdues Summers, but Norma kills him in a fit of rage.", "She and Norman then dispose of the body.", "She later reveals that Sam was an abusive alcoholic and that Norman had killed him while in a dissociative state; she bought the motel and moved them away to protect him.", "A later episode reveals that Sam had raped Norma in a drunken rage after she tried to leave him, and that six-year-old Norman had witnessed the assault; it is implied that this trauma fractured Norman's psyche.", "In this continuity, Norma has another son, Dylan Massett (Max Thieriot), who was conceived when she was raped as a teenager by her older brother, Caleb Calhoun (Kenny Johnson).", "Norma used her pregnancy to escape from her troubled home life; she married her then-boyfriend, John Massett, and passed off her unborn child as his own.", "She would later divorce John to marry Sam, becoming estranged from Dylan and favoring Norman, her son with Sam, instead.", "When Norman's sanity begins to deteriorate, Norma marries the town sheriff, Alex Romero (Nestor Carbonell), so she can use his insurance coverage to pay for Norman to be treated in a mental institution.", "While the marriage is at first merely a financial arrangement, they eventually fall in love.", "After Norman is released from the institution and finds out that Norma is married, he grows insanely jealous and tries to kill himself and Norma by flooding the house with carbon monoxide while his mother sleeps.", "Romero arrives at the house in time to revive Norman, but finds that Norma is already dead.", "Romero finds out what happened and swears revenge, but is arrested for perjury before he can do anything.", "Meanwhile, Norman cannot bear losing his mother, so he digs up her corpse and assumes her personality to preserve the illusion of her being alive.", "Two years later, Norman is running the motel and living alone in the house with Norma's corpse, which he keeps frozen and preserved in the cellar.", "Romero, who is in prison for perjury, sends a hitman to kill Norman, but \"Mother\" takes control and kills the assassin.", "Caleb learns of Norma's death and comes after Norman, so \"Mother\" helps Norman take him hostage, but cannot bring herself to kill him.", "The Bates' neighbor Chick Hogan (Ryan Hurst) accidentally runs Caleb over, and \"Mother\" helps him and Norman dispose of the body.", "When Norman falls for Madeline Loomis (Isabelle McNally), a lonely housewife who bears an uncanny resemblance to Norma, and whose husband Sam (Austin Nichols) is cheating on her, \"Mother\" becomes jealous and acts out by taking over Norman's mind and making him have sex with a man at a gay bar while dressed in Norma's clothes.", "Norman finally begins to suspect that \"Mother\" is not real, and she confirms that he created her in his mind to deal with things that he could not, such as his abusive father.", "When Sam's mistress Marion Crane (Rihanna) checks into the motel, Norman fears that \"Mother\" will kill her, and tells her to leave and never come back.", "Sam soon arrives at the motel looking for Marion, and \"Mother\" convinces Norman to stab him to death in the shower.", "Dylan comes to see Norman after learning of Norma's death, and they get into a fight that ends with Norman assaulting his half-brother at \"Mother\"'s instigation.", "Terrified of what he might do, Norman calls 911 and confesses to murdering Sam.", "After Sheriff Jane Greene (Brooke Smith) finds the bodies of Norman's other victims, \"Mother\" takes control of Norman's mind and tries to make sure that he escapes punishment.", "When Romero—who had earlier escaped from prison—takes Norman captive, \"Mother\" urges Norman to kill him, but not before he confronts Norman with the reality that he killed his mother.", "After Norman finally admits to himself that he killed Norma, \"Mother\" appears to him and tells him she is leaving, as there is no longer anything she can protect him from.", "Norman later invites Dylan to a \"family dinner\" with Norma's corpse at the head of the table.", "When Dylan tells Norman that Norma is dead, Norman attacks him, forcing Dylan to shoot him in self-defense.", "As he dies, Norman sees a vision of his mother embracing him.", "Norma Bates is the fictional counterpart to Augusta Gein, murderer Ed Gein's mother; a domineering, fanatical woman who preached to her sons about the innate immorality of the world and her belief that all women (apart from herself) were evil and instruments of the devil.", "Norma is not strictly a character in the novel by Bloch, and her presence is indicated only as a voice and a corpse in the first three \"Psycho\" films.", "For \"Psycho\" (1960), Alfred Hitchcock hired six uncredited people to play the mother.", "Norma Bates was played by Mitzi Koestner, Anna Dore, and Margo Epper as body doubles; and voiced by Virginia Gregg, Jeanette Nolan, and Paul Jasmin (a friend of Anthony Perkins).", "The voices were thoroughly mixed, except for the last speech, which is all Gregg's.", "Norma Bates was introduced as a living character in \"Psycho IV: The Beginning\".", "Olivia Hussey was directly offered the role.", "Virginia Gregg, Jeanette Nolan, and Paul Jasmin voiced the corpse of Norma Bates in Hitchcock's 1960 film adaptation of Bloch's novel.", "Only Gregg did Norma's voice in \"Psycho II\" and \"Psycho III\".", "Alice Hirson provided the voice of Norma's corpse in \"Psycho IV: The Beginning\".", "John Kassir voiced Norma's silhouette in a 1990 Oatmeal Crisp cereal commercial featuring Anthony Perkins reprising his role as Norman Bates.", "Rose Marie voiced Norma's corpse in Gus Van Sant's 1998 version of \"Psycho\".", "Olivia Hussey portrayed Norma as a living character in \"Psycho IV\".", "Vera Farmiga portrayed Norma as a living character in the TV series \"Bates Motel\".", "For her performance, Farmiga was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in 2013, and won a Saturn Award in 2014 and a People's Choice Award in 2017." ]

[ 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 ]

[ "Although an important character to the \"Psycho\" story, Norma is deceased from the beginning of the films." ]

[ "Both the 1959 novel, and its 1960 film adaptation explain that after the death of her husband, Norma (whose maiden name is never revealed in the novels) raises her son Norman with cruelty: she forbids him to have a life away from her, and teaches him that sexual intercourse is sinful and that all women (except herself) are whores.", "The novel also suggests that their relationship may have been incestuous.", "For many years, Norma and Norman live together in the (fictional) small town of Fairvale, California \"as if there is no one else in the world\".", "When Norman is a teenager, his mother meets Joe Considine (Chet Rudolph in \"Psycho IV: The Beginning\") and plans to marry.", "Considine convinces Norma to open a motel.", "Norman grows insanely jealous, believing that Norma has abandoned him for her fiancé, and murders them both with strychnine.", "He then stages it like murder-suicide, making it look as if Norma had killed Considine and then herself.", "Unable to bear the loss of his mother, Norman steals Norma's corpse and mummifies it in the fruit cellar, and speaks to it as if his mother were still alive.", "He also speaks to himself in her voice and frequently dresses in her clothes; in his own mind, he \"becomes\" his mother in order to escape the awareness of her death and the guilt of having murdered her.", "The \"Mother\" personality is as possessive and cruel as Norma had been in life; \"Mother\" dominates and belittles him, forbids him to have friends, and kills any woman whom he feels attracted to.", "When Norman regains consciousness, he discovers the crime he is convinced his mother has committed, and destroys the evidence.", "One of \"Mother\"'s victims is Marion Crane (Janet Leigh), who flees to the Bates Motel after stealing money from her employer.", "When she checks into the motel, Norman (Anthony Perkins) is smitten, and invites her to have dinner with him.", "This arouses \"Mother\"'s ire, and she threatens to kill Marion if Norman lets her into the house.", "He defies her and has dinner in the motel office with Marion, who takes pity on him and gently suggests that he put his mother in a mental institution.", "He angrily rejects the suggestion, however, and insists that his mother is perfectly sane.", "After Marion retires to her room, Norman becomes \"Mother\" and kills Marion in the shower.", "When Norman regains consciousness, he disposes of Marion's corpse in a nearby swamp, covering up what he believes to be his mother's crime.", "Marion's employer hires private investigator Arbogast (Martin Balsam) to find her, and he goes to the motel and questions Norman.", "Norman mentions that Marion had spoken with his mother, but he refuses to let Arbogast see her.", "Suspicious, Arbogast goes to the house, where \"Mother\" kills him as well.", "Marion's sister Lila (Vera Miles), and boyfriend, Sam Loomis (John Gavin), soon arrive, suspecting Norman of killing Marion for the money.", "Lila discovers Mrs. Bates' corpse while searching the house; moments later, Norman attacks her as \"Mother\", only to be subdued by Sam.", "Norman is then arrested and institutionalized, and the \"Mother\" persona takes complete, permanent control of his mind.", "In the film \"Psycho II\" (unrelated to Bloch's novel of the same name), 22 years later, Norman Bates, now supposedly cured, is released from the institution and returns home.", "He soon receives notes and phone calls supposedly from Mrs. Bates.", "Norman takes a job at a local diner and befriends Emma Spool (Claudia Bryar), the cook, and a waitress named Mary Samuels (Meg Tilly).", "Norman offers Mary a room in his house, and she reluctantly accepts.", "At about this time, a series of mysterious murders are committed by a woman with a knife to people who come to the motel and the house.", "Norman's sanity begins to unravel as he starts to believe that his mother is committing the murders.", "His psychiatrist, Dr. Bill Raymond (Robert Loggia), shows him Mrs. Bates' corpse and reveals to him that Mary Samuels is actually Mary Loomis, Sam Loomis' daughter, and is plotting with her mother, Lila, to drive him crazy again in order to get him recommitted; they both dress up as Norman's mother and appear through the window of her bedroom.", "Mary believes that the murderer is hiding in Norman's house, and when Norman explains to Mary that the murderer might be his \"real\" mother, she speculates that he might have been adopted.", "The murderer eventually kills Lila.", "When Mary and Norman return to the house, Norman receives a phone call from Dr. Raymond; in his mind, however, the phone call is from his mother.", "Mary, disturbed, tries to convince Norman to stop answering the phone by dressing up as his mother, complete with a butcher knife.", "Mary accidentally kills Dr. Raymond, who has come to the house to catch Mary, and Norman tries to hide her from the police.", "Mary discovers Lila's corpse hidden in a pile of coal, and, convinced Norman is the murderer, tries to kill him.", "The police intervene just in time however, and shoot her dead.\nThat night, Mrs. Spool visits Norman and tells him that she is his real mother, and that Norma Bates was actually his aunt; Spool had been put in a mental institution shortly after giving birth to Norman, and her sister, Norma, had adopted him and told him that he was her son.", "Spool then reveals that \"she\" had committed the murders in order to protect Norman.", "He bludgeons her to death with a shovel, and carries her corpse up to Mrs. Bates' room, where the \"Mother\" personality takes control of his mind once again.", "One month later, a reporter named Tracy Venable (Roberta Maxwell) latches on to the history of the Bates/Spool families; her research leads her to the story of a love triangle between Norman's father, John, and the Spool sisters, Norma and Emma.", "Emma killed John in a jealous rage after Norma stole him away from her, and abducted the young Norman, convincing herself he was the child she had with John.", "Emma was arrested and institutionalized, and Norman was returned to his mother.", "By this point in the series, Norman has begun murdering young women again under the control of the “Mother” personality.", "He finds some hope for redemption when he meets and falls in love with a young woman named Maureen Coyle (Diana Scarwid), but \"Mother\" eventually wins out and kills her.", "Tracy finds Norman and tells him the truth about his parentage, and Norman destroys Mrs. Spool's corpse, attempting to break free of \"Mother\"'s control.", "He is arrested and sent back to the institution, but proclaims that he is finally free.", "\"Psycho IV: The Beginning\", the fourth and final film in the series, retcons the revelations of the second and third film, supplying that Norman's father was stung to death by bees, removing all references to Emma Spool and retelling much of Norman's and his mother's past from the original film.", "It is implied in the film that Mrs. Bates suffered from schizophrenia, which Norman inherits.", "Norman has been released from the institution and is now married.", "When Norman finds out that his wife, Connie (Donna Mitchell), is pregnant, he decides to kill her to prevent another of his \"cursed\" line from entering the world.", "He relents after his wife professes her love for him, however, and decides to rid himself of the past once and for all by burning down his mother's house.", "During this act, he sees visions of his mother mocking and tormenting him, but perseveres and destroys the house.", "At the end of the film, he is finally free of his mother's voice, which demands to be let out.", "The television spin-off movie and series pilot changes the backstory between Norman Bates' parents (here named Jake and Gloria Bates) prior to the events of \"Psycho\".", "In this continuity, Mrs. Bates killed her husband because she thought he was cheating on her.", "She then lost her mind and spent all her time staring out her bedroom window, wearing black funeral clothes while waiting for him to return.", "Twenty-seven years after the events of the original film, Norman (Kurt Paul) dies of old age in the asylum, leaving his motel and house to his friend and fellow inmate, Alex West (Bud Cort).", "Alex comes to believe that the motel is haunted by Mrs. Bates' ghost.", "He eventually discovers that the \"haunting\" is a ruse perpetrated by bank manager Tom Fuller (Gregg Henry), who is trying to scare Alex into selling him the motel so he can renovate it.", "Norma Bates is a main character in the A&E psychological horror drama television series \"Bates Motel\", a contemporary prequel to the 1960 film \"Psycho\", set in the present day.", "Norma is portrayed in the series by Vera Farmiga.", "She is extremely possessive and protective of her son Norman and does everything she can to keep him to herself.", "This, along with several other traumas Norman suffered as a child, results in his developing an alternate personality, \"Mother\", who kills anyone whom she believes poses a threat to him or gets in the way of their relationship.", "On the show, Norma's middle name is Louise.", "Her parents' names are revealed to be Ray and Francine \"Frannie\" Calhoun, and she describes her life with them as having been unhappy; her father was an abusive alcoholic while her mother was \"sedated all the time.\"", "She was born and raised in Akron, Ohio.", "As an adult, Norma owns and drives around in a light-green Mercedes-Benz W116 as her personal means of transportation throughout the series.", "The vehicle is later inherited by Norman who takes over ownership of the car in the final season after her death.", "In the pilot episode, Norma buys a motel in the coastal town of White Pine Bay, Oregon, and moves there with Norman (Freddie Highmore) following the death of her husband Sam Bates (David Cubitt) in Arizona.", "The motel's former owner, Keith Summers (W. Earl Brown) breaks into the Bates' house and rapes Norma.", "Norman intervenes and subdues Summers, but Norma kills him in a fit of rage.", "She and Norman then dispose of the body.", "She later reveals that Sam was an abusive alcoholic and that Norman had killed him while in a dissociative state; she bought the motel and moved them away to protect him.", "A later episode reveals that Sam had raped Norma in a drunken rage after she tried to leave him, and that six-year-old Norman had witnessed the assault; it is implied that this trauma fractured Norman's psyche.", "In this continuity, Norma has another son, Dylan Massett (Max Thieriot), who was conceived when she was raped as a teenager by her older brother, Caleb Calhoun (Kenny Johnson).", "Norma used her pregnancy to escape from her troubled home life; she married her then-boyfriend, John Massett, and passed off her unborn child as his own.", "She would later divorce John to marry Sam, becoming estranged from Dylan and favoring Norman, her son with Sam, instead.", "When Norman's sanity begins to deteriorate, Norma marries the town sheriff, Alex Romero (Nestor Carbonell), so she can use his insurance coverage to pay for Norman to be treated in a mental institution.", "While the marriage is at first merely a financial arrangement, they eventually fall in love.", "After Norman is released from the institution and finds out that Norma is married, he grows insanely jealous and tries to kill himself and Norma by flooding the house with carbon monoxide while his mother sleeps.", "Romero arrives at the house in time to revive Norman, but finds that Norma is already dead.", "Romero finds out what happened and swears revenge, but is arrested for perjury before he can do anything.", "Meanwhile, Norman cannot bear losing his mother, so he digs up her corpse and assumes her personality to preserve the illusion of her being alive.", "Two years later, Norman is running the motel and living alone in the house with Norma's corpse, which he keeps frozen and preserved in the cellar.", "Romero, who is in prison for perjury, sends a hitman to kill Norman, but \"Mother\" takes control and kills the assassin.", "Caleb learns of Norma's death and comes after Norman, so \"Mother\" helps Norman take him hostage, but cannot bring herself to kill him.", "The Bates' neighbor Chick Hogan (Ryan Hurst) accidentally runs Caleb over, and \"Mother\" helps him and Norman dispose of the body.", "When Norman falls for Madeline Loomis (Isabelle McNally), a lonely housewife who bears an uncanny resemblance to Norma, and whose husband Sam (Austin Nichols) is cheating on her, \"Mother\" becomes jealous and acts out by taking over Norman's mind and making him have sex with a man at a gay bar while dressed in Norma's clothes.", "Norman finally begins to suspect that \"Mother\" is not real, and she confirms that he created her in his mind to deal with things that he could not, such as his abusive father.", "When Sam's mistress Marion Crane (Rihanna) checks into the motel, Norman fears that \"Mother\" will kill her, and tells her to leave and never come back.", "Sam soon arrives at the motel looking for Marion, and \"Mother\" convinces Norman to stab him to death in the shower.", "Dylan comes to see Norman after learning of Norma's death, and they get into a fight that ends with Norman assaulting his half-brother at \"Mother\"'s instigation.", "Terrified of what he might do, Norman calls 911 and confesses to murdering Sam.", "After Sheriff Jane Greene (Brooke Smith) finds the bodies of Norman's other victims, \"Mother\" takes control of Norman's mind and tries to make sure that he escapes punishment.", "When Romero—who had earlier escaped from prison—takes Norman captive, \"Mother\" urges Norman to kill him, but not before he confronts Norman with the reality that he killed his mother.", "After Norman finally admits to himself that he killed Norma, \"Mother\" appears to him and tells him she is leaving, as there is no longer anything she can protect him from.", "Norman later invites Dylan to a \"family dinner\" with Norma's corpse at the head of the table.", "When Dylan tells Norman that Norma is dead, Norman attacks him, forcing Dylan to shoot him in self-defense.", "As he dies, Norman sees a vision of his mother embracing him.", "Norma Bates is the fictional counterpart to Augusta Gein, murderer Ed Gein's mother; a domineering, fanatical woman who preached to her sons about the innate immorality of the world and her belief that all women (apart from herself) were evil and instruments of the devil.", "Norma is not strictly a character in the novel by Bloch, and her presence is indicated only as a voice and a corpse in the first three \"Psycho\" films.", "For \"Psycho\" (1960), Alfred Hitchcock hired six uncredited people to play the mother.", "Norma Bates was played by Mitzi Koestner, Anna Dore, and Margo Epper as body doubles; and voiced by Virginia Gregg, Jeanette Nolan, and Paul Jasmin (a friend of Anthony Perkins).", "The voices were thoroughly mixed, except for the last speech, which is all Gregg's.", "Norma Bates was introduced as a living character in \"Psycho IV: The Beginning\".", "Olivia Hussey was directly offered the role.", "Virginia Gregg, Jeanette Nolan, and Paul Jasmin voiced the corpse of Norma Bates in Hitchcock's 1960 film adaptation of Bloch's novel.", "Only Gregg did Norma's voice in \"Psycho II\" and \"Psycho III\".", "Alice Hirson provided the voice of Norma's corpse in \"Psycho IV: The Beginning\".", "John Kassir voiced Norma's silhouette in a 1990 Oatmeal Crisp cereal commercial featuring Anthony Perkins reprising his role as Norman Bates.", "Rose Marie voiced Norma's corpse in Gus Van Sant's 1998 version of \"Psycho\".", "Olivia Hussey portrayed Norma as a living character in \"Psycho IV\".", "Vera Farmiga portrayed Norma as a living character in the TV series \"Bates Motel\".", "For her performance, Farmiga was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in 2013, and won a Saturn Award in 2014 and a People's Choice Award in 2017." ]

[ 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114 ]

[ "She is not depicted as a living character until the prequel \"Psycho IV: The Beginning\" (1990), where she is portrayed by Olivia Hussey.", "Vera Farmiga later portrayed Norma in the television series \"Bates Motel\" (2013–2017)." ]

[ "The society was founded in 1973 in Balingen, Baden-Württemberg, by a number of railway fans, most of whom already knew each other but who now wanted to work more closely together.", "They gave talks and produced reports on railway history and operations.", "The society was named after the \"Zollernbahn\" (Zollern railway) which was near Balingen.", "On 6 April 1973 the EFZ organised its first special railway trip with a DRG Class 38 (ex-Prussian P 8) steam locomotive and coaches hired from the Deutsche Bundesbahn.", "On 31 December 1974 the final journey took place of the last Prussian steam locomotive classes in service with the Bundesbahn: the Class 78 (Prussian T 18), and Class 38 (Prussian P 8).", "The German television company, ARD, reported the event on their news channel.", "In 1975 the society acquired the first vehicles of its own: a fast-stopping train coach rebuilt into a company coach and its first locomotive, number 64 289.", "In 1977 the specials no longer took place on Bundesbahn tracks due to their ban on steam traction, but on private railways, especially the \"Hohenzollerische Landesbahn\" (\"HzL\") and \"Württembergische Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft\" (\"WEG\").", "In 1982 the EFZ began regular museum railway services on the HzL route from Kleinengstingen to Gammertingen and, in 1984, also between Hechingen and Eyach (a suburb of Eutingen im Gäu).", "Since 1993 the EFZ locos have once again been allowed to run on Bundesbahn routes.", "Since then there have been trips all over southwestern Germany and beyond.", "A tradition since 1978 has been the so-called 'Three Kings Programme' (\"Dreikönigsprogramm\") annually on 6 January.", "Really sensational were several foreign and long-distance trips with steam locomotives, for example in 1993 and 1995 to Vienna, in 1995 to Austria, Italy and Slovenia to Laibach (Slovenian: Lubljana), in 1996 to Dresden and on to Berlin, and in 2007 to Nordhausen.", "In 1996 the society's vehicles covered 197,000 km, locomotive no. 01 519 sometimes clocked up over 20,000 km annually during the 1990s.", "The EFZ's base was transferred in early 2007 from Tübingen locomotive depot to Rottweil.", "As at March 2008 the following locomotives belonged to the EFZ:\n\n\nThe railbus is operated by the \"Interessengemeinschaft 796 625 e.V\", which was founded in 2004 by several EFZ members in order to preserve 796 625 and to exploit it commercially.", "In addition numerous wagons belong to the EFZ, notably four-wheeled platform coaches, ex-ÖBB, and express and fast-stopping train coaches from the 1930s and 40s.", "They are stored, but not all are operational.", "Still working are the six Class Bn coaches acquired from the CFL in Luxembourg in 2005 as well as the dining car, WRg 45 029.", "The EFZ used to publish a paper called the \"Zollernbahn-Echo\", which contained articles about railway history and operations as well as news about vehicle relocations.", "For four years the paper was an interesting source of information, not just for members.", "In addition the EFZ publishes special editions of the paper.", "The first special editions \"038 382 - 038 711 - 038 772\" were reprinted and sold for 50 pfennigs on the first special trip." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 ]

[ "The Eisenbahnfreunde Zollernbahn (EFZ) (Zollernbahn Railway Society) is a German railway society dedicated to the preservation of historic railway vehicles, especially steam locomotives, where possible in working order.", "The society arranges day and shuttle trips, predominantly in Baden-Württemberg in southwestern Germany.", "It is based at Rottweil." ]

[ "Aníbal António Cavaco Silva was born in Boliqueime, Loulé, Algarve.", "He was initially an undistinguished student.", "As a 13-year-old, he flunked at the 3rd grade of the Commercial School, and his grandfather put him working on the farm as a punishment.", "After returning to school, Cavaco Silva went on to become an accomplished student.", "Cavaco Silva then went to Lisbon, where he took a vocational education course in accounting from \"Instituto Comercial de Lisboa\" (\"Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e Administração de Lisboa\" (ISCAL), today) in 1959.", "In parallel, he was admitted for university education at the \"Instituto Superior de Ciências Económicas e Financeiras de Lisboa (ISCEF)\" of the Technical University of Lisbon (UTL) (currently the \"Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestão (ISEG)\" of the University of Lisbon), and obtained in 1963, with distinction, a degree in economics and finance (he scored a mark of 16 out of 20).", "While studying in Lisbon, Cavaco Silva was an athlete of CDUL athletics department from 1958 to 1963.", "Between 1963 and 1964, he was drafted into the Portuguese Army Artillery for compulsory 11 month military service, serving in a battalion in Lourenco Marques in Portuguese Mozambique Cavaco Silva studied a graduate course at the University of York in England.", "Returning to Portugal, he took up a post as assistant professor in ISCEF (1974), professor at the Catholic University of Portugal (1975), extraordinary professor at the New University of Lisbon (1979) and finally director of the Office of Studies of the Bank of Portugal.", "Cavaco Silva has published several academic works in economics, including in subfields like monetary policy and monetary unions.", "Hereceived an Honorary Doctorate from Scotland's Heriot-Watt University in 2009", "Cavaco Silva joined the Social Democratic Party in 1974 and became the party leader in 1985.", "The 1985 legislative election was complicated by the arrival of a new political party, the Democratic Renewal Party (PRD), which had been formed by the supporters of the President, António Ramalho Eanes.", "In the 250-member Assembly of the Republic, the nation's legislature, the PRD won 45 seats – at the expense of every party except Cavaco Silva's PSD.", "Despite winning less than 30 percent of the popular vote, the PSD was the only traditional political party not to suffer substantial losses.", "Its 88 seats, in fact, represented a gain of 13 over the previous election.", "Accordingly, Cavaco Silva became prime minister on 6 November 1985.", "Cavaco Silva headed a minority government.", "On most issues, his Social Democrats could rely on the 22 votes of the Social and Democratic Center Party (CDS), but the two parties' combined 110 votes fell 16 short of a parliamentary majority.", "The Socialists and Communists held 57 and 38 seats respectively; Cavaco Silva could govern if the 45 members of the PRD, who held the balance of power, abstained.", "According to a contemporary report in \"The New York Times\", Cavaco Silva's first government presided over an \"economic boom\".", "The article described him as \"pro-American\" and committed to the European Community.", "In 1987, the PRD withdrew its tacit support, and a parliamentary vote of no confidence forced President Mário Soares to call an early election.", "Cavaco Silva's Social Democrats captured 50.2 percent of the popular vote and 148 of the 250 seats in the legislature.", "Far behind were the Socialists, with only 60 seats, and the Communists, with 31.", "The CDS and the PRD were virtually wiped out, left with only four and seven seats, respectively.", "This was the first time since the 1974 revolution that a single party had won an outright majority in the national parliament.", "At the time, it was also the largest majority that a Portuguese party had ever won in a free election.", "Although the occurrence of economic growth and a public debt relatively well-contained as a result of the number of civil servants was increased from 485,368 in 1988 to 509,732 in 1991, which was a much lower increase than that which took place in the following years until 2011 marked by irrational and unsustainable State employment, from 1988 to 1993, during the government cabinets led by Cavaco Silva, the Portuguese economy was radically changed.", "As a result, there was a sharp and rapid decrease in the output of tradable goods and a rise of the importance of the non-tradable goods sector in the Portuguese economy.", "In the 1991 election Cavaco Silva's party had a majority even larger (50.6 percent) than the one of four years earlier.", "He decided not to contest the 1995 election, and the PSD, lacking a leader of his stature, lost 48 seats and the election.", "Cavaco Silva contested the 1996 presidential election, but was defeated by the Mayor of Lisbon, Jorge Sampaio, the Socialist candidate.", "Retiring from politics, he served for several years as an advisor to the board of the Banco de Portugal (Bank of Portugal), but retired from this position in 2004.", "He then became a full professor at the School of Economics and Management of the Catholic University of Portugal, where he taught the undergraduate and MBA programs.", "He is a member of the Club of Madrid and an honorary member of the International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation.", "On 20 October 2005, Cavaco Silva announced his candidacy for the 2006 presidential election.", "He was elected President of the Republic on 22 January 2006 with 50.6% of votes cast, avoiding a run-off.", "He is the first elected center-right president in Portugal since 1974.", "He is also the second former prime minister to be elected president, after Mário Soares.", "He was sworn-in on 9 March 2006.", "He is also the president of the Portuguese Council of State.", "Cavaco Silva's term was initially marked by a mutual understanding with the government led by Socialist José Sócrates, which he referred to as \"strategic co-operation\".", "The most controversial moment of his presidency was when the Assembly of the Republic passed a bill for the holding of a pre-legislative referendum on the legalization of abortion in Portugal without any restrictions in the 10 first weeks of pregnancy.", "After the parliamentary approval of the bill summoning the referendum, Cavaco Silva referred the matter to the Portuguese Constitutional Court, which declared both the proposed legalization and the referendum constitutional by a narrow 7-6 margin.", "Cavaco Silva, who could still have vetoed the referendum bill, decided to sign it into law, and thus allowed the referendum.", "The majority of the Portuguese electorate abstained from the referendum, but the vote for legalization prevailed among those who chose to cast their ballot.", "Cavaco Silva was reelected president of Portugal on 23 January 2011 with 52,92% of the vote, and he took office for his second five-year term on 9 March 2011.", "At the general election on 4 October 2015 to the Assembly of the Republic, the unicameral Portuguese parliament, the right-wing government of Prime Minister Pedro Passos Coelho lost its majority, with center-left and far-left opposition parties gaining more than half of the seats.", "As Passos Coelho's own Social Democratic Party remained the largest in parliament, and still had the support of the much smaller CDS – People's Party, Cavaco Silva allowed Passos Coelho to continue as prime minister, giving him the first chance to form a new government.", "Passos Coelho was unable to find any new partners and was widely expected to stand down, but on 22 October Cavaco Silva invited him to form a new government, even if it were a minority government.", "On 24 October Cavaco Silva explained his thinking:\nAntonio Costa, leader of the Socialist Party, called this a grave mistake and added \"It is unacceptable to usurp the exclusive powers of parliament.", "The Socialists will not take lessons from Professor Cavaco Silva on the defence of our democracy.\"", "The Green politician Rui Tavares commented \"The president has created a constitutional crisis.", "He is saying that he will never allow the formation of a government containing Leftists and Communists.", "People are amazed by what has happened.\"", "The opposition parties quickly announced their intention of bringing down the new government in a motion of rejection.", "Eventually, Passos Coelho's government fell on a motion of no confidence, and the president appointed Antonio Costa, the leader of the Socialists, as prime minister in his place.", "Cavaco Silva married Maria Alves da Silva at the Church of the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora, São Vicente de Fora, Lisbon, on 20 October 1964.", "The couple had a daughter Patricia, and a son Bruno.", "He has five grandchildren, four of whom were born to his daughter.", "One of them, António Montez, is a professional footballer.", "His brother, Rogério Cavaco Silva, is a businessman and a victim of the Dominion of Melchizedek scam.", "\"Source:\"", "\"Source:\"", "Cavaco Silva made state visits to countries in Europe, Africa, Asia and the Americas.", "In September 2006, on his first state visit, he visited Portugal's only neighbour, Spain.", "Aníbal Cavaco Silva finished second with 2,595,131 votes (46.09%).", "Aníbal Cavaco Silva won the election with 2,773,431 votes (50.54%).", "Aníbal Cavaco Silva won the election with 2,231,956 votes (52.95%)." ]

[ 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 ]

[ "He had been previously prime minister of Portugal from 6 November 1985 to 28 October 1995." ]

[ "Aníbal António Cavaco Silva was born in Boliqueime, Loulé, Algarve.", "He was initially an undistinguished student.", "As a 13-year-old, he flunked at the 3rd grade of the Commercial School, and his grandfather put him working on the farm as a punishment.", "After returning to school, Cavaco Silva went on to become an accomplished student.", "Cavaco Silva then went to Lisbon, where he took a vocational education course in accounting from \"Instituto Comercial de Lisboa\" (\"Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e Administração de Lisboa\" (ISCAL), today) in 1959.", "In parallel, he was admitted for university education at the \"Instituto Superior de Ciências Económicas e Financeiras de Lisboa (ISCEF)\" of the Technical University of Lisbon (UTL) (currently the \"Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestão (ISEG)\" of the University of Lisbon), and obtained in 1963, with distinction, a degree in economics and finance (he scored a mark of 16 out of 20).", "While studying in Lisbon, Cavaco Silva was an athlete of CDUL athletics department from 1958 to 1963.", "Between 1963 and 1964, he was drafted into the Portuguese Army Artillery for compulsory 11 month military service, serving in a battalion in Lourenco Marques in Portuguese Mozambique Cavaco Silva studied a graduate course at the University of York in England.", "Returning to Portugal, he took up a post as assistant professor in ISCEF (1974), professor at the Catholic University of Portugal (1975), extraordinary professor at the New University of Lisbon (1979) and finally director of the Office of Studies of the Bank of Portugal.", "Cavaco Silva has published several academic works in economics, including in subfields like monetary policy and monetary unions.", "Hereceived an Honorary Doctorate from Scotland's Heriot-Watt University in 2009", "Cavaco Silva joined the Social Democratic Party in 1974 and became the party leader in 1985.", "The 1985 legislative election was complicated by the arrival of a new political party, the Democratic Renewal Party (PRD), which had been formed by the supporters of the President, António Ramalho Eanes.", "In the 250-member Assembly of the Republic, the nation's legislature, the PRD won 45 seats – at the expense of every party except Cavaco Silva's PSD.", "Despite winning less than 30 percent of the popular vote, the PSD was the only traditional political party not to suffer substantial losses.", "Its 88 seats, in fact, represented a gain of 13 over the previous election.", "Accordingly, Cavaco Silva became prime minister on 6 November 1985.", "Cavaco Silva headed a minority government.", "On most issues, his Social Democrats could rely on the 22 votes of the Social and Democratic Center Party (CDS), but the two parties' combined 110 votes fell 16 short of a parliamentary majority.", "The Socialists and Communists held 57 and 38 seats respectively; Cavaco Silva could govern if the 45 members of the PRD, who held the balance of power, abstained.", "According to a contemporary report in \"The New York Times\", Cavaco Silva's first government presided over an \"economic boom\".", "The article described him as \"pro-American\" and committed to the European Community.", "In 1987, the PRD withdrew its tacit support, and a parliamentary vote of no confidence forced President Mário Soares to call an early election.", "Cavaco Silva's Social Democrats captured 50.2 percent of the popular vote and 148 of the 250 seats in the legislature.", "Far behind were the Socialists, with only 60 seats, and the Communists, with 31.", "The CDS and the PRD were virtually wiped out, left with only four and seven seats, respectively.", "This was the first time since the 1974 revolution that a single party had won an outright majority in the national parliament.", "At the time, it was also the largest majority that a Portuguese party had ever won in a free election.", "Although the occurrence of economic growth and a public debt relatively well-contained as a result of the number of civil servants was increased from 485,368 in 1988 to 509,732 in 1991, which was a much lower increase than that which took place in the following years until 2011 marked by irrational and unsustainable State employment, from 1988 to 1993, during the government cabinets led by Cavaco Silva, the Portuguese economy was radically changed.", "As a result, there was a sharp and rapid decrease in the output of tradable goods and a rise of the importance of the non-tradable goods sector in the Portuguese economy.", "In the 1991 election Cavaco Silva's party had a majority even larger (50.6 percent) than the one of four years earlier.", "He decided not to contest the 1995 election, and the PSD, lacking a leader of his stature, lost 48 seats and the election.", "Cavaco Silva contested the 1996 presidential election, but was defeated by the Mayor of Lisbon, Jorge Sampaio, the Socialist candidate.", "Retiring from politics, he served for several years as an advisor to the board of the Banco de Portugal (Bank of Portugal), but retired from this position in 2004.", "He then became a full professor at the School of Economics and Management of the Catholic University of Portugal, where he taught the undergraduate and MBA programs.", "He is a member of the Club of Madrid and an honorary member of the International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation.", "On 20 October 2005, Cavaco Silva announced his candidacy for the 2006 presidential election.", "He was elected President of the Republic on 22 January 2006 with 50.6% of votes cast, avoiding a run-off.", "He is the first elected center-right president in Portugal since 1974.", "He is also the second former prime minister to be elected president, after Mário Soares.", "He was sworn-in on 9 March 2006.", "He is also the president of the Portuguese Council of State.", "Cavaco Silva's term was initially marked by a mutual understanding with the government led by Socialist José Sócrates, which he referred to as \"strategic co-operation\".", "The most controversial moment of his presidency was when the Assembly of the Republic passed a bill for the holding of a pre-legislative referendum on the legalization of abortion in Portugal without any restrictions in the 10 first weeks of pregnancy.", "After the parliamentary approval of the bill summoning the referendum, Cavaco Silva referred the matter to the Portuguese Constitutional Court, which declared both the proposed legalization and the referendum constitutional by a narrow 7-6 margin.", "Cavaco Silva, who could still have vetoed the referendum bill, decided to sign it into law, and thus allowed the referendum.", "The majority of the Portuguese electorate abstained from the referendum, but the vote for legalization prevailed among those who chose to cast their ballot.", "Cavaco Silva was reelected president of Portugal on 23 January 2011 with 52,92% of the vote, and he took office for his second five-year term on 9 March 2011.", "At the general election on 4 October 2015 to the Assembly of the Republic, the unicameral Portuguese parliament, the right-wing government of Prime Minister Pedro Passos Coelho lost its majority, with center-left and far-left opposition parties gaining more than half of the seats.", "As Passos Coelho's own Social Democratic Party remained the largest in parliament, and still had the support of the much smaller CDS – People's Party, Cavaco Silva allowed Passos Coelho to continue as prime minister, giving him the first chance to form a new government.", "Passos Coelho was unable to find any new partners and was widely expected to stand down, but on 22 October Cavaco Silva invited him to form a new government, even if it were a minority government.", "On 24 October Cavaco Silva explained his thinking:\nAntonio Costa, leader of the Socialist Party, called this a grave mistake and added \"It is unacceptable to usurp the exclusive powers of parliament.", "The Socialists will not take lessons from Professor Cavaco Silva on the defence of our democracy.\"", "The Green politician Rui Tavares commented \"The president has created a constitutional crisis.", "He is saying that he will never allow the formation of a government containing Leftists and Communists.", "People are amazed by what has happened.\"", "The opposition parties quickly announced their intention of bringing down the new government in a motion of rejection.", "Eventually, Passos Coelho's government fell on a motion of no confidence, and the president appointed Antonio Costa, the leader of the Socialists, as prime minister in his place.", "Cavaco Silva married Maria Alves da Silva at the Church of the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora, São Vicente de Fora, Lisbon, on 20 October 1964.", "The couple had a daughter Patricia, and a son Bruno.", "He has five grandchildren, four of whom were born to his daughter.", "One of them, António Montez, is a professional footballer.", "His brother, Rogério Cavaco Silva, is a businessman and a victim of the Dominion of Melchizedek scam.", "\"Source:\"", "\"Source:\"", "Cavaco Silva made state visits to countries in Europe, Africa, Asia and the Americas.", "In September 2006, on his first state visit, he visited Portugal's only neighbour, Spain.", "Aníbal Cavaco Silva finished second with 2,595,131 votes (46.09%).", "Aníbal Cavaco Silva won the election with 2,773,431 votes (50.54%).", "Aníbal Cavaco Silva won the election with 2,231,956 votes (52.95%)." ]

[ 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 ]

[ "He had been previously prime minister of Portugal from 6 November 1985 to 28 October 1995." ]

[ "Seabrook was born in Chelmsford, Essex, on 2 November 1935, as the son of a farmer.", "He grew up in Galleywood, near Chelmsford.", "With the help of international contacts, he started work in the horticultural industry aged 10, taking up full-time employment by 16.", "He paid for a nursery tour of the Netherlands with money raised selling sweet peas from his back garden to a local florist.", "He attended King Edward VI Grammar School, Chelmsford.", "After working for two years on seed trial grounds, Seabrook studied horticulture at Writtle College in Essex, earning a diploma in 1956.", "During his national service, the British Army paid for his florist training.", "He became a director of seed and garden company Cramphorn, then a technical representative of Bord na Mona (Irish Peat Board) and finally a consultant and director of two garden centres.", "Seabrook's broadcasting career began in 1965 on radio, with the BBC Home Service's \"In Your Garden\" and \"Gardeners' Question Time\".", "On BBC television, beginning in 1975, he presented programmes including \"Gardeners' World\", \"Pebble Mill at One\" and the Chelsea Flower Show.", "From 1977 until his death he was the gardening editor of \"The Sun\".", "In America he hosted segments of \"The Victory Garden\" on PBS for over 20 years.", "For 60 years Seabrook was married to Margaret, with whom he had two children.", "In 2020, she died of COVID-19 after living with dementia for nine years.", "He created in her honour the flower Margaret's Memory, a pale pink verbena, and donated the proceeds to Alzheimer's Research UK.", "He died of a heart attack at his home in Chelmsford on 14 January 2022, at the age of 86.", "He was gardening, campaigning and writing columns until the end; he had visited RHS Hyde Hall and W. D. Smith's Nurseries the day before he died.", "Seabrook was appointed an MBE in 2005.", "and he was the only person in the UK to hold the top three RHS awards for services to horticulture: the Victoria Medal of Honour (2003), the RHS Associate of Honour (1996) and the Harlow Carr Medal." ]

[ 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 ]

[ "Peter John Seabrook MBE (2 November 1935 – 14 January 2022) was a British gardening writer and television broadcaster, presenting programmes including the BBC's \"Gardeners' World\"." ]

[ "Seabrook was born in Chelmsford, Essex, on 2 November 1935, as the son of a farmer.", "He grew up in Galleywood, near Chelmsford.", "With the help of international contacts, he started work in the horticultural industry aged 10, taking up full-time employment by 16.", "He paid for a nursery tour of the Netherlands with money raised selling sweet peas from his back garden to a local florist.", "He attended King Edward VI Grammar School, Chelmsford.", "After working for two years on seed trial grounds, Seabrook studied horticulture at Writtle College in Essex, earning a diploma in 1956.", "During his national service, the British Army paid for his florist training.", "He became a director of seed and garden company Cramphorn, then a technical representative of Bord na Mona (Irish Peat Board) and finally a consultant and director of two garden centres.", "Seabrook's broadcasting career began in 1965 on radio, with the BBC Home Service's \"In Your Garden\" and \"Gardeners' Question Time\".", "On BBC television, beginning in 1975, he presented programmes including \"Gardeners' World\", \"Pebble Mill at One\" and the Chelsea Flower Show.", "From 1977 until his death he was the gardening editor of \"The Sun\".", "In America he hosted segments of \"The Victory Garden\" on PBS for over 20 years.", "For 60 years Seabrook was married to Margaret, with whom he had two children.", "In 2020, she died of COVID-19 after living with dementia for nine years.", "He created in her honour the flower Margaret's Memory, a pale pink verbena, and donated the proceeds to Alzheimer's Research UK.", "He died of a heart attack at his home in Chelmsford on 14 January 2022, at the age of 86.", "He was gardening, campaigning and writing columns until the end; he had visited RHS Hyde Hall and W. D. Smith's Nurseries the day before he died.", "Seabrook was appointed an MBE in 2005.", "and he was the only person in the UK to hold the top three RHS awards for services to horticulture: the Victoria Medal of Honour (2003), the RHS Associate of Honour (1996) and the Harlow Carr Medal." ]

[ 17, 18 ]

[ "He was appointed an MBE in 2005." ]

[ "Kazmi emigrated from Ambala, India to Lahore, Pakistan in August 1947.", "In Lahore, he worked as the editor of the literary magazines \"Auraq Nau\" and \"Khayal\".", "He also worked as a staff editor for Radio Pakistan, Lahore.", "He was frequently thought of as a melancholic poet, though most of his poetry is based on romantic happiness and hope.", "Nasir Kazmi was influenced by the romantic poetry of Akhtar Sheerani and also took guidance in his poetry from the poet Hafeez Hoshiarpuri.", "He also had great admiration for the poetry of Mir Taqi Mir.\nSome of his collection of poems were published as books, including \"Berg-i-Nai\" (1952), \"Deewaan\" (1972), \"Pehli Baarish\" (1975), \"Hijr Ki Raat Ka Sitara\" and \"Nishat-i-Khwab\" (1977).", "A few days before his death, Kazmi said in a television interview:\"Horse riding, hunting, wandering in a village, walking along the river side, visiting mountains etc. were my favourite pastimes and probably this was the time when my mind got nourishment for loving nature and getting close to the expression of poetry.", "All my hobbies are related with fine arts, like singing, poetry, hunting, chess, love of birds, love of trees. ...", "I started writing poetry because I used to reflect that all the beautiful things, those I see and those in nature, are not in my hands, and they go away from me.", "Few moments of time which dies, cannot be made alive.", "I think can come alive in poetry, that is why I (Nasir) started writing poetry!\"", "In 2013, Pakistan Post released a commemorative postage stamp of Rs 15 denomination in its 'Men of Letters' series to commemorate Kazmi's death.", "Kazmi's son, Basir Sultan Kazmi (born 1955, Pakistan), became a poet and dramatist.", "Writing in both Urdu and English, he earned an MBE for services to poetry.", "He has resided in England since 1990, where he was awarded the North West Playwrights Workshop Award in 1992 and published an abridged translation of his long play \"Bisaat\" (entitled \"The Chess Board\") along with several volumes of poetry both in Urdu and English.", "He is currently the Royal Literary Fund Fellow at the University of Chester.", "Nasir Kazmi died on 2 March 1972 at Lahore, Pakistan due to stomach cancer." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 ]

[ "Syed Nasir Raza Kazmi ( was an Urdu poet from Pakistan." ]

[ "Born on 23 August 1823, son of Captain Peter Bowlby and Elizabeth Haslewood, he was educated at Wadham College, Oxford, where he graduated a Doctor of Divinity (DD).", "He became Rector of St Philip's, Birmingham in 1875, a post he retained upon becoming the first suffragan Bishop of Coventry in 1891.", "He was consecrated a bishop at St Paul's Cathedral on 29 September 1891, by Edward Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury.", "He continued in both positions until his death on 27 August 1894, aged 71 years.", "Bowlby married firstly, Catherine Salmon, on 29 September 1852, and they had five children.", "After Catherine's death in 1875, he married secondly, Sarah Blowers King, on 21 September 1886.", "He was the father of Henry Thomas Bowlby, headmaster of Lancing school." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3 ]

[ "Henry Bond Bowlby (23 August 1823 – 27 August 1894) was an English churchman, the Bishop of Coventry (a suffragan bishop in the Diocese of Worcester) from 1891 until 1894." ]

[ "Mating begins with a courting ritual.", "For example, in land snails of the genus \"Helix\", including the escargot \"Helix pomatia\", and the common garden snail \"Helix aspersa\" (also known as \"Cornu aspersum\" and \"Cantareus aspersus\"), copulation is preceded by an elaborate tactile courtship.", "The two snails circle around each other for up to six hours, touching with their tentacles, and biting lips and the area of the genital pore, which shows some preliminary signs of the eversion of the penis.", "As the snails approach mating, hydraulic pressure builds up in the blood sinus surrounding the organ housing the dart.", "Each snail manoeuvres to get its genital pore in the best position, close to the other snail's body.", "Then, when the body of one snail touches the other snail's genital pore, it triggers the firing of the dart.", "The darting can sometimes be so forceful that the dart ends up buried in the internal organs.", "It can also happen that a dart will pierce the body or head entirely, and protrude on the other side.", "After both snails have fired their darts, the snails copulate and exchange sperm.", "A snail does not have a dart to fire the very first time it mates, because the first mating is necessary to trigger the process of dart formation.", "Once a snail has mated, it fires a dart before some, but not all, subsequent matings.", "A snail often mates without having a dart to use, because it takes time to create a replacement dart.", "In the case of the garden snail \"Cornu aspersum\", it takes a week for a new dart to form.", "The dart is shot with some variation in force, and with considerable inaccuracy, such that one-third of the darts that are fired in \"Cornu aspersum\" either fail to penetrate the skin, or miss the target altogether.", "Snails have only very simple visual systems and cannot see well enough to use vision to help aim the darts.", "Although the existence and use of love darts in snails has been known for at least several centuries, until recently the actual function of love darts was not properly understood.", "It was long assumed that the darts had some sort of \"stimulating\" function, and served to make copulation more likely.", "It was also suggested that darts might be a \"gift\" of calcium.", "These theories have proved to be incorrect; recent research has led to a new understanding of the function of love darts: manipulating the recipient's snail's sperm collection mechanism, thus increasing the chances of paternity for the sender.", "A close look into the behavior of \"Cornu aspersum\" shows that this is achieved not by the mechanical action of the dart as it penetrates the recipient's skin, but by the mucus that coats the dart: The mucus carries an allohormone that is transferred into the recipient’s hemolymph when the dart is inserted, which reconfigures the recipient's reproductive system: the bursa copulax (sperm digestion organ) becomes closed off, and the copulatory canal (leading to the sperm storage) is opened.", "This reconfiguration allows more sperm to access the sperm storage area and fertilize eggs, rather than being digested, ultimately increasing the sender's chances of paternity.", "The love dart, also known as a \"gypsobelum\", is often made of calcium carbonate which is secreted by a specialized organ within the reproductive system of several families of air-breathing snails and slugs, mainly in terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks within the clade Stylommatophora.", "Darts can range in size from about long in the larger snail species, down to about in the smallest snails that have darts.", "Typically most darts are less than long, but they are substantial compared with the size of the animal.", "There is considerable variety in both the overall shape and the cross section of the love dart.", "The morphology (shape and form) of the dart is species-specific.", "For example, individual snails of the two rather similar helicid species \"Cepaea hortensis\" and \"Cepaea nemoralis\" can sometimes only be distinguished by examining the shape of the love dart and the vaginal mucus glands (which in the anatomical diagram are marked \"MG\" and are positioned off the structure marked \"V\".)", "Note: The taxonomic placement of all the families mentioned in this article follows the taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet & Rocroi (2005).", "There is a complex hermaphroditic reproductive system in pulmonate snails (those snails that have a lung rather than a gill or gills.)", "Their reproductive system is completely internal, except for the active protrusion (eversion) of the penis for copulation.", "The outer opening of the reproductive system is called the \"genital pore\"; it is positioned on the right hand side, very close to the head of the animal.", "This opening is virtually invisible however, unless it is actively in use.", "The love dart is created and stored before use in a highly muscular internal anatomical structure known as the \"stylophore\" or dart sac (also known as the \"bursa telae\").", "The exact positioning of the stylophore varies, but it is in the vicinity of the eversible penis and the vagina, where these two structures open into the \"atrium\", a common area right inside the genital pore.", "The opening of the stylophore leads directly into the atrium in certain species in the families Vitrinidae, Parmacellidae, Helminthoglyptidae, Bradybaenidae, Urocyclidae, Ariophantidae, and Dyakiidae.", "The opening of the stylophore can instead lead to the penis, as is the case in some species of Aneitinae (a subfamily of Athoracophoridae), Sagdidae, Euconulidae, Gastrodontidae and Onchidiidae.", "Alternatively, it can lead to the vagina, as in the case in some species of Ariopeltinae (a subfamily of Oopeltidae), Ariolimacinae (a subfamily of Ariolimacidae), Philomycidae, other species within the Bradybaenidae, and also in the Hygromiidae, Helicidae and Dyakiidae.", "Only two families have darts present in every species: the Bradybaenidae and in the Dyakiidae.", "In all the other families there is reduction or loss of dart-making ability in some of the species (cf.).", "Many species have only one dart sac, however other species have several.", "Snails in the family Bradybaenidae have more than one dart sac, and some species of Hygromiidae and Helmintoglyptidae have four dart sacs.", "Some Urocyclidae have up to 70 darts.", "All pulmonate land snails are hermaphrodites, and have a complete and rather elaborate set of both male and female reproductive organs (see the simplified anatomical diagram above), but the majority of pulmonate land snails have no love darts and no dart sac.", "Calcareous (composed of calcium carbonate) darts are found in a limited number of pulmonate families within the Stylommatophora.", "Most of these families are within the land snail superfamily Helicoidea: Helicidae, Bradybaenidae, Helminthoglyptidae, Hygromiidae, Humboldtianidae (previously considered to be a part of the Hygromiidae).", "Calcium carbonate darts are also found in the family Zonitidae within the superfamily Zonitoidea, and in one family of slugs, the Philomycidae, which are within the superfamily Arionoidea.", "Lightly calcified darts occur in the snail and semi-slug family Urocyclidae, within the superfamily Helicarionoidea.", "Chitinous (composed of chitin) love darts occur in the pulmonate land snail families Ariophantidae (superfamily Helicarionoidea), in the family Helicarionidae (superfamily Helicarionoidea), in the Vitrinidae (superfamily Limacoidea), and in the slug family Parmacellidae (superfamily Parmacelloidea).", "Within the more ancient clade Systellommatophora, chitin darts are found in the pulmonate sea slugs of the family Onchidiidae, in the superfamily Onchidioidea.", "Love darts made of cartilage occur in the family Gastrodontidae.", "Because of the presence of darts in many superfamilies of the Stylommatophora, it seems likely that love darts appeared during the early evolution of the Pulmonata, and that the ancestors of the Stylommatophora possessed darts already.", "During evolution, darts appear to have been lost secondarily, i.e., after they had evolved and been functional.", "Vestigial darts (ones that exist only in a rudimentary condition) occur in the family Sagdidae, and in many Helicoidea, the surrounding organs have also degenerated (become non-functional).", "The \"sarcobelum\" is a fleshy or cuticle-coated papilla which is considered to be a degenerated, previously dart-bearing, organ.", "Love darts are shaped in many distinctive ways, and vary considerably between species.", "The morphology of the dart is almost always species-specific.", "Some darts have a round cross section, others are bladed or vaned.", "In some cases the blades on the sides of the dart are bifurcated or divided into two parts.", "Some darts are shaped like a needle or a thorn, others have a tip like an arrowhead, or look like a dagger.", "What all the shapes have in common is their ability to pierce.", "Note: both the scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) and the drawings below are taken from, or modified from, Koene & Schulenburg, 2005.", "SEM images of love darts from eight different species of pulmonate land snails.", "The upper images show a lateral view, where the scale bar is 500 μm (= 0.5 mm).", "The lower images show a cross-section, where the scale bar is 50 μm (= 0.05 mm).", "The following tables or charts show numerous examples of love dart morphology, on a family by family and species by species basis.", "Not all families and species are included.", "The drawings show first the cross section, and then the lateral view, of the dart in that particular species.", "Darts vary in size according to the size of the snail or slug species, but here they are all shown at the same size, for purposes of comparison.", "Some species in this family have spiral darts, and some darts have \"minute barbs pointing toward the tip\".", "Species of slugs within this family have spiral darts.", "Some writers have commented on the parallel between the love darts of snails and the love darts fired by the Greek god Eros, called Cupid in Roman mythology.", "It is even possible that there is a connection between the behavior of the snails and the myth.", "Malacologist (mollusk expert) Ronald Chase of McGill University said about the garden snail \"Cornu aspersum\", \"I believe the myth of Cupid and his arrows has its basis in this snail species, which is native to Greece\".", "He added, \"The Greeks probably knew about this behavior because they were pretty good naturalists and observers.\"\nIn some languages, the dart that these snails use before mating is known as an \"arrow\".", "For example, in German it is called a \"Liebespfeil\" or \"love arrow\", and in Czech it is \"šíp lásky\" (which means \"arrow of love\").", "Marine gastropods in the predatory superfamily Conoidea, (known as the toxoglossans, meaning \"poison tongue\") use a poison dart or harpoon, which is a single modified radula tooth which is created inside the mouth of the snail, and which is primarily made of chitin.", "These snails are carnivorous hunters: the harpoon is used in predation.", "When the snail is close to its prey, it extends its proboscis a considerable distance; then it fires its harpoon and injects a toxin into the prey.", "For most species of toxoglossans the prey is marine worms, but in the case of some larger cone snails, the prey is small fish.", "Opisthobranch gastropods are hermaphrodites, as are the pulmonates; however, opisthobranchs do not have love darts.", "Nonetheless, some of them do stab one another during mating, using hardened anatomical structures.", "For example, in the Cephalaspidean genus \"Siphopteron\", both seaslugs attempt to stab their partner with a two-part, spined penis." ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 ]

[ "The process of using love darts in snails is a form of sexual selection.", "The dart does not fly through the air to reach its target, but is \"fired\" as a contact shot.", "The exchange of sperm between both of the two land snails is a completely separate part of the mating progression." ]

[ "Mating begins with a courting ritual.", "For example, in land snails of the genus \"Helix\", including the escargot \"Helix pomatia\", and the common garden snail \"Helix aspersa\" (also known as \"Cornu aspersum\" and \"Cantareus aspersus\"), copulation is preceded by an elaborate tactile courtship.", "The two snails circle around each other for up to six hours, touching with their tentacles, and biting lips and the area of the genital pore, which shows some preliminary signs of the eversion of the penis.", "As the snails approach mating, hydraulic pressure builds up in the blood sinus surrounding the organ housing the dart.", "Each snail manoeuvres to get its genital pore in the best position, close to the other snail's body.", "Then, when the body of one snail touches the other snail's genital pore, it triggers the firing of the dart.", "The darting can sometimes be so forceful that the dart ends up buried in the internal organs.", "It can also happen that a dart will pierce the body or head entirely, and protrude on the other side.", "After both snails have fired their darts, the snails copulate and exchange sperm.", "A snail does not have a dart to fire the very first time it mates, because the first mating is necessary to trigger the process of dart formation.", "Once a snail has mated, it fires a dart before some, but not all, subsequent matings.", "A snail often mates without having a dart to use, because it takes time to create a replacement dart.", "In the case of the garden snail \"Cornu aspersum\", it takes a week for a new dart to form.", "The dart is shot with some variation in force, and with considerable inaccuracy, such that one-third of the darts that are fired in \"Cornu aspersum\" either fail to penetrate the skin, or miss the target altogether.", "Snails have only very simple visual systems and cannot see well enough to use vision to help aim the darts.", "Although the existence and use of love darts in snails has been known for at least several centuries, until recently the actual function of love darts was not properly understood.", "It was long assumed that the darts had some sort of \"stimulating\" function, and served to make copulation more likely.", "It was also suggested that darts might be a \"gift\" of calcium.", "These theories have proved to be incorrect; recent research has led to a new understanding of the function of love darts: manipulating the recipient's snail's sperm collection mechanism, thus increasing the chances of paternity for the sender.", "A close look into the behavior of \"Cornu aspersum\" shows that this is achieved not by the mechanical action of the dart as it penetrates the recipient's skin, but by the mucus that coats the dart: The mucus carries an allohormone that is transferred into the recipient’s hemolymph when the dart is inserted, which reconfigures the recipient's reproductive system: the bursa copulax (sperm digestion organ) becomes closed off, and the copulatory canal (leading to the sperm storage) is opened.", "This reconfiguration allows more sperm to access the sperm storage area and fertilize eggs, rather than being digested, ultimately increasing the sender's chances of paternity.", "The love dart, also known as a \"gypsobelum\", is often made of calcium carbonate which is secreted by a specialized organ within the reproductive system of several families of air-breathing snails and slugs, mainly in terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks within the clade Stylommatophora.", "Darts can range in size from about long in the larger snail species, down to about in the smallest snails that have darts.", "Typically most darts are less than long, but they are substantial compared with the size of the animal.", "There is considerable variety in both the overall shape and the cross section of the love dart.", "The morphology (shape and form) of the dart is species-specific.", "For example, individual snails of the two rather similar helicid species \"Cepaea hortensis\" and \"Cepaea nemoralis\" can sometimes only be distinguished by examining the shape of the love dart and the vaginal mucus glands (which in the anatomical diagram are marked \"MG\" and are positioned off the structure marked \"V\".)", "Note: The taxonomic placement of all the families mentioned in this article follows the taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet & Rocroi (2005).", "There is a complex hermaphroditic reproductive system in pulmonate snails (those snails that have a lung rather than a gill or gills.)", "Their reproductive system is completely internal, except for the active protrusion (eversion) of the penis for copulation.", "The outer opening of the reproductive system is called the \"genital pore\"; it is positioned on the right hand side, very close to the head of the animal.", "This opening is virtually invisible however, unless it is actively in use.", "The love dart is created and stored before use in a highly muscular internal anatomical structure known as the \"stylophore\" or dart sac (also known as the \"bursa telae\").", "The exact positioning of the stylophore varies, but it is in the vicinity of the eversible penis and the vagina, where these two structures open into the \"atrium\", a common area right inside the genital pore.", "The opening of the stylophore leads directly into the atrium in certain species in the families Vitrinidae, Parmacellidae, Helminthoglyptidae, Bradybaenidae, Urocyclidae, Ariophantidae, and Dyakiidae.", "The opening of the stylophore can instead lead to the penis, as is the case in some species of Aneitinae (a subfamily of Athoracophoridae), Sagdidae, Euconulidae, Gastrodontidae and Onchidiidae.", "Alternatively, it can lead to the vagina, as in the case in some species of Ariopeltinae (a subfamily of Oopeltidae), Ariolimacinae (a subfamily of Ariolimacidae), Philomycidae, other species within the Bradybaenidae, and also in the Hygromiidae, Helicidae and Dyakiidae.", "Only two families have darts present in every species: the Bradybaenidae and in the Dyakiidae.", "In all the other families there is reduction or loss of dart-making ability in some of the species (cf.).", "Many species have only one dart sac, however other species have several.", "Snails in the family Bradybaenidae have more than one dart sac, and some species of Hygromiidae and Helmintoglyptidae have four dart sacs.", "Some Urocyclidae have up to 70 darts.", "All pulmonate land snails are hermaphrodites, and have a complete and rather elaborate set of both male and female reproductive organs (see the simplified anatomical diagram above), but the majority of pulmonate land snails have no love darts and no dart sac.", "Calcareous (composed of calcium carbonate) darts are found in a limited number of pulmonate families within the Stylommatophora.", "Most of these families are within the land snail superfamily Helicoidea: Helicidae, Bradybaenidae, Helminthoglyptidae, Hygromiidae, Humboldtianidae (previously considered to be a part of the Hygromiidae).", "Calcium carbonate darts are also found in the family Zonitidae within the superfamily Zonitoidea, and in one family of slugs, the Philomycidae, which are within the superfamily Arionoidea.", "Lightly calcified darts occur in the snail and semi-slug family Urocyclidae, within the superfamily Helicarionoidea.", "Chitinous (composed of chitin) love darts occur in the pulmonate land snail families Ariophantidae (superfamily Helicarionoidea), in the family Helicarionidae (superfamily Helicarionoidea), in the Vitrinidae (superfamily Limacoidea), and in the slug family Parmacellidae (superfamily Parmacelloidea).", "Within the more ancient clade Systellommatophora, chitin darts are found in the pulmonate sea slugs of the family Onchidiidae, in the superfamily Onchidioidea.", "Love darts made of cartilage occur in the family Gastrodontidae.", "Because of the presence of darts in many superfamilies of the Stylommatophora, it seems likely that love darts appeared during the early evolution of the Pulmonata, and that the ancestors of the Stylommatophora possessed darts already.", "During evolution, darts appear to have been lost secondarily, i.e., after they had evolved and been functional.", "Vestigial darts (ones that exist only in a rudimentary condition) occur in the family Sagdidae, and in many Helicoidea, the surrounding organs have also degenerated (become non-functional).", "The \"sarcobelum\" is a fleshy or cuticle-coated papilla which is considered to be a degenerated, previously dart-bearing, organ.", "Love darts are shaped in many distinctive ways, and vary considerably between species.", "The morphology of the dart is almost always species-specific.", "Some darts have a round cross section, others are bladed or vaned.", "In some cases the blades on the sides of the dart are bifurcated or divided into two parts.", "Some darts are shaped like a needle or a thorn, others have a tip like an arrowhead, or look like a dagger.", "What all the shapes have in common is their ability to pierce.", "Note: both the scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) and the drawings below are taken from, or modified from, Koene & Schulenburg, 2005.", "SEM images of love darts from eight different species of pulmonate land snails.", "The upper images show a lateral view, where the scale bar is 500 μm (= 0.5 mm).", "The lower images show a cross-section, where the scale bar is 50 μm (= 0.05 mm).", "The following tables or charts show numerous examples of love dart morphology, on a family by family and species by species basis.", "Not all families and species are included.", "The drawings show first the cross section, and then the lateral view, of the dart in that particular species.", "Darts vary in size according to the size of the snail or slug species, but here they are all shown at the same size, for purposes of comparison.", "Some species in this family have spiral darts, and some darts have \"minute barbs pointing toward the tip\".", "Species of slugs within this family have spiral darts.", "Some writers have commented on the parallel between the love darts of snails and the love darts fired by the Greek god Eros, called Cupid in Roman mythology.", "It is even possible that there is a connection between the behavior of the snails and the myth.", "Malacologist (mollusk expert) Ronald Chase of McGill University said about the garden snail \"Cornu aspersum\", \"I believe the myth of Cupid and his arrows has its basis in this snail species, which is native to Greece\".", "He added, \"The Greeks probably knew about this behavior because they were pretty good naturalists and observers.\"\nIn some languages, the dart that these snails use before mating is known as an \"arrow\".", "For example, in German it is called a \"Liebespfeil\" or \"love arrow\", and in Czech it is \"šíp lásky\" (which means \"arrow of love\").", "Marine gastropods in the predatory superfamily Conoidea, (known as the toxoglossans, meaning \"poison tongue\") use a poison dart or harpoon, which is a single modified radula tooth which is created inside the mouth of the snail, and which is primarily made of chitin.", "These snails are carnivorous hunters: the harpoon is used in predation.", "When the snail is close to its prey, it extends its proboscis a considerable distance; then it fires its harpoon and injects a toxin into the prey.", "For most species of toxoglossans the prey is marine worms, but in the case of some larger cone snails, the prey is small fish.", "Opisthobranch gastropods are hermaphrodites, as are the pulmonates; however, opisthobranchs do not have love darts.", "Nonetheless, some of them do stab one another during mating, using hardened anatomical structures.", "For example, in the Cephalaspidean genus \"Siphopteron\", both seaslugs attempt to stab their partner with a two-part, spined penis." ]

[ 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 ]

[ "The love dart is not a penial stylet (in other words, this is \"not\" an accessory organ for sperm transfer).", "Nevertheless, recent research shows that use of the dart can strongly favor the reproductive outcome for the snail that is able to lodge a dart in its partner." ]

[ "Mating begins with a courting ritual.", "For example, in land snails of the genus \"Helix\", including the escargot \"Helix pomatia\", and the common garden snail \"Helix aspersa\" (also known as \"Cornu aspersum\" and \"Cantareus aspersus\"), copulation is preceded by an elaborate tactile courtship.", "The two snails circle around each other for up to six hours, touching with their tentacles, and biting lips and the area of the genital pore, which shows some preliminary signs of the eversion of the penis.", "As the snails approach mating, hydraulic pressure builds up in the blood sinus surrounding the organ housing the dart.", "Each snail manoeuvres to get its genital pore in the best position, close to the other snail's body.", "Then, when the body of one snail touches the other snail's genital pore, it triggers the firing of the dart.", "The darting can sometimes be so forceful that the dart ends up buried in the internal organs.", "It can also happen that a dart will pierce the body or head entirely, and protrude on the other side.", "After both snails have fired their darts, the snails copulate and exchange sperm.", "A snail does not have a dart to fire the very first time it mates, because the first mating is necessary to trigger the process of dart formation.", "Once a snail has mated, it fires a dart before some, but not all, subsequent matings.", "A snail often mates without having a dart to use, because it takes time to create a replacement dart.", "In the case of the garden snail \"Cornu aspersum\", it takes a week for a new dart to form.", "The dart is shot with some variation in force, and with considerable inaccuracy, such that one-third of the darts that are fired in \"Cornu aspersum\" either fail to penetrate the skin, or miss the target altogether.", "Snails have only very simple visual systems and cannot see well enough to use vision to help aim the darts.", "Although the existence and use of love darts in snails has been known for at least several centuries, until recently the actual function of love darts was not properly understood.", "It was long assumed that the darts had some sort of \"stimulating\" function, and served to make copulation more likely.", "It was also suggested that darts might be a \"gift\" of calcium.", "These theories have proved to be incorrect; recent research has led to a new understanding of the function of love darts: manipulating the recipient's snail's sperm collection mechanism, thus increasing the chances of paternity for the sender.", "A close look into the behavior of \"Cornu aspersum\" shows that this is achieved not by the mechanical action of the dart as it penetrates the recipient's skin, but by the mucus that coats the dart: The mucus carries an allohormone that is transferred into the recipient’s hemolymph when the dart is inserted, which reconfigures the recipient's reproductive system: the bursa copulax (sperm digestion organ) becomes closed off, and the copulatory canal (leading to the sperm storage) is opened.", "This reconfiguration allows more sperm to access the sperm storage area and fertilize eggs, rather than being digested, ultimately increasing the sender's chances of paternity.", "The love dart, also known as a \"gypsobelum\", is often made of calcium carbonate which is secreted by a specialized organ within the reproductive system of several families of air-breathing snails and slugs, mainly in terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks within the clade Stylommatophora.", "Darts can range in size from about long in the larger snail species, down to about in the smallest snails that have darts.", "Typically most darts are less than long, but they are substantial compared with the size of the animal.", "There is considerable variety in both the overall shape and the cross section of the love dart.", "The morphology (shape and form) of the dart is species-specific.", "For example, individual snails of the two rather similar helicid species \"Cepaea hortensis\" and \"Cepaea nemoralis\" can sometimes only be distinguished by examining the shape of the love dart and the vaginal mucus glands (which in the anatomical diagram are marked \"MG\" and are positioned off the structure marked \"V\".)", "Note: The taxonomic placement of all the families mentioned in this article follows the taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet & Rocroi (2005).", "There is a complex hermaphroditic reproductive system in pulmonate snails (those snails that have a lung rather than a gill or gills.)", "Their reproductive system is completely internal, except for the active protrusion (eversion) of the penis for copulation.", "The outer opening of the reproductive system is called the \"genital pore\"; it is positioned on the right hand side, very close to the head of the animal.", "This opening is virtually invisible however, unless it is actively in use.", "The love dart is created and stored before use in a highly muscular internal anatomical structure known as the \"stylophore\" or dart sac (also known as the \"bursa telae\").", "The exact positioning of the stylophore varies, but it is in the vicinity of the eversible penis and the vagina, where these two structures open into the \"atrium\", a common area right inside the genital pore.", "The opening of the stylophore leads directly into the atrium in certain species in the families Vitrinidae, Parmacellidae, Helminthoglyptidae, Bradybaenidae, Urocyclidae, Ariophantidae, and Dyakiidae.", "The opening of the stylophore can instead lead to the penis, as is the case in some species of Aneitinae (a subfamily of Athoracophoridae), Sagdidae, Euconulidae, Gastrodontidae and Onchidiidae.", "Alternatively, it can lead to the vagina, as in the case in some species of Ariopeltinae (a subfamily of Oopeltidae), Ariolimacinae (a subfamily of Ariolimacidae), Philomycidae, other species within the Bradybaenidae, and also in the Hygromiidae, Helicidae and Dyakiidae.", "Only two families have darts present in every species: the Bradybaenidae and in the Dyakiidae.", "In all the other families there is reduction or loss of dart-making ability in some of the species (cf.).", "Many species have only one dart sac, however other species have several.", "Snails in the family Bradybaenidae have more than one dart sac, and some species of Hygromiidae and Helmintoglyptidae have four dart sacs.", "Some Urocyclidae have up to 70 darts.", "All pulmonate land snails are hermaphrodites, and have a complete and rather elaborate set of both male and female reproductive organs (see the simplified anatomical diagram above), but the majority of pulmonate land snails have no love darts and no dart sac.", "Calcareous (composed of calcium carbonate) darts are found in a limited number of pulmonate families within the Stylommatophora.", "Most of these families are within the land snail superfamily Helicoidea: Helicidae, Bradybaenidae, Helminthoglyptidae, Hygromiidae, Humboldtianidae (previously considered to be a part of the Hygromiidae).", "Calcium carbonate darts are also found in the family Zonitidae within the superfamily Zonitoidea, and in one family of slugs, the Philomycidae, which are within the superfamily Arionoidea.", "Lightly calcified darts occur in the snail and semi-slug family Urocyclidae, within the superfamily Helicarionoidea.", "Chitinous (composed of chitin) love darts occur in the pulmonate land snail families Ariophantidae (superfamily Helicarionoidea), in the family Helicarionidae (superfamily Helicarionoidea), in the Vitrinidae (superfamily Limacoidea), and in the slug family Parmacellidae (superfamily Parmacelloidea).", "Within the more ancient clade Systellommatophora, chitin darts are found in the pulmonate sea slugs of the family Onchidiidae, in the superfamily Onchidioidea.", "Love darts made of cartilage occur in the family Gastrodontidae.", "Because of the presence of darts in many superfamilies of the Stylommatophora, it seems likely that love darts appeared during the early evolution of the Pulmonata, and that the ancestors of the Stylommatophora possessed darts already.", "During evolution, darts appear to have been lost secondarily, i.e., after they had evolved and been functional.", "Vestigial darts (ones that exist only in a rudimentary condition) occur in the family Sagdidae, and in many Helicoidea, the surrounding organs have also degenerated (become non-functional).", "The \"sarcobelum\" is a fleshy or cuticle-coated papilla which is considered to be a degenerated, previously dart-bearing, organ.", "Love darts are shaped in many distinctive ways, and vary considerably between species.", "The morphology of the dart is almost always species-specific.", "Some darts have a round cross section, others are bladed or vaned.", "In some cases the blades on the sides of the dart are bifurcated or divided into two parts.", "Some darts are shaped like a needle or a thorn, others have a tip like an arrowhead, or look like a dagger.", "What all the shapes have in common is their ability to pierce.", "Note: both the scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) and the drawings below are taken from, or modified from, Koene & Schulenburg, 2005.", "SEM images of love darts from eight different species of pulmonate land snails.", "The upper images show a lateral view, where the scale bar is 500 μm (= 0.5 mm).", "The lower images show a cross-section, where the scale bar is 50 μm (= 0.05 mm).", "The following tables or charts show numerous examples of love dart morphology, on a family by family and species by species basis.", "Not all families and species are included.", "The drawings show first the cross section, and then the lateral view, of the dart in that particular species.", "Darts vary in size according to the size of the snail or slug species, but here they are all shown at the same size, for purposes of comparison.", "Some species in this family have spiral darts, and some darts have \"minute barbs pointing toward the tip\".", "Species of slugs within this family have spiral darts.", "Some writers have commented on the parallel between the love darts of snails and the love darts fired by the Greek god Eros, called Cupid in Roman mythology.", "It is even possible that there is a connection between the behavior of the snails and the myth.", "Malacologist (mollusk expert) Ronald Chase of McGill University said about the garden snail \"Cornu aspersum\", \"I believe the myth of Cupid and his arrows has its basis in this snail species, which is native to Greece\".", "He added, \"The Greeks probably knew about this behavior because they were pretty good naturalists and observers.\"\nIn some languages, the dart that these snails use before mating is known as an \"arrow\".", "For example, in German it is called a \"Liebespfeil\" or \"love arrow\", and in Czech it is \"šíp lásky\" (which means \"arrow of love\").", "Marine gastropods in the predatory superfamily Conoidea, (known as the toxoglossans, meaning \"poison tongue\") use a poison dart or harpoon, which is a single modified radula tooth which is created inside the mouth of the snail, and which is primarily made of chitin.", "These snails are carnivorous hunters: the harpoon is used in predation.", "When the snail is close to its prey, it extends its proboscis a considerable distance; then it fires its harpoon and injects a toxin into the prey.", "For most species of toxoglossans the prey is marine worms, but in the case of some larger cone snails, the prey is small fish.", "Opisthobranch gastropods are hermaphrodites, as are the pulmonates; however, opisthobranchs do not have love darts.", "Nonetheless, some of them do stab one another during mating, using hardened anatomical structures.", "For example, in the Cephalaspidean genus \"Siphopteron\", both seaslugs attempt to stab their partner with a two-part, spined penis." ]

[ 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41 ]

[ "Love darts are both formed and stored internally in a dart sac." ]